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M'HRARV 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 


A  GRAMMAR 


OP    THE 


LATTI    LANGUAGE, 


BY  C.  G.  ZUMPT,  PH.D., 

PROFESSOR  IN  THE   UNIVERSITY,   AND  MEMBER  OF  THE  ROYAL  ACADEMY 
OF   BERLIN. 


FROM    THE    NINTH    EDITION    OF    THE    ORIGINAL,   ADAPTED   TO    THE   USE 
OF    ENGLISH    STUDENTS. 


BY   LEONHARD   SCHMITZ,   PH.D., 

LATE  OF  THE   UNIVERSITY  OF  BONN. 


CORRECTED  AND  ENLARGED, 


BY   CHARLES   ANTHON,   LL.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF   THE  GREEK   AND  LATIN  LANGUAGES  IN  COLUMBIA  COLLEGE, 
NEW-YORK,  AND  RECTOR  OF  THE  GRAMMAR-SCHOOL. 


NEW-YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  82  CLIFF-ST. 
1846. 


bt-fllf. 

Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1846,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


/H>    o- 
fulfil 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION. 


THE  Editor  conceives  that  he  is  rendering  an  im- 
portant service  to  the  American  student  in  the  repub- 
lication  of  the  present  work.     Its  excellence  is  ac- 
knowledged by  all  European  scholars,  and  now  that  it 
has  received  the  last  touches  from  the  hand  of  its  learn- 
ed author,  we  may  confidently  regard  it  as  the  best 
work  on  the  subject  of  Latin  Grammar  in  the  English 
language.     The  Syntax,  in  particular,  will  be  found 
exceedingly  valuable,  and  this  part  of  the  volume  alone 
would  be  sufficient  to  render  the  work  an  invaluable 
aid  to  the  young  scholar.     The  Translator  has  allu- 
ded in  his  Preface  to  certain  additions  that  might  have 
been  made  by  him  to  the  etymological  part  from  Eng- 
lish sources,  and  has  excused  himself  for  not  having 
furnished  these,  because  the  Author  has  himself  ab- 
stained from  them.     These  deficiencies,  if  they  are  de- 
serving of  the  name,  the  American  Editor  has  attempt- 
ed to  supply  in  foot-notes  throughout  the  volume,  as 
well  as  in  two  additional  Appendices ;  and  he  trusts 
that  he  may  now  recommend  the  work  with  perfect 
confidence  to  the  American  student,  as  far  superior  to 
any  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language  at  present  used 
in  this  country. 

Columbia  College,  December  24,  1845. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

TO  THE  ENGLISH  TRANSLATION. 


IN  the  year  1843  I  received  a  letter  from  two  Eng- 
lish scholars,  suggesting  to  me  the  necessity  of  a  new 
translation  of  my  Latin  Grammar,  and  requesting  my 
assistance  in  the  undertaking.     Until  then  I  had  not 
been  aware  of  the  fact  that  the  existing  translation, 
which  had  been  made  from  the  third  edition  of  my 
work  (of  which,  however,  it  was  not  an  exact  repre- 
sentation, as  some  portions  of  the  original  were  omit- 
ted), had  remained  in  its  original  condition  ;  and  al- 
though it  had  gone  through  several  editions,  yet  had 
not  been  adequately  improved  and  corrected,  while 
the  German  original,  by  continued  labour  on  my  part, 
had,  in  its  details,  become  quite  a  different  work."    This 
information  was,  of  course,  a  sufficient  reason  for  me 
to  promise  my  best  aid  and  co-operation  in  the  new 
translation  ;  for  whatever  considerations  may  have  in- 
duced my  learned  translator  to  allow  my  work  to  be 
printed  again  and  again  in  its  first  and  imperfect  form, 
it  was  to  me  a  matter  of  the  highest  importance,  that 
a  nation  which  so  highly  prizes  the  study  of  philology, 
and  takes  so  deep  an  interest  in  its  progress,  should  be 
presented  with  my  work  in  the  best  and  most  perfect 
form  that  I  am  able  to  give  to  it.     It  is  unnecessary 
here  to  enter  into  the  question  why  the  plan  of  a  new 
translation  was  not  carried  into  effect  by  those  gentle- 
men who  originally  proposed  it  to  me  ;  but  I  was  hap- 

1  * 


VI  AUTHOR  S    PREFACE 

py  to  hear  that  ultimately  the  execution  had  been  in- 
trusted to  Dr.  L.  Schmitz,  who,  I  feel  convinced,  has 
done  all  that  can  be  desired,  both  in  point  of  correct- 
ness and  good  taste. 

The  Latin  language  is  so  rich  and  happy  in  its  or- 
ganization, and  has  been  so  consistently  developed  by 
the  energetic  spirit  of  the  Roman  people,  as  well  as  by 
the  exquisite  tact  of  the  Roman  authors,  that  a  contin- 
ued study  of  it  is  amply  rewarded.  It  is  now  upward 
of  thirty  years  that  I  have  been  before  the  public  as  a 
writer  on  Latin  Grammar  ;*  my  varied  studies  have 
always  led  me  back  to  this  subject,  and  I  may  truly  de- 
clare that,  during  each  fresh  revision  of  my  grammar, 
when  I  was  engaged  in  incorporating  with  my  system 
the  observations  I  had  made  in  the  mean  time,  and  in 
considering  the  doubts  and  objections  which  had  been 
raised  in  my  mind,  I  have  become  more  and  more  con- 
vinced of  the  inexhaustible  mine  of  human  wisdom 
which  presents  itself  in  the  language  of  a  happily-or- 
ganizrfd  nation  like  the  Romans.  I  am  not  speaking 
here  of  the  accidental  matter  contained  in  a  grammar, 
nor  of  the  accumulation  of  similar  passages — it  will 
afford  far  greater  pleasure  to  the  pupil  to  discover  for 
himself,  in  the  authors  whose  works  he  is  reading,  pas- 
sages which  confirm  or  illustrate  the  rules  he  has  learn- 
ed— nor  of  niceties  of  expression,  for  these  are  curios- 
ities rather  than  anything  else  ;  but  I  mean  real  phil- 
ological discoveries  and  peculiarities,  which  arise  from 
the  organic  structure  of  the  language,  derive  their  ex- 
planation from  it,  and,  in  return,  throw  light  upon  the 

*  The  first  foundation  of  the  present  work  was  laid  in  a  book  which  I 
wrote  for  the  use  of  my  pupils  under  the  title  "  Regeln  der  Lateinischen 
Syntax,  mit  zwei  Anhangeniiber  die  Grundregeln  und  die  nach  einem  neuen 
System  geordneten  unregelrnassigen  Verba,"  Berlin,  1814,  8vo. 


TO    THE    ENGLISH    TRANSLATION.  vil 

whole  fabric  of  the  language  itself;  and  the  result  of 
all  this  is,  that  the  general  principles  are  better  ascer- 
tained and  established.  It  is  owing  to  these  continued 
studies  that  even  the  present  translation  of  the  ninth 
edition  of  my  Latin  Grammar  has  been  enriched  by 
some  not  unimportant  improvements,  which  I  have 
communicated  in  MS.  to  Dr.  Schmitz ;  and  it  will 
henceforth  be  our  united  endeavour  to  remedy  every 
deficiency  that  may  yet  be  found. 

My  Latin  Grammar  has  met  with  great  favour,  or, 
as  the  phrase  is,  "  has  been  a  very  successful  book," 
as  I  must  infer  from  the  number  of  editions  and  cop- 
ies that  have  been  sold  ;  but  this  success  has  not  weak- 
ened my  exertions  in  labouring  without  interruption 
for  its  improvement.  An  author  is  himself  rarely  able 
to  point  out  that  which  has  gained  for  his  production 
the  favour  of  the  public  ;  he  is  satisfied  with  being 
able  to  labour  for  the  realization  of  his  own  ideas  ;  a 
comparison  with  the  works  of  others  does  not  concern 
him,  nor  would  it  be  becoming  to  him.  But  he  can 
state  the  principle  which  has  guided  him  throughout 
his  work  ;  and,  in  reference  to  the  present  grammar, 
this  principle  is  no  other  than  the  desire  to  trace  the 
facts  arid  phenomena  of  the  language  to  a  philosophi- 
cal or  rational  source.  The  facts  as  such  must  first  be 
established ;  and  in  this  respect  it  has  been  my  endeav- 
our to  examine  the  texts  of  the  authors,  and  not  to  al- 
low myself  to  be  misled,  as  has  been  so  often  the  case, 
by  erroneous  traditions ;  farther,  to  distinguish  between 
the  periods  of  the  language,  the  different  species  of  lit- 
erary productions,  the  ancient  and  genuine  from  later 
and  affected  authors,  and  by  this  means  to  ascertain 
that  which  is  essential  and  peculiar  to  the  purest  Latin 


Vlll  AUTHOR  S   PREFACE 

idiom  ;  but,  in  so  doing,  I  have  not  left  unnoticed  those 
points  which  must  be  regarded  as  frequent,  or  other- 
wise justifiable  deviations  from  the  ordinary  rules.  It 
is  only  those  things  which  do  not  grow  forth  from  the 
living  body  of  the  language  that  must  be  passed  over 
in  silence.  In  order  to  separate  that  which  is  genuine 
and  ancient  from  what  is  arbitrary  or  recent,  I  have 
adopted  the  method  of  distinguishing  between  text  and 
notes,  the  one  being  printed  in  large  and  the  other  in 
small  type  :  a  distinction  which  will,  I  think,  be  useful 
also  to  the  teacher.  Another  great  point  which  I  have 
always  endeavoured  to  keep  in  view  has  been  a  ration- 
al development  of  the  rules  from  one  another.  By 
this,  however,  I  do  not  mean  a  demonstration  of  the 
principles  of  universal  grammar ;  that  is,  of  those  prin- 
ciples which  are  common  to  all  languages.  I  value 
this  branch  of  philology,  as  a  sort  of  applied  logic,  in- 
deed, very  highly  ;  but  my  opinion  is,  that  it  can  be 
studied  with  advantage  only  by  those  who  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  languages  of  different  nations,  both 
civilized  and  uncivilized  ;  and  I  have  confined  my- 
self to  explaining  the  peculiarities  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage and  its  characteristic  differences  from  the  mod- 
ern European  languages  of  Roman  and  Germanic  ori- 
gin, referring  only  now  and  then  to  its  connexion  with 
the  Greek.  But  it  is  my  endeavour  to  reduce  these 
peculiarities  of  the  Latin  language  to  simple  and  pre- 
cise principles,  to  proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  com- 
plex, and  to  distinguish  that  which  is  in  accordance 
with  the  rules  from  that  which  is  of  a  mixed  nature. 
What  I  here  say  refers  more  particularly  to  the  syn- 
tax ;  for,  in  regard  to  etymology,  it  ought  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  the  Latin  language  is  something  which  has 


TO    THE    ENGLISH    TRANSLATION.  IX 

been  handed  down  to  us  in  a  given  form,  and  which  is 
to  be  learned  in  this  given  form.  It  would  have  been 
easy  to  go  back  to  certain  primitive  forms  which  con- 
stitute the  first  elements  in  the  formation  of  the  lan- 
guage, and  thereby  to  explain  many  an  irregularity  in 
the  mixture  of  forms  ;  but  in  teaching  a  language 
which  is  learned,  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  training 
the  intellect,  but  of  using  it  in  speaking  and  writing, 
the  eye  and  memory  of  the  pupil  ought  not  to  be 
troubled  with  hypothetical  or  assumed  forms  which 
he  is  expected  to  forget,  but  frequently  does  not  forget, 
and  which  he  is  rather  apt  to  take  for  real  forms.  In 
etymology,  a  complete  analogy  alone  can  be  of  prac- 
tical use  ;  hence  I  have  endeavoured  to  make  the  list 
of  irregular  verbs  and  the  section  on  the  formation  of 
words — important  branches  of  grammar  which  had 
been  much  neglected  by  my  predecessors — as  com- 
plete as  possible.  In  the  syntax,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
right  that  there  should  be  a  philosophical  development 
of  the  complex  from  the  simple,  taking  that  which  is 
peculiarly  Latin  as  the  groundwork.  This  part  of  my 
grammar  has  arisen  from  dictations  which  I  made  the 
basis  of  a  course  of  lectures  on  Latin  syntax  ;  and  I 
still  believe  that  this  method  is  best  suited  to  teach  pu- 
pils— not  indeed  the  first  beginners,  but  those  who 
have  already  made  some  progress  in  the  understand- 
ing of  Latin  sentences — the  whole  of  the  Latin  syn- 
tax in  a  manner  which  is  at  once  a  training  of  their 
intellect  and  their  memory.  Some  example  or  other 
must  be  made  the  basis ;  it  must  be  explained  and  im- 
pressed upon  the  memory  as  a  model, for  imitation. 
The  examples  given  in  the  text  of  the  present  gram- 
mar may  serve  this  purpose  ;  all  have  been  selected 


with  special  care,  and  each  contains  a  complete  thought 
expressed  in  a  classical  form.  The  teacher  must  cause 
his  pupils  to  form  a  number  of  other  similar  sentences, 
and  make  the  pupils  translate  them  from  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue  into  Latin.  It  is  desirable  that  such  senten- 
ces should  be  chosen  with  taste,  or  be  carefully  prepa- 
red for  this  purpose  beforehand  ;  but  as  their  object  is 
only  to  impress  the  rule  upon  the  mind  of  the  learner, 
it  is  advisable  to  pay  attention  to  variety  of  expression 
rather  than  to  particular  neatness  or  elegance. 

My  grammar  farther  contains  a  section  on  the  sig- 
nification of  the  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunc- 
tions, which,  properly  speaking,  does  not  belong  to 
grammar,  but  to  a  dictionary.  But  it  is,  nevertheless, 
necessary,  since  the  ordinary  dictionaries  are  partly  in- 
correct and  partly  incomplete  in  their  explanations  of 
these  particles,  which  contain  the  life  and  soul  of  a  lan- 
guage, and  since  special  books  on  the  particles,  such 
as  were  formerly  used  in  schools,  are  either  no  longer 
consulted,  or  do  not  answer  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  written.  The  syntax  has  been  enlarged  by 
what  is  called  Syntaxis  ornata ;  and  it  is  strange,  that 
for  this  part  of  my  work  I  have  been  censured  by  sev- 
eral scholars,  who  thought  it  inconsistent  with  the 
strictly  progressive  spirit  of  the  grammar,  and  the  phil- 
osophical development  of  the  grammatical  laws,  be- 
cause the  observations  which  form  the  substance  of 
the  Syntaxis  ornata  are  not  given  as  necessary  princi- 
ples, but  in  the  form  of  suggestions,  which  may  be  fol- 
lowed or  not  at  discretion.  But  this  is  the  very  point 
which  I  myself  have  expressly  stated  in  the  introduc- 
tion to  that  part  of  my  work  where  I  direct  attention 
to  the  difference  between  the  Syntaxis  regularis  and 


TO    THE    ENGLISH    TRANSLATION.  XI 

the  Syntaxis  ornata.  But  as  those  observations  on 
style  point  out  so  much  that  is  correct,  ingenious,  and 
peculiar  to  the  Latin  language,  should  they  not  be  made 
at  all  because  their  application  is  left  to  choice  ?  or 
shall  we  allow  them  to  stand  in  a  somewhat  looser  con- 
nexion, and  arrange  the  different  observations  under 
rational  and  intelligible  heads?  Surely  the  latter 
course  must  be  preferred  ;  and  I  see  that  my  critics 
have,  in  fact,  adopted  the  very  same  method,  except 
that  what  I  have  discussed  in  separate  chapters  on 
"  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech,"  on 
"  Pleonasm,"  "  Ellipsis,"  "  Arrangement  of  Words  and 
Construction  of  Periods,"  is  treated  of  by  them  under 
the  heads  of  first,  second,  and  third  Appendices.  The 
real  appendices  in  the  present  work  on  metres,  meas- 
ures and  weights,  calendar,  &c.,  are  of  a  different  na- 
ture. They  do  not,  indeed,  belong  to  grammar  ;  but, 
as  they  contain  information  on  matters  important  and 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  the  authors  read  in 
schools,  and  as  this  information  is  either  not  to  be  found 
elsewhere,  or  is  not  sufficiently  correct,  no  one,  I  hope, 
will  grudge  it  a  place  at  the  end  of  this  grammar. 

I  cannot  part  from  the  English  reader  without  ex- 
pressing my  delight  at  the  vigour  and  energy  with 
which  classical  studies  are  prosecuted  in  Germany  and 
England.  In  the  former  country,  a  fresh  impulse  was 
given  to  these  studies  some  thirty  years  ago,  just  at 
the  time  when  the  nation  was  on  the  point  of  losing  its 
independence;  in  England,  the  revival  of  classical  stud- 
ies must  be  dated,  I  believe,  from  the  time  that  the  con- 
test between  idealism  and  realism  became  settled ;  and 
these  two  branches  of  human  knowledge  have  now 
arrived  at  a  point  where  they  recognise  each  other  in 


peaceful  harmony,  the  one  exerting  itself  in  exploring 
the  treasures  of  nature,  and  the  other  those  of  mind. 
Germany  owes  her  safety  to  her  free  schools  and  uni- 
versities, and  builds  her  hopes  upon  them ;  England  to 
the  energy  of  her  people,  and  to  her  public  institutions ; 
and  the  two  countries  might  with  advantage  exchange 
some  of  their  excellences.  In  England,  the  educa- 
tional establishments  and  teachers  appear  to  be  fet- 
tered by  old  traditional  and  conventional  forms ; 
while  in  Germany  the  sublimest  truths  which  are 
promulgated  from  the  professorial  chair  die  within 
the  lecture-rooms  of  the  universities,  and  produce 
no  fruit.  But  be  the  difference  between  the  two 
countries  ever  so  great,  the  characteristics  of  the 
educated  men  in  both  consist  in  their  rising  above 
the  immediate  necessities  of  time,  place,  and  occupa- 
tion, and  in  their  recognition  of  the  connexion  existing 
between  the  individual  and  the  spirit  of  all  mankind. 
Hence  a  knowlege  of  antiquity,  and  of  what  it  has 
produced,  is  necessary  to  every  educated  person  in 
proportion  to  the  influence  it  has  exercised  upon  sub- 
sequent ages ;  and  the  study  of  antiquity  will  ever  have 
the  most  salutary  effect  upon  man  in  elevating  him 
above  the  trivial  wants  of  ordinary  life,  and  affording 
him  the  means  of  mental  and  intellectual  culture.  To 
those  among  my  contemporaries  who  are  anxious  to 
obtain  these  advantages,  I  offer  the  present  work  as  a 
means  of  penetrating  more  deeply  and  more  easily 
into  the  spirit  of  the  Roman  classics  and  of  Roman  an- 
tiquity. C.  G.  ZUMPT. 

Berlin,  February  23<Z,  1845. 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE, 


WHEN  the  honourable  task  of  preparing  a  transla- 
tion of  the  ninth  edition  of  Professor  Zumpt's  Latin 
Grammar  had  been  intrusted  to  me  by  the  publishers, 
the  author  himself  most  willingly  consented  to  co-op- 
erate with  me  in  endeavouring  to  present  his  work  to 
the  English  public  in  as  perfect  a  form  as  possible.  His 
professional  engagements  in  the  University  of  Berlin 
have  enabled  him  continually  to  improve  the  success- 
ive editions  of  his  grammar,  which  has  thus  become 
infinitely  superior  to  what  it  was  when  originally  trans- 
lated. Scarcely  a  year  has  elapsed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  the  ninth  edition  of  the  original,  yet  the  au- 
thor's unceasing  labours  in  this  department  of  philolo- 
gy have  enabled  him  already  to  collect  a  large  num- 
ber of  corrections  and  additions  for  future  use ;  and 
all  these  improvements  he  has  been  kind  enough  to 
communicate  to  me  in  manuscript  for  incorporation  in 
the  English  translation,  which  hence  possesses  consid- 
erable advantages  over  the  German  work. 

In  the  etymological  part  of  the  present  grammar, 
some  additions  might  have  been  made  here  and  there 
from  English  sources,  and  some  English  scholars  may, 
perhaps,  be  inclined  to  censure  me  for  having  neglect- 
ed to  do  so,  since  the  etymology  of  the  Latin  language 
has  been  studied  by  a  few  scholars  in  this  country 
more  comprehensively  than  on  the  Continent.  But 
Professor  Zumpt  has  abstained,  on  principle,  from  in- 
troducing into  his  work  etymological  disquisitions 
which  would  have  led  his  readers  beyond  the  imme- 
diate objects  of  his  grammar  ;  and  it  was  impossible 

2 


XIV 

for  me  to  set  aside  that  principle  without  making  ma- 
terial alterations  in  the  first  part  of  the  present  work. 
I  may  also  add,  that,  on  the  whole,  I  coincide  with  the 
author's  views  on  this  point ;  and  even  if  I  did  not,  I 
should  not  think  myself  justified  in  introducing  into  his 
work  that  which  he  himself  has  purposely  excluded. 
The  few  points  on  which  I  have  added  any  explanato- 
ry remarks  are  such  as  are  regarded  by  the  author,  in 
common  with  all  other  grammarians,  as  inexplicable 
difficulties  or  anomalies,  although  it  appears  to  me  that 
the  language  itself  contains  sufficient  analogies  for  their 
explanation. 

When  I  undertook  the  present  translation,  I  expect- 
ed, as  was  stated  in  the  advertisement,  that  the  Latin 
Grammar  of  Professor  Mad  vig,  of  Copenhagen,  which 
had  appeared  about  the  same  time  as  the  last  edition 
of  Professor  Zumpt's  work,  would  furnish  some  more 
or  less  important  improvements,  which  might  be  ad- 
vantageously imbodied  in  the  present  translation  ;  but 
a  comparison  of  the  two  books  soon  showed  me  that 
all  the  new  and  valuable  points  in  Madvig's  grammar 
were  known  to  Professor  Zumpt,  and  had  received 
from  him  their  due  share  of  attention,  Madvig  having 
published  his  views  on  several  grammatical  questions 
in  separate  dissertations  and  elsewhere  previously  to 
the  appearance  of  his  grammar. 

In  conclusion,  I  venture  to  express  my  hope  that  the 
present  translation  of  a  work  which  enjoys  the  highest 
reputation  in  Germany  may  contribute  also  in  this 
country  towards  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language  of  a  nation  which,  above  all  others,  deserves 
to  engage  the  attention  of  every  well-educated  Eng- 
lishman. L.  S. 

London,  April,  1845. 


CONTENTS. 


ELEMENTARY  PART. 

Chap.  Pa»w 

I.  Of  the  Vowels  and  Consonants         ....  1 

II.  Of  Syllables 13 

III.  Of  the  Length  and  Shortness  of  Syllables         .        .  14 

IV.  Of  the  Accent  of  Words 26 

THE  ACCIDENCE. 

V.  Division  of  Words  according  to  their  Signification    .     29 
VI.  Nouns  Substantive. — General  Rules  of  Gender        .     30 

VII.  Number,  Case,  and  Declension  .  .  .  .34 

VIII.  First  Declension 36 

IX.  Greek  Words  in  e,  as,  and  es 37 

X.  Gender  of  the  Nouns  of  the  First  Declension  .  .  39 

XI.  Second  Declension 39 

XII.  Greek  Words  of  the  Second  Declension  .  .  .43 

XIII.  Gender  of  the  Nouns  of  the  Second  Declension        .    45 

XIV.  Third  Declension. — Genitive 46 

XV.  The  remaining  Cases  of  the  Third  Declension          .     53 

XVI.  Greek  Forms  in  Words  of  the  Third  Declension       .  62 
XVII.  Gender  of  Words  of  the  Third  Declension.— Mascu- 
lines            66 

XVIII.                Feminines 67 

XIX.                Neuters 70 

XX.  Fourth  Declension 71 

XXI.  Fifth  Declension 73 

XXII.  Irregular  Declension. — Indeclinables. — Defectives   .  74 

XXIII.  Heteroclita. — Heterogenea  .  81 

XXIV.  Nouns  Adjective. — Terminations. — Declension        .     84 
XXV.  Comparison  of  Adjectives 87 

XXVI.  Comparison  of  Adverbs  and  increased  Comparison  .  89 
XXVII.  Irregular  and  defective  Comparison  .        .        .        .91 

XXVIII.  Numerals.— I.  Cardinal  Numerals    ....  94 

XXIX.  II.    Ordinal  Numerals 98 

XXX.  III.  Distributive  Numerals 100 

XXXI.  IV.  Multiplicative  Numerals 102 

XXXII.  V.     Proportional  Numerals 103 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  Page 

XXXIII.  VI.  Numeral  Adverbs 103 

XXXIV.  Pronouns  and  Pronominal  Adjectives    .        .        .  105 
XXXV.  Declension  of  Pronouns 108 

XXXVI.  Declension  of  the  Possessive  Pronouns  and  of  Pro- 

nominals 114 

XXXVII.  The  Verb 116 

XXXVIII.  Moods.— Tenses 119 

XXXIX.  Numbers.— Persons 121 

XL.  Formation  of  the  Tenses 122 

XLI.  The  Verb  esse 127 

XLII.  The  four  Conjugations 129 

XLIII.  Remarks  on  the  Conjugations        .        .        .        .141 

LIST  OF  VERBS  WHICH  ARE  IRREGULAR  IN  THE  FORMATION  OF  THEIR 

PERFECT  AND  SUPINE. 

XLIV.  First  Conjugation 149 

XLV.  Second  Conjugation 151 

XLVI.  Third  Conjugation. — 1.  Verbs  which  have  a  Vowel 

before  0,  including  those  in  vo    .         .         .         .  157 

XLVII.  2.  Verbs  in  do  and  to 160 

XL VIII.  3.  Verbs  in  bo  and  po 163 

XLIX.  4.  Verbs  with  a  Palatal  Letter,  g,  c,  ct,  h,  qu,  and 
gu  (in  which  u  is  not  considered  as  a  vowel) 

before  o 164 

L.  5.  Verbs  which  have  /,  m,  n,  r  before  o  ,         .         .167 

LI.  6.  Verbs  in  so  and  xo 170 

LII.  Inchoatives 171 

LIII.  Fourth  Conjugation 173 

LIV.  List  of  Deponent  Verbs 175 

LV.  Deponents  of  the  Second  Conjugation    .         .         .  177 

LVI.  Deponents  of  the  Third  Conjugation      .         .         .178 

LVII.  Deponents  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation     .         .         .  179 

LVIII.  Irregular  Verbs 180 

LIX.  Defective  Verbs 187 

LX.  Impersonal  Verbs 190 

LXI.  Etymology  of  Nouns  and  Verbs     .         .         .         .192 

LXI1.  Etymology  of  Particles 214 

LXIII.  Primitive  Adverbs 221 

LXIV.  Comparison  of  Adverbs 230 

LXV.  Prepositions 231 

LXVI.  Prepositions  in  Composition 246 


CONTENTS. 

Chap.  Page 

LXVII.  Conjunctions 250 

LXVIII.  Interjections 266 

SYNTAX. 

I.  CONNEXION  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 
LXIX.  Subject  and  Predicate 267 

II.  ON  THE  USE  OF  CASES. 

LXX.  Nominative  Case 277 

LXXI.  Accusative  Case 278 

LXXII.  Dative  Case 290 

LXXIII.  Genitive  Case 301 

LXXIV.  Ablative  Case 316 

LXXV.  Vocative  Case 337 

III.  USE  OF  THE  TENSES. 
LXXVI.  The  Tenses 338 

IV.  OF  THE  MOODS. 

LXXVII.  Indicative  Mood      . 354 

LXXVIII.  Subjunctive  Mood 358 

LXXIX.  Imperative  Mood 393 

LXXX.  Infinitive  Mood       .......  396 

LXXXI.  Use  of  the  Participles 420 

LXXXII.  Use  of  the  Gerund 430 

LXXXIII.  Use  of  the  Supine 436 

SYNTAXIS  ORNATA. 
LXXXIV.  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech     .  439 

LXXXV.  Pleonasm 479 

LXXXVI.  Ellipsis 489 

LXXXVII.  Arrangement  of  Words  and  Structure  of  Periods  .  505 

APPENDIX     I.  Of  Metre,  especially  with  regard  to  the  Latin 

Poets 529 

APPENDIX    II.  The  Roman  Calendar 551 

APPENDIX  III.  Roman  Weights,  Coins,  and  Measures     .        .  554 
APPENDIX  IV.  Notae  sive  Compendia  Scripturae  ;  or,  Abbrevi- 
ations of  Words 557 

APPENDIX    V.  Ancient  Forms  of  Declension            .        .        .  559 
APPENDIX  VI.  Remains  of  early  Latin 563 

INDEX  OF  MATTERS  .  569 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  Latin  language  was  once  spoken  by  the  Romans, 
at  first  only  in  a  part  of  Middle  Italy,  but  subsequently  in 
all  Italy  and  in  other  countries  subject  to  the  Romans. 
At  present  it  can  be  learned  only  from  books  and  the 
monumental  inscriptions  of  that  people.* 

The  earliest  Latin  writings  that  we  possess  were  com- 

*  ["  Any  inquiry  into  the  origin  of  the  Latin  language  must  involve  an 
inquiry  into  the  languages  spoken  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Italy ;  and 
our  information  on  this  subject,  notwithstanding  the  investigations  of  Mi- 
cali,  Grotefend,  Miiller,  Lepsius,  and  other  distinguished  scholars,  is  at 
present  very  imperfect.  So  much,  however,  appears  certain,  that  the  Latin 
language  was  different  from  the  Etrurian  and  Oscan,  of  which  the  former 
was  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern,  and  the  latter  by  those  of 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Italy.  The  Latins  appear  to  have  origi- 
nally formed  part  of  that  great  race  which  overspread  both  Greece  and 
Italy  under  the  name  of  Pelasgians.  Their  language  formed  a  branch  of 
that  extensive  family  of  languages  which  are  known  to  modern  scholars 
by  the  name  of  Indo-Germanic  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Pelasgians  who 
settled  in  Italy  originally  spoke  the  same  language  as  the  Pelasgians  who 
settled  in  Greece.  There  is  consequently  a  great  resemblance  between  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages;  though  each  possesses  an  element  which  the 
other  does  not.  Not  only  does  the  Latin  language  possess  many  words 
which  it  has  not  in  common  with  the  Greek,  but  also  in  some  parts  of  its 
grammatical  inflection,  as,  for  instance,  in  that  of  the  passive  voice,  it  dif- 
fers considerably  from  the  Greek  language.  It  therefore  becomes  a  ques- 
tion what  that  element  is  which  the  Latin  language  has  not  in  common 
with  the  Greek ;  and  here  we  must  attain  some  farther  knowledge  of  the 
languages  of  ancient  Italy  before  we  can  answer  this  question  satisfactorily. 
The  Etrurian,  so  far  as  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  it  will  enable  us  to 
form  an  opinion  on  the  subject,  appears  to  have  exercised  little  influence 
upon  the  formation  of  the  Latin  language  ;  but  the  Oscan  or  Opican  tongue, 
on  the  contrary,  seems  to  have  united  with  the  Pelasgian  in  forming  the 
Latin.  Niebuhr  (Hist,  of  Rome,  vol.  i.,  p.  82)  has  remarked  that  the  words 
which  relate  to  agriculture  and  domestic  life  agree  in  Greek  and  Latin,  as, 
domus,  ager,  aratrum,  vinum,  oleum,  lac,  bos,  sus,  ovis,  &c.,  while  those  re- 
lating to  arms  and  war,  as  duellum,  ensis,  hasta,  sagitta,  &c.,  are  different 
from  the  Greek.  But  this  remark  is  to  be  taken  with  considerable  limita- 
tion, for  there  are  many  exceptions  both  ways  ;  indeed,  so  many  as  to  render 
the  position  itself  at  least  doubtful,  and  all  inferences  derived  from  it  conse- 
quently inconclusive.  The  words  relating  to  arms  and  war  may  have  been 
Oscan ;  and  it  has  therefore  been  supposed  by  Dr.  Arnold  (Hist,  of  Rome, 
vol.  i.,  p.  22),  not  only  that  the  Latins  were  a  mixed  people,  partly  Pelas- 
gian and  partly  Oscan,  but  also  that  they  arose  out  of  a  conquest  of  the  Pe- 
lasgians by  the  Oscans,  so  that  the  latter  were  the  ruling  class  of  the  united 
nation,  and  the  former  its  subjects." — Penny  Cyclop.,  vol.  xx.,  p.  112. 
Compare  Lepsius,  Ueberdie  Tyrrhenischen  Pelasger  in  Etrurien,  Leipsig,  1842  ; 
Donaldson's  Varronianus,  p.  10,  &c. ;  Baehr,  Geschichte  der  Romischen  Litera- 
tur,  vol.  i.,  p.  3,  &c. ;  Grotefend,  Alt-Italien,  Drittes  Heft,  p.  30.] — Am.  Ed. 


XX  INTRODUCTION. 

posed  about  200  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,*  and  in 
the  sixth  century  after  Christ,  Latin,  as  a  spoken  lan- 
guage, died  entirely  away.  It  had  then  become  quite 
corrupted  through  the  influence  of  the  foreign  nations 
which  had  settled  in  the  Roman  dominions,  and  it  be- 
came so  mixed  up  with  the  languages  of  the  invaders 
that  a  number  of  new  languages  (Italian,  French,  Span- 
ish, Portuguese)  were  gradually  formed  out  of  it.  All 
persons  who  wrote  Latin  in  later  times  had  learned  it  as 
a  dead  language. 

During  the  long  period  in  which  the  Latin  language 
was  spoken,  it  underwent  various  changes,  not  only  in 
the  number  of  its  words  and  their  meanings,  in  their 
forms  and  combinations,  but,  to  some  extent,  in  its  pro- 
nunciation also.  We  shall  in  this  Grammar  describe  the 
language,  though  not  exclusively,  such  as  it  was  spoken 
and  written  during  the  most  important  period  of  Roman 
literature,  that  is,  about  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar  and 
Cicero,  till  shortly  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  That  period 
is  commonly  called  the  golden  age,  and  the  subsequent 
one,  till  about  A.D.  120,  the  silver  age  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage. 

The  Latin  language,  in  its  origin,  is  nearest  akin  to  the 
Greek,  and  at  the  time  when  the  Romans  became  acquaint- 
ed with  the  literature,  arts,  and  institutions  of  Greece, 
they  adopted  a  great  many  single  words,  as  well  as  con- 
structions, from  the  Greek.t  Both  languages,  moreover, 
belong  to  the  same  family  from  which  the  English,  Ger- 
man, northern,  and  many  other  languages  have  sprung.J 

*  [Vid.  Appendix  VI.    Remains  of  early  Latin.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [That  the  Latin  is  an  older  language  than  the  Greek  all  sound  philolo- 
gists now  readily  admit.  Consult  Donaldson's  New  Cratylus,  p.  89.] — Am. 
Ed. 

J  [On  the  general  question  of  Linguistic  affinity,  consult  Bopp,  Vergleich. 
Gramm. ;  Donaldson's  New  Cratylus,  ch.  iv. ;  Id.,  Varronianus,  p.  40.  The 
authorities  having  reference  to  earlier  and  erroneous  views  respecting  the 
origin  of  the  Latin  tongue  may  be  found  in  Baehr,  Geschichte  der  Rom.  Lit., 
vol.  i.,  p.  3,  &c.] — Am.  Ed. 


LATIN  GRAMMAR, 


ELEMENTARY  PART, 
CHAPTER  I. 

OF    THE    VOWELS    AND    CONSONANTS. 

[§  1.]  1.  THE  Vowels  of  the  Latin  language  are,  A, 
a;  E,  e ;  I,  i ;  O,  o;  U,  u  ( Y,  y)  :  and  the  diphthongs, 
AE,  ae  ;  OE,  oe  ;  A  U,  au,  and  E  U,  eu.  Their  ancient 
pronunciation  did  not  differ  in  any  essential  point  from 
that  of  the  modern  Italian  or  German;  but  the  modern 
pronunciation  varies  in  the  different  countries  of  Europe, 
though  the  length  and  shortness  of  the  vowels  are  and 
ought  to  be  observed  everywhere.  The  Latin  language 
has  no  signs  to  distinguish  a  long  from  a  short  vowel, 
such  as  we  find  in  the  Greek  language,  at  least  in  the 
case  of  two  vowels.  The  names  of  the  vowels  are  mere 
imitations  of  their  sounds,  and  not  specific  words,  like  the 
Greek  alpha,  iota,  &c. 

Note. — The  vowel  y  (called  y  psllon)  occurs  only  in  words  which  were 
introduced  into  the  Latin  language  from  or  through  the  Greek,  at  a  time 
when  it  was  already  developed,  such  as,  syllaba,  pyramis,  Pyrrhus,  Cyrus  ;* 
whereas  other  words,  the  Greek  origin  of  which  leads  us  back  to  more 
ancient  times,  or  has  been  obscured  by  changes  of  sound,  have  lost  their 
original  y ;  such  as  mus  (from  the  Greek  fj.v£ ,)  silva  (from  v^rj),  and  lacrima 
(from  duKpvov.)^  The  word  stilus,  too,  is  better  written  with  i,  since  prac- 
tice did  not  acknowledge  its  identity  with  the  Greek  CTV^O^.  The  diph- 
thong eu,  if  we  except  Greek  words,  occurs  only  in  heus,  heu,  and  eheu,  in 
ceu,  sen,  and  neu,  and  in  neuter  and  neuliquam.  The  diphthongs  containing 

*  [As  the  Romans  already  possessed  in  their  V  the  representative  of  the 
Greek  letter,  it  may  be  asked  how  it  was  that  they  subsequently  adopted 
the  Y.  It  has  been  supposed,  in  answer  to  this,  that  the  Greek  character 
had  changed  its  power  from  the  original  sound  of  oo,  such  as  is  still  repre- 
sented by  the  Italian  n,  to  a  sound  probably  like  that  of  the  French  u,  or 
even  to  a  weak  i.  (Key  on  the  Alphabet,  p.  iii.)] — Am.  Ed. 

f  [It  would  be  more  correct,  perhaps,  to  say,  that  in  many  words  rather 
connected  with  the  Greek  than  derived  from  it,  the  v  is  represented  by  i,  as 
in  cliens,  in-clitus  (/c/ti>«),  clipeus  (/cp^Trrw),  silva  ({'/./"??),  &c.,  while  in  oth- 
ers the  v  has  become  e,  as  in  socer  (&cvpoc),  remulco  (fn'/novhtceu),  polenta 
(irakwrf]},  &c.  (Donaldson,  Varroniamis,  p.  222.  Compare  Billroth,  Lot. 
Gr.,  p,  3,  not.)]— Am.  Ed. 

A 


2  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

an  i,  viz.,  ei,  oi,  and  ui,  have  not  been  mentioned  in  our  text  as  Latin  diph- 
thongs, because  they  occur  only  in  a  few  interjections,  such  as  hei,  eia, 
oiei,  and  hui,  and  in  cases  where  dein,  proin,  huic,  or  cui  are  contracted  into 
one  syllable,  which  is  commonly  done  in  poetry. 

The  ancients,  in  pronouncing  a  diphthong,  uttered  the  two  vowels  of 
which  it  consists  more  distinctly  than  we  do.  The  word  neuter,  in  partic- 
ular, was  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  vowels  in  eu,  though 
united,  were  yet  distinctly  heard.*  In  this  manner  we  may  reconcile  the 
assertion  of  the  grammarian  Consentius,  that  it  is  a  barbarism  to  pro- 
nounce neutrum  as  a  word  of  two  syllables,  with  those  passages  in  Latin 
poetry  which  necessarily  demand  the  diphthong.  Neutiquam,  in  the  comic 
poets,  has  its  first  syllable  always  short,  as  if  it  were  nutiquam,  from  which 
we  may  infer  that  it  was  not  so  much  the  long  diphthong  as  the  two  short 
vowels  that  were  heard.  In  like  manner  the  diphthongs  ae  and  oe  were 
pronounced,  and  hence  we  find  that  in  the  early  times  ai  and  oi  were 
pronounced  and  written  in  their  stead,  and  that  the  Latins  expressed  the 
Greek  at  and  oi  by  ae  and  oe ;  for,  if  these  diphthongs  are  pronounced  in 
the  manner  above  described,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the  difference  be- 
tween the  sounds  of  e  and  i  is  but  slight. t  The  Greek  ct  must  likewise 
have  been  pronounced  in  such  a  manner  that  the  two  vowels  were  dis- 
tinctly.heard  ;  for  the  Latins,  in  whose  language  this  diphthong  does  not 
occur,  use  in  its  place  sometimes  e,  and  sometimes  i,  or  either  of  them 
indiscriminately. J  Before  consonants  we  always  find  i,  e.  g.,  edipsis,  Ni- 
lus,  Clitus,  Heraclidae ;  and  in  Latin  we  must  accordingly  pronounce  and 
Write  Polychtus,  and  not  Polycletus  (see  my  remark  on  Cic.,  in  Verr..  iv.,  3) ; 
Hilotes  or  Hilotae  (Ilotac,  for  the  Greek  is  EtAwm?  or  E"Au>rat)>  and  not 
Helotes.  Before  vowels,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Greek  a  is  sometimes 
changed  into  e,  and  sometimes  into  i ;  the  e  appears,  for  example,  in  Aeneas 
and  Medea,  and  the  i  in  Iphigenia  and  elegia,  whereas  Alexandrea  and  Alex- 
andria, Thucydideus  and  Thucydidius  are  used  indiscriminately. §  In  Cic- 
ero, the  forms  Ariopagus  and  Ariopagitae  are  better  established  than 
Areopagus  and  Areopagitae,  and  the  like,  which  we  commonly  find  in  our 
editions,  whereas  the  form  Darius  is  much  more  authentic,  according  to 
the  MSS.  of  Latin  authors,  than  Darius.  This  fact  is  now  generally 

*  [On  this  pronunciation  of  the  diphthongs  by  the  ancients,  both  Greeks 
and  Romans,  compare  the  remarks  of  Liskovius  ( Ueber  die  Aussprache  des 
Griechischen,  &c.,  p.  14),  who  advocates  the  same  in  opposition  to  the 
Reuchlinian  system  of  pronunciation.  The  passage  of  Choeroboscus, 
however,  in  Bekker's  Anecd.  Grac.,  p.  1214,  and  his  three  modes  of  pro- 
nouncing diphthongs,  would  seem  to  militate  against  this  view  of  the 
subject.  Compare  Theodos.,  Gramm.,  p.  34,  ed.  GoettL,  and  Moschopul.  Op. 
Gram.,  ed.  Titze,  p.  24.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [We  must  not  suppose,  however,  that  in  the  earlier  Latinity  ai  was 
alone  and  exclusively  used  instead  of  ae.  Examples  of  the  latter  likewise 
occur.  Thus,  on  the  Columna  Rostrata,  we  have  praeda  and  aes ;  in  the 
8,  C.  de  Bacchan.,  the  form  aedem  occurs  ;  and  in  one  of  the  inscriptions 
from  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios,  we  find  aetate.  Still,  however,  ai  was  much 
more  commonly  employed,  as  in  aidilis,  quaistor,  quairatis,  aiternus,  aire,  &c. 
(Gruter,  Ind.  Gramm.,  s.  v.  ai  pro  ae.)  The  same  remark  will  apply  to  oi 
for  oe,  the  former  being  the  more  common,  but  the  latter  occurring  on  the 
Col.  Rostr.,  "  claseis  Poenicas,"  and  elsewhere.  In  later  Latinity,  the 
form  oi  appears  to  have  been  retained  only  in  the  interjection  oiei,  or  eoiei, 
of  the  comic  writers.  (Schneider,  Element arlehre,  &C.,  vol.  i.,  p.  81;  Bent- 
ley,  ad  Ter.  Eun.,  4,  4,  47,  &c.)]— Am.  Ed. 

%  [The  i  sound  here  meant  is  the  continental  one,  namely,  that  of  the 
long  English  e  in  mete.~\ — Am.  Ed. 

§  [This  change  of  «  into  e  or  i  appears  to  have  arisen  from  a  variety  in 
dialectic  pronunciation,  some  dialects  sounding  the  e,  and  others  the  i, 
more  strongly.  Compare  Liskov.,  p.  13.] — Am,  Ed. 


VOWELS    AND   CONSONANTS.  3 

acknowledged,  and  does  not  require  here  to  be  supported  by  authori- 
ties.* 

[«J  2.]  It  was,  however,  only  by  degrees  that  the  pronunciation  and  or- 
thography became  fixed,  and  this  was  mainly  the  work  of  the  grammarians 
during  the  first  centuries  after  Christ.  Previously,  there  existed  many 
peculiarities  in  the  pronunciation,  which  were  also  adopted  in  the  written- 
language,  and  some  of  these  are  still  retained  in  the  texts  of  a  few  of  the 
early  writers,  such  as  Plautus,  Terence,  and  Sallust,  for  historical  reasons, 
or,  so  to  speak,  from  diplomatic  fidelity.  But  such  peculiarities  should 
not  be  imitated  by  us,  for  they  were  gradually  given  up  by  the  ancients 
themselves.  With  regard  to  pronunciation  and  orthography,  we  must 
necessarily  adhere  to  the  rules  which  were  laid  down  by  the  ancient 
grammarians,  who  certainly  did  not  derive  them  from  the  vulgar  idiom  of 
the  people,  but  from  the  uncorrupt  and  pure  language  of  the  educated 
classes.  In  the  earliest  times,  the  broad  pronunciation  of  the  long  i  was 
commonly  indicated  by  ei,  but  without  its  being  pronounced  as  a  diphthong 
ei,  which  is  foreign  to  the  Latin  language :  for  example,  heic  for  hie,  queis 
for  quis  (quibus),  eidus  for  idus,  and  in  the  accusative  plural  of  the  third 
declension  when  it  terminates  in  is  (see  §  68),  such  as  omneis,  arteis,  for 
omnis  and  artis,  which  termination  of  the  accusative  was  subsequently 
changed  into  es.  A  middle  sound  between  the  two  short  vowels  u  and  i 
was  preserved,  in  some  words,  down  to  a  still  later  time  ;  and  many  per- 
sons pronounced  and  wrote  lubet,  existumo,  clupeus,  inclutus,  satura,  for  libet, 
existimo,  clipeus,  &c. ;  the  adjective  termination  umus  for  imus,  asfinitumus 
for  finitimus,  and  the  superlatives  optumus,  maxumus,  and  pulcherrumus ,  for 
optimus,  maximus,  &c.  Julius  Caesar  declared  himself  in  favor  of  i,  which 
was  afterward  adopted  generally,  although  the  Emperor  Claudius  wanted 
to  introduce  a  new  letter  for  the  indefinite  vowel  in  those  words. f  We 
must  farther  observe  that  in  early  times  o  was  used  instead  of  u,  after  the 
letter  v,  e.  g.,  volt,  volnus,  avom,  and  even  in  the  nominative  avos  instead  of 
avus :  in  some  words  o  took  the  place  of  e ;  for  example,  vorto  and  its  de- 
rivatives for  verto,  roster  for  vester.\  U  instead  of  e  occurs  in  the  termi- 
nation of  the  participle  undus  for  endus,  and  was  retained  in  some  cases  in 
later  times  also.  (See  §  167.)  Lastly,  we  have  to  mention  that  the  vulgar 
pronunciation  of  au  was  6 ;  e.  g.,  Claudius  was  pronounced  as  Clodius, 
plaustrum  as  plostrum,  and  plaudo  as  plodo ;  but  in  some  words  this  pronun- 
ciation, which  in  general  was  considered  faulty,  became  established  by 
custom,  as  in  plostellum,  a  little  carriage,  a  diminutive  form  of  plaustrum. 
This  was  the  case  more  especially  when  the  common  mode  of  pronoun- 
cing served  to  indicate  a  difference  in  meaning,  as  in  lotus,  washed,  and 
lautus,  splendid  or  elegant ;  and  codex,  a  tablet  for  writing  (or  a  book),  and 
caudex,  a  block  of  wood.  In  the  compounds  of  plaudo  the  form  plodo  thus 
became  prevalent. 

[§  3.]  2.  The  consonants  are,  J5,  1;  C,  c;  D,  d ;  F, 
/;  G,  g;  H,  h;  (K,  kj  ;  L,  I;  M,  m;  N,  n;  P,  p ; 
Q,  q;  R,  r;  S,  s;  T,  t;  X,  x;  (Z,  z).  With  regard 

*  [Still  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  cite  the  following  :  Drakenb.  ad  Liv., 
xxxvi.,  14,  extr.  ;  Interpp.  ad  Vel  Pat.,  11,  69,  2:  11,  87,  nut.;  Oudend.ad 
Suet  on.  Claud.,  42.~\—Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  whole  subject  is  fully  discussed  by  Schneider,  Element.,  p.  18, 
seqq.~] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  employment  of  o  in  early  Latin,  where  at  a  later  day  u  was  used, 
appears  to  have  been  much  more  common  than  is  stated  in  the  text.  We 
find,  for  example,  such  forms  as  consol,  primos,  captom,  exfociont,  &c.,  for 
consul,  primus,  captum,  effugiunt,  &c.  The  employment,  on  the  other  hand, 
of  «  for  o  is  much  more  rare.  Priscian  cites  huminem,  funtes,  and  frundes. 
Cassiodorus  (p.  2259)  has  prcestu.] — Am.  Ed. 


4  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

to  their  classification,  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  observe 
that  I,  m,  n,  r  are  called  liquids  (liquidcej,  and  the  rest 
mutes  (mutce),  with  the  exception  of  $,  which,  being  a 
sibilant  (littera  sibilans),  is  of  a  peculiar  nature.  The 
mutes  may  again  be  classified,  with  reference  to  the  or- 
gan by  which  they  are  pronounced,  into  labials  (v,  b,p,f), 
palatals  (g,  c,  k,  quj,  and  linguals  (d,  t).  X  and  z  (called 
zeta)  are  double  consonants,  x  being  a  combination  of  c 
and  s,  and  z  of  d  and  s. 

Note. — It  will  be  observed  that  there  are  some  letters  in  our  own  alpha- 
bet which  do  not  occur  in  this  list :  j  and  v  were  expressed  by  the  Latins 
by  the  same  signs  as  the  vowels  i  and  «,  viz.,  /and  V ;  but  in  pronunci- 
ation they  were  distinguished ;  whence  we  hear  of  an  i  or  v  consonans  ; 
and,  like  ordinary  consonants,  they  make  position  when  preceded  by 
another  consonant,  and  do  not  form  an  hiatus  when  preceded  by  a  vowel. 
It  is  only  in  consequence  of  poetical  licenses  which  are  rendered  neces- 
sary by  the  metre  (which,  however,  at  the  same  time,  show  the  kindred 
nature  existing  between  the  sounds  of  the  vowel  and  consonant),  that  the 
v  is  at  one  time  softened  down  into  u ;  as,  for  example,  when  the  words 
solvit  and  silva  are  made  to  form  three  syllables,  (comp.  §  184) ;  and  at 
others,  the  vowels  i  and  u  are  hardened  into  the  consonants  j  and  v,  which 
is  very  often  the  case  with  i ;  by  this  means  the  preceding  short  syllable  is 
lengthened,  as  in  the  words  abics,  (tries,  consilium,fluvius,  tenuis,  and  some 
others.  Virgil,  for  example,  uses  fluvjorum.  rex  Eridanus ;  Ovid,  at  the 
close  of  an  hexameter  verse,  custos  erat  arjetis  aurci,  for  arietis  ;  Lucretius, 
copia  tenvis  and  neque  tenvius  extat,  for  tenuis,  tenuius.  In  cases  where  the 
preceding  syllable  is  already  long,  the  poet  may  at  least  get  rid  of  a  sylla- 
ble which  does  not  suit  the  verse,  as  in  Juvenal,  comitata  est  Hippia  Ludjum 
and  nuper  consuls  Junjo  ;  and  (iv.,  37)  Quumjam  semjanimum  laceraret  Fla- 
vins orbem.  We  may  therefore,  in  writing  Latin,  make  use  of  the  signs 
j  and  v,  which  are  employed  in  modern  languages,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  pronunciation  before  a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  a  sylla- 
ble, and  we  need  not  retain  the  defective  mode  of  writing  of  the  Romans, 
since  they  viewed  these  letters  just  as  we  do,  and  would  willingly  have 
adopted  so  convenient  a  means  of  distinction  if  they  had  known  it,  or  if 
their  better  knowledge  had  not  been  obliged  to  give  way  to  habit.  But 
this  rule  cannot  be  applied  to  Greek  words,  since  t  and  v  with  the  Greeks 
had  only  the  nature  of  vowels.  We  therefore  read  locaste,  iamlnts,  Jon.es, 
Laius,  Agaue,  euoe ;  and  the  i  at  the  beginning  of  these  words  is  treated 
as  a  vowel  in  their  connexion  with  prepositions,  as  in  ab  lona,  ex  Ionia. 
Some  Greek  proper  names,  however,  are  justly  written  and  pronounced 
in  Latin  with  a.j,  as  Grajus,  Ajax,  Maja,  Troja,  Achaja.* 

[§  4.]  H  is  only  an  aspiration ;  it  is  not  considered  as  a  vowel,  and 
therefore,  when  joined  with  a  consonant,  it  does  not  lengthen  the  preceding 
syllable.  The  ancients  themselves  (see  Quintil.,  i.,  5,  §  21)  were  in  doubt, 
with  regard  to  several  words,  as  to  which  was  the  more  correct,  to  pro- 
nounce it  or  not ;  for  example,  as  to  whether  they  should  pronounce  have 

*  [This  is  not  correct.  All  these  forms  should  be  written  with  an  i. 
If  the  author  mean  to  give  the  j  its  German  sound,  which  is  that  of  our  y 
before  a  vowel,  this  may  do  well  enough  to  express  the  pronunciation  of 
the  words  in  question,  but  certainly  not  their  orthography.  Key  thinks 
that  the  English  sound  of  the  j  was  not  unknown  to  the  ancient  inhab- 
itants of  Italy.  This,  however,  is  very  doubtful ;  and  if  known  at  all,  it 
must  have  been  a  mere  provincialism,  and  not  adopted  by  the  educated 
classes.] — Am.  Ed. 


VOWELS    AND   CONSONANTS.  5 

or  ave,  hedera  or  edera,  Jiarundo  Or  arundo,  halucinor  or  alucinor,  herus  or  ems, 
vehemens  or  veemens  (vemens),  ahenum  or  aenum,  mihi  or  mi,  prehendo  and 
deprehendo,  or  prendo  and  deprendo,  and  several  other  words,  in  which, 
however,  the  orthography  now  adopted  is  the  more  correct  of  the  two. 

The  letter  G  arose  out  of  C,  for  in  the  early  times  the  sounds  of  k  (c) 
and  g  were  not  distinguished  in  writing,  on  account  of  their  similarity  :  and 
although  the  Romans  wrote,  for  example,  leciones,  yet  they  pronounced 
legiones.  The  fact  of  the  prsenomina  Gains  and  Gnaeus,  when  indicated 
only  by  the  initials,  being  frequently  written  C.  and  Cn.,  is  a  remnant  of 
the  old  orthography  ;  and  it  is  expressly  attested  by  ancient  grammarians 
(see,  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  i.,  7,  $  28),  as  well  as  by  the  Greek  mode  of  writing 
those  names  (Tdio£  Tvatoc),  that  they  were  never  pronounced  otherwise 
than  Gaius  and  Gnaeus,  which  was  at  the  same  time  the  invariable  mode 
of  writing  them  when  they  were  given  at  full  length.  Even  when  the 
initials  only  are  given,  we  meet  with  G.  and  Gn.  just  as  often  as  with  C. 
and  Cn* 

[§  5.]  K  became  a  superfluous  letter  in  Latin,  as  its  place  was  supplied 
by  c.  In  early  times  it  was  chiefly  used  in  words  beginning  with  ca,  such 
as  kaput,  kalumnia,  Karthago ;  but  this  is  now  done,  according  to  the  ex- 
ample of  the  ancients,  in  abbreviations  only,  such  as  K.  for  Kaeso,  K.  or 
Kal.  for  Kalend<s.-\ 

Q  is,  in  reality,  likewise  a  superfluous  letter,  not  differing  in  value  from 
c ;  but  it  has  been  more  fortunate  than  k  in  maintaining  its  place,  at  least 
in  those  cases  where  the  sound  of  c  is  followed  by  u,  and  the  latter  by 
another  vowel,  as  in  quam,  quern,  qui,  quo,  antiquus.  The  first  of  these 
words  is  to  be  pronounced  cuam,  as  a  monosyllable  ;  and  it  remains  doubt- 
ful as  to  whether  the  u  is  still  a  vowel,  or  assumes  the  nature  of  a  con- 
sonant cvam.  There  are  some  few  words  in  which  the  pronunciation  and 
orthography  hesitate  between  qu  and  c;  e.  g.,  in  coquus  and  equuleus:  in 
some  others  c  is  known  to  be  the  correct  pronunciation,  from  the  testi- 
mony of  the  ancients  themselves,  although  we  still  write  qu,  partly  for 
the  sake  of  distinction,  and  partly  for  etymological  reasons. t  Thus  we 

*  [The  person  who  first  brought  in  the  G  was  Sp.  Carvilius,  a  freed-man 
and  namesake  of  the  celebrated  Sp.  Carvilius  Ruga,  who,  in  A.U.C.  523 
(B.C.  231),  furnished  the  first  example  of  a  divorce.  From  the  position  in 
the  alphabet  assigned  to  this  new  character,  namely,  the  seventh  place, 
corresponding  to  that  of  the  Greek  z,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Roman  C  still  retained  the  hard  g  sound,  while  the  new  character  repre- 
sented the  soft  sibilant  pronunciation  of  the  English  j  and  the  Greek  z, 
which  is  also  expressed  by  the  modern  Italian  gi.  (Key,  Alphab.,  p.  63; 
Donaldson,  Varronianus,  p.  197.)] — Am.  Ed. 

f  [Although  the  letter  K  is  now  superfluous,  it  was  not  so  when  the 
characters  of  an  alphabet  were  syllabic  in  power.  Thus  the  letter  k 
appears  to  have  denoted  at  one  time  the  syllable  ka,  while  another 
character  represented  ko,  and  so  on.  Hence,  in  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
alphabets,  the  former  was  called  kappa,  kaph ;  the  latter,  koppa,  koph. 
This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  in  Latin  the  letter  k  was  never  used  ex- 
cept before  the  vowel  a,  precisely  as  q  is  found  only  before  u,  and  the 
Greek  koppa  only  before  o.  Even  our  own  alphabet  seems  to  imply  such 
a  limit  in  the  use  of  this  consonant,  when  it  gives  it  the  name  of  ka,  not 
ke  ;  though  the  latter  name  would  better  agree  with  be,  ce,  de,  &c.  (Key, 
Alphab.,  p.  72.)]— Am.  Ed. 

I  [The  letter  Q,  like  K,  furnishes  evidence  that  the  alphabetical  charac- 
ters were  originally  of  syllabic  power.  Thus,  the  Hebrew  koph,  and  the 
Greek  koppa,  as  already  remarked  in  a  previous  note,  appear  to  have  been 
used  only  in  those  words  where  the  sound  of  o  follows.  Indeed,  the  name 


A2 


6  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

distinguish  the  conjunction  quum  from  the  preposition  cum;  and  write 
quotidie  and  quotanms  on  account  of  their  formation  from  quot,  and  sequutus 
and  loquutus  on  account  of  their  derivation  from  sequor  and  loquor,  although 
it  is  quite  certain  that  all  the  Romans  pronounced,  and  most  of  them  also 
wrote,  cum,  cotidie  (cottidie  only  to  indicate  the  shortness  of  the  vowel), 
secutus,  locutus.  The  last  two  must  absolutely  be  spelled  secutus  and 
locutus  (see  Schneider,  Elementarlehre,  p.  332) ;  and  with  regard  to  the 
others,  too,  it  is  but  just  that  we  should  follow  the  instructions  of  the 
ancients.  The  reader  will  find  in  this  work  the  conjunction  spelled  quum; 
but  he  ought  to  remember  that  it  is  done  only  for  the  purpose  of  distin- 
guishing it,  to  the  eye,  from  the  preposition,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  pro- 
nounced as  cum.* 

Z  occurs  only  in  words  borrowed  from  the  Greek,  e.  g.,  gaza,  trapeza  ; 
and  w  can  be  used  only  when  modern  words  are  introduced  into  the  Latin 
language  without  undergoing  any  change  in  their  orthography. 

[§  6.]  3.  Respecting  the  pronunciation  of  the  conso- 
nants, it  must  be  observed  that  the  rule  with  the  Latins 
was  to  pronounce  them  just  as  they  were  written.  Every 
modern  nation  has  its  own  peculiar  way  of  pronouncing 
them ;  and  among  the  many  corruptions  of  the  genuine 
pronunciation,  there  are  two  which  have  become  firmly 
rooted  in  nearly  all  Europe,  and  which  it  is,  perhaps,  im- 
possible to  banish  from  the  language.  We  pronounce  c, 
when  followed  by  et  i,  y,  ac,  or  oe,  both  in  Latin  and  Greek 
words,  like  our  *,  and  when  followed  by  other  vowels  or 
by  consonants,  like  a  k.  The  Romans,  on  the  other  hand, 

+-  as  far  as  we  can  ascertain,  always  pronounced  c  like  k  ; 
and  the  Greeks,  in  their  intercourse  with  the  Romans,  did 
not  hear  any  other  pronunciation.  The  earliest  instance 
in  which  c  was  pronounced  in  this  or  a  similar  manner 
seems  to  have  been  when  it  was  followed  by  i  with 

fm  -^another  vowel  after  it,  for  the  terminations  tins  and  tia 
! 'J  are  so  frequently  used  for  dm  and  cia,  that  we  must  infer 
that  they  were  similarly  sounded.  But  even  this  similarity 
seems  to  have  heen  foreign  to  the  old  and  correct  pro- 
nunciation. We  pronounce  ti  before  a  vowel  like  shi, 
but  likewise  without  any  reason.t  But  it  is  easy  to  dis- 

no  o.  Hence,  in  Italy,  the  q,  which,  by  position  in  the  alphabet,  cor- 
responds to  the  Greek  koppa,  was  limited  to  words  where  u  followed. 
Although  q  is  generally  followed  by  a  second  vowel  after  its  u,  the  older 
practice  of  the  Romans  did  not  so  limit  its  use.  Thus,  Pequnia,  pequdes, 
qum,  equx,  are  met  with.  (Key,  Alphab.,  p.  89.)] — Am.  Ed. 

*  Lipsius,  in  his  Dialogus  de  recta  Pronunliatione  Lingua  Latince,  ex- 
presses himself  upon  the  pronunciation  of  c  in  this  remarkable  manner : 
"  Pudet  non  tarn  erroris  quam  pertinaciae,  quia  corripi  patiuntur  at  non 
corrigi,  et  tenent  omnes  quod  defendat  nemo.  Itali,  Hispani,  Germani, 
Galli,  Britanni  in  hoc  peccato :  a  qua  gente  initium  emendandi  ?  Audeat 
enim  una  aliqua  et  omnes  audient." 

t  [Scheller  thinks  that  such  corruptions  as  c  with  an  s  sound,  and  t 
.sounded  like  sh  or  s,  arose  from  the  Frankish  dialect  of  the  Teutonic  Ian- 


VOWELS    AND    CONSONANTS.  7 

cover  the  transition  from  the  pure  pronunciation  to  that 
which  is  now  customary,  for  the  ti  in  all  these  cases  is 
short,  and  in  quick  speaking  it  easily  changes  into  shi. 
For  this  reason,  it  would  be  quite  wrong  to  pronounce  the 
long  ti  in  the  genitive  totius  in  the  same  manner,  since 
there  can  be  no  excuse  for  it.  But  there  are.  some  cases 
in  which  even  the  short  ti,  according  to  the  common  pro- 
nunciation, is  not  read  like  shi  :  1.  In  Greek  words,  such 
as  Miltiadcs,  Bceotia,  JEgyptius  ;  2.  When  the  t  is  pre- 
ceded by  another  t,  by  s  or  x,  e.  g.,  Bruttii,  ostium,  mixtio  ; 
and,  3.  When  it  is  followed  by  the  termination  of  the  in- 
finitive passive  cr,  as  in  nitier,  guatier. 

Note. — In  many  words  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  they  ought  to 
be  spelled  with  ci  or  ti.  The  question  must  be  decided  partly  by  a  correct 
etymology,  partly  by  the  orthography  adopted  by  the  Greeks,  and  partly 
by  ancient  and  authentic  inscriptions  ;  for  nearly  all  our  MSS.  were  made 
at  a  time  when  ci  was  pronounced  in  the  -wrong  way,  and  was  accord- 
ingly confounded  with  ti.  Thus,  it  appears  that  in  the  derivative  adjec- 
tives formed  from  nouns  and  participles  we  must  write  icius,  and  not  itius ; 
e.  g.,  gentilicitts,  asdilicius,  novicius,  commendaticius,  as,  indeed,  we  always 
write  patricius,  and  the  proper  names  Fabricius  and  Mauritius.  We  now 
commonly  write  conditio,  though  it  is  better  to  write  condicio  and  dido.  In 
nuntius,  and  all  its  derivatives,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ti  is  correct ;  and 
also  in  ot.ium,  injitior  (from  falcor),  and  j-jfialis  (Greek  <pt]Ttdh£i£).  In  In- 
scriptions and  ancient  MSS.  we  find  only  contio,  and  not  concio. 

[§  7.]  M  at  the  end  of  a  word  (where  it  is  always  pre- 
ceded by  a  vowel)  was  pronounced  by  the  ancients  more 
indistinctly  than  at  the  beginning  of  a  word ;  perhaps  in 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  French  le  nom,  where  the  m  is 
heard  much  more  indistinctly  than  in  le  midi.  When  the 
word  following  began  with  a  vowel,  the  final  m  of  the 
preceding  word  was  not  sounded  at  all,  according  to  the 
testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  or  it  formed  only 
a  gentle  transition  from  the  one  vowel  to  the  other.* 

S,  like  the  Greek  cr,  was  pronounced  more  sharply  than 
with  us  ;  a  circumstance  which  accounts  for  some  irregu- 
larities in  the  early  orthography,  such  as  the  doubling  of 
the  s  in  caussa,  as  Cicero  wrote  according  to  an  express 
-.?*,•  f -£/,  /%~*~~.y^L.  . 

guage,  in  which  the  hissing  sound  of  the  consonants  predominated.  (Gr. 
Lat.,  vol.  i.,  p.  14,  Walker's  transl.)]— Am.  Ed. 

*  [The  omission  of  M  at  the  end  of  words  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
confined  merely  to  those  cases  where  the  next  word  began  with  a  vowel. 
Thus,  it  was  the  rule  to  omit,  in  the  present  tense  of  active  verbs,  the  im- 
portant M,  which  characterizes  the  first  person  in  many  of  the  other 
tenses.  In  fact,  the  only  verbs  which  retain  it  in  the  present  tense  are 
su-m,  and  inqua-m,  and  it  is  mentioned  as  a  custom  of  Cato  the  Censor, 
that  he  used  also  to  elide  the  M  at  the  termination  of  the  futures  of  verbs 
in  -o,  and  -j'o.  (Donaldson,  Varronianus,  p.  195.)] — Am.  Ed. 


8  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

testimony,  though  it  was  disapproved  of  as  useless  by  the 
ancient  grammarians. 

In  the  ancient  pronunciation  there  must  have  been 
a  peculiar  resemblance  between  the  letters  s  and  r, 
since  it  is  mentioned  by  Varro  (de  Ling.  Lat.,  vii.,  6)  and 
others,  that  formerly,  that  is,  before  the  Latin  language 
had  assumed  a  fixed  form  through  its  literature,  s  was 
pronounced  in  many  words,  for  which  afterward  r  was 
substituted,  as  in  Papisius,  Valesius,  lases,  eso,  arbose?n, 
melios.  Some  forms  of  this  kind,  such  as  honos,  lepos,  and 
arbos,  were  used  clown  to  a  very  late  time,  and  occur 
even  in  the  language  of  the  classical  writers. 

Note. — This  affinity  between  the  two  sounds  accounts  for  various 
phenomena  in  the  accidence  of  the  Latin  language  (see  Schneider,  Ele- 
mentarlehre,  p.  342.,  foil.) ;  but  we  do  not  by  any  means  believe  that  the  r 
in  the  above-mentioned  words,  and  still  less  in  all  cases  where  it  occurs 
between  two  vowels,  is  of  later  origin,  or  that  it  arose  out  of  the  *,  and 
that  the  latter  was  the  original  sound.  The  r  after  a  vowel  is  just  as  an- 
cient and  original  in  the  Latin  language  as  the  r  after  a  consonant ;  and 
wherever  the  s  is  not  a  mere  dialectic  peculiarity,  as  in  arbosem,  pignosa, 
robose,  and  majosibus,  it  has  taken  the  place  of  r  for  definite  reasons  ob- 
served in  the  formation  of  words.  For  example :  we  do  not  think  that 
mosis,  most,  and  mosem  were  the  earlier  and  more  genuine  forms  for  mom, 
inori,  morem ;  or  that  the  nominilive  mos  contains  the  original  form  ;  and 
that,  in  the  other  cases,  the  s  was  afterward  supplanted  by  r  (as  has  been 
most  confidently  stated  by  Kruger  in  his  Grammatik  der  Lat.  Sprache,  p. 
190,  foil.) ;  but  we  assert  that  mor  is  the  true  root,  and  that  mosis,  most, 
and  mose.m,  if  they  were  used  at  all,  arose  merely  from  a  difference  in  pro- 
nunciation. The  nominative  assumed  the  form  7«<5s  instead  of  m8r,  be- 
cause s  was  a  kindred  sound  to  r,  and  because  in  other  cases,  too,  s  is  the 
sign  of  the  nominative.* 

[§  8.]  4.  The  meeting  of  two  vowels,  one  of  which 
forms  the  ending  and  the  other  the  beginning  of  a  word, 
causes  an  hiatus  or  yawning.  It  is  impossible  to  avoid  it 
in  the  various  combinations  of  words,  though  it  is  never 
considered  an  elegance.  In  verse  it  is  removed  by  the 
former  of  the  vowels,  whether  it  be  short  or  long,  being 
passed  over  in  reading  or  speaking  (elisio.)  When,  there- 

*  [It  is  rather  surprising  that  the  jurist  Pomponius  (Digg.,  i.,  2,  2,  t)  36) 
should  have  attributed  to  Appius  Claudius  Caecus,  (consul  I.,  A.U.C.  447, 
B.C.  307;  consul  II.,  A.U.C.  458,  B.C.  296)  the  invention  of  the  R,  a  let- 
ter which  is  the  initial  of  the  names  Roma  and  Romulus.  He  can  only 
mean  that  Appius  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  practice  of  substituting 
R  for  S  in  proper  names,  a  change  which  he  might  have  made  in  his  cen- 
sorship. It  is  probable  that  Appius  Claudius  used  his  censorial  authority 
to  sanction  a  practice  which  had  already  come  into  vogue,  and  which  was 
intimately  connected  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  Roman  articulation.  In 
fact,  the  "Romans  were  to  the  last  remarkable  for  the  same  tendency  to 
rhotacism  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Umbrian,  Dorian,  and  Old  Norse 
dialects.  (Donaldson,  Varronianus,  p.  205.— Compare  Schneider,  Element., 
vol.  i.,  p.  311.)]— Am.  Ed. 


VOWELS   AND    CONSONANTS.  9 

fore,  we  find,  e.  g.,  sapere  aude^  or  motd  anus  urna,  we  pro- 
nounce saper*  aude  and  mot'  anus  urna.  (Comp.  Hein- 
dorf  on  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  9,  30.)  How  far  anything  simi- 
lar was  done  in  ordinary  language  (in  prose)  cannot  be 
said  with  certainty,  although  it  is  not  improbable  that  at 
least  short  vowels,  when  followed  by  another  vowel,  were 
likewise  passed  over  in  quick  speaking,  and  that  people 
pronounced,  for  instance,  namqu?  erit  tempus,  atqu'  ego 
quum  vidcrem.  The  aspirate  li  does  not  remove  the 
hiatus,  nor  does  it  therefore  prevent  the  elision  of  the  first 
vowel  in  verse,  so  that  we  pronounce  toller*  liumo,  when 
we  find  it  written  tollere  humo.  As  the  m  at  the  end  of  a 
word  was  not  audibly  uttered  when  the  next  word  began 
with  a  vowel,  the  vowel  preceding  the  m  is  likewise  passed 
over  in  reading  verse,  although  the  word  is  written  at  full 
length.  The  hexameter  line,  multum  ille  et  terris  jactatus 
ct  alto,  is  therefore  read  mult''  iW  et  terris,  &c.  In  the  com- 
pounds veneo  for  venum  eo,  and  animadverto  foi  animum 
adverto,  this  elision  is  made  also  in  writing.  The  earlier 
poets  threw  out  the  s  in  the  terminations  us  and  is  when 
they  were  followed  by  consonants.  Lucilius,  e.  gv&api, 
Turn  lateral?  dolor  certissimu'  nuntiu'  mortis ;  and  even 
Cicero,  in  his  youthful  attempts  at  poetry,  sometimes  did 
the  same,  as  in  de  terra  lapsu'  repente,  magnu1  leo,  and 
torviC  draco  ;  but,  in  the  refined  poetical  language  of  the 
Augustan  age,  this  elision  was  no  longer  customary.* 

[§  9.]  Note  1. — When  the  vowel  thrown  out  by  the  elision  is  preceded 
by  another  one,  the  latter  does  not  produce  a  disagreeable  hiatus,  as  in 
Capitolia  ad  alta,  which  is  read  in  verse  Capitol?  ad  alta.  Nor  is  there  any 
hiatus,  and  consequently  no  elision,  when  a  long  vowel  at  the  end  of  a 
word  is  shortened,  viz.,  in  the  case  of  monosyllabic  words  in  the  middle  of 
the  thesis  of  dactylic  verses,  and  in  the  dissolved  arsis  of  iambic  and  tro- 
chaic feet,  and  in  the  case  of  polysyllabic  words  at  the  end  of  the  thesis 
of  dactylic  verses,  f  (See,  for  example,  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  9,  38 :  Si  me 
amas,  inquit,  paulum  hie  ades.  Ovid,  Metam.,  iii.,  501  :  dictoque  vale  -vale 
inquit  et  Echo.  Virgil,  ^En.,  iii.,  211  :  insulae  lonio  in  magno,  and  many 
other  passages. 

[§  10.]  Note  2. — It  was  remarked  above  that  the  hiatus  is  not  removed  in 
writing;  and  that,  of  the  two  vowels  which  produce  it,  the  former  is  thrown 
out  in  reciting  a  verse.  But  an  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  when  a  word 
terminating  in  a  vowel  or  an  m  is  followed  by  the  word  est ;  for  in  this 

*  [The  whole  doctrine  of  Hiatus  will  be  found  very  fully  and  ably  dis- 
cussed by  Schneider,  Element.,  vol.  i.,  p.  113-169.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [It  would  be  much  more  correct  to  say  that,  in  all  such  cases, 
an  elision  is  only  apparently  neglected,  the  long  vowel  actually  parting  by 
means  of  elision  with  one  of  its  component  short  vowels.  And  whenever 
the  residuary  short  vowel  is  in  the  arsis  of  the  foot,  it  is  lengthened  again 
by  the  stress  of  the  voice.  Consult  Anthonys  Latin  Prosody,  ed.  1842,  p. 
110.]— Am.  Ed. 


10  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

case  we  find,  at  least  in  the  critical  editions  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  that 
the  first  word  is  preserved  entire,  and  that  est  loses  its  vowel.  The  texts, 
therefore,  are  written  and  pronounced  temulenta  'st  mulier,  homo  'st,  molestum 
'st.  The  same  thing  has  been  found  here  and  there  in  very  ancient  MSS. 
containing  fragments  of  Cicero's  works,  e.  g.,  una  notio  'st,  difficile  'st,  and 
in  the  oration  for  Milo  :  quae  ilia  barbaria  'st.  (See  Niebuhr's  note  on  the 
fragment  pro  Fonteio,  p.  60.)*  In  like  manner,  we  find  est  joined  with  a 
preceding  word  terminating  in  us,  e.  g.,  opust  and  dictust;  but  in  this  case 
it  remains  doubtful  as  to  whether  the  s  of  opus  is  thrown  out,  or  whether 
est  has  lost  its  first  two  letters.  Something  similar,  though  more  rarely, 
occurs  in  the  termination  is,  e.  g.,  quali  'st.  Whether  the  second  person  es 
was  likewise  joined  with  a  preceding  word  terminating  in  us  is  uncertain. 
(See  Schneider,  Elementarlehre,  p.  162,  foil.) 

[$  11.]  Note  3. — The  hiatus  which  occurs  withina,  word  is  generally  not 
removed,  and  for  this  reason  we  did  not  notice  it  above.  It  should,  how- 
ever, be  observed  that  two  vowels  of  the  same  sound  are  frequently  united 
(contracted)  into  one  long  vowel,  and  the  poets  always  make  dero  and 
desse  out  of  deero  and  deesse.  This  explains  the  forms  nil  for  nihil,  and 
deprendo  for  deprehendo,  which  arise  from  the  elision  of  the  aspirate.  The 
contraction  of  two  equal  or  unequal  vowels  in  the  perfect  of  verbs,  after 
the  elision  of  the  v,  is  still  more  frequent ;  e.  g.,  audisti  for  audivisti,  audiisti ; 
deleram  for  deleveram,  norunt  for  noverunt,  concerning  which  see  §  160.  It 
also  not  unfrequently  happens  in  verse  that  two  different  vowels  are 
united,  by  a  rapid  pronunciation,  into  a  diphthong  ;  in  which,  however, 
both  vowels  are  audible.  This  is  called  by  a  grammatical  term  synaeresis, 
and  occurs  when  the  two  vowels  of  the  words  dein,  deinde,  proin,  proinde, 
huic  and  cut,  are  united  into  diphthongs  which  are  otherwise  foreign  to  the 
Latin  language.  In  this  way  alone  it  is  possible  to  make  use  of  the  word 
fortultus  in  the  dactylic  hexameter ;  and  it  is  for  the  same  purpose  that  in 
nouns  terminating  in  eus,  when  this  ending  is  preceded  by  a  long  syllable, 
we  must  contract  into  a  diphthong  not  only  the  «  in  the  genitive  singular, 
and  els  in  the  ablative  plural,  but  also  ed  and  eO  ;  for  example^afoej,  aurti, 
Nerei,  aureis  (also  anteis,  from  the  verb  anteeo),  Eurystheo,  certa,  just  as  a 
eynasresis  sometimes  occurs  in  the  Greek  words  $e6f,  Neo7rro/l£//oc,  and 
ea.  Some  harsher  kinds  of  synaeresis,  such  as  quia,  via,  vietis,  and  quoad, 
are  found  in  the  comic  poets  and  in  Lucretius. 

[§  12.]  5.  There  is  no  necessity  for  giving  any  special 
rules  about  the  orthography  in  Latin,  since  there  is  abso- 
lutely nothing  arbitrary  in  the  spelling  of  words  that  re- 
quires to  be  learned ;  but  there  are  a  great  many  separ- 
ate words  of  which  neither  the  pronunciation  nor  the 
spelling  is  established,  and  with  regard  to  which  the  an- 
cients themselves  were  uncertain  even  in  the  best  times 
of  their  literature,  as  we  see  from  the  monuments  still  ex- 
tant. We  shall  here  notice  a  few  things  which  have  not 
been  mentioned  in  our  previous  observations.  We  spell 
and  pronounce  anulus,  sucus,  paulum,  belua,  litus  better 
with  one  consonant  than  with  two ;  whereas  immo,  num- 

*  [This  species  of  elision,  as  Niebuhr  remarks,  was  previously  supposed 
to  be  peculiar  to  the  comic  writers  only.  The  same  writer  observes  that 
he  has  found  no  mention  made  of  it  in  the  ancient  grammarians,  even  after 
diligent  search,  save  perhaps  in  a  mutilated  passage  of  Velius  Longus, 
p.  2238.  Niebuhr  also  cites  a  somewhat  similar  usage  in  the  modern  Tus- 
can of  Florence ;  as,  for  example,  lo  'mperadore,  la  'neisa.] — Am,  Ed. 


VOWELS    AND    CONSONANTS.  11 

mus,  sollemnis,  sollers,  sotticitus,  Juppiter,  and  quattuor 
are  more  correctly  spelled  with  two  consonants  than  one. 
It  is  not  certain  whether  we  ought  to  write  litera  or  lit- 
tera,  though  in  most  MSS.  the  t  is  doubled.  The  author- 
ity of  the  ancient  grammarians  and  the  best  MSS.  teach 
us  to  spell  the  singular  mille  with  a  double,  and  the  plu- 
ral milia  with  a  single  I.  The  forms  narus  and  navus  are 
not  customary  now,  though  they  appear  to  be  better  than 
gnarus  and  gnavus.*  Artus  (narrow)  is  certainly  better 
established  than  arctus ;  auctor  and  auctumnus,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  justly  preferred  to  autor  and  autumnus.\ 
The  insertion  of  a  p  between  m  and  t,  e.  g.,  in  emptus, 
sumpsi,  rather  facilitates  the  pronunciation  than  other- 
wise ;  and  the  verb  temptare  is  decidedly  preferable  to 
the  form  tentare,  which  is  now  commonly  used,  the  former 
being  found  in  the  best  MSS.  The  forms  conjunx,  quo- 
tients, and  totiens  are  demanded  by  most  of  the  ancient 
grammarians,  and  are  found  in  good  MSS.,  instead  of 
conjux,  quoti&s,  and  totics.  The  words  caccus,  maereo,  are 
more  correctly  spelled  with  the  diphthong  ae  than  oe,  and 
saeculum,  sacpirc,  and  tacter  are  better  with  the  diphthong 
than  with  the  simple  vowel  e ;  whereas  in  keres,  fetus, 
femina,  &ndfecundus,  and  therefore  probably  infenus,  fe- 
noris  also  (which  are  of  the  same  root),  the  simple  vowel 
is  better  than  the  diphthong.  But  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  we  ought  to  write  scena  or  scaena,  and  obscenus 
or  obscaenus,  or  obscoenus.  We  do  not  notice  any  other 
points  here,  because  the  orthography  now  commonly 
adopted  is  the  correct  one.  Compare  Cellarius,  Ortlw- 
graphia  Latino,,  ed.  Harlcs,  Altenburg,  1768,  Svo ;  and 
Schneider,  Elementarlekre,  Berlin,  1819,  Svo. 

[§  13.]  6.  The  Romans  had  no  other  point  than  the  full 
stop,  and  our  whole  artificial  system  of  punctuation  was 
unknown  to  them  ;  but,  to  facilitate  the  understanding  of 
their  works,  we  now  use  in  Latin  the  same  signs  which 
have  become  established  in  our  own  language.  The  pe- 
culiarities, however,  in  the  formation  of  Latin  sentences, 

*  [The  forms  gnarus  andgnavus  are  the  original  ones,  and  were  softened 
down,  in  course  of  time,  to  narus  and  navus.  So  gnatus  is  older  than  natus. 
There  is  an  evident  connexion  between  gnatus  and  yiyvofiai,  and  a  proba- 
ble affinity  between  gnavus  and  /cvuw,  or  -yvuTiTu.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [There  is  here  an  evident  inconsistency.  If  artus  be  better  than  arctus, 
on  what  principle  can  autor  be  inferior  to  auctor  ?  Compare  Journal  of 
Education,  vol,  i.,  p.  93.] — Am.  Ed, 


12  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  many  complications  of  their  parts,  and  the  attraction 
of  the  relative  pronouns,  demand  great  caution  in  apply- 
ing the  signs  of  punctuation,  in  order  that  we  may  not  by 
the  use  of  too  many  signs  separate  those  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence which  belong  to  one  another. 

7.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  capital  and  small  letters, 
it  must  be  observed  that  the  Romans,  generally  speak- 
ing, wrote  only  in  capital  letters  (litterae  unciales),  until  in 
the  latest  period  of  antiquity  the  small  letters  came  into 
use,  which  are  now  always  employed  in  writing  Latin.* 
Capital  initials  are  at  present  used :  (a)  at  the  beginning 
of  a  verse,  or  at  least  of  a  strophe ;  (b)  at  the  beginning  of 
a  new  sentence,  both  in  prose  and  in  verse,  after  a  full 
stop,  and  after  a  colon  when  a  person's  own  words  are 
quoted ;  (c)  in  proper  names,  and  in  adjectives  and  ad- 
verbs which  are  derived  from  them,  e.  g.,  Latium,  sermo 
Latinus,  Latine  loqui;  (d)  in  words  which  express  a  title 
or  office,  such  as  Consul,  Tribunus,  and  Scnatus,  but  not 
in  their  derivatives. 

8.  The  diaeresis  (puncta  diaereseos)  is  a  sign  to  facili- 
tate reading  ;  it  is  put  upon  a  vowel  which  is  to  be  pro- 
nounced separately,  and  which  is  not  to  be  combined 
with  the  preceding  one  into  a  diphthong,  as  in  aer,  aer  is, 
aerius,  poeta  ;   and  also  in  aura'i,  vital,  since  ai  is  only  an 
ancient  form  for  ae.    In  cases  where  the  diphthong  would 
be  foreign  to  the  Latin  language,  the  diaeresis  is  unne- 
cessary, as  in  diei,  Persei,  because  there  can  be  no  fear 
of  any  one  pronouncing  the  ei  as  a  diphthong  ;  ferreus,  too, 
does  not  require  it,  since  in  a  Latin  word  no  one  will  re- 
gard eu  as  a  diphthong.     But  we  must  write  Gains  and 
siliice,  when  the  consonants  j  and  v  are  to  be  pronounced 
as  vowels.     The  signs  to  indicate  the  length  or  shortness 
of  a  vowel  or  a  syllable  ("  and  ~)  were  sometimes  used  by 
the  ancients  themselves. 

*  [The  cursive  character  arose  from  a  principle  of  rapidity,  by  which 
the  letters  are  made  to  run  on  in  continuous  succession.  Such  modes  of 
writing  were  no  doubt  common  in  very  early  times ;  and,  as  regards  the 
Romans,  we  are  not  left  to  mere  conjecture,  as  the  British  Museum  con- 
tains an  inscription  of  the  kind  on  papyrus,  which  is  referred  to  the  second 
or  third  century.  The  statement  in  the  text,  therefore,  requires  correction. 
(Key,  Alphabet,  p.  36.)]— .Am.  Ed. 


SYLLABLES.  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF     SYLLABLES. 

[§  14.]  1.  A  VOWEL  or  a  diphthong  may  by  itself  form 
a  syllable,  as  in  u-va.  me-o  ;  all  other  syllables  arise  from 
a  combination  of  consonants  and  vowels.  The  Latin  lan- 
guage allows  only  two  consonants  to  stand  at  the  end  of 
a  syllable,  and  three  only  in  those  cases  where  the  last  is 
s.  At  the  beginning  of  a  syllable,  also,  there  can  be  no 
more  than  two  consonants,  except  where  the  first  is  a  c, 
p,  or  s,  followed  by  muta  cum  liquida;  and  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  word  there  never  are  three  consonants,  except 
in  the  case  of  sc,  sp,  and  st  being  followed  by  an  r  or  I ; 
for  example,  do-ctrina,  Ba-ctra,  corru-ptrix,  sce-ptrum,  ca- 
stra,  magi-stri,  I-sthmus  ;  sprctus,  strenuus,  scriba,  splendor. 

2.  It  often  appears  doubtful  as  to  how  a  word  is  to  be 
divided  into  syllables,  and  where  the  division  is  to  be 
made  at  the  end  of  a  line,  when  the  space  does  not  suf- 
fice. The  following  rules,  however,  which  are  founded 
on  the  structure  of  the  language,  should  be  observed. 
1.  A  consonant  which  stands  between  two  vowels  belongs 
to  the  latter,  as  in  ma-tcr.  2.  Those  consonants,  which, 
in  Latin  or  Greek,  may  together  begin  a  word,  go  togeth- 
er in  the  division  of  syllables  ;  e.  g.,  pa-tris,  and  not  pat- 
m,  as  tr  occur  at  the  beginning  of  tres.*  In  like  manner, 
li-bri  (brevis),  i-gnis  (gnomon),  o-mnis,  da-mnum  ({ivdofiai), 
a-ctus,  pun-ctum  (H-THIO),  ra-ptus,  scri-ptus,  pro-pter  (Ptole- 
macus),  Ca-dmus  (djtzwec),  re-gnum  (y^ovc),  va-fre  (  fretus), 
a-thleta  (i9Ai6a>),  i-pse,  scri-psi  (i/>ai>(i>),  Le-sbos  (odevvvfii), 
c-sca,  po-sco  (scando),  a-sper,  ho-spes  (spes),  pa-stor,  Jau- 
stus,  i-ste  (stare).  The  cases  in  which  three  consonants 
begin  a  syllable  have  been  mentioned  above.  When- 
ever there  occurs  any  combination  of  consonants  which 
cannot  stand  at  the  beginning  of  words,  they  are  treated 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  rest.  All  combinations 
of  muta  cum  liquida,  for  instance,  go  together,  as  most  of 
them  may  commence  a  word ;  and  we  must  therefore  di- 
vide ara-ckne,  a-gmen,  fra-gmentum,  Da-phnc,  Pha-tnae, 
rhy-thmus,  smara-gdus,  and  Lu-gdunum,  since  gd  is  to  be 

*  [This  mode  of  dividing  is  well  intended,  but  perhaps  too  methodical ;  it 
occasions  difficulty  to  learners,  and  has  little  use,  but  rather  betrays  some 
affectation.  (Scheller,  L.  G.,  vol.  i.,  31,  Walker's  tra^sI.^—Am.  Ed. 

B 


14  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

treated  like  ct.  3.  In  compound  words,  the  division  must 
be  made  so  as  to  k'eep  the  parts  distinct,  as  inter-eram  (not 
inte-reram),  because  the  word  is  compounded  of  inter  and 
cram.  So,  also,  ab-utor,  ab-rado,  abs-condo,  abs-temius  (from 
temetum),  sus-cipio  (from  the  form  subs),  dis-quiro,  et-iam, 
ob-latum ;  and  red-eo,  red-undo,  ])rod-eo,  and  sed-itio,  for 
the  d,  here  inserted  to  prevent  hiatus,  must  go  with  the 
preceding  vowel,  because,  if  added  to  the  second,  it  would 
obscure  the  elements  of  the  compound  word.  But  when 
the  component  parts  of  a  word  are  doubtful,  or  when  the 
first  word  has  dropped  its  termination  to  prevent  hiatus, 
the  syllables  are  divided  as  if  the  word  were  not  a  com- 
pound ;  e.  g.,  2jo-tes  (from  pote  or  polls  es),  ani-madverto, 
arid  not  anim-adverto,  ve-neo  (from  venum  eo),  ma-gnani- 
mus,  am-bages,  and  lon-gaevus* 


CHAPTER  III. 

OF  THE  LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES. 

[§  15.]  SYLLABLES  are  long  or  short,  either  by  the  na- 
ture of  the  vowel  they  contain,  or  they  become  long  by 
their  short  vowel  being  followed  by  two  or  more  conso- 
nants, that  is,  by  their  position.  We  shall  first  speak  of 
the  natural  length  and  shortness  of  vowels. 

1.  All  Diphthongs  are  long,  and  also  all  those  single 
vowels  which  have  arisen  from  the  contraction  of  two  into 
one,  such  as  cogo  (from  codgo),  malo  (from  mdvolo),  tibl- 
cen  (from  tibiicen  and  tibia,  but  tubicen  from  tuba),  blgae 
(from  bijugae),  bubus  and  bobus  (from  bovibus),  and  so,  also, 
dls  for  diis,  gratis  for  gratiis,  and  nil  for  nikil. 

Note. — The  preposition  prae  is  commonly  made  short  when  compounded 
with  a  word  which  begins  with  a  vowel,  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Metam.,  vii.,  131  : 
Quos  ubi  viderunt  praeacutae  cuspidis  hastas.  The  reason  for  this  peculiarity 
is  explained  in  the  rule  following;  but  there  is  no  other  instance  in  the 
Latin  language  of  a  diphthong  standing  before  a  vowel.f  It  occurs  only 
in^Greek  proper  names,jn  which,  however,  the  diphthong  remains  long,  as 
Aeolides  Sisyphtis,  and  Aeeta  relictus,  for  the  examples  which  are  adduced  as 
proofs  of  the  diphthong  being  shortened  (Ovid,  Heroid.,  vi.,  103,  and  Trist., 
iii.,  12,  2)  are  not  decisive. 

*  [The  carrying  out  of  this  system  would  lead,  it  is  apprehended,  to 
some  ludicrous  results ;  as,  for  example,  in  such  cases  asfra-gmentum, 
a-gmen,  &c.  (Compare  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  94.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  syllable  pros  being  originally  pra'i  or  prae,  the  latter  of  the  two 
vowels  is  tacitly  elided.  Consult  Anthon's  Latin  Prosody,  ed.  1842,  p.  25, 
not.]— Am.  Ed. 


LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OP  SYLLABLES.      15 

2.  A  Vowel  is  short  when  it  is  followed  by  another 
vowel  (  Vocalis  ante  vocalem  brevis  estj,  as  in  deus,  Jilms, 
plus,  ruo,  corruo  ;  and,  as  h  is  not  considered  as  a  conso- 
nant, also  in  such  words  as  traJio,  contraho,  veho,  and  ad- 
veho. 

[§  16.]  Note. — Exceptions. — 1.  The  vowel  e  in  eheu  is  always  long,  the 
o  in  ohe  is  frequently  long,  and  the  i  in  Diana  sometimes.*  2.  The  e  in 
the  termination  of  the  genitive  and  dative  of  the  fifth  declension  is  long 
when  it  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  as  in  diei,  speciei.i  3.  a  is  long  in  the  ob- 
solete ending  of  the  genitive  in  the  first  declension,  as  in  aurdi  and  pictdi, 
for  aurae  and  pictae,  in  Virgil.  J  4.  a  and  e  are  long  in  the  vocative  termina- 
tions di  and  ei  of  the  words  ending  in  ahis  and  eius ;  e.  g.,  Gai,  Vultei. 
(See  chap,  xi.,  note  3.)§  5.  Ail  the  genitives  in  ius,  except  alterius,  have 
the  i  commonly  long ;  the  poets,  however,  use  the  i  in  illius,  istius,  ipsius, 
unius,  totius,  ullius,  and  utrius,  sometimes  as  a  long  and  sometimes  as  a 
short  vowel.  The  instances  of  the  i  in  solius  being  shortened  cannot  be 
relied  upon ;  but  atius,  being  a  contraction  for  aliius,  can  never  be  made 
short.  Alterius,  on  the  other  hand,  is  sometimes  made  long  (see  $  49). j| 
6.  The  verbfio  has  the  i  long,  except  when  an  r  occurs  in  it.  Ovid,  Trist., 
i.,8, 7:  Omnia  jam  f  lent,  fieri  quae  posse  negabam.^  7.  Greek  words  retain 
their  own  original  quantity,  and  we  therefore  say  der,  eos  (r/wf),  Amphlon, 
Agesildus,  and  Meneldus.  The  e  and  i  in  the  terminations  ea  and  eus,  or  ia 
and  ius,  therefore,  are  long  when  they  represent  the  Greek  eta  and  «of 

*  [The  interjection  eheu  is  thought  to  have  been  abbreviated  from  heu 
heu  by  the  transcribers.  The  first  abbreviation  would  be  heheu,  which  is 
common  in  the  MSS.,  and  hence,  in  process  of  time,  arose  eheu.  (Compare 
Wagner  ad  Virg.,  Eclog.,  ii.,  58.) — Ohe  follows  its  primitive  O,  which, 
since  it  cannot  be  elided,  because  words 'of  this  nature  require  a  strong 
emphasis,  is  made  either  long  or  short  when  it  falls  before  a  vowel. 
Diana  was  originally  Deiva  Jana,  the  lunar  goddess,  contracted  subse- 
quently into  Deiana,  and  at  last  becoming  Diana.  The  e  of  the  diphthong 
being  dropped  gave  rise  to  the  double  quantity  of  Diana,  since  it  could  be 
brought  under  the  general  principle  of  one  vowel  before  another.  (Ram- 
say's Latin  Prosody,  p.  25.  Voss,  de  Art.  Gram.,  ii.,  13.  Varro,  R.  R.,  i.,  37. 
Grav.,  Thes.,  vol.  viii.,  p.  311.  Nigid.  ap.  Macrob.,  Sat.  i.,  19.  Creuzer,  Sym- 
bolik,  par  Guigniaut,  vol.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  p.  433.)] — Am.  Ed. 

f  [This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  old  forms  of  declension.  According 
to  some,  the  nominative  of  ^the  fifth  declension  was  originally  diels,  spedels, 
making  in  the  genitive  diel-is,  speciei-is,  which  case  afterward  dropped 
the  s,  and  became  dieii,  specieii,  and  eventually  diei,  speciei,  the  i  of  the  diph- 
thong being  dropped.  (Ramsay,  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  22.)  Others,  however, 
make  the  original  form  of  the  nominative  to  have  been  die-is,  specie-is, 
and  the  genitive  to  have  dropped  its  characteristic  ending  in  s,  and  to 
have  terminated  like  the  old  locative  in  i,  thus  making  die-i,  specie-i,  &c. 
(Bopp,  Vergleich.  Gramm.,  p.  141,  seqq.)~\ — Am.  Ed. 

J  [The  old  form  of  the  genitive  singular  of  the  first  declension  was 
a  -j-  is,  i.  e.,  formats,  aurdis,  pictdis,  &c.,  which  was  afterward  abbreviated 
by  dropping  the  s,  as  format,  aurdi,  pictdi.  (Bopp,  1.  c.  Allen's  Analysis^ 
&c.,  p.  xviii.)] — Am.  Ed. 

§  [The  original  forms  of  these  names  were  Caiius,  Pompeiius,  &c.,and 
hence  the  vocatives  Cd'i,  Pompei,  &c.,  are  in  reality  Cai-i,  Pompei-i,  &c., 
which  last  undergoes  another  contraction,  in  Horace,  into  Pompei.  (Horat. 
Od.,  ii.  7,  5.  Priscian,  vii.,  5.)]—  Am.  Ed. 

II  [Bopp  considers  the  Latin  genitive  ending  ins  analogous  to  the  San- 
scrit termination  sya,  the  a  being  changed  to  u  before  the  final  s,  by  a  very 

i  i       -r  itT        i    -    T       y^ —     norv  \T          4  T*  T 


usual  process,  in  early  Latin.     (Vergleich.  Gram.,  p.  220.)] — Am.  Ed. 
^  [Compare  Anthon's  Lat,  1 


Pros.,  ed.  1842,  p.  16,  not.]— Am.  Ed. 


16  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

(the  Romans,  not  having  the  diphthong  ei  in  their  language,  represent  th6 
Greek  et  sometimes  by  c  and  sometimes  by  i,  but  these  vowels,  of  course, 
are  always  long) ;  e.  g.,  Galatea,  Medea,  ^Eneas,  Dareus  or  Darius,  Iphi 
genia,  Alexandria,  Antiochia,  Nicomedia,  Samaria,  Seleucia,  Thalia,  Arius, 
Basifius,  nosocomlum,  and  the  adjectives  Epicureus,  Pythagoreus,  spondeus, 
and  the  like  :  but  when  the  Greek  is  ea  or  ici,  the  e  and  i  are  short,  as  in 
idea,  philosopMa,  theologm.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  patronymic 
words  in  ides,  since  the  Greek  may  be  i6rj£,  as  in  Priam-ides  and  JEacides  ; 
or  Ei8r/£,  as  in  Atrides,  Pelides,  which  are  derived  from  Atreus  and  Peleus. 
The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are,  that  platea  (a  street)  has  the  e  short, 
though,  according  to  the  Greek  TrharEta,  it  ought  to  be  long,  and  that 
chorea  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  chorea  (xopeia).  Some  of  the  late 
Roman  poets  use  academia  instead  of  academia,  although  in  Greek  writers 
it  is  always  long,  whether  spelled  with  ei  or  with  i.* 

Note  2. — It  is  a  part  of  the  above  rule,  that  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  when  the  word  following  begins  with  a  vowel,  ia 
usually  made  short  in  the  thesis  of  a  verse. f  (See  above,  chap,  i.,  4, 
note  1). 

[§  17.]  3.  Usage  (auctoritas)  alone  makes  the  vowel 
in  the  first  syllable  of  mater ,  f  rater ,  pravus,  mano  (I  flow), 
dico,  duco,  miror,  nitor,  scribo,  dono,  pono,  utor,  muto,  sumo, 
cur  a,  &c.  long  ;  and  short  in  pater,  avus,  cado,  ?naneo, 
gravis,  rego,  tego,  bibo,  minor,  colo,  moror,  probo,  domus, 
sono,  soror,  and  others.  It  must  be  presumed  that  the  stu- 
dent makes  himself  acquainted  with  the  quantity  of  such 
words  as  these  by  practice,  for  rules  can  be  given  only 
with  regard  to  derivatives.  It  must  farther  be  observed 
that  the  i  in  the  following  words  is  long  :  formica,  lectica, 
lorica,  vesica,  urtica,  Itcmma,  rcsina,  saglna,  saliva,  castl- 
go,  andformido. 

a.  Derivative  words  retain  the  quantity  of  their  root, 
as  in  declension  and  conjugation :  thus  the  a  in  amor  and 
amo  is  short,  and  therefore  also  in  amoris,  amat,  amabam, 
amavi,  &c.  except  when  the  consonants  after  the  vowel 
of  the  root  produce  a  difference.  New  words  formed 
from  roots  likewise  retain  the  quantity ;  as  from  amo — 
amor,  dmicus,  amabilis ;  from  lux,  lucis — lucco,  lucidus  ; 
from  mater — maternus,  mdterte?'a  ;  and  from  finis — -fmio, 
flnitio,flnitimus,  &c. 

[^  18.]  With  regard  to  Conjugation,  however,  the  following  rules  also 
must  be  observed : 

1.  The  perfect  and  supine,  when  they  consist  of  two  syllables,  and  the 
tenses  formed  from  them,  have  the  first  syllable  long,  even  when  in  the 
present  tense  it  is  short,  e.  g.,  video,  vidi ;  fiigio,fugi;  lego,  legi,  legisse, 
legeram,  &C.J  (except,  however,  when  one  vowel  stands  before  another, 

*  [Compare  Anthon's  Lat.  Pros.,  ed.  1842,  p.  22,  not.'] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Because  the  long  vowel  or  diphthong  loses  one  of  its  component 
vowels  by  elision,  and  there  is  no  stress  of  the  voice  to  lengthen  again  the 
remaining  short  one.] — Am.  Ed. 

|  [According  to  the  theory  of  Grimm  (Deutsche  Grammatik,  vol.  i., 


LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.      17 

in  which  case  the  general  rule  remains  in  force,  as  in  ruo,  riii,  dirui] ; 
video,  vtsum  ;  moveo,  motum,  motus,  mdturus*  Seven  dissyllable  perfects, 
however,  and  nine  dissyllable  supines,  together  with  their  compounds, 
make  their  penultima  s'hortjt  \\z.,bibi,  dedi,fidi(fromfindo),steti,stiii, 
tuli,  and  soldi  (from  scindo),  and  datum,  rdtum,  sdtum,  itum,  litum,  citum, 
quitum,  situm,  and  rutum.  Sisto  makes  its  supine  statum,  whence  status,  a, 
urn,  and  the  compounds  adstiturn,  destitum,  restitum. 

2.  Perfects  which  are  formed  by  reduplication,  as  tundo,  tutudi ;  cano, 
cecini;  pello,  pcpuli,  have  the  first  two  syllables  short;   but  the  second 
sometimes  becomes  long  by  position,  as  in  mordeo,  momordi ;  tendo,  tetendi. 
Pedo  and  casdo  are  the  only  two  words  which  retain  the  long  vowel  in  the 
syllable  which  forms  the  root,  pepedi,  cecidi ;  whereas  cddo,  in  accordance 
with  the  rule,  has  cendi.% 

3.  The  perfect  posui  and  the  supine  positum  have  the  o  short,  although 
in  pono  it  is  long.$ 

With  regard  to  Declension,  we  must  notice  the  exception  that  the 
words  Idr,  par,  sal,  and  pes  shorten  their  vowel  throughout  their  declen- 
sion :  salis,  pedis,  &c* 

[§  19.]  In  the  formation  of  new  words  by  Derivation,  there  are  several 
exceptions  to  the  above  rule.  The  following  words  make  the  short  vowel 
long:  mdcer,  mdcero  ;  legere,  lex,  legis,  legare  ;  rego,  rex,  regis,  regula  ;  tego, 
tegula  ;  secus,  secius  ;  sedeo,  sedes  ;  sero,  semen,  sementis  ;  lino,  litera  (if  we 
do  not  prefer  littera)  ;  slips,  stipis,  stipendium  ;  suspicor,  suspicio  ;  persono, 
persona  ;  voco,  vox,  rods ;  and  homo,  humanus.  The  following  words  have 
a  short  vowel,  although  it  is  long  in  the  root :  labare,  from  Idbi  •  natare, 


p.  1056),  those  verbs  which  change  a  short  vowel  in  the  root,  or  present 

tense,  into  a  long  e  in  the  perfect,  had  originally  a  reduplication  ;  thus, 

venio,  veveni,  veeni,  veni, 

video,  vividi,  viidi.  vidi, 

fugio,  fufugi,  fungi,  fugi, 

foveo,  fSfovi,  foovi,  f°vi, 

&c.  &c.  &c.  &c. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  remarks  here  made  do  not 
apply  to  such  preterites  as  Itisi,  risi,  misi,  &c.,  from  ludo,  rideo,  mitto,  &c., 
the  preterites  in  these  verbs  having  been  formed  by  the  insertion  of  s,  as 
ludsi,  ridsi,  mittsi,  and  the  consonant  or  consonants  before  the  s  having 
been  subsequently  dropped  for  the  sake  of  euphony.  (Pritchard,  Origin 
of  Celtic  Nations,  p.  151.)] — Am.  Ed. 

*  [The  long  syllables  in  visum,motum,fletum,  &c.,  are  owing  to  a  change 
from  earlier  forms  ;  thus,  visum  comes  from  vidsum. ;  motum,  from  movitum, 
through  the  intermediate  mottum ;  fletum,  from  flevitum,  fteitum,  &c.  But 
rutum,  &c.,  are  formed  by  syncope,  and  therefore  continue  short.]— .Am. 
Ed. 

t  [The  seven  dissyllable  perfects  are,  in  reality,  no  exceptions  at  all,  but 
are  all  reduplicating  tenses,  some  of  which  have  dropped  the  first  syllable, 
instead  of  contracting  the  first  two  into  one.  (Anthon's  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  32, 
no/.)]— Am.  Ed. 

i  [The  first  syllable  in  reduplicating  preterites,  is  short,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  since  it  consists  of  a  short  prefix.  The  second  syllable  follows 
the  quantity  of  the  verbal  root.  Hence  arise  the  two  exceptions  men- 
tioned in  the  text,  namely,  cTedo  and  pedo,  where  the  first  syllable  of  the 
verbal  root  is  long.  The  early  form  of  the  perfect  of  ccedo  must  have  been 
cecadi.  (Consult  Priscian,  x.,  4,  p.  489,  ed.  Putsch.  Pott,  Etymol.  Forsch., 
vol.  i.,  p.  19,  seqq.  Kiihner,  Gr.  Gr.,  vol.  i.,  p.  84,  seqq.  Bopp,  Vtrgleich. 
Gram.,  p.  697,  seqq.)'] — Am.  Ed. 

<$>  [Struve  thinks  that  the  old  form  of  pono  was  posno,  thus  accounting 
for  the  s  in  the  perfect  and  supine,  this  letter  having  been  dropped  in  the 
present.  ( Ueber  die  Lat.  Declin.,  &c.,  p.  283.)]— Am.  Ed. 

B2 


18  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

from  ndre  ;  pddscor,  from  pax,  pads  ;  ambitus  and  ambitio,  from  amblre,  ambi- 
tum ;  dicax,  from  dicere ;  fides  and  perfidus,  ftomfido  and  f  idus  (and  we  regu- 
larly find  infidus)  ;  molestus,  from  moles  ;  nota  and  notare,  from  notus  ;  odium, 
from  odi ;  sopor,  from  sopire  ;  dux,  duds,  and  redux,  rediids,  from  diico  ; 
liicerna,  from  liiceo ;  status,  stdtio,  stdbilis,  stabulum  must  be  derived  from 
sisto,  unless  we  suppose  that  they  are  likewise  shortened  from  stdtum 
(from  stare). 

[§  20.]  The  Terminations,  or  final  syllables,  by  means  of  which  an 
adjective  is  formed  from  a  verb  or  a  substantive,  are  of  a  different  kind. 
Among  these,  alls,  aris,  arius,  aceus,  anus,  ivus,  and  osus  have  a  long  vowel ; 
but  idus,  icus,  and  idus  a  short  one;  e.  g.,  letdlis,  vulgdris,  montdnus,  cesti- 
vus,  vinosus,  avidus,  bellicus,patndus.  A  long  t,  however,  occurs  in  amlcus, 
apricus,  pudicus,  antlcus,  and  posiicus,  and  in  the  substantives  mendlcus  and 
umbilicus.  The  terminations  His  and  bilis  have  the  i  short  when  they  make 
derivatives  from  verbs,  but  long  when  from  substantives ;  e.  g.,  facilis, 
donlis,  and  amabilis,  but  dvilis,  hostllis,  puerllis,  senilis,  &c.  The  i  in  the 
termination  inus  may  be  long  or  short :  it  is  long  in  adjectives  derived 
from  names  of  animals  and  places,  as  anserinus,  asimmus^  equinus,  lupinus, 
Caudinus,  Latmus,  and  a  few  others,  such  as  divlnus,  genmnus,  dandestinus, 
intestinus,  marlnus,  peregrinus,  and  vicinus ;  it  is  short  in  most  adjectives 
which  express  time,  as  crasfinus,  diulinus,  pristinus,  serotinus,  hornotlnus, 
perendinus,  and  in  those  which  indicate  a  material  or  substance,  as  ada- 
mantinus,  bombycinus,  crystallinus,  elephantinus,  cedrinus,  faginus,  oleaginus. 
Some  adjectives  expressive  of  time,  however,  have  the  t  long,  viz.,  matu- 
tlnus,  vespertlnus,  and  repentlnus. 

[§  21.]  (b)  Compounded  words  retain  the  quantity  of 
the  vowels  of  their  elements  :  thus,  from  avus  and  nepos 
we  make  abavus  and  abnepos  ;  from  pravus,  depravo;  from 
2)robus,improbus;  from. jus  ( juris ),  per jurus ;  from  lego  (I 
read),  pcrlego ;  and  from  lego  (I  despatch),  ablego,  delego, 
collega.  Even  when  the  vowel  is  changed,  its  quantity 
remains  the  same  :  e.  g.,  laedo,  illido ;  caedo,  incido ; 
aequus,  iniquus  ;  fauces,  sujfoco  ;  claudo,  rccludo  ;  fticio, 
efficio ;  cado,  incido;  ratus,  irritus ;  rego,  efigo;  lego,el\go. 
We  may,  therefore,  infer  from  compounded  words  the 
quantity  of  those  of  which  they  consist ;  e.  g.,  from  ado- 
ro,  admiror,  and  abutor  we  conclude  that  oro,  miror,  and 
utor  have  the  first  syllable  long ;  and  from  commoror  and 
desuper  that  the  first  syllable  in  moror  and  super  is  short, 
which  is  not  always  accurately  distinguished  in  pronun- 
ciation, because  these  syllables  have  the  accent.  (See 
Chap.  IV.) 

We  shall  mention  here,  by  way  of  example,  a  few  more  compounds 
from  which  the  quantity  of  the  vowels  in  their  elements  may  be  inferred. 
We  shall  choose  such  as  cannot  be  mentioned  in  any  of  the  subsequent 
lists,  and  present  them  in  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense. 
We  have  a  long  vowel  in  exhdlat,  conddmat,  alldtrat,  delibat,  constipat,  evitat, 
irritat,  deplorat,  enodat,  compotat,  refutat,  obdurat,  and  communit ;  and  a  short 
one  in  exdrat,  compdrat,  enatat,  irngat,  alligat,  perfricat,  erudif,  expolit,  devorat, 
comprobat,  computat,  recubat,  and  suppudtt. 

But  there  are  some  exceptions,  and  the  following  compounded  words 
change  the  long  vowel  into  a  short  one  :  dejero  andpejero,  fiomjuro;  can- 
sidicus,  fatidlcus,  maledicus,  veridlcus,  from  dicere ;  agnitus  and  cognltus,  from 


LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.      19 

notus ;  innub(us),  -a,  and  pronub(us),  -a,  from  nubo.*  The  case  is  reversed 
in  imbecill.is  from  baculus. 

[§  22.]  In  respect  to  Composition  with  Prepositions,  it  is  to  be  re- 
marked that  prepositions  of  one  syllable  which  end  in  a  vowel  are  long, 
and  those  which  end  in  a  consonant  are  short :  deduco,  aboleo,  perimo.  Tra 
(formed  from  trans),  as  in  trddo,  trdduco,  is  long  ;  but  the  o  (for  06)  in  omitto 
and  operior  is  short.  Pro,  in  Greek  words,  is  short,  as  in  propheta ;  but 
prdlogus,  propola,  and  propino  form  exceptions.  In  Latin  words  pro  is  long ; 
e.  g.,  prodo,  promitto  ;  but  in  many  it  is  short ;  prof  agio,  profugus,  pronepos, 
prdfiteor,  prafari,  prof  anus,  profestus,  profe.cto,  projlciscor,  profundus,  protervus, 
procella,  and  a  few  others,  the  derivation  of  which  is  doubtful,  as  proceres, 
propitius,  properare  ;  in  some  the  quantity  is  undecided.  Se  and  di  (for  dis) 
are  long ;  the  only  exceptions  are  dirimo  and  disertus.  Re  is  short ;  it  is 
long  only  in  the  impersonal  verb  refert :  +  in  all  other  cases  where  it  ap- 
pears long,  the  consonant  which  follows  it  must  be  doubled  (in  verse),  as 
in  reppuli,  repperi,  rettuli,  rettudi,  reccido,  redduco,  relligio,  relliquicB  ;  the  four 
perfects,  reppuli,  repperi,  rettuli,  and  rettudi,  appear  to  have  been  pronounced 
and  spelled  in  this  way,  even  in  prose.J  In  the  same  manner,  reddo,  reddere, 
arose  from  do.  The  termination  a  in  prepositions  of  two  syllables  is  long, 
as  in  contrddico  ;  all  the  others  are  short,  as  aniefe.ro,  praetSreo. 

[$  23.]  When  the  first  word  of  a  composition  is  not  a  preposition,  it  is 
necessary  to  determine  the  quantity  of  the  final  vowel  (a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y)  of 
the  first  word.  1.  a.  is  long,  as  in  qudre  and  qudpropter,  except  in  quasi. 
2.  e  is  mostly  short,  as  in  catefacio  (notice  especially  neque,  nequeo,  nefas; 
nefastus,  nefarius,  nefandus),  but  long  \l\nequam,  nequidquam,  nequaquam,  and 
nemo  (which  is  contracted  from  ne  and  hemo,  the  ancient  form  for  homo) ; 
also  in  sedecim  and  the  pronouns  memet,  mecum,  tecutn,  and  sec-um ;  in 
veneficus,  videlicet,^  vecors,  and  vesanus.  3.  i  is  short,  e.  g.,  sigrnfico,  sacri- 
legus,  cornicen,  tubicen,  omnipotens,  undlque  ;  but  long  in  compounded  pro- 
nouns, as  qullibet,  utrlque,  in  ibidem,  ubique,  utrobique,  ilicet,  and  scilicet ;  also 
in  the  compounds  of  dies,  as  biduum,  triduum,  meridies ;  and,  lastly,  in  all 
those  compounds  of  which  the  parts  may  be  separated,  such  as  lucrifacio, 
agncuhura,  siquis,  because  the  i  at  the  end  of  the  first  word  is  naturally 
long,  and  remains  so.  4.  o  is  short,  hodie,  duodecim,  sacrosanctus,  but  long 
in  compounds  with  contra,  intro,  retro,  and  quando  (quandoquidem  alone 
forms  an  exception) ;  it  is  long  in  alioqui,  ceteroqui,  utroque,  and  in  those 

*  [The  second  syllable  in  connubium  is  naturally  short,  but  it  is  occa- 
sionally lengthened  by  the  poets  in  the  arsis  of  the  foot.  Compare  Virg.t 
^En.,  i.,  73,  with  hi.,  319.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  re  in  refert  comes,  according  to  some,  from  the  dative  rei ;  ac- 
cording to  others,  from  the  ablative  re,  of  the  noun  res,  and  the  verb/ero. 
Verrius  Flaccus,  the  ancient  grammarian,  as  cited  by  Festus,  was  in  fa- 
vour of  the  dative.  Reisig,  on  the  contrary,  maintains  that  refert  comes 
from  the  ablative  re  and  the  verbfert,  and  makes  refert  mea,  for  example, 
equivalent  to  re  fert  mea,  "  it  brings  (something)  to  bear  in  my  case." 
(Reisig,  Vorlesungen,  p.  640,  ed.  Haase.  Senary^  Romische  Lautlehre,  vol.  i., 
p.  37.  Hartung,  vber  die  Casus,  p.  84.  Schmid,  de  Pronom.,  p.  79.)  Key, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  in  favour  of  the  accusative,  and  considers  refert  mea 
as  originally  remfert  meam,  and,  as  an  omitted  m  leaves  a  long  vowel,  he 
accounts  in  this  way  for  the  long  vowels  in  re  and  mea.  (Key,  Alphabet, 
p.  78.)]— Am.  Ed. 

$  [The  classification  here  given  is  faulty  and  confused.  In  reccido,  red- 
duco, relligio,  and  relliquiae  the  explanation  is  this,  that  the  ancient  form 
of  re  was  red,  and  this  final  d,  in  three  of  the  words  given,  changes  to 
another  consonant  by  the  principle  of  assimilation.  On  the  other  hand, 
reppuh,  repperi,  rettuli,  and  rettudi  are  all  deduced  from  perfects  of  redupli- 
cation. (Anthon's  Lat.  Pros.,  ed.  1842,  p.  129  ;  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  I., 
p.  95.)]— Am.  Ed. 

§  [Compare  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  95.] — Am.  Ed. 


20  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Greek  words  in  which  the  o  represents  the  Greek  u,  as  in  geometria.    5.  « 
and  y  are  short,  as  in  quadrupes,  Polyphemus. 

4.  In  regard  to  the  quantity  of  Final  Syllables,  the 
following  special  rules  must  be  observed  : 

A.  MONOSYLLABIC  WORDS. 

[§  24.]  1.  All  monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are 
long,  except  the  particles  which  are  attached  to  other 
words :  que,  ve,  ce,  ne,  te  (tute),  pse  (reapse),  and  pte, 
(suopte). 

Note. — Ne,  the  interrogative  particle,  is  always  short,  and  is  attached  to 
other  words  as  an  enclitic,  as  in  videsne,  dost  thou  see  ?  or  dost  thou  not 
see  ?  In  the  ordinary  pronunciation  it  was  still  more  shortened  by  throw- 
ing off  the  vowel,  as  in  credon'  tibi  hoc  nunc  ?  and,  in  case  of  an  s  preceding, 
this  letter  was  likewise  dropped,  as  am'  tu  ?  for  aisns  tu  ?  satin'  recte  ?  satin' 
salvae  ?  for  satisne  recte  ?  satisne  salvae  ?  The  conjunction  ne  (lest,  or  that 
not)  is  long.  Respecting  ne,  as  an  inseparable  negative  particle  in  com- 
positions, see  above,  §  23. 

2.  Among  the  monosyllables  ending  in  a  consonant,  the 
substantives  are  long,  as  sol,  vir,  fur,  jus  ;  and  all  those 
are  short  which  are  not  substantives,  as  ut,  et,  nee,  in,  an, 
ad,  quid,  sed,  quis,  quot.  The  following  substantives,  how- 
ever, are  short :  cor,  fel,  met,  vir,  and  ds  (gen.  ossis),  and 
probably,  also,  ?nas,  a  male  being,  and  vas,  a  surety,  since 
they  have  the  a  short  in  the  genitive :  mdris,  vadis.  Some 
words,  on  the  other  hand,  are  long,  although  they  are  not 
substantives  ;  as  en,  non,  qitin,  sin,  eras,  plus,  cur,  and  par, 
with  its  compounds,  and  also  the  adverbs  in  ic  or  uc,  as 
sic,  hie,  hue.  The  monosyllabic  forms  of  declension  and 
conjugation  follow  the  general  rules  about  the  quantity  of 
final  syllables,  and  das,Jles,  andscis,  accordingly,  are  long, 
while  dat,flet,  and  sett  are  short;  Ms,  quos,  cjuas  are  long, 
like  the  terminations  ds  and  as  in  declension.  So,  also,  the 
ablative  singular  hoc  and  hac.  The  nominative  hie  and 
the  neuter  hoc,  on  the  other  hand,  although  the  vowel  is 
naturally  short,  are  commonly  used  as  long,  because  the 
pronunciation  was  hicc  and  hocc  (as  a  compensation  for 
the  ancient  form  hice, hoce)*  The  abridged  imperatives 
retain  the  quantity  of  the  root,  so  that  die  and  due  are 
long,  while  fac  andjfer  are  short. 

Note. — We  formerly  thought,  with  other  grammarians,  that  fac  was 
long,  and  that  we  ought  to  read  face  in  those  passages  in  which  it  is  found 
short.  (See  Heinsius  and  Burmann  on  Ovid,  Heroid.,ii.,  98.)  But  there 
is  no  satisfactory  evidence  for/ac  being  long,  and  the  instances  quoted  by 
Vossius  (Aristarch.,  ii.,  29)  have  now  been  altered  for  other  reasons. 

*  [Compare  Anthorfs  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  82,  nof.] — Am.  Ed. 


LENGTH   AND   SHORTNESS    OF   SYLLABLES.  21 

B.    FINAL  SYLLABLES  IN  WORDS  OF  TWO  OR  MORE  SYLLABLES. 

[§  25.]   1.  Suck  as  terminate  in  a  Vowel. 

A.  is  short  in  nouns,  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of 
the  first  declension  and  in  the  vocative  of  Greek  proper 
names  in  as  which  belong  to  the  first  or  third  declension, 
e.  g.,  JEnea,  Palla.  A  is  long  in  verbs  and  indeclinable 
words,  such  as  ama,  frustra,  ergd,  anted,  and  posted  (ex- 
cept when  separated  into  post  eaj,  except  ita,  quia,  eia, 
and  the  imperative puta  in  the  sense  of  "for  example."* 
In  the  indeclinable  numerals,  as  triginta  and  quadragin- 
ta,  the  a  is  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short. 

E  is  short,  as  in  patre,  curre,  nempe;  but  long  in  the  ab- 
lative of  the  fifth  declension  and  in  the  imperative  of  the 
second  conjugation ;  the  poets,  however,  and  especially 
the  comic  ones,  sometimes  shorten  the  imperative  of  the 
words  cave,  kabe,  jube,  mane,  face,  vale,  and  vide.\  Ad- 
verbs in  e,  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  second  declen- 
sion, are  likewise  long,  as  docte,  recte  :  also,  fere,  fcrm'e, 
and  ohe  (but  bcne  and  male  are  always  short,  and  inferne 
and  supcrne  sometimes),  and  Greek  words  of  the  first  de- 
clension terminating  in  e,  as  crambc,  Circe,  and  Greek  plu- 
rals, as  Tcmpe  and  cete. 

[§  26.]  I  is  long.  It  is  short  only  in  the  vocative  of 
Greek  words  in  is,  e.  g.,  Alexi,  in  the  Greek  dative  in  i, 
which,  however,  occurs  seldom,  as  in  Palladi,  Tethyi,  and 
in  nisi,  quasi,  and  cm,  when  it  is  used  as  a  dissyllable. 
The  i  is  common  or  doubtful  in  mihi,  siM,  ibl  and  ubi ; 
in  compounds  we  commonly  find  ibidem,  and  always  uln~ 

r,  whereas  in  ubivis  and  ublnam  the  i  is  always  short. 
uti,  for  ut,  the  i  is  long,  but  in  the  compounds  utmam 
and  utique  short. 

O  is  common  in  the  present  tense  of  all  the  conjugations, 
and  in  the  nominative  of  the  third  declension,  as  in  ser??io, 
virgo  ;  the  Greek  words  in  o  (o>,  Gen.  ovc),  however,  re- 
main long  in  Latin,  as  Id,  Dido.  But  o  is  long  in  the  sec- 
ond declension,  as  in  lectd,  and  in  adverbs  formed  from 

*  [Compare  Anthonys  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  67,  not."] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  apparent  apomaly  in  cave  is  easily  explained  by  the  supposition 
that  anciently  two  forms  of  the  verb  were  in  use,  one  belonging  to  the 
second,  and  the  other  to  the  third  conjugation,  just  as  we  find  bothferveo 
and /era> ;  fulgeo  and/uZgo  ;  oleo  and  olo,  &c.  (Struve,  uber  die  Lat.  Decl., 
&c.,  p.  189.)  With  regard,  however,  to  habe,  jube,  mane,  tace,  &c.,  the 
evidence  of  their  employment  seems  very  doubtful.  The  question  will  be 
found  discussed  by  Ramsay  (Lat.  Pros.,  p.  44,  seqq.}] — Am.  Ed. 


22  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

nouns  and  pronouns  by  means  of  this  termination  (see 
§  264);  e.  g.,  vulgo,falso,  j)aulo,  ed,  quo,  and  also  ergo, 
iccirco,  quando,  and  retro.  In  the  poets,  however,  gerunds* 
and  the  following  adverbs  are  sometimes  short :  ergo,  in 
the  sense  of  "  therefore,"  porro,  postremo,  sero,  quando 
(the  compound  quandoquidem  occurs  only  with  a  short  o).\ 
The  adverbs  modo  (with  all  its  compounds,  and  also  quo- 
modoj,  cito,  illico,  and  im??io,  and  also  cedo  (for  die  or  da)y 
ego,  duo,  and  ocio^  are  always  short,  whereas  ambo  is  gen- 
erally long. 

Note. — O,  as  a  termination  of  verbs,  has  been  here  described  as  common ; 
it  must,  however,  be  observed  that  it  is  naturally  long,  and  is  used  so  by 
most  poets  of  the  best  age,  such  as  Virgil,  Horace  (in  his  Odes),  and  Ovid 
(in  his  Metamorphoses},  in  their  serious  productions.  In  their  lighter 
poems,  however,  and  in  the  works  of  later  poets,  it  is  also  used  short, 
according  to  the  example  of  the  comic  poets,  though  this  was  done  at 
first  less  frequently,  until  at  last  it  became  the  prevalent  custom  to  make 
the  o  short.  (See  Lennep's  elaborate  note  on  Ovid,  Heroid.,  xv.,  32,  re- 
printed in  the  edition  of  Loers.)  The  same  is  the  case  with  o  in  substan- 
tives of  the  third  declension,  for  the  earlier  poets  always  prefer  using  it  as 
a  long  syllable. 

U  is  always  long,  as  in  diu,  vultu,  cornu.\ 
y,  in  Greek  words,  is  always  short. 

2.  Suck  as  terminate  in  a  Consonant. 

[§  27.]    All  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant  are 
and  special  rules  are  required  only  for  those  end- 
ing in  the  sibilant  s. 

Note. — The  dissyllabic  compounds  of  par  retain  the  quantity  of  the  sin- 
gle word,  and  the  cases  of  istic  and  illic  follow  those  of  hie.  (See  §  131.) 
Greek  words  retain  their  original  quantity  in  their  final  syllables,  except 
those  in  or,  as  Hector,  Nestor,  which  are  short  in  Latin,  although  in  Greek 
they  end  in  up.  The  only  exceptions  in  genuine  Latin  words  are  lien 
(formed  from  lienis,  which  is  still  used)  and  alec. 

[§  28.]  As  is  long  in  Latin  words,  with  the  exception 

*  [The  final  o  in  gerunds  is,  perhaps,  never  found  short,  except  in  wri- 
ters subsequent  to  the  Augustan  age.  (Consult  Heyne  ad  Tibull.,  iii., 
6,  3.)]—  Am.  Ed. 

f  [The  final  o  is,  perhaps,  never  found  short  in  ergo,  idea,  immo,  porro, 
postremo,  sero,  vero,  except  in  writers  subsequent  to  the  Augustan  age. 
(Ramsay,  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  58.)] — Am.  Ed. 

%  [Indii,  the  old  form  of  in,  and  nenii  for  non,  both  Lucretian  words,  have 
the  u  short.  The  u  continues  short,  also,  in  those  words  which  naturally 
end  in  short  us,  and  are  only  deprived  of  the  s  by  the  more  ancient  mode 
of  pronunciation,  in  order  to  preserve  the  syllable  from  becoming  long  by 
its  position  before  a  consonant  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word ;  as, 
plenu1  for  pleniis,  bonu1  for  bonus,  &c.] — Am.  Ed. 

§  [The  language  of  the  text  is  rather  too  brief  here.  The  student  will 
do  well  to  consult  some  treatise  specially  devoted  to  matters  of  prosody.] 
—Am.  Ed. 


LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.     23 

of  anas,  anatis  ;  but  the  Greek  nominatives  in  as,  which 
make  their  genitives  in  odor,  and  in  Latin  in  adis,  such  as 
llias,  Pallas,  and  the  Greek  accusatives  plural  of  the  third 
declension,  are  always  short,  as  in  heroas. 

Es  is  long,  e.  g.,  antes,  leges,  audits,  patres.  But  Latin 
nominatives  in  es,  which  increase  in  the  genitive,  and  have 
their  penultima  short,  are  themselves  short ;  e.  g.,  miles, 
milltis ;  seges,  segetis  (except  abies,  aries,  paries,  Ceres, 
and  the  compounds  of  pes)  ;  also  the  nominatives  plural 
of  Greek  words,  which  increase  in  the  genitive  singular, 
as  Amazones,  Troades  ;*  the  preposition  penes  and  the 
second  person  of  the  compounds  of  sum,  es,  e.  g.,  abes, 
potes  ;  but  the  cs  (for  edis)  from  edo  is  long.  (See  §  212.) 

[§  29.]  Is  is  generally  short,  but  long  in  all  the  cases 
of  the  plural,  as  armis,  vobis,  omnis  (accus.  for  omnes)  ;  in 
the  second  person  singular  of  verbs  whose  plural  is  itis, 
that  is,  in  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  in  possis,  veils,  noils, 
mails,  and  vis  (thou  wilt),  with  its  compounds,  such  as 
mams,  quivis,  quamvis.  Respecting  the  quantity  of  is  in 
the  perfect  subjunctive  and  in  the  second  future,  see  §  165. 
Is,  lastly,  is  long  in  proper  names  of  the  third  declension, 
which,  increasing  in  the  genitive,  have  their  penultima 
long;  e.  g.,  Quirts,  Itis ;  Samriis,itis;  Salamis,  mis;  Si- 
mdls,  entis.\ 

Os  is  long,  as  in  nepos,  Jionos,  viros  ;  it  is  short  only  in 
compos  and  impos,\  and  in  Greek  words  and  cases  in  oc, 
e.  g.,  Delos,  E rinny os. 

Us  is  short  in  verbs  and  nouns  except  monosyllables, 
but  long  in  the  genitive  singular,  in  the  nominative  and 
accusative  plural  of  the  fourth  declension,  and  in  the  nom- 
inatives of  the  third,  which  have  u  in  the  genitive,  as  vir- 
tus, utis  ;  palus,  udis.  It  is .  also  long  when  it  represents 
the  Greek  Off,  as  in  Panthus,  Mclampus,  Sapphus.  (Comp. 
§  59.)  _ 

Ys,  in  Greek  words,  is  sliort,  as  Halys,  Tethys,  chlamys, 

*  [The  final  es  is  likewise  short  in  Greek  neuters ;,  as,  cacoethcs,  hippo- 
manes,  &c.  But  nominatives  and  vocatives  plural  in  es,  from  Greek 
nominatives  forming  the  genitive  singular  in  eos,  are  long;  as,  hcereses, 
crises,  phrases,  &c.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [The  noun  vis  is  also  long,  and  likewise  the  adverbs  fons,  gratis, 
ingratis.  It  must  be  observed  thatforis  is,  in  fact,  the  ablative  plural  of 
fora,  "  a  door ;"  and  that  gratis  and  ingratis  are  contracted  datives  plural 
for  gratiis  and  ingratiis,  which  are  found  in  the  open  form  in  the  comic 
writers.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [And  also  in  os,  "  a  bone,"  and  its  compound,  exos.] — Am.  Ed. 


24  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

and  long  only  in  the  few  instances  in  which  the  yis  of  the 
genitive  is  contracted  into  ys. 

[§  30.]  5.  Syllables  (as  was  remarked  in  the  begin- 
ning of  this  chapter)  may  become  long  by  their  vowel 
being  followed  by  two  or  more  consonants,  that  is,  by  their 
position:  x  and  z  are  accounted  as  two  consonants.  (See 
above,  §  3.)  A  position  may  be  formed  in  three  ways  : 
1.  When  a  syllable  ends  in  two  or  three  consonants,  as  in 
ex,  cst,  mens,  stirps.  2.  When  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a 
consonant  and  the  second  begins  with  one,  as  in  ille,  arma, 
mentis,  in  nova.  3.  When  the  first  syllable  ends  in  a  vow- 
el, and  the  one  following  begins  with  two  consonants.  By 
the  first  and  second  kinds  of  position,  a  syllable  which  is 
naturally  short  becomes  long.  Exceptions  to  this  rule  oc- 
cur only  in  the  comic  poets,  who  frequently  neglect  posi- 
tion, especially  that  of  the  second  kind. 

Note. — In  syllables  long  by  position  we  usually  pronounce  the  vowel 
itself  short;  but  the  ancients  in  their  pronunciation  even  here  distin- 
guished the  long  vowel  from  the  short  one,  just  as  in  Greek  we  must  pro- 
nounce Trpuorrw  with  a  long  a,  because  it  is  naturally  long,  as  we  see  from 
Trpufif  and  Trpdyfta.  With  regard  to  other  vowels,  we  are  assisted  by  the 
Greek  signs  77,  u,  and  £,  o ;  but  in  Latin  words,  unless  we  can  be  guided  by 
verse,  we  can  derive  information  only  from  etymology  and  from  the  state- 
ments of  the  ancient  grammarians.  Thus  they  distinguished  est  (he  is) 
from  est  (for  edit),  and  they  pronounced  the  vowel  in  con  and  in,  when  fol- 
lowed in  compounds  by/or  s,  as  in  Infelix,  insanus,  consul,  cdnfecit.  (See 
Cicero,  Orat.,  48.)  Dens,  gens,  mens,  fans,  fr mis,  and  mons  were  uttered 
with  a  long  vowel,  and,  in  like  manner,  pax,  lex,  lux,  rex,  and  vox,  because 
they  have  their  vowel  long  in  the  genitive  also  (plebs,plebis,  belongs  to  the 
same  class);  whereas  fax,nex,nix,  nux  were  pronounced  with  their  vowel 
short,  because  they  form  the  genitive  fads,  necis,  &c.  (Comp.  Schneider, 
Elemental.,  p.  108,  foil.) 

[§  31.]  In  the  third  kind  of  position  (made  by  two  con- 
sonants beginning  the  syllable  after  a  vowel),  we  must  dis- 
tinguish as  to  whether  it  occurs  within  a  word  or  between 
two  words,  and  whether  the  .consonants  are  muta  cum  li- 
quida,  or  not.  Within  a  word  a  syllable  ending  in  a  short 
vowel  is  regularly  made  long,  when  it  is  followed  by  two 
consonants,  or  x  and  z,  as  in  a-ptus,  fa-ctus,  a-xis ;  but 
when  the  first  consonant  is  a  mute  and  the  second  a  liquid 
(which  is  called  positio  debilisj,  they  make  the  vowel  only 
common,  according  to  the  pronunciation  in  prose.  Thus, 
we  may  pronounce  either  cerebrum,  lugubris,  mediocris, 
integri)  or  cerebrum,  lugiibris,  mediocris,  integri.  Ovid, 
for  example,  says  :  Et  primo  similis  volucri,  mox  vera  vo- 
lucris.  (Metam.,  xiii.,  607.)  Between  two  words  the  vow- 
el is  rarely  lengthened,  except  in  the  arsis  of  a  verse.  The 


LENGTH  AND  SHORTNESS  OF  SYLLABLES.      25 

last  syllable  of  a  word  thus  remains  short,  e.  g.,  in  Horace 
at  the  beginning  of  an  hexameter:  quern  mala  stultitia  aut ; 
or  at  the  end  :  praemid  scribae.*  An  instance  in  which  the 
vowel  is  lengthened  by  the  accession  of  the  arsis  occurs  in 
Virgil,  Bucol.j  iv.,  51. :  Tcrrasque  tractusque  marls  coclum- 
que  profundum. 

Qu  is  not  accounted  as  two  consonants,  for  u  is  not  a 
true  consonant,  though  we  usually  pronounce  it  as  such. 
But  j  alone  is  sufficient  to  make  position,  because  this  con- 
sonant was  pronounced  double  (in  early  times  it  was  also,  ., 
written  double) ;  e.  g.,  major  like  maijorj  and,  in  like  nMi-" 
ner,  in  ejus  and  Troja.  In  the  compounds  of  jugum  alone 
it  does  not  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel,  as  Injugus,  quad- 
rijugus^  nor  does  it,  according  to  the  rule  mentioned  above, 
lengthen  the  vowel  when  it  begins  a  new  word,  and  the 
preceding  word  ends  in  a  short  vowel,  as  in  the  hexame- 
ter of  Virgil  (Georg.^  i.,  125.) :  Ante  Jovcm  nutti  subige- 
bant  arva  coloni.^ 

Note. — The  determination  of  the  quantity  of  a  vowel  before  rmifa  cum 
liquida  within  a  word  has  great  difficulties,  and  we  must  add  the  following 
observations  :  The  practice  of  the  different  poets  varies  greatly.  Virgil, 
e.  g.,  is  particularly  fond  of  lengthening  a  vowel  by  its  position  before 
muta  cum  liquida ;  and  he  and  the  poets  in  general  usually  contrive  to 
make  the  vowel  thus  lengthened  coincide  with  the  arsis  in  the  verse ;  by 
the  same  contrivance,  he  also  lengthens  the  short  final  syllable  of  a  word, 
especially  the  enclitic  que,  in  the  second  foot  of  an  hexameter,  by  the 
muta  cum  liquida  which  follow  it.  We  have  farther  to  observe  particular 
words  which  have  their  vowel  short,  viz.,  liber,  niger,plger,  and  ruber;  but 
in  their  inflections,  where  the  muta  cum  liquida  occurs,  the  vowel  almost 
always  becomes  long;  coluber,  e.  g.,  is  short;  but  colubrae,  colubris,  are 
long,  and  mig.ro  is  made  long  by  the  best  poets  in  the  hexameter.  Other 
words,  however,  are  either  never  lengthened,  as  arbitror,  or  very  seldom, 
as  locuples.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  cases  of  muta  cum  liquida 
which  form  a  strong  position  both  in  Latin  and  Greek,  viz.,  where  the 
liquid  is  either  I,  m,  or  n,  and  the  mute  either  b,g,  or  d.  (See  Buttmann's 
Greek  Grammar,  §  7.  10.)  Thus  the  Latin  words  publicus,  agmen,  regnum, 
and  ignarus  always  have  their  first  syllable  long. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  repeat  here  that  we  are  speaking  only  of 
such  vowels  as  are  naturally  short ;  for,  when  the  vowel  is  naturally  long, 
a  lengthening  by  positio  debilis  is  out  of  the  question,  and  we  therefore 
always  say  ambulacrum,  lavdcrum,  delubrum,  involucrum,  and  salubris.  When 
the  consonants  muta  cum  liquida  belong  to  different  syllables,  as  in  ab-luo, 
ob-ruo,  quam-ob-rem,  they  make  real  position. 

*  [As  regards  the  initial  SC,  SM,  SP,  &c.,  consult  Schneider,  L.  G.,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  694;  and  Ramsay,  Lat.  Pros.,  p.  260,  seqq.}— Am.  Ed. 

t  [It  is  far  more  correct  to  consider  the  j  in  major,  &c.,  which  is,  in 
fact,  nothing  more  than  an  i,  as  forming  a  diphthong  with  the  preceding 
vowel,  the  word  being  pronounced  as  if  written  mai-or.'] — Am.  Ed. 

\  [It  could  not  by  any  possibility  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel,  since 
bijugus  and  quadrijugus  are  in  fact  biiugus,  quadriiugus,'] — Am.  Ed. 

§  [Here,  again,  the  initial  letter  of  Jovem  is  a  mere  vowel,  and  the  word 
is  to  be  pronounced  as  if  written  Yov-em.'} — Am.  Ed. 


26  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

OF    THE    ACCENT    OF    WORDS. 

[§  32.]  IT  is  a  general  rule  that  every  word  has  an  ao 
csnt  on  one  particular  syllable.  This  accent  is  twofold, 
either  the  circumflex  (A)  or  the  acute  ('),  for  what  is  call- 
ed the  grave  in  Greek  means  only  the  absence  of  either 
accent.  Some  words  have  no  accent,  viz.,  the  enclitics 
ne,  quc,  vc,  ce,  which  never  appear  by  themselves,  but  are 
attached  to  other  words.  Prepositions  lose  their  accent 
when  they  precede  the  cases  which  they  govern. 

Note.—  The  addition  of  these  enclitics  produces  a  change  in  the  accent 
of  the  words  to  which  they  are  attached,  and  which  thus  become  com- 
pounds. The  ancient  grammarians  have  established  the  rule  that,  when- 
ever an  enclitic  has  a  meaning  of  its  own,  the  accent  is  thrown  back* 
upon  the  syllable  immediately  before  the  enclitic,  and  either  as  the  acute 
(if  the  vowel  of  that  syllable  is  short),  or  as  the  circumflex  (if  the  vowel 
is  long),  as  in  Musaque  (nominal.)  homineque,  and  Musaque  (ablat.)  armisque. 
When,  on  the  other  hand,  the  enclitic  has  no  meaning  by  itself,  and  forms 
only  one  word  with  that  to  which  it  is  attached,  the  accent  varies,  as  will 
be  shown  hereafter.  This  is  the  case  with  que ;  for  in  some  compounds 
.  /'I  it  either  does  not  possess  the  meaning  of  "  and  "  at  all,  or  only  very  in- 
"*r/  distinctly.  Hence,  in  itdque  (and  so)  the  accent  belongs  to  the  short 
penultima,  and  in  itaque  (therefore),  in  which  the  meaning  of  "and"  is 
quite  obscured,  the  pronunciation  places  the  accent  upon  the  antepe- 
nultima.  In  the  same  manner,  we  have  to  distinguish  between  utique 
{and  that)  and  utique  (certainly.)  By  way  of  exception,  the  same  gram- 
marians place  the  accent  on  the  penultima  in  utraque  and  pleraque,  on  ac- 
count of  the  accent  of  the  masculine  forms  uterque  and  plerique ;  although, 
according  to  the  general  rule,  qur.  not  meaning  "  and,"  we  ought  to  pro- 
nounce utraque  and  pleraque.  They  farther  inform  us  that  we  should 
pronounce  ncquando  and  siquando,  in  order  that  quando  may  not  be  taken 
for  a  separate  word,  and  allquando,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  aliquanto. 

[§  33.]  2.  Monosyllables  are  pronounced  with  the  cir- 
cumflex, when  their  vowel  is  long  by  nature,  and  not  mere- 
ly by  position,  as  in  dos,  m6s,ftos,jus,  liix,  spes,fons,  and 
mans  ;  but  when  the  vowel  is  naturally  short,  they  are  pro- 
nounced with  the  acute,  although  the  syllable  may  be  long- 
by  position  ;  e.  g.,  ars,  pars,  fax,  dux. 

Note. — Sic  (so)  the  adverb  should  be  pronounced  with  the  circumflex, 

*  [This  phraseology  is  objectionable.  A  throwing  back  of  the  accent,  in 
the  case  of  enclitics,  is  the  common  form  of  expression,  but  is  calculated 
to  produce  a  wrong  idea  of  the  nature  of  such  words.  When  the  enclitic 
is  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  preceding  word,  a  change  of  accent 
necessarily  takes  place,  these  enclitics  increasing  the  preceding  word  by 
as  many  syllables  as  each  enclitic  possesses.  (Gdnling,  Elements  of  Ac- 
centuation, Orf.,  1831,  p.  100.)]— Am.  Ed. 


ACCENT    OF    WORDS.  27 

and  sic,  which  indicates  a  wish,  with  the  acute  ;  e.  g.,  Sic  te,  divapotens 
Cypri,  &c.,  in  H-orace.     Comp.  Priscian,  De  XII.  Vers.  jEn. 

3.  Words  of  two  syllables  have  the  accent  on  the  first, 
either  as  circumflex,  when  the  vowel  of  that  syllable  is 
naturally  long,  and  that  of  the  second  one  short ;  or  as 
acute,  when  the  vowel  of  the  first  syllable  is  short  and 
that  of  the  second  long;  or  when  the  vowel  of  the  first,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  second,  is  long ;  e.  g.,  R6?na,  musa,  luce, 
juris;  but  homo,  because  both  syllables  are  short;  deas^ 
because  the  first  is  short  and  the  second  long ;  drte,  be- 
cause the  first  is  long  only  by  position ;  and  doti,  for  al- 
though the  vowel  of  the  first  is  naturally  long,  yet  that  of 
the  second  is  likewise  long.    The  ancient  grammarians  do 
not  notice  those  cases  where  a  syllable  long  by  position  is, 
at  the  same  time,  long  by  the  nature  of  its  vowel  (see  above, 
§  30) ;  but  it  is  probable  that  consul,  monte,  dente,  csse  (for 
edere),  asthma,  and  sceptrum  were  pronounced  in  the  same 
manner  as  luce. 

4.  Words  of  three  syllables  may  have  the  accent  on  the 
antepenultima  and  penultima;  the  acute  on  the  antepenul- 
tima, when  the  penultima  is  short,  as  in  caedere,  pergere^ 
homines ;  the  accented  syllable  itself  may  be  long  or  short. 
The  circumflex  is  placed  on  the  penultima  on  the  condi- 
tions before  mentioned,  as  in  amdsse,  Romanus  ;   and  the 
acute,  when  those  conditions  do  not  exist,  and  yet  the  pe- 
nultima is  long,  as  in  Romdnis,  MetelliLs.     No  word  can 
have  the  accent  farther  back  than  the  antepenultima,  so 
that    we    must  pronounce   Constantinopolis,  solliciludini- 
bus. 

Note. — Priscian  (p.  803,  ed.  Putsch)  remarks  as  an  exception,  that  the 
compounds  offacere,  which  are  not  formed  by  means  of  a  preposition,  such'^y.  2  J 
as  calefacit,  ieptfatit,  and  (p.  739)  the  contracted  genitives  in  z,  instead  of 
t'i  (see  «5>  49),  have  the  accent  on  the  penultima,  even  when  it  is  short,  as 
in  ingeni,  Valeri,  so  that  we  must  pronounce  calrfdcit,  ingeni.  He  asserts 
the  same  with  regard  to  the  vocative  of  proper  names  in  ius,  e.  g.,  Virgili, 
Valeri ;  while  other  grammarians  (A.  Gellius,  xiii.,  25)  leave  to  this  case 
its  regular  accentuation,  Virgin,  and  not  Virgili. 

[§  34.]  5.  Words  of  two  or  more  syllables  never  have 
the  accent  on  the  last,  and  it  appears  that  it  was  only  the 
grammarians  who  invented  a  different  mode  of  accentua- 
tion, for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  words  which  would 
otherwise  sound  alike.  They  tell  us  that  the  words  pone 
(behind)  and  ergo  (on  account  of)  should  have  the  accent 
on  the  last  syllable,  to  distinguish  them  from  pone  (put) 
and  ergo  (therefore).  They  farther  accentuate  the  last 


28  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

syllables  of  the  adverbs  circum,  doctc,  raro,  primo,  solwm, 
and  modo,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  cases  which  have 
the  same  terminations.  The  interrogatives  quando,  qualis, 
quantus,  ubi,  and  others,  are  said  to  have  the  accent  on  the 
first  syllable,  according  to  the  rule ;  but  when  used  in  the 
sense  of  relatives,  to  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable, 
unless  the  acute  be  changed  into  the  grave  by  reason  of 
their  connexion  with  other  words  which  follow.  The 
words  ending  in  as,  which  originally  ended  in  atis,  such  as 
opiimas,  nostras,  Arpinas,  are  said  to  have  the  accent  on 
the  syllable  on  which  they  had  it  in  their  complete  form, 
and  which  is  now  the  last.  The  same  is  asserted  with 
regard  to  the  contracted  perfects,  such  as  audit  for  audi- 
vit.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  how  much  of  all  this 
was  really  observed  by  the  ancients,  since  it  is  expressly 
attested  by  earlier  writers,  such  as  Quintilian,  that  in  Lat- 
in the  accent  was  never  put  on  the  last  syllable.  But  it 
is  certainly  wrong  to  put  the  grave  on  the  last  syllable  of 
all  adverbs,  as  some  persons  still  do,  or  to  use  accents  for 
the  purpose  of  indicating  the  natural  length  of  a  vowel, 
which  is  better  expressed  by  a  horizontal  line  ("). 

[§  35.]  6.  These  rules  concerning  accentuation  ought 
to  lead  us  to  accustom  ourselves  to  distinguish  accent  from 
quantity  ;  to  read,  for  example,  homines,  and  not  homines, 
and  to  distinguish,  in  our  pronunciation,  edo  (I  eat)  from 
edo  (I  edit),  lego  (I  read)  from  lego  (I  despatch),  and  in 
like  manner,  furis  (thou  ravest),  legis  (thou  readest),  and 
regis  (thou  rulest)  from  the  genitives  Juris,  regis,  and  legis; 
farther,  levis  (light)  from  levis  (smooth),  m&lus  (bad)  from 
mdlus  (an  apple-tree),  palus,  udis  (a  marsh),  irom  palus,  i 
(a  post),  anus  (an  old  woman)  from  dnus  (Trpw^rdc),  lutum 
(mud)  from  lutum  (a  dyer's  weed),  and  also  lu'teus  (dirty 
or  muddy)  from  lu'teus  (yellow),  and  po'pulus  (the  people) 
from  po'pulus  (a  poplar).  In  our  own  language  accent 
and  quantity  coincide,  but  it  is  very  wrong  to  apply  this 
peculiarity  to  a  language  to  which  it  is  foreign.* 

*  [The  student  will  find  some  very  sensible  remarks  on  this  subject  in 
the  dissertation  of  M.  Burette  on  Plutarch's  Dialogue  on  Music.  (Mem. 
de  Lift.,  tirez  des  registres  de  VAcad.  Roy.  des  Inscriptions,  &c.,  vol.  x.,  p.  189.) 
Nothing  can  show  more  clearly  the  utter  absurdity  of  pronouncing  Greek 
by  accent  alone  than  the  applying  of  this  same  system  of  pronunciation 
to  the  Latin  language.  (Compare  Liskovius,  iiber  die  Aussprache  des 
Griech.,  p.  250.)]— .Am.  Ed. 


DIVISION   OF    WORDS.  29 


THE   ACCIDENCE. 


CHAPTER  V. 

DIVISION    OF    WORDS   ACCORDING    TO    THEIR    SIGNIFICATION. 

[§  36.]  THE  words  of  every  language  are  either  nouns, 
verbs,  or  particles. 

A  noun  serves  to  denote  an  object  or  a  quality  of  an  ob- 
ject, and  may  accordingly  be  either  a  substantive,  as  domus 
(a  house),  a  pronoun,  as  ego  (I),  or  an  adjective,  as  parvus 
(small).  Nouns  are  declined  to  indicate  their  different 
relations. 

A  verb  expresses  an  action  or  condition  which  is  ascri- 
bed to  a  person  or  a  thing,  as  scribo,  ire,  dormire,  amari. 
A.  verb  is  conjugated  in  order  to  indicate  the  different 
modes  in  which  an  action  or  condition  is  ascribed  to  a 
person  or  a  thing. 

Particles  are  those  parts  of  speech  which  are  neither^. 
declined  nor  conjugated,  and  which  are  neither  nouns 
nor  verbs.  They  are  divided  into  the  following  classes : 
1.  Adverbs  express  the  circumstances  of  an  action  or  con- 
dition ;  as,  scribit  bene,  he  writes  well ;  diu  dormit,  he  sleeps 
long.  2.  Prepositions  express,  either  directly  or  indirect- 
ly (§  295),  the  relations  of  persons  or  things  to  one  an- 
other, or  to  actions  and  conditions;  as,  amor  meus  erga  te, 
my  love  towards  thee ;  eo  ad  te,  I  go  to  thee.  3.  Con- 
junctions express  the  connexion  between  things,  actions, 
or  propositions ;  as,  ego  et  tu  ;  clamavit,  sed  pater  non 
audivit.  4.  Interjections  are  the  expressions  of  emotion 
by  a  single  word ;  as,  ah,  olie,  vac. 

These  are  the  eight  parts  of  speech  in  Latin;  all  of 
them  occur  in  the  following  hexameter  : 

Vae  tibi  ridenti,  guia  mox  post  gaudia  Jlebis. 
C  2 


30  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

NOUNS    SUBSTANTIVE. GENERAL    RULES    OF    GENDER. 

r§  37.]  NOUNS  substantive  are  either  proper  (nomina 
propria),  i.  e.,  the  names  of  one  particular  man  or  thing, 
or  common  (nomina  appellativa),  i.  e.,  such  as  denote  per- 
sons or  things  in  so  far  as  they  belong  to  a  class. 

All  nouns  have  one  of  three  genders :  masculine,  femi- 
nine, or  neuter. 

The  manner  in  which  the  gender  of  a  noun  can  be  as- 
certained from  its  termination  will  be  explained  under 
each  declension.  Our  object  here  is  to  show  the  gender 
of  nouns,  both  proper  and  common,  in  so  far  as  it  depends 
upon  their  meaning.* 

1.  The  following  are  masculine:  the  names  of  men  and 
of  male  beings  ;  as,  homo,  vir,  scriba,  flamen,  consul,  rex, 
deus,  daemon,  Cupido  (the  God  of  Love),  manes  (the  spir- 
its of  the  departed),  lemures  (spectres) ;  and  the  names 
of  rivers,  winds,  and  months,  the  words  fluvius,  ventus, 
mensis  being  themselves  masculine. 

[§  38.]  Exceptions. — There  are  some  substantives  which  do  not  origi- 
nally denote  men,  but  have  come  to  be  applied  to  them  by  custom  ;  as, 
operae,  labourers  ;  vigiliae  and  excubiae,  sentinels ;  copiae,  troops  ;  auxilia, 
auxiliary  troops  ;  mancipium,  a  slave  ;  scortum  and  prostibulum,  a  prostitute. 
All  such  words  have  the  gender  which  belongs  to  them  according  to  theii 
termination. 

The  names  of  rivers  in  a,  belonging  to  the  first  declension,  vary  in  their 
gender.  (See  Schneider,  Forme?i.lehre,  p.  14.)  Modern  writers  commonly 
make  them  feminine ;  but  the  ancients,  in  most  cases,  make  them  mascu- 
lines, which  is  the  gender  belonging  to  them.  (See  §  47.)  The  mytho- 

*  ["  Dr.  Zumpt,  in  this  part  of  his  Grammar,  appears  to  place  too  much 
reliance  on  the  authority  of  the  Latin  grammarians.  It  should  be  recol- 
lected that  most  of  these  writers  lived  long  after  the  authors  upon  whom 
their  comments  are  made,  and  at  a  time,  too,  when  the  very  structure, 
and  certainly  the  very  idioms  of  the  language,  were  materially  altered. 
The  living  tongue  of  their  times  was  an  unsafe  standard  of  comparison  ; 
while  the  relation  in  which  they  stood  to  the  writings  of  Caesar  and  Cicero 
was  the  same  in  kind  as  that  in  which  we  ourselves  stand.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  not  one  among  them  possessed  any 
of  that  philosophical  spirit  which  begins  to  distinguish  modern  philology. 
Those  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  consulting  the  commentaries  of  Do- 
natus  and  Servius,  or  the  more  systematic  work  of  Priscian,  will  admit 
that  the  testimony  of  this  class  of  writers,  though  of  occasional  value, 
should  always  be  received  with  caution.  The  judgment  of  even  Varro 
and  Quintilian  is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  and  their  errors  of 
judgment  are  often  aggravated  by  the  particularly  corrupt  state  in  which 
their  writings  have  come  down  to  us."  (Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  95, 


GENDER   OF    SU13STANTIVES.  31 

logical  rivers  Styx  and  Lethe  are  feminine,  as  in  Greek.  The  names  of 
winds  and  months  are,  without  exception,  masculine ;  hence  hi  Etcsice, 
hie  Libs,  hie  Aprilis.  With  regard  to  the  names  of  the  months,  it  must  bo 
observed  that  all  of  them  are  adjectives,  and  that  the  best  writers  use 
them  only  as  such,  the  substantive  mcnsis  being  understood.  Hence,  also, 
Calendae  Januariae,  Nonae  Sextiles,  Idus  Martiae,  Maiae,  ante  Calendas  Au- 
gustas, Idibus  Decembribus.  See  Drakenborch  on  Livy  (iv.,  37),  who,  with 
most  other  commentators,  is  so  strongly  convinced  of  this,  that  he  does 
not  hesitate  to  correct  passages  in  which  this  rule  is  not  observed. 

The  names  of  mountains  are  generally  said  to  be  masculine  ;  but  when 
the  word  mons  is  not  joined  with  them,  the  gender  depends  upon  their 
termination,  as  in  alta  JEtna. 

[§  39.]  2.  The  following  are  feminine :  the  names  of 
women  and  female  beings;  e.  g.,  uxor,  wife;  soror,  sister; 
anus,  an  old  woman  ;  socrus,  mother-in-law  ;  Juno,  Venus; 
and  even  when  they  end  in  urn,  as  P7ianium,  Glycerium, 
Leontium.  Most  of  the  names  of  trees,  towns,  countries, 
and  islands,  just  as  the  words  arbos,  urbs,  terra  (regio),  and 
insula  themselves  are  feminine ;  e.  g.,  alta  cedrus,  pinus, 
abies,  the  high  cedar,  pine,  fir;  umbrosa  fagus,  the  shady 
beech  \ficus  Indica,  opulenta  Corinthus,  antiqua  Tyrus, 
dura  Lacedaemon,  Acgyptus  super  stitiosa,  clara  Salamis. 

Exceptions. — The  names  of  trees  and  shrubs  ending  in  er,  and  following 
the  third  declension,  are  neuter  ;  as,  acer,  cicer , papaver ,  to  which  we  must 
add  robur,  the  oak.  Masculine  are  oleaster  and  pinaster,  which  belong  to 
the  second,  and  styrax,  which  belongs  to  the  third  declension :  also  many 
shrubs  and  smaller  plants  in  us,  i ;  e.  g.,  amarantus,  asparagus,  calamus, 
dumus,  helleborusf  intubus,  rhamnus,  and  spinus.  The  following  vary,  and 
may  be  used  as  masculine  or  feminine :  cytisus,  raphanus,  rubus,  and  grossus, 
an  unripe  fig. 

Among  the  names  of  towns  the  following  are  masculine  :  1.  All  plurals 
in  i,  as  Argi,  Delphi,  Puteoli,  Veii ;  2.  Four  names  in  o :  Hippo  (with  the 
surname  regius),  Narbo  Marcius,  Frusino,  and  Sulmo  ;  the  analogy  of  which 
is  followed,  also,  by  Croto,  although  the  regular  form  in  Greek  is  #  KPOTUV  ; 
3.  Tunes,  etis,  and  Canopus,as  in  Greek  6  Kuvu6o£.  Some  names  in  MS, 
untis,  such  as  Pes  sinus,  Sellnns,  and  in  us,  i,  such  as  Pharsalus,  Abydus, 
and  also  Marathon,  are  masculine,  according  to  the  Greek  custom,  though 
they  are  sometimes  also  used  as  feminines.  The  following  are  neuter : 

1.  Those  ending  in  um,  and  the  Greek  names  in  on,  as  Tusculum,  Ilion ; 

2.  The  plurals  in  a,  orum,  e.  g.,  Susa,  Arbela,  Ecbatana,  Leuctra ;  3.  Those 
ending  in  e  and  ur,  which  follow  the  third  declension ;  as,  Caere,  Redte, 
Praeneste,  Tergeste,  Nepete,  or  Nepet,  Anxur,  and  Tibur  ;   Tudcr  is  likewise 
neuter  ;  4.  The  indeclinable  names  in  i  and  y  ;  as,  Illiturgi,  Asty,  and  some 
others,  particularly  barbarous  names,  the  declension  of  which  is  defective  ; 
as,  Suthul,  Hispal,  Gadir,  whereas  their  Latin  forms,  Hispalis  and  Gades, 
ium,  are  feminine.     Argos,  as  a  neuter,  occurs  only  in  the  nominative, 
otherwise  Argi,  orum,  is  used.     The  many  exceptions  we  have  here  enu- 
merated might  render  us  inclined  altogether  to  drop  the  rule  respecting 
the  feminine  gender  of  names  of  towns  ;  but  we  must  adhere  to  it  on  ac- 
count of  the  numerous  Greek  names  in  us,  i,  and  of  the  Greek  or  non- 
Italian  names  in  on  (o),  onis;  and  there  appears,  moreover,  to  have  been  a 
tendency  to  make  feminine  even  those  which  are  of  a  different  gender, 
provided  they  are  in  the  singular.    This  is  the  case,  besides  those  we  have 
already  mentioned,  with  Croton,  and  may  also  IK;  observed  in  the  case  of 
Praeneste  ;  for  Virgil  says,  Praeneste  sub  ipsa,  and  Juvenal  gelidd  Praeneste, 
but  otherwise  the  neuter  gender  is  well  established.     (Liv.,  vi.,  29.    Sil. 


32  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Ital.,  ix.,  404.)  The  poets  change  the  names  of  some  places  ending  in  um 
into  us,  e.  g.,  Saguntus,  and  use  them  as  feminines.  (See  Schneider, 
Formenl.,  p.  479.) 

Among  the  names  of  countries,  those  in  um  and  plurals  in  a  are  neuter, 
as  Latium,  Bactra ;  the  names  Bosporus,  Pontus,  and  Hellespontus,  which 
properly  denote  the  seas  adjacent  to  these  countries,  are  masculine  ;  the 
same  is  the  case  with  Isthmus,  when  used  as  the  name  of  a  country,  for 
originally  it  is  a  common  noun,  signifying  "a  neck  of  land."  Of  the  names 
of  islands,  some  ending  in  um  are  neuter,  as  is  also  the  Egyptian  Delia. 

It  must  farther  be  observed  that  most  names  of  precious  stones  are  fem- 
inine, as  in  Greek  ;  but  beryllus,  carbunculus,  opdlus,  and  smaragdus  are 
masculine.  The  names  of  dramatic  compositions  are  used  in  the  early 
and  good  language  as  feminine,  the  \\ordfabula  being  understood  ;  e.  g., 
hose  Truculentus  (Plauti),  Eunuchus  (Terentii),  acta  cst,  &c.  (See  Quintil., 
i.,  5,  52,  with  Spalding's  note.)  Juvenal  (i.,  6),  however,  says,  Orestes 
nondumfinitus. 

[§  40.]  3.  There  are  many  names  of  persons  which 
are  common  to  both  sexes,  as  they  denote  an  occupation 
or  quality  which  may  belong  either  to  a  man  or  a  woman, 
although  the  one  is  more  frequently  the  case  than  the  oth- 
er. Such  words  are  called  common  (communia).  Those 
found  in  Latin  with  two  genders  are  contained  in  the  fol- 
lowing hexameter  lines  : 

Antistes,  vates,  adolescens,  auctor  et  augur, 
Dux,judex,  index,  testis,  cum  cive  sacerdos, 
Municipi  adde  parens,  patrueli  affinis  et  keres, 
Artifici  conjux  atque  incola,  miles  et  hostis, 
Par,juvenis,  martyr,  comes,  infans,  obses  et  Jiospes, 
Interpres,  pracsul,  custos,  vindexcpie,  satelles. 

Some  other  words  are  not  noticed  here,  because  they  are  used  only  in 
apposition  to  feminines  ;  those  mentioned  above,  however,  may  be  accom- 
panied by  adjectives  in  either  gender;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Cat.,  2:  In  hoc  sumus 
sapientes,  quod  naturam  optimam  ducem,  tamquam  deum,  sequimur.  Pro  Balb., 
24  :  Sacerdos  ilia  Cereris  civis  Romanafacta  est.  Virg.,  ^En.,  x.,  252  :  Alma 
parens  Idaea  deum.  Liv<,  i.,  7  :  Mater  ?nea,  veridica  interpres  deum.  To  these 
we  may  add  contubernalis,  properly  an  adjective,  which  cannot  be  accom- 
modated to  verse,  and  perhaps  also  exul  and  princeps,  with  regard  to  which 
the  passages  of  the  ancients  are  not  decisive,  since  the  non  alia  exul  in 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiv.,  63,  may  be  explained  as  apposition,  and  Romano,  prin- 
ceps in  the  Eleg.  ad  Liviam,  356,  may  be  taken  as  an  adjective,  as  in  other 
cases.  Obses  is  well  attested  as  a  nomen  commune  by  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat., 
xxxiv.,  13  :  Obsidibus,  quae  Porsenae  mittebantur.  Auspex  yet  awaits  a  bet- 
ter authority  than  praeclaram  auspicem  in  the  Declam.  (P&rcii  Latr&nis')  in 
Catil.,  c.  16. 

It  is  farther  to  be  observed  that  antistes  and  hospes,  in  the  sense  of 
priestess  and  hostess,  are  not  attested  as  well  as  the  feminine  forms 
antistita,  ae,  and  hospita,  ae. 

[§  41.]  4.  Substantive*  mobilia  are  those  substantives 
in  which  the  root  receives  different  terminations  for  the 
masculine  and  feminine  genders.  The  termination  for  the 
feminine  is  always  a  or  trix,  and  the  latter  occurs  in  those 
cases  in  which  the  masculine  ending  in  tor  is  derived  from 


GENDER   OF    SUBSTANTIVES.  33 

transitive  verbs,  as  in  victor,  victrix  ;  ultor,  ultrix  ;  prae~ 
ceptor,  praeceptrix  ;  inventor,  inventrix.  The  feminine  is 
indicated  by  a  when  the  masculine  ends  in  us  or  er,  or 
some  other  termination,  e.  g.,  coquus,  cogua  ;  puer,puera; 
or  more  frequently  the  diminutive  form  puella  ;  magister, 
magistra;  leno,lena;  caupo,  copa  ;  tibicen,  tibicina;  avus, 
avia  ;  rex,  regina  ;  antistes,  antistita.  The  feminine  ter- 
mination tria  is  Greek,  and  is  formed  from  masculines  in 
tes  or  ta  ;  as,  psaltes,  psaltria  ;  poeta,  poetria. 

[§  42.]  5.  Some  names  of  animals  have  special  forms 
to  distinguish  the  two  sexes:  agnus,  agna;  cervus,  cerva; 
columbus,  columba  ;  equus,  equa  ;  gallus,  gallina  ;  juven- 
cus,  juvenca ;  lupus,  lupa ;  leo,  lea  and  Icaena  ;  porous, 
porca ;  mtulus,  vitula  ;  ursus,  ursa.  In  some  cases  the 
words  are  altogether  different,  as  in  taurus,  vacca,  a  bull 
and  cow ;  aries,  ovis,  ram  and  sheep ;  hoedus,  capella ; 
catus,felis. 

Most  other  names  of  animals  are  common  (epicoena); 
that  is,  they  have  only  one  grammatical  gender,  which 
comprises  both  sexes,  e.  g.,  passer,  anser,  corvus,  canis, 
cancer  are  masculine ;  aquila,felis,  anas,  vulpes  are  femi- 
nine, though  they  may  denote  animals  of  either  sex.  With 
regard  to  those  names  which  may  distinguish  the  genders 
by  terminations,  it  should  be  observed  that  one  form  (gen- 
erally the  masculine)  predominates,  such  as  equus,  leo,  lu- 
pus as  masculine,  andfelis,  ovis  as  feminine.  If  the  sex 
of  the  particular  animal  is  to  be  stated,  the  word  mas  or 
femina  is  added  to  the  same ;  as,  anas  mas,  anas  femi- 
na,femina  anguis,  musca  femina,  femina  piscis,  and  lupus 
or  porous  femina,  although  we  have  the  forms  lupa  and 
porca.  Instead  of  mas  we  may  also  use  masculus  or  mas- 
cula,  e.  g.,  vulpes  mascula,  a  male  fox ;  pavo  masculus,  a 
peacock. 

Some  of  these  nouns  epicene,  however,  in  which  the  dif- 
ference of  sex  is  more  frequently  noticed,  are  used  as  real 
common  nouns,  so  that  they  are  masculine  when  the  male 
animal,  and  feminine  when  the  female  animal  is  particu- 
larly specified.  Of  this  kind  are  bos,  canis,  elcphantus, 
lepus,  vespertilio,  mus,  which  are  masculine  when  the  dif- 
ference of  sex  is  not  noticed ;  but  feminine  when  the  fe- 
male is  designated.  Thus  we  generally  find,  e.  g.,  ele- 
phanti  prudentissimi  Jiabentur,  lepores  timidi  sunt ;  but,  at 
the  same  time,  canes  rabidae,  clephantus  gravida,  lepus  fc- 


34  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

cunda  ;  and  Horace,  abandoning  the  usual  gender,  takes 
the  liberty  of  saying  (Serni.,  ii.,  8,  87),  membra  gruis 
sparsi,  and  jecur  anseris  albae.  (See  Bentley's  note.) 

The  following  nouns  are  sometimes  masculine  and 
sometimes  feminine,  without  regard  to  difference  of  sex  : 
anguis  and  serpens,  a  serpent ;  dama,  fallow-deer ;  talpa, 
a  mole  \  also  sus,  a  pig ;  and  tigris,  tiger ;  but  sus  is  com- 
monly feminine,  while  tigris  is  commonly  masculine.  Oth- 
ers are  of  uncertain  gender,  in  as  far  as  they  have  both 
a  masculine  and  a  feminine  form,  which,  however,  are 
used  indiscriminately  and  without  regard  to  sex.  Thus 
we  have  the  feminine  forms  colubra)  laccrta,  luscinia,  and 
simia  along  with  the  masculines  coluber,  lacertus,  luscinius, 
and  s-imius,  without  simia,  for  instance,  having  any  refer- 
ence whatever  to  a  female  monkey.  In  like  manner,  pa- 
lumbus  and  palumba  (the  same  as  palumbes)  are  used  in- 
discriminately. 

[§  43.]  6.  The  following  are  neuter.  All  indeclinable 
substantives,  as  gummi,  pascha,  sinapi,  and  pondo,  which 
is  used  as  an  indeclinable  noun  in  the  sense  of  "  pound ;" 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  as  c  triste,  o  Ion- 
gum,  Graecum  digamma,  &c.,  and  all  words  and  expres- 
sions which,  without  being  substantives,  are  conceived  and 
used  as  such,  or  quoted  merely  as  words ;  e.  g.,  ultimum 
rale,  scire  tuum  nihil  est,  vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobis,  ter- 
geminum  cro^wc,  hoc  ipsum  diu  mild  molestum  est  (Cicero), 
lacrimas  hoc  mihi  paene  movet  (Ovid),  where  the  words 
diu  and  paene  are  quoted  from  the  sayings  of  another  per- 
son, and  it  is  said  that  the  very  word  diu  or  paene  is  pain- 
ful. 

Note. — The  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  however,  are  sometimes 
used  as  feminities,  the  word  littcra  being  understood  ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  i.,  4, 
11:  Sciat  etiam  Ciceroni  placuisse  aiio  Maiiamque geminata  i  scribere.  The 
names  of  the  Greek  letters  in  a,  as  beta, gamma,  delta,  are  used  as  feminines 
only  by  Ausonius,  Technop.  de  Lilt. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

NUMBER,    CASE,    AND     DECLENSION. 

[§  44.]  THE  Latin  language  distinguishes,  in  nouns  and 
verbs,  the  singular  and  plural  (numerus  singularis  and 
pluralis)  by  particular  forms ;  it  has  also  different  forms 
to  distinguish  six  different  cases  (cams)  in  the  relations 


NUMBER,    CASE,    AND    DECLENSION. 


35 


and  connexions  of  nouns.     The  ordinary  names  of  these 
cases  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vocative, 
and  ablative.     The  different  forms  of  these  cases  are  seen 
in  the  terminations  which  are  annexed  to  the  crude  form 
of  a  word.     Declension  is  the  deriving  of  these  different 
forms,  both  in  the  singular  and  plural,  from  one  another,  ( 
the  nominative  forming  the  starting  point.     The  nomina-"-! 
live  and  vocative  are  called  cams  rccti,  and  the  others  ca- 
sus  obliqui. 

There  are  five  declensions  distinguished  by  the  termi- 
nation of  the  genitive  singular,  which  ends : 

12345 
ae  i  is  us  ci 

All  declensions  have  the  following  points  in  common : 

1.  In  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  declensions  there 
are  neuters  which  have  three  cases  alike,  viz.,  nominative, 
accusative,  and  vocative. 

2.  The  vocative  is  like  the  nominative,  except  in  the 
second  declension,  and  some  Greek  words  in  the  first  and 
third. 

3.  Where  no  exception  arises  from  neuters,  the  accu- 
sative singular  ends  in  m. 

12345 
am  um  em  um  em 

4.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  um. 

12345 
arum          orum  um  uum  erum  ^/^ 

5.  The  dative  plural  is  in  all  declensions  like  the  abla- 
tive plural. 

12345 
is  is  Ibus        ibus  (ubus)      ebus 

The  following  table  contains  the  terminations  of  all  the 
five  declensions : 


SINGULAR. 

neut. 

neut. 

Nom.  a  (e,  as,  es) 

us,  er,  um 

a,  e,  o  c,  I, 

us,       u 

es. 

Gen.  ae  (es) 
Dat.    ae 

i 

0 

n,  r,  s,  t,  x 
is 
i 

us 
ui 

ei. 
e'i. 

Ace.   am  (en) 
Voc.  a  (e) 
Abl.   a(e) 

um 
e,  er,    um 

0 

em  (im) 
like  nom. 
e  (i) 

um,     u 
us,       u 
u 

em. 
es. 
e. 

36 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


PLURAL. 

neut. 

neut. 

neut. 

'/,          a 

es,     a  (ia)us,      ua 

es. 

orum 

um  (ium) 

uum 

erum. 

is 

ibus 

ibus  (ubus) 

ebus. 

os,       a 

es,     a  (ia) 

us,      ua 

es. 

i,         a 

es,     a  (ia) 

us,      ua 

es. 

is 

ibus 

ibus  (ubus) 

ebus. 

Nom,  ae 
Gen.  arum 
Dat.   is 
Ace.   as 
Voc.  ae 
Abl.   is 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

FIRST     DECLENSION. 

[§  45.]  THE  first  declension  comprises  all  nouns  which 
m  the  genitive  singular  in  ac.  The  nominative  of  gen- 
uine Latin  words  of  this  kind  ends  in  a.  Greek  words 
in  a,  as  musa,  historia,  stoa,  follow  the  example  of  the 
Latin  ones,  and  shorten  the  final  vowel  when  it  is  long 
in  Greek.  Some  Greek  words  in  e,  as,  and  es  have  pe- 
culiar terminations  in  some  of  their  cases.  (See  Chap. 
IX.) 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom.  vi-a,  the  way. 
Gen.  vi-ae,  of  the  way. 
Dat.    vi-ae ,  to  the  way. 
Ace.  vi-am,  the  way. 
Voc.  vi-a,  O  way  ! 
Abl.  vi-a,  from  the  way. 


Nom.  vi-ae,  the  ways. 
Gen.  vi-arum,  of  the  ways. 
Dat.    vi-ls,  to  the  ways. 
Ace.   vi-as,  the  ways. 
Voc.  vi-ae,  O  ways  ! 
Abl.  vi-is,  from  the  ways. 


In  like  manner  are  declined,  for  example,  the  substan- 
tives barba,  causa,  cura,  epistola,  fossa,  Jiora,  mensa,  no- 
verca,  penna,  porta,  poena,  sagitta,  silva,  stella,  uva,  victo- 
ria, and  the  adjectives  and  participles  with  the  feminine 
termination  a  ;  as,  longa,  libera,  pulckra,  lata,  rotunda, 
lecta,  scripta. 

Note  1  .—An  old  form  of  the  genitive  singular  in  as  has  been  retained 
even  in  the  common  language,  in  the  \vordfamilia,  when  compounded  with 
pater,  mater,  filius,  and  filia  ;  so  that  we  say  paterfamilias,  patresfamilias, 
Jiliosfamilias.  But  the  regular  formfamiliae  is  not  uncommon  ;  sometimes, 
though  not  often,  we  find  familiarum  in  composition  with  the  plural  of 
those  words.* 

Note  2.  —  An  obsolete  poetical  form  of  the  genit.  sing,  is  ai  for  the  diph- 
thong ae  or  ai,  as  in  aulai,  aurdi,  pictdi,  which  three  forms  occur  even  in 
Virgil. 


[Consult  Appendix  v.,  on  the  ancient  forms  of  declension.]  —  Am.  Ed. 


GREEK    WORDS    OF    THE    FIRST    DECLENSION.  37 

Note  3. — Poets  form  the  genitive  plural  of  patronymics  in  es  and  a,  of 
several  compounds  in  cola  and  gena,  and  of  some  few  names  of  nations,  by 
the  termination  um  instead  of  arum ;  as,  Aeneadum,  Dardanidum,  coelicolwn, 
terrigenum,  Laplthum.     Of  a   similar  kind   are   the   genitives   amphorum,    A  •,  , •  , 
drachmum,  which  are  used  even  in  prose,  instead  of  amphorarum,  drachma-  '      "  r/ 
rum.     (Comp.  $  51.) 

Note  4. — Some  words  form  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  dbus  instead 
oft* — such  as  anima,  dea,Jilia,  liberta,  nata,  mula,  equa,  asina — for  the  pur 
pose  of  distinguishing  them  from  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  the 
masculine  forms,  which  would  otherwise  be  the  same.  The  regular  ter- 
mination is,  however,  is  generally  preferred,  notwithstanding  the  possi 
bility  of  ambiguity ;  and  it  is  only  deabus  and  filiabus  that  can  be  recom- 
mended, for  the  former  is  used  in  a  solemn  invocation  by  Cicero :  dis  dea~ 
busque  omnibus  ;  and  the  latter  by  Livy  (xxiv.,  26),  cum  duabus  filiabus  vir~ 
ginibus.  Libertabus  frequently  occurs  in  inscriptions.  The  termination 
abus  has  remained  in  common  use  for  the  feminine  of  duo  and  ambo: 
duabus,  ambabus.* 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GREEK    WORDS    IN    6,    OS,    AND    €S. 

[§  46.]  1.  IN  the  dative  singular  and  throughout  the 
plural,  Greek  words  in  e,  as,  and  es  do  not  differ  from  the 
regular  declension.  In  the  other  cases  of  the  singular 
they  are  declined  in  the  following  manner : 

Nom.  e  as  es. 

Gen.  es  ae  ae. 

Ace.  en  am  (sometimes  an)  en. 

Voc.  e  a  e  and  a. 

Abl.  e  a  a  and  e. 

Words  of  this  kind  in  e  are  :  aloe,  crambe,  epitome,  Cir- 
ce, Danae,  Phoemce  ;  in  as:  Aeneas,  Boreas,  Gorgias, 
Midas,  JMessias,  Satanas  ;  in  es :  anagnostes,  cometes,  dy- 
nastes,  geometres,  pyrites,  satrapes,  sophistes,  Anchises,  and 

*  [This  termination  in  abus,  however,  though  now  appearing  in  but  few 
words,  was  originally  the  common  ending  of  the  dative  and  ablative  plural 
of  the  first  declension,  and  was  merely  retained  afterward  in  a  few,  as  a 
convenient  mode  of  distinguishing  between  certain  feminines  and  mascu- 
lines. In  the  change  from  abus  to  is,  Bopp  thinks  that  there  must  have 
been  an  intermediate  form  thus  after  a-bus  had  weakened  the  stem-vowel 
d  into  i,  and  that  this  I  was  subsequently  lengthened  as  a  compensation 
for  the  removal  of  bu.  Hence  terns  would  arise  from  tern-bus,  for  terra-bus, 
just  as  the  verb  mdlo  arose  from  mavolo.  (Bopp,  Vergleich.  Gram.,  p.  282.) 
Besides  the  words  given  in  the  text,  many  more  occur  in  inscriptions  and 
ancient  writers.  Thus,  we  have  Mirabus  (Gruter,  92,  1) ;  nymfabus  (Id., 
93,  8) ;  and  also  raptabus,  paucabus,  puellabus,  pudicabus,  portabus,  oleabus, 
&c.  There  is,  therefore,  no  foundation  whatever  for  the  opinion  that 
such  forms  as  these  were  merely  brought  in  by  the  ancient  jurists  for  the 
sake  of  convenient  distinction  in  testaments,  although  this  is  asserted  by 
Pliny  (Apud  Charis.,  p.  103,  seq.)]— Am.  Ed. 


38  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Tkersitcs,  patronymics  (i.  e.,  names  of  persons  derived 
from  their  parents  or  ancestors,  see  §  245) ;  e.  g.,  Aene- 
ades,  Alddes,  Pelldes,  Priamides,  Tydldes. 

Note.— Common  nouns,  such  as  epistola  and  poeta,  which,  on  their 
adoption  into  the  Latin  language,  exchanged  their  Greek  termination  jj  or 
?7f  for  the  Latin  a,  are  treated  as  genuine  Latin  words,  and  no  longer  fol- 
low the  Greek  declension.  But  a  great  many  other  common,  as  well  as 
proper  nouns  likewise  follow  the  Latin  declension  ;  and  it  must  be  espe- 
cially remarked  that  the  early  Latin  writers,  including  Cicero,  show  a 
tendency  to  Latinize  the  declension  of  those  words  which  they  have  fre- 
quent occasion  to  use.  Thus  we  prefer,  with  Cicero,  grammatica,  rhetorica, 
dialectica,  musica,  to  grammatics,  rhetorics,  dialectics,  musice,  and  we  may  say 
Creta  and  Penelopa  just  as  well  as  Hecuba  and  Helena,  although  some 
writers,  especially  the  later  poets,  with  an  affectation  of  erudition,  pre- 
ferred Crete  and  Penelope.  But  there  is  no  fixed  law  in  this  respect.  In. 
the  words  in  es  Cicero  prefers  this  Greek  termination  to  the  Latin  a  ;  e.  g., 
Philoctetes,  Scythes,  Perses,  sophistes,  to  Persa,  sophista,  &c.  In  the  accu- 
sative he  sometimes  uses  en  ;  as,  Arsinoen,  Circen,  Sinopen.  (See  my  note 
on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  18.)  But  although  he  would  use  the  nominative 
Sinope  for  Sinopa,  yet  he  makes  the  genitive  Sinopae  in  the  adverbial 
sense  of  "  at  Sinope,"  e.  g.,  in  Rull.y  ii.,  20.  As  to  the  practice  of  Horace, 
see  Bentley  on  Epod.,  xvii.,  17. 

2.  Greek  words  in  as  commonly  take  the  accusative  an 
in  poetry,  and  Virgil  uniformly  uses  Acncan.     In  prose 
the  Latin  am  is  much  more  frequent,  although  Livy,  too, 
has  Acnean,  and  in  Quintus  Curtius  we  not  unfrequently 
find  the  forms  Amyntan,  Pkilotan,  Pcrdiccan,  and  others, 
along  with  Amyntam,  Pliilotam,  Perdiccam. 

The  vocative  of  words  in  ts  is  usually  e,  as  in  Virgil : 
Conjugio,  Anchise,Veneris  dignate  superbo  ;  but  the  Latin 
vocative  in  a  also  occurs  frequently,  e.  g.,  at  the  end  of  an 
hexameter  in  Horace,  Serin,  ii.,  3, 187  :  Atrida,  vetas  cur? 
and  in  Cicero :  Aeeta,  Thyesta  !  The  vocative  in  a  sel- 
dom occurs,  as  in  the  oracle  mentioned  by  Cicero,  De  Di- 
vin.,  ii.,  56  :  Aio  te,  Aeacida,  Romanos  vincere  posse* 
Words  in  es  form  their  ablative  regularly  in  a,  e.  g.,  in 
Cicero  :  de  Philocteta,  de  Protagora  Abderita.  The  po- 
ets, however,  sometimes  use  the  termination  e,  as  in  Vir- 
gil :  Uno  graditur  comitatus  AcJiate. 

3.  Generally  speaking,  however,  the  patronymics  in  ??£, 
genit.  ov,  are  the  only  Greek  words  that  follow  the  second 
declension ;   and  the  majority  of  proper  names  ending  in 
es  follow  the  third  declension ;  as,  Alcibiades,  Miltiades, 
Xerxes.     But  many  of  them  form  the  accusative  singular 
in  en  (as  Eupliraten,  MitJiridaten,  Pkraatenj,  and  the  voc- 
ative in  e,  together  with  the  forms  of  the  third  declension 
in  em  and  es.     (See  Chap.  XVI.) 

*  [The  a  is  here  lengthened  by  the  arsis.] — Am.  Ed. 


FIRST    AND    SECOND    DECLENSIONS.  39 

Note.  —  The  word  satrapes  (aarpaTnjc,  oy)  is  best  declined  after  the  first 
declension  ;  but  no  example  of  the  genit.  sing,  being  satrapae  is  known  ; 
Nepos  (Lysand.,  4)  uses  satrapis.  This  does  not  necessarily  presuppose 
the  existence  of  a  nominative  satraps,  which  occurs  only  in  later  times, 
but  may  be  the  same  as  Miltiades,  genitive  Miltiadis.  Instances  of  the 
dative  satrapae,  accus.  satrapen,  and  ablat.  satrape,  occur  in  other  writers,  as 
well  as  in  the  correct  texts  of  Q.  Curtius.  The  form  satrapem  must  be 
rejected  ;  but  the  Latin  form  satrapam  may  be  used.  The  plural  is 
throughout  after  the  first  declension,  satrapae,  satraparum,  &c. 


CHAPTER  X. 

GENDER    OF    THE    NOUNS    OF    THE    FIRST    DECLENSION. 

[§  47.]  NOUNS  in  a  and  e  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as 
and  es  (being  chiefly  names  of  men)  are  masculine. 

Note.  —  Nouns  denoting  male  beings  are  of  course  masculine,  though 
they  end  in  a;  as,  aurtga,  collega,  nauta,  parricida,  poeta,  scriba.  Names  of 
rivers  in  a,  such  as  Garumna,  Trebia,  Sequana,  Himera  (to  be  distinguished 
from  the  town  of  the  same  name),  and  Hadria  (the  Adriatic),  are  mascu- 
line, according  to  the  general  rule.  (See  Chap.  VI.)  The  three  rivers 
Aliia,  Albula,  and  Matrona,  however,  are  feminine.  Cometa  and  planeta, 
which  are  usually  mentioned  as  masculines,  do  not  occur  in  ancient 
writers,  who  always  use  the  Greek  forms  cometes,  planetes  ;  but  cometa 
and  planeta  would,  according  to  analogy,  be  masculine. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

SECOND     DECLENSION. 

[§  48.]  ALL  nouns  which  form  the  genitive  singular  in 
*  belong  to  the  second  declension.  The  greater  part  of 
them  end  in  the  nominative  in  us,  the  neuters  in  um  ;  some 
in  er,  and  only  one  in  ir,  viz.,  vir,  with  its  compounds,  to 
which  we  must  add  the  proper  name,  Trevir.  There  is 
only  one  word  ending  in  ur,  viz.,  the  adjective  satur,  sa- 
tura,  saturum* 

*  [Originally  this  declension  had  but  two  terminations,  us  for  the  mas- 
culine arid  feminine,  and  um  for  the  neuter.  All  the  forms,  therefore,  be- 
longing to  this  declension,  which  subsequently  ended  in  er,  ir,  or  ur,  ter- 
minated in  early  Latin  in  eras,  irus,  urus.  This  is  plain  from  the  remains 
of  the  early  language  that  have  reached  us,  as  well  as  from  other  sources. 
Thus,  in  Plautus  (Men.  v.,  5,  84)  we  have  socerus  instead  of  sneer.  The 
same  writer,  and  others  also,  employ  the  vocative  form  puere,  which  sup- 
poses, of  course,  a  nominative  pucrus.  In  later  Latin  we  have  even  Siler 
and  Silerus  both  occurring,  the  former  in  Lucan,  ii.,  426 ;  the  latter  in 
Pomponius  Mela,  ii.,  4,  9 ;  and  with  these  we  may  compare  Vesper  and 
Vesperus.  That  the  Latin  vir  arose  from  virus  is  also  highly  probable,  and 
is  in  some  degree  confirmed  by  the  existence  of  vira,  as  a  feminine,  in  ear- 
lier Latinity.  (Festus,  s.  v.  Querquetulana:.  Serv.  ad  Virg.  JEn.,  xii., 


40 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


The  genitive  of  those  in  us  and  um  is  formed  by  chan- 
ging these  terminations  into  i.     The  vocative  of  words  in 
<~-74    us  ends  in  e  ;  as,  Ofelix  anne,  O  happy  year  !     In  all  other 
cases  the  vocative  is  like  the  nominative. 


SINGULAR. 

Nom.   gladi-us,  the  sword. 
Gen.    gladi-i,  of  the  sword. 


Dat. 
Ace. 
Voc. 
Abl. 


gladi-o,  to  the  sword. 


gladi-um,  the  sword. 

gladi-e,  O  sword ! 

gladi-o,      from      the 
sword. 
The  neuters  in 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  gladi-i,  the  swords. 
Gen.    gladi-orum,     of     the 

swords. 

D  at.     gladi-ls,  to  the  swords. 
Ace.     gladi-os,  the  swords. 
Voc.     gladi-i,  O  swords  ! 
Abl.     gladi-is.     from     the 

swords.    */'   *^ -^"^ '27 

are  declined  in  the  same  way ;  but 


in  the  plural  they  have  the  termination  a,  and  the  nomina- 
tive, accusative,  and  vocative  are  alike  in  the  singular  as 
well  as  in  the  plural. 

SlNGUL'AR. 

Nom.  scamn-um,  the  bench. 
Gen.  scamn-i,  of  the  bench. 


Dat.    scamn-d  i  to  the  bench. 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  scamn-d,  the  benches. 
Gen.  scamn-orum,     of     the 

benches. 
Dat.    scamn  -  is,      to       the 

benches. 

Ace.   scamn-d,  the  benches. 
Voc.  scamn-a,  O  benches ! 
Abl.   scamn-is,      from      the 

benches. 


Ace.   scamn-um,  the  bench. 
Voc.  scamn-um,  O  bench  ! 
Abl    scamn-d,      from       the 

bench. 

Vir  and  its  compounds,  as  well  as  satur,  simply  add  the 
terminations  of  the  different  cases  to  the  nominative. 

Some  of  the  words  in  er  are  likewise  declined  by  mere- 
ly adding  the  terminations  to  the  nominative  ;  as,  puer,  pu- 
er-i,  pucr-o,  pucr-um,  puer-orum,  puer-is,  pucr-os  ;  others 
reject  the  short  c  in  the  oblique  cases ;  as,  liber  (a  book), 
libr-i,  libr-o,  libr-um,  &c.  Those  which  retain  the  e  are 
not  very  numerous,  viz.,  adulter,  gener,  puer,  socer,  vesper 't 
Liber  (the  god  Bacchus),  and  liberi  (the  children,  only  in 

468.)  So  Iber  is  only  shortened  from  Iberus,  and  satur  from  saturus,  &c. 
Many  Greek  words  likewise  appear  in  Latin  shorn  of  their  appropriate  ter- 
mination; as,  aypof  (agrus,  agerus),  ager ;  JZ.vav6pO(;,(Euandrus,)  Euander, 
&c.  It  may  be  added  that,  in  most  words  of  this  class,  the  e  in  the  middle 
is  syncopated  ;  as,  liber,  libri ;  ager,  agri.  That  this  is  a  true  syncope  is 
clearly  shown  by  dexter,  gen.  dexteri  and  dextri.  (Struve,  tiber  die  Lat. 
Dedin.,  &c,  p.  ll.)]-Am.  Ed. 


FIRST    AND    SECOND   DECLENSIONS.  41 

the  plural) ;  the  adjectives  asper,  lacer,  liber  (free),  miser, 
prosper,  and  tener.  To  these  we  must  add  the  compounds 
of  ferre  and  gerere ;  as,  Lucifer,  armiger,  and  the  words 
presbyter,  Iber,  and  Celtiber  (plural  CeltiberiJ.  The  adjec- 
tive dexter  has  both  forms,  dextera  and  dextra,  dextermn  and 
dextrum,  although  the  elision  of  the  e  is  more  frequent. 

[()  49.]  Note  1. — The  genitive  of  nouns,  both  proper  and  common,  in  ius 
and  turn,  in  the  best  age  of  the  Latin  language,  was  not  ii,  but  i;  as,  fili 
for  filii,  and,  in  like  manner,  Appi,  ingeni,  imperi,  consili,  negoti.  So,  at  least, 
it  was  pronounced  in  the  poets  before  and  during  the  Augustan  age,  as  in 
Virgil,  Horace,  and  Tibullus.  Properties  is  the  first  who,  in  a  few  in- 
stances, has  ii,  which  occurs  frequently  in  Ovid ;  and  in  the  later  poets, 
who  preferred  regularity  of  formation  to  euphony,  it  is  quite  common. 
(See  Bentley  on  Terence,  Andr.,  ii.,  1,  20.)  With  regard  to  poets,  the 
metre  must  determine  this  point ;  and  it  was  in  consequence  of  the  metre 
that  Lucretius  (v.,  1004),  though  one  of  the  early  poets,  wrote  ndvlgii,  be- 
cause otherwise  the  word  would  not  have  suited  the  hexameter.  But  the 
orthography  of  prose  writers  who  lived  before  the  Augustan  age  is  doubt- 
ful, on  account  of  the  great  discrepancy  which,  on  this  point  as  on  every- 
thing connected  with  orthography,  prevails  in  the  MSS.,  even  in  the  most 
ancient  ones  of  Cicero,  which  have  recently  been  discovered.  It  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that,  although  ii  may  have  been  written,  only  one  i  was 
pronounced,  as  was  always  done  in  the  words  dii  and  diis.  The  genitive 
mancipi  for  mancipii,  which  occurs  in  many  legal  expressions,  is  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  practice,  and  remained  in  use  in  later  times.  Concerning  the 
accent  of  these  contracted  genitives,  and  of  the  vocatives  of  proper  names 
in  ius,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter,  see  above,  §  33.  and  Bentley,  /.  c. 

Note  2. — The  following  nine  adjectives  or  adjective  pronouns,  unus, 
solus,  totus,  ullus,  uter,  neuter,  alter,  nullus,  and  alius,  together  with  their 
compounds  uterque,  utervis,  uterlibet,  utercunque,  and  alteruter,  form  the  geni- 
tive in  all  their  three  genders  in  ius,  and  the  dative  in  i ;  in  addition  to  which, 
uter  and  neuter  eject  the  e  preceding  the  r.  The  i  of  this  genitive  is  long  in 
prose,  but  in  verse  it  is  sometimes  made  short.  (See  §  16.)  Alterius  alone 
has  the  i  short  both  in  prose  and  in  verse  (with  a  few  exceptions,  as  in 
Terence,  Andr.,  iv.,  1,  4;  see  §  850),  according  to  the  statement  of  Pris- 
cian,  p.  694,  958.  It  is  true  that  alterius  cannot  be  used  in  the  dactylic 
hexameter  without  the  i  being  short,  but  it  is  used  in  the  same  manner  in 
a  trochee  by  Plautus  (Capt.,  ii.,  2,  56).  There  are  only  a  few  instances  in 
which  these  words  follow  the  regular  declension.  (See  below,  §  140.) 

[§50.]  Note  3. — The  vocative  of  proper  names  in  rus  ends  in  z' instead  of 
ie,  e.  g.,  AntSni,  Merciiri,  Terenti,  7'ulli,  Virgili.  In  like  manner,  the  proper 
names  in  iius,  being  sometimes  softened  down  into  Ius,  make  the  vocative 
in  a  simple  i ;  as,  Gai,  Pornpet.  But  this  rule  cannot  be  applied  to  proper 
names  in  Ius  from  the  Greek  EIOS,  as  in  Anus,  Heradlus ;  nor  to  those 
names  which  are  in  reality  adjectives,  and  are  used  as  proper  names  only 
when  filius,  deus,  or  heros  is  understood,  such  as  Laertius,  the  son  of 
Laertes,  i.  e.,  Ulysses ;  Cynthius,  Delius,  the  Cynthian  or  Delian  god,  i.  e., 
Apollo;  Tirynthius,  the  Tirynthian  hero,  i.  e.,  Hercules.  All  such  words 
retain  ie  in  the  vocative  ;  and  in  like  manner  Pius,  when  used  as  a  proper 
name,  probably  formed  the  vocative  Pie ;  for  all  common  nouns  and 
adjectives,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  regu- 
larly formed  their  vocative  in  ie ;  as,  nuntie,  adversarie,  impie,  although  there 
are  no  passages  in  ancient  writers  to  prove  it.  Butj^/ms  and  genius  make 
their  vocative  fili,  geni,  and  meus  (though  not  mea  or  meum)  makes  mi. 
Deus,  in  the  vocative,  is  like  the  nominative  ;  as,  O  deus  !  mi  deus  .'* 

*  [The  form  dee,  as  a  vocative,  first  occurs  at  a  later  period,  in  the 
Christian  writers ;  as,  for  example.  Prudentius  and  Tertullian.] — Am.  Ed. 
D  2 


42  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

What  has  here  been  said  of  deus  alone  is  applied  by  poets  to  other 
words  also :  they  not  unfrequently  imitate  the  Greeks  by  making  the  voc- 
ative like  the  nominative,  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Phorm.,  ii.,  2,  10:  O  vir  fortis 
atque  amicus  !  Horat.,  de  Art.  Poet.,  292,  t-os,  O  Pompilius  sanguis  !  Carm., 
i.,  2,  43,  almaefilius  Maiae.  Ovid,  Fast.,  iv.,  731,  populus.  In  Livy,  too,  it 
occurs  in  some  ancient  formula; ;  as,viii.,  9,  agedumpontifexpublicus  populi 
Rom.  •  and  i.,  24,  tu  populus  Albanus ;  but  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting 
the  form  papule,  which  occurs  in  other  passages. 

[§  51.]  Note  4. — The  genitive  plural  of  some  words,  especially  those 
which  denote  money,  measure,  and  weight,  is  commonly  urn*  instead  of 
orum,  particularly  nummum,  sestertium,  denarium,  cadum,  medimnum,  modium, 
jugerum,  talentum.  Nummum  is  commonly  used  in  this  way  in  connexion 
with  numerals ;  whereas  otherwise,  when  it  merely  denotes  money  in 
general,  nummorum  is  the  usual  form,  e.  g.,  tantum  nummorum,  acervi  num- 
morum.  There  are  some  other  words  in  which  this  is  the  usual  form  in 
certain  combinations,  such  as  praefectusfabrum,  or  socium,  fromfaber  and 
socius  ;  so,  also,  duumvirum,  triumvirum,  decemvirum.  Liberi  and  deus  have 
both  forms,  liberorum,  deorum,  and  liberum,  deum.  Poets  indulge  in  still 
greater  licenses,  especially  with  names  of  nations ;  they  say,  e.  g.,  Argi- 
vurn,  Danaum,  Poenum,  &c.,  instead  of  Argivorum,  Danaorum,  Poenorum, 
and  in  Livy  we  find  Celtiberum,  as  well  as  Celtiberorum.  We  might  point 
out  several  more  isolated  peculiarities  of  this  kind ;  as,  ephorum  in  Corn. 
Nepos,  Agesil.,  4.  Respecting  the  genitive  of  numerals  (cardinal,  and 
especially  distributive  numerals),  see  below,  Chap.  XXIX.  and  XXX. 

Note  5. — Deus  has  three  forms  in  the  nom.  and  ablat.  plur.,  viz.,  dei,  dii, 
and  di,  and  deis,  diis,  and  dis.  The  forms  in  i  are  the  most  usual,  and  in 
reality  only  one  of  them,  since  dii  and  diis  were  pronounced  as  monosylla- 
bles (Priscian,  p.  737),  and  are  most  frequently  found  thus  spelled  in  the 
ancient  MSS. 

The  following  words  may  serve  as  exercises  of  declen- 
sion :  Annus,  year ;  corvus,  raven ;  liortus,  garden ;  lectus, 
bed  ;  mcdicus,  physician  ;  morbus,  illness ;  nuntius,  mes- 
senger ;  populus,  people  ;  rivus,  brook  ;  taurus,  bull ;  ven- 
tus,  wind.  Neuters  in  urn :  Astrum,  star ;  helium,  war ; 
collum,  neck ;  dolium,  cask  ;  donum,  present ;  mcmbrum, 
limb  ;  negotium,  business  ;  ovum,  egg ;  poculum,  cup  ;  proe- 
lium,  battle;  sepulcrum,  sepulchre;  signum,  sign;  tergum, 
back ;  vinculum,  fetter.  Those  in  er,  genit.  cri,  have  been 
mentioned  above.  The  following  are  the  most  common 
among  those  which  reject  the  e  before  the  r :  Ager,  field; 
apcr,  boar;  arbiter,  arbitrator ;  austcr,  south  wind  ;  cancer, 
cancer,  or  crab  ;  coluber,  snake  ;  culter,  knife ;  faber,  work- 
man ;  liber,  book ;  magistcr,  teacher ;  minister,  servant. 
To  these  must  be  added  the  proper  names  in  er,  e.  g.,  Al- 
exander, genit.  Alexandra.  The  adjectives  which  reject 

*  We  do  not  write  urn,  as  is  done  in  most  editions,  for  several  reasons : 
1.  Because  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  form  arose  from  contraction;  2.  Be- 
cause, according  to  the  testimony  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  no  final 
syllable  in  m  with  a  vowel  before  it  is  long  (which  would  be  implied  in 
the  circumflex),  whence  no  one  would  be  able  to  distinguish  by  his  ear 
such  a  genitive  as  nummum  from  the  accus.  sing.,  as  Quintilian,  i.,  6,  17, 
attests ;  and,  3.  Because  no  accents  are  used  in  Latin. 


GREEK  WORDS  OF  THE  SECOND  DECLENSION.    43 

the  e  are  aeger,  ater,  creber,  glaber,  macer,  niger,  piger, 
impiger,  pulcher,  ruber,  sacer,  scaber,  sinister,  taeter, 
vafer. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

GREEK    WORDS    OF    THE    SECOND    DECLENSION. 

J52.]  GREEK  words  in  of  and  neuters  in  ov,  which 
e  ov  in  the  genitive,  are  commonly  Latinized  in  the 
nominative  by  the  terminations  us  and  um,  such  as  the 
common  nouns  taurus,  antrum,  tlieatrum,  and  the  proper 
names  Homcrus,  Pyrrhus,  Corintlius.  Other  common 
nouns,  which  are  more  rarely  used,  admit  of  both  termi- 
nations in  the  nominative ;  as,  arctos  and  arctus,  barbitos 
and  barbitus,  scorpios  and  scorpius  ;  and  this  is  still  more 
frequently  the  case  in  proper  names,  so  that,  e.  g.,  Paros, 
Dclos,  Isthmos,  and  Ilion  are  used  along  with  Parus,  De- 
lus,  Isthmus,  and  Ilium.  Generally  speaking,  however, 
the  Greek  forms  belong  more  particularly  to  poets  and 
the  later  prose  writers.  Greek  names  in  poc,  with  a  con- 
sonant before  it,  sometimes  become  Latinized  by  the  ter- 
mination er,  and  sometimes  they  change  pog  into  rus,  and 
make  their  vocative  in  e.  The  former  takes  place  in  by 
far  the  greater  number  of  cases,  e.  g.,  Alexander,  Maean- 
dcr,  Teucer  ;  the  only  instances  in  which  the  termination 
rus  is  found  are,  Codrus,  Hcbnis,  Locrus,  Petrus.*  In  the 
compounds  of  [terpov,  and  a  few  others,  both  forms  are 
used,  as  hexameter  and  hexametrus,  though  the  latter  oc- 
curs more  frequently.  "Words  ending  in  os  in  the  nomi- 
native may  make  the  accusative  in  on  instead  of  um ;  as, 
Delon,  Bosporon,  Tarson.  The  nominative  plural  some- 
times ends  in  oe  (the  Greek  diphthong  oi),  as  in  canepho- 
roe,  Cicero,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  3,  8;  Locroe,  Quintil.,  x.,  1,  70.t 

*  [To  these  Schneider  subjoins  Myriandrus,  Antandrus,  hydras,  amphi- 
macrus,  diametrus,  and  perimetrus.  (L.  G.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  75.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [This  ending  belongs  properly  to  the  earlier  state  of  the  language. 
Thus,  in  Plautus  (Cas.  prol.,  31)  we  have  clerumtnce,  and  also  (Poen.,  i., 
1,  9)  lerae.  In  many  MSS.,  too,  the  Comedy  of  Terence  which  we  enti- 
tle Addphi,  is  called  Adelphce.  Besides  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  however, 
we  find  it  in  Nepos  (Miltiad.,iv.,  3),  hemerodromce ;  in  Pliny  (H.  N.,  37,  10), 
boles;  and  most  frequently  in  the  names  of  nations  and  cities;  as,  Sellas 
(Lucan,  iii.,  180);  Holmce  (Plin.,  H.  N.,  v.,  27);  Arimaspce  (Pomp.  Mela,  ii., 
1,  2),  &c.  (Consult  Schneider,  L.  G.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  82,  seq.)]— Am.  Ed. 


44  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

The  genitive  plural  in  on,  instead  of  orum,  occurs  in  the 
titles  of  books,  such  as  Bucolicon,  Georgicon* 

2.  Greek  proper  names  in  ovc,  contracted  from  ooc,  are 
in  Latin  either  resolved  into  ous  or  end  in  us;  as,  Alcinous, 
Aristonus,  Panthus.     The  vocative  of  the  latter  form  is  u ; 
as,  Panthu. 

3.  Some  Greek  proper  names  in  o>r,  which  in  Greek 
follow  the  second  Attic  declension  (as,  Athos,  Ceos,  Cos, 
TeosJ,  in  Latin  either  follow  the  Greek  declension,  e.  g., 
Athos,  gen.  and  dat.  At/to,  accus.  Atho  or  Aihon  ;  or  they 
take  the  Latin  form;  as,  Tyndareus  for  Tyndareos,  and 
Cous  (for  Cos,  KoJc),  Coo,  Coum,  ablat.  Co,  e.  g.,  in  Co  in- 
sula.     Athos,  however,  is  also  declined  as  a  noun  of  the 
third  declension  with  the  nominative  Athon  or  Atho — 
Athoncm,  Athone.        -t^di^&r-    <d(.j&(2-) 

4.  Greek  words  in  eve  of  the  third  Greek  declension, 
such  as  Orpheus,  Idomcneus,  Phalercus,  Prometheus,  were 
pronounced  in  Latin  sometimes  eus,  as  one  syllable,  and 
sometimes  eus.     The  best  way  is  to  make  them  follow 
entirely  the  second  Latin  declension;  as,  Orpliei,  Orpheo, 
Orpheum,  with  the  exception  of  the  vocative,  which  (ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  third  declension)  ends  in  cu.     The 
Greek  terminations,  gen.  cos,  dat.  ei  (contracted  ~ei),  accus. 
ca,\   are  chiefly  found  in  poetry ;  but  the  accusative  is 
frequent  also  with  prose  writers,  though  Cicero  (ad  Att., 
vii.,  3)  does  not  approve  of  it ;  as,  Phalcrca,  Promethea, 
Tydea.     The  terminations  el,  eo,  ea  are  sometimes  con- 
tracted by  poets  into  a  diphthong,  because  the  metre  re- 
quires it.     (See  above,  §  11.)    Horace  makes  the  genitive 
of  Achilles   and    Ulixes — AcTiillei,    Ulixe'i,  or   contracted 
Achillei,  Ulix'ei,  as  though  the  nominative  still  ended  in 
eve.     The  name  Perseus  is  usually  formed  by  Cicero  af- 
ter the  first  declension  :  nom.  Perses,  gen.  and  dat.  Per- 
sac,  ace.  Per  sen,  abl.  Perse  and  Persa.      Livy  preferred 
the   second    declension  :   Perseus,  Pcrse'i,  Perseo  (rarely 
Persi,  according  to  the  third,  like  the  Greek  Hepoel),  but 
in  the  accusative  he  has  more  frequently  Persca  than  Per- 


*  [And  in  some  unusual  geographical  names  ;  as,  Colonia  Theraeon  (Sail., 
Jug.,  xix.,  3)  ;  Philenon  arce  (Id.  ib.)  ;  Tegestrceon  (Prise.,  Perieg.,  375.)]— 
Am.  Ed. 

fin  some  words  also  ea,  if  the  verse  requires  it ;  as,  Idomenea,  Ilionca : 
ija  and  ed  are  Ionic  forms,  and  the  Attic  ed  is  not  customary  in  Latin. 


GENDER    OF    NOUNS    OP    SECOND   DECLENSION.         45 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

GENDER    OP    THE    NOUNS    OF    THE    SECOND    DECLENSION. 

[§  53.]  1.  NOUNS  in  us,  er,  andir  are  masculine;  those 
in  um,  and  the  Greek  nouns  in  ow,  are  neuter. 

2.  Of  those  in  us,  however,  the  following  are  feminine: 
the  names  of  plants  and  precious  stones,  as  well  as  those 
of  towns  and  islands,  with  a  few  exceptions.  (See  above, 
§  39.)  It  must  be  observed  that  in  many  cases  where  the 
name  of  a  tree  ends  in  us  fern.,  there  is  a  form  in  um  de- 
noting the  fruit  of  the  tree,  e.  g.,  cerasus,  cerasum ;  malus, 
malum  ;  morus,  morum  ;  pirus,  pirum  ;  prunus,  prunum ; 
pomus,  pomum  ;  \>\Ajicus  signifies  both  the  tree  and  the 
fruit.  There  are  only  four  other  genuine  Latin  words  in 
us  which  are  feminine,  viz.,  alvus,  humus,  vannus,  and  co- 
lus,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  declined  after  the  fourth 
declension,  gen.  us.  Pampinus,  a  branch  of  a  vine,  is 
rarely  feminine,  but  commonly  masculine.  Virus  (juice 
or  poison)  and  pclagus  (TO  rre/layoc,  the  sea)  are  neuter. 
Vulgus  (the  people)  is  sometimes  masculine,  but  more  fre- 
quently neuter. 

[$  54.]  Note. — With  regard  to  the  numerous  Greek  feminines  in  us  (or  05) 
which  have  been  adopted  into  the  Latin  language,  such  as  the  compounds 
of  ft  6<5of  :  exodus,  methodus,  periodus,  and  synodus,  the  student  must  be  re- 
ferred to  his  Greek  grammar,  for  the  Latin  differs  in  this  respect  from  the 
Greek.  The  words  biblus,  and  papyrus  (the  Egyptian  papyrus),  byssus, 
and  carbasus  (a  fine  flax  and  the  linen  made  out  of  it),  are  feminine,  being 
names  of  plants  ;  but  they  retain  this  gender  also  when  they  denote  things 
manufactured  from  them.  Pharus,  being  the  name  of  an  island,  is  femi- 
nine ;  but  it  is  also  feminine  in  the  sense  of  a  light-house,  which  meaning 
it  obtained  from  the  fact  of  the  first  light-house  being  built  in  that  island 
near  Alexandria;  it  is,  however,  now  and  then  used  as  a  masculine 
(Sueton.,  Claud.,  20).  Arctus  (os),  denoting  a  bear,  is  properly  both  masc. 
and  fern. ;  but  as  the  name  of  a  constellation,  it  is  in  Latin  always  femi- 
nine. Barbitus  (a  lyre),  or  barbitos,  is  sometimes  used  as  fem.  and  some- 
times as  masc.,  but  we  also  find  hoc  barbiton. 

We  must  notice  here  especially  a  number  of  words  which  in  Greek  are 
properly  adjectives,  and  are  used  as  feminine  substantives,  because  a  sub- 
stantive of  this  gender  is  understood.  Such  words  are  :  abyssus,  atomus, 
dialectus,  diphthmtgus,  eremus,  paragraphus,  diametrus,  and  perimetrus,  the 
last  two  of  which,  however,  are  used  by  Latin  writers  also  with  the  Greek 
termination  os.  For  the  substantives  understood  in  these  cases,  see  the 
Greek  Grammar.  As  different  substantives  may  be  understood,  we  have 
both  antidotus  and  antidotum.  The  word  epodus  also  belongs  to  this  class, 
but  its  gender  varies  according  to  its  different  meanings  :  when  it  denotes 
a  lyric  epilogue,  it  is  feminine ;  when  it  denotes  a  shorter  iambic  verse 
after  a  longer  one,  or  when  it  is  the  name  of  the  peculiar  species  of  Hora- 
tian  poetry,  it  is  masculine. 


46  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

THIRD    DECLENSION.— GENITIVE. 

[§  55.]  NOUNS  of  the  third  declension  form  their  geni- 
tive in  is.  The  nominative  has  a  great  variety  of  termi- 
nations, for  sometimes  there  is  no  particular  ending,  and 
the  nominative  itself  is  the  crude  form,*  such  as  it  usually 
appears  after  the  separation  of  the  termination  of  the  geni- 
tive ;  frequently,  however,  the  nominative  has  a  special 
ending  (s).  The  former  is,  generally  speaking,  the  case 
with  those  words  the  crude  form  of  which  ends  in  /  or  r, 
so  that  the  nominative  ends  in  the  same  consonants,  and 
the  genitive  is  formed  by  simply  adding  is;  e.  g.,  sol,  con- 
sul, calcar,  agger,  auctor,  dolor,  murmur.  Words  like  pa- 
ter and  imber,  the  crude  form  of  which  appears  in  the 
genitive  and  ends  in  r,  with  a  consonant  before  it,  aspatr-is, 
imbr-is,  admit  of  a  double  explanation  :  either  the  nomi- 
native was  increased  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
pronunciation,  or  the  genitive  rejected  the  short  e;  the 
former,  however,  is  the  more  probable  supposition.  In 
some  words  the  nominative  has  s  instead  of  r;  as,Jlos,  gen. 
jlor-is;  tcllus,  tcllur-is  ;  in  addition  to  which  the  vowel 
sometimes  undergoes  a  change,  as  in  corpus,  corpor-is ; 
onus,  oner-is.  When  the  crude  form  ends  in  n,  with  a 
vowel  before  it,  the  formation  of  the  nominative  is  like- 
wise accompanied  by  changes :  on  throws  off  the  n,  and 
in  becomes  en,  or  is  changed  into  o.  Thus,  leo  is  made 
from  Icon  (leon-is),  carmen  from  carmin  (carmin-is),  and 
virgo  from  virgin  (virgin-is.)  Only  when  the  genitive 
ends  in  enis,  the  nominative  retains  In,  as  in  lien-is,  lien. 
2.  The  particular  termination  which  the  nominative  re- 
ceives in  other  cases  is  e  for  neuters  ;  as,  mar-is,  mar-e, 
and  «?,  or  x,  which  arises  out  of  s,  for  masculines  and  femi- 
nines.  This  s  is  sometimes  added  to  the  final  consonant 
of  the  crude  form  without  any  change,  as  in  urb-is,  urb-s  ; 

*  [See  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  crude  forms  of  nouns,  in  Allen's 
Etymological  Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs,  p.  8,  seqq.  As  every  crude  form 
must  end  either  in  a  consonant  or  a  vowel  (a,  e,  i,  o,  u),  we  have  the  more 
philosophical  arrangement  of  the  consonant-declension  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  a-declension,  e-declension,  i-declension,  o-declension,  and  w-declen- 
sion  on  the  other.  The  term  crude  form  was  first  employed,  as  is  thought, 
by  Bopp,  in  the  Annals  of  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.] — Am.  Ed. 


THIRD    DECLENSION. GENITIVE.  47 

duc-ix,  dux  (dues)  ;  legis,  lex  (legs) ;  when  the  crude  form 
ends  in  d  or  t,  these  consonants  are  dropped  before  the 
.v  /  e.  g.,  frond-is,  frons  ;  mont-is,  mons  ;  aetat-is,  aetds  ; 
seget-is,  segls ;  in  addition  to  this  the  vowel  i,  also,  is  some- 
times changed  into  e,  as  in  milit-is,  miles  ;  judlc-is,  judcx. 
In  all  these  cases  where  the  nominative  is  formed  by  the 
addition  of  an  s  to  the  final  consonant  of  the  crude  form, 
the  nominative  has  one  syllable  less  than  the  genitive,  or, 
in  other  words,  the  s  assumes  an  e  or  e  before  it,  and  then 
the  nominative  has  the  same  number  of  syllables  as  the 
genitive,  or,  in  case  the  nominative  assumes  i,  both  cases 
are  quite  the  same  ;  e.  g.,  nub-cs,  civ-is,  pan-is. 

These  are  the  most  essential  points  in  the  formation  of 
the  nominative  in  the  third  declension.  We  shall  now 
proceed  to  the  particulars,  taking  the  nominative,  as  is 
the  usual  practice,  as  the  case  given,  and  we  shall  point 
out  in  what  way  the  genitive  is  formed  from  it. 

[§  56.]  1.  The  nouns  in  a,  which  are  neuters  of  Greek 
origin,  make  their  genitive  in  at  is  ;  as,  poema,  poematis. 

2.  Those  in  e  change  e  into  is  ;  as,  mare,  marts  ;   Prae- 
neste,  Praenestis,  and  probably  also  caepe,  caepis,  for  which, 
however,  there  is  also  the  form  cepa,  ac. 

3.  The  nouns  in  i  and  y  are  Greek  neuters.     Some  of 
them  are  indeclinable;    as,  gummi;   and  others  have  the 
regular  genitive  in  is;  as,$inapi,sinapis  (there  is,  however, 
a  second  nominative  in  is,  as  in  several  other  words  end- 
ing in  ?',  as  haec  sinapis) ;  misy,  inisyis  and  misys  or  mis- 
yos.     The  compounds  of  meli  (honey)  alone  make  their 
genitive  according  to  the  Greek  in  itis;  &s,mclomeli,mclo- 
melltis.  ,*,  &£  f^yc^.4 

4.  Those  in  o  (common)  add  nis  to  form  the  genitive, 
sometimes  only  lengthening  the  o,  and  sometimes  chan- 
ging it  into  i.    Of  the  former  kind  are  carbo,  latro,  ho,  ligo, 
pavo,  praedo,  sermo  ;  and  all  those  ending  in  io ;  as,  actio, 
dictio,  pugio.     Of  the  latter  kind  (genit.  mis)  are  all  ab- 
stract nouns  in  do  ;  as,  consuctudo,  mis  ;  most  nouns  in  go  ; 
as,  imago,  virgo,  origo  ;  and  a  few  others ;  as,  car  do,  hirundo, 
turbo,  homo,  nemo.      Caro  has  carnis.     The  names  of  na- 
tions in  o  have  this  vowel  mostly  short;  as,J\Iaceddncs,  Se- 
nones,  Saxoncs ;   it  is  long  only  in  luncs,  Lacdnes,  Nasa- 
mones,  Suessones,  and  Vettones. 

5.  The  only  nouns  ending  in  c  are  alec  or  allec,  allex, 
gen.  allecis  ;  and  lac,  gen.  lactis. 


48  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

6.  Nouns  ending  in  I  form  the  genitive  by  merely  add- 
ing is,  such  as  sol,  sal,  consul,  pugil,  animal.     Mel  has 
mellis,  and  in  plur.  mella  ;  fd  has  fellis,  but  is  without  a 
plural. 

7.  Those  in  en  (which  are  all  neuters,  with  the  excep- 
tion ofpcctenj  make  mis;  as, carmen, Jlumcn,  lumen,  nomen. 
Those  in  en  retain  the  long  e  and  have  enis;  but  there  are 
only  two  genuine  Latin  words  of  this  kind,  ren  and  lien  ; 
for  lichen,  splen,  and  attagen  are  of  Greek  origin. 

Greek  words  in  an,  en,  in,  yn,  and  on  follow  the  Greek 
rules  in  regard  to  the  length  or  shortness  of  the  vowel, 
and  also  in  regard  to  the  insertion  of  a  t :  Paean,  Pae- 
anis ;  Siren  and  Troczcn,  enis ;  PJiilopocmcn,  Philopoe- 
mlnis ;  Elcusin,  Elcusmis ;  Phorcyn,  Phorcynis ;  agon, 
agonis ;  canon,  canonis ;  Cimon,  Cimonis ;  Marathon, 
dnis  ;  Xcnophon,  Xcnophontis.  It  is,  however,  to  be  ob- 
served that  very  few  Greek  words  in  w,  cjvog  (except 
names  of  towns)  have  in  Latin  the  nominative  on,  but 
generally  o.  Thus  we  always  read  Hiero,  Laco,  Plato, 
Zcno,  and  in  Cicero,  also  Dio  and  Solo  ;  in  the  poets,  on 
the  other  hand,  and  in  Nepos  and  Curtius  among  the 
prose  writers,  we  find  several  nominatives  in  on ;  as,  Conon, 
Dion,  Phocion,  Hephaestion.  The  name  Apollo  is  com- 
pletely Latinized,  and  makes  the  genit.  Apollinis.  Those 
in  (*)V,  CJVTOC  vary,  and  we  find  Antipho  without  the  n, 
though  most  end  in  on ;  as,  Xenophon.  Those  in  on>,  ovoc, 
and  cjv,  OVTOC,  usually  retain  in  Latin  the  same  nomina- 
tive in  on,  but  we  always  find  Macedo,  and  never  Macedon. 

[§  57.]  8.  Those  ending  in  r  must  be  distinguished  ac- 
cording to  the  vowel  which  precedes  it :  they  may  end  in 
ar,  er,  yr,  or,  or  ur. 

(a)  Those  in  ar  have  sometimes  arts,  as  in  calcar,  luc.ar, 
pulvmar,  torcular,  and  Nar ;  and  sometimes  dris;  &s,bac~ 
car,jubar,  nectar,  lar  (plur.  lares),  par,  and  its  compounds 
(e.  g.,  impar,  imparis],  and  the  proper  names  Ccesar,  Ha- 
milcar,  and  Arar.     But  Lar,  or  Lars,  the  Etruscan  title, 
has  Lartis.     Far  makes  its  genitive  farris,  and  hepar, 
hepatis. 

(b)  Many  of  the  Latin  words  in  er  make  eris;  as,  agger, 
aggeris  ;  mulier,  mulieris,  &c.,  and  the  adjectives  pauper 
and  uber.     Others  drop  the  short  e ;  as,  for  instance,  all 
those  ending  in  Ur  (e.  g.,  venter,  uter,  pater),  with  the  ex- 
ception of  later,  and  the  words  imber,  September,  October, 


THIRD    DECLENSION. GENITIVE.  49 

November,  December.  Iter  makes  its  genit.  (from  a  dif- 
ferent nominal.)  itineris.  Juppiter  ( Jovi'  pater)  makes  the 
genitive  Jams,  without  the  addition  ofpattris.  Greek  words 
in  cr  follow  the  rules  of  the  Greek  language,  whence  we 
say  crater,  eris  ;  aer,  aeris.  Ver  (the  spring),  gen.  vcris, 
originally  belonged  to  the  same  class. 

(c)  Nouns  ending  in  yr  are  Greek,  and  follow  the  rules 
of  the  Greek  Grammar :  martyr,  martyris. 

(d)  Those  in  or  have  (iris ;  as,  amor,  error,  soror  ;  but 
arbor,  the  three  neuters  ador,  acquor,  marmor,  and  the  ad- 
jective mcmor,  have  oris.     Cor  has  cordis,  and  so  also  in 
the    compounded   adjectives    concors,   discors,   misericors. 
Greek  proper  names,  such  as  Hector,  Nestor,  and  others, 
have  oris,  as  in  Greek. 

(e)  Those  in  ur  have  uris,  e.  <^.,fulgur,  vultur,  and  the 
adject,  cicur.     Fur  (a  thief)  alone  haBfuru;  and  the  four 
neuters  cbur,  femur,  jeeiir,  and  robur  have  uris,  as  cboris, 
rob  oris.     Jccur  has,  besides  jccoris,  also    the  forms  jeci- 
noris,  jocinoris,  oxidjocineris. 

[§  58.]  9.  Those  ending  in  s  are  very  numerous  ;  they 
may  terminate  in  as,  cs,  is,  os,  us,  aus,  or  in  s,  with  a  con- 
sonant preceding  it. 

(a)  Those  in  as  form  their  genitive  in  dtis ;  as,  aetas, 
aetatis.      Anas   alone   has   anatis ;    mas  has   maris ;    vas 
(a   surety),   vadis ;    vas   (a  vessel),   vasis,   and   as,  assis. 
The  Greek  words  vary  according  to  their  gender ;    the 
masculines  make  antis,  the  feminines  adis,  and  the  neuters 
atis.     (See  the  Greek  Grammar.)     Consequently,  Pallas, 
the  name  of  a  male  being,  has  the  genit.  Pall  ant  is,  like 
gigas,  gigantis  ;    as   the  name  of  the  goddess  Minerva, 
Palladia ;    and  artocreas  neut,  has  artocreatis. 

(b)  Those  ending  in  es  must  be  divided  into  two  classes. 
Those  belonging  to  the  first  increase  in  the  genitive,  the 
letter  d  or  t,  which  was  dropped  in  the  nominative,  be- 
ing restored  to  its  place,  and  their  termination  is  either 
ttis,  etis,  etis,QTidis,  edis,  edis.     The  genitive  in  it-is  occurs 
in  most  of  them,  as  in  antistcs,  comes,  eques,  liospcs,  miles, 
pedes,  satelles,  caespes,fomcs,  gurges,  limes,  merges,  palmes, 
stipes,  and  trames,  together  with  the  adjectives  ales,  codes, 
dives,  sospes,  and  superstes,  in  all  of  which  the  cs  is  short. 
(See  §  28.)      The  following  make  their  genitive  in  ctis  : 
abies,  aries,  paries,  interprcs,  segcs,  tegcs,  and  the  adjec- 
tives hebcs,indigcs,  praepes,  and  tcres.   The  genit.  in  etis  oc- 

E 


50  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

curs  in  the  Greek  words  lebcs,  tapes,  Cebes,  Magnes;  in 
the  words  quies,  inquies,  requies,  and  the  adjective  locu- 
plcs.  Those  which  make  idis  are,  obses,  praeses,  and  the 
adject,  dcses  and  rcscs.  The  genitive  in  cdis  occurs  in  pes, 
pedis,  and  its  compounds,  e.  g.,  the  plural  compcdes. 
Heres  and  merces,  lastly,  make  their  genitive  in  edis.  The 
following  words  must  be  remembered  separately  :  bes, 
bessis  ;  Ceres,  Ccreris ;  pubcs  and  impubes,  puberis  and 
impuberis ;  but  the  forms  impubis,  genit.  impubis,  neut. 
impube,  are  also  found.  The  proper  name  Cacrcs  (from 
the  town  of  Caere),  has  Caentis  and  Caeritis.  The  second 
class  of  words  in  cs  change  the  cs  of  the  nominative  into 
is,  without  increase,  such  as  cacdcs,  clades,  fames,  nubcs, 
rupes  ;  it  must  also  be  observed  that  several  words  be- 
longing to  this  class  vary  in  the  termination  of  the  nomi- 
native between  cs  and  is,  so  that  along  with  fetes,  vulpes, 
vchcs,  acdcs,  we  also  have  vulpis,  vchis,  aedis  (see  Liv., 
iv.,  25  ;  Cic.  in  Vcrr.,  iv.,  55) ;  and,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  have  torques  and  vallcs,  along  with  the  more  usual 
forms  torquis  and  vallis. 

(c)  Most  words  in  is  form  their  genitive  in  is,  without 
any  increase ;  n,8,avis,  civis,  panis,  piscis,  and  a  great  many 
others,  together  with  the  adjectives  in  is,  c.  Others  in- 
crease by  one  syllable,  and  make  their  genitive  in  idis, 
itis,  or  cris :  idis  occurs  in  cassis,  cuspis,  lapis,  and  in  the 
Greek  words  aegis  and  pyramis ;  Itts  occurs  only  in  Us, 
Quiru,  and  Samnis,  plur.  Quirites,  Sammies ;  and  eris 
only  in  cinis,  cucumis,  and  pulvis,  gen.  cineris,  cucmneris, 
and  pulvcris.  Glis  has  gliris ;  2)O^S  (th°  existence  of 
which,  in  the  nominative,  cannot  be  proved,  so  that  some 
suppose  pollen  to  have  been  the  nom.)  and  sanguis  have 
pollinis,  sangmnis  (but  the  compound  exsanguis  remains  in 
the  genit.  exsanguis)  ;  semis,  being  a  compound  of  as, 
makes  semissis.  Greek  words  which  have  the  genit.  in 
foe  or  eo)^  form  their  genit.  in  Latin  in  is,  without  in- 
crease ;  but,  if  their  genit.  is  idoc,  they  increase  in  Latin, 
and  have  idis.  Of  the  former  kind  we  have  only  the  ver- 
bal substantives  in  sis ;  as,  basis,  matkesis,  the  names  of 
towns  compounded  with  TroAic,  e.  g.,  Ncapolis,  and  a  few 
other  proper  names  of  the  feminine  gender,  such  as  La- 
chesis,  Nemesis,  Syrtis,  Charybdis.  All  other  proper 
and  common  nouns  regularly  make  the  genitive  in  idis  ; 
tigris  alone  has  both  forms,  and  ibix,  ibidis,  takes  in  the 


THIRD    DECLENSION. GENITIVE.  51 

plural  the  shorter  form  ibcs.  Later  authors  use  the  geni- 
tive in  is,  and  the  dative  and  ablative  in  i,  instead  of  idis, 
idi,  ide,  in  other  cases  also,  such  as  Scrapis,  Tanais,  for 
Scrap  idis ^  Tanaidis,  and  in  the  dat.  and  ablat.,  Serapi 
and  Tanai,  for  Serapidi,  Serapide,  and  Tanaidi,  Tanaidc. 
(See  below,  §  62.)  Salamis  stands  alone  by  making  its 
genitive  Salammis  (from  a  nominative  Salamin). 

[§  59.]  (d)  Those  in  os  sometimes  have  otis  ;  as,  cos,  dos, 
ncpos,  sacerdos,  and  sometimes  oris,  like  os  (the  mouth), 
flos,  glos,  mos,  ros,  and,  in  like  manner,  lioribs  and  lepos,  the 
more  common  forms  for  honor*  and  lepor.  Gustos  makes 
custodis ;  os  (bone),  ossis ;  bos,  bovis.  The  adjectives 
compos  and  impos  have  potis.  The  Greek  masculines 
herds,  Minds,  and  Tros  have  dis  ;  and  some  neuters  in  os, 
such  as  Argos,  epos,  occur  only  in  the  nominative  and  ac- 
cusative. 

(c)  Of  the  words  in  us,  the  feminines  in  us  make  their 
genitive  in  utis ;  as,  virtus,  juventus,  senectus  ;  or  udis,  as 
the  three  words  incus,  palus,  and  subscus.  Tellus  alone  has 
tetturis,  and  Venus,  Vcneris.  The  neuters  in  us  have  some- 
times eris,  ^YL.,focdus,funus,  genus,  latus,  munus,  olus,  onus, 
opus,  pondus,  scelus,  sidus,  ulcus,  vulnus  ;  and  sometimes 
oris;  &s,co?yus,  decus,  dedccus,f acinus,  fcnus,frigus,  litus, 
nemus,  pectus,  pecus,  which  in  another  sense  has  pecudis, 
pignus,  stercus,  tempus,  and  the  noun  epicene  lepus,  Icpd- 
ris,  a  hare.  All  monosyllables  which  have  a  long  u  form 
their  genitive  in  uris  ;  as,  crus,  jus,  pus,  rus,  tus,  and  mus. 
Grus  and  sus  have  uis :  gruis,  suis ;  the  adjective  vetus, 
veteris,  and  intercus,  intercutis.  Greek  proper  names  in  us 
have  untis ;  as,  Amathus,  Selinus,  Trapezus ;  the  com- 
pounds of  TTOVC,  make  podis;  as,  tripus  and  Oedipus,  which 
name,  however,  is  sometimes  made  to  follow  the  second 
declension,  the  us  being  in  that  case  shortened.  Polypus 
always  follows  the  second. 

(f)  Greek  words  in  ys  make  the  genitive  vis,  contract- 
ed ys,  or  altogether  in  the  Greek  form  yos.     Some  few, 
as  chlamys,  have  ydis. 

(g)  The  only  nouns  ending  in  aes  are  aes,  aeris,  and 
praes,  praedis. 

(h)  There  are  only  two  words  in  aus,  viz.,  laus  and 
fraus,  of  which  the  genitives  are  laudis,  fraudis. 

*  Cicero  uses  throughout  only  honos  (for  Philip.,  ix.,  6,  must  be  corrected 
from  the  Vatican  MS.),  and  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  honor  in  the  fragm. 
Pro  Tullio,  §  21,  ed.  Peyron,  must  likewise  be  changed  into  honos. 


52  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

(i)  Among  the  nouns  ending  in  s  preceded  by  a  con- 
sonant, those  in  Is  (except  puts),  ns,  and  rs  change  the  s 
into  tis,  e.  g.,  fons,  mons,  ports,  ars,  pars,  Mars — fontis, 
partis,  &c.  There  are  only  a  few,  such  as  frons  (a 
branch),  glans,  juglans,  and  some  others,  which  make  dis 
—frondis;  but  frons  (the  forehead)  makes  front  is.  The 
other  words  in  s  with  a  consonant  before  it,  that  is,  those 
in  bs,  ps,  and  ms,  form  their  genitive  in  bis,  pis,  mis,  e.  g., 
urlts,  urbis ;  plcbs,  plcbis  ;  stirps,  stirpis  ;  hicms,  hicmis, 
which  is  the  only  word  of  this  termination.  Caclebs  has 
caelibis  ;  the  compounds  of  capio  ending  in  ceps  have  ipis ; 
as,  princeps,  particc.ps — principle  t  partidpis  ;  auceps  alone 
has  aucupis.  The  compounds  of  caput,  which  likewise 
end  in  ceps,  such  as  anceps,  praeceps,  biceps,  triceps,  make 
their  genitive  in  dpitis,  like  caput,  capitis.  Greek  words 
follow  their  own  rules:  those  in  ops  make  opis,  as,  Pelops, 
cpops,  mcrops ;  or  opis,  as,  Cyclops,  hy drops.  Gryps  (a 
griffon)  has  gryphis,  and  Tiryns,  Tirynthis. 

10.  The  termination  t  occurs  only  in  caput  and  its  com- 
pounds, gen.  capitis. 

[§  60.]  11.  The  genitive  of  words  in  x  varies  between 
cis  and  gis,  according  as  the  x  has  arisen  from  cs  or  g&, 
which  may  be  ascertained  by  the  root  of  the  word.  The 
former  is  more  common,  and  thus  the  following  monosyl- 
lables, with  a  consonant  before  the  x,  make  their  genit.  in 
cis :  arx,  calx,  falx,  lanx,  merx ;  gis  occurs  only  in  the 
Greek  words  phalanx,  sphinx,  and  syrinx. 

But  when  the  x  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  must  be  as- 
certained whether  this  vowel  remains  unchanged,  and 
whether  it  is  long  or  short.  The  Latin  words  in  ax  have 
ads;  &s,pax,fornax,  and  the  adjectives,  e.  g.,  audax,  ejfi- 
cax.  Fax  alone  has  a  short  a^jacis.  Greek  words,  too, 
have  mostly  ads;  as,  tJiorax,  Ajax;  and  only  a  few  have 
ads;  as,  corax,  climax,  while  the  names  of  men  in  nax  have 
nactis,  such  as  Astyanax,  Demonax.  Words  in  ex  gener- 
ally make  their  genitive  in  ids;  as,  judex,  artifcx,  supplex; 
but  egis  occurs  in  rex  and  lex  ;  and  egis  in  aquilcx,  grex, 
Lelex  ;  ecis  in  nex,foeniscx,  and  in  precis  (fromprcx,  which 
is  not  used);  ecis  in  vcrvcx,  Myrmcx.  Rcmcx  has  reniigis ; 
senex,  senis  ;  and  supettex,  supellecfilis.  The  words  in  ix 
sometimes  make  their  genitive  in  Ids  and  sometimes  in 
ids.  Of  the  former  kind  are  cervix,  cicatrix,  comix,  co- 
turnix,  lodix,  perdix,  phoenix,  radix,  vibix,  and  all  the 


REMAINING*    CASES    OF    TI1111D    DECLENSION.  53 

words  in  trix  denoting  women,  such  as  nutrix,  victrix,  and 
the  adjectives  felix  and  pernix,  and  probably  also  appen- 
dix ;  ids  occurs  in  calix,  ckocnix,  coxendix,  Jilix,  fornix, 
fulix,  hystrix,  larix,  natrix,  pix,  salix,  varix,  and  Cilix. 
Nix  has  nivis ;  and  strix,  strigis.  The  words  ending  in 
ox  have  dcis,  e.  g.,  vox,  vocis ;  fcrox,  ferocis ;  but  two 
words  have  ocis,  viz.,  Cappadox  and  the  adjective  prae- 
cox.  Nox  has  noctis  ;  Attobrox,  Allobrogis.  The  follow- 
ing words  in  ux  form  the  genitive  in  ucis :  crux,  dux,  nux, 
and  the  adjective  trux  ;  the  u  is  long  only  in  two  words, 
viz.,  lux  and  Pollux,  genit.  luds,  Pollucis.  Conjux  (con- 
junx  is  established  on  better  authorities)  has  conjugis, 
and  frux  (which,  however,  does  not  occur),  frugis.  The 
words  in  yx  are  Greek,  and  vary  very  much  in  the  for- 
mation of  their  genitive :  it  may  be  yds  (Eryx),  yds 
(bombyx),  ygis  ( lapyx,  Phryx,  Styx},  ygis  (coccyx),  and 
yclds  (onyx).  There  is  only  one  word  ending  in  acx,  viz., 
faex,  gen.Jhecist  and  in  aux  cm\yfaux,  gen.faucis. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

THE    REMAINING    CASES    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION. 

[§  61.]  ALL  the  remaining  cases  follow  the  genitive  in 
regard  to  the  changes  we  have  mentioned.  It  should  be 
remarked  that  any  other  of  the  oblique  cases  might  have 
been  chosen,  instead  of  the  genitive,  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  changes  in  which  all  participate ;  but  we 
have  followed  the  common  practice.  It  now  only  re- 
mains to  give  a  tabular  view  of  the  terminations. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom.  — 
Gen.  is. 
Dat. 


Nom.  cs,  neut.  a  (some  ia). 
Gen.  um  (some  ium). 
Dat.    ibus. 
Ace.  like  nom. 
Voc.  like  nom. 
Abl.    thus. 


Ace.    cm  (neut.  like  nom.). 
Voc.   like  nom. 
Abl.    e  (some  1). 

Examples  for  exercise  are  contained  in  the  preceding 
chapter ;  but  we  subjoin  the  following  words,  either  with 
or  without  adjectives,  as  exercises  in  which  the  student 
may  also  apply  the  rules  contained  in  the  next  chapters  : 
Sol  splendens  (lutidus),  the  shining  sun  j  agger  emincns 
E  2 


54  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

(altus),  a  high  mole  ;  pater  prudcns  (providus),  the  pru- 
dent father;  dolor  levis  (parvus),  a  slight  pain;  uxor  con- 
cors  (Jida),  a  faithful  wife  ;  leo  nobilis  (superbus),  a  noble 
lion ;  virgo  erubcscens  (pudica),  the  blushing  maiden ; 
urbs  vetus  (vetusta),  the  ancient  town;  lex  acris  (aspcra), 
a  severe  law ;  frons  tristis  (sevcra),  a  grave  forehead ; 
civitas  immunis  (libcra),  a  free  city;  cassis  ful gens  (splen- 
didaj,  a  brilliant  helmet ;  judcx  clemcns  (bcnignus),  a 
mild  judge;  miles fortis  (strenuus),  a  brave  soldier;  avis 
cantrix  (canora),  a  singing  bird ;  rapes  pracccps  (ardua), 
a  steep  rock;  calcar  acre  (acutumj,  a  sharp  spur;  animal 
turpe  (focdum),  an  ugly  animal ;  carmen  dulce  (gratum), 
a  sweet  poem ;  corpus  tcnuc  (macrum),  a  thin  body ;  in- 
gens  (vastum)  mare,  the  vast  sea ;  sidus  radians  (aureumj, 
the  radiant  star. 

Remarks  on  tlte  separate  Cases. 

1.  Cicero  commonly,  and  other  authors  of  the  best  age 
frequently,  make  the  genitive  of  Greek  proper  names 
ending  in  es,  i  instead  of "  is.  Thus,  in  the  most  accurate 
and  critical  editions,  we  read  Isocrati,  Timarchidi,  The- 
ophani,  Aristotcli,  Praxiteli,  and  even  Hercidi  ;  i,  instead 
of  is,  is  found  most  frequently  (even  in  ordinary  edi- 
tions) in  the  names  ending  in  cles  ;  as,  Agathocli,  Diocli, 
Neocli,  Prodi,  Pcridi,  Thcmistodi.  The  genitive  i  is 
used,  also,  in  barbarian  names  in  es,  which  were  introdu- 
ced through  the  Greek  into  the  Latin  language,  such  as 
Ariobarzani,  Mithridati,  Hystaspi,  Xcrxi,  and  others. 
The  genitives  Ackilli  and  Ulixi,  which  likewise  frequent- 
ly occur  in  Cicero,  probably  arose  from  the  contraction 
of  Achilla  and  Ulixc'i,  first  into  Acliillei  and  Ulixei,  and 
then  of  ci  into  ?',  which  had  the  same  sound.  (See  above, 
Chap.  XII.,  4.)  After  the  time  of  Cicero,  however,  the 
genitive  in  is  alone  was  used.* 

[§  62.]  2.  Many  words  in  is  make  the  accusative  sin- 
gular im  instead  of  cm,  viz., 

*  [Consult,  on  this  whole  subject,  Schneider,  L.  G.,vol.  iii.,  p.  163,  seqq. 
Vechner,  Hellenolex.,  p.  32,  seqq.,  ed.  Heusing.  Drakenborch  ad  Liv.,  42,  25. 
Bentley  ad  Terent.  Andr.,  ii.,  2,  31.  Oudendorp  ad  Apul.  Met.,  i.,  p.  4G. 
We  must  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  no  genuine  Latin  word  in  r.s,  gen. 
is,  also  forms  the  genitive  in  i,  although  Valerius  Probus  (p.  1473)  adduces 
from  Cicero  the  genitive  Verri.  Neither  are  we  to  assign  tin's  ending  in 
i  to  the  genitive  of  those  Greek  words  which  do  not  terminate  in  es,  gen. 
is,  and  hence  Goerenz  is  wrong  in  thinking  that  we  ought  to  read  Calli- 
phonti  as  a  genitive  in  Cic.  Tusc.,  v.,  31,  87.  (Gccrenz  ad  Cic.  de  Fin.t 
li.,  11,  35.)]— Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    SEPARATE    CASES.  55 

(a)  All  Greek  nouns,  proper  as  well  as  common,  and 
such  as  have  passed  through  the  Greek  into  Latin,  and 
form  the  accusative  in  that  language  in  LV  ;  but  those  which 
have  in  Greek  both  terminations  LV  and  id  a  (i.  c.,  the  bary- 
tones in  *c,  gen.  idog)  may  in  Latin  also  have  the  accusa- 
tive in  idem,  though  it  does  not  often  occur.*     The  ordi- 
nary Latin  accusative  of  such  words,  therefore,  is,  basim, 
poesim,  parapkrasim,  Charybdim,  Neapolim,  Persepolim, 
Tanaim,  and  of  those  which  make  their  genitive  in  idoc, 
idis,  at  least  when  they  are  proper  names,  the  accusatives 
Agim,   Memphim,   Osirim,  Parim,  Phalarim,   Serapim, 
Tigrim,  Zeuxim,  &c.,  are  more  frequent  than,  e.  g.,  Bu- 
siridem,    Paridcm.      But    in    feminine    derivatives    from 
names  of  places  and  in  substantives  (properly  adjectives) 
in  tis,  and  especially  itis,  the  accusative  in  idem  is  more 
frequent,  e.  g.,  Limnatidcm,  PhtJiiotidem,    artliritidem, 
pleuritidem.     The  accusative  in  im  for  idem,  therefore, 
does  not  prove  that  the  genitive  ends  in  is  instead  of  idis, 
or  the  ablative  in  i  instead  of  ide,  although  an  ablative  in 
*  not  seldom  occurs  in  proper  names  in  is,  which  make 
their  genitive  in  id-is,  e.  g.,  Osiri,  Phalari,  Tigri,  instead 
of  the  regular  Osiride,  &c.     Latin  writers,  however,  and 
especially  the  poets,  for  metrical  reasons,  often  use  the 
Greek  form   of  the    accusative  in   instead  of  im.     (See 
Chap.  XVI.) 

(b)  Many  proper  names   (not  Greek)  of  rivers  and 
towns  which  do  not  increase  in  the  genitive,  make,  ac- 
cording to  the  analogy  of  the  Greek,  the  accusative  in  im 
instead  of  cm,  e.  g.,  Albim,  Atliesim,  Baetim,  Tibcrim, 
Bilbilim,  Hispalim. 

(c)  The  following  Latin  common  nouns :  amussis,  rams, 
sitis,  tussis,  and  vis.     In  the  following  the  termination  em 
is  less  common  than  im  :  jfebris,  pelvis,  puppis,  resfis,  tur- 
ris,  and  especially  securis.     The  words  dams,  mcssis,  na- 
vis,  have  commonly  clavcm,  messem,  navem,  but  may  have 
also  im. 

Note. — An  accusative  in  im  now  and  then  occurs  in  some  other  words, 
as  in  bipennim,  from  bipennis ;  burim,  from  buris ;  cucumim,  a  rare  form  for 
cucumerem,  from  cucumis.;  neptim ;  and  sementitn,  which  is  much  less  com- 
mon than  sementem. 

*  Those  which  in  Greek  end  in  ir,  gen.  i'dof  (oxytona),  have  in  Greek 
only  ida,  and  in  Latin  only  idem:  e.g.,  aegis,  pyramis,  tyrannis,  Thais, 
Bacchis,  Lain,  Chalcis, .and  especially  the  feminine  patronymics  and  gentile 
names,  such  as  Aeneis,  Heracleis,  Thebais,  Aeolis,  Doris,  Phocis. 


56  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  63.]  3.  The  dative  and  ablative  singular  seem  origi- 
nally to  have  had  the  same  termination,  which  was  either 
i  or  e,  just  as  those  two  cases  are  alike  in  the  second  de- 
clension, and  in  the  plural  of  all  declensions.  At  a  later 
time,  it  became  the  general  rule  to  use  I  exclusively  in  the 
dative  and  e  in  the  ablative;  but  acre  (from  acs)  for  aeri, 
in  Cicero  (ad  Fam.,  vii.,  13)  and  Livy  (xxxi.,  13),  and 
jure  for  juri  in  inscriptions  and  in  Livy  (xlii.,  28),  seem 
to  be  remnants  of  early  times.  The  termination  i,  how- 
ever, which  properly  belongs  to  the  dative,  is  much  more 
commonly  used  in  the  ablative  instead  of  c*  It  occurs, 

(a)  In  all  words  which  form  their  accusative  in  im  in- 
stead of  cm,  with   the   exception   of  those  Greek  words 
which  make  the  genitive  in  idis.     Thus,  we  have  poesi, 
Neapoli,  Tiber  i,  sometimes  also  Osiri,Phalari ;  and  among 
Latin  common  nouns  not  only  tussi  and  vi,\mtfebKi,pelvi, 
2>uppi,  turri,  sccuri,  though  the  ablative  in  c  is  not  entirely 
excluded  in  these  latter  words.     But  restim  has   more 
commonly  rcstc,  and  navcm,  on  the  contrary,  more  usually 
navi  than  nave.     Clave  and  davi,  and  scmente  and  sementi, 
are  equally  in  use. 

(b)  In  neuters  in  c,  at,  and  ar,  e.  g.,  marl,  vectigali, 
calcari,  &c. ;    but  far,  f arris,  and  baccar,  jtibar,  hepar, 
nectar,  and  sal,  which  have  a  short  a  in  the  genitive,  form 
the   ablative  in  e.     Rcte  has  both  rete  and  rcti,  and  rus 
run  as  well  as  rure,  but  with  some  difference  in  meaning. 
(See  §  400.)     The  poets  sometimes  use  the  ablative  mare, 
e.  g.,  Ovid,   Trist.,  v.,  2,  20.     Names  of  towns  in  c  (see 
§  39)  always  make  their  ablative  in  c;  as,  Caere,  Reate  (at 
Caere,  at  Reate),  Livy,  xxvii.,  23  ;  xxx.,  2  ;   and  Prae- 
neste  (at  Praeneste),  in  Cicero. 

(c)  In  adjectives  and  names  of  months  ending  in  is,  e, 
and  in  cr,  is,  e ;  for  example,  facili,  celebri,  celeri,  Apr  Hi  j 
Septcmbri,  and  in  those  substantives  in  is  which  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  e.  g.,  acqualis,  affinis,  annalis,  bipcnnis, 
canalis,  familiaris,   gentilis,   molaris,  natalis,  popularis, 
rivalis,  sodalis,  strigilis,  vocalis,  trircmis,  and  guadriremis^ 

*  [Instances,  on  the  other  hand,  are  sometimes  given  of  datives  in  e  oc- 
curring in  later  writers.  These,  however,  turn,  for  the  most  part,  on  false 
readings.  In  other  passages  the  form  appears  to  have  arisen  from  an  em- 
ployment of  the  ablative  beyond  its  legitimate  bounds.  (Consult  Au?on.t 
Popma,  de  usu  antiq.  locut.,  1,  9.  Vossius,  Arist.,  4,  10.  Ursin.,  T.,  i., 
p.  124.  Schwartz,  Gr.  Lat.,t)  1011.  #wrmami,adProperf.,3,9,40.  Schneider, 
JL.  G.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  200.)]— Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    SEPARATE    CASES.  57 

and,  according  to  their  analogy,  perhaps  also  contubernal- 
is.  But  these  words,  being  used  also  as  substantives,  have 
more  or  less  frequently  the  termination  e,  and  juvenis  al- 
ways make*  juvcne,  aedilis  commonly  acdile;  in  affinis, 
familiaris,  sodalis,  and  triremis  the  ablative  in  e  is  attested 
by  the  authority  of  prose  writers,  although  i  is  generally 
preferred.  When  such  adjectives  as  these  become  proper 
names,  they  always  have  e;  as,  Juvenale,  Martiale,  Latcr- 
ense,  Cclere. 

Note.—  The  ablative  in  e,  from  adjectives  in  is,  and  in  er,  is,  e,  is  very  rare, 
though  it  is  found  in  Ovid  (Heroid.,  xvi.,  277,  Metam.,  xv.,  743,  coeleste. 
Heroid.,  viii.,  64,  Fast.,  iii.,  654,  perenne.  Fast.,  vi.,  158,  porca  bimestre). 
The  ablative  in  z  instead  of  c,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  by  good  writers 
in  several  substantives  in  is,  besides  those  mentioned  above,  e.  g.,  in  amnis, 
avis,  civis,  classis,  fastis,  ignis,  orbis,  unguis,  and  sometimes  in  supellex,  su- 
pellectiti.  Of  substantives  in  er,  imber  has  more  frequently  imbri  than  im- 
bre;  vesper  has  both  vespere  and  vesperi ;  but  the  latter,  especially  in  the 
sense  of  "  in  the  evening,"  as  opposed  to  mane,  in  the  morning.  Cicero 
and  Livy  often  use  the  ablatives  Carthagini,  Anxuri,  Tiburi,  to  denote  the 
place  where  (see  the  commentat.  on  Liv.,  xxviii.,  26);  and  in  the  preface 
of  Corn.  Nepos  we  find  Lacedcemoni.  But  the  common  practice  of  the  an- 
cient writers  does  not  allow  us  to  extend  this  system,  or  to  make  it  the 
rule  for  all  names  of  towns  which  follow  the  third  declension ;  it  must 
rather  be  supposed  that,  though  the  ancient  language  was  so  uncertain 
between  e  and  i,  that  we  find  in  Plautus  carni,  parti,  sermoni,  along  with 
came,  &c.,  the  forms  became  more  decidedly  separated  in  the  course  of 
time,  and  only  a  few  isolated  remnants  and  particular  phrases  remained 
in  use  with  the  classic  authors.  (Comp.  §  398,  in  fin.)  Thus  we  have 
tempori,  "  in  times."  (See  $  475.) 

[§  64.]  4.  The  ablative  singular  in  i  or  e  indiscrimi- 
nately occurs,  generally  speaking,  in  adjectives  of  one 
termination  and  in  the  comparative;  B&,prudens,  prudcnte 
&nd  prudenti  j  elegans,  elegante  and  clcganti;  vetus,vetere 
and  veteri ;  locuples,  locuplete  and  locupleti ;  dives,  divitc 
and  dii'iti ;  dcgener,  degenere  and  degcneri ;  Jelix,  felice 
and  f el  id  ;  Arpinas,  Arpinate  and  Arpinati ;  major,  ma- 
jore  and  majori.  But  it  is  also  a  general  rule  that  words 
in  ans  and  ens,  when  used  as  substantives,  e.  g.,  infans 
and  sapiens  (except  continens),  and  when  they  are  actual 
participles,  especially  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative 
absolute,  always  prefer  e;  e.  g.,Tarquinio  regnantc,  when 
Tarquinius  was  king;  but  when  they  are  adjectives,  they 
prefer  i  to  c, 

Note  1.— It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  there  is  no  rule  so  full 
of  exceptions  as  this,  for,  on  the  one  hand,  the  adjectives  themselves  vary 
their  terminations  according  to  euphony  or  the  requirement  of  a  verse, 
and,  on  the  other,  the  writers  (and  the  editions  of  their  works)  widely 
differ  from  one  another.  In  Horace,  for  example,  we  find  the  participles 
in  ans  and  ens,  when  used  as  adjectives,  almost  invariably  forming  the 
ablative  in  e  (see  Bentley  on  Carm.,  i.,  25,  17),  whereas  the  same  words 

fuA*^  ;<£/•<&?•& 


58  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

are  generally  found  with  i  in  Cicero.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  will 
always  be  safest  to  make  the  ablative  of  adjectives  of  one  termination  in 
i ;  for  the  e  exclusively  occurs  only  in  pauper,  senex,  and  princeps,  and  in 
the  majority  of  those  in  es,  viz.,  hospes,  sospes,  descs,  pubes,  impubes,  and 
superstes.  The  i,  on  the  other  hand,  is  certain  in  the  following  words 
mentioned  by  the  ancient  grammarians  :  memor,  immemor,  and  par  with  its 
compounds  (in  par,  also,  when  used  as  a  substantive),  and  also  in  most 
adjectives  in#;  as,  trux,  atrox,  audax,  pertinax,  and  pervicax  ;  especially  in 
those  in  plex  :  simplex,  duplex,  triplex,  multiplex  :  farther  in  anceps  and  prae- 
ceps,  inops,  iners,  and  hebes,  concors,  discors,  ingens,  recens,  and  repens.  It 
must  farther  be  observed  that  praesens,  when  used  of  things,  makes  the 
ablative  in  i,  and  when  used  of  persons,  in  e,  as  is  confirmed  by  the  phrase 
in  praesenti  (scil.  tempore),  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence.  Comparatives 
are  found  in  Cicero  and  Livy  more  frequently  with  e  than  with  i,  but  the 
latter  afterward  became  more  general,  especially  in  Curtius  and  Tacitus. 
Note  2. — The  following  substantives,  which  are  properly  adjectives, 
artifex,  consors,  nutrix,  vigil,  victrix,  and  ultrix,  have  as  substantives  the 
termination  e,  but  as  adjectives  of  the  feminine  or  neuter  gender  they  pre- 
fer the  ablative  in  i.  Proper  names,  also,  when  they  are  in  reality  adjec- 
tives, have  only  e ;  as,  Felix,  Clemens — Felice,  Clemente. 

[§  65.]  5.  The  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative 
plural  of  neuters  end  in  a  ;  but  neuters  in  e,  al,  and  art 
which  also  form  the  ablative  singular  in  2',  and  all  partici- 
ples and  adjectives  which  make  the  ablative  singular  ei- 
ther in  i  alone,  or  vary  between  e  and  i,  have  ia  instead  of 
«,  except  the  adjective  vetus  and  all  comparatives ;  e.  g., 
maria,  vectigalia,  calcaria,  paria,facilia,  sapicntia,  ingen- 
tia,  victricia  ;  amantia,  sedentia,  audientia ;  but  majorat 
doctiora,  &c. 

Note. — The  neuter  far,  however,  has/arra;  jubar,  hepar,  and  nectar  have 
no  plural ;  and  sal  has  no  neuter  plural,  but  only  sales  with  masculine 
gender.* 

Those  adjectives  which  make  the  ablat.  sing,  in  e  exclusively  should, 
for  this  reason,  make  their  plural  only  in  a  ;  but,  with  the  exception  of 
hospita  (if  it  be  really  derived  from  hospes,  and  not  from  hospitus^no  neuter 
plural  of  them  is  found,  although  some  grammarians  mention  paupera  and 
ubera.  It  must  be  remarked,  in  general,  that  the  neuter  plural  occurs  in 
adjectives  of  one  termination  in  as,  ans,  ens,  rs,  and  x,  and  besides  these 
Only  in  par,  hebes,  teres,  locuples,  quadrupes,  versicolor,  anceps,  and  praeceps, 
and  that  in  all  these  cases  it  ends  in  ia.  Thus  there  remains  only  vetus, 
vet  era,  although  the  ablative  sing,  is  vetere  or  veteri.  No  authority  has  yet 
been  adduced  for  bicorpora  and  tricorpora. 

Pluria  is  said  to  make  an  exception  among  the  comparatives,  but  it  is 
only  an  obsolete  form,  and  is  not  found  in  ancient  writers,  who  invariably 
have  plura.  Complures,  on  the  other  hand,  which  has  lost  its  signification 
of  a  comparative  in  the  ordinary  language  (it  signifies  several  or  some), 
makes  both  compluria  and  complura. 

[§  66.]  6.  The  following  words  make  their  genitive 
plural  in  ium  instead  of  um : 

(a)  All  neuters  which  have  ia  in  the  nominative  plu- 

*  [Sales  has  the  meaning  of  "  witticisms."  The  form  salia,  "salts,"  is 
only  employed  by  modern  medical  writers.  (Consult  Seyfert,  Sprachlehre, 
p.  88.)]— .Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    SEPARATE    CASES.  59 

ral,  that  is,  those  in  e,  al,  and  ar,  and  all  participles  and 
adjectives  which  follow  the  third  declension.  Compara- 
tives, therefore  (with  the  exception  of  plurium  and  com- 
plurium),  and  those  adjectives  which  have  only  e  in  the 
ablative  singular,  retain  the  termination  urn  in  the  genit. 
plur. ;  as,  pauperum,  superstitum.  To  these  we  must  add 
the  adjectives  caelebs,  celer,  cicur,  compos,  impos,  dives, 
memor,  immemor,  supplex,  uber,  vet  us,  and  vigil;  all  com- 
pounds of  facio  and  capio,  and  of  such  substantives  as 
make  the  genitive  plur.  in  urn,  e.  g.,  degenerum,  bicorpo- 
rum,  inopum,  quadrupedum,  versicolorum,  and  perhaps  also 
ancipitum  and  tricipitum.  The  pojets  sometimes  form  the 
genitive  plural  of  adjectives,  especially  of  participles  in 
ns,  by  a  syncope,  in  um  instead  of  ium;  and  later  prose 
writers,  such  as  Seneca  and  Tacitus,  sometimes  follow 
their  example,  and  use,  e.  g.,  potentum,  dolentum,  salutan- 
tum. 

(b)  Words  in  es  and  is,  which  do  not  increase  in  the 
genitive  singular  (e.  g.,  nubes,  nubium  ;  civis,  civium;  but 
militum  and  lapidum,  from  miles  and  lapis,  gen.  militis, 
lapidis)  ;  the  following  words  in  er :  imber,  linter,  venter, 
uter,  and  the  word  caro,  carnium.  Vates,  strues,  the  plu- 
ral ambages,  and  generally,  also,  sedes,  together  with 
apis,  canis,  juvenis,  and  volucris,  form  exceptions,  and 
make  their  genitive  plur.  in  um.  Panis  is  uncertain. 
(Respecting  mensis,  see  my  note  on  Cic.  in  Verr.,  ii.,  74  ; 
Schneider  on  Cyds.,Bcll.  Gall.,  i.,  5.) 

(c.)  Many  monosyllabic  substantives,  and  without  ex- 
ception those  ending  in  s  and  x,  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, make  ium ;  as,  montium,  dentium,  arcium,  mercium, 
from  mons,  dens,  arx,  merx.  Lynx,  however,  has  lyncum ; 
sphinx,  spliingum ;  and  opes,  from  ops,  has  opum.  Gry- 
plium,  also,  is  probably  the  genit.  plur.  of  gryps.  But  the 
greater  number  of  monosyllabic  words  ending  in  s  and  x, 
preceded  by  a  vowel,  make  their  genitive  plural  in  um, 
and  not  in  ium.  The  latter  occurs  only  in  as,  assium  ; 
glis,  glirium ;  lis,Mtium;  mas,  marium  ;  os,  ossium  ;  vis, 
virium  ;  and  generally  also  in  fraus,  fraud-turn^  and  mus, 
murium.  To  these  we  must  add  faux  (which,  however, 
is  not  used  in  the  nominative  singular),y?2tf£m;w ;  nix,  ni- 
vium  ;  strix,  strigium  ;  and  nox,  noctium. 

Note, — The  genitive  plural  in  um,  therefore,  is  used  in  aes,  crus,  dos,flos, 
grus,jus,  laus,  mos,  pes  with  its  compounds  (except  cumpedes,  of  which'  the 
form  comptdium  is  well  attested),  praes,  sits,  Ores,  Tros,  dux,fax,frux,  and 


60  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

prex  (which  occur  only  in  the  plur.),  great,  lex,  nux,  rex,  vox,  Phryx,  and 
Throx.  Fur  and  ren  have  furum,  renum  ;  lar,  too,  has  more  frequently 
larum  than  larium.  Of  those  words  which  have  not  been  noticed  here  a 
genitive  cannot  be  proved  to  exist ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  genit.  plur. 
of  vas  (vadis)  was  radium  ;  and,  in  like  manner,  cor,  par,  and  sal  probably  had 
cordium,  parium,  salium,  in  order  to  avoid  the  ambiguity  which  would  arise 
from  vadum,  cordum,  parum,  salum.  Cordium  occurs  in  the  Vulgate,  Jerem., 
iv.,  4. 

(d)  Substantives  of  two  or  more  syllables,  ending  in  ns 
and  rs,  have  ium  and  um,  though  the  latter  occurs  more 
rarely ;  e.  g.,  diem,  coJiors,  Piccns,  Veicns,  Camcrs  ;  and, 
in  like  manner,  those  which,  like  adolcsccns,  in  fans,  par  ens, 
sajiiens,  scrpcns,  are  properly  participles,  and  admit  um 
only  because  they  arc  substantives  (whence  we  frequent- 
ly find  parcntum,  from  parcntcs),  commonly  make  their 
genitive  in  ium :  adulcsccntium,  sapientium,  &c.  The 
names  of  people  in  as,  atis,  such  as  Arpinas,  Fidenas, 
form  their  genitive  almost  exclusively  in  ium :  Arpinati- 
um,  Fidcnatium.  Penates  and  optimates,  which  usually 
occur  only  in  the  plural,  follow  their  analogy.  Other  sub- 
stantives in  as  generally  have  um ;  e.  g.,  actatum,  civita- 
tum ;  but  ium  also  is  correct ;  and  Livy,  for  example,  al- 
ways uses  ch'itatium.  The  genit.  plur.  ium  in  words  with 
other  terminations,  if  it  should  occur,  must  be  regarded 
as  an  exception.  Quiris  and  Samnis,  however,  contrary 
to  the  rule,  generally  make  Quiritium,  Samnitium. 

[§  67.]  7.  Names  of  festivals  in  alia,  which  are  used 
only  in  the  plural ;  as,  Bacchanalia,  Compitalia,  Saturna- 
lia, Sponsalia,  make  their  genitive  plural  in  ium  or  orum; 
as,  Baccliandlium  or  BaccJianaliorum.  And  Horace  ( Carm., 
iii.,  5,  10),  on  this  principle,  makes  anciliorum  from  ancile, 
plur.  ancilla;  and  Suetonius,  in  several  passages,  has  vcc- 
tigaliorum  instead  of  vectigalium. 

8.  With  regard  to  the  dative  and  ablative  plural,  it  is 
to  be  remarked  that  the  Greek  words  in  ma  prefer  the 
termination  is  of  the  second  declension  to  ibvs.  Thus, 
Cicero  and  other  authors  use  poematis,  cpigrammatis,  em- 
lilcmatis,  7iypomnematis,  pcripetasmatis,  peristromatis,  to- 
reumatis  ;  but  ibus  occurs  now  and  then  ;  as,  diplomatibus, 
in  Tacitus  and  Suetonius  ;  poematibus  in  the  Rhetor,  ad 
Hcrcnn.,  iv.,  2  ;  and  in  Sueton.,  Tit.,  3  ;  strategematibus  in 
Frontinus,  Stratcg.,  Praef.,  lib.  iv. 

[§  68.]  9.  The  accusative  plural  of  words  which  make 
the  genitive  plur.  in  ium  ended,  in  the  best  age  of  the 
Latin  language,  in  is,  which  was  also  written  eis,  but  not 


REMARKS    ON    THE    SEPARATE    CASES.  61 

pronounced  so;'e.  g.,  artis,  montis,  civis,  cmnis,  similis, 
mediocris.  But  the  termination  es  was  also  in  use,  and  iu 
the  course  of  time  became  so  prevalent  that  is  wa&  pre- 
served only  in  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  tris. 

Note. — Priscian,  towards  the  end  of  his  seventh  book,  discnsses  the 
accusative  plur.  in  is  instead  of  es,  more  minutely  than  any  other  ancient 
writer.  Among  modern  works,  see  especially  Norisius,  in  his  Latinitas  et 
Orthographic  utriusque  Pisanae  Tabulae,  which  is  reprinted  in  Cellarius, 
Ortkographia  Latino.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  233,  foil.  ed.  Harles.  There  is  no  doubt,, 
that,  until  the  time  of  Augustus,  those  words  which  form  their  genitive 
plural  in  ium  (to  which  must  be  added  celer,  as  in  all  other  respects  it  fol- 
lows the  analogy  of  the  adjectives  in  er,  is,  e,  although  it  makes  the  genit, 
plur.  celerum),  had  in  the  accusative  plural  more  commonly  the  termina- 
tion is  thanes;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  es  was,  at  the  same 
time,  in  use  with  is.  Thus  we  find  even  in  the  Columna  Rostrata  of  Du- 
ilius,  clases,  that  is,  classes,  together  with  claseis  ;  and  in  the  ancient  Flor- 
entine MS.  of  Virgil  we  find  nrbes,  ignes,  tres,  fines,  as  well  as  urbis,  ignis, 
&c.,  although  es,  on  the  whole,  is  not  so  frequent  as  is.  (Comp,  Gellius,. 
xiii.,  20.)  In  the  newly-discovered  fragments  of  Cicero,  it  is  true,  we 
generally  find  is  in  words  of  this  kind ;  but  there  are  instances,  also, 
of  es  being  used  in  the  same  words.  The  ancient  grammarians  in  vain; 
attempted  to  fix  the  varying  practice  by  rules  and  exceptions,  Pliny 
(ap.  Charisium,p.  104,  ed.  Putsch.)  denied  the  accusative/imis,  and  Varn> 
(ibid.)  the  accusatives  falcis,  mercis,  axis,  Hntris,  ventris,  stirpi.v,  corbis,  vectis* 
neptis,  and  even  urbis,  and  in  his  work,  De.  Ling.  Lat.  (viii.,  67,  ed.  Miiller), 
he  asserts  that  gentis  alone  was  used,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that  mentes 
and  denies  were  the  only  correct  forms.  Valerius  Probus  (see  Orthograph, 
JYora.,  p.  242)  gives  us  to  understand  that  the  words  in  es,  genit.  is,  did  not 
form  the  accusative  in  is,  although  they  have  ium  in  the  genitive  plural. 
Thus  much  is  clear,  that  the  termination  is  gradually  became  antiquated, 
and  that  the  desire  of  scholars  to  have  an  outward  distinction  of  the  accu- 
sative from  the  nominative  gave  way  to  the  general  practice.  Charisius- 
(p.  122,  ed.  Putsch.)  says  :  consuetudo  traduxit  ad  nominativi  et  accusativi 
formam.  And  this  probably  took  place  about  the  end  0f  rtie  Augustan  age ; 
for  in  the  ancient  MS.  containing  the  fragment  of  the  ninety-first  book  of 
Livy  we  no  longer  find  the  accus.  in  is  ;  and  in  the  best  MSS.  of  the  com- 
plete books,  it  occurs  only  in  a  few  isolated  passages,  and  Qnintilian  does 
not  mention  this  disputed  point  at  all.  Afterward  is  was  still  sometimes 
used  by  Tacitus  and  Gellius ;  but  with  Tacitus  this  arose  from  his  desire 
to  revive  the  ancient  power  and  energy  of  the  language,  and  with  Gellius 
from  his  antiquarian  studies.  This  is  not  the  place  to  in-qaire  in  what 
manner  an  editor  of  ancient  authors  has  to  act  in  the  face  of  this  obvious 
inconsistency  of  the  writers  themselves  ;  there  are  few  who  faithfully  fol- 
low the  authority  of  the  MSS. ;  others,  such  as  Bentiey,  in  his  Terence  and 
Horace,  everywhere  restore  the  accus.  in  is  (why  Bentiey,  without  incon- 
sistency, edited  arces  and  rates  in  Horace,  has  not  yet  been  examined); 
and  most  of  them  pay  as  little  attention  to  the  difference  in  doubtful  cases- 
as  to  the  ancient  orthography  in  general,  but  merely  follow  the  vulgar  tra- 
dition. We  have  noticed  here  the  difference  of  opinions  to  caution  the 
student,  that,  in  reading  the  ancients,  he  may  not  confound  the  short  is  of 
the  genit.  sing,  with  the  long  is  of  the  accus.  plur. 

[§  69.]  10.  Juppiter  (which  was  more  common  than 
Jupiter)  is  declined  as  follows  :  gen5t.  Jovis,  dat.  Jovi, 
accus.  Jovcm,  voc.  Juppiter,  abl.  Jose.  In  the  plural 
Joves  only  is  found.* 

*  [Jupiter,  gen.  Jovis,  is  to  all  appearance  very  irregular ;  but  there  is 


62  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Bos,  bovis,  makes  the  nominal,  and  accus.  plur.  boves, 
gen.  bourn,  dat.  and  ablat.  bubus,  and  less  frequently 
bdbus,  Sus  makes  the  dat.  and  ablat.  plur.  subus,  which 
is  a  contraction  of  the  less  frequent  form  suibus. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

GREEK    FORMS    IN    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION. 

[§  70.]  A  GREAT  number  of  Greek  words,  especially 
proper  names,  belongs  to  the  third  declension  ;  and  as 
their  genitive  terminates  in  og  (ecjf,  ovf ),  they  follow  the 
third  declension  in  their  own  language  also.  Among  the 
terminations  of  the  nominative  mentioned  above,  some 
belong  exclusively  to  Greek  words,  viz.,  ma,  i,  y,  an,  m, 
on,  yn,  cr,  yr,  ys,  eus,  yx,  inx,  ynx,  and  the  plurals  in  e  ; 
but  there  are  also  Greek  words  with  other  terminations, 
most  of  which,  however,  are  quite  treated  as  Latin  words, 
for  which  reason  the  termination  on  is  generally  Latinized 
into  o  (see  above,  §  56),  and  the  Greek  forms  are  used  by 
Latin  writers,  especially  the  poets,  only  in  some  cases. 

1.  In  the  genitive  singular,  the  poets  frequently  use  the 
Greek  termination  os  instead  of  the  Latin  is,  especially  in 
words  in  is  which  usually  make  their  genitive  idis,  whether 
simple  or  derivative  (see  §  245),  e.  g.,  Daphnidos,  Phasi- 
dos,  Atlantidos,  Erymanthidos,  Ncreidos  ;  so  also  in  nouns 
in  as  and  ys ;  &s,Pallados,  Tetliyos  ;  and  in  eus;  as,Pelcos, 
Tkeseos  (Ovid,  Metam.,  viii.,  268),  although  the  Latin  ter- 
mination e'i  or  contracted  el  (according  to  the  second  de- 
clension), as  in  T/iesci,  Terei,  is  more  commonly  used. 
(See  above,  Chap.  XII.,  4.) 

But  in  prose  the  Greek  termination  of  the  genitive  is 
seldom  used.  Substantives  in  is  derived  from  verbs  in 
particular,  such  as  basis,  ellipsis,  matkcsis,  poesis,  make 
their  genitive  like  the  nominative,  and  not  baseos,  matlie- 
seos,  &c.,  which  forms  are  found  only  in  unclassic  writers. 

here  in  reality  a  blending  of  two  forms  of  declension.  According  to 
Priscian  (6,  p.  695,  Putsch.),  the  regular  genitive  is  Jupiteris,  or  Jupitris. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  genitive  Jovis,  as  well  as  the  other  oblique  cases, 
are  to  be,  traced  to  a  nominative  Jovis,  which  occasionally  occurs,  and  of 
which  Varro  makes  mention.  (L.  L.,  vii.,  38.)  The  stem  of  this  appears 
to  be  Jov,  or  rather  Jou,  which,  with  the  Latin  deus,  the  ^Eolic  Aet'f,  the 
common  form  Zet>f,  the  Oriental  Ja,  Jao,  Jehovah,  &c.,  points  to  one  and 
the  same  origin.  (Compare  Midler,  Etr  usher,  vol.  ii.,  p.  43.  Butlmann, 
Mythologus,  vol.  ii.,  p.  74.)]—  Am.  Ed. 


GREEK  FORMS  IN  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION'.     63 

(See  Vitruv.,  x.,  15.  Spartian.  Ad.  Verus,  3  ;  Sever.,  3.) 
In  the  few  words  in  y  the  genit.  in  yos  is  used  for  the 
sake  of  euphony,  e.  g.,  misyos.  Pan,  the  shepherds'  god, 
admits  the  Greek  genit.  Panos  in  prose,  to  distinguish  the 
word  from  panis,  bread.* 

The  feminines  in  o,  however,  such  as  echo,  Calypso, 
Dido,  lo,  Sap2?ho,  have  usually  the  Greek  genitive  in  us  ; 
as,  eclius,  Didus,  Sapphus,  the  Latin  termination  onis 
being  less  common.  Their  dative,  accusative,  and  abla- 
tive end  in  o,  and  the  Latin  terminations  oni,  oncm,  one, 
are  but  rarely  used. 

[§  71.]  2.  The  Greek  accusative  of  the  third  declen- 
sion in  a  is  very  often  used  by  the  Latin  poets  instead  of 
cm.  Thus,  Horace  uses  only  heroa,  Cyclopa,  Memnona, 
Agamemnona,  Hclicona,  Chremela,  and  not  Cyclopem, 
Agamemnonem,  &c.  Among  the  prose  writers,  Cicero 
most  studiously  avoids  the  Greek  termination,  except  in 
aer,  aether,  and  Pan,  of  which  he  makes  the  accusative 
ae'ra,  aettiera,\  and  Pana  (for  the  reason  mentioned 
above).  In  all  other  instances  the  Greek  accusative  in  a 
must  be  looked  upon,  in  Cicero,  as  an  exception.  It  oc- 
curs much  more  frequently  in  Nepos,  Livy,  Curtius,  and 
the  authors  of  what  is  called  the  Silver  Age,  though  prin- 
cipally in  proper  names  and  along  with  the  common  Latin 
termination  em,  e.  g.,  Babylona,  Elcusina,  Lacedaemona, 
Marathona,  Parmeniona,  Sidona,  Timoleonta,  Troczena, 
also  Periclea,  Stratoclea,  and  similar  names  ending  in  the 
nominative  in  cles.  In  like  manner,  words  in  is  and  ys 
admit,  even  in  prose,  the  Greek  forms  in  and  yn,  together 
with  the  Latin  im  and  ytn,  but  Cicero  uses  them  only  by 
way  of  exception  ;  Livy  and  Curtius  have  them  more  fre- 
quently, e.  g.,  Nabin,  Agin,  Halyn,  Tigrin.  The  accus. 
Eleusin,  instead  of  Eleu.sinem  (a),  must  be  traced  to  the 
form  Elcusis,  gen.  is,  which,  however,  is  not  well  attested. 
For  the  accusative  of  words  in  eus,  which  later  writers  usu- 
ally make  ea;  &$,Persea,Demctrium  Phalerca,  see  above, 
Chap.  XII.,  4. 

*  [But  by  no  means  to  the  exclusion  of  Panis.  (Consult  Schneider, 
L.  G.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  285.)]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [These  two  accusative  forms,  ae'ra  and  cethera,  appear  the  more  re- 
markable in  Cicero,  when  we  compare  them  with  his  own  language  on 
another  occasion  :  "  ae'r  ;  Graecum  illud  quidcm,  sed  receptum  jam  tamen  usu 
a  nostris :  tritum  est  enim  pro  Latino  ....  sether ;  mutuemur  hoc  quoque 
rerbum,  dicaturque  tarn  aether  Latine  qua?7i  dicitur  aer."  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii., 
36,  91,  seqq.)]— Am.  Ed. 


64  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Proper  names  in  cs,  which  in  Greek  follow  the  first  de- 
clension (gen.  ov),  and  in  Latin  the  third  (gen.  is)  (see 
Chap.  IX.,  3),  have  in  the  accusative  the  termination  en 
along  with  that  in  e?n,  e.  g.,  Acsckinen,  Achdlen,  and 
Ulixcn  (inasmuch  as  these  names  are  not  formed  from 
and  'Odvaoev$,  but  from  the  less  common 
and  'OdvGO?]c,  ov),  and  especially  barbarian 
names,  such  as  Mitkridaten,  Phraaten,  Xerzen,  Araxcn, 
Euphratcn.  The  termination  enfoTem  is,  moreover,  found 
in  those  compounds  which  in  Greek  follow  the  third  declen- 
sion, but  in  the  accusative  admit  of  rjv  and  r\  (contracted 
from  £«) ;  but  en  is  used  much  less  frequently.  Instances 
of  this  kind  are,  Sophoclcn,m  Cic.,  De  OJf\,i.,  40;  Hippo- 
cratcn  and  Ejricydcn,  in  Livy.  Some  words  are  in  Greek 
declined  in  two  ways,  either  after  the  first  or  after  the 
third  declension,  such  Oa/Lr/o,  Xpfjia/r,  gen.  ov  and  T/TOC;  in 
Latin  they  may  have  the  shorter  form  and  yet  follow  the 
third  declension  (e.  g.,  the  ablat.  Thale),  and  in  the  ac- 
cusative they  admit  also  of  the  termination  en,  e.  g.,  Chre- 
mctem  and  Chremen^  Thalcm  or  Thalctem  and  Thalen. 

[§  72.]  3.  The  vocative  singular  is  in  most  Greek 
words  like  the  nominative  ;  but  those  ending  in  s  form  a 
distinct  vocative  by  rejecting  that  consonant,  both  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Thus,  the  vocative  of  words  in  is,  ys, 
eus :  Daplmi,  Phylli,  Thai,  Coty,  Tiphy,  Orpheu,  Pcrscu. 
Words  in  is,  idis,  however,  make  the  vocative  just  as 
often  like  the  nominative  ;  as,  BaccJiis,  Mysis,  Thais. 
Nouns  in  as,  antis,  make  their  vocative  in  Greek  dv  and 
a,  but  the  latter  only  is  used  in  Latin,  e.  g.,  Atla,  Calcha. 

Proper  names  in  es,  gen.  is,  have  the  vocative  of  the 
first  declension  in  c,  together  with  the  regular  one.  This 
is  the  case  with  those  which  in  Greek  follow  the  first  de- 
clension (e.  g.,  Carncadc,  Simonide,  and  Achille,  see 
above),  and  with  those  which,  although  they  follow  the 
third  in  all  other  respects,  yet  admit  of  the  accusative  in 
i]v.  Thus,  we  sometimes  find  Darnocle,  Pericle,  Sopkocle, 
Socrate. 

[§  73.]  4.  The  plural  of  those  Greek  proper  names, 
which  by  the  forms  of  their  accusative  and  vocative  sing, 
show  their  tendency  to  follow  the  first  declension,  is 
sometimes  formed  after  that  declension.  Thus,  we  find 
in  Cicero,  De  Orat.,  ii.,  23,  the  nom.  Naitcratae ;  and 
Orat.,  9,  the  accus.  Thucydidas. 


GENDER    FORMS    IN    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION.  05 

5.  The  Greek  termination  of  the  nom.  plur.  esy  instead 
of  the  Latin  es,  is  not  uncommon  in  poetry,  e.  g.,  Arcades, 
Atlantides,  Erinnycs  ;  but  the  metre  must  decide.  The 
termination  £C,  Latin  is,  occurs  even  in  the  nominative  of 
the  names  of  towns  Trallis  and  fcai'dis*  though  princi- 
pally in  the  latter.  Horace,  Epist.,  i.,  11,  2,  says:  Crocst 
rcgia  &a?'dis. 

In  the  nominative'  plural  the  neuters  in  OK  have  the 
Greek  termination  e  ;  as,  cete,  incle^  and  the  plural 
rd 


Note.  —  No  other  cases  are  formed  from  these  neuters  in  of,  and  in  the 
singular,  too,  they  occur  only  in  the  norn.  and  accus.,  and  we  must,  there- 
fore, use  the  Latin  forms  cetus  and  melwn  (according  to  the  second  declen- 
sion). So,  also,  chaos,  gen.  chai,  abl.  chao.  See  §  87. 

6.  In  the  genitive  plural  only  a  few  words  retain  the 
Greek  termination  on  (w^),  and  that  generally  only  in 
titles  of  books,  e.  g.,  metamorplwsetm,  cpigrammaton. 

Note.  —  Curtius,iv.,  50  (13),  makes  the  genitive  Maleon,  from  Ma/leftf,  or 
Ma./,««f  (sing.  Ma/liEtif),  entirely  in  the  Greek  fashion,  for  the  Latin  name 
is  Malienses. 

7.  In  the  dative  plural  the  Greek  termination  si,  or  sin, 
is  used  very  rarely,  and  only  by  poets.     Ovid,  e.  g.,  has 
Lcmniasi  and  Troasin,  from  Lcmniadcs  and  Troadcs.    In 
prose  writers  there  are  very  few  examples  that  can  be  re- 
lied upon  ;  such  as  ethcsi,  from  rd  7/^?/.t 

[§  74.]  8.  The  accusative  plural  in  as  is  admissible  in 
all  words  which  have  this  termination  in  Greek.  It  is, 
however,  seldom  used  in  prose,  though  in  common  nouns 
it  occurs  more  frequently  than  the  accusative  singular  in 
a  ;  e.  g.,  harpagonas,  pJuilangas,  pijramidas,  and  even  in 
Cicero  we  find  aspidas,  cantharidas.  He  also  uses  the 
proper  names  Acthiopas,  Arcadas,  and  Cydopas,  and  Livy 
always  has  the  accusat.  IMacedonas.  It  is  surprising  to 
find  that  the  same  termination  is  now  and  then  given  also 
to  barbarian  names  of  nations,  e.  g.,  Allobrogas  in  Caesar, 
and  Lingonas,  Nemetas,  Ordoi'icas,  Briganlas,  Siluras, 
and  Vangionas  in  Tacitus. 

*  [In  Greek  we  find,  at  one  time,  Tpd/l/,£7f  and  2«p(Je/.f  ;  at  another,. 
Tpd/i/Uf  and  Zupdir.  The  former  are  nominatives  plural  in  the  Attic  dia- 
lect, the  latter  in  the  Ionic.  (Consult  Maittaire,  Dial.  L.  G.,  p.  145,  ed. 
Stun.')'}—  Am.  Ed. 

t  [According  to  Pliny,  as  quoted  by  Charisius  (p.  38),  Varro  often  made 
use  of  these  datives  in  si  or  sin,  but  probably  only  with  Greek  characters. 
Pliny  adduces  as  an  instance  the  form  schem/miit,  for  schematic,  and  in  a 
fragment  of  the  same  Varro,  in  Nonius  (iv.,  377),  we  have  "  in  ethcsin  Te- 
rmtius  pnlmam  poscit."  Quintilian,  also,  has  allowed  himself  to  say,  "  ut 
Ovidius  lascivire  in  Metamorphosesi  solet"  (iv.,  i.,  77.)]  —  Am.  .EcL 

F  2 


66  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

GENDER    OF    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION. MAS- 
CULINES. 

[§  75.]  MASCULINE  are  those  which  end  in  o,  or,  os,  and 
er,  and  those  in  cs  which  increase  in  the  genitive,  espe- 
cially those  in  cs,  itis ;  e.  g.,  sermo,  error,  sudor,flos,  mos, 
venter,  stipes. 

Exceptions  in  o. — Words  ending  in  do,  go,  and  io,  are 
feminine  ;  e.  g.,  consuetudo,formido,grando,  imago,  oratio, 
dictio,  lectio,  auditio,  commanlo,  &c.  ;  also  caro,  and  the 
Greek  words  echo  and  Argo  (the  ship  of  the  Argonauts). 
The  following,  however,  are  masculine  :  in  do,  the  words 
car  do  and  or  do,  together  with  udo  and  cudo,  or  cudon  ;  in 
go  :  ligo,  mar  go,  and  harpago  ;  and  all  words  in  io  which 
are  not  abstract  nouns  derived  from  verbs  and  adjectives, 
but  common  names  of  things,  such  as  pvgio  (a  dagger), 
scipio  (a  staff),  scptcntrio  (north  pole),  titio  (a  fire-brand); 
several  names  of  animals,  as,  curculio*  papilio,  scorpio, 
stellio,  vespertilio,  and  a  few  others  of  rare  occurrence ; 
and,  lastly,  those  formed  from  numerals,  such  as  itnio,  li- 
nio  or  duplio,  tcrnio,  quaternio,  quinio,  scnio,  &c.  Unio, 
in  the  sense  of  a  particular  pearl  (margarita),  is  like- 
wise masculine  ;  but  when  it  signifies  unity  (unitas),  and 
is  used  in  an  abstract  sense,  it  is  feminine ;  but  it  is  only 
in  ecclesiastical  writers  that  it  has  this  meaning. 

Note. — Cupido,  desire,  therefore  is  feminine,  but  masculine  when  it  is 
the  name  of  the  god  of  Love.  Poets,  however,  sometimes  use  it  as  a  mas- 
culine, even  in  the  former  signification,  and  Horace  does  so  always ;  as, 
pravus  cupido,  falsus  cupido.  Margo  may  have  either  gender,  but  the  mas- 
culine is  more  frequent,  as  was  remarked  above. 

[§  76.]  Exceptions  in  or. — The  following  words  in  or, 
uris,  are  neuter :  ador,  acquor,  marmor,  and  cor,  cordis. 
Arbor  is  feminine,  according  to  the  general  rule.  (See 
§39.) 

Exceptions  in  os. — Cos,  dos,  and  the  Greek  eos  are  fem- 
inine. Os,  ossis,  and  os,  oris,  and  the  Greek  words  chaos, 
ethos,  epos,  ?nelos,  are  neuter. 

Exceptions  in  er. — A  great  many  words  in  er  are  neu- 

*  Also  spelled  gurgulio ;  it  is  masculine  in  its  two  significations  of  "  air- 
pipe"  and  "  wood  worm." 


GENDER    OF    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION.      67 

ter,  viz.,  cadaver,  iter,  spintJier,  tuber  (a  hump),  uber,  ver, 
and  verier  (rarely  used  in  the  singular,  but  very  frequent- 
ly in  the  plural,  verbera),  and  all  the  names  of  plants  in 
er  :  acer,  deer,  laser,  papaver,  piper,  siler,  siser,  suber,  and 
zingiber.  Tuber  (a  kind  of  peach-tree)  is  feminine,  but 
when  it  denotes  the  fruit  it  is  masculine.  Lintcr  is  com- 
monly used  as  a  feminine,  but  is  well  attested  also  as  a 
masculine. 

Exceptions  in  es  increasing  in  the  genitive. — The  fol- 
lowing are  feminine  :  merges,  it  is  ;  segcs  and  tcges,  etis  ; 
merces,  edis  ;  qides,  etis,  with  its  compounds  inquies  and 
requies.  Compes,  which,  however,  does  not  occur  in  the 
nominative  sing.,  but  only  in  the  plural  compcdes,  is  femi- 
nine. Aes,  aeris,  is  neuter ;  ales  and  quadrupes  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  but  as  substantives  they  are  mostly  used 
as  feminines. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

GENDER    OF    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION. FEMI- 
NINES. 

[§  77.]  FEMININE  are  those  which  end  in  as,  is,  3/5,  aus, 
and  x,  those  in  es  which  do  not  increase  in  the  genitive, 
and  those  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant,  e.  g.,  auctoritas, 
navis,  chlamys,  laus  audfraus,pax,  radix,  arx,  nubes,pars, 
mors,  Idcms. 

Exceptions  in  as. — The  following  are  masculine :  as, 
gen.  assis,  and  its  compounds,  though  they  have  different 
terminations ;  as,  quadrans,  a  fourth  of  an  as ;  bcs,  two 
thirds  of  an  as ;  decussis,  ten  ases  ;*  and  the  Greek  words 
which  make  their  genitive  in  antis  ;  as,  adamas,  elepJias, 
and  the  names  of  mountains  :  Acragas,  Atlas,  jMimas. 
Mas,  maris,  and  vas,  vadis,  are,  of  course,  masculine. 
The  following  are  neuters  :  Greek  words  in  as,  which 
make  their  genitive  dtis ;  as,  artocreas,  erysipelas  (see 
§  58),  and  the  Latin  words  vas,  rasis,  and  fas  and  nefas, 
which,  however,  occur  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus. 

Exceptions  in  is.  —  The  following  are  masculine  :  1. 
Those  in  is,  gen.  eris  ;  as,  cinis,  cucumis,  pvlvis,  and  vomis 
(commonly  vomcrj ;  2.  The  following,  which  increase  in 

*  See  the  Appendix  on  Roman  weights,  coins,  and  measures. 


68  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  genitive  :  glis,  lapis,  pollis,  and  sanguis  ;  3.  The  fol- 
lowing, which  do  not  increase:  amnis,axis,  callis,  canalis, 
cassis  (used  especially  in  the  plural  casscs,  a  hunter's  net, 
and  not  to  be  confounded  with  cassis,  idis,  a  helmet) ; 
caul  is  or  colis,  coll  is,  crinis,  ens  is,  fascis  (generally  in  the 
plural,  fasces),  finis,  follis,  ftinis,  fastis,  ignis,  mcnsis,  or- 
bis,  panis,  2>iscis,  postis,  scrobis,  sentis,  torquis,  torris,  un- 
guis,  rcctis,  vcrmis.  Some  of  thc-se  words,  however,  are 
used  by  good  authors  also  as  feminines,  though  not  often, 
especially  callis,  caiialis,  scrobis,  torqnis,  and  finis,  cinis, 
in  the  singular  ;  whereas  the  plural  fines,  in  the  sense  of 
boundary  or  territory,  and  cincrcs,  in  the  sense  of  the  ashes 
of  a  corpse,  are  always  masculine. 

As  ?nc?isis  is  masculine,  April  is,  Qiiintilis,  and  Sextilis 
have  the  same  gender.  Some  substantives  in  is  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  and  a  substantive  masculine  being  always 
understood,  they  are  themselves  used  as  masculines;  e.g., 
annalis,  commonly  in  the  plural  annales  (lil>ri),  annals ; 
jugales(equij,two  horses  yoked  together;  molaris  (lapis ), 
a  millstone  ;  or,  if  dens  is  understood,  a  back  tooth  or 
grinder ;  natalis  (dies),  birthday ;  pugillares  (libelli),  a 
tablet  for  writing. 

Note. — Angnis  and  tigris  may  have  either  gender;  canis  is  generally 
masculine,  but  when  it  denotes  a  dog  used  in  hunting,  it  is  very  often 
feminine.  (See  §  42.)  Ayualis,  callis,  corbis,  and  clunis,  plur.  dunes,  are 
used  by  good  writers  as  words  of  either  gender.  Delphis  is  masculine ; 
but  the  more  common  forms  are  delphinus,  or  delphin.  Cossis  has  not  been 
mentioned  above,  because  the  only  authority  we  have  for  it  is  a  doubtful 
passage  in  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxx.,  39,  and  cossus,  i,  is  more  probable. 

That  the  names  of  rivers  in  is  are  masculine  follows  from  the  general 
rule  ($  37)  ;  thus  we  read  horridus  Albis,  flavus  Tiberis,  rapidus  Tigris. 
Names  of  mountains  with  this  termination  are  not  numerous  :  Lucre/His,  a 
hill  in  Latium,  is  masculine ;  for  Horace  says,  amoenus  Lucretilis.  The 
Greek  names  Caramlis,  a  promontory  on  the  Asiatic  coast  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  Peloris  in  Sicily,  are  feminine,  the  word  uupa  being  understood. 
All  the  masculines  in  is,  whatever  may  be  their  genitive,  are  contained 
in  the  following  hexameter  lines  : 

Mascula  sunt  panis,  piscis,  crinis,  cinis,  ignis, 

Funis,  glis,  vectis,follis,  fascis,  lapis,  amnis, 

Sic  fastis,  postis,  scrobis,  axis,  vermis  et  unguis, 

Et  penis,  collis,  callis,  sic  sanguis  et  ensis, 

Mugilis  et  mensis,  pollis,  cum  caule  canalis, 

Et  vomis,  sentis,  pulvis,  finis,  cucumisqVLG, 

Anguis,  item  torquis,  torris,  cum  cassibus  orbis. 

Exceptions  in  ys. — Names  of  rivers  and  mountains  with 
this  termination  are  masculine,  according  to  the  rules  laid 
down  in  Chap.  VI. ;  e.  g.,  Halys,  Othrys. 

[§  78.]  Exceptions  in  z. — The  following  are  masculine: 
1.  The  Greek  words  in  ax :  as,  anthrax,  cordax,  thorax. 


GENDER    OF    WORDS    OF    THE    THIRD    DECLENSION.      69 

2.  The  majority  of  those  in  ex:  apex,  caudcx,  codex,  ci- 
mex,  cortex,  culcx,  frutcx,  grcx,  irpcx,  latex,  murcx,  obex, 
2Jodex,  pollex,  pulex,  pumcx,  ramex,  silex,  sorcx,  ulcx,  ver- 
tex or  vortex.  3.  Some  mix:  viz.,  calix,fornix,  phoenix, 
sorix ;  and  generally,  also,  varix.  4.  One  word  in  ux : 
viz.,  tradux,  properly  an  adjective,  2)a^-mcs  being  under- 
stood. 5.  The  following  Greek  words  in  yx  :  calyx, 
coccyx,  onyx,  oryx  and  boinbyx  (in  the  sense  of  silk- worm  ; 
it  is  feminine  when  it  signifies  silk) ;  and  the  names  of 
mountains,  such  as  Eryx.  6.  The  subdivisions  of  an  as 
which  end  in  unx ;  as,  quincunx,  scptunx,  dcunx.  (See 
Appendix  III.) 

Note. — Many  words  in  ex,  commonly  enumerated  in  these  lists,  are  mas- 
culine from  their  signification;  such  as  rex,  pontifex,  carnifex,foenisex,  ver- 
vex.  Some  words  vary  between  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders  ;  as, 
cortex,  obex,  pumex,  and  silex,  which  have  been  mentioned  above,  but  the 
masc.  is  better  attested.  To  these  we  must  add  imbrex  and  rumex,  both 
genders  of  which  are  supported  by  equal  authority.  It  may  be  remarked 
that  the  number  of  masculines  in  ex  is  greater  than  that  of  feminines  ;  for 
if  we  put  aside  the  above-mentioned  masculines,  there  remain  only  the 
following  feminines  :  forfex,  lex,  ntx,  supellex,  prex  (not  used  in  the  nom.), 
andfaex.  Pellex,  ilex,  vitex,&ud  carex  are  feminines  from  their  meaning,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  rule.  Atriplcx  is  the  only  neuter  in  ex,  and  is  rarely 
used  as  a  feminine. 

Onyx  is  masculine  when  it  denotes  a  species  of  marble,  or  a  vessel  made 
of  it ;  but  as  the  name  of  a  precious  stone  (see  §  39)  it  is  feminine.  Calx 
is  sometimes  used  as  a  masculine  like  the  diminutive  calculus,  but  it  doea 
not  occur  in  ancient  writers.  Lynx  occurs  as  masculine  only  in  a  single 
passage  of  Horace  (timidos  lyncas),  and  is  otherwise  feminine,  as  in  Greek. 
The  archaic  cum  primo  hid  is  believed  to  be  preserved  in  a  passage  of 
Cicero  (De  Off.,  iii.,  31.  Comp.  Varro,  De  L.  L.,  vi.,  9). 

Exceptions  in  es,  gen.  is,  without  increase. — The  Greek /» 
word  acinaccs  alone  (dKtvdKTjc,,  ov)  is  decidedly  masculine.   ^^ 
Vepres,  which  rarely  occurs  in  the  singular,  and  palumocs,       '     I 
though  commonly  masculines,  are  found  also  as  feminines. 

Exceptions  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant. — The  follow- 
ing are  masculine  :  dens,  fons,  mons,  and  pons  ;  adcps 
commonly,  and.  forceps  sometimes.  Some  words  are  prop- 
erly adjectives,  but  are  used  as  masculine  substantives, 
because  a  substantive  of  that  gender  is  understood  :  con- 
fluens  or  conflucntcs  (amnes),  torrens  (amnis),  oricns  and 
occidens  (sol),  rudcns  (ftmis),  bidcns  and  tridcns ;  and 
several  Greek  words,  such  as  clops,  cpops  (Lat.  upupajt 
merops,  gryps  (grypkisj,  kydrops,  chalyls. 

Note. — The  divisions  of  the  as  ending  in  ns,  e.  g.,  sextans,  quadrans,  triens, 
dodrans,  are  masculine,  as  was  remarked  §  77.  Serpcns,  in  prose  writers, 
is  generally  feminine,  but  the  poets  use  it  also  as  a  masculine.  Stirps,  in 
a  figurative  sense,  is  always  feminine,  but  in  its  original  sense  of  "  stem" 
it  is  frequently  found  as  a  "masculine.  Continens,  the  continent,  properly 


70  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

an  adjective,  is  of  doubtful  gender,  though  the  feminine  is  perhaps  prefera- 
ble. Bidens,  a  fork,  is  masculine ;  but  when  it  signifies  "  a  sheep  two 
years  old"  it  is  feminine,  ovis  being  understood.  The  plural  torrentia,  from 
torrens,  occurs  in  Curtius,  ix.,  35,  and  must  be  explained  by  supplying 
flumina,  torrens  being  properly  an  adjective.  A  few  participles  used  as  sub- 
stantives in  philosophical  language  are  neuters ;  as,  ens,  accidens,  conse- 
quens.  Anvnans,  being  properly  a  participle,  occurs  in  all  three  genders; 
but,  according  to  the  practice  of  Cicero,  it  is  generally  feminine  in  the  sense 
of  "  a  living  being,"  and  masculine  in  the  sense  of  "a  rational  creature." 
(See  Schneider,  Formenlehre,  p.  126,  fol.) 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

GENDER  OF  WORDS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. NEUTERS. 

[§  79.]  WORDS  ending  in  a,  c,  i,  y,  c,  I,  n,  t,  ar,  ur,  us 
are  neuter ;  e.  g.,  pocma,  marc,  sitiapi,  misi/,  lac  and  alec, 
animal,  mcl,  carmen,  flumen,  caput  (the  only  word  of  this 
termination),  calcar,  pulvinar,fulgur,  guttur,  opus,  tempus. 

1.  Exceptions  in  I. — The  following  are  masculine  :  sol, 
sal,  and  mugil,  which  form  is  more  common  than  mugilis. 
Sal,  in  the  singular,  is  sometimes  found  as  a  neuter,  but 
in  the  plural  the  ancients  use  only  sales,  both  in  the  sense 
of  "  salt"  and  in  the  more  common  one  of  "  witticisms." 
Salia,  in  the  sense  of  "  different  kinds  of  salt,"  is  only  a 
modern  medical  term. 

2  Exceptions  in  n. — There  are  only  three  Latin  words 
in  en  which  are  masculine,  viz.,  pectcn,  pecfinis,  ren  and 
lien  (or  lienis)  ;  the  others  in  en  are  of  Greek  origin ;  e. 
g.,  attagcn,  lichen,  and  splcn.  Delphin  (commonly  delphi- 
nus),  paean,  agon,  canon,  gnomon,  horizon,  and  the  names 
of  mountains  in  on;  as,  Cithacron,  Helicon,  are  likewise 
masculines.  The  following  in  on  are  feminine  :  aedon, 
halcyon  (Lat.  alcedo),  icon,  and  sindon ;  and,  according 
to  the  general  rule,  all  the  Greek  names  of  towns,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  such  as  Marathon,  which  is  more  fre- 
quently masculine. 

3.  Exceptions  in  ar. — Par  is  common  in  the  sense  of 
"  mate,"  but  neuter  in  the  sense  of  "  a  pair." 

4.  Exceptions  in  ur. — Astur,  turtur,  vultur,  and  furfur 
are  masculine. 

5.  Exceptions  in  us. — All  words  of  two  or  more  sylla- 
bles which  retain  the  u  in  the  genitive,  that  is,  which 
end  in  ntis  or  udis,  are  feminine  ;   e.  g.,  juventus,  solus, 
senectus,  servitus,  virtus ;  incus,  palus,  and  subscus  ;   also, 


FOURTH    DECLENSION. 


71 


j  telluris,  and  pccus,  pecudis,  a  sheep,  whereas  pccus, 
pecoris  (neut.),  signifies  "  cattle"  in  general.  Venus ,  Ve- 
neris,  the  name  of  a  goddess,  is  naturally  feminine ;  but 
it  retains  the  same  gender  in  the  sense  of  "  gracefulness" 
(generally  in  the  plural).  Respecting  the  names  of  ani- 
mals in  us,  see  above,  §  42.  Lcpus  and  mus  are  mascu- 
line ;  grus  and  sus  are  feminine  when  the  particular  sex 
is  not  to  be  specified.  Of  Greek  words  in  us,  tripus,  tri- 
podis,  is  masculine  ;  apus  and  lagopus  are  feminine,  per- 
haps only  because  avis  is  understood.  RJius,  as  a  tree,  is 
feminine  ;  as  a  seed  or  spice,  masculine. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

FOURTH      DECLENSION. 

[§  80.]  THE  fourth  declension  is  only  a  particular  spe- 
cies of  the  third,  which  has  arisen  from  contraction  and 
elision.  The  nominative  of  masculine  and  feminine  words 
ends  in  us,  and  of  neuters  in  u.  The  following  is  the  form 
of  their  declension : 

SINGULAR. 

Nom.  fruct-us,  fruit.  corn-u,  horn. 

Gen.  fruct-us.  corn-us.  ff.  Ji 

Dat.  fruct-ui.^ei/.^f:/^^.//,;,         (corn-ui)  corn-u. 

Ace.  fruct-um.  corn-u. 

Voc.  fruct-us.  corn-u. 

Abl.  fruct-u.  corn-u. 

PLURAL. 

Nom.  fruct-us.  corn-ua. 

Gen.  fruct-uum.  corn-uum. 

Dat.  fruct-ibus.  corn-lbus. 

Ace.  fruct-us.  corn-ua. 

Voc.  fruct-us.  corn-ua. 

Abl.  fruct-ibus.  corn-ibus. 

The  following  words  may  be  used  as  exercises  :  actus, 
coetus,  cur  sus,  gradus,  lusus,  magistrates ,  motus,  sensus, 
sumptus,  vultus :  the  only  neuters  are,  genu,  gdu,  veru, 
pecu  (the  same  as  pccus,  oris).  Tonitrus  and  tonitruum, 
plur.  tonitrua,  are  more  commonly  used  than  tonitru. 

Formerly  it  was  believed  that  the  neuters  in  u  were 
indeclinable  in  the  singular,  but  recent  investigations  (es- 


72  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

pecially  those  of  Freund,  in  an  appendix  to  the  preface 
to  his  Latin  Dictionary)  compel  us  to  give  up  this  opinion, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  genitive  ;  for  it  is  only  in 
late  technical  writers  that  we  find,  e.  g.,  cornu  ccrvinum 
and  cornu  bubulum  making  the  genitive  without  any  ter- 
mination of  the  first  word  :  cornucervini,  cornububtdi.  The 
dative  id  is  likewise  mentioned  by  an  ancient  grammari- 
an (Martian.  Capella,  lib.  iii.),  but  there  is  no  instance  ex- 
cept cornu  in  Livy,  xlii.,  58,  which  must  be  looked  on  as 
a  contraction  of  cornui. 

>?  ^  ^-]  ^otc  i-^The  genitive  of  the  words  in  us  was  originally  vis,  which 
•'  'W%s  afterward  contracted  into  fix.  Instances  of  the  ancient  form  are  still 
found  in  our  authors ;  as,  anuis  in  Terence.  Sometimes,  on  the  othor 
hand,  the  genitive  of  words  in  us  was  i,  after  the  second  declension,  which 
is  still  lound  now  and  then,  as  well  as  us,  not  only  in  comic  writers,  but 
in  good  prose,  e.  g.,  senati  and  tumulti  in  Sallust.  The  dative  in  u  instead 
of  ui  is  still  more  frequent,  especially  in  Carsar,  who  is  said  by  Gellius 
(iv.,  19)  to  have  sanctioned  this  form  exclusively;  e.g.,  eqnitatu,  magis- 
tral u,  usu,  for  equitatui,  &c. ;  it  is,  however,  found  also  in  a  few  passages 
of  other  writers. 

[$  82.]  Note  2. — Some  words  make  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  ubus 
instead  of  ibus.     They  are  contained  in  the  following  two  hexameters  : 
Arciis,  acus,  portus,  qtiercus,  ficus,  lacus,  artus, 
Et  tribus  et  partus,  specus,  adde  veruqne  pecuquc. 

But  it  must  be  observed,  that  instead  officubus  a  better  form  is  fids,  from 
ficus,  i  (see  §  97),  and  that  arcubus  and  qitercubus,  though  mentioned  by 
ancient  grammarians,  do  not  occur  in  other  writers  any  more  than  arcibus, 
or  quercibus.  Portus  has  both  forms,  ubus  and  Urns,  and  tonitrus  has  more 
commonly  tonitribus  than  tonitrnbus. 

l^  83.]  Note  3. — Domus  takes,  in  some  of  its  cases,  the  forms  of  the 
second  declension  ;  but  this  is  exclusively  the  case  only  in  the  genit.  domi 
in  the  sense  of  "  at  home  ;"*  in  the  abl.  dmno  in  the  sense  of  "  from  home  ;" 
and  in  the  ace.  plur.  domos  in  the  sense  of  "  home,"  when  several  places 
are  alluded  to.  In  the  other  signification,  the  forms  of  the  fourth  declen- 
sion prevail,  though  we  find  the  ablat.  domo,  genit.  plur.  domorum,  ace. 
plur.  domos,  along  with  domu  (see  Garatoni  on  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  18),  do- 
muum,  and  dorntis  (see  my  note  on  Cic.  in  Vcrr.,  iv.,  4);  but  domo  for 
domui  seldom  occurs. 

GENDER  OF  WORDS  OF  THE  FOURTH  DECLENSION. 

t§  84.]  The  words  in  us  are  masculine.  The  following 
y  are  feminines  :  acus,  domus,  manus,  porticus,  tribus, 
and  the  plurals  idus,  iduum,  and  quinquatrus,  quinquatru- 
um.  To  these  must  be  added  colus,  which,  however,  also 
follows  the  second  declension.  (See  §  53  and  97.)  The 
words  anus,  nurus,  socrus,  and  queraus  are  feminine,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  rule,  on  account  of  their  significa- 
tion. 

Note. — Penus,  us  (provisions),  is  feminine ;   but  there  are  two   other 

*  [Domi,  "  at  home,"  is  in  fact  not  a  genitive,  but  an  old  locative  cas§. 
Compare  Anthonys  Greek  Prosody,  p.  227,  seq.] — Am.  Ed. 


FIFTH    DECLENSION.  73 

forms  of  this  word,  one  after  the  second  declension,  penum,  i,  and  the 
second  after  the  third,  penus,  oris,  both  of  which  are  neuter.  Specus  is 
most  frequently  masculine ;  but  in  the  early  language,  and  in  poetry,  it  is 
found  both  as  a  feminine  and  as  a  neuter.  In  Valer.  Maximus,  i.,  2,  we 
have  in  quoddam  praealtum  specus  for  in  quendam  specum  ;  but  the  reading  is 
doubtful.  Secus,  when  used  for  sexus,  is  neuter,  but  occurs  only  in  the 
nominal,  and  accus.  in  the  connexion  of  virile  and  muliebre  secus.  (Com- 
pare §  89.) 

The  few  words  in  u  are  neuter,  without  exception. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 


FIFTH     DECLENSION. 


[§  85. J  THE  fifth  declension,  like  the  fourth,  may,  with 
a  few  changes,  be  traced  to  the  third.  The  nominative 
ends  in  es,  and  the  declension  is  as  follows  : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom.  di-es,  a  day. 
Gen.  'di-ei. 
Dat.    di-ei. 
Ace.  di-em. 
Voc.  di-es. 
Abl.    di-c. 


Nom.  di-es. 
Gen.   di-erum. 
Dat.    di-ebus. 
Ace.   di-es. 
Voc.  di-es. 
/2-j  Abl.    di-ebus. 

Note  1.— Only  {he  three  word's  dies,  res,  and  species  have  their  plural 
complete  ;  and  Cicero  condemned  even  spederum  and  spedebus  as  not  being 
Latin.  The  words  acies,  fades,  effigies,  series,  and  spes  are  found  in  good 
prose  writers  only  in  the  nominative  plur.  (perhaps  in  the  vocative  also) 
and  accus.  plur. ;  the  others  have,  from  their  signification,  no  plural. 

Note  2. — The  e  in  the  termination  of  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  is 
long  when  preceded  by  a  vowel,  as  in  diei,  madci,  but  short  in  spti,  com- 
mon infidd  and  rei. 

Note  3. — An  old  termination  of  the  genitive  was  es  (contracted  from  eis), 
but  is  not  found  in  our  authors,  except  in  the  word  Diespiter  =  Diei  pater. 
But  there  are  several  instances  of  e  and  i  being  used  for  the  ei  of  the  geni- 
tive and  dative.  The  e  for  the  genitive  occurs  very  frequently  in  poetry 
(Virg.,  Georg.,  i.,  208,  die.  Horat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  7,  4  ;  Ovid,  Metam.,  in.,  341, 
and  vii.,  728,  fide);  and  also  in  some  passages  of  Cicero,  Caesar,  and  Sal- 
lust;  e.  g.,  pernide  causa  (some  write  pernidi),  in  Cic.,  pro  Rose.  Am.,  45. 
In  sinistra parte  ade  in  Cses.,  -Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,23,  and  several  times  in  Sallust. 
Instances  of  the  dative  ending  in  e  occur  in  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  3,  95,  com- 
missa  fide  •  and  in  Livy,  v.,  13,  insanabili  pernide  nee  causa  nee  finis  invents- 
batur.  The  dative  in  i  occurs  in  Nepos,  Thrasyb.,  2 :  pernidi  fait ;  and  the 
genitive  in  i  appears  in  Livy,  ii.,  42,  in  the  connexion  of  tnbuni  plebi  for 
plebei  (plebes-=plebs). 

GENDER  OF  WORDS  OF  THE  FIFTH  DECLENSION. 
[§  86.]    The  words  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine, 
with  the  exception  of  dies,  which  is  mascul.  and  femin.  in 
the  singular,  and  masculine  only  in  the  plural.    The  com- 
pound meridies  is  masculine  only,  but  does  not  occur  in 
the  plural,  as  was  remarked  above. 
G 


74  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Note.— Good  prose  writers  make  the  singular  of  dies  much  more  fre- 
quently masculine  than  feminine.  The  latter  gender,  generally  speaking, 
is  used  only  when  dies  denotes  duration  or  length  of  time,  and  in  the  sense 
of  a  fixed  or  appointed  day.  Thus  we  find  certa,  constitute,  praestituta, 
dicta,  finite  dies,  but  also  stato  die. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

IRREGULAR    DECLENSION. INDECLINABLES. DEFECTIVES. 

[§  87.]  THE  irregularities  in  the  declension  of  substan- 
tives may  be  comprised  under  two  general  heads :  A.  In- 
declinablcs  and  defectives ;  B.  Hcteroclita  and  hetcrogenca. 

A.  Some  substantives  have  a  defective  declension,  in- 
asmuch as  they  have  either  no  terminations  at  all  to  mark 
the  different  cases  (indeclinables),  or  want  particular  ca- 
ses, or  even  a  whole  number  (defectives}. 

I.  Indeclinables,  or  words  which  retain  the  same  form 
in  all  cases,  are  chiefly  the  names  of  the  letters  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  alphabets,  c.  g.,  alpha,  beta,  gamma, 
digamma,  delta,  iota,  a,  c,  r,  &c.  It  is  only  late  and 
unclassical  authors  that  decline  the  Greek  names  in  a. 
Delta,  as  a  name  of  a  country,  is  likewise  indeclinable  ; 
but  it  is  found  only  in  the  nomin.  and  accus.  Farther,  a 
number  of  foreign  words,  such  as  git,  manna,  pascha,  and 
a  few  Greek  substantives  in  i  and  y,  such  as  gummi  and 
?nisy,  which,  however,  occurs  also  as  a  declinable  word 
(see  §  55) ;  and  besides  the  indeclinable  gummi  there  ex- 
ist other  declinable  forms  also,  e.  g.,  haec  gummis,  hoc 
gumma,  and  hoc  gwncn.  Hebrew  proper  names,  which 
differ  in  their  terminations  from  Greek  and  Latin  words, 
are  either  not  declined  at  all,  as  Bcthleem,  Gabriel,  Ruth, 
or  they  take  a  Latin  termination  in  the  nominative  also, 
e.  g.,  Abrahamus,  Jacobus,  JosepJms*  Juditha.  David  and 
Daniel  are  the  only  names  which,  without  taking  any  ter- 
mination in  the  nominative,*  make  the  genitive  Davidis 
and  Danielis.  Others,  as  Joannes,  Moses,  Judas,  Maria, 
have  already  acquired,  through  the  Greek,  a  declinable 
termination,  and  are  accordingly  declined  after  the  first 
or  third  declension.  Jesus  makes  the  accusat.  Jesum,  but 
in  the  other  cases  it  remains  unchanged,  Jesu. 

*  [Modern  writers  of  Latin  verse,  however,  give  Ddvldes  as  a  form  for 
the  nominative.  Compare  Hodgson  (Provost  of  Eton),  Sacred  History  for 
Latin  Verse,  p.  95.]— Am.  Ed. 


IRREGULAR    DECLENSION.  75 

Among  the  genuine  Latin  words  we  must  notice pondo, 
which  is  used  only  as  a  plural,  and  remains  unchanged  in 
all  its  cases,  e.  g.,  auri  quinque  pondo,  five  pounds  of  gold. 
This  peculiarity  arose  from  the  omission  of  the  word  li- 
brae, to  which  was  added  the  superfluous  pondo,  an  abla- 
tive in  the  sense  of  "in  weight"  (in  which  it  still  often 
occurs ;  see  §  428) ;  afterward  librae  was  omitted,  and 
pondo  retained  its  place.  Semis,  half  an  as,  has  become 
an  indeclinable  adjective  (one  half)  from  a  declinable 
substantive,  gen.  scmissis,  and  is  used  as  such  in  connex- 
ion with  other  numerals. 

[§  88.]  II.  Defectives  in  case*  are  those  substantives 
which  want  one  or  more  cases.  There  are  many  words 
of  which  the  nominative  singular  cannot  be  proved  to  have 
existed ;  as,  for  instance,  of  the  genitives  dapis,  dicionis, 
feminis  (for  which  the  nominal,  femur  is  used),  frugis, 
inter  necionis,  opis,  pollinis,  vicis,  and  of  the  plurals  preces 
and  verbera  (for  which  we  use  as  a  nom.  sing,  plaga  or 
ictus).  The  genitive  neminis,  from  nemo,  occurs  very  rare- 
ly, and  its  place  is  supplied  by  nullius.  (See  §  676.)  The 
vocative  is  wanting  in  a  great  many  words,  from  their  sig- 
nification. The  genitive  plural  is  wanting,  that  is,  does  not 
occur  in  our  authorities,  in  several  monosyllabic  words  ; 
as,  os,  oris  ;  vas,  vadis;  glos,  pax,  and  others.  (See  §  66.) 
The  genit.  and  dat.  sing,  of  vis  are  very  rare,  but  the  plural 
vires,  virium,  &c.,  is  complete. 

[§  89.]  With  regard  to  words  which  want  several  ca- 
ses, it  most  frequently  happens  that  only  those  cases  ex- 
ist which  are  alike  (i.  e.,  especially  the  nominat.  and  ac- 
cusat.),  all  the  others  being  wanting.  This  is  the  case  (a) 
with  Greek  neuters  in  es  (properly  adjectives)  and  in  os 
in  the  singular,  and  with  those  in  e  in  the  plural,  e.  g., 
cacoethes,  chaos,  epos,  mdos,  cctos  (which  make  the  plural 
mele,  ccte,  as  in  Greek),  and  Tempe.  Some  of  these 
wrords,  however,  have  a  declinable  Latin  form  in  us,  i,  or 
um,  i,  viz.,  chaus,  cetus,  melus  (mascul.),  and  mcluin,  from 
which  the  ablatives  cJiao,  ?nelo  are  derived  ;  and  besides 
(TO)  Argos,  there  is  a  declinable  Latin  form  Argi,  Ar go- 
rum,  Argis.  (b)  With  the  Latin  neuters  fas,  ncfas,  nihil, 
parum  (too  little),  and  instar,  which  was  originally  a  sub- 

*  [Consult,  on  this  subject,  the  following  passages  of  the  ancient  gram- 
marians:  Charis.,  p.  22,  seq.  Id.,  p.  72,  seq.  Diom.,  p.  288.  Pris.,  p.  672, 
924.  Phoc.,  p.  1708,  seq.  Aaper,  p.  1729.  Donat.,  p.  1749.  Serg.,  p.  1845. 
Cledon.,  p.  1901.  Consent.,  p.  2034.]— Am.  Edt 


76  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

stantive  signifying  "  an  image,"  or  "  resemblance,"  and 
was  then  used  as  an  adjective  in  the  sense  of  "  like,"  but 
only  in  such  connexions  as  admit  of  its  being  explained 
as  a  nominative  or  accusative.  Secus,  sex,  is  likewise 
used  only  in  cases  that  are  alike,  especially  as  an  accu- 
sative absolute,  virile  secus,  mulicbre  secus,  e.  g.,  canis, 
muliebre  secus  ;  in  other  phrases,  scxus,  us,  is  the  ordina- 
ry word,  (c)  With  the  plural  of  many  monosyllabic 
words;  as,?ieces,  kinds  of  death;  paces,  treaties  of  peace; 
especially  neuters;  as,  acra,  brazen  images;  jura,  rights; 
rura,  fields ;  fura,  incense ;  and  others,  the  plural  of 
which  generally  occurs  only  in  poetical  language ;  as, 
farra,  corn;  mclla,  honey;  fella,  bile.  To  these  we  must 
add  the  poetical  plurals  jiamina,  murmura,  silentia,  colla. 
The  following  plurals,  grates,  munia,  muncra,  likewise 
occur  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus.,  and  the  ablatives  grat- 
ibiis  and  munibus  are  rarely  used.  Rictus,  which  is  com- 
plete in  the  singular,  and  astus,  of  which  the  ablat.  singu- 
lar is  used,  have,  in  the  plural,  those  cases  only  which  are 
alike. 

The  following  must  be  remembered  separately :  fors 
occurs  only  in  the  nom.  and  abl.  singular  (forte,  by  chance) ; 
lues,  in  the  nom.,  ace.,  and  ablat.  singular ;  mane,  in  the 
nom.,  ace.,  and  abl.  singular,  and  is  alike  in  all  of  them, 
but  it  is  used  also  as  an  adverb.  Satias,  for  satictas,  does 
not  occur,  in  good  prose,  in  any  other  form.  There  are 
several  words  which  are  frequently  used  in  the  plural 
(see  §  94),  but  which  in  the  singular  have  only  one  or 
other  case,  more  especially  the  ablative  ;  e.  g.,  prece, 
from  preces,  occurs  in  prose  also ;  but  the  ablative  singular 
of  ambages,  compcdes,  fauces,  obiccs,  and  verbera  is  used 
only  in  verse,  and  not  in  ordinary  prose. 

[§  90.]  Some  words  occur  only  in  particular  combina- 
tions, and  in  a  particular  case  :  dicis,  with  causa  and  gra- 
tia ;  nauci,  in  the  phrase  non  nauci  facere,  or  esse  ;  diu 
noctuque,  or  die  et  noctu,  old  ablatives,  for  which,  howev- 
er, nocte  et  interdiu  are  more  commonly  used  ;  derisui, 
despicatui,  divisui,  ostentui,  in  combination  with  dud  or 
esse  ;  infitias,  with  ire ;  suppctias,vfit}\ferre;  pcssum  and 
vcnum,  with  ire  and  dare  ;  whence  venire  and  vendere,  for 
which  Tacitus,  in  the  same  sense,  uses  veno  ponere,  exer- 
cere  ;  forls  and  foras  (from  forae  =  fores)  ;  gratis  (for 
gratiis),  ingratiis  ;  syonte,  with  a  pronoun;  as,  mea,  tua, 


IRREGULAR    DECLENSION.  77 

sua,  or  a  genitive;  inpromptu  and  in  procinctu,  commonly 
with  esse  and  stare.  We  must  particularly  notice  some 
verbal  substantives,  which  frequently  occur  in  good  wri- 
ters, but  rarely  in  any  other  form  than  the  ablat.  sing,  in 
combination  with  a  genitive,  or  still  more  frequently  with 
a  pronoun,  such  as  mco,  tuo,  &c.,  e.  g.,  concessu  and  per- 
missu ;  monitu  and  admonitu ;  mandatu,  rogatu,  oratu ; 
arbitratu,  jussu  et  injussu  ;  accitu,  coactu  atque  efflagitatu 
meo. 

[§  91.]  III.  Defectives   in   number*   are   words  which 
have  either  no  plural  or  singular. 

1.  Many  words,  from  their  signification,  can  have  no  plu- 
ral, and  are  termed  singularia  tantum.  This  is  the  case, 
(a)  with  abstract  nouns  which  have  a  simple  and  univer- 
sal meaning,  e.  g.,justitia,  pictas,  pudor,  tejnpcrantia,  ex- 
pericntia,  infantia,  pucritia,  adolescentia,  juvcntus,  sencclus, 
James,  sitis  ;  (bj  with  words  which  denote  a  substance 
or  mass  without  division  or  subdivision ;  as,  aurum,  argcn- 
tum,  argilla,  sabulum,  coenum,  limus,  sanguis,  and  panis, 
inasmuch  as  we  thereby  do  not  understand  a  single  loaf, 
but  the  substance  of  bread  in  general.  Some  words  of  / 
this  kind,  however,  when  used  in  the  plural,  denote  sep- 
arate  objects,  consisting  of  the  substance  indicated  by  the 
name ;  as,  aera,  works  in  bronze ;  cerac,  wax-tablets ; 
Hgna,  pieces  of  wood  ;  (c)  collective  words  ;  as,  indoles, 
the  whole  natural  abilities  of  a  person;  plcbs  and  vulgus, 
victus,  supellex,  virus.  Proper  names  should  strictly  have 
no  plural,  but  cases  often  occur  where  a  plural  is  neces- 
sary, viz.,  when  persons  of  the  same  name  or  character 
are  spoken  of,  and  it  may  be  remarked  in  general  that  in 
cases  like  this  the  person  who  speaks  or  writes  must  de- 
cide for  himself.  It  is  surprising  that  there  exists  no  plu- 
ral of  the  words  vesper  (vcspcra),  meridies,  ver,justitium, 
letum,  and  specimen. 

\§  92.]  Note  1. — It  is,  however,  remarkable  that  the  plural  of  abstract 
nouns  is  much  more  common  in  Latin  than  in  our  own  language,  to  de- 
note a  repetition  of  the  same  thing,  or  its  existence  in  different  objects. 
Cicero  (Pro  Leg.  Man.,  S),  for  example,  says  :  adventfts  imperatorurn  nostro- 
turn  in  urbe.s  sociorum  :  in  Pis.,  22  ;  concursus  fitbant  undique  ;  fffusiones  homi- 
num:  De  Off.,  ii.,  6;  interitus  exercituum:  ibid.,  ii.,  8;  exitus  erant  bellorum 
out  mites  aut  necessarii :  ibid.,  ii.,  7  ;  reliquorum  similes  exitus  tyrannnrum  :  in 

*  [The  passages  of  the  ancient  grammarians  that  have  reference  to  this 
subject  are  the  following  :  Varro,  L.  L.,  vii.,  25  ;  /</.,  viii.,  40.  Aid.  GelL, 
xix.,  8.  Charts.,  p.  19,  21,  seq.  Diom.,  p.  314,  sfqq.  Prise.,  p.  662,  seq. 
Phoc.,  p.  1707,  seq.  Donat.,  p.  1748.  Consent.,  p.  2029.]—  Am.  Ed, 

G2 


78  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Verr.,  \.,  11  ;  exittis  conviviorum  tales  fuerunt.  The  phrases  incurrere,  in  odia 
hominum  and  animos  addere  militibus  are  of  quite  common  occurrence,  and 
animus  is  used  in  the  plural  whenever  the  courage  or  anger  of  several  per- 
sons is  spoken  of,  just  as  we  always  read  terga  vertere,  to  take  to  flight, 
when  the  act  is  ascribed  to  many,  and  never  tergwn.  Animi,  however, 
like  spiritue,  is  used  in  the  plural  also,  to  denote  iheferocia  animi  of  one 
man.  Qualities,  when  attributed  to  several  persons,  are  frequently  (not 
always)  used  in  the  plural ;  e.  g.,  pruceritates  arborum,  Cic.,  Cat.,  17  ;  odis- 
tis  hominum  novormn  indiistrias,  in  Verr.,  hi.,  4  ;  ingeniis  excellentibus  praediti 
homines,  De  Fin.,  v.,  24.  The  plural  in  this  case  often  denotes  different 
species  of  the  same  quality  ;  e.  g.,  sapiens  nostras  ambitiones  levitatesque  con- 
temnit,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  36;  sacpe  excellentiae  quaedarn  in  amicitia  sunt,  Lael., 
19  ;  somnus  et  quietes  ceterae,  De  Off.,  i.,  29.  In  like  manner  we  find  invidiae 
multitudinis,  insaniae,  desperationes,  iracundiae,fortitudines,  turpitudines,  mortes, 
exitia,  omnes  et  metus  et  aegritudines  ad  dolorem  referuntur,  &c.  (See,  in  par- 
ticular, Cic.,  De  Off.,  iii.,  32.)  We  must  farther  notice  the  frequent  use 
of  the  plural  in  words  denoting  the  phenomena  of  the  weather  ;  as,  nines, 
pruinae,  grandines,  imbres,  pluviae ;  i.  e.,  falls  of  snow,  showers  of  hail,  &c. ; 
and  soles,  sunbeams.  (See  Quintil.,  xi.,  3,  27.)  All  we  have  said  hitherto 
relates  to  good  prose ;  the  poets  go  still  farther,  and  use  the  plural  with- 
out either  of  the  two  reasons  mentioned  above;  e.  g.,  amores,  irae,  metus, 
and  timores,  Jlamina,  murmura,  otia,  silentia,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  being 
more  emphatic,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  metre,  where  the  singular 
does  not  suit  it, 

Note  2. — The  names  of  fruits  of  gardens  and  fields,  on  the  other  hand, 
are  frequently  used  in  the  singular  in  a  collective  sense,  where  we  are  in 
the  habit  of  employing  the  plural;  e.  g.,  Pythagorei  faba  abstinuerunt  (Cic.); 
fabam,  lentem,  rapum  serere ;  ciceris  catinus.  In  like  manner,  nux  or  uva  does 
not  denote  a  single  nut  or  grape,  but  the  particular  kind  of  fruit ;  as  in 
Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  2,  121 :  pensilis  uva  seeundas  et  nux  ornabat  mensas.  In  a 
similar  way  Cicero  uses  the  names  of  species  of  animals :  villa  abundat 
porco,  haedo,  agno,  gallina,  Cat.,  17  ;  and  Livy,  v.,  53,  of  building  materials  : 
tegula  publice  praebita  est. 

[§  93. J  2.  Other  words  (pluralia  tantum)  occur  only  in 
the  plural,  and  in  the  singular  either  not  at  all,  or  only  in 
writers  who  cannot  be  taken  as  models.  This  is  the  case 

(a)  With  the  following  collective  names  of  personal 
beings  :   liberi,  gemini,  majorcs,  posteri,  primores  and  pro- 
ceres^  supcri  and  inferi,  coelites,  conscntes,  penates,  lemiires, 
excubiac,  ojierae.     When  in  any  of  these  cases  an  individ- 
ual is  to  be  indicated,  it  can  be  done  only  by  making  it  a 
part  of  the  collective,  e.  g.,  one  child,  unus  or  una  libero- 
rum  or  ex  libcris  ;  manes  or  dii  manes,  however,  is  used 
in  the  plural  also  to  denote  the  departed  soul  of  an  indi- 
vidual. 

(b)  A  great  number  of  other  pluralia  tantum  denote  a 
complex  of  things,  the  constituent  parts  of  which  are  not 
conceived  separately,  or,  at  least,  are  not  designated  by  the 
same  word  as  the  whole  complex  itself.     Such  words  are 
rendered  in  English  either  by  plurals  or  collective  words. 
The  most  important  among  them  are  : 

(a)  Artusy  exta,  intestina  and  viscera,  foria  (orum),  tor- 


IRREGULAR    DECLENSION.  79 

ilia,  armamenta,  impedimenta,  utensilia,  induviac, 
exuviae,  manubiae,  parietinae,  reliquiae,  sentes,  vepres,  vir- 
gulta,  bellaria,  crepundia,  scruta,  donaria,  lautia,  inferiae, 
justa,  serta,  compedcs,  vcrbera,  grates,  lamenta,  minae, 
preces,  dirae,  ambages,  argutiae,  deliciae,  divitiae,  facetiae, 
nugae,  gerrae,  quisquiliae,  insidiae,  pracstigiae,  tricae.  To 
these  we  may  add  some  other  but  similar  ideas,  which  are 
more  frequently  expressed  by  the  plural  than  the  singu- 
lar; as,  angustiae,  blanditiae,  illecebrae,  ineptiac,  minutiae, 
latebrae,  salebrae* 

[§  94.]  j3.  The  following  words  are  used  in  Latin  in 
the  plural,  because  they  denote  things  composed  of  sev- 
eral parts,  whereas  we  frequently  express  the  same  things 
in  the  singular :  Altaria  (altare  is  less  common),  arma, 
moenia,  bigae,  trigae,  quadrigae  (in  the  so-called  Silver 
Age  the  singular  also  was  used,  the  chariot  being  the 
main  thing  thought  of),  cancelli  and  clathri,  cassts  and 
plagae,  exeqmae,Jides  (a  lyre,  properly  the  strings,  which 
were  also  called  nervi),  fores  and  valvae,  loculi,  phalerac, 
salinae,  scalae,  scopac,  codicilli,  pngillares,  tabulae,  cerae, 
dunes  and  nates.  The  meaning  of  the  plural  is  more  ob- 
scure in  the  following  words:  cervices* fauces,  clitellae, 
cunae,  cundbula  and  incunabula,  inimicitiae  (is  used  by 
Cicero  in  the  singular  only,  as  expressing  a  philosophical 
idea,  otherwise  it  is  a  plurale  tantum),  induciae,  nuptiae^ 
obices,  pantices,  praccordia  (orum),  sordes,  tenebrae. 

It  is  curious  that  the  plural  of  some  of  the  words  of 
this  class  expresses  also  a  plurality  of  the  same  things  of 
which  the  plurale  tantum  indicates  but  one,  e,  g.,  that 
fauces  signifies  not  only  "a  throat,"  but  "several  throats," 
or  "  mouths."  In  this  case  the  distributive  numerals  are 
used  instead  of  cardinal  ones.  (See  §  119.) 

[§  95.]  The  names  of  certain  days  in  the  Roman  cal- 
endar are  plurals  ;  as,  calcndae,  nonae,  idus,  nundinae,  and 
feriac  ;  so,  also,  the  names  of  festivals  and  festive  games 
(like  ludi  itself) ;  e.  g.,  Bacchanalia,  Floralia,  Saturna- 
lia, Olympia,  and  natalicia,  spojisalia  and  repot ia  ;  farther, 
many  names  of.  towns,  such  as  Atkenae,  Tlicbac,  Gadcs, 
the  neuters  Arbela,  Bactra,  Lcuctra,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  names  of  towns  which  are  properly  names  of 

*  In  ancient  Latin  prose,  i.  e.,  especially  in  Cicero,  it  is  a  plurale  tantum; 
for  cervicem,  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  42,  is  only  a  misprint  in  the  modern  edi- 
tions ;  but  the  poets,  and,  after  the  Augustan  age,  prose  writers  also,  use 
the  word  in  the  singular.  (Comp.  QuintiL,  viil,  3,  35.) 


80 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


the  people  ;  as,  Delphi,  Lcontini,  Parisii,  Treviri.  Such 
plural  names  of  nations  are  often  used  for  that  of  the 
country  they  inhabit.  Horace,  for  example,  says,  tollor 
in  arduos  Salinos,  i.  e.,  into  the  high  country  of  the  Sa- 
bines.  (See  §  680.) 

[§  96.]  Some  words,  which  are  apparently  the  same, 
vary  in  meaning  according  to  their  number,  which  is 
sometimes  accompanied  by  a  difference  of  gender.  Lus- 
trum is  a  period  of  five  years,  and  lustra,  dens  of  wild 
beasts  ;  fastus,  us,  plur.  fastus,  pride,  and  fasti,  the  cal- 
endar ;  forum,  market,  andfori,  passages  ;  tempus,  time, 
and  tempora  (sometimes  tempus.  also),  the  temples  of  the 
head. 

In  other  words  the  plural  has  a  different  meaning  from 
the  singular,  though  one  nearly  allied  to  it,  and  without 
giving  up  the  meaning  of  the  singular  for  the  plural,  e.  g. : 


SINGULAR. 
Aedes,  a  temple. 
Aqua,  water. 
Auxilium,  help. 
Bonum,  something  good. 
Career,  a  prison. 

Castrum,  a  fort,  [man  forum. 

Comitium,  a  part  of  the  Ro- 

Copia,  abundance. 

Cupedia,  daintiness. 

Epidum,  a  solemn  feast. 

Facultas,  power  to  do  some- 
thing. 

Fortuna,  fortune. 

Hortus,  a  garden. 

[bet. 

Littera,  letter  of  the  alpha- 

Ludus,  pastime. 

Naris,  nostril. 

Natalis  (dies),  birthday. 

(Ops,  obsol.)  Opis,  help. 

Opera,  labour. 

Pars,  a  part. 

Rostrum,    a    beak,    pointed 
head  of  a  ship. 

Sal,  salt. 


PLURAL. 

Aedes,  a  house. 
Aquae,  medicinal  springs. 
Auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 
Bona,  property. 
Car  ceres.,  the  barriers  of  a 

race-course. 

Castra,  a  camp.  [tion. 

Comitia,  assembly  for  elec- 
Copiae,  troops.  [ties. 

Cupcdiac,  or  cupcdia,  dain- 
Epulac,  a  feast,  a  meal. 
Facilitates,  property. 

Fortunae,  goods  of  fortune. 

Horti  and  hortuli,  pleasure- 
grounds. 

Litterae,  an  epistle. 

Ludi,  public  games. 

Nares,  iurti,  nose=nasus. 

Natales,  birth,  high  or  low. 

Opes,  power,  wealth. 

Operae,  workmen. 

Partcs,  (commonly)  a  party, 

Rostra,  the  raised  place  from 
which  the  orators  spoke. 

Sales,  witticisms. 


IRREGULAR   DECLENSION.  81 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

IRREGULAR  DECLENSION. HETEROCLITA. HETEROGENEA. 

[§  97.]  B.  THE  second  kind  of  irregularity  in  the  de- 
clension of  substantives  consists  in  too  great  an  abun- 
dance of  forms.  It  happens  either  that,  although  there  is 
but  one  nominative,  the  other  cases  have  two  forms  after 
different  declensions,  or  that  both  the  nominative,  and  all 
the  other  cases,  have  two  different  forms.  If,  owing  to 
the  different  terminations,  such  a  word  has,  at  the  same- 
time,  different  genders,  it  is  called  a  hcterogenes ;  if  it  has 
merely  different  forms,  it  is  called  a  lieteroditon.  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  there  are  only  very  few  words 
in  which  the  practice  of  good  prose  does  not  give  prefer- 
ence to  one  of  the  forms,  and  in  the  following  list  we  shall 
always  put  the  preferable  form  first. 

Forms  of  different  declensions  are  found  with  the  word 
jugerum  ;  for,  besides  the  ablative  sing,  and  plur.jugero 
wa.djugeri$i  poets,  for  metrical  reasons,  use  jugere  andju- 
geribus.  Some  names  of  trees  in  us,  viz.,  cuprcssus,jicus, 
laurus,  pinus,  besides  the  forms  of  the  second  declension, 
also  take  those  of  the  fourth  in  us  and  u,  i.  e.,  in  the  genit. 
and  ablat.  singular,  and  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  plural, 
e.  g.,  laurus  (after  the  second  and  fourth  declension),  gen. 
lauri  and  laurus,  dat.  lauro,  ace.  laurum,  voc.  laure,  abl. 
lauro  and  lauru.  Nom.  plur.  lauri  and  laurus,  gen.  lau- 
rorum,  dat.  and  abl.  lauris,  accus.  lauros  and  laurus,  voc. 
lauri.  In  other  names  of  trees  the  second  declension 
greatly  predominates,  except  quercus,  which  follows  the 
fourth  entirely.*  The  same  is  the  case  with  colus,  a  dis- 
taff; but  the  cases  in  i,  orum,  is,  do  not  exist,  perhaps 
only  accidentally ;  for,  according  to  the  ancient  gramma- 
rians, the  word  may  follow  both  the  second  and  fourth 
declensions.  Respecting  senatus,  tumultus,  gen.  us  and  ?', 
see  §  81.  Vas,  vasis,  a  vessel,  sometimes  makes  the 
genit.  vasi,  from  vasum,  which  is  not  altogether  out  of  use. 
The  plural  ilia  has  iliorum  and  iliis  along  with  ilium  and 


*  [Consult,  on  this  subject,  Priscian,  p.  711  and  1264.  Serv.,  ad  Virg  , 
Ed,  ii.,  54.  Bentley,  ad  Horat.,  Od.,  ii.,  15,  5.  Schneider,  L.  G.,  vol.  hi., 
p.  472.]— Am.  Ed. 


82 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


[§  98.]  Words  which  have  different  forms  in  the  nomi- 
native as  well  as  other  cases  may  follow  the  same  declen- 
sion in  either  case  ;  as,  balteus  and  baltcum,  callus  and  cal- 
lum,  clipeus  and  clipcum  (especially  a  consecrated  shield), 
carrus  and  carrum,  commentarius  and  commentarium,  cu- 
bitus  and  cubitum,pileum  and  pileus,  baculum  andbaculus, 
palatum  and.  palatus,  jugulum  andjugulus,  catinus,  catil- 
lus,  and  catinmn,  catillum;  and  some  names  of  plants;  as, 
lupinus  and  lupinum,  papyrus  and  papyrum,  porrum  and 
porrus  :  or  they  follow  different  declensions  ;  as, 
Alimonia  ae.  —  alimonium,  i. 
Amygdala,  ae.  —  amijgdalum,  i. 

Vcspera,  ae.  —  vesper,  i,  the  evening  star,  is  regular. 
In  the  sense  of  evening,  we  find 
the  nom.  vesper  and  accus.  vespe- 
rum,  -but  the  ablative  vesper  e  and 
vesperi,  from  vesper,  is;  in  the  Sil- 
ver Age  generally,  we  also  find  ves- 
pera,  ae. 

Cingulum,  i.         —  cingula,  ae. 
Essedum,  i.  —  csseda,  ae. 

Incestum,  i.  —  incestus,  us. 

Delpkinus,  i.        —  delpliin,  inis. 
Elephantus,  i.      —  elcphas,  antis. 
Consortio,  onis.    —  consortium,  i. 
Mendum,  i.  —  mcnda,  ae. 

Penum,i.  — penus,  us  ;   and  penus,  oris. 

Tergum,  i.  —  tergus,  oris,  only  in  poetry,   and  in 

prose  after  Augustus. 
Pavo,  onis.  —  pavus,  i. 

Scorpio,  onis.       —  scorpius,  i. 
Palumbcs,  is.       —  palumbus,  i  ;  and  palumba. 
Colluvio,  onis.      —  colluvies,  ei. 
Crater,  Iris.          —  cratera,  ae. 
Plebs,  is.  —  plebcs,  ei. 

Paupertas,  atis.  —  pauperies,  ei. 
Juventus,  utis.      — juventa,  ae  ;   and.  juventas,  atis. 
Senectus,  utis.      —  senecta,  ae. 
Gausape,is  (also  —  gausapmn,  i  ;  and  gausapa,  ae. 
gausapes,     is, 
masc.). 

Praesepe,is  (also —  praescpium^  i. 
praesepes,     is, 
fern.). 


IRREGULAR    DECLENSION.  83 

Tapete,  is.  —  tapetum,  i  ;  and  tapes,  etis. 

Angiportus,  us.    —  angiportum,  i. 
Rictus,  us.  —  rictum,  i. 

Arcus,us.  —  arcus,i  (in  Cic., De  Nat.Deor.,  iii.,20), 

Tonitrus,      us     —  tonitruum. 
(tonitruj. 

Fames,  is,  and  requies,  etis,  take  the  forms  of  the  fifth 
declension  :  fames  makes  the  ablaLjame,  and  requies  has 
requiem  and  requie,  besides  requietem  and  requiete.  It  is 
of  comparatively  frequent  occurrence  that  substantives 
have  different  forms  both  of  the  first  and  fifth  declensions  ;* 
as,  barbaria,  barbaries  ;  luxuria,  es  ;  duritia,  es  ;  materia, 
es  ;  mollitia,  es  ;  segnitia,  es  (the  forms  after  the  fifth  de- 
clension commonly  occur  only  in  the  nom,,  ace.,  and  abl.), 
and  that  verbal  substantives  of  the  fourth  declension  have 
a  second  form  in  um,  i,  like  the  participle  of  the  perfect ; 
as,  conatus  and  conatum,  eventus  and  eventum,  praetcxtus 
and  practextum,  suggestus  and  suggestum* 

[§  99.]  To  this  class  belong  those  substantives  which, 
in  the  plural,  assume  a  different  gender  and  a  different 
form,  in  some  instances,  along  with  the  regular  one  : 

1.  Masculines  which  in  the  plural  become   neuters : 
jocus,  plur.joci  andjoca  (of  pretty  equal  authority,  though 
joca  is  better  established  by  the  practice  of  Cicero) ;  lo- 
cus, plur.  loci  (generally  passages  in  books  or  subjects  for 
investigation  and  discussion  =  topics)  and  loca  (in  the  com- 
mon sense  of  "  places,"  whence  the  difference  is  briefly 
expressed  thus  :  loci  librorum,  loca  terrarum).     The  poets 
use  sibila  forsibili ;  and  of  intubus  and  tartarus  they  make 
the  plural  intuba  and  tartara. 

2.  Feminines  which  in  the  plural  become  neuters  :  car- 

a  species  of  flax,  plur.  carbasi  and  carbasa,  sails 
made  of  it;  astrea,  plur.  astreae  and  astrca,  orum;  margari- 
ta,  plur.  margaritae,  and  in  Tacitus  also,  margarita,  orum. 

3.  The  following  neuters  become  (a)  Masculines:  coc- 
lum,  cocli ;  siser,  siseres ;  porrum  (which  is  much  more  fre- 
quent in  the  singular  than porrus), porri;   (b)  Feminines: 

*  [Bopp  thinks  that  the  e  in  the  Latin  fifth  declension,  as  in  almost 
every  instance  an  t  precedes  it,  has  been  changed  from  a  by  the  influence 
of  this  i.  This  may  serve,  according  to  him,  to  explain  why  we  have  oc- 
casionally two  forms  for  the  nominative,  one  of  the  fifth  and  the  other  of 
the  first  declension  ;  the  latter  of  these  will  follow,  therefore,  the  analogy 
of  the  Greek,  and  allow  a  to  remain  unaltered  before  »,  as  in  aofia.  The 
Ionic  form,  on  the  other  hand,  follows  the  Zend  ;  as,  GoQiq.] — Am.  Ed. 


84  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

delidwm,  deliciae  ;  epulum,  epulae ;  balneum,  balneae  (in 
the  sense  of  a  public  bath  balnea  is  more  frequent) ;  (c) 
Both  masculines  and  neuters  :  rastrum,  rastri  and  rastra; 
frenum,freni*  audfrena. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

NOUNS    ADJECTIVE. TERMINATIONS. DECLENSION. 

[§  100.]  1.  THE  noun  adjective  denotes  a  quality  of  a 
person  or  a  thing,  expressed  either  by  a  substantive  or  a 
pronoun.  The  participle  is  an  adjective  formed  from  a 
verb,  and,  as  far  as  its  form  is  concerned,  is  an  adjective. 
An  adjective  has  three  genders,  and  can  thus  be  joined 
with  substantives  of  different  genders.  But  there  are 
only  two  classes  of  adjectives  in  which  the  three  genders 
are  indicated  by  three  different  terminations,  namely,  the 
adjectives  and  participles  in  us,  a,  um ;  such  as  bonus, 
bona,  bonum  ;  amatus,  amata,  amatum  ;  and  those  in  er, 
a,  um ;  such  as  liber,  libera,  liberum ;  and  the  isolated 
satur,  satura,  saturum. 

To  these  adjectives  of  three  terminations  the  following 
thirteen  in  er,  is,  e  must  be  added  :  accr,  acris,  acre  ;  ala- 
cer,  alacrtSy  alacre ;  campcstcr,  campestris,  campestre ;  cele- 
bcr,  Celebris,  cclebre  ;  celcr,  celeris,  cclerc ;  cqucstcr,  cques- 
tris,  cquestre  ;  palustcr,  palustru,  palustre ;  pedestcr, 
pedcst?'is,  pedcstre  ;  puter,  putris,  putre  ;  salubcr,  salubris, 
salubre  ;  Silvester,  silvestrw,  silvcstre ;  terrcster,  terrestris, 
tcrrestre;  roluccr,  valuer  is,  valuer  c.  Originally  they  had 
only  two  terminations,  is  for  the  masculine  and  feminine, 
and  e  for  the  neuter.  The  termination  er  for  the  mascu- 
line exclusively  was  afterward  added  to  them ;  but  as  the 
termination  is  is  not  very  often  used  in  good  prose  for  the 
masculine,  it  will  be  best  to  treat  them  as  a  class  of  ad- 
jectives which  have  three  terminations  for  the  three  gen- 
ders. 

Note  1. — Ernesti,  on  Tacit.,  Annnl.,  ii.,  in  fin.,  goes  too  far  in  asserting 
that  the  masculine  in  is  is  not  suited  for  prose.  He  himself  quotes  two 
passages  from  Tacitus  for  Celebris,  and  one  in  the  Auct.  ad  Herenn.,  ii.,  4  : 
locus  Celebris.  Several  others  may  be  added  from  Curtius.  In  Cicero, 
De  Divin.,  i.,  57,  we  find  annus  salubris ;  and,  in  like  manner,  locus,  ventus, 

*  The  nominative  freni,  for  which  Schneider  (Formenlehre,  p.  476)  has 
no  authority,  occurs  in  Curtius,  iii.,  34;  vii.,40.  Valer.  Maxim. ,ii.,  9,  5; 
Seneca,  dc  Ira,  i.,  7 ;  Sil.  Ital.,  i,  240. 


NOUNS    ADJECTIVE.  85 

effectus  salubris  in  Celsus,  i.,  3;  ii.,  1 ;  iii.,  6;  in  Livy,  xxvii.,  1 :  tumultus 
equeslris  ;  xxix.,  35:  exercitus^  terrestris  ;  and  xxvii.,  26:  tumultus  silvestris ; 
also  collis  and  locus  silvestris  in  Caesar,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  18,  vi.,  34 ;  vomitus 
acris  in  Celsus,  viii.,  4. 

Note  2. — The  names  of  the  months  September,  October,  November,  .De- 
cember, also  belong  to  this  class  of  adjectives.  As  adjectives,  however, 
they  are  defective,  since  the  neuter  never  occurs,  and  the  masculine  and 
feminine  scarcely  in  any  other  connexion  than  with  mensis  (masc.),  Calen- 
dae,  Nonae,  and  Idas.  Horace  uses  libertate  Decembri. 

[§101.]  2.  Other  adjectives  have  in  reality  two  forms, 
the  one  for  the  masculine  and  feminine  in  common  (gen- 
eris communisj,  and  the  other  for  the  neuter.  This  class 
consists  of  those  in  is,  neut.  e  ;  as,  levis  (masc.  and  fern.), 
leve,  and  the  comparatives  in  or  (masc.  and  fern.),  us  (neut.) ; 
as,  levior,  levins. 

Note. — Some  adjectives  have  a  double  form ;  one  in  us,  a,  urn,  the  other 
in  is,  e. 

Hilarus,  a,  um.  —  hilaris,  e. 

Imbecillus,  a,  um.  —  imbeciilis,  e  (rare).  -S/  <~~0  /?! 

Imberbus,  a,  um  (rare).  —  imberbis,  e.  '  (   ^  / 

Inermus,  a,  um  (rare).  —  incrmis,  e. 

Semermus,  a,  um.  —  semermis,  e. 

Semisomnus,  a,  um.  —  but  insomnis,  e. 

Exanimus,  a,  um.  —  exani.mis,  e. 

Semianimus,  a,  um.  —  semianimis,  e. 

Unanimus,  a,  um.  —  unanimis,  e  (rare). 

Bijugus,  a,  um.  —  bijugis,  e  (rare). 

Quadrijugus,  a,  um.  —  quadrijugis,  e. 

Multijugus,  a,  um.  —  mullijugis,  e. 

The  forms  acclivus,  declivus,  proclivus,  and  a  few  others  not  mentioned 
here,  are  but  rarely  used  for  acclivis,  declivis,  and  prodivis. 

[§  102.]  3.  All  other  adjectives  have  only  one  termina- 
tion for  all  three  genders ;  as,  felix,  prudcns,  anccps,  sol- 
lers,  pauper,  dives,  vctus,  Arpinas.  So,  also,  the  present 
participles  in  ns  ;  as,  laudans,  monens,  legens,  audiens. 
But  all  the  adjectives  of  this  class  have  the  termination  ia 
in  the  nom.,  ace.,  and  voc.  plural  of  the  neuter  gender. 
(Very  few,  and,  properly  speaking,  only  vctus,  veteris, 
have  the  termination  a,  respecting  which,  see  above,  §  65.) 
E.  g.,fclicia, prudentia,  ancipitia,sollertia,  laudantia.  Op- 
ulens  and  violens  are  only  different  forms  of  opulcntus,  vi- 
olentus. 

Note  1. — Dives  is  an  adjective  of  one  termination,  and  the  neuter,  there- 
fore, is  dives ;  as,  dives  opus,  dives  munus.  There  is  another  form  of  the 
word  with  two  terminations,  dis,  neut.  dite,  but  it  very  rarely  occurs  in  the 
nominative  singular;  .dis  being  found  only  in  Terence,  Adelph.,  v.,  1,  8, 
and  dite  in  Vaier.  Flacc.,  ii.,  296  :  but  in  the  other  cases  and  in  the  plural 
it  is  frequently  used  ;  as;  ditem  Asiam;diti  gaza,  ditia  stipendia  facere,  ditibus 
promissis  ;  the  nominative  plural  divitia  does  not  seem  to  occur  at  all.  In 
the  comparative  and  superlative  both  forms,  divitior,  divitissimus,  and  ditior, 
ditissimus,  are  equally  in  use  ;  the  longer  forms  in  the  prose  of  Cicero,  and 


86  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  shorter  ones  in  poetry  and  later  prose  writers.  Pubes,  genit.  puberis, 
is  an  adjective  of  one  termination ;  but  the  compound  impfibes,  en's,  appears 
also  in  the  form  impubis,  e,  genit.  impubis,  e.  g.,  impube  corpus. 

Note  2. — Substantives  in  tor  derived  from  transitive  verbs  may  likewise 
be  classed  among  adjectives ;  as,  praeceptor,  victor ;  for  as  they  may  easily 
form  a  feminine  in  trix  (see  $  41),  they  have  almost  the  character  of  ad- 
jectives ;  and  even  in  prose  we  read,  e.  g.,  victor  exercitus,  victrices  litterae, 
in  tarn,  corruptrice  provincia.  Thus  Livy  says  of  L.  Brutus,  ille  liberator 
populi  Romani  animus  ;  that  is,  aliquando  liberaturus  populum  Rom.  •  and 
Tacitus,  eductus  in  domo  regnatrice.  (See  Bentley  on  Horace,  Carm.,  iv., 
9,  39.)  The  use  of  these  substantives  as  adjectives  is  limited  in  prose ; 
but  the  poets  extend  it  much  farther,  and  use  even  the  Greek  patronymics 
in  as  and  is  in  the  same  manner.  Ovid,  e.  g.,  says,  Pelias  hasta,  laurus 
Parndsis,  Ausonis  ora,  Sithonis  unda  ;  and  Virgil,  ursa  Libystis,  &c.  A 
singular  feature  of  these  words  is,  that,  together  with  the  feminine  ter- 
mination of  the  plural  trices,  they  have  also  a  neuter  termination,  tricia ; 
e.  g.,  victricia  bella,  ultricia  tela ;  hence  in  the  plural  they  become  adjectives 
of  three  terminations ;  as,  victores,  victrices,  victricia.  The  substantive  hospes, 
too,  has  in  poetry  a  neuter  plural,  hospita,  in  the  sense  of  an  adjective. 

[§  103.]  4.  With  regard  to  the  declension  of  adjectives, 
it  must  be  observed  that  the  feminines  in  a  follow  the  first 
declension ;  the  masculines  in  us  and  er,  which  make  the 
feminine  in  a,  and  the  neuters  in  um,  follow  the  second. 
All  other  terminations  belong  to  the  third  declension.  As, 
therefore,  adjectives  follow  the  same  declensions  as  sub- 
stantives, the  former  also  have  been  treated  of  above,  and 
their  irregularities  have  been  pointed  out.  (See  §  51  and 
66,  &c.) 

Note. — The  following  table  shows  the  declension  of  adjectives  of  one 
termination : 


SINGULAR. 
Norn.  — 
Gen.    is. 
Dat.     i. 

Ace.     em,  neut.  like  nom. 
Voc.     like  nom. 
Abl.     i,  sometimes  e. 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  es,  neut.  ia. 
Gen.    ium,  sometimes  um. 
Dat.    ibus. 
Ace.    like  nom. 
Voc.    like  nom. 
Abl.     ibus. 


5.  Indeclinable  adjectives  are:  nequam ;  frugi  (prop- 
erly a  dative  of  the  obsolete  frux,  but  is  used  quite  as  an 
adjective;  its  derivative  frugalis  is  not  found  in  any  an- 
cient writer) ;  praesto  (occurs  only  in  connexion  with  the 
verb  essej ;  and  semis,  which  is  always  added  to  other 
numerals  in  the  sense  of  "  and  a  half,"  the  conjunction 
being  omitted,  e.  g.,  recipe  uncias  quinque  semis,  take  five 
ounces  and  a  half.  It  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
substantive  semis,  gen.  semissis,  Potis,  or  potc,  is  obso- 
lete, and  occurs  only  in  poetry  in  connexion  with  esse 
(whence  arose  the  contracted  form  posse).  Damnas, 
guilty,  is  used  only  as  a  legal  term,  in  connexion  with 
esto  and  sunto. 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES.  87 

Adjectives  defective  in  number  are  pauci  and  plerique, 
which,  in  ordinary  language,  have  no  singular.  The  di- 
minutive ofpaucus,  however,  occurs  as  a  neuter pauxillum 
or  pauxillulum,  though  rarely  in  other  genders.  The  sin- 
gular plerusque  is  obsolete,  and  is  found  only  in  Sallust, 
who  was  fond  of  old  forms  of  expression,  e.  g.,  pleraque 
juventus,  nobilitas  ;  plerumque  exercitum  ;  but  the  neuter 
plerumque  (the  greatest  part)  likewise  occurs,  though 
only  in  an  isolated  passage  of  Livy.  It  is  usually  an  ad- 
verb, signifying  "mostly,"  or,  "for  the  most  part."  (See 
§  266.) 

Of  adjectives  defective  in  case  there  are  several  of 
which  the  nominative  is  not  in  use,  or,  at  least,  cannot  be 
proved  to  have  been  used ;  e.  g.,  sons,  seminex  (or  semi, 
necis),  and  a  few  similar  compounds.  We  farther  do  not 
find  ceterus  and  ludicrus  (or  ceter,  ludicer  ?),  but  the  other 
genders  occur  in  the  nominative.  The  genitive  primoris 
has  neither  a  nominative  (primor  or  primoris)  nor  the 
neuter  forms.  Cicero  uses  the  word  only  in  the  phrase 
primoribus  labris  (equivalent  Imprimis);  others  frequently 
use  the  plural  in  the  sense  of  principcs,  or  the  grandees  of 
a  nation.  Parum,  too  little,  is  the  neuter  of  the  obsolete 
parus,  connected  with  parvus,  and  is  used  as  a  substantive 
only  in  the  nom.  arid  accusative.  Necesse  exists  only  as  a 
neuter  in  connexion  with  est,  erat,  &c.,  and  with  liabeo, 
liabes,  &c. ;  necessum,  which  is  likewise  used  only  with 
est,  erat,  &c.,  very  rarely  occurs  except  in  old  Latin,  the 
adjective  necessarius,  a,  urn,  being  used  in  its  stead.  Vo- 
lupe  is  likewise  obsolete,  and  is  used  only  with  est,  erat, 
&c.  Of  mactus,  a,  um,  which  is  believed  to  be  a  con- 
traction of  magis  auctus,  we  have  only  macte  and  macti 
with  the  imperative  of  the  verb  esse.  (Comp.  §  453.) 
The  genitive  of  plerique  is  wanting ;  but  plurimi,  which 
has  the  same  meaning,  supplies  the  deficiency. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES. 


[§  104.]  1.  ADJECTIVES  (also  the  present  and  past  par- 
ticiples when  used  as  adjectives)  may,  by  means  of  a 
change  in  their  termination,  be  made  to  indicate  that  the 
quality  they  denote  belongs  to  a  subject  in  a  higher,  or  in 


88  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  highest  degree.  The  degrees  of  comparison  (gradus 
comparationis ) ,  as  this  change  is  called,  are,  the  compara- 
tive, when  a  comparison  is  made  between  two  (persons, 
things,  or  conditions),  and  the  superlative,  when  a  com- 
parison takes  place  among  three  or  more.  The  funda- 
mental form  of  the  adjective  in  this  respect  is  called  the 
positive. 

Note. — An  object  may  be  compared  either  with  another,  or  with  itself 
at  different  times,  or  one  of  its  qualities  may  be  compared  with  another; 
e.  g.,  Gains  doctior  est  quam  Marcus,  or  Gaius  doctior  nunc  est  quamfuit,  or 
Gains  doctior  est  fjuam  justior.  (Respecting  this  peculiarity  of  the  Latin 
language,  see  §  690.)  The  comparative,  however,  is  also  used,  in  an  ellip- 
tic mode  of  speaking,  instead  of  our  "  too"  (nimis) ;  e.  g.,  si  tibi  quaedam 
vidr.buntur  obscuriora  ;  that  is,  too  obscure,  or  more  obscure  than  it  should 
be  (quam  par  erat),  or,  as  we  may  say,  "  rather  obscure,"  in  which  sense 
paulo  is  sometimes  added,  as  in  paulo  libcrius  locutus  est,  he  spoke  rather 
freely.  In  like  manner,  the  superlative,  when  used  without  the  objects  of 
comparison  being  mentioned,  indicates  only  that  the  quality  exists  in  a 
high  degree,  which  we  express  by  the  adverb  very,  e.  g.,  homo  doctisximus 
does  not  always  mean  "  the  most  learned,"  but  very  often  "  a  very  learned 
man  ;"  and  intemperantissime  vixit,  he  lived  very  intemperately. 

2.  The   comparative  has  the   termination  lor  for  the 
masculine    and   feminine,   and    ins   for   the   neuter ;    and 
these  terminations   are   added  to  the   stem  of  the  word 
such  as  it  appears  in  the  oblique  cases.     The  rule  may 
be  practically  expressed  thus  :   to  form  the  comparative, 
add  or  or  us  to  that  case  of  the  positive  which  ends  in  z, 
that  is,  in  words  of  the  second  declension  to  the  genitive, 
and  in  those  of  the  third  to  the  dative,  e.  g.,  doctus  (docti), 
doctior  ;    liber  (liberi),  liber ior  ;   pulclier  (pulchri),  pul- 
chrior  ;    levis,  levior  ;    accr  (acri),  acrior  ;  prudens,  pru- 
dentior  ;  indulgens,  indidgcntior  ;   audax,  audacior  ;  dives, 
divitior ;  velox,  velocior.     Sinister  alone  makes  the  com- 
parative sinisterior  (which  has  the  same  meaning  as  the 
positive),  although  its  genitive  is  sinistri,  and  sinisteri. 

Note. — Some  comparatives,  also,  have  a  diminutive  form  ;  as,  grandiuscu- 
lus,  majusculus,  longiusculus,  rneliusculus,  minusculus,  tardiusculus,  plusculum. 
Their  signification  varies  between  a  diminution  of  the  comparative  and  of 
the  positive ;  e.  g.,  minusculus  may  mean  rather  small,  or  rather  smaller. 

3.  The  superlative  ends  in  issimus,  a,  um,  and  is  form- 
ed as  the  comparative  by  adding  this  termination  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive,  such  as  it  presents  itself  in  the  gen- 
itive, and  the  other  oblique  cases,  after  the  removal  of  the 
terminations,  e.  g.,   doct-issimus ,  prudent-issimus ,  audac- 
issimus  concord-issimus.     It  has  already  been  remarked 
(§  2)  that  this  termination  of  the  superlative  was  original- 
ly written  and  pronounced  umus,  and  it  is  even  now  re- 


COMPARISON    OF    ADJECTIVES.  89 

tained  in  the  editions  of  some  ancient  authors,  as  the 
comic  poets  and  Sallust. 

[§  105.]  4.  The  following  cases  must  be  noticed  as  ex- 
ceptions : 

(a)  All  adjectives  in  er  (those  in  er,  a,  um  ;  as,  liber 
and  pulclier,  as  well  as  those  in  er,  is,  c;  as,  acer,  celeber, 
and  those  of  one  termination ;  as,  pauper,  gen.  pauperis) 
make  the  superlative  in  errimus,  by  adding  rirnus  to  the 
nominative  of  the  masculine  gender  ;  as,  pulcTier-rimus, 
acer-rimus,  ccleber-rimus,  pauper-rimus.  Veins  and  nupe- 
rus,  too,  have  veterrimus,  nupcrrimus.  Matums  has  both 
forms,  maturissimus  and  maturi'imus,  though  the  latter 
chiefly  in  the  adverb. 

(bj  Some  adjectives  in  ilis,  viz.,  facilis,  dijjicilis,  simi- 
lis,  dissimilis,  gracilis,  and  Jiumitis,  make  the  superlative 
in  illlmus,  by  adding  limits  to  the  positive  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  termination  is  ;  as,  facil-limus,  humil-limus. 
Imbecittus,  or  imbecittis,  has  two  forms,  imbecillissimus  and 
imbecillimus  ;  agilis,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no  superla- 
tive. 

(c)  Adjectives  compounded  with  dicus,ficus,  and  volus 
(from  the  verbs  dicer  e,facere,  vclle)  make  the  comparative 
in  entior  and  the  superlative  in  entissimus,  from  the  unu- 
sual and  obsolete  forms  dicens,  volens,faciens,  e.  g.,  male- 
dicentior,  benevolentior,  munificentior,  munijlcentissimus^ 
magnificcntissinim. 

Note. — Terence  (Phorm.,  v.,  6,  31)  makes  mirificissimns,  from  mirificus, 
but  this  and  similar  forms  are  considered  by  the  ancient  grammarians  as 
anomalies,  and  mirificentissimus  is  the  usual  form.  Several  adjectives  in 
dicus,  and  most  of  those  inficus,  have  no  comparative  and  superlative,  at 
least  they  are  not  found  in  our  writers.  Adjectives  compounded  with 
loquus  (from  loqui),  such  as  grandiloquus,  vaniloqiius,  are  said  to  form  their 
degrees  of  comparison  from  loquens,  but  no  instance  of  the  kind  occurs;  in 
Plautus,  however,  we  find  mendaciloquius  and  confidentiloquius. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

COMPARISON  BY  ADVERBS  AND  INCREASED  COMPARISON. 

[§  106.]  1.  INSTEAD  of  the  peculiar  forms  of  the  com- 
parative and  superlative,  we  sometimes  find  a  circumlo- 
cution, magis  and  maximc,  or  adverbs  of  a  similar  mean- 
ing  (as  summej,  being  added  to  the  positive.  This  rarely 
occurs  in  the  case  of  adjectives  which  form  their  degrees 
of  comparison  in  the  regular  way,  and  for  the  most  part 
H  2 


90  LATIN    GKAMMAU. 

only  in  poetry  (Horace,  e.  g.,  uses  magis  bcatus  and  magis 
aptus) ;  but  where  the  regular  or  grammatical  compari- 
son cannot  be  used,  its  place  is  supplied  by  circumlocu- 
tion. (See  below,  §  114.) 

[§  107.]  2.  A  degree  is  also  expressed  by  the  adverbs 
admodum,  bcnc,  apprimc,  imprimis,  sane,  oppiflo,  valdc, 
and  multum,  and  by  the  particle  per,  which  is  united  with 
the  adjective  (or  adverb)  into  one  word,  as  in  per  difficilis 
(though  per  is  sometimes  separated  by  some  intervening 
word,  e.  g.,  per  ?nihi  difficilis  locus),  and,  like  sane,  it  is 
made  still  more  emphatic  by  the  addition  of  quam,  e.  g., 
locus  perquam  difficilis,  an  extremely  difficult  passage. 
Generally  speaking,  all  simple  adjectives,  provided  their 
meaning  admits  of  an  increase  or  decrease,  may  become 
strengthened  by  being  compounded  with  per.  Some  few 
(especially  in  late  writers)  are  increased  in  the  same  way 
by  being  compounded  with  prae,  e.  g.,  praedivcs,  praepin- 
guis,  praelongus.  Adjectives  to  which  per  or  prae  is  pre- 
fixed admit  of  no  farther  comparison ;  praeclarus  alone 
is  treated  like  a  simple  adjective. 

Note.—Oppido,  for  the  etymology  of  which  we  must  refer  to  the  diction- 
ary, is  of  rare  occurrence,  and  belongs  to  the  more  ancient  language, 
though  it  is  now  and  then  used  by  Cicero,  e.  g.,  oppido  ridiculus,  and  in- 
creased by  (juam:  oppido  quam  pauci.  Multum,  also,  is  but  raYely  used  in 
this  way.  Valde  is  indeed  frequent  in  Cicero ;  but  it  has  a  peculiar  and 
ethical  shade  of  meaning,  and  is  rarely  used  in  the  prose  of  later  times. 

[§  108.]  3.  When  the  adverb  ctiam  (still)  is  added  to 
the  comparative,  and  longe  or  multo  (far)  to  the  superla- 
tive, the  sense  of  the  degrees  is  enhanced.  Vel,  even,  and 
quam,  as  much  as  possible,  likewise  serve  to  denote  an 
increase  of  the  meaning  expressed  by  the  superlative. 
Both  words  have  acquired  this  signification  by  ellipsis : 
vel  by  the  ellipsis  of  the  positive,  e.  g.,  Cicero  vel  optimus 
oratorum  Romanorum  ;  i.  e.,  Cicero,  a  good,  or,  rather,  the 
very  best  of  Roman  orators  (so,  also,  vcl,  with  a  compara- 
tive in  the  only  passage  of  Cicero  where  it  is  known  to 
occur,  De  Orat.,  i.,  17:  ingcnium  rel  majus)  ;  quam,  by 
the  ellipsis  of  posse,  which,  however,  is  frequently  added 
to  it ;  e.  g.,  quam  maximum  potest  militum  numerum  colli- 
git ;  quam  maximas  possum  tibi  gratias  ago.  As  these 
words  increase  the  sense,  so  paulum  or  paulo,  paululum 
or  paululo,  on  the  other  hand,  diminish  it;  as,  paulo  doc- 
tior,  only  a  little  more  learned.  Aliquanto  increases  the 
sense,  and  has  an  affirmative  power;  it  may  be  expressed 
by  "considerably"  or  "much."  (See  Chap.  LXXIV.,  15.) 


IRREGULAR    AND    DEFECTIVE    COMPARISON.  91 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

IRREGULAR    AND    DEFECTIVE    COMPARISON. 

[§  109,]    1.    SOME   adjectives  make  their   degrees  of 
comparison  from  obsolete  forms,  or  take  them  from  other 
words  of  a  similar  signification. 
Sonus*  melior,  optimus. 

Malus,  pejor,     •  pessimus. 

Magnus,  major,  maximus. 

Multus,  plus,  (pi.  plures,    plurimus  (equivalent  i-n 

plura),  the  plural  loplenguej. 

Parvus,  minor,  minimus. 

Nequam   )  See  §103.  (  nequior,       nequissimus. 
Frugi       J  indeclin.  \frugalior,  frugalissimus. 
Egenus,  egent'wr,  egentissimus  (egens). 

Providus,  providentior,          providentissimus  (provi- 

densj. 

Note. — Multus  and  plurimus  as  numerals  are  used  only  in  the  plural.  In 
the  singular  multus  is  equivalent  to  "manifold,"  or  " great ;"  as,  multus  labor, 
multa  cura,  and  sometimes  plurimus  has  the  same  sense,  e.  g.,  plurimam  so,' 
lutem  dico.  Poets,  however,  use  the  singular  multus  and  plurimus,  also,  in 
the  sense  of  the  plural,  e.  g.,  multa  and  plurima  avis,  i.  e.,  multae,  plurimae 
aves,  a  great  many  birds;  multa  canis,  many  dogs.  Of  the  comparative  the 
neuter  only  occurs  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  singular  (plus),  and  is  used  as  a 
substantive ;  in  the  genitive  pluris  and  ablat.  plure,  with  the  ellipsis  of 
pretii  or  pretio,  it  is  used  with  verbs  of  value,  in  the  sense  of  "for  more," 
or  "  at  a  higher  price."  The  plural  is  complete,  gen.  plurium  (better  than 
plurum} ;  but  the  neuter  is  commonly  plura,  and  rarely  pluria.  (See  §  65, 
66.)  The  superlative  plerique  is  derived  from  the  obsolete  plerusque  (see 
$  134),  and  has  no  genitive.  In  ordinary  language  plerique  only  means 
"most  people,"  or  "the  majority;"  but  plurimi  both  "  most  people"  and  "  a 
great  many."  All  writers,  however,  do  not  observe  this  difference.  Ne- 
pos  often  uses  plerique  in  the  sense  of"  a  great  many,"  and  Tacitus  quite 
reverses  the  significations;  comp.  Hist.,  i.,  86,  and  iii.,  81,  where  plerique 
is  followed  by  plures,  and  iv.,  84,  where  we  read,  Deum  ipsum  multi  Aescu- 
lapium,  quidam  Osirim,  plerique  Jovem,  plurimi  Ditem  patrem  conjectant.  The 
sense  of  plerique  is  sometimes  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  omnes ;  as, 
plerique  omnes,  by  far  the  greater  number. 

[§  110.]  2.  The  following  adjectives  have  a  double  ir- 
regular superlative : 

Exter  or  extcrus,  a,  um,      exterior,    extremus  and  cxtlmus. 
(Infer  or  inferus),  a,  um,     inferior,    infimus  and  wins. 
(Super  or  superusj,  a,  um,  superior,   supremus    and    sum- 

mus. 

(Poster  orposterus),  a,  um,  posterior,  postremus  and  postu- 

mus. 

*  [Consult  the  treatise  of  Key,  "  On  the  Adjectives  Good,  Better,  Best, 
Bonus,  Meliort  Optimus,"  &c.] — Am.  Ed. 


92  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The  forms  enclosed  in  brackets  are  either  not  found  at  all ;  as, 
poster,  posterus,  or  occur  only  in  obsolete  Latin,  which,  however,  does  not 
prevent  the  use  of  the  oblique  cases  and  of  the  other  genders.  Exter  sig- 
nifies "  being  without,"  and  the  plural  exteri,  foreigners  ;  i/iferus,  "  being 
below."  superus,  "being  above,"  e.  g.,  mare  superum  and  infemm,  the  two 
seas  which  surround  .Italy.  Posterus  (that  it  once  existed  is  clear  from 
praeposterus)  signifies  that  which  succeeds  or  follows,  but  the  plur.  posteri, 
descendants.  The  superlative  extimus  is  much  less  common  than  extre- 
mus,  and  postumus  occurs  only  in  the  sense  of  a  last  or  posthumous  child. 

J§  111.]   3.  There  are  some  forms  of  the  comparative 
superlative  which  have  no  adjective  for  their  posi- 
tive, but  an  adverb  which  is  derived  from  an  adjective, 
and  has  the  signification  of  a  preposition. 

(citra),  citcrior,  citimus. 

(ultra),  ulterior,  ultimus. 

(intra),  interior,  intimus. 

(grope),  whence  ^>ro- 

pinqiius),  propior,  proximus. 

The  following,  on  the  other  hand,  have  neither  an  ad- 
jective nor  an  adverb  for  their  positive  : 

deterior,  dcterrimus. 
odor,                     ocissimus. 
potior,                   potissimus. 
prior,                    primus. 

Note. — Deterior  and  deterrimus  may  be  compared,  but  not  confounded, 
with  pejor  and  pessimus.  Pejor  generally  means  "  worse  than  something 
which  is  bad,"  and  is  therefore  used  as  comparative  of  malus,  whereas 
deterior  means  something  which  is  inferior,  or  worse  than  something 
which  is  good,  so  that  it  is  a  descending,  just  as  melior  is  an  ascending 
comparative  of  bonus.  Potior  and  potissimus  are  derived  from  the  obsolete 
positive  potis  (see  §  103),  and  prior  may  be  traced  to  the  adverb  prae. 

[§112.]  4.  The  following  adjectives  have  a  superlative, 
but  no  comparative  : 

Falsus,falsissimus;  diver sus,  diver sissimus ;  inclitus,  in- 
clitissimus  •  novus,  novissimus ;  sacer,  sacerrimus ;  vetus 
(the  comparative  is  supplied  by  vetustior),  vcterrimus  (ve- 
tustissimus)  ;  and  some  participles  which  are  used  as  ad- 
jectives ;  as,  meritus,  meritissimus. 

[§113.]  5.  Most  adjectives  in  11  is  and  bills,  derived  from 
verbs,  together  with  those  in  His,  derived  from  substan- 
tives (see  §  250),  have  no  superlative.  To  these  we  must 
add  the  following  :  .agrestis,  alacer,  ater,  caccus,  dcclivis, 
proclivis,  deses  (comparative  desidior ),jejunus,longinquus^ 
propinquus,  protervus,  salutaris,  satur,  surdus,  tcres,  and 
vulgaris.  In  like  manner,  there  is  no  superlative  of  ado- 
lescens,  juvcnis  (comparative  junior,  contracted  from  juve- 


IRREGULAR    AND    DEFECTIVE    COMPARISON.  93 

niorj,  and  senex  (comparative  senior),  which  words  are  re- 
garded as  adjectives. 

Note. — The  verbal  adjectives  amabilis,  fertilis,  nobilis,  ignobilis,  mobilis, 
and  utilis,  however,  have  their  degrees  of  comparison  complete. 

6.  The  two  adjectives,  anterior  and  sequior,  exist  only 
as  comparatives.  The  neuter  of  the  latter,  scquius,  and 
the  adverb  sccius  (otherwise),  differ  only  in  their  orthog- 
raphy. 

[§  114.]  7.  Many  adjectives  have  no  degrees  of  com- 
parison at  all,  because  their  signification  precludes  com- 
parison; such  are  those  which  denote  a  substance,  origin, 
possession,  or  a  definite  time ;  e.  g.,  aureus,  adamant inus, 
Graccus,  percgrinus,  cqidnus,  socialis,  patcrnus^  aestivus, 
liibernus,  virus. 

Note. — Dexter  and  sinister  seem,  likewise,  to  belong  to  this  class ;  the 
comparatives  dexterior,  sinisterior,  and  the  irregular  superlative  dextimus, 
do  indeed  occur  (sinisfimus  is  mentioned,  but  its  use  cannot  be  proved), 
but  without  differing  in  meaning  from  the  positive.  Dexter  also  signifies 
skilful,  and  in  this  sense  dexterior  is  used  as  a  real  comparative. 

Others  do  not  form  the  comparative  and  superlative  in 
the  usual  grammatical  manner  by  the  terminations  ior  and 
issimus,  but  by  the  adverbs  magis  and  maxime,  which  are 
put  before  the  adjective,  and  by  the  particles  mentioned 
above.  Such  adjectives  are  : 

(a)  Those  in  which  the  termination  us  is  preceded  by 
a  vowel ;  as,  ido?icus,  dubius,  necessarius,  noxius,  arduus, 
ingcnuus :  comparative  magis  nccessarius,  superlative 
maxime  necessarius,  &c.  In  qu,  however,  the  u  is  not  re- 

farded  as  a  vowel  (see  above,  §  5) ;  hence  antiquus,  e.  g., 
as  its  regular  comparative,  antiquior,  and  superlative 
antiquissimus. 

.  Note. — As  this  rule  depends  entirely  upon  euphony,  respecting  which 
opinions  differ,  we  cannot  be  surprised  to  find  exceptions.  Adjectives  in 
uus,  in  particular,  frequently  make  the  superlative  in  the  regular  gram- 
matical way.  Cicero  and  Suetonius  use  assiduissimus ;  Sallust,  strenuissi- 
mus;  and  Ovid,  exiguissimus  and  vacuissimus,  while  the  comparative  of  these 
words  occurs  only  in  much  inferior  authorities.  Adjectives  in  ius  are  found 
much  more  seldom  with  the  grammatical  degrees  of  comparison  than  those 
in  uus-,  and  whenever  they  do  occur,  they  reject  one  i ;  as,  noxior,  in  Seneca, 
De  Clem.,  13  ;  industrior,  in  the  Pseudo-Cicero,  De  Domo,  11 ;  egregius,  in 
Juvenal,  xi.,  12.  The  only  superlatives  that  occur  are  egregiissimus,  in 
Gellius,  and piissimus  very  frequently  in  the  Silver  Age  of  the  language,  in 
Curtius,  Seneca,  and  Tacitus,  though  Cicero  had  censured  the  triumvir 
Antony  for  having  used  this  wholly  un-Latin  form.  (Philip.,  xiii.,  9.) 
The  forms  (plena)  pientes  and  pientissimus  are  found  in  inscriptions  only. 
Among  the  adjectives  in  eus  there  are  no  exceptions,  and  it  is  only  the 
later  jurists  that  use  the  comparative  idoneor  for  the  inharmonious  idoneior. 

(1>)  Many  adjectives  compounded  with  substantives  and 


94  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

verbs,  e.  g.,  degcner,  inops,  magnanimus,  consonus,  foedi- 
fragus,  pestifer  ;  and  those  which  have  the  derivative  ter- 
minations wus,  idus,  ulus,  alls,  ills,  bundus,  e.  g.,  modicus, 
credulus,  trepidus,  rabidus,  rubidus,  garrulus,  sedulus,  ex- 
itialis,  mortalis,  principalis,  anilis,  hostilis,  scurrilis ,  furi- 
bundus. 

Note. — This  remark  cannot  form  a  rule,  for  there  are  a  great  many  com- 
pounded adjectives  and  derivatives  like  the  above,  which  have  their  de- 
grees of  comparison  ;  for  example,  those  compounded  with  mens  and  cor  : 
amcns,  deniens,  concors,  discors,  vccors,  and  the  adjectives  ending  in  dims, 
fans,  and  volus,  which  were  mentioned  above  ($  105,  c).  Although  it  is 
useful  to  classify  the  whole  mass  of  such  words  under  certain  divisions, 
still  the  dictionary  can  never  be  dispensed  with. 

(c)  A  great  number  of  adjectives  which  cannot  be  said 
to  form  a  distinct  class;  their  want  of  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison is  surprising,  and  they  must  be  carefully  commit- 
ted to  memory :  albus,  almus,  caducus,  calvus,  canus,  curvus, 
ferus,  gnarus,  lacer,  mutilus,  lassus,  mediocris,  mcmor,  me- 
rus,  mirus,  mutus,  navzis,  ncfastus,par,  parllis,  dispar,  pro- 
pcrus,  rudis,  trux  (the  degrees  may  be  formed  from  trucu- 
lentus),  vagus. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

NUMERALS. CARDINAL  NUMERALS. 

[§  115.]  NUMERALS  are  partly  adjectives  and  partly  ad- 
verbs. The  adjectives  are  :  1.  Cardinal,  denoting  simply 
the  number  of  things;  as,  tres,  three  ;  2.  Ordinal,  indica- 
ting the  place  or  number  in  succession  ;  as,  tcrtius,  the 
third  ;  3.  Distributive,  denoting  how  many  each  time  ; 
as,  terni,  each  time  three,  or  three  and  three  together ;  4. 
(tf ff.  17 2-j Multiplicative,  denoting  how  manifold;  as,  triplex,  three- 
/^/lold  ;  5,  Proportional,  denoting  how  many  times  more  ; 
as,  triplum,  three  times  as  much  ;  and,  6.  Adverbial  nu- 
merals, denoting  how  many  times  ;  as,  ter,  thrice  or  three 
times. 

I.    CARDINAL    NUMERALS. 

The  cardinal  numerals  form  the  roots  of  the  other  nu- 
merals. The  first  three,  unus,  duo,  tres,  are  declined,  and 
have  forms  for  the  different  genders  ;  the  rest,  as  far  as 
one  hundred,  are  indeclinable.*  The  hundreds;  as,  200, 

*  ["  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  first  four  numerals  in  Greek  and 
Sanscrit,  and  the  first  three  in  Latin,  are  declined,  while  all  the  others 
remain  without  inflection.  There  must  be  some  reason  for  this.  Now 
we  know  that  the  oldest  Greek  year  was  divided  into  three  seasons  of 


CARDINAL    NUMERALS. 


95 


300,  400,  &c.,  are  declinable,  and  have  different  termina- 
tions for  the  genders.  Mille,  a  thousand,  is  indeclinable, 
but  has  a  declinable  plural  for  the  series  of  numbers  which 
follows.  A  higher  unit,  such  as  a  million  or  billion,  does 
not  exist  in  Latin,  and  a  million  is  therefore  expressed 
by  the  form  of  multiplication :  decics  centena  milia,  i.  e., 
ten  times  a  hundred  thousand,  or  decies  alone,  with  the 
omission  of  centena  milia,  at  least  when  scstertium  (HS) 
is  added  ;  and  in  like  manner,  vicies,  two  millions  ;  octo- 
gies,  eight  millions  ;  centics,  ten  millions ;  millies,  a  hun- 
dred millions  ;  bis  millies,  two  hundred  millions. 
SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nom.  unus,  una,  unum,  one.      Nom. 

Gen.   unius.  Gen. 

Dat.  uni.  Dat. 

Ace.  unum,  unam,  unum.  Ace. 

Voc.  une,  una,  unum.  Voc. 

Abl.  uno,  una,  uno.  Abl. 


urn,  unae,  una. 
unorum,     unarum, 

unorum. 
unis. 
unos,  unas,  una. 

unis. 


ingul 

occurrence,  and  unclassical.  (Compare,  however,  §  49.)  The  plural  uni, 
unae,  una,  occurs  as  a  numeral  only  in  connexion  with  pluralia  tantum, 
i.  e.,  such  nouns  as  have  no  singular,  e.  g.,  unae  nuptiae,  one  wedding; 
una  castra,  one  camp  ;  unae  litterae,  one  letter.  (See  Chap.  XXX.)  Unus 
is  used  also  as  a  pure  adjective,  by  dropping  its  signification  of  a  numeral 
and  taking  that  of  "  alone,"  or  "  the  same,"  e.  g.,  Cses.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iv.,  16: 
uni  Ubii  legatos  miserant,  the  Ubians  alone  had  sent  ambassadors ;  Cic., 
Pro  Flacc.,  26.  Lacedaemonii  septingentos  jam  annos  unis  moribus  vivunt, 
with  the  same  manners. 


Duo  and  tres  are  naturally  plurals. 


Nom.  duo,  duae,  duo. 


Nom.  tres   (mas.   and  fern.), 

tria. 
Gen.  trium. 


Gen.  duonnn,  duarum,  duo- 
rum. 

Dat.  duobus,duabus,duobus.\H)a.t.   tribus.  \tria. 

Ace.  duos  and  duo,  duas,  duo.  j  Ace.  tres  (mas.  and  fern.), 
Abl.  duobus,duabus,duobus\A\)\.  tribus. 

four  months  each ;  and  the  subdivision  of  the  fundamental  number  in 
the  state-division  into  the  factors  3  x  4,  of  which  the  4  was  the  basis, 
needs  not  to  be  insisted  on.  The  first  four  numerals,  therefore,  would  be 
more  frequently  used  as  adjectives  than  any  of  the  others,  and  for  this 
reason  would  have  inflections,  which  the  others,  whose  use  would  be  more 
adverbial,  might  want  without  so  much  inconvenience.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  corresponding  fact  with  regard  to  the  Roman  numerals. 
Their  fundamental  number  was  three  ;  they  had  three  tribes,  just  as  the 
lonians  had  four.  Besides,  the  old  Etruscan  year,  which  was  the  basis 
of  their  civil  and  religious  arrangements,  consisted  of  ten  months,  not  of 
twelve,  and  therefore  the  division  into  tetrads  would  not  hold  with  them." 
(Donaldson,  Neu>  Cratylns,  p.  193,  seq.} — Am.  Ed. 


96 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


Note. — Ambo,  ae,  o,  both,  is  declined  like  duo,  and  has  likewise  two 
forms  for  the  accusat.,  ambos  and  ambo,  which  have  entirely  the  same 
meaning.  In  connexion  with  pondo  (pounds)  we  find  dua  pondo,  and  tre 
pondo,  for  duo  and  tria,  a  barbarism  noticed  by  the  ancients  themselves. 
(Quintil.,  i.,  5,  15.)  Duum,  a  second  form  of  the  genit.  of  duo,  is  the  regu- 
lar one  in  compounds ;  as,  duumvir,  but  is  frequently  used,  also,  in  con- 
nexion with  milium.  Thus,  Pliny  says  that  he  had  compiled  his  work  e 
lectione  voluminum  circiter  duum  milium ;  but  Caesar  and  Livy  likewise  use 
this  form. 


4.  iv.  quattuor* 

5.  v.  quinquc. 

6.  vi.  sex. 

7.  vn.  scptem. 

8.  viu.  octo. 

9.  ix.  novcm. 

10.  x.  dec  cm. 

11.  xi.  undecim. 

12.  xn.  duodecimo 

13.  xni-.trededm,  or  dcccm  et 

tres. 

14.  xiv.  quattuordecim. 

15.  xv.  quindecim. 

16.  xvi.  sedecim,  or  dcccm  ct 

sex. 

17.  xvii.  dcccm  ct  scptem,  or 

septendecim. 

18.  xvni.  deccm   ct  octo,   or 

duodeviginti. 

19.  xix.  dcccm  ct  nove?n,  or 

undeviginti. 

20.  xx.  viginti. 

21.  xxi.  unus  ct  viginti,   or 

viginti  unus. 

22.  xxn.  duo    et    viginti,  or 

viginti  duo. 

23.  xxin.  tres   et  viginti,  or 

viginti  tres. 

28.  xxvin.  duodetriginta,  or 

octo  et  viginti. 

29.  xxix.    undetriginta,     or 

novem  et  viginti. 


30.  xxx.  triginta. 
40.  XL.  quadraginta, 
50.  L.  quinquaginta* 
60.  LX.  sexaginta. 
70.  LXX.  septuaginta. 
80.  LXXX.  octoginta. 
90.  xc.  nonaginta. 
100.  c.  centum. 
109.  cix.   centum   et  no- 
vem,  or  centum  no- 
vem. 

200.  cc.  duccnti,  ac,  a. 
300.  ccc.  trcccnti,  ae,  a. 
400.  cccc.  quadringenti, 

ac,  a. 
500.  D.  or  10.  quingcnti, 

ac,  a. 

600.  DC.  scxccnti,  ae,  a. 
700.     DCC.     septingenlit 

ac,  a. 
800.    DCCC.     octingcnti, 

ac,  a. 
900.    DCCCC.     nongenti, 

ae,  a. 

1000.  M.  or  cio.  »w7fe. 
2000.  ciocio.  or  MM.  J^o 

milia,  or  fo's  mille. 
5000.  100.  quinque  milia. 
10,000.  ccioo.    deccm     mi- 
lia. 

100,000.  ccciooo.  centummi- 
lia. 


*  ["  We  cannot  find  any  precise  information  upon  the  time  of  the  com- 
mencement of  the  principle  of  local  value  which  prevails  to  a  certain 
extent  throughout  the  Roman  system,  namely,  that  a  smaller  symbol 
before  a  larger  one,  in  numbers  less  than  one  hundred,  denotes  a  subtrac- 
tion, after  it  an  addition.  This  principle  does  not  appear  in  the  Phoa- 


CARDINAL    NUMERALS.  07 

Note  1. — The  Roman  signs  for  numbers  have  arisen  from,  simple  geo- 
metrical figures.  The  perpendicular  line  (I)  is  one  ;  two  lines  crossing 
one  another  (X)  make  ten  ;  half  this  figure  (V)  is  five;  the  perpendicular 
line  with  a  horizontal  one  at  the  lower  end  (L)  is  fifty,  and  if  another 
horizontal  line  is  added  at  the  upper  end  (>[3)  we  have  one  hundred. 
From  this  sign  arose  the  round  C,  which  is  accidentally,  at  the  same  time, 
the  initial  of  centum.  This  C  reversed  (O),  which  is  called  apostrophus, 
with  a  perpendicular  line  preceding  it  (10),  or  drawn  together  as  D,  signi- 
fies 500.  In  every  multiplication  with  ten  a  fresh  apostrophus  is  added, 
thus,  100  =  5000,  1OOO  ==  50,000.  When  a  number  is  to  be  doubled,  as 
many  C  are  put  before  the  horizontal  line  as  there  are  O  behind  it.  Thus, 
CIO'=  1000,  CCIOO  =  10,000,  &c.  A  thousand  is  expressed  in  MSS.  by 
c/>,  which  is  evidently  a  contraction  of  CIO.  M,  which  is  used  for  the 
same  number,  is  the  initial  of  mille.* 

Note  2.— Wherever,  in  the  above  list,  two  numerals  are  put  together, 
the  first  is  always  preferable.  Forms  like  octodecim  and  'novendecim,  which 
are  not  mentioned  in  the  list,  are  not  supported  by  any  authority ;  even 
sfptendecim,  according  to  Priscian  (De  Sign.  Num.,  4),  is  not  so  good  as 
de.ce.rn  et  seplem,  although  it  is  used  by  Cicero  (In  Verr.,  v.,  47  ;  De  Leg. 
Agr.,  ii.,  17;  Philip.,  v.,  7),  and  also  by  Tacitus  (AnnaL,  xiii.,  6).  Septem 
et  decem,  in  Cicero  (Cat.,  6),  and  octo  et  decem,  in  Pliny  (Epist.,  viii.,  18), 
are  isolated  peculiarities.  Instead  of  octoginta  we  sometimes  find  octua- 
ginta,  and,  corresponding  with  it,  actuaries ;  but  these  forms  cannot  be 
recommended. 

[§  116.]  The  intermediate  numbers  are  expressed  in 
the  following  manner :  from  twenty  to  a  hundred,  either 
the  smaller  number,  followed  by  ct,  precedes,  or  the  great- 
er one  precedes  without  the  ct ;  e.  g.,  quattuor  et  sexagin- 
ta,  or  scxaginta  quattuor.  For  18,  28,  38,  48,  &c.,  and  for 
19,  29,  39,  49,  etc.,  the  expressions  duodeviginti,  duodctri- 
ginta,  up  to  undecentnm,  are  more  frequent  than  decem  et 
octo,  or  octo  ct  viginti.  In  such  combinations  neither  duo 
nor  un  (unus)  can  be  declined.  Above  100,  the  greater 
number  always  precedes,  either  with  or  without  et ;  as, 
mille  unus,  mille  duo,  mille  t  recent  i,  or  mille  et  unus,  mille 
et  duo,  mille  ct  trcccnti  sexaginta  sex.  The  ct  is  never 
used  twice,  and  poets,  when  they  want  another  syllable, 
take  ac,  clique,  or  quc,  instead.  There  are,  indeed,  ex- 
ceptions to  this  rule ;  but,  being  less  common,  they  cannot 
be  taken  into  consideration,  and  some  of  them  are  mere 
incorrect  readings.  (See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verrcm,  iv., 
55.) 

The  thousands  are  generally  expressed  by  the  declina- 
ble substantive  milia  and  the  cardinal  numbers  ;  as,  duo 
milia,  tria  milia,  quattuor  milia,  decem  milia,  unum  et  vi- 

nician  or  Palrnyrene  notations,  which  otherwise  much  resemble  the  Ro- 
man in  their  principle  of  notation,  though  they  approximate  to  pure  vice- 
nary  scales,  both  adopting  distinct  symbols  for  twenty."  (Penny  Cyclop., 
vol.  xvi.,  p.  367.)]— Am.  Ed. 

*  [For  another  scheme  of  explanation,  consult  Penny  Cyclop.,  vol  xvi.? 
p.  367,]— Am.  Ed. 


08  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ginti  milia,  quadraginta  quinquc  milia.  The  distributive 
numerals  are  used  more  rarely  ;  as,  bina  milia,  quina 
milia,  dcna  milia,  quadragcna  scna  milia.  The  objects 
counted  are  expressed  by  the  genitive,  which  depends  on 
the  substantive  milia  ;  e.  g.,  Xerxes  Mardonium  in  Grac- 
cia  rcJiquit  cum  treccntis  milibus  armatorum,  unless  a  low- 
er declined  numeral  is  added,  in  which  case  things  count- 
ed may  be  used  in  the  same  case  with  milia  ;  e.  g.,  liab- 
uit  tria  milia  trcccntos  milites,  or  milites  tria  milia  trccen- 
tos  liabuit  ;  but  even  then  the  genitive  may  be  used,  e.  g., 
liabuit  militum  tria  milia  trcccntos,  or  liabuit  tria  milia 
militum  ct  trcccntos.  (See  the  commentators  on  Livy, 
xxxix.,  7.)  It  is  only  the  poets  that  express  the  thousands 
by  the  indeclinable  adjective  millc,  preceded  by  an  ad- 
verbial numeral;  as,  bis  millc  cqui,  for  duo  milia  cquorum; 
they  are,  in  general,  fond  of  expressing  a  number  by  the 
form  of  multiplication;  Ovid  (Trist.,  iv.,  10,  4),  for  ex- 
ample, says,  milia  dccics  novem,  instead  of  nonaginta 
milia. 

Note.  —  With  regard  to  the  construction  of  the  wordmiV/e  we  add  the  fol- 
lowing remarks.  Millc  is  originally  a  substantive,  which  is  indeclinable 
in  the  singular,  but  occurs  only  in  the  nom.  and  accus.  As  a  substantive 
it  governs  the  genitive,  like  the  Greek  %L'A,LU,<;,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Pro  Milan.,  20, 
quo  in  f  undo  propter  insanas  illas  substructions  facile  mille  hominum  vcrsabatur 
valentium  ;  Philip.,  vi.,  5,  quis  L.  Antonio  mille  nummum  ferret  expensum, 
and,  very  frequently,  mille  passuum.  Livy  joins  mille  as  a  collective  noun 
(see  <$>  366)  to  the  plural  of  the  verb,  xxiii.,  44  ;  mille  passuum  inter  urbem 
erant  castrayue  :  xxv.,  24,  jam  mille  armatorum  ceperant  partern.  But  mille  is 
also  an  indeclinable  adjective,  and  as  such  is  most  frequently  used  in  all 
its  cases,  e.  g.,  equites  mille  praemissi  ;  scnatus  mille  hominum  numero  consta- 
bat  ;  da  rnihi  basia  mille  ;  rem  mille  modis  temptavit,  &c.  With  this  adjec- 
tive mille,  as  with  numerals  in  general,  a  genitivus  partitivus  may  be  used, 
according  to  §  429,  and  thus  we  read  in  Livy,  xxi.,  61,  cum  octo  milibus 
itum,  mille  equitum,  where  the  genitive  stands  for  the  ablative,  owing  to 
close  connexion  with  the  word  peditum  ;  and  xxiii.,  46,  Romctnorum 
minus  mille  int^rfecti. 


Mpcd 
'Vits 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

ORDINAL      NUMERAL  S. 


[§  117.]  THE  ordinals  denote  the  place  in  the  series 
which  any  object  holds,  and  answer  to  the  question  quo- 
tus  ?  All  of  them  are  adjectives  of  three  terminations, 
us,  a,  um. 


1.  primus. 

2.  secundus  (alter). 

3.  tertius. 


4.  quartus. 

5.  quintus. 

6.  scxtus. 


ORDINAL    NUMERALS. 


99 


7.  septimus. 

8.  octavus. 

9.  nonus. 

10.  decimus. 

11.  undecimus. 

12.  duodecimus. 

13.  tertius  decimus. 

14.  quartus  decimus. 

15.  quintus  decimus. 

16.  sextus  decimus. 

17.  septimus  decimus. 

18.  octavus  decimus,  or 

devicesimus. 

19.  ftowws  decimus,  or 

vicesimus. 

20.  vicesimus,  sometimes  rz- 

gesimus. 

21.  w«%*  e£  vicesimus,  vicesi- 

mus primus. 

22.  a^er  e£  vicesimus,  vicesi- 

mus sccundus. 

30.  tricesimus,  sometimes  £n- 
gesimus. 


40.  quadragesimus. 
50.  quinquagcsimus. 
60.  sexagesimus. 
70.  septuagcsimus. 
80.  octogcsimus. 
90.  nonagesimus. 
100.  ccntesimus. 
200.  ducentcsimus. 
300.  trccentcsimus. 
400.  quadringentcsi- 

mus. 

500.  quingcntesimus. 
600.  scxccntcsimus. 
700.  sc2)tingcntesimus. 
800.  octmgcntesimus. 
900.  nongentesimus. 
1000.  millcsimus.  ff 

2000.  fo's  millcsimus. 
3000.  ^er  millcsimus. 
10,000.  decics  millcsimus. 
100,000.  centies millcsimus. 
1,000,000.  decz' 

lesimus. 


[§  118.]  In  expressing  the  intermediate  numbers,  the 
most  common  practice  is  to  place  the  smaller  number  be- 
fore the  greater  one  with  the  conjunction  e£,  or  to  make 
the  greater  number  precede  the  smaller  one  without  e£/ 
as,  quartus  et  vicesimus,  or  vicesimus  quartus.  But  there 
are  many  instances  in  which  the  smaller  number  pre- 
cedes without  e£/  e.  g.,  quintus  triceslmus ;  and  from  13 
to  19  this  is  the  ordinary  method,  though  we  also  find 
tertius  et  decimus,  decimus  tertius,  and  decimus  et  tertius. 
(See  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  i.,  53  and  54.)  Instead  of  primus  et 
vicesimus,  &c.,  we  find  still  more  frequently  unus  et  vice- 
simus, fern,  una  et  vicesima,  or  with  the  elision  of  the 
vowel,  unetvicesima,  with  the  genitive  unetvicesimac,  as 
in  Tacit.,  Anna!.,  i.,  45.,  and  Hist.,  i.,  67.  The  22d,  32d, 
&c.,  is  more  frequently  and  better  expressed  by  alter  et 
vicesimus,  or  vicesimus  et  alter,  than  by  secundus  et  vice- 
simus, &c.  Now  and  then  we  meet  with  duoctvicesimus, 
duoettriccsimus,  in  which  case  the  word  duo  is  indeclina- 
ble. The  28th,  3Sth,  &c.,  are  expressed  also  by  duodetri- 
cesimus,  duodequadragesimus,  arid  the  29th,  39th,  99th,  by 


100  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

undctricesimus,  undequadragesimus,  undeccntcsimus,  the 
words  duo  and  unus  (un )  being  indeclinable ;  and  both 
forms  are  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  octavus  and 
nonus  et  vicesimiis,  or  vicesimus  octavus,  vicesimus  nonus. 
There  is  a  class  of  adjectives  in  anus  which  are  derived 
from  ordinal  numerals,  e.  g.,  primanus,  secundanus,  ter- 
tianus,  viccsimanus :  they  express  the  class  or  division  to 
which  a  person  belongs  ;  in  Roman  writers  they  chiefly 
denote  the  legion  of  the  soldiers,  whence  the  first  word 
in  their  compounds  is  feminine,  e.  g.,  tertiadecimani, 
quartadecimani,  tcrtia  ct  vicesimani ;  that  is,  soldiers  of 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  twenty-third  legion.  In  Taci- 
tus we  meet  with  the  forms  unetciccsimani  and  duoetvice- 
simani. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 

III.    DISTRIBUTIVE    NUMERALS. 

[§  119.]  DISTRIBUTIVE  numerals  denote  an  equal  num 
ber  distributed  among  several  objects  or  at  different  times, 
and  answer  to  the  questions,  "  How  many  apiece?"  and, 
"  How  many  each  time  1"  (quoteni  ?J  They  are  always 
used  in  the  plural.  The  English  language  having  no  cor- 
responding numerals,  has  recourse  to  circumlocution. 

Examples. — Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  4,  86  ;  Sacpe  tribus  lectis  videas  cocnare  qua 
lernos,  to  dine  four  on  each  couch  :  Liv.,  xxx.,  30  ;  Scipio  et  Hannibal  cum 
singnlis  interpretibus  congressi  sunt,  each  with  an  interpreter  :  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
ii.,  49  ;  pueri  senum  septenumve  denum  annorwn  sanatorium  nomen  nundinati 
sunt,  boys  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  each  purchased  the  title  of  sen- 
ator:  Liv.,  v.,  30;  Senatus  consultum  factum  est,  ut  agri  Veientani  septena 
jugera  plebi  dividerentnr,  each  plebeian  received  seven  jugera.  The  pas- 
sage in  Cicero  (ad  Att.,  xvi.,  8),  Octavias  veterams  quingenos  de.narios  dat, 
has  the  same  meaning  as  (ad  Fa?n.,  X.,  32)  Antonius  denarios  quin punas 
singulis  militibus  dat ;  that  is,  five  hundred  denarii  to  each  soldier.  When 
the  distributive  singuli  is  expressly  added,  the  cardinal  numeral  is  some- 
times used;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  55:  singulis  censoribus  denarii  trecenti 
ad  statuam  praetoris  imperati  sunt. 

Hence  the  distributives  are  applied  in  multiplication  (with  adverbial 
numerals),  the  same  number  being  taken  several  times ;  e.  g.,  nan  didicit 
bis  bina  quot  essent ;  lunae  curriculum  conficitur  integris  quater  septenis  diebus  : 
Gellius,  XX.,  7  ;  Homervx  pueros  puellasque  Niobae  bis  senns  dicit  fuisse,  Eu- 
ripides bis  septenos,  Sappho  bis  novenos,  Bacchylides  et  Pindarus  bis  denos  ; 
quidam  alii  scriptores  tres  fuisse  solos  dixerunt.  Poets  in  this  case  sometimes 
apply  the  cardinal  numerals  ;  e.  g.,  Horace  has,  bis  quinqup  viri,  i.  e.,  decem- 
viri ;  and  in  prose  we  find  decies  (vicies,  tricies)  centum  milia,  although  the 
form  decies  centena  milia,  mentioned  above  (t)  115),  is  much  more  common. 

Distributives  are  farther  used,  instead  of  cardinals,  with  words  which 
have  no  singular ;  e.  g.,  bini  codicilli,  bina  post  Romulum  spolia  opima  (see 


DISTRIBUTIVE    N  UMERALS. 


101 


§  94) ;  and  with  those  substantives  the  plural  of  which,  though  it  has  a 
different  signification  from  the  singular,  yet  retains  the  meaning  of  a  sin- 
gular, e.  g.,  aedes,  castra,  litterae,  ludi  (§  96).  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  in  this  case  the  Romans  commonly  used  uni  instead  of  singuli,  and 
trini  instead  of  terni,  since  singuli  and  terni  retain  their  own  distributive  sig- 
nification. We  therefore  say,  for  example,  bina  castra  uno  die  cepit ;  trinae 
hodie  nuptiae  celebrantur  •  quotidie  quivas  aut  senas  litteras  accipio  ;  for  duo  cas- 
tra would  mean  "  two  castles  ;"  duae  aedes,  "two  temples  ;"  and  duaelitte- 
rae,  "  two  letters  of  the  alphabet."  This,  however,  is  not  the  case  with 
libfri  (children),  for  this  word  has  not  the  meaning  of  a  singular  (liberi  are 
children,  and  not  a  child),  and  we  accordingly  say  duo  liberi,  jus  trium  libe- 
rum,  &c. 

Bini  is  used  for  duo,  to  denote  things  which  exist  in  pairs  ;  as,  bini  boves, 
binae  uures  ;  and  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  i.,  317,  bina  manu  crispans  hastilia.  No 
prose  writer  goes  beyond  this  in  the  use  of  the  distributives  instead  of  the 
cardinals  (except  in  combination  with  milia,  see  §  116).  Poets  and  Pliny 
the  elder  use  these  numerals  in  the  singular  in  the  sense  of  nmltiplica- 
tives,  e.  g.,  Lucan,  viii.,  455  ;  septeno  gurgite,  with  a  sevenfold  whirl :  Plin., 
xvii,,  3  ;  campus  fertilis  centenaquinquagenafruge,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty 
fold  corn.  In  the  ordinary  language  they  occur  only  in  the  plural,  and  as 
adjectives  of  three  terminations,  i,  ae,  a. 

14.  quaterni  deni. 

15.  .quini  deni. 

16.  seni  deni. 


1.  singuli. 
2. 


bini. 

terni,  or  trini. 

quaterni. 

quini. 

seni. 

scpteni. 

octoni. 

noveni. 
10.  deni. 
11  undcni. 

12.  duo  deni. 

13.  terni  deni. 


17.  scpteni  deni. 


IS. 
19. 
20. 


octoni  deni. 
noveni  deni. 
viceni. 


21.  viccni  singuli. 


60.  sexageni. 

70.  scptuagcni. 

80.  octogcni. 

90.  nonageni. 
100.  centcni. 
200.  duccni. 
300.  treccni. 
400.   quadringeni. 
500.  quingeni. 
600.  sexceni. 
700.  septingcni. 
800.  octingcni. 
900.  nongcni. 


22.  viceni  bini. 

23.  viccni    terni, 
30.  triccni.      [&c. 
40.  quadrageni. 
50.  quinquagcni. 

A  longer  form  of  the  hundreds,  ducenteni,  trecenteni, 
quadringcntcni,  &cv  which  is  mentioned  by  Priscian,  can- 
not be  proved  to  exist.  Here,  too,  there  is  some  freedom 
in  the  combination  of  the  numerals  ;  instead  of  viccni  qua- 
terni, we  may  say  quaterni  et  viccni,  or  quaterni  viceni,  and 
for  18  and  19  we  have,  also,  the  forms  duodeviceni  and  un- 
deviceni.  The  genitive  of  these  numerals  is  commonly  iri 
um  instead  of  orum;  as,  binum,  ternum,  quaternum,  qui- 
num,  &c.,  but  not  singulum  for  smgulorum. 

"A  thousand  each  time"  might,  according  to  analogy,  be  expressed  by 
milleni,  and  then  continued  bis  milleni,  ter  milleni,  &c. ;  but  this  form  is  not 
in  use,  and  instead  of  it  we  say  singula  milia,  bina,  terna,  quaterna,  qnina 
milia  ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Octav.,  extr.  ;  Legavit  Augustus  praetorianis  militibus 
singulamilia  nummum  (that  is,  one  thousand  to  each),  cohortibns  urbanis  quin- 
genos,  legionariis  trecenos  nummos :  Livy  :  in  singulis  legionibus  Romanis  quina 
milia  peditum,  treceni  equites  erant.  Milia  alone  is  frequently  used  for  singula 
milia,  if  its  distributive  meaning  is  indicated  by  some  other  word ;  e.  g., 

I  2 


102  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Livy,  xxxvii.,  45;  dabitis  milia  talentum  per  duodecim  annos,  i.  e.,  one  thou- 
sand talents  each  year  :  Curtius,  v.,  1!) ;  singulis  vestrum  milia  denarium  dari 
jussi,  where  milleis  an  incorrect  reading  ;  comp.  Liv.,  xxii.,  36.  This  use 
of  the  plural,  which  occurs  in  other  words  also;  as,  asses,  librae,  jugera, 
with  the  ellipsis  of  singuli,  ae,  a,  has  been  established  by  J.  Fr.  Gronovius 
on  Livy,  iv.,  15,  and  xxix.,  15  ;  and  by  Bentley  on  Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  3,  156. 

From  these  distributives  are  derived  adjectives  in  arius, 
which  indicate  of  how  many  units  or  equal  parts  a  thing 
consists,  whence  they  are  termed  partiaria,  e.  g.,  nume- 
rus  binarius,  a  number  consisting  of  two  units,  i.  e.,  two  ; 
scrobes  ternarii,  holes  of  three  feet;  versus  scnarius,  a  verse 
of  six  feet ;  nummus  denarius,  a  coin  of  ten  units,  that  is, 
asses  ;  scnex  octogenarius,  an  old  man  of  eighty  ;  rosa  cen- 
tenaria,  a  rose  with  one  hundred  leaves  ;  cohors  quingena- 
ria,  of  500  men.  The  word  numerus  is  most  frequently 
combined  with  these  adjectives,  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
substantives  unio,  binio,  tern  to,  which  are  not  based  on 
very  good  authority.  (See  §  75.)  Singularis  and  millia- 
rius  are  more  commonly  used  instead  of  smgularius,  mil- 
lenarius. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

IV.    MULTIPLICATIVE    NUMERALS. 

[§  120.]  MULTIPLICATIVES  answer  to  the  question,  "  How 
many  fold  ]"  (quotuplcx  ?)  They  are,  simplex,  duplex,  tri- 
plex,  quadruplcx,  quinciiplex,  scptcmplcx,  deccmplex,  centu- 
plex.  These  are  the  only  ones  that  can  be  shown  to  have  been 
in  use.  Sixfold  does  not  occur  in  Latin  ;  it  might  be  sexu- 
plex  QYseplex,  but  not  sextuplex,  as  some  grammarians  assert. 
Octuplcx  is  attested  by  the  derivative  octuplicatus ,  and  no- 
vemplex  by  the  analogy  of  scptemplcx.  (Modern  writers 
use,  also,  undecimplcx,  duodecimplex,  scdccimplex,  vicecu- 
plex,  tricecuplex,  quadragecuplex,  quinquagccuplex,  sex- 
agecuplex,  septuagccuplcx,  octogecuplcx,  nonagecuplex,  du- 
centuplex,  trecentuplcx,  quadr'nigentuplcx,  quingentuplex, 
octingentuplex,  &c.,  and  millecnplex.)* 

It  will  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  add  the  Latin  ex- 
pressions for  fractions,  which  are  always  denoted  by  pars : 

*  [Such  forms  as  undecimplex,  duodecimplex,  &c.,  violate  analogy,  and 
though  employed  by  modern  writers,  as  the  text  states,  are  nevertheless 
decidedly  objectionable.  Instead,  moreover,  of  vicecuplex,  tricecuplex,  &c., 
the  forms  vicuplex,  tricuplex,  &c.,  would  have  the  advantage  of  being 
analogous  with  those  of  the  same  class  known  to  exist.  (Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, vol.  i.,  p.  96.]—  Am.  Ed. 


PROPORTIONAL  NUMERALS. NUMERAL  ADVERBS.     103 

i  is  dimidia  pars,  1  tertia  pars,  1  quarta  2?ars,  quinta,  sex- 
ta,  scptima  pars,  &c.  In  cases  where  the  number  of  the 
parts  into  which  a  thing  is  divided  exceeds  the  number 
of  parts  mentioned  only  by  one,  as  in  f ,  f ,  ±,  the  fractions 
are  expressed  in  Latin  simply  by  duae,  tres,  quattuor 
pai'tes,  that  is,  two  out  of  three,  three  out  of  four,  and 
four  out  of  five  parts  :  |-  maybe  expressed  by  octavapars, 
or  by  dimidia  quarta.  In  all  other  cases  fractions  are  ex- 
pressed as  in  English  :  ^,  duae  septimae  ;  -f,  trcs  septimae, 
&c.,  or  the  fraction  is  broken  up  into  its  parts,  e.  g.,  -f  by 
pars  dimidia  (£)  et  tertia  (f );  and  if-  by  tertia  et  septima. 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

V.    PROPORTIONAL    NUMERALS. 

[§  121.]  PROPORTIONAL  numerals  express  how  many 
times  more  one  thing  is  than  another,  but  they  cannot  be 
used  throughout.  They  answer  to  the  question  quotfiplus  1 
They  are,  simplu-s,  a,  urn  ;  duplus,  triplus,  quadruples, 
qidnquiplus  (probably  scxitplus),  septuples,  octaplus  (per- 
haps nomipliis),  decupluSj  centuplus ;  and,  according  to  the 
same  analogy,  we  might  form  ducentuplus,  and  so  on,  as  in 
the  multiplicatives  above.  But  they  are  almost  univer- 
sally found  only  in  the  neuter. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

VI.      NUMERAL      ADVERBS. 

[§  122.]  1.  The  numeral  adverbs  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "  How  many  times  V  (quotiens  ?)  to  which  toticns  is 
the  demonstrative  andaUquotic?is  the  indefinite.  The  form 
in  ns  is  the  original,  and  prevailed  in  the  best  periods  of 
the  language ;  subsequently  the  termination  Is  was  pre- 
ferred in  numerals,  but  ens  still  remained  in  the  words 
just  mentioned. 


1.  semel. 

2.  Us. 

3.  tcr. 

4.  quater. 

5.  quinquics. 

6.  sexies. 


7.  septies. 

8.  octics. 

9.  noi'ics. 

10.  dccics. 

11.  undecics. 

12.  duodecies. 


104 


LATIN    GU  A  AIM  AX. 


13.  terdeciesj  or  tredecies. 

14.  quaterdecies,  or  quattuor 

decies. 

15.  quinquiesdccics  i  or  quln- 

decics. 

16.  sexicsdccics,  or  sedecics* 

17.  septiesdeties. 

18.  duodevicieS)  or  octiesde- 

cies. 

19.  undcvicies,  or  no-vicsdc- 

20.  vicies.  [des. 

21.  semcl  et  vicies. 

22.  bis  ct  rides. 

23.  tcr  et  vicies,  &c. 
30.  t rides. 

40.  quadragics. 


50.  quinquagies. 
60.  sexagics. 
70.  septuagies. 
80.  octogies. 
90.  nonagies. 
100.  centies. 
200.  ducenties* 
300.  trccentics. 
400.  quadringcnties* 
500.  quingenties,  &c 
800.  octingentie»t  &c 
1,000.  millies. 
2,000.  6/s  millies. 
3,000.  ^r  ?»z7//e$,  &c.. 
100,000.  ce«/*>$  millies, 
1,000,000.  millies  millies. 


With  regard  to  the  intermediate  numbers,  21,  22,  23", 
&c.,  the  method  above  adopted  is  the  usual  one,  but  we 
may  also  say  vicies  semcl  and  vicies  ct  scmcl,  though  not 
#e?fte?  vicies;  for  bis  vicies,  for  example,  would  mean  twice 
twenty,  i.  e.,  forty. 

[§  123.]  2.  The  numeral  adverbs  terminating  either  in 
«wra  or  o,  and  derived  from  the  ordinals,  or,  rather,  the  or- 
dinals themselves  in  the  ace.  or  ablat.  singular  neater  gen- 
der, are  used  in  answer  to  the  question  "  of  what  num- 
ber ]"  or  "what  in  number]"  (the  Latin  quotum?  or 
quota  ?  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  used  in  this  way); 
e.  g.,  primum  or  primo,  for  the  first  time,  or  first ;  secun- 
dum  OYsccundo,  tcrtium  or  tertio,  &c.,  decimmn,  undedmum, 
duodecimum ,  tertium  decimwn,  duodeviccsimum.  The  an- 
cients themselves  were  in  doubt  as  to  whether  the  termi- 
nation wn  or  o  was  preferable  (see  Gellius,  x.,  1)  ;  buty 
according  to  the  majority  of  the  passages  in  classical  wri- 
ters, we  must  prefer  um;  the  form  sccundum  alone  is  less- 
common  ;  and  instead  of  it  we  find  iterum,  a  second  time, 
and  secundo,  secondly,  for  which,  however,  deinde  is  more 
frequently  used.  The  difference  between  primum  and 
primo  is  this,  that  the  signification  "  for  the  first  time'*  is 
common  to  both,  but  that  of  "first"  belongs  exclusively 
to  primum,  while  primo  has  the  additional  meaning  of  "  at 
first/' 

[<J  12d.]  Note.— It  may  not  be  superfluous  to  notice  here  some  substar> 
tives  compounded  with  numerals  L  thus,,  from  annus  are  formed  biennium. 


PRONOUNS    AND    PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES.  105 

triennium,  quadriennium,  sexennium,  septuennium  (more  correct  than  septen- 
nmm),  dccenniurn,  a  period  of  two,  three,  four,  six,  &c.,  years.  From  dies 
we  have  biduum,  triduum,  quatriduum,  a  time  of  two,  three,  four  days. 
From  viri  are  formed  duoviri,  tresviri,  quattuorviri}  quinqueiriri,  se-  or  sex-viri, 
septemviri,  decemviri,  quindecemviri,  all  of  which  compounds,  if  they  may  be 
so  called,  denote  a  commission  consisting  of  a  certain  number  of  men,  ap- 
pointed for  certain  purposes.  A  member  of  such  a  commission  is  called 
duumvir,  triumvir,  from  which  is  formed  the  plural  triumviri,  which,  properly 
speaking,  is  ungrammatical,  and,  in  fact,  still  wants  the  sanction  of  a  good 
authority.  In  inscriptions  triumviri  does  not  occur,  and  duomviri  only  once 
(Gruter,  p.  43,  No.  5) :  the  ordinary  mode  of  writing  it  was  II  viri,  III 
viri.  Printed  books,  without  the  authority  of  MSS.,  are  not  decisive. 
To  these  words  we  may  add  the  three,  bimus,  trimus,  and  quadrimus  ;  i.  e., 
a  child  of  two,  three,  four  years. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

PRONOUNS    AND    PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES. 

[§  125.]  1.  PRONOUNS  are  words  which  supply  the  place 
of  a  substantive ;  such  as,  I,  thou,  we,  and  in  Latin,  ego, 
tu,  ?ws,  &c.  These  words  are  in  themselves  substan- 
tives, and  require  nothing  to  complete  their  meaning ; 
hence  they  are  called  pronouns  substantive  (pronomina 
substantiva),  but  more  commonly  personal  pronouns,  pro- 
nomina personalia. 

Note. — Sui  is  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  but  not  in  the  same  way 
that  ego  and  tu  are  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons.  For  the 
third  person  (he,  she,  it)  is  not  expressed  in  Latin  in  the  nominative,  and 
is  implied  in  the  third  person  of  the  verb;  but  if  it  is  to  be  expressed,  a 
demonstrative  pronoun,  commonly  Me,  is  used.  The  other  cases  of  the 
English  pronoun  of  the  third  person  are  expressed  by  the  oblique  cases  of 
is,  ea,  id,  the  nominative  of  which  belongs  to  the  demonstrative  pronouns. 
Thus  we  say,  pudet  me  mei,  tui,  ejus ;  laudo  me,  te,  eum.  Sui,  sibi,  se,  is  the 
pronoun  of  the  third  person  in  a  reflective  sense  ;  as,  laudat  se,  he  praises 
himself,  in  which  proposition  the  object  is  the  same  as  the  subject.  The 
use  of  this  reflective  pronoun  in  Latin  is  somewhat  more  extensive  than 
in  our  language ;  for  sui,  sibi,  se,  and  the  possessive  suns,  sua,  suum,  are 
used  not  only  when  the  subject  to  which  they  refer  occurs  in  the  same 
sentence,  but  also  when  in  a  dependent  sentence  the  subject  of  the  prin- 
cipal or  governing  sentence  is  referred  to ;  e.  g.,  putat  hoc  sibi  nocere,  he 
thinks  that  this  injures  him  (instead  of  himself).  The  beginner  must  ob- 
serve that  wherever  he  may  add  "self"  to  the  pronoun  of  the  third  per- 
son, he  has  to  use  the  reflective  pronouns  and  the  possessive  suus,  sua, 
suum;  e.  g.,  Gains  contemnebat  divitias,  quod  se  felicem  rfddcre  non  possent, 
because  they  could  not  make  him  (i.  e.,  himself,  and  not  any  other  person) 
happy  ;  but  quod  eum  felicem  reddere  non  possent  would  mean,  because  they 
could  not  make  him  (some  other  person,  e.  g.,  his  friend)  happy. 

[§  126.]  2.  Besides  these  there  is  a  number  of  words 
which  are  adjectives,  inasmuch  as  they  have  three  distinct 
forms  for  the  three  genders,  and  their  meaning  is  not  com- 
plete without  a  substantive  either  expressed  or  under- 


106  LATIN    GRAiMMAK. 

stood.  But  their  inflection  differs  so  widely  from  what 
are  commonly  called  adjectives,  and  they  are  so  frequent- 
ly used  instead  of  a  substantive,  that  they  are  not  unjustly 
termed  pronouns.  They  are  : 

1.  The  adjunct ive :  ipse,  ipsa,  ipsum,  self. 

2.  The  demonstrative  :  hie,  hacc,  hoc;  iste,  ista,  istud ; 
illc,  ilia,  illud  ;  is,  ea,  id,  and  the  compound  idem,  eadem, 
idem. 

3.  The  relative :   qui,  quac,  quod,  and  the  compounds 
quicunque  and  quisquis. 

4.  The  two  intcrrogativcs :  viz.,  the  substantive  inter- 
rogative, quis,  quid  ?  and  the  adjective  interrogative,  qui, 
quac,  quod  ? 

5.  The  indefinite  pronouns  :  aliquis,  aliqua,  aliquid  and 
aliquod ;  quidam,  quacdam,  quiddam  and  quoddam  ;  ali- 
quispiam,  or,  abridged,  quispiam,  quaepiam,  quidpiam  and 
quodpiam  ;   quisquam,  neuter  quidquam  ;   quivis,  quilibet, 
and  quisque  ;   and  all  the  compounds  of  qui  or  quis. 

Respecting  the  use  of  these  pronouns,  see  Chapter 
L XXXIV.,  C.  The  following  observations  are  intended 
to  develop  only  the  fundamental  principles. 

[§  127.]  Note  1. — SIGNIFICATION  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
— Hie,  this,  is  used  of  objects  which  are  nearest  to  the  speaker,  whereas 
more,  distant  objects  are  referred  to  by  Me.  The  person  nearest  of  all  to 
the  speaker  is  the  speaker  himself,  whence  hie  homo  is  often  the  same  as 
ego  (see  some  passages  in  Heindorf  on  Horace,  Sat.,  L,  9,  47) ;  and  in  this 
respect  hie  is  called  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person.  Iste  points  to  the 
person  to  whom  I  am  speaking,  and  to  the  things  appertaining  to  him. 
Thus,  iste  liber,  ista  vestis,  istud  nepotium,  are  equivalent  to  thy  book,  thy 
dress,  thy  business  ;  and  iste  is,  for  this  reason,  called  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person.*  Hie,  that,  is  the  pronoun  of  the  third  person;  that  is,  it 
points  to  the  person  of  whom  I  am  speaking  to  some  one,  hence  ille  liber 
means  the  book  of  which  we  are  speaking  (Compare,  on  these  points,  $ 
291.)  Is  is  used:  1.  To  point  to  something  preceding,  and  is  somewhat 
less  emphatic  than  "the  person  mentioned  before;"  and,  2.  As  a  sort  of 
logical  conjunction,  when  followed  by  qui,  is  qui  answers  to  the  English 
"he  who."  Idem,  the  same,  expresses  the  unity  or  identity  of  a  subject 
with  two  predicates;  e.  g.,  Cicero  did  this  thing,  and  he  did  that  also, 
would  be  expressed  in  Latin,  idem  illud  perfecit,  hence  idem  may  sometimes 
answer  to  our  "  also  ;"  e.  g.,  Cicero  was  an  orator,  and  also  a  philosopher  : 
Cicero  orator  erat  idemque  (et  idem}  philosophus. 

[$  128.]  Note  2. — THE  COMPOUNDED  RELATIVES.— They  are  formed  by 
means  of  the  suffix  cunque,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  separated  from 
its  pronoun  by  some  intervening  word.  It  arose  from  the  relative  adverb 
cum  (also  spelled  quum)  and  the  suffix  que,  expressive  of  universality  (as  in 

*  [So  completely  was  this  the  meaning  of  the  pronoun  iste,  that  it  has 
descended  to  the  derivative  costi  in  the  modern  Italian ;  and  a  lawsuit  as 
to  the  place  where  a  bill  was  payable  once  turned  upon  the  meaning  of 
this  adverb.  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  97.]— Am.  Ed. 


PRONOUNS    AND    PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES.  107 

n"  ;que,  §  129 ;  and  in  adverbs,  <S  288).  Cunque,  therefore,  originally  signi- 
"  whenever."  By  being  attached  to  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb, 
e.  g.,  qualiscunque,  quotcunque,  ubicunque,  utcunque,  quandocunque,  it  renders 
the  relative  meaning  of  these  words  more  general,  and  produces  a  relaiivum 
generals;  and  as  qui  signifies  "  who,"  quicunque  becomes  "whoever,"  or 
"every  one  who;"  e.  g.,  quemcunque  librum  legeris,  ejus  summam  paucis 
verbis  in  commentaria  referto,  or  utcunque  se  res  habuit,  tua  tamen  culpa  est.  It 
thus  always  occurs  in  connexion  with  a  verb,  as  the  subject  of  a  proposi- 
tion. The  same  signification  is  produced  by  doubling  the  relative  ;  e.  g., 
quotquot,  quahsqualis ;  and  in  the  case  of  adverbs,  ubiubi,  utut,  quoquo,  &c. 
Thus  we  should  have  quiqui,  quaequae,  quodquod  =  quicunque,  quaecunque, 
quodcunque ;  but  these  forms  are  not  used  in  the  nominative,  and  instead 
of  them  quisquis,  quidquid,  were  formed  from  the  substantive  interrogative 
quis  ?  quid  ?  and  the  doubled  relative  quisquis  retained  its  substantive  sig- 
nification, "  every  one  who,"  whereas  quicunque  has  the  meaning  of  an  ad- 
jective. So,  at  least,  it  is  with  the  neuter  quidquid,  whatever.  The  mas- 
culine qitisquis,  by  way  of  exception,  is  likewise  used  as  an  adjective ; 
e.  g.,  in  Horace:  quisquis  erit  vitae  color;  and  Pliny:  quisq-iiis  erit  ventus 
(nay,  even  the  neuter  quidquid  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  x.,  493,  and  Horace,  Carm., 
ii.,  13,  9,  which  is  a  complete  anomaly).  In  the  oblique  cases  the  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  significations  coincide. 

[§  129.]  Note  3. — THE  INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. — All  the  above-men- 
tioned words  are  originally  at  once  substantives  and  adjectives,  and  for 
this  reason  they  have  two  distinct  forms  for  the  neuter.  According  to  the 
ordinary  practice,  however,  quisquam  is  a  substantive  only,  and  is  often  ac- 
companied by  the  adjective  ullus,  a,  um.  Quispiam,  too,  is  principally  used 
as  a  substantive ;  but  aliquispiam,  in  the  few  passages  where  it  occurs  (it 
is  found  only  in  Cic.,  Pro  Sext.,  29,  aliquapiam  vi:  and  TuscuL,  Hi.,  9,  ali- 
qiLodpiam  membrum),  is  used  as  an  adjective  ;  and  aliquis,  which  has  the 
same  meaning,  is  found  in  both  senses.  Quisquam,  with  the  supplement- 
ary ullus,  has  a  negative  meaning;  e.  g.,  I  do  not  believe  that  any  one 
(quisquam)  has  done  this  :  quispiam.  and  aliquis  are  affirmative,  and  quidam 
may  be  translated  by  "  a  certain."  By  adding  the  verbs  vis  and  libet  to  the 
relative  we  obtain  quivis  and  quilibct,  any  one ;  and  by  adding  the  particle 
que  we  obtain  quisque  and  the  compound  unusquisque.  All  of  these  words 
express  nri  indefinite  generality:  respecting  their  difference,  compare 
Chap.  LXXXIV.,  C. 

[§  130.]  3.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  derived  from 
the  substantive  pronouns,  and  in  form  they  are  regular 
adjectives  of  three  terminations  :  meus,  tuus,  suus,  noster, 
vestcr ;  to  which  we  must  add  the  relative  cujus,  a,  um  ; 
and  the  pronomina  gcntilicia  (which  express  origin),  nos- 
tras,  vcstras,  and  cujas. 

4.  Lastly,  we  include  among  the  pronouns,  also,  what 
are  called  pronominalia,  that  is,  adjectives  of  so  general 
a  meaning  that,  like  real  pronouns,  they  frequently  sup- 
ply the  place  of  a  noun  substantive.  Such  pronominalia 
are,  (a)  those  which  answer  to  the  question,  who  1  and 
are  partly  single  words  and  partly  compounds  :  alius,  ul- 
lus, nullus,  nonnullus.  If  we  ask,  which  of  two  ?  it  is  ex- 
pressed by  utcr  ?  and  the  answer  to  it  is  alter,  one  of  two ; 
neuter,  neither;  alterutcr,  either  the  one  or  the  other; 
utcr  vis  and  uterlibct,  either  of  the  two.  The  relative  pro- 


I  OS 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


noun  (when  referring  to  two)  is  likewise  utcr,  and,  in  a 
more  general  s«nse,  utercunque.  (b)  Those  which  denote 
quality,  size,  or  number,  in  quite  a  general  way.  They 
stand  in  relation  to  one  another  (whence  they  are  called  cor- 
relatives), and  are  formed  according  to  a  fixed  rule.  The 
interrogative  beginning  with  qu  coincides  with  the  form 
of  the  relative,  and,  according  to  the  theory  of  the  ancient 
grammarians,  they  differ  only  in  their  accent  (see  §  34)  j 
the  indefinite  is  formed  by  prefixing  all;  the  demonstra- 
tive begins  with  f,  and  its  power  is  sometimes  increased 
by  the  suffix  dcm  (as  in  idem)  ;  the  relative  may  acquire 
a  more  general  meaning  by  being  doubled,  or  by  the  suf- 
fix cunque  (§  128) ;  the  indefinite  generality  is  expressed 
(according  to  §  129)  by  adding  the  words  libct  or  vis  to 
the  (original)  interrogative  form.  In  this  manner  we  ob- 
tain the  following  pronominal  correlatives,  with  which  we 
have  to  compare  the  adverbial  correlatives  mentioned  in 
§  288, 


Interrog, 
quulis, 

quantus, 
quot, 
quottis, 

Demonst, 
talis, 

tantus,  tan- 
tundem, 
tot,  totidem, 

tOtUSj 

Relat. 
qualis, 

quantus, 
quot, 
quotus, 

Relat.  generale. 
qualisqualis, 
qualiscunque, 
quantusquantus  , 
quantuscunque, 
quotquot,  quot- 
cunqua, 
quoluscunque, 

Irak  fin. 

Indef.  gener, 
qualislibet. 

quantuslibet. 
quantusvis, 
quotlibet. 

aliquantus, 
aliquot, 
(aliquotus), 

To  these  we  must  add  the  diminutives  quantulus,  quantul-uscunque,  tantu- 
sj  aliquantulum. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

DECLENSION    OP    PRONOUNS. 

[§131.]  1.  DECLENSION  of  the  personal  pronouns  ego, 
,  sui : 

SINGULAR. 


Nom.  Ego,  I. 
Gen.  mei,  of  me. 

Dat.    ?ni7ii,  to  me. 
Ace.   me,  me. 
Voc.  like  nom. 
Abl. 


Tu,  thou. 
tui,  of  thee. 

tibi,  to  thee. 
te,  thee. 
like  nom. 
te,  from  thee. 


sui,  of  himself,  her- 
self, itself. 
'sibi,  to  himself,  &c. 
se,  himself,  &c. 

se,   from   himself, 
&c. 


DECLENSION    OF    PRONOUNS. 


10<J 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  Nos,  we. 

Vos,  you. 



Gen.  nostri,    nos- 

vestri,  vestrum,  of 

suit  of  themselves. 

tru?n1of\is. 

you. 

Dat.    nobis,  to  us. 

vobis,  to  you. 

sibi,  to  themselves. 

Ace.  nos,  us. 

vos,  you. 

<se,  themselves. 

Voc.  nos,  O  we. 

tw,  O  you  ! 



Abl.    nob  is,    from 

vobis,  from  you. 

se,     from      them- 

us. 

i. 

selves. 

Note.  —  The  suffix  me?  may  be  added  to  all  the  cases  of  these  three  pro- 
nouns to  express  the  English  emphatic  self  ;  as,  egomet,  mihimet,  temett 
semet,  and  even  with  the  addition  of  ipse  after  it  ;  as,  mihimet  ipsi,  temet 
ipsum.  The  genit.  plur.  and  the  nominat.  tu  alone  do  not  admit  this  suffix. 
Instead  of  it  the  emphasis  is  given  to  tu  by  the  suffix  te  ;  as,  tute,  and  to 
this,  again,  by  the  addition  of  met  ;  as,  tutemet.  The  accus.  and  ablat.  singu- 
lar of  these  pronouns  admit  a  reduplication,  meme,  tete,  sese  •  of  sui  alone  it 
is  used  in  the  plural  also. 

The  contracted  form  of  the  dative,  mi  for  mihi  (like  nil  for  nihil),  is  fre- 
quently found  in  poetry,  but  rarely  in  prose.  The  genitives  mei,  tui,  sui, 
nostri,  vestri,  are  properly  genitives  of  the  possessive  pronouns  meum,  tuum, 
suum,  nostrum,  vestrum,  for  originally  the  neuters  meum,  tuum,  &c.,  were 
used  in  the  sense  of  "  my  being,"  or  of  "  as  regards  me,  thee,"  &c.  (the 
Greek  TO  E/J.OV),  instead  of  the  simple  I,  thou,  &c.  In  like  manner,  the 
genitives  nostrum,  vestrum,  are  properly  the  genitives  of  the  possessives 
nostri  and  vestri.  (See  §  51.)  The  beginner  may  pass  over  the  origin  of 
these  forms,  since  they  are  used  as  the  real  genitives  of  the  personal  pro- 
nouns ;  but  he  must  be  reminded  of  it  in  the  construction  of  the  gerund, 
§  660.  Respecting  the  difference  between  nostri,  vestri,  and  nostrum, 
vestrum,  see  §  431. 

[§  132.]  2.  Declension  of  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
d 


an     pse  : 


SINGULAR. 


Nom.  and  Voc.    Hie,  haec, 

hoc,  this. 
Gen.  hujus,  of  this. 

,,77j.  Dat.    huic  (or  huic),  to  this. 

.   hunc,  hanc,  hoc,  this. 
Abl.    hoc,  hae,  hoc,  from  this. 


W^*.-. /.z.<7,       PLURAL. 

Nom.  and  Voc.  hi,  hae,  haec, 

these. 
Gen.  horum,  harum,  horum, 

of  these. 

Dat.    his,  to  these. 
Ace.   hos,  has,  haec,  these. 
Abl.    his,  from  these. 


Note. — The  ancient  form  of  this  pronoun  was  hice,  haece,  hoce,  in  which 
we  recognise  the  demonstrative  ce,  which,  when  a  word  by  itself,  appears 
in  the  form  ecce.  The  cases  ending  in  c  arose  from  the  omission  of  the  e, 
which  is  still  found  in  old  Latin,  e.  g.,  hance  legem,  hace  legs.  (This  ex- 
plains the  obsolete  form  huec,  for  hae  or  haece,  in  Terence.  See  Bentley  on 
Ter.,  Andr.,  i.,  1,  99.)  In  ordinary  language  the  cases  in  s  alone  some- 
times take  the  complete  ce  to  render  the  demonstrative  power  more  em- 
phatic, e.  g,,  hujusce,  hosce.  By  adding  the  enclitic  interrogative  ne  to  ce 
or  c,  we  obtain  the  interrogative  hicinc,  haecine,  hocine,  &c. 

The  pronouns  isfe,  ista,  istud,  and  ille,  ilia,  illud,  are 
declined  alike,  and  in  the  following  manner : 

K 


110  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom.  and  Voc.  ille,  ilia,  il- 

lud,  he  or  that. 
Gen.  illlus. 
Dat.  illi. 

Ace.  ilium,  illam,  ill  ad. 
Abl.  illo,  ilia,  illo. 


Nom.  and   Voc.   illi,   iliac, 

ilia,  they  or  those. 
Gen.   illorum,  illarum,  illo- 
Dat.    illis.  [rum. 

Ace.    illos,  illas,  ilia. 
Abl.    illis. 


Note. — Besides  the  forms  iste,  ista,  istud,  and  ille,  ilia,  illud,  there  exist 
in  early  Latin  the  forms  istic,  istaec,  istoc  or  istuc,  and  illic,  illaec,  illoc  or 
illuc,  which,  with  regard  to  inflection,  follow  hie,  haec,hoc,  but  occur  only  in 
the  cases  ending  in  c,  except  the  dative  ;  that  is,  in  the  accus.  istunc,  istanc, 
illunc,  illanc ;  ablat.  istoc,  istdc,  Hide,  iliac;  neut.  plur.  istaec,  illaec.  (Istuc 
and  istaec  sometimes  occur  even  in  Cicero.)  Priscian  regards  these  forms 
as  contractions  from  iste  and  ille  with  hie,  but  it  probably  arose  from  the 
addition  of  the  demonstrative  ce,  according  to  the  analogy  of  hie,  for  in 
early  Latin  we  find  also  istace,  istisce,  illace,  illisce,  illosce,  illasce,  though 
very  rarely.*  By  means  of  the  connecting  vowel  i,  both  c  and  the  com- 
plete ce  may  be  united  with  the  interrogative  enclitic  ne,  e.  g.,  istucine, 
istocine,  illicine,  illancine,  istoscine. 

Illi  and  isti  are  obsolete  forms  of  the  genitive  for  illius  and  istius,  and 
the  dative  istae,  illae,  for  isti,  illi;  and  the  nom.  plur.  fern,  istaec,  illaec,  for 
istae,  illae.  (See  Bentley  on  Terence,  Hec.,  iv.,  2,  17.) 

Virgil  uses  olli  as  a  dative  sing,  and  nom.  plur.,  and  Cicero,  in  an  an- 
tique formula  (De  Leg.,  ii.,  9),  the  plural  olla  and  olios,  from  an  ancient 
form  ollus.  /*  * 

,  Ipse  (in  the  ancient  language  ipsuSj,  ipsaffipsum,  is  de- 
clined like  ille,  except  that  the  neuter  is  ipsum,  and  not 
ipsud. 

Note.— This  pronoun  is  called  adjunctive  because  it  is  usually  joined  to 
other  nouns  and  pronouns.  In  connexion  with  some  cases  of  is,  viz.,  eo, 
ea,  earn,  earn,  it  loses  the  i  in  early  Latin ;  thus  we  find  eapse  (norn.  and 
ablat.),  eopse,  eumpse,  eampse,  in  Plautus ;  and  in  Cicero  the  compound 
reapse  =  re.  ipsa,  or  re  ea  ipsd,  in  fact,  is  of  common  occurence.  The  suffix 
Pte  m  possessive  pronouns  is  of  a  similar  kind. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nom.  is,  ea,  id,  he,  she,  it, 

or  that. 
Gen.   cjus. 
Dat.    ci. 
Ace.   eum,  cam,  id. 


Nom.  ii  (ci),  cac,  ea,  they 

or  those. 

Gen.   connn,  earum,  corum. 
Dat.    iis  (eis).  fr. 
Ace.    cos,  cas,  ca. 


Abl.    eo,  ea,  co.  Abl.    Us  (cisj. 

By  the  addition  of  the  suffix  dcm  we  form  from  is — 
idem,  eadem,ide??i  (as  it  were  isdem,  eadcm,  iddem),  which 
is  declined  in  the  other  cases  exactly  like  the  simple  is, 

*  [This  latter  is  the  true  account,  namely,  that  the  demonstrative  ce.  is 
added.  Throwing  aside  the  aspirate  from  isthic,  we  may  safely  conclude 
that  istic  and  illic  were  formed,  not  from  hie,  but  by  the  addition  of  the 
same  emphatic  syllable  which  is  found  in  hie.  Independently,  too,  of  this, 
iste-hic  seems  impossible,  because  it  is  a  contradictory  combination. 
(Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  97.)] — Am.  Ed. 


DECLENSION    OF   PRONOUNS.  Ill 

ea,  id.  In  the  accusative,  eundem  and  eandem  are  prefer- 
able to  eumdem,  eamdem,  and;  in  like  manner,  in  the  geni- 
tive plur.  eorundem,  earundem. 

Note. — Eae  as  a  dative  singular  feminine  for  ei,  and  ibus  and  eabus  for  Us, 
are  obsolete  forms.  The  plural  ei  is  rare,  and  eidem  is  not  to  be  found  at 
all.  In  the  dative  arid  ablative  plural,  too,  eis  and  eisdem  are  not  as  com- 
mon as  Us,  iisdem.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  iidem  and  iisdem 
were  always  pronounced  in  poetry,  and  therefore,  probably,  in  the  early 
prose  also,  as  if  they  had  only  one  i :  but  whether  it  was  ever  written 
with  one  i  cannot  be  determined,  on  account  of  the  fluctuation  of  the 
MSS.  In  most  passages,  however,  only  one  i  is  written.  In  what  man- 
ner ii  and  Us  were  dealt  with  cannot  be  ascertained  from  the  poets,  be- 
cause they  dislike  the  pronoun  is  in  general,  and  more  particularly  these 
cases  of  it,  for  which  they  use  the  corresponding  forms  of  hie  (see  <j  702) ; 
but  Priscian  (p.  737,  and  Super  xii.  vers.,  p.  1268)  asserts  that  in  this  word, 
as  in  dii,  diis,  the  double  i  was  formerly  regarded  in  poetry  as  one  syllable, 
and  that  in  his  time  it  still  continued  to  be  thus  pronounced. 

By  composition  with  ecce  or  en  (behold !  the  French 
voildj,  we  obtain  the  following  expressions,  which  were 
of  frequent  use  in  ordinary  life  :  eccum,  eccam,  eccos,  eccas  ; 
eccillum  or  ellum,  ellam,  ellos,  cllas  ;  eccistam. 

[§  133.]  3.  Declension  of  the  relative  pronoun,  qui, 
quae,  quod  : 

SINGULAR.    fTj!£ft;ft**vu~-33-f2jQ,        PLURAL. 


Nom.  Qui,  quae,  quod,  who 

or  which. 
Gen.   cujus  (quojus,  obsol.), 

of  whom. 
Dat.    cm  or  cm  fquoi,  pbsol.), 

to  whomfV2 
Acc.    quern,,     quam,     quod, 


Nom.  qui,  quae,  quae,  who 

or  which. 
Gen.   quorum,  quarum,  quo- 


rum. 


Dat.  qmbus. 


Acc. 


quos,  quas,  quae. 


whom,  [whom. 

Abl.    quo,    qua,    quo,    from    Abl.    qmbus. 

Note. — An  ancient  ablative  singular  for  all  genders  was  qui.  Cicero  uses 
it  with  cum  appended  to  it,  quicum  for  quocum  (§  324),  when  an  indefinite 
person  is  meant,  and  when  he  does  not  refer  to  any  definite  person  men- 
tioned before  (compare  the  examples  in  §  561  and  568).  Quicum,  for  qua- 
cum,  is  found  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  xi.,  822.  Otherwise  the  form  qui,  for  97/0,  oc- 
curs in  good  prose  only  in  the  sense  of  "  in  what  manner?"  or  "  how  ?"  as 
an  interrogative  or  relative,  e.  g.,  qui  fit?  how  does  it  happen?  qui  conve- 
nit?  qui  sciebas  ?  qui  hoc  probari  potest  cuiquam?  qui  tibi  id  facere  licuit  ?  qui 
ista  intellecta  sint,  debeo  discere,  &c.,  and  in  the  peculiar  phrase  with  uti : 
habeo  qui  utar,  est  qui  utamur  (I  have  something  to  live  upon),  in  Cicero. 
Instead  of  quibus,  in  the  relative  sense,  there  is  an  ancient  form  quis,  or 
queis  (pronounced  like  quis),  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  late  prose 
writers  also. 

[§  134.]  There  are  two  interrogative  pronouns,  quis, 
quid  ?  and  qui,  quae,  quod  ?  the  latter  of  which  is  quite 
the  same  in  form  as  the  relative  pronoun,  and  the  former 


112  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

differs  from  it  only  by  its  forms  qu-is  and  quid.  The  in- 
teiTOgatives  quisnam,  quidnam  ?  and  quinam,  quaenam, 
quodnam  ?  express  a  more  lively  or  emphatic  question 
than  the  simple  words,  and  the  nam  answers  to  the  Eng- 
lish "  pray." 

Note. — The  difference  between  the  two  interrogative  pronouns,  as  ob- 
served in  good  prose,  is,  that  quis  and  quid  are  used  as  substantives,  and 
qui,  quae,  quod  as  adjectives,  and  this  is  the  invariable  rule  for  quid  and 
quod,  e.  g.,  quod  f acinus  commisit?  what  crime  has  he  committed?  not 
quidfacinus,  but  we  may  say  quid  facinoris  ?  Quis  signifies  "  what  man  ?" 
or  "who?"  and  applies  to  both  sexes;  qui  signifies  "which  man?"  But 
in  dependant  interrogative  sentences  these  forms  are  often  confounded, 
quis  being  used  for  the  adjective  qui,  and  vice  versa,  qui  for  quis.  We  do  not, 
however,  consider  quis  to  be  used  for  qui  in  cases  where  quis  is  placed  in 
apposition  with  substantives  denoting  a  human  being,  as  in  quis  amicus, 
quis  hospes,  quis  miles,  for  in  the  same  manner  quisquam  is  changed  into  an 
adjective,  although  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  substantive  character,  e.  g., 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  54  ;  quasi  enim  ulla  possit  esse  causa,  cur  hoc,  cuiquam  civi 
Romano  jure  accidat  (viz.,  ut  virgis  caedatur}.  But  there  are  some  other 
passages  in  which  quis  is  used  for  ^HI,  not  only  in  poets,  such  as  Virgil, 
Georg.,  ii.,  178  ;  quis  color,  but  in  prose  writers,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  v.,  40 ;  quisve 
locus  :  Tacit.,  Annal.,  i.,48  ;  quod  caedis  initium,  quis  finis:.  In  Cicero,  how- 
ever, it  is  thus  used,  with  very  few  exceptions  (such  as,  Pro  Deiot.,  13, 
quis  casus),  only  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel,  e.  g.,  quis  esset  tan- 
tan  fructus,  quis  iste  tantus  casus.  Qui,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  for  quis, 
partly  for  the  same  reason  of  avoiding  a  disagreeable  sound,  when  the 
word  following  begins  with  s,  as  in  Cic.,  Divin.,  6,  nescimus  qui  sis:  c. 
12,  qui  sis  considera :  Ad  Alt.,  Hi.,  10,  non  possum  obtivisci  quifuerim,  non 
sentire  qui  sim :  but  partly  without  any  such  reason,  as  in  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
v.,  64,  qui  esset  ignorabas  ?  Pro  Rose.  Am.,  37,  dubitare  qui  indicant:  in 
Verr.,  v.,  59,  interrogetur  Flavius,  quinam  fuerit  L.  Herennius.  Cicero,  in 
Catil.,  ii.,  3,  video  qui  kabeat  Etruriam,  is  an  incorrect  reading,  and  in  Pro 
Rose.  Am.,  34,  qui  primus  Ameriam  nuntiat  ?  the  qui  must  probably  be 
changed  into  quis.  Thus  much  remains  certain,  that  the  rule  respecting 
the  use  of  quis  and  qui  cannot  be  denied  even  in  indirect  questions. 

[§  135.]  The  indefinite  pronoun  aliquis,  also,  has  ori- 
ginally two  different  forms  :  aliquis,  neut.  aliquid,  which 
is  used  as  a  substantive,  and  aliqui,  aliqua,  aliquod.  But 
aliqui  is  obsolete,  although  it  occurs  in  some  passages  of 
Cicero.,  e.  g.,  De  Off.,  iii.,  7,  aliqui  casus:  TuscuL,  v.,  21, 
terror  aliqui  :  Acad.,  iv.,  26,  anularius  aliqui  :  DC  Re 
PubL,  i.,  44,  aliqui  dux :  ibid.,  iii.,  16,  aliqui  scrupus  in 
animis  haeret,  and  a  few  other  passages  which  are  less 
certain.  In  ordinary  language  aliquis  alone  is  used,  both 
as  a  substantive  and  as  an  adjective  ;  but  in  the  neuter 
the  two  forms  aliquid  and  aliquod  exist,  and  the  differ- 
ence between  them  must  be  observed.  The  femin.  sin- 
gular and  the  neut.  plural  are  both  aliqua,  and  the  form 
aliquae  is  the  femin.  nom.  plural. 

[§  136.]  But  there  is  also  a  shorter  form  of  the  indefi- 
nite pronoun  without  the  characteristic  prefix  al?\  and  ex- 


DECLENSION    OF    PRONOUNS.  113 

actly  like  the  interrogative  pronoun,  quis,  quid,- as  a  sub- 
stantive, and  qui,  quae,  quod,  as  an  adjective.  This  form 
is  used  in  good  prose  only  after  the  conjunctions  si,  nisi, 
ne,  num,  and  after  relatives,  such  as  quo,  quanto,  and 
quum.  This  rule  is  commonly  expressed  thus  :  the  prefix 
all  in  aliquis,  and  its  derivatives  aliquo,  aliquando,  and 
alicubi,  is  rejected  when  si,  nisi,  ne,  num,  quo,  quanto,  or 
quum  precede  ;  e.  g.,  Consul  videat,  ne  quid  rcspublica 
detriments  capiat;  quaeritur,  num  quod  officium  aliud  olio 
majus  sit ;  sometimes  another  word  is  inserted  between  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  De  Orat.,  ii.,  41;  si  aurum  cui  commonstratum 
iiellem :  Pro  Tull.,  §  17  ;  si  quis  quern  imprudens  occide- 
rit :  Philip.,  i.,  7  ;  si  cui  quid  ille  promisisset.  Some  con- 
sider the  combination  of  this  indefinite  quis,  or  qui,  with 
the  conjunctions  si,  ne,  num,  and  with  the  interrogative 
syllable  en  (ec),  as  peculiar  and  distinct  words ;  as,  siquis 
or  siqui,  numquis  or  numqui,  although,  properly  speaking, 
ecquis  or  ecqid  alone  can  be  regarded  as  one  word,  for  en 
by  itself  has  no  meaning.  (See  §  351.)  For  the  partic- 
ulars respecting  the  use  of  this  abridged  form,  see  Chap. 
LXXX1V.,  C.  With  regard  to  the  declension  of  these  com- 
pounds, it  must  be  observed,  1,  that  in  the  nominative  the 
forms  quis  and  qui  are  perfectly  equivalent,  which  is  ac- 
counted for  by  what  has  been  said  about  aliquis  ;  hence 
we  may  say  both  si  qui,  ccqui,  and  si  quis,  ecquis  ;  2,  that 
in  the  femin.  singular  and  the  neut.  plural  the  form  qua 
is  used  along  with  quac,  likewise  according  to  the  analo- 
gy of  aliquis.  We  may,  therefore,  say,  siqua,  ncqua,  num- 
qua,  ecqua,  but  also  si  quae,  ne  quac,  num  quae,  ecquae. 

Noti:. — Which  of  the  two  is  preferable  is  a  disputed  point.  Priscian 
(v.,  p.  565  and  569)  mentions  only  siqua,  ncqua,  numqua,  as  compounds  of 
aliqua.  As  the  MSS.  of  prose  writers  vary,  we  must  rely  on  the  authority 
of  the  poets,  who  are  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  forms  in  a,  with  a  few 
exceptions ;  such  as  si  quae,  the  neut.  plur.  in  Propert.,  i.,  16,  45,  and  the 
femin.  sing.,  according  to  Bentley's  just  emendation,  in  Terent.,  Heaut., 
Pro!.,  44,  and  Horat,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  10.  (Si  quae  tibi  cura,  in  Ovid,  Trist., 
i.,  1,  115,  must  be  changed  into  siqua  est.)  Respecting  ecqua  and  ecquae, 
see  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  11. 

[§  137.]  The  compounds  of  qui  and  quis,  viz.,  quldam, 
quispiam,  quilibet,  quivis,  quisque,  and  unusquisque,  are 
declined  like  the  relative,  but  have  a  double  form  in  the 
neuter  singular,  quiddam  and  quoddam,  unumquidque 
and  unumquodque,  according  as  they  are  used  as  substan- 
tives or  as  adjectives.  (See  above,  §  129.)  Quisquam 
(with  a  few  exceptions  in  Plautus)  is  used  only  as  a  sub- 
K  2 


114  LATIN    GHAMMAE. 

stantive,  for  ullus  supplies  its  place  as  an  adjective,  and 
the  regular  form  of  the  neuter,  therefore,  is  quidquam 
(also  written  quicquam).  It  has  neither  feminine  nor  plu- 
ral. Quicunque  is  declined  like  qui,  quae,  quod,  and  has 
only  the  form  quodcunque  for  the  neuter ;  quisquis,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  only  qmdquid  (also  written  quicquid),  be- 
ing generally  used  in  these  two  forms  only  as  a  substan- 
tive. The  other  forms  of  this  double  relative  are  not  so 
frequent  as  those  formed  by  the  suffix  cunque. 

Note. — In  Cicero,  Pro  Rose.  Am.,  34,  and  in  Verr.,  v.,  41,  we  find  cui- 
cuimodi  instead  of  cujuscujusmodi,  of  what  kind  soever.  See  my  note  on 
the  latter  passage. 

[§  138.]  Each  of  the  two  words  of  which  unusquisque 
is  composed  is  declined  separately ;  as,  gen.  uniuscujusque, 
dat.  unicuique,  ace.  unumquemque,  &c. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

DECLENSION    OF    THE    POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS   AND    OF    PRO- 
NO  MINALS. 

[§  139.]  1.  THE  possessive  pronouns  meus,  mea^meum; 
tuns,  tua,  tuuin ;  SUMS,  sua,  suum;  nostcr,  nostra,  nostrum ; 
vestcr,  vestra,  vcstrum,  are  declined  entirely  like  adjectives 
of  three  terminations.  Mcus  makes  the  vocative  of  the 
masculine  gender  mi;  as,  O  mi  pater !  It  is  only  in  late 
writers  that  mi  is  used  also  for  the  feminine  and  neuter. 

Note. — The  ablative  singular  of  these  pronouns,  especially  the  forms 
suo,  sua,  frequently  takes  the  suffix  pte,  which  answers  to  our  word 
"  own  ;"  e.  g.,  in  Cicero,  suapte  manu,  suopte  pondere ;  in  Plautus,  meopte 
and  tuoptfi  ingcnio ;  in  Terence,  nostrapte  culpa,  &c.  All  the  cases  of  suus 
may,  with  the  same  sense,  take  the  suffix  met,  which  is  usually  followed 
by  ipse  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  36,  intra  suamet  ipsum  moenia  compulere :  v.,  38, 
terqa  caesa  suomet.  ipsorum  certamine  impedienlium  fugam  :  xxvii.,  28.  Hanni- 
bal suamet  ipse  fraude  captus  abiit.  The  expression  of  Sallust,  Jug.,  85, 
meametfacta  dicere,  stands  alone. 

2.  The   possessive  pronoun  CKJUS,  a,  urn,  has,  besides 
the  nominative,  only  the  accusative  singular,  cujum,  cujam, 
cujum ;  cuja,  the  ablative  singular  feminine,  and  cujae, 
cujas,  the  nominative  and  accusative  plural  feminine ;  but 
all  these  forms  occur  only  in  early  Latin  and  legal  phra- 
seology. 

3.  Nostras,  vcstras,  and  cujas  (i.  e.,  belonging  to  our, 
your  nation,  family,  or  party),  are  regularly  declined  af- 
ter the  third  declension  as  adjectives  of  one  termination: 


POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS    AND    PRONOMINALtf.  115 

genitive  nostratis,  dative  nostrati,  &c.,  plural  nostrates,  and 
neuter  nostratia;  e.  g.,  verba  nostratia,  in  Cic.,  Ad  Fain., 
ii.,  11. 

[§  140.]   4.   The  peculiar  declension  of  the  pronominal 
adjectives  uter,  utra,  utrum  ;   alter,  alter  a,  altcrum  ;   alius 
(neut.  aliudj,  ullus,  and  nullus,  has  already  been  explain- 
ed in  §  49. 
Nom.  uter,  Gen.  utrius,  D&t.utri. 

neuter,  neutrlus,  neutri. 

alter,  alterius,  alteri. 

alius  (neut.  aliud),  alms,  alii. 

ullus,  ulllus,  ulli. 

nullus,      •  nulTius,  nulll. 

Note.  —  In  early  Latin  there  occur  several  instances  of  the  regular 
formation  of  the  genit.  z,  ae,  and  of  the  dative  o,  ae,  and  some  are  met  with 
even  in  the  best  writers.  Cic.,  De  Div.,  ii.,  13,  aliae  pecudis ;  De  Nat. 
Deor.,  ii.,  26,  altero  fratri :  Nepos,  Earn.,  1,  alter  ae  alae :  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall., 
v.,  27,  alterae  le.gioni :  Cic.,  Pro  Rose.  Com.,  16,  nulliconsilii:  Caes.,  Bell. 
Gall.,  vi.,  13,  nullo  consilio :  Propert.,  i.,  20,  25,  nullae  curae :  ibid.,  Hi.,  9, 
57,  toto  orbi.  According  to  Priscian,  the  regular  form  of  neuter  was  even 
more  common  than  the  other,  and  in  a  grammatical  sense  we  find,  for  in- 
stance, generis  neutri ;  but  neutrius  is  nevertheless  preferable. 

The  compound  altcruter  is  either  declined  in  both 
words,  genitive  alteriusutrius ,  accusative  alter umutrum,  or 
only  in  the  latter ;  as,  altcrutri,  alterutrum.  The  former 
method  seems  to  have  been  customary  chiefly  in  the  gen- 
itive, as  we  now  generally  read  in  Cicero,  for  the  other 
cases  easily  admitted  of  an  elision.  The  other  compounds 
with  utcr,  viz..,  utcrque,  utcrlibct,  utervis,  and  utcrcunquc, 
are  declined  entirely  like  uter,  the  suffixes  being  added 
to  the  cases  without  any  change.  The  words  unus,  solus, 
and  totus  are  declined  like  ullus. 

[<$>  141.]  Note  1. — Alter  signifies  the  other,  that  is,  one  of  two;  alius, 
another,  that  is,  one  of  many.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  where  we 
use  another  to  express  general  relations,  the  Latins  use  alter ;  e.  g.,  detra- 
here  alteri  sui  commodi  causa  contra  naturam  est,  because,  in  reality,  only  two 
persons  are  here  considered  as  in  relation  to  each  other. 

Note  2. —  Uterque  signifies  both,  that  is,  each  of  two,  or  one  as  well  as 
the  other,  and  is  therefore  plural  in  its  meaning.  The  real  plural  utrique 
is  used  only  when  each  of  two  parties  consists  of  several  individuals ; 
e.  g.,  Macedones — Tyrii,  uni — alteri,  and  boih  together,  utrique.  But  even 
good  prose  writers  now  and  then  use  the  plural  utrique  in  speaking  of  only 
two  persons  or  things;  as,  Nepos,  Timol.,  2,  ulrique  Dionysii:  Curtius, 
vii.,  19,  utraeque  acies :  Liv.,  xhi.,  54,  utraque  oppida :  and  xxx.,  8,  utraque 
cornua :  but  this  is  altogether  opposed  to  the  practice  of  Cicero.  (See  my 
note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  60). 


116  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

THE    VERB. 

[§  142.]  1.  THE  verb  is  that  part  of  speech  by  which 
it  is  declared  that  the  subject  of  a  sentence  does  or  suffers 
something.  This  most  general  difference  between  doing, 
which  originates  in  the  subject,  and  suffering,  which  pre- 
supposes the  doing  or  acting  of  another  person  or  thing, 
is  the  origin  of  the  two  main  forms  of  verbs,  viz.,  the  ac- 
tive and  passive  (activum  ct  passivum). 

2.  The  active  form  comprises  two  kinds  of  verbs:  trans- 
itive or  active,  properly  so  called,  and  intransitive  or  neu- 
ter verbs.  The  difference  between  them  is  this  :  an  in- 
transitive verb  expresses  a  condition  or  action  which  is 
not  communicated  from  the  agent  to  any  other  object ; 
e.  g.,  I  walk,  I  stand,  I  sleep  ;  whereas  the  transitive 
verb  expresses  an  action  which  affects  another  person  or 
thing  (which  in  grammar  is  called  the  object,  and  is  com- 
monly expressed  by  the  accusative) ;  e.  g.,  I  love  thee,  I 
read  the  letter.  As  far  as  form  is  concerned  this  differ- 
ence is  important,  for  neuter  verbs  cannot  have  a  passive 
voice;  whereas  every  transitive,  or  active  verb  (in  its 
proper  sense)  must  have  a  passive  voice,  since  the  object 
of  the  action  is  the  subject  of  the  suffering  ;  e.  g.,  I  love 
thee — thou  art  loved;  I  read  the  letter — the  letter  is  read. 

[$  143.]  Note  1. — It  is  not  meant  that  every  transitive  verb  must  have 
an  object  or  accusative,  but  only  that  an  object  may  be  joined  with  it.  It 
is  obvious  that  in  certain  cases,  when  no  object  is  added,  transitive  verbs 
take  the  sense  of  intransitive  ones.  Thus  edit,  amat,  when  without  an  ac- 
cusative, may  be  considered  to  be  used  for  coenat  and  est  in  amore,  and 
with  regard  to  their  meaning  they  are  intransitive,  though  in-  grammar 
they  remain  transitive,  since  aliquid  may  be  understood.  In  some  cases 
the'  difference  between  the  transitive  and  intransitive  meaning  is  ex- 
pressed, even  in  the  formation  of  the  verbs  themselves,  as  in  jacere,  jaccre ; 
pendere,  pendere  ;  albare,  albere  ;  ftigare,  fugcre  ;  placare,  placere  ;  sedare,  se- 
dfire,  and  some  others  of  the  same  kind.  Assuesco  and  consnesco  (\  accus- 
tom myself)  have  assumed  an  intransitive  meaning,  the  pronoun  being 
omitted,  and  the  new  forms  assuefacio  and  consuefacio  were  devised  for  the 
transitive  sense.  In  the  same  manner,  we  have  the  intransitive  calere,  pa- 
tere,  stuprre,  and  the  transitive  calefacere,  patrfacere,  and  stupefacere. 

[$  144.]  Note  2. — When  an  accusative  is  found  with  a  neuter  verb,  the 
neuter  verb  has  either  assumed  a  transitive  meaning,  and  then  has  also  a 
passive  voice,  or  the  accusative  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adverb,  and  is 
to  be  accounted  for  by  some  ellipsis,  or  by  a  license  of  speech.  (Concern- 
ing both,  see  ()  383.) 

Sometimes,  however,  a  passive  voice  is  formed  from  real  neuter  verbs, 


THE    VERB.  117 

but  only  in  the  infinitive  and  in  the  third  person  singular,  and  the  verb 
becomes  impersonal,  i.  e.,  it  is  without  any  distinct  subject :  for  instance, 
start  jubet,  he  orders  (one)  to  stand  ;  favelur  tibi,  favour  is  shown  to  thee  ; 
via  excessum  est,  (people)  went  out  of  the  way;  venlum  est,  itum  est,  itur, 
eatur,  ibitur.  Thus,  when  in  comedy  the  question  is  asked,  quid  agitur  ? 
the  humorous  answer  is  statur,  or  vivitur.  "When  the  subject  is  to  be  added, 
it  is  done  by  means  of  ab,  as  in  Livy,  Romam  frequenter  migratum  est  a  paren- 
tibus  raptarum,  which  is  equivalent  to  parentes  migraverunt ;  and  in  Cicero, 
ejus  orationi  vehementer  ab  omnibus  reclamatum  est,  and  occurritur  autem  nobis  et 
quidem  a  doctis  et  erudifis,  equivalent  to  omnes  reclamarunt  and  docti  occurrunt. 

[§  145.]  Note  3. — With  transitive  verbs  the  subject  itself  may  become  the 
object,  e.  g.,  moveo,  I  move,  and  moveo  me,  I  move  myself.  It  often  occurs 
in  Latin  that  the  pronoun  is  omitted,  and  the  transitive  is  thus  changed 
into  an  intransitive.  The  verb  abstmeo  admits  of  all  three  constructions  ; 
transitive,  as  in  manus  ab  aliqua  re  abstineo,  1  keep  my  hands  from  a  thing ; 
with  the  pronoun  of  the  same  person,  abstmeo  me,  and  intransitive,  abstineo 
aliqua  re,  1  abstain  from  a  thing.  There  are  some  other  verbs  of  this  class, 
consisting  chiefly  of  such  as  denote  change ;  e.  g.,  vertere  and  convertere, 
mutare,  fleeter  e  and  deflectere,  inclinare ;  hence  we  may  say,  for  instance, 
inclino  rem,  sol  se  decimal ;  and  in  an' intransitive  sense,  dies,  acies,  inclinat  ; 
animus  inclinat  ad  pacem  faciendam  ;  verto  rem,  verto  me;  detrimentum  in  bo- 
num  vertit,  ira  in  rabiem  vertit ;  fortuna  rei  publicae  mutavit  ;  mores  populi  Ro- 
mani  magnopere  mutaverunt.  In  like  manner  the  following  verbs  are  used 
both  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  though  with  greater  restrictions  :  augere, 
abolere,  decoquere,  durare,  incipere,  continuarc,  insinuare,  laxare,  remittere,  lavare, 
movere  (chiefly  with  terra,  to  quake,  in  an  intransitive  sense,  though  now 
and  then  in  other  connexions  also),  praecipitare,  ruere,  suppeditare,  turbare, 
vibrare.  The  compounds  of  vertere — dcvertere,  divertere  and  revertere — are 
used  only  in  this  reflective  sense,  but  occur  also  in  the  passive  with  the 
same  meaning. 

[§  146.]  We  must  here  observe  that  the  passive  of  many  words  has  not 
only  a  properly  passive  meaning,  but  also  a  reflective  one,  as  in  crucior, 
1  torment  myself;  delector,  I  delight  myself;  fallor,  I  deceive  myself  \feror, 
I  throw  myself  (upon  something) ;  movtor  and  commoveor,  I  move  or  excite 
myself;  homines  ejfunduntur,  men  rush  (towards  a  place);  vehicula  fran- 
guntur,  the  vehicles  break  ;  lavor,  I  bathe  (myself)  ;  inclinor,  1  incline : 
mutor,  I  alter  (myself) ;  vertor,  but  especially  de-  di-  and  re-vertor.  Many 
of  these  passive  verbs  are  classed  among  the  deponents,  the  active  from 
which  they  are  formed  being  obsolete,  or  because  the  intransitive  meaning 
greatly  differs. 

[§  147.]  3.  It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language, 
that  it  has  a  class  of  verbs  of  a  passive  form,  but  of  an  ac- 
tive (either  transitive  or  intransitive)  signification.  They 
are  called  deponents  (laying  aside,  as  it  were,  their  pass- 
ive signification),  e.  g.,  consolor,  I  console  ;  i??iitor,  I  imi- 
tate ;  fatcor,  I  confess  ;  scquor,  I  follow ;  mcntior,  I  lie  ; 
morior,  I  die.  These  verbs,  even  when  they  have  a  trans- 
itive signification,  cannot  have  a  passive  voice,  because 
there  would  be  no  distinct  form  for  it. 

Note. — Many  deponents  are,  in  fact,  only  passives,  either  of  obsolete 
actives,  or  of  such  as  are  still  in  use.  The  latter  can  be  regarded  as  de- 
ponents only  in  so  far  as  they  have  acquired  a  peculiar  signification: 
e.  g.,  gravor  signifies,  originally,  "  I  am  burdened  ;"  hence,  "  I  do  a  thing 
unwillingly,"  "  I  dislike,"  "  1  hesitate ;"  vehor,  I  am  carried,  or  1  ride, 
equo,  on  horseback,  curru,  in  a  carriage.  Several  passives,  as  was  re- 
marked above,  have  acquired  the  power  of  deponents  from  their  reflective 


118  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

signification  ;  e.  g.,  pascor,  I  feed  myself;  versor,  I  turn  myself,  and  thence 
I  find  myself,  or  I  am.  The  following  deponents  are  in  this  manner  de- 
rived from  obsolete  actives :  laetor,  I  rejoice  ;  proficiscor,  I  get  myself  for- 
ward, I  travel;  rescor,  I  feed  myself,  I  eat.  With  regard  to  the  greater 
number  of  deponents,  however,  we  are  obliged  to  believe  that  the  Latin 
language,  like  the  Greek,  with  its  verba  media,  in  forming  these  middle 
verbs,  followed  peculiar  laws  which  are  unknown  to  us.  It  must  be 
especially  observed  that  many  deponents  of  the  first  conjugation  are  de- 
rived from  nouns,  and  that  they  express  being  that  which  the  noun  denotes; 
e.  g.,  ancillor,  architector,  argutor,  aucupor,  auguror,  &c.,  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  list  in  §  207. 

[§  148.]  4.  Before  proceeding,  we  must  notice  the  fol- 
lowing special  irregularities.  The  three  verbs  fio,  I  be- 
come, or  am  made,  vapulo,  I  am  beaten,  and  vcnco,  I  am 
sold,  or  for  sale,  have  a  passive  signification,  and  may  be 
used  as  the  passives  off  ado,  vcrbcro,  and  vcndo;  but,  like 
all  neuter  verbs,  they  have  the  active  form,  except  that  j^o 
makes  the  perfect  tense  factus  sum,  so  that  form  and  mean- 
ing agree.  They  are  called  neutralia  passiva.  The  verbs 
audco ,  fido ,  gaudeo,  and  solco  have  the  passive  form  with 
an  active  signification  in  the  participle  of  the  preterite, 
and  in  the  tenses  formed  from  it;  as,  ausus,jisus,gavisus, 
solitus  sum,  cram,  &c.  They  may,  therefore,  be  called 
scmidcponcntia,  which  is  a  more  appropriate  name  than 
neutro-passiva,  as  they  are  usually  termed,  since  the  fact 
of  their  being  neuters  cannot  come  here  into  considera- 
tion. To  these  we  must  add,  but  merely  with  reference 
to  the  participle  of  the  preterite,  the  verbs  jurare,  cocnare, 
prandere,  and  potarc,  of  which  the  participles  juratus,  coe- 
ndtust  pransus,  and  potus  have,  like  those  of  deponents, 
the  signification  :  one  that  has  sworn,  dined,  breakfasted, 
and  drunk.  The  same  is  the  case  with  some  other  in- 
transitive verbs,  which,  as  such,  ought  not  to  have  a  par- 
ticiple of  the  preterite  at  all;  but  still  we  sometimes  find 
conspiratus  and  coalitus,  and  frequently  adultus  and  obso- 
letus  (grown  up  and  obsolete),  in  an  active,  but  intransi- 
tive sense,  and  the  poets  use  crctus  (from  cresco)  like 
natus* 

*  ["  No  allusion  is  made  in  this  chapter  to  the  more  philosophical  di- 
vision of  the  conjugations  adopted  in  all  Greek  grammars,  the  division, 
namely,  into  contracted  and  uncontracted  verbs.  The  more  correct  name  for 
the  same  division  would  be',  verbs  in  which  the  crude  form  (that  part  in- 
dependent of  inflection)  terminates  in  a  vowel,  and  those  in  which  it  ter- 
minates in  a  consonant ;  contraction  is  not  the  criterion,  as  we  see  in  the 
forms  fert,  vult.  We  believe  such  a  division  is  preferable  even  for  a  be- 
ginner. One  great  advantage  of  a  natural  division  over  that  which  is  arti- 
ficial consists  in  the  facility  the  former  affords  of  explaining,  on  solid 
principles,  those  numerous  irregularities  which  appear  in  every  language. 


MOODS. TENSES.  110 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

MOODS. TENSES. 

[§  149.]   THERE  are  four  general  modes  (moods,  modi) 
in  which  an  action  or  condition  expressed  by  a  verb  may 

We  would  even  carry  the  division  first  alluded  to  somewhat  farther.  Sup- 
pose, then,  in  Latin  we  were  to  assign  one  conjugation  to  those  verbs  m 
which  a  consonant  is  the  characteristic,  viz.,  the  conjugation  usually  placed 
third  in  order,  and  five  others  to  the  respective  vowels  :  1st,  a,  (amao)  amo ; 
2dly,  e,  neo ;  3dly,  ?',  audio  ;  4thly,  o,  as  in  the  stem  no  or  gno,  whence  the 
perfects  no-vi,  and  co-gno-vi ;  and,  Sthly,  u,  (stem  argu),  as  in  arguo.  Let 
us  press  this  system  a  little  farther  and  judge  of  it'by  its  results.  If  the 
perfects  of  these  verbs  are  uniform,  they  will  be  amavi,  nevi,  audivi,  novi, 
arguvi.  The  first  four  are  the  common  forms  ;  in  the  last,  as  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  vowel  was  unnecessary,  argui  became  the  form  in  com- 
mon use  ;  but  the  perfect  was  still  distinguished  by  the  older  writers  from 
the  present.  Thus,  we  have  a  line  of  Ennius  (Priscian,  x.,  2,  Krehl,  p. 
480),  as  follows  :  '  Annu.it  sese  mecum  decernere  ferro.'  It  may  well  be 
doubted  whether,  even  in  the  age  of  Cicero,  the  present  arguit  was 
altogether  confounded  in  pronunciation  with  the  perfect  of  the  same  writ- 
ten form.  All  these  perfects,  too,  were  susceptible  of  contraction  in  some 
of  the  persons,  so  that  we  have  no  reason  to  be  surprised  at  monui,  habui. 
That  habevi  must  once  have  existed  is  sufficiently  proved  by  the  form  of 
7iabessil,  which  is  contracted  from  habeverit,  exactly  as  cantassit  from  canta- 
verit.  Contractions  are  always  more  likely  to  occur  in  long  than  short 
words.  Hence  neo,  fleo,  with  a  few  others,  retained  the  original  form, 
while  the  longer  words  could  afford  to  spare  one  of  their  letters.  The 
examination  of  the  so-called  supines  would  again  confirm  the  simplicity 
of  the  system.  To  this  mode  of  viewing  the  verbs  it  has  been  objected 
that  if  amat  be  really  formed  from  amait,  the  last  syllable  should  be  long. 
The  inference  is  legitimate,  and,  accordingly,  we  find  in  the  earlier 
writers  that  such  is  the  case.  At  the  beginning  of  the  De  Senectute  there 
occurs  the  line,  '  Qua:  mine  te  coquit,  et  versdt  in  pectore  fixa,'  where,  in 
the  old  editions,  as  Gr&vius  observes,  some  critic,  alarmed  for  the  metre, 
had  substituted  sub  pectore.  The  same  editor  gives  another  line,  quoted  by 
Priscian  from  Livius  Andronicus :  '  Cum  socios  nostros  mandisset  impius 
Cyclops,1  where  the  long  e  in  mandisset  corresponds  with  the  long  vowel 
in  the  other  persons  of  the  same  tense.  A  second  objection  to  the  pro- 
posed division  may  be  founded  on  the  class  of  verbs  fugio,  cupio,  fodio, 
&c.  This  objection,  it  might  be  replied,  is  equally  applicable  to  every 
division.  The  true  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  Latin  verbs  had  different  forms  at  different  periods  of  the  language,  or 
even  at  the  same  period  in  different  places.  That  cupio  was  looked  upon 
by  many  as  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  we  have  the  express  authority  of 
Priscian  ;  cupivi  and  cupitum  are  formed  according  to  the  analogy  of  that 
conjugation,  and  in  Plautus  and  Lucretius  we  find  cupis  and  cupiri.  St. 
Augustin  was  in  doubt  whether  to  wntefugire.  This  is  far  below  the  age 
of  pure  Latinity.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Marcian  prophecy,  given  by 
Livy,  it  has  been  long  perceived  that  the  verses  were  originally  hexame- 
ters. The  vrordfuge  at  the  end  of  the  first  line  has  been  altered  by  some 
tofeuge,  to  complete  the  metre.  Perhaps  it  would  be  more  correct  to 
read  fugito,  the  more  so  as  the  imperative  in  -to,  from  its  more  solemn 
power  (arising,  probably,  from  its  greater  antiquity),  is  better  suited  to  the 
dignified  language  of  prophecy.  Lastly,  many  of  the  verbs  of  this  termi- 


120  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

be  represented  :  1.  Simply  as  a  fact,  though  the  action  or 
condition  may  differ  in  regard  to  its  relation  and  to  time  : 
this  is  the  Indicative;  2.  As  an  action  or  condition  which 
is  merely  conceived  by  the  mind,  though  with  the  same 
differences  as  the  indicative,  Conjunctive,  or  Subjunctive  ; 
.3.  As  a  command,  Imperative;  4.  Indefinitely,  without 
defining  any  person  by  whom,  or  the  time  at  which,  the 
action  is  performed,  although  the  relation  of  the  action  is 
defined,  Infinitive.* 

[§  150.]  To  these  moods  we  may  add  the  Participle, 
which  is,  in  form,  an  adjective,  but  is  more  than  an  ad- 
jective by  expressing,  at  the  same  time,  the  different  rela- 
tions of  the  action  or  suffering,  that  is,  whether  it  is  still 
lasting  or  terminated.  A  third  participle,  that  of  the  fu- 
ture, expresses  an  action  which  is  going  to  be  performed, 
or  a  condition  which  is  yet  to  come.  The  Gerund,  which 
is  in  form  like  the  neuter  of  the  participle  passive  in  dus, 
supplies  by  its  cases  the  place  of  the  infinitive  present  ac- 
tive. The  two  Supines  are  cases  of  verbal  substantives, 
and  likewise  serve  in  certain  connexions  (which  are  ex- 
plained in  the  syntax)  to  supply  the  cases  for  the  infini- 
tive.! 

When  an  action  or  condition  is  to  be  expressed  as  a 
definite  and  individual  fact,  either  in  the  indicative  or  sub- 
junctive, we  must  know  whether  it  belongs  to  the  past, 
the  present,  or  the  future,  or,  in  one  word,  its  time,  and 
time  is  expressed  in  a  verb  by  its  Tenses.  We  must  far- 
ther know  its  position  in  the  series  of  actions  with  which 
it  is  connected,  that  is,  the  relation  of  the  action,  viz., 
whether  it  took  place  while  another  was  going  on,  or 
whether  it  was  terminated  before  another  began.  If  we 

nation;  as,  morior,  orior,fodio,  &c.,  are  generally  allowed  to  partake  of  both 
conjugations."  (Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  99,  seq.  Consult,  also, 
Allen's  Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs,  London,  1836.)] — Am  Ed. 

*  [''  The  Latin  language  has  two  active  infinitives :  the  one  termina- 
ting in  -re  or  -s<?  (dic-e-re,  dic-si-s-se,  es-se) ;  the  other  in  -turn  (die-turn'], 
which  in  the  modern  grammars  is  absurdly  enough  called  the  supine  in 
-um.  In  the  passive  voice  -cr  is  subjoined  to  the  former  infinitive ;  thus, 
from  videre  we  have  vidcri-er ;  this  full  form,  however,  is  generally  con- 
tracted by  the  omission  either  of  the  active  termination  -re,  as  in  dici-rr ; 
or  of  the  last  syllable  -er,  as  in  videri ;  or  of  both  at  once,  as  in  did.  The 
latter  infinitive  is  written  -tu  (dic-tu}.  Modern  grammars  call  it  the  su- 
pine in  -u.  The  Sanscrit  infinitive  is  perfectly  analogous  to  the  Latin  in- 
finitive in  -turn.  Thus,  the  root  prw  (Greek  K?.V-),  '  to  hear,'  makes  fro-tum, 
'  to  hear,'  "  &c.  (Donaldson,  New  Cratylus,  p.  492.)] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Consult  previous  note,  as  regards  the  true  character  of  the  Latin, 
so-called  Supine.] — Am.  Ed. 


NUMBERS. PERSONS.  121 

connect  these  considerations,  we  shall  obtain  the  follow- 
in  "•  six  tenses  of  the  verb  : 

o 
(  An  action  riot  terminated  in  the  present  time  ;  I  write,  scribo :  Present 


An  action  not  terminated  in  the  past  time ;  I  wrote,  scribebam :  Imperfect 
}      tense. 

|  An  action  not  terminated  in  the  future ;  I  shall  write,  scribam :  Future 
V     tense. 

( An  action  terminated  in  the  present  time;  I  have  written,  scripsi:  Per- 
fect tense. 

J  An  action  terminated  in  the  past  time  ;  I  had  written,  scripseram :  Plu- 
^      perfect  tense. 

|  An  action  terminated  in  the  future  ;  I  shall  have  written,  scripsero  :  Fu- 
^     ture  perfect  tense. 

The  same  number  of  tenses  occurs  in  the  passive  voice, 
but  those  which  express  the  terminated  state  of  an  action 
can  be  formed  only  by  circumlocution,  with  the  partici- 
ple and  the  auxiliary  verb  esse  :  scribor,  scribcbar,  scribar, 
scriptus  sum,  scriptus  cram,  scriptus  ero.  The  subjunctive 
has  no  future  tenses :  respecting  the  manner  in  which 
their  place  is  supplied,  see  §  496.  The  infinitive  by  it- 
self does  not  express  time,  but  only  the  relation  of  an 
action,  that  is,  whether  it  is  completed  or  not  completed. 
By  circumlocution  we  obtain,  also,  an  infinitive  for  an  ac- 
tion, or  a  suffering  which  is  yet  to  come. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX. 

NUMBER  S. P  E  R  S  O  N  S. 

[§  151.]  THE  Latin  verb  has  two  numbers,  singular  and 
plural,  and  in  each  number  three  persons.  These  three 
persons,  I,  the  one  speaking,  thou,  the  one  spoken  to,  and 
fie  or  she,  the  one  spoken  of,  are  not  expressed  in  Latin 
by  special  words,  but  are  implied  in  the  forms  of  the  verb 
itself.  The  same  is  the  case  in  the  plural  with  we,  you, 
tliey,  and  these  personal  pronouns  are  added  to  the  verb 
only  when  the  person  is  to  be  indicated  in  an  emphatic 
manner. 

The  following  is  a  general  scheme  of  the  changes  in 
termination,  according  to  the  persons,  both  in  the  indica- 
tive and  subjunctive : 

In  tlie  Active. 

Person:      1.  2.  3. 

Sing.     —  ft,  f- 

Plur.  mus,  tis,  nt. 

L 


122  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

The  termination  of  the  first  person  singular  cannot  be 
stated  in  a  simple  or  general  way,  since  it  sometimes  ends 
in  o,  sometimes  in  m,  and  sometimes  in  i  (see  the  follow- 
ing chapter).  In  the  second  person  singular  the  perfect 
indicative  forms  an  exception,  for  it  ends  in  ti.  Respect- 
ing the  vowel  which  precedes  these  terminations,  nothing 
general  can  be  said,  except  that  it  is  a  in  the  imperfect 
and  pluperfect  indicative. 

In  the  Passive. 

Person:     1.  2.  3. 

Sing.  r.  ris,  tur. 

Plur.  mwr,  mini,  ntur. 

This,  however,  does  not  apply  to  those  tenses  of  the 
passive  which  are  formed  by  a  combination  of  the  parti- 
ciple with  a  tense  of  the  verb  csse. 

The  imperative  in  the  active  and  passive  has  two  forms, 
viz.,  for  that  which  is  to  be  done  at  once,  and  for  that 
which  is  to  be  done  in  future,  or  an  imperative  present 
and  an  imperative  future.  Neither  of  them  has  a  first 
person,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  imperative.  The  im- 
perative present  has  only  a  second  person,  both  in  the 
singular  and  plural ;  the  imperative  future  has  the  second 
and  the  third  persons,  but  in  the  singular  they  have  both  the 
same  form,  to  in  the  active,  and  tor  in  the  passive  voice. 
The  imperative  future  passive,  on  the  other  hand,  has  no 
second  person  plural,  which  is  supplied  by  the  future  of 
the  indicative,  e.  g.,  laudabimini. 


CHAPTER  XL. 

FORMATION     OF    THE    TENSES. 

[§  152.]  1.  THERE  are  in  Latin  four  conjugations,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  infinitive  mood,  which  ends  thus : 

1.  are.  2,  ere.  3.  ere.  4.  ire. 

The  presents  indicative  of  these  conjugations  end  in, 

1.  o,  as.         2.  eo,  es.          3.  o,  Is.         4.  w,  ~is. 

Note. — Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  difference  of  quantity  in  the  termi- 
nation of  the  second  person  in  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations,  in  order 
to  distinguish  the  presents  of  the  verbs  in  io,  which  follow  the  third  con- 
jugation, e.  g.,  fodio,  fugio,  capio  (see  Chap.  XLVL),  from  those  verbs 
which  follow  the  fourth,  such  as  audio,  erudio.  This  difference  between 
the  long  and  short  i  remains  also  in  the  other  persons,  with  the  exception 


FORMATION  OF  THE  TENSES.  123 

of  the  third  singular,  which  is  short  in  all  the  four  conjugations  ;  e.  g., 
legimus,  legitis  ;  audlmus,  audit is  ;  for  when  i  is  followed  by  another  vowel, 
it  is  short  according  to  the  general  rule  that  one  vowel  before  another  is 
short.  The  long  a  was  mentioned  above  as  the  characteristic  of  the  first 
conjugation,  but  the  verb  dare  is  an  exception,  for  the  a  here  is  not  a  mere 
part  of  the  termination,  as  in  lauddre,  but  belongs  to  the  stem  of  the  word. 
The  syllable  da  in  this  verb  is  short  throughout,  damns,  ddtis,  dabam,  &c.. 
with  the  only  exception  of  the  monosyllabic  forms  das  and  da. 

[§  153.]  2.  In  order  to  obtain  the  forms  of  the  other 
tenses,  we  must  farther  know  the  perfect  and  the  supine ; 
for  the  three  tenses  of  the  completed  action  in  the  active 
are  derived  from  the  perfect ;  and  the  participle  perfect 
passive,  which  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  the  same 
tenses  in  the  passive,  is  derived  from  the  supine.  These 
four  principal  forms,  viz.,  Present,  Perfect,  Supine,  and 
Infinitive,  end  thus  : 

Praes.  Perf.  Supine.  Infinit. 

1.  0,  avi,  atum,  are. 

2.  co,  «•/,  itum,  ere. 

3.  o,  /,  turn,  ere. 

4.  w,  ici,  -I  turn,  ire. 

Note. — We  have  here  followed  the  example  of  all  Latin  grammars  and 
of  the  Roman  grammarians  themselves,  in  regarding  the  supine  as  one  of 
the  main  forms,  that  must  be  known  in  order  to  derive  others  from 
it.  But  the  beginner  must  beware  of  supposing  that  the  two  participles 
of  the  perfect  passive  and  the  future  active  are  derived  in  the  same  man- 
ner from  the  supine  as,  for  example,  the  pluperfect  is  from  the  perfect ; 
and  that  the  supine  exists  in  all  the  verbs  to  which  one  is  attributed  in  the 
dictionary  or  grammar.  The  whole  derivation  is  merely  formal ;  and  the 
supine,  in  fact,  occurs  very  rarely.  But  its  existence  is  presupposed  on 
account  of  the  two  participles  which  do  occur,  in  order  to  show  the 
changes  which  the  stem  of  the  verb  undergoes.  If  we  were  to  mention 
the  participle  of  the  perfect  passive  instead  of  the  supine,  we  should  do 
little  better,  since  it  is  wanting  in  all  intransitive  verbs,  though  they  may 
have  the  participle  future  active ;  and  again,  if  we  were  to  mention  the 
future  participle,  we  should  find  the  same  difficulty,  for  it  cannot  be 
proved  to  exist  in  all  verbs,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  we  ought  not  to  men- 
tion among  the  main  forms  of  the  verb  one  which  is  obviously  a  derivative 
form.  In  dictionaries  it  would  be  necessary  to  mention,  first,  the  partici- 
ple perfect,  or,  where  it  does  not  occur,  the  participle  future  active  ;  but 
if,  as  is  the  case  in  a  grammar,  we  have  to  show  in  one  form  that  which 
is  the  basis  of  several  changes,  a  third  form  is  necessary,  and  it  is  best  to 
acquiesce  in  the  supine.  In  making  use  of  the  list  which  will  be  given 
hereafter,  the  beginner  must  always  bear  in  mind  that  the  supine  is 
scarcely  ever  mentioned  for  its  own  sake,  but  merely  to  enable  him  to 
form  those  two  participles  correctly. 

3.  "With  regard  to  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conjuga- 
tions, no  particular  rule  is  needed  as  to  how  the  perfect 
and  supine  are  formed.  According  to  the  above  scheme 
they  are  : 

1.  laud-o,     laud-avi,     laud-atum,     laud-are. 

2.  mon-eo,    mon-ui,        mon-itum,       mon-ere. 
4.  aud-is,     aud-ivi,       aud-ttum,        aud-ire. 


124  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  154.]  4.  But  in  the  third  conjugation  the  formation 
of  the  perfect  and  supine  presents  some  difficulty.  The 
following  general  rules,  therefore,  must  be  observed  (for 
the  details,  see  the  list  of  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation). 
When  the  termination  of  the  infinitive  crc,  or  the  o  of  the 
present  tense,  is  preceded  by  a  vowel,  the  forms  of  the 
perfect  and  supine  are  simply  those  mentioned  above,  that 
is,  i  and  turn  are  added  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  or  to  that 
portion  of  the  verb  which  remains  after  the  removal  of 
the  termination,  e.  g.,  acu-tlrc,  acu-o,  acii-i,  acu-tum.  The 
vowel  becomes  long  in  the  supine,  even  when  it  is  other- 
wise short.  So,  also,  in  minuo,  stattio,  tribuo,  and  solvo^ 
solutum,  for  v  before  a  consonant  is  a  vowel. 

.But  when  the  o  of  the  present  is  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant, the  perfect  ends  in  sL  The  *  in  this  termination  is 
changed  into  x  when  it  is  preceded  by  c,  g,  h,  or  qu 
(which  is  equal  to  c)  ;  when  it  is  preceded  by  b,  this  let- 
ter is  changed  into  -p ;  if  d  precedes,  one  of  the  two  con- 
sonants must  give  way,  and  either  the  d  is  dropped,  which 
is  the  ordinary  practice,  or  the  s;  e.  g.,  duco,  duxi ;  rego, 
rexi  ;  traho,  traxi ;  roquo,  coxi  ;  scribo,  scripsi ;  claudo, 
clausi,  but  dcfcndo,  defendi.  Verbs  in  po  present  no  diffi- 
culty :  carpo,  carpsi ;  sculpo,  sculpsi.  That  lego  makes 
legi,  bibo,  bibi,  and  cmo,  emi,  is  iiTegular  according  to 
what  was  remarked  above  ;  but  Jlgo,  fixi  ;  nubo,  nupsi  ; 
demo,  demsi  (or,  according  to  §  12,  dempsi),  are  perfectly 
in  accordance  with  the  rule. 

5.  The  supine  adds  turn  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  with 
some  change  of  the  preceding  consonants  :  b  is  changed 
into^>;  g,  h,  and  qu  into  c;  instead  of  dtum  in  the  verbs- 
in  do,  we  find  sum,  e.  g.,  scribo,  scriptum  ;  rego,  rectum ; 
trako,  tractum ;  coquo,  coctum  (verbs  in  co  remain  un- 
changed; as,  dictum,  ductum)  ;  dcfcrido ,  defensum  ;  claudo, 
clausum.  The  supine  in  xum  is  a  deviation  from  the  rule, 
as  injigo.jixum,  and  so,  also,  the  throwing  out  of  the  n  of 
the  stem,  as  in  pingo,  plclum;  stringo,  strictum;  although 
this  is  not  done  without  reason  ;  for  in  several  verbs  of 
the  third  conjugation  the  n  is  only  an  increase  to  strength- 
en the  form  of  the  present,  and  does  not  originally  belong 
to  the  root;  it  is,  therefore,  thrown  out,  both  in  the  perfect 
and  in  the  supine,  as  in  vinco,  fundo,  rdinquo — vici,  vic- 
tum  ;  fudi,  fusum  ;  rcliqui,  r dictum  ;  or  in  the  supine 
alone,  as  in  the  two  verbs  mentioned  before,  and  injingo^ 


FORMATION    OF    THE    TENSED.  125 

su.p.jictum.  Of  the  words  in  which  o  is  preceded  by  I,  m, 
n,  r,  or  s,  only  a  few  in  mo  follow  the  ordinary  rule;  c.  g., 
como,  demo  ;  perf.  compsi,  dcmpsi ;  sup.  comptum,  demp- 
tum :  all  the  others  have  mixed  forms. 

6.  Two  irregularities  are  especially  common  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  perfect  of  the  third  conjugation.  The  first 
is  the  addition  of  a  syllable  at  the  beginning  of  the  verb, 
called  reduplication,  in  which  the  first  consonant  of  the 
verb  is  repeated  either  with  the  vowel  which  follows  it, 
or  with  an  e,  e.  g.,  tundo,  tutiidi;  tendo,  tctendi ;  cano,  ce- 
crni;  curro,  cucurri  ;  faUo,fefelli;  parco,  pepercA.  In  the 
compounds  of  such  words  the  reduplication  is  not  used, 
except  in  those  of  do,  sto,  disco,  posco,  and  in  some  of 
curro.  The  second  irregularity  is  that  many  verbs  of  the 
third  conjugation  form  their  perfect  like  those  of  the  sec- 
ond, just  as  many  verbs  of  the  second  make  that  tense 
like  those  of  the  third.  This  is  the  case  especially  with 
many  verbs  in  lo  and  mo  ;  as,  alo,  alui,  alitum  (altum)  ; 
molo,  molui,  molltmn  ;  gemo,  gemui,  gemilum.  Concern- 
ing this  and  other  special  irregularities,  see  the  list  of 
verbs  in  Chap.  L. 

[§  155.]  7.  The  derivation  of  the  other  tenses  and  forms 
of  a  verb  from  these  four  (present,  perfect,  supine,  and  in- 
finitive), which  are  supposed  to  be  known,  is  easy  and 
without  irregularity  in  the  detail. 

From  the  infinitive  active  are  formed : 

(a)  The  imperative  passive,  which  has  in  all  conjuga- 
tions the  same  form  as  the  infinitive  active. 

(b)  The  imperative  active,  by  dropping  the  termina- 
tion re.    It  thus  ends  in  conjugation,  1,  in  a;  2,  e;  3,  e;  4, 
1 ;  as,  ama,  mone,  lege,  audi. 

(c)  The  imperfect  subjunctive  active,  by  the  addition 
of  m,  so  that  it  ends  in  the  four  conjugations   in   arem, 
erem,  ercm,  irem,  e.  g.,  amarem,  monerem,  legerem,  audircm. 

(d)  The  imperfect  subjunctive  passive,  by  the  addition 
of  r  ;   as  in  amarer,  moricrcr,  legerer,  audlrcr. 

(e)  The  infinitive  present  passive,  by  changing  c  into  i, 
e.  g.,  amari,  mone?'i,  audiri ;  but  in  the  third  conjugation 
the  whole  termination  ere  is  changed  into  i,  as  in  Icgcrc, 
legi. 

From  the  present  indicative  active  are  derived  : 
(a)   The  present  indicative  passive,  by  the  addition  of 
r  ;   as,  amor,  moncor,  Icgor,  audio?'. 
L  2 


126  LATIN  on  A  M.MAI;. 

*V£  'jfrw^Jf. 

(bj  The  present  subjunctive  active,  by  changing  the  o 
into  em  in  the  first  conjugation,  and  in  the  three  others 
into  am  ;  as,  amem,  moncam,  legam,  audiam. 

(c)  The  present  subjunctive  passive,  by  changing  the 
m  of  the  present  subjunctive  active  into  r;  as,  anier,  mo- 
near,  legar,  audiar. 

(dj  The  imperfect  indicative  active,  by  changing  o  into 
abam  in  the  first  conjugation,  in  the  second  into  bam,  and 
in  the  third  and  fourth  into  ebam.  A  change  of  the  m  into 
r  makes  the  imperfect  indicative  passive,  e.  g.,  amabam, 
amabar ;  monebam,  moncbar  ;  legebam,  Icgcbar  ;  audic- 
bam,  audicbar. 

(c)  The  first  future  active,  by  changing  o  into  abo  in 
the  first  conjugation,  in  the  second  into  bo,  and  in  the  third 
and  fourth  into  am.  From  this  is  formed  the  first  future 
passive  by  adding  r  in  the  first  and  second  conjugations, 
and  by  changing  m  into  ;•  in  the  third  and  fourth  ;  c.  g., 
laudabo^  laudabor ;  mvnebo,  monebor  ;  legam,  legar;  au- 
diam, audiar. 

(f)  The  participle  present  active,  by  changing  o  in  the 
first  conjugations  into  «#.?,  in  the  second  into  ns,  and  in  the 
third  and  fourth  into  ens ;  e.  g.,  laudo,  laudans ;  moneo, 
monens  ;  lego,  legcns ;  audio,  audicns.  From  this  partici- 
pie  is  derived  the  participle  future  passive,  by  changing 
?is  into  ndus ;  e.g.,  amandus,  moncndus,  legendus,  audien- 
dus  ;  and  the  gerund:  fimandum,  moncndum,  legendum, 
audiendum. 

From  the  perfect  indicative  active  are  derived : 

(a)  The  pluperfect  indicative, by  changing  i  into  eram  : 
laudaveram,  monucram,  legeram,  audiveram. 

(b)  The  future  perfect,  by  changing  i  into  ero :  lauda- 
rero,  monuero,  legcro,  audivcro. 

(c)  The  perfect  subjunctive,*  by  changing  i  into  erim; 
laudaverim,  monucrim,  legcrim,  audivcrim. 

(d)  The  pluperfect  subjunctive,  by  changing  i  into  is- 
sem  (originally  cssem)  :  laudavissem,  monuissem,  legissem, 
audivissem. 

(c)  The  perfect  infinitive  active,  by  changing  i  into 
isse  (originally  cssc)  :  laudavisse,  monuissc,  legissc,  audi- 
visse. 

*  We  use  this  name  because  the  tense  is  most  commonly  used  in  the 
sense  of  a  perfect  subjunctive,  although  its  form  shows  that  it  is  in  reality 
the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  the  termination  ero  being  changed 
into  erim. 


THE    VERB     ES3E.  127 

From  the  supine  are  derived  : 

(a)  The  participle  perfect  passive,  by  changing  um 
into  us,  a,  um  :  laudatus,  a,  um  ;  monitus,  a,  um  ;  lectus, 
a,  um;  auditus,  a,  um. 

(It)  The  participle  future  active,  by  changing  urn  into  ~?  *     -, 
urus,  «,  um :  laudaturus,  a,  um  ;  moniturus,  a,  um  ;  Icc- 
turus,  a,  um  ;  auditurus,  a,  um. 

By  means  of  the  former  participle,  we  form  the  tenses 
of  the  passive,  which  express  a  completed  action  ;  and  by 
means  of  the  participle  future  we  may  form  a  new  conju- 
gation expressing  actions  which  are  to  come.  See  Chap. 
XLIII. 


CHAPTER  XLI. 

THE    VERB    "ESSE." 

[§  156.]  The  verb  csse  (to  be)  is  called  an  auxiliary 
verb,  because  it  is  necessary  for  the  formation  of  some 
tenses  of  the  passive  voice.  It  is  also  called  a  verb  sub- 
stantive, because  it  is  the  most  general  expression  of  ex- 
istence. Its  conjugation  is  very  irregular,  being  made  up 
of  parts  of  two  different  verbs,  the  Greek  elpi,  euri,  eaopai, 
(from  which  sim  and  sum,  cst,  eso  or  cro,  were  easily  form- 
ed), and  the  obsolete  fuo,  the  Greek  (f)V(*).  The  supine 
and  gerund  are  wanting,  but  the  inflection  in  the  persons 
is  regular. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Sum,  I  am.  Sing.  Sim,  I  may  be.  /?.  ^ 

es,  thou  art.  sis,  thou  mayest  be. 

£st,  he  is.  sit,  he  may  be. 

Plur.  sumus,  we  are.'%tf'&s?/"i^—&/.  Plur.  simus,  we  may  be. 
7   £        estis,  ye  are.  sltis,  ye  may  be. 

c-'&~ff?gknt,  they  are.  sint,  they  may  be. 

Imperfect. 
s~y.  Sing.  Eram,  I  was.  Sing.  Essem,  I  might  be. 

eras,  thou  wast.  esses,  thou  mightst  be. 

erat,  he  was.  esset,  he  might  be. 

Plur/  erdmus,  we  were.  Plur.  essemus,  we  might  be. 

j^+Aperatis,  ye  were.  essetis,  ye  might  be. 

erant,  they  were.  essent,  they  might  be. 

13  So-  o  >,  £  £  6        Future- 
Sing.  Era,  I  shall  be.  Instead  of  a  subjunctive,  the  partici- 

eris,  thou  wilt  be.  plefuturus  is  used  with  sim. 

erit,  he  will  be. 
/"nr.  erimus,  we  shall  be.  Futurus  sim,  sis,  &c.,  I  may  be 

eritis,  ye  will  be.  about  to  be. 

erunt,  they  will  be. 


128 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

&fc  /^w~~.  £4.  Perfect.  * 

A./f.  %?-(.       Sing.  Fui,  I  have  been.  Sing.  Fuerim,  I  may  have  been. 

fuisti,  thou  hast  been.  fueris,  thou  mayest  have  been. 

fuit,  he  has  been.  fuerit,  he  may  have  been. 

Plur.  fulmus,  we  have  been.  Plur.  fuer/mus,  we  may  have  been. 
fuistis,  ye  have  been.  fuenlis,  ye  may  have  been. 

fulre^  \  t^iey  *iave  ^en.  fuermt,  they  may  have  been. 

Pluperfect. 
Sing.  Fueram,  I  had  been.  Sing.  Fuissem,   I   should,   or    would 

have  been. 

fueras,  thou  hadst  been.  fuisses,  thou  shouldst,  &c. 

fuerat,  he  had  been.  fuisset,  he  should,  &c. 

Plur.  fucrdmus,  wo  had  been.  Plur.  fuissemus,  we  should,  &c. 

fuerdt is,  ye  had  been.  fuissetis,  ye  should,  &c. 

fuerant,  they  had  been.  fuissent,  they  should,  &c. 

Future  Perfect. 

Sing.  Fucro,  I  shall  have  been.  No  Subjunctive. 

fueris,  thou  wilt,  have  been. 
fuerit,  he  will  have  been. 
Plur.  fuenmus,  we  shall  have  been. 
fuentis,  ye  will  have  been. 
fuermt,  they  will  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE 

Present,  Sing.  Es,  be  thou.  fPlur.  este,  be  ye. 

Future,    Sing.  Esto,  thou  shalt  be.     Plur.  estate,  ye  shall  be. 
'*^-/.  //*v<^^.  .?//.  esto,  he  shall  be.  sunto,  they  shall  be. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present,  state  not  terminated,  esse,  to  be. 
Perfect,  terminated,  fuisse,  to  have  been. 
Future,  futurum  (am,  um)  esse,  QIC  fore,  to  be  about  to  be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  not  terminated  (ens),  being. 
Future,  futurus,  a,  inn,  one  who  is  about  to  be. 

Note. — The  participle  ens  is  only  used  as  a  substantive  in  philosophical 
language  (see  above,  §  78,  in  fin.),  and  also  in  the  two  compounds,  absens 
and  pracsens. 

The  compounds  absum,  adsum,  desum,  insum,  intersum,  obsum,  pracsum, 
snbsum,  super  sum,  have  the  same  conjugation  as  sum.  Prosum  inserts  a  d 
when  pro  is  followed  by  e  ;  e.  g.,  prodcs,prodest,  &C.J  Possum,  I  can  (from 
pot,  for  potis,  and  sum),  has  an  irregular  conjugation.  (See  the  irregular 
verbs,  $211.) 

The  i  in  simus  and  sitis  is  long,  and  the  e  in  eram,  ero,  &c.,is  short,  as  is 
indicated  above  in  the  conjugation  itself,  and  also  in  the  compounds;  pro- 
stmus,  proderam,  proderant,  proderit,  &c. 

Siem,  sies,  siet,  sient,  andfuam,fuas,fuat,fuant  (from  the  obsolete  fuo), § 

*  [The  Perfect  has  often  the  force  of  an  aorist,  and  is  to  be  translated 
accordingly.  In  some  grammars  the  perfect  and  aorist  are  given  separ- 
ately in  inflection.  Compare  §  500.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [For  an  explanation  of  this  mode  of  translating  the  imperative,  consult 
the  author's  remarks,  §  583.]—  Am.  Ed. 

\  [This  "  insertion  of  cZ,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  nothing  more  than 
the  bringing  back  of  the  full  form  of  pro,  which  was  anciently  prod,  and 
with  which  we  may  compare  the  Greek  Trpor-i,  for  vrpoo,  it  being  now  ad- 
mitted that  Trpo  and  rrpof  are,  in  fact,  one  and  the  same  word.]— Am.  Ed. 

§  [There  is  in  Sanscrit  the  verb  bhavami,  from  the  root  bhu,  allied  to  the 


THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS.  129 

are  antiquated  forms  for  the  corresponding  persons  of  sim,  and  occur  in 
the  comic  writers  and  in  Lucretius.  Instead  of  essem  we  have  another 
form  for  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  forcm  (likewise  from /wo),  in  the  sin- 
gular and  the  third  person  plural.  The  infinitive  fore  belongs  to  the  same 
root.  Cicero  rarely  uses  the  form  forem,  but  Livy  frequently,  especially 
in  the  sense  of  the  conditional  mood,  "  I  should  be."  Other  writers, 
especially  the  poets  and  Tacitus,  use  it  in  all  respects  like  essem.  The 
perfect  fuvi,  and  the  tenses  derived  from  it,  fuveram,fuvissem,fiivero,  are 
other  forms  offui,  &c.,  and  occur  in  the  earliest  poets  ;  and  in  like  man- 
ner we  find,  in  the  ancient  language,  escit,  escunt,  for  erit  and  erunt. 


CHAPTER  XLIL 

THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS. 

[§  157.]  IN  the  following  table  the  terminations  are 
separated  from  the  root  of  the  verb,  which  renders  it  easy 
to  conjugate  any  other  verb  according  to  these  models. 
The  verb  lego  (see  Qhap.  XL.)  is  irregular  in  the  forma- 
tion of  its  perfect,  but  it  has  been  retained  as  an  example 
of  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation,  because  the  very  ab- 
sence of  any  peculiar  termination  in  the  perfect  is  a  safe- 
guard against  misunderstandings  which  might  arise  ;  for 
example,  from  duco,  duxi ;  scribo,  scripsi ;  or  claudo, 
clausi. 

I.   ACTIVE    VOICE. 

First  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Am-o,  I  love.  Sing.  Am-em,  I  may  love.   xtf  •&*-/!  £*/"• 

am-ds,  thou  lovest.  am-cs,  thou  mayest  love. 

2.")  /,  am-at,  he  loves.  am-et,  he  may  love. 

Plur.  am-dmus,  we  love.  Plur.  am-emus,  we  may  love. 

am-dtis,  ye  love.  am-etis,  ye  may  love. 

am-ant,  they  love.  am-ent,  they  may  love. 

.6-i"f,                /   P         /;>/  Imperfect, 

Sing,  am-dbam,  I  loved,   '  r          Sing,  am-drem,  I  might  love. 

am-abds.  <<//>/<£&•  ft*  "-"•«•-••   /'•  am-ares. 

am-abat.  am-aret. 

Plur.  am-abdmus.  Plur.  am-aremus. 

am-abdtis.  am-aretis. 

am-abant.  am-arent. 

old  Latin  verb  /wo,  and  in  the  sense  of  oriri,  nasci.  With  this  may  be 
compared  the  Greek  qvu,  and  the  verb  to  be  in  English,  together  with  the 
Celtic  bydh,  the  Russian  budu.  and  the  Persian  budemi.  The  Sanscrit 
has  preserved  the  whole  of  bhavami,  whereas  the  cognate  verbs  are  de- 
fective in  most  other  tongues.] — Am.  Ed. 


130  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Future. 

.  ^  £  C,  /,       Sing,  am-dbo,  I  shall  love. 
am-abis. 
am-abit. 

Plur.  am-alimus. 
am-abitis. 
am-abunt. 
/W~-.>.  Perfect* 

Sing,  am-dvi,  I  have  loved.  Sing,  am-averim,  I  may  have  loved. 

am-avisti.  am-averis. 

am-avit.  am-averit. 

Plur.  am-avlmus.  Plur.  am-averimus. 

am-avistis.  am-aventis. 

am-averunt  (e).  am-averint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  am-averam,  1  had  loved.  Sing,  am-avissem,  I  might  have  loved. 

a?n-avfirds.  am-avisses. 

am-averat.  am-avisset. 

Plur.  am-averamus.  Plur.  am- avis s emus, 

am-averalis.  am-avissetis. 

am-averant.  am-avissent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  am-avero,  I  shall  have  loved. 
am-averis. 
am-averit. 

Plur.  am-averimus, 
am-avefitis. 
am-averint. 

IMPERATIVE. f 

Present,  Sing,  am-ii,  love  thou.  Plur.  am-dte,  love  ye. 

Future,  Sing,  am-ato,  thou  shalt  love.  Plur.  am-atote,  ye  shall  love. 
am-ato,  he  shall  love.  am-anto,  they  shall  love. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  (or  of  an  action  still  going  on),  am-dre,  to  love. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.  (or  of  an  action  completed),  am-avisse,  to  have  loved. 
Future,  am-aturum  esse,  to  be  about  to  love. 

GERUND. 
Gen   am-andi  •  Dat.  am-ando  ;  Ace.  am-andum ;  Abl.  am-ando. 

SUPINE. 
am-atum  •  am-atu. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  (of  an  action  still  going  on),  am-ans,  loving. 
Future,  am-aturus,  about  to  love. 


Second  Conjugation. 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Mon-eo,  I  advise.  Sing.  Mon-eam,  I  may  advise. 

mon-es.  mon-eds. 

mon-et.  mon-eat. 


*  [Vid.  note  on  page  128.]— -Am.  Ed. 
t  [Vid.  note  on  page  128.]— Am.  Ed. 


THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS.  131 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Plur.  mon-emus.  Plur.  mon-edmus. 

mon-etis.  mon-eatis. 

mon-ent.  mon-eant. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  mon-ebam,  I  advised.  Sing,  mon-erem,  I  might  advise. 

mon-ebds.  mon-eres. 

mon-ebat.  mon-eret. 

Plur.  -mon-ebdmus  Plur.  mon-eremus. 

mon-ebdtis.  mon-eretis. 

mon-ebant.  mon-erent. 

Future. 

Sing,  mon-ebo,  I  shall  advise.  ^  J"nJ^  /',££/, 
mon-ebis. 
mon-ebit. 

Plur.  mon-eblmus. 
mon-ebitis. 
mon-ebunt. 

Perfect, 

Sing,  mon-ui,  I  have  advised.  Sing,  morpuerim,  I  may  have  advised, 

mon-uisti.  mon-ueris. 

rnon-uit.  mon-uerit. 

Plur.  mon-mmus.  Plur.  mon-uerlmus. 

mon-uistis.  mon-uerttis. 

mon-uerunt  (e).  mon-uerint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  mon-ueram,  I  had  advised.  Sing,  mon-uissem,  I  should  have  ad- 

mon-uerds.  mon-uisses .  [vised. 

mon-uerat.  mon-uisset. 

Plur.  mon-ueramus.  Plur.  mon-uissemus. 

mon-uerdtis.  mon-uissetis. 

mon-uerant.  mon-uissent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  mon-uero,  I  shall  have  advised. 
mon-ueris. 
mon-uerit. 
Plur.  mon-uerimus. 
mon-uentis. 
mon-uerint. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  mon-e,  advise  thou.  Plur.  mon-ete,  advise  ye. 

Future,   Sing,  mon-cto,  thou  shalt  ad-     Plur.  mon-etote,  ye  shall  advise, 
vise. 
mon-eto, he  shall  advise.  mon-ento,  they  shall  advise. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.,  mon-ere,  to  advise. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf..  mon-uisse,  to  have  advised. 
Future,  mon-iturum  esse,  to  be  about  to  advise. 

GERUND. 
Gen.  mon-endi  ;  Dat.  mon-endo  ;  Ace.  mon-fndum  ;  Abl.  mon-endo. 

SUPINE. 
mon-itum ;  mon-itit. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  mon-ens,  advising. 
Future,  mon-iturua,  about  to  advise. 


132 


LATIN    GRAMMAE, 


INDICATIVE. 

Sing.  Leg-o,  I  read. 

leg-is. 

leg-it. 
Plur.  leg-imus. 

leg-itis. 

leg-unt. 

Sing.  leg-cbam,  I  read. 

leg-ebds. 

leg-cbat. 
Plur.  leg-cbdmus. 

le.g-ebdtis. 

It'ff-ebant. 


Third  Conjugation. 

SUBJUNCTIVE, 
Present. 

Sing.  Leg-am,  I  may  read, 

leg-as. 

leg-at.     j 
Plur.  Ivg-amus. 

leg-atis. 

leg-ant. 
Imperfect. 

Sing,  leg-erem,  I  might  read, 

leg-eres. 

leg-eret. 
Plur.  leg-eretims. 

leg-eretis. 

Icg-ercn1.. 

Future. 


Sing,  leg-am,  I  shall  read. 
leg-es. 

leg-et. 

Plur.  leg-emus, 
leg-etis. 
leg-cut: 

Sing,  leg-i,  I  have  read. 

leg-isti. 

leg-it. 
Plur.  leg-imus. 

leg-istis. 

leg-erunt  (c). 


Sing,  leg-eram,  I  had  read. 
leg-eras. 

I  r:g- er  at. 

Plur.  leg-eramus. 
leg-eratis. 
leg-crant. 


Perfect. 

Sing.  Icg-crtm,  I  may  have  read. 

leg-eris. 

leg-erit. 
Plur.  leg-erfmus. 

leg-eritis. 

leg- cr  int. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing.  Ifig-isscm,  I  should  have  read. 

leg-isses. 

leg-isset. 
Plur.  leg-issemus. 

leg-issetis. 

leg-isscnt. 


Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  leg-era,  I  shall  have  read. 
leg-eris. 
leg-erit. 

Plur.  leg-trlmus. 
leg-entis, 
leg-crint. 

IMPERATIVE.       ^^o«. 
Present,  Sing,  fcg-e,  read  thou.  Plur.  ^o-i^,  read  ye. 

Future,    Sing,  leg-ito,  thou  shalt  read.    Plur.  leg-itote,  ye  shall  read. 

Icg-ito,  he  shall  read.  leg-unto,  they  shall  read. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and.Imperf.  leg-Ire,  to  read. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.  leg-isse,  to  have  read. 
Future,  lec-turum  esse,  to  be  about  to  read.    • 


THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS. 


133 


GERUND. 
Gen.  leg-endi ;  Dat.  leg-endo ;  Ace.  leg-endum  ;  Abl.  leg-cndo. 

SUPINE. 
lec-tum;  lec-tu. 
PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  leg-ens,  reading. 
Future,  lec-turus,  about  to  read. 


Fourth  Conjugation. 


INDICATIVE. 


Sing.  Aud-io,  I  hear. 

aud-is. 

aud-it. 
Plur.  aud-imus. 

aud-itis, 

aud-iunt. 


Sing,  aud-iebam,  I  heard. 

aud-iebas. 

aud-iebat. 
Plur.  aud-iebamus. 

aud-iehdtis. 

aud-iebant. 

Sing,  aud-iam,  I  shall  hear. 

aud-ies. 

aud-iet. 
Plur.  aud-iemus. 

aud-ietis. 

aud-ient. 

Sing,  aud-ivi,  1  have  heard. 

aud-ivisti. 

aud-ivit. 
Plur.  and-  ivlmus. 

aud-ivistis. 

aud-ivcrunt  (e). 

Sing,  aud-iveram,  I  had  heard. 

aud  -iveras. 

aud-iverat. 
Plur.  aud-iveramus. 

aud-iveratis. 

aud-iverant. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Present. 

Sing.  Aud-iam,  I  may  hear, 
aud-ids. 
aud-iat, 

Plur.  aud-iamus.* 
aud-iatis. 
aud-iant. 
Imperfect. 

Sing,  aud-irem,  I  might  hear, 
aud-ires. 
aud-iret. 

Plur.  aud-iremus. 
aud-irctis. 
aud-irent. 
Future. 


Perfect. 

Sing,  aud-iverim,  I  may  have  heard. 

aud-ivcris. 

aud-iverit. 
Plur.  aud-iverimus. 

aud'iverttis. 

aud-iverint. 
Pluperfect. 

Sing,  aud-ivissem,  I  might  have  heard 

aud-ivisses. 

aud-ivisset. 
Plur.  aud-ivisscmus. 

aud-ivissetis. 

aud-ivissent. 


Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect, 
Sing,  aud-ivcro,  I  shall  have  heard, 

aud-iveris. 

aud-iverit. 
Plur.  aud-iverimus. 

aud-iveritis. 

aud-iverint. 

M 


134  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  aud-l,  hear  thou.  Plur.  aud-ite,  hear  ye. 

Future,    Sing,  aud-ito,  thou  shalt  hear.     Plur.  aud-itote,  ye  shall  hear. 

aud-Ito,  he  shall  hear.  aud-iunto,  they  shall  hear. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.,  aud-ire,  to  hear. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.,  aud-ivisse,  to  have  heard. 
Future,  aud-iturum  esse,  to  be  about  to  hear. 

GERUND. 
Gen.  aud-iendi ;  Dat.  aud-icndo  ;  Ace.  aud-iendum  ;  Abl.  aud-iendo. 

SUPINE. 
aud-itum  ;  aud-ltu. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.,  aud-iens,  hearing. 
Future,  aud-itunts,  about  to  hear. 


[$  158.]  II.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 
First  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Am-or,  I  am  loved.  Sing.  Am-er,  I  may  be  loved. 

am-dris  (e).  am-eris  (e). 

am-atur.  am-etur. 

Plur.  am-amur.  Plur.  atn-emur. 

ar)\-amini.    ^ /.$(*£.  "/#  f  t.  /•<,..  ^fV»          am-emini. 
am-antur,  am-cntur. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  am-dbar,  I  was  loved.  Sing,  am-drer,  I  might  be  loved. 

am-abdris  (e).  am-arcris  (e). 

am-abatur.  am-aretur. 

Plur.  am-abamur.  Plur.  am-arc.mur. 

am-abamini.  am-aremini. 

am-abantur.  am-arentur. 

'Future. 

Sing,  am-dbor,  I  shall  be  loved. 
am-abcris  (e). 
am-abitur. 
Plur.  am-abi?nur. 
am-abimini. 
am-abuntur. 

Perfect. 
Sing,  am-atus  (a,  um)  sum,  I  have     Sing,  am-dtus  (a,  um)  si/n,  I  may  have 

been  loved.  been  loved. 

am-atus  es.  am-dtus  sis. 

am-atus  est.  am-dtus  sit. 

Plur.  am-ati  (ae,  a)  sumus.  Plur.  am-dti  (ac,  a)  simus. 

am-ati  estis.  am-dti  sitis. 

am-ati  sunt.  am-dti  sint. 

Pluperfect. 
Sing,  am-dtus  (a,  um)  eram,  I  had     Sing,  am-dtus  (a,  um)  essem,  I  might 

been  loved.  have  been  loved. 

am-dtus  eras.  am-dtus  esses, 

atn-dtus  crat.  am-dtus  esset. 


THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS.  135 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Plur.  am-dti  (ae,  a)  eramus.  Plur.  am-dti  (ae,  a)  essemus. 
am-dti  eratis.  am-dti  essefis. 

am-dti  erant.  am-dti  essent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  am-dtus  (a,  urn)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  loved. 
am-dtus  eris. 
am-dtus  erit. 

Plur.  um-dti  (ae,  a)  erimus. 
am-dti  eritis. 
am-dti  erunt. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  am-are,  be  thou  loved.  Plur.  am-amini,  be  ye  loved. 

Future,   Sing,  am-ator,  thou  shalt  be  loved.  Plur.  am-antor,  they  srtall  be 
am-ator,  he  shall  be  loved.  loved.* 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  (or  of  a  passive  state  still  going  on),  am-ari,  to  be  loved. 
Perf.  and  Pluperf.  (or  of  a  state  completed),  am-dtum  (am,  um)  esse,  to  have 

been  loved.  ..      / 

Future,  am-dtum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  loved.    (?\£.  A, <  fo  *. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Perfect,  am-dtus,  a,  um,  loved. 

In  dus  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  am-andus,  a,  urn, 
deserving  or  requiring  to  be  loved. 


Second  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present, 
Sing.  Mon-eor,  I  am  advised.  Sing.  Mon-ear,  I  may  be  advised. 

mon-eris  (e).  mon-edris  (e). 

mon-etur.  mon-eatur. 

Plur.  mon-emur.  Plur.  mon-eamur. 

mon-emini.  mon-eamini. 

mon-entur.  mon-eantur. 

Imperfect. 
Sing,  mon-ebar,  I  was  advised.  Sing,  mon-erer,  I  might  be  advised. 

mon-ebdris  (e).  mon-ereris  (e). 

mon-ebatur.  mon-eretur. 

Plur.  mon-ebamur.  Plur.  mon-eremur. 

mon-ebamini.  mon-eremini. 

mon-ebantur.  mon-erentur. 

Future. 
Sing,  mon-ebor,  I  shall  be  advised. 

mon-eberis  (e). 

mon-ebitur. 
Plur.  mon-ebimur. 

mon-ebimini. 

mon-ebuntur. 

*  [No  second  person  plural  (amaminor)  of  the  imperative  future  passive 
occurs.  Its  place  is  supplied  by  the  future  indicative.  Vid.  §  151.] 
— Am.  Ed. 


136  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perfect. 

Sing,  mon-ilus  (a,  urn)  sum,  I  have  Sing,  mon-itus,  (a,  urn)  sim,  I  may 

been  advised.  have  been  advised. 

mon-itus  es.  mon-itus  sis. 

mon-itus  est.  mon-itus  sit. 

Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  sumus.  Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  simus. 
mon-iti  estis.  mon-iti  sitis. 

mon-iti  sunt.  mon-iti  sint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  mon-itus  (a,  um)  eram,  I  had     Sing,  mon-itus  (a,  urn)  essem,  I  should 

been  advised.  have  been  advised. 

mon-itus  eras.  mon-itus  esses, 

mon-itus  erat.  mon-itus  esset. 

Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  eramus.  Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  essemus. 

mon-iti  cratis.  mon-iti  essetis. 

mon-iti  erant.  mon-iti  cssent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  mon-itus  (a,  urn)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  advised. 

mon-itus  eris. 

mon-itus  crit. 
Plur.  mon-iti  (ae,  a)  erimus. 

mon-iti  critis. 

mon-iti  erunt. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  mon-ire,  be  thou  advised.     Plur.  mon-emini,  be  ye  advised. 
Future,   Sing,  mon-etor,  thou    shalt   be     Plur.  mon-entor,  they  shall  be  ad- 
advised,  vised. 
momtor,  he  shall  be,  &c. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.,  mon-cri,  to  be  advised. 

Perf.  and  Pluperf.,  mon-ltum,  (am,  um)  esse,  to  have  been  advised. 

Future,  mon-ltum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  advised. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Perfect,  mon-itus,  advised. 

In  dus  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  mon-endus,  de- 
serving or  requiring  to  be  advised. 


Third  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Leg-or,  I  am  read.  Sing.  Leg-ar,  I  may  be  read. 

leg-eris  (e).  leg-dris  (e}. 

leg-ltur.  leg-atur. 

Plur.  leg-imur.  Plur.  leg-anmr. 

leg-imini.  B.So*c.C],&f>&'  leg-amini. 

leg-untur.  leg-antur. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  leg-ebar,  I  was  read.  Sing,  leg-erer,  I  might  be  read. 

leg-ebaris  (e).  leg-ereris  (e). 

leg-ebatur.    '  leg-eretur. 


THE    FOUR    CONJUGATIONS.  137 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Plur.  Icg-ebamur.  Plur.  leg-eremur. 

leg-ebamini.  leg-eremini. 

leg-ebantur.  leg-erenlur. 

Future. 

Sing,  leg-ar,  I  shall  be  read. 
leg-eris  (e). 
leg-etur. 
Plur.  leg-emur. 
leg-emini. 
leg-entur. 

Perfect. 
Sing,  lec-tus  (a,  um}  sum, I  have  been     Sing,  lec-tus  (a,  um)  sim,  I  may  have 

read.  been  read. 

lec-tus  es.  lec-tus  sis. 

lec-tus  est.  lec-tus  sit. 

Plur.  lec-ti  (ae,  a)  sumus.  Plur.  lec-ti  (ae,  a)  simus. 

lec-ti  estis.  lec-ti  sitis. 

lec-ti  sunt.  lecti-sint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  lec-tus   (a,  urn)    eram,  I  had     Sing,  lec-tus  (a,  uni)  essem,  I  should 

been  read.  have  been  read. 

lec-tus  eras.  lec-tus  esses, 

lec-tus  erat.  lec-tus  essct. 

Plur.  lec-ti  (ae,  a)  cramps  Plur.  lec-ti  (ae,  a)  esscmus. 

lec-ti  eratis.  lec-ti  essetis. 

lec-ti  erant.  lect-ti  essent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect. 
Sing,  lec-tus  (a,  um)  era,  I  shall  have  been  read. 
lec-tus  eris. 
lec-tus  erit. 
Plur.  lec-ti  erimus. 
lec-ti  eritis. 
lec-ti  erunt. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  leg-ere,  be  thou  read.  Plur.  leg-imini,  be  ye  read. 

Future,   Sing,  leg-itor,  thou  shalt  be  read.  Plur.  leg-untor,  they   shall  be 
leg-itor,  he  shall  be  read.  read. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.,  leg-i,  to  be  read. 

Perf.  and  Pluperf.,  lec-tum  (am,  um}  esse,  to  have  been  read. 
Future,  lec-tum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  read. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Perfect,  lec-tus,  read. 

In  dus  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  leg-endus,  de- 
serving or  requiring  to  be  read. 


Fourth  Conjugation. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Aud-ior,  I  am  heard.  Sing.  Aud-iar,  I  may  be  heard. 

nud-iris  (F).  aud-iaris  (<.•)• 

tnid-itur.  aiul-intur. 

3ST  2 


138  LATIN    GRAMMAH. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Plur.  aud-imur.  Plur.  aud-iamnr. 

aud-  irn  ini.  aud-ia  m  ini. 

aud-iuntur.  aud-iantur. 

Imperfect. 

Smg.  aud-iebar,  I  was  heard.  Sing,  aud-irer,  I  might  be  heard. 

aud-iebdris  (e).  aud-ireris  (e). 

aud-iebatur.  aud-iretur. 

Plur.  aud-iebamur.  Plur.  aud-iremnr. 

aud-iebamini.  aud-iremini. 

aud-iebantur.  aud-irentur. 

Future. 
Sing,  aud-iar,  I  shall  be  heard. 

aud-if-ris  (e). 

aud-ielur. 
Plur.  aud-icmur. 

aud-iemini. 

aud-ientur. 

Perfect. 

Sing,  aud-ltus  (a,  um)  sum,  I  have     Sing,  aud-ilus  (a,  um)  sim,  I  may  have 

been  heard.  been  heard. 

aud-itus  es.  aud-ltus  sis. 

aud-ltus  est.  aud-itus  sit. 

Plur.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  sumus.  Plur.  aud-iti  (ac,  a)  simus. 

aud-iti  estis.  aud-iti  sitis. 

aud-lti  sunt.  aud-iti  sint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  aud-itus  (a,  -urn)  eram,  1  had     Sing,  aud-itus  (a,um)  essem,  1  might 

been  heard.  have  been  heard, 

aud-itus  eras.  aud-itus  esses, 

aud-itus  erat.  aud-itus  esset. 

Plur.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  eramus.  Plur.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  essemus. 

aud-iti  eratis.  aud-iti  essetis. 

aud-iti  erant.  aud-iti  essent. 

Second  Future,  or  Future  Perfect, 
Sing,  aud-itus  (a,  urn)  ero,  I  shall  have  been  heard. 

aud-itus  eris. 

aud-itus  erit. 
Plur.  aud-iti  (ae,  a)  erimus. 

aud-iti  eritis. 

aud-iti  erimt. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present,  Sing,  aud-ire,  be  thou  heard.     Plur.  aud-imini,  be  ye  heard. 
Future,     Sing,  aud-itor,  thou  shalt  be     Plur.  aud-iuntor,  they    shall    be 

heard.  heard. 

aud-itor,  he  shall  be  heard. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  and  Imperf.  aud-iri,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  and  Pluperf.  aud-itum  (am,  um)  esse,  to  have  been  heard. 
Future,  aud-itum  iri,  to  be  about  to  be  heard. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Perfect,  aud-itus,  heard. 

In  dus  (commonly  called  Future,  or  Future  of  Necessity),  aud-iendus,  de- 
serving or  requiring  to  be  heard. 


DEPONENTS. 


139 


III.  DEPONENTS. 

[§  159.]  With  regard  to  conjugation,  the  deponent  dif- 
fers from  the  passive  only  by  the  fact  that  it  has  both  the 
participles  of  the  active  and  of  the  passive  voice,  that  is, 
for  all  the  three  states  of  an  action :  that  in  ns  for  an  ac- 
tion not  completed ;  that  us,  a,  um  for  an  action  comple- 
ted ;  and  that  in  urus,  a,  urn  for  one  about  to  take  place. 
The  fourth  participle  in  ndus,  with  a  passive  significatioa, 
is  an  irregularity,  and  is  used  only  in  those  deponents 
which  have  a  transitive  signification ;  e.  g.,  hortandus,  one 
who  should  be  exhorted.  Of  deponents  which  have  an 
intransitive  meaning,  e.  g.,  loqui,  this  participle  is  used 
only  sometimes,  chiefly  in  the  neuter  gender  (often,  but 
erroneously,  called  the  gerund),  and  in  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent sense,  e.  g.,  loguendum  cst,  there  is  a  necessity  for 
speaking.  It  will  be  sufficient,  in  the  following  table,  to 
give  the  first  persons  of  each  tense,  for  there  is  no  diffi- 
culty, except  that  these  verbs  with  a  passive  form  have  an 
active  meaning. 

A.  INDICATIVE. 

1st  Conjug.         2d  Conjug.  3d  Conjug.  4th  Conjug. 

Present. 


S.  hort-or,  I   ex- 
hort. 
P.  hort-amur. 

S.  hort-abar. 
P.  hort-abamur. 

S.  hort-abor. 
P.  hort-abimur. 

ver-eor,  I  fear.         sequ-or,  I  follow. 

ver-emur.                   sequ-imur. 
Imperfect, 
ver-ebar.                     sequ-ebar. 
ver-ebamur.               scqu-ebamur. 

First  Future, 
ver-ebor.                     sequ-ar. 
ver-ebimur.                sequ-emur 

bland-ior,  I  flatter. 
bland-imur. 

bland-iebar. 
bland-iebamur. 

bland-iar. 
bland-iemur. 

Perfect. 

S.  hort-atus      (a, 

ver-itus    (a,   um)     secii-tus    (a, 

um) 

bland-itus    (a,    um) 

um)  sum. 

sum.                          sum. 

sum 

P.  hort-ati  (ae,  a) 

ver-iti  (ae,  a)  su-     secu-ti  (ae,  a) 

su- 

bland-iti  (ae,  a)  su- 

sumus. 

mus.                           mus. 

mus. 

Pluperfect. 

S.  hort-atus      (a, 

ver-itus    (a,   um)     secu-tus   (a, 

um) 

bla.nd-it:(s    (a,    um) 

um)  eram. 

eram.                          eram. 

eram. 

P.  hort-ati  (ae,  a) 

ver-iti  (ac,  a)  era-     secu-ti  (ae,  a) 

era- 

bland-iti  (ae,  a)  era- 

cramus. 

mus.                           mus. 

mus. 

Future  Perfect. 

S.  hort-atus  (a,  ver-itus  (a,  um)  secu-tus  (a,  um)  bland-itus  (a,  um) 

um)  ero.  ero.  era.  ero. 

P.  hort-ati  (ae,  a)  ver-iti  (ae,  a)  eri-  secu-ti  (ae,  a)  eri-  bland-iti  (ae,  a)  eri- 

erimufs.  mus.  mus.  mus. 


140  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

B.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

1st  Conjug.           2d  Conjug.             3d  Conjug.  4th  Conjug. 

Present. 

S.  hort-er.                 ver-ear.                      sequ-ar.  bland-iar. 

P.  hort-emur.            ver-eamur.                 sequ-amur.  bland-iamur. 

Imperfect. 

S.  hort-drer.              rcr-erer.                      scqu-erer.  bland-irer. 

P.  kort-aremur.         ver-eremur.                sequ-eremur.  bland-iremur. 

Perfect. 

S.  hort-atus      (a,     ver-itus    (a,    um)     secu-tus    (a,  um)  bland-itus    (a,   um) 

um)  sim.                     sim.                             sim.  sim. 

P.  hort-ati  (ae,  a)     ver-iti  (ae,  a)  si-     secu-ti  (ae,  a)  si-  bland-iti  (ac,  a)  si- 

simus.  '                      mus.                           ?nus.  mus. 

Pluperfect. 

S.  hort-nlus      (a,     ver-itus    (a,   um)     secu-tus    (a,  um)  bland-itus    (a,    um) 

um)  essem.                essem.                        essem.  essem. 

P.  hort-ati  (ae,  a)     ver-iti  (ae,  a)  es-     secu-ti  (ae,  a)  es-  bland-iti  (ae,  a)  es- 

essemus.                     semus.                        semus.  semus. 

C.  IMPERATIVE. 

Present. 


S.  2.  hort-are. 
P.  2.  hort-amini. 

rer-ere. 
ver-emini. 

scqu-cre. 
sequ-imini. 
Future. 

bland-ire, 
bland-imini. 

S.  2.  hort-alor. 
3.  hort-ator. 

r^    r>     /:~_,    ,..*.^  

ver-etor. 
ver-ctor. 

sequ-ltor. 
sequ-itor. 

bland-itor. 

bland-itor. 
i:  i  \ 

P.  2.  (is  wanting,  but  is  supplied  by  the  Future  Indicative.) 

3.  hort-antor.       ver-entor.  scqu-utitor.  bland-iuntor. 

D.  INFINITIVE. 
Present  and  Imperfect, 
hort-ari.  ver-eri.  scqu-i.  bland-iri. 

Perfect  and  Pluperfect. 

hort-atum      (am,     ver-itum (am, urn)     secu-tum  (am,  um)    bland-itum(am,um) 
urn)  esse.  case.  csse.  esse. 

Future. 

hort-aturitm  (am,     ver-iturum     (am,     sccu-turum     (am,     bland-iturum  (am, 
um)  esse.  um)  esse.  um)  esse.  um)  esse. 

E.  GERUND. 

Gen.  hort-andi.        vcr-endi.  sequ-endi.  bland-iendi. 

Dat.   hort-ando.        ver-endo.  sequ-endo.  bland-iendo. 

Ace.  hort-andum.     vcr-endum.  sequ-endum.  bland-iendum. 

Abl.   hort-ando.        ver-endo.  scqu-endo.  bland-iendo. 

F.  PARTICIPLES. 

Present  and  Imperfect, 
hcrt-ans.  ver-ens.  sequ-ens.  bland-iens. 

Perfect  and  Pluperfect, 
hort-atus,  a,  um.     ver-itus,  a,  um.         secu-tus,  a,  um.        bland-itus,  a,  um. 

Future. 
hort-aturus,a,um.     ver-iturus,  a,  um.     sccu-turus,  a,  um.     bland-iturus,a,um. 

Future,  with  Passive  Signification. 
hort-andiis,a,um.     wr-endus,  a,  um.      sequ-endus,a,um.     bland-iendns,  a,  urn. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.  141 

G.  SUPINE. 

1.  hort-atwn.  ver-itum.  secu-tum.  bland-Itum. 

2.  hort-atu.  ver-itu.  secu-tu.  bland-ltu. 

Note. — The  supine  secutum  and  the  participle  secutus  are  analogous  to 
solutum  and  sohitus,  from  solvo,  in  pronunciation  and  orthography  ;  for  the 
consonant  v,  which  is  audible  in  the  present  sequor,  is  softened  into  the 
vowel  u,  arid  lengthened  according  to  the  rule  mentioned  above,  <J>  151.  In 
sequutum,  as  some  persons  write,  the  additional  vowel  u  cannot  be  explained 
in  any  way.  The  same  is  the  case  with  locutwn,  from  loquor.  (Compare 
above,  §  5,  in  fin.) 


CHAPTER  XLIIL 

REMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.          T*/ &T.  ft-+* 

[§  160.]  1.  IN  the  terminations  avi,  evi,  and  im  of  the 
tenses  expressing  a  completed  action,  viz.,  of  the  perfect 
and  pluperfect,  indicative  and  subjunctive,  and  of  the  fu- 
ture perfect,  as  well  as  of  the  infinitive  perfect  active,  a 
syncopation  takes  place. 

(a)  In  the  first  conjugation  the  v  is  dropped  and  the 
vowels  a-i  and  a-e  are  contracted  into  a  long  a.  This  is 
the  case  wherever  avi  is  followed  by  an  s,  or  are  by  an  r; 
e.  g.,  amavisti,  amdsti ;  amavisscm,  amassem  ;  amavisse, 
amdsse;  amavcrunt,  am&runt;  amaverim,  amarim;  ama- 
veram,  am&ram  ;  amavero,  amdro,  &c.  Both  forms,  the 
entire  and  the  contracted  one,  are,  on  the  whole,  of  the 
same  value,  but  the  latter  seems  to  be  chiefly  used  when 
the  contracted  vowel  is  followed  by  an  s;  whereas  the 
entire  form  was  preferred  in  those  cases  where  an  r  fol- 
lows, although  even  in  this  case  Livy  is  rather  partial  to 
the  contracted  form  ;  e.  g.,  vindicarimus,  oppugnarimus, 
necarimus,  maturarimus  ;  in  Cicero,  too,  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon. A  contracted  form  of  the  verb  jurarc  (adjuvarc) 
occurs  only  in  the  more  ancient  language ;  e.  g.,  adjuro 
for  adjuvcro  in  a  verse  of  Ennius  (ap.  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  1). 

(~b )  The  termination  cvi  in  the  second  and  third  conju- 
gations is  treated  in  the  same  manner  ;  e.  g.,  nco,  I  spin, 
nevi,  nesti,  nestis,  nerunt.  Thus  we  often  find  complessem, 
dcleram,  and  in  the  third  conjugation  consuerunt  for  con- 
sueverunt,  quiSssem,  dccrcssem,  dccressc  for  decrcvissc ;  siris, 
sirit,  for  sivcris  and  siverit.  The  termination  ovi,  howev- 
er, is  contracted  only  in  novi,  nouisse,  with  its  compounds, 
and  in  the  compounds  ofmovco,  mori ;  c.g.,noru?it,  nosse, 
cognoram,  cognuro,  commosscm. 

(c)  In  the  fourth,  conjugation  irr  is  frequently  contract- 
ed before  s;  hence,  instead  of  audivissc,  audivisti,  audivis- 


142  LATIN    UllAMMAU. 

sem,  we  find  audisse,  aucltsti,  audissem,  and  in  the  time  of 
Quintilian  the  latter  forms  must  have  been  more  common- 
ly used  than  the  others.  But  there  is  another  form  of  the 
tenses  expressing  a  completed  action,  which  arises  from 
simply  throwing  out  the  v  :  audii,  audiissem,  audieram, 
audiero.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  those  forms  in 
which  two  i's  meet  are  not  used  at  all  in  good  prose  (as 
in  Cicero),  except  in  the  compounds  of  the  verb  ire  (see 
§  205),  and  are  found  only  here  and  there  in  poetry,  as 
in  Virgil :  audiit,  mugiit,  muniit,  especially  when  the 
word  would  not  otherwise  suit  the  dactylic  hexameter ; 
as,  for  example,  oppetii,  impediit.  In  those  forms,  on  the 
other  hand,  where  i  and  c  meet,  the  v  is  frequently  thrown 
out  even  in  good  prose  ;  e.  g.,  audierunt,  dcsierunt,  definie- 
ram,  quaesieram. 

Note. — A  contraction  occurs  in  the  perfect  of  the  first,  second,  and 
fourth  conjugations  when  a  t  or  m  follows  ;  the  forms  of  the  perfect  then 
become  externally  like  those  of  the  present  tense,  and  can  be  distin- 
guished only  in  some  cases  by  the  length  of  the  vowel.  This  contraction 
occurs  only  in  poetry,  but  not  very  commonly.  Some  grammarians  have 
denied  it  altogether,  and  have  endeavoured  to  explain  such  passages  by 
supposing  that  they  contain  an  enallage,  that  is,  an  interchange  of  tenses  ; 
but  such  a  supposition  involves  still  greater  difficulties.  Priscian,  in 
several  passages,  mentions  the  contracted  forms  fumdt,  audit,  cupit,  for 
fumavit,  audivit,  cupivit,  as  of  common  occurrence,  which  at  least  supports, 
in  general,  the  view  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  although  it  does  not  ren- 
der an  examination  of  the  particular  passages  superfluous.  We  shall  pass 
over  the  less  decisive  passages ;  but  it  for  iit  is  undeniable  in  petit  (in  Virg., 
Aen.,  ix.,  9) ;  desit  (in  Martial,  iii.,  75,  1  ;  and  x.,  8G,  4)  ;  abit,  obit,  and  pent 
(in  Juvenal,  vi.,  128,  559,  295,  563,  and  x.,  118).  We  accordingly  consider 
that  quum  edormit,  in  Horace  (Serm.,  ii.,  3,  61),  is  likewise  a  perfect.  In 
the  first  and  second  conjugations  there  are  some  instances  which  cannot 
be  denied.  To  view  donat  in  Horace  (Scrm.,  i.,  2,  56)  as  a  present  would 
be  exceedingly  forced ;  but  if  we  consider  it  as  a  contracted  perfect,  it 
quite  agrees  with  the  construction.  Compare  Terent.,  Adelph.,  iii.,  3,  10: 
omnem  rem  rnodo  seni  quo  pacto  habere  enarramus  ordine  ;  Propert.,  ii.,  7,2  ; 
f  I  emus  uterque  diu  ne  nos  divideret.  Lastly,  the  first  person  in  ii  is  found 
contracted  into  i:  Persius,  iii.,  97,  sepeli :  Seneca,  Here.  Oct.,  48,  redi: 
Claudian,  in  Ruftn.,  ii.,  387,  unde  redi  nescis. 

2.  Another  syncopation,  which  frequently  occurs  in 
early  Latin,  and  is  made  use  of  even  in  the  later  poetical 
language  of  Virgil  and  Horace,  consists  in  the  throwing 
out  of  the  syllable  is  in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the 
third  conjugation  after  an  s  or  an  x;  e.  g.,  evasii,  for  eva- 
sisti;  dixti,  for  dixisti;  divisse,  for  divisisse;  admisse,  for 
admisisse  ;  iss,  too,  is  rejected  in  forms  like  surrexe,  for 
surrexisse;  consumpse,  for  consumpsisse  ;  so,  also,  abstraxe, 
for  abstraxisse ;  abscessem,  for  abscessissem ;  crepsemus, 
for  erepsissemus,  and  others. 

[§  161.]  3.  The  forms  of  the  future  perfect  and  of  the 


REMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.  143 

perfect  subjunctive  in  the  first  conjugation  in  asso  and  as- 
sim,  for  avero  and  averim;  in  the  second  in  esso  and  essim, 
for  uero  and  uerim;  and  in  the  third  in  so  and  sim,  for  cro 
and  erim,  are  obsolete.  Numerous  instances  of  these  oc- 
cur in  ancient  forms  of  law  (and  in  later  imitations  of  such 
forms),  and  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Note.  —  In  this  manner  are  formed  commonstrasso,  levasso,  peccasso,  crcas- 
sit,  cooptassit,  imperassit,  and  many  others  of  the  first  conjugation.  The* 
following  belong  to  the  second  :  licessit,  cohibessit,  prohibessis,  and  ausi-m. 
Capso,  capsis,  capsit,  capsimus,  accepso,  rapsit,  surrepsit,  occisit,  incensit, 
adempsit,  axim,  adaxint,  taxis,  objexim,  objexis,  and  others,  occur  in  the  third 
conjugation.  The  following  forms  deserve  especial  mention  :  faxo,  faxim, 
faxit,faximus.  (Plant.,  True.,  i.,  1,  40),faxitis,faxint.  But  there  is  no  in- 
stance of  such  a  syncopation  in  the  fourth  conjugation.  We  believe  that 
this  form  is  to  be  explained  by  the  ancient  interchange  of  r  and  s  (compare 
§  7)  and  a  syncopation;  hence  the  transition  would  be  this:  levavero  — 
levaveso  —  levasso  ;  accepero  —  accepeso  —  acccpso  ;  ademero  —  ademeso  —  adempso  ; 
occiderit—  occidesit  —  occisit,  where  the  d  before  the  s  is  dropped,  as  in  incen- 
derit,  incensit.  The  few  words  of  the  second  conjugation  seem  to  have 
been  formed  in  this  manner,  on  the  model  of  the  very  numerous  words  of 
the  third.  The  irregularity  in  forming  the  perfect  of  words  of  the  third 
conjugation  (capso,  accepso,faxo,  and  axim,  instead  offexo,  exini)  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  ancient  language  ;  thus,  taxis  is  derived  fromtago,  tango, 
and  ausim  from  the  perfect  ausi,  which  has  fallen  into  disuse.  The  form 
in  so  is  acknowledged  to  have  the  meaning  of  a  future  perfect  ;  one  ex- 
ample may  suffice  :  Ennius  ap.  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  1  :  si  quid  ego  adjuro  (for  ad- 
juvero)  curamve  levasso,  ecquid  erit  praemi  ?  For  this  and  other  reasons  we 
cannot  adopt  Madvig's  view  (Opusc.,  torn,  ii.,  nr.  2),  that  this  form  is  a 
future  made  according  to  the  Greek  fashion  :  levo,  levasso,  like  ye/law, 


A  few  remnants  only  of  this  formation  remained  in  use 
in  the  best  period  of  the  Latin  language  ;  e.  g.,  jusso  for 
jussero,  in  Virg.,  Aen.,  xi.,  467  ;  and  faxo,  in  the  sense  of 
"I  will,"  or  "am  determined  to  do"  (see  §  511),  in  po- 
etry, and  in  Livy,  vi.,  35,  faxo  ne  juvet  vox  ista  Veto,  I 
will  take  care  that  this  word  Veto  shall  be  of  no  avail  to 
you.  But  especially  the  subjunctive  faxit,  faxint,  ex- 
pressing a  solemn  wish,  as  Cicero  (in  Verr.,  iii.,  35)  says 
in  a  prayer,  dii  immortales  faxint  ;  and  Livy  (xxix.,  27) 
in  a  prayer  says,  dii  —  -faxitis  —  auxitis  ;  and  in  a  subordi- 
nate sentence  in  Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  15,  oro  ut  faxis  ; 
and  in  Persius,  i.,  112,  veto  quisquamfaxit.  Lastly,  ausim 
and  ausit,  as  a  subjunctive  expressive  of  doubt  or  hesita- 
tion, "  I  might  venture,"  occurs  in  Cicero,  Brut.,  5,  and 
frequently  in  Livy  and  Tacitus.  From  these  and  the  nu- 
merous passages  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  however,  it  is 
clear  that  this  subjunctive  in  sim  never  has  the  significa- 
tion of  a  perfect  subjunctive,  but,  in  accordance  with  its 
formation,  it  retains  the  meaning  of  a  future  subjunctive. 

Note.  —  In  the  ancient  Latin  language  we  find  a  passive  voice  of  this  form 


144  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

of  the  future  ;  viz.,  turbassitur,  in  a  law  in  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  Hi.,  4,  andjussitur 
in  Cato,  de  Re  Rust.,  14,  instead  of  turbatum  fuerit  and  jussus  fuerit  ;  and 
the  deponent  mercassitur  in  an  inscription  (Gruter,  p.  512,  line  20),  for 
mercatus  fuerit.  An  infinitive  also,  with  the  signification  of  a  first  future 
active,  is  formed  from  it :  as  in  Plautus  :  expugnassere,  hnpetrassere,  reconcil- 
iassere ;  and  in  Lucretius  (Fragm.  Non.,  ii.,  218):  depeculassere  e,t  drargen- 
tasscre  (consequently  only  in  verbs  of  the  first  conjugation)  ;  for  which,  in 
later  times,  the  circumlocution  expugnaturum  esse,  &c.,  was  used  exclu- 
sively. 

[§  162.]  In  the  remains  of  the  early  Latin  language, 
and  sometimes  also  in  the  poetical  productions  of  the  best 
age,  the  infinitive  passive  is  lengthened  by  annexing  the 
syllable  er;*  e.g.,  amaricr,  mercarier,labier,  legier,  mittier  ; 
the  c  in  the  termination  of  the  imperfect  of  the  fourth  con- 
jugation is  thrown  out;  e.  g.,  nutribam,  lenibam,  scibam, 
largibar,  for  nutricbam,  lenicbam,  sciebam,  largiebar,  and 
the  future  of  the  same  conjugation  is  formed  in  ibo  instead 
of  iam ;  e.  g.,  scibo,  sen- ibo,  for  sciam,  serviam  (the  last 
two  peculiarities  are  retained  in  ordinary  language  only 
in  the  verb  ire)  ;  and,  lastly,  the  termination  im  is  used 
for  em  and  am  in  the  present  subjunctive  of  the  first  and 
third  conjugations,  but  only  in  a  few  verbs  ;  e.  g.,  edim 
and  comedim  for  cdam  and  comcda?n,  frequently  occur  in 
Plautus  ;  also  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  20,  in  fin.,  and 
Horace,  Epod.,  iii.,  3,  and  Senn.,  ii.,  8,  90.  Dirim  for 
dem,  and  perduim  for  pcrdam,  from  duo  and  perduo,  an- 
cient forms  of  these  verbs,  are  found,  also,  in  prose  in 
forms  of  prayers  and  imprecations ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  CatiL, 
i.,  9,  pro  Dciot.,  7.  The  same  form  has  been  preserved 
in  the  irregular  verb  i~olo,  with  its  compounds,  and  in 
sum :  rclim,  nolim,  malim,  and  sim. 

[§  163.]  o.  For  the  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect 
active  in  crunt  there  is  in  all  the  conjugations  another 
form,  ere,  which,  indeed,  does  not  occur  at  all  in  Nepos, 
and  in  the  prose  of  Cicero  very  rarely  (see  Cic.,  Orat., 
47,  and  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  i.,  6),  but  is  very  fre- 
quently used  by  Sallust  and  later  writers,  especially  by 
the  historians  Curtius  and  Tacitus.  In  the  contracted 
forms  of  the  perfect  this  termination  cannot  well  be  used, 
because  the  third  person  plural  of  the  perfect  would,  in 
most  cases,  become  the  same  as  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  if 
we  were  to  form  amaverunt,  amarunt,  amare,  or  deleve- 
runt,  delerunt,  delere. 

The  vowel  e,  in  the  uncontracted  termination  c?~?mt,  is 
sometimes  shortened  by  poets,  as  in  Horace,  Epist.,  i.,  4, 

*  [Consult  note  on  page  120.]— Am.  Ed. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.  145 

7  ;  Di  tibi  divitias  dederunt  artemque  fruendi  :  and  Virg., 
Aen.,  ii.,  774,  obstu-pui  steteruntque  comae,  vox  faucibus 
haesit. 

[§  164.]  6.  The  four  verbs  dicere,  duccrc,  faccre,  and 
ferre  usually  reject  the  e  in.  the  imperative  (to  avoid  am- 
biguity);  hence  we  say  die,  due,  fac,  fer,  and  so,  also,  in 
their  compounds  ;  as,  cduc,  ejfer,  perfer,  calefac,  with  the 
exception  of  those  compounds  of  facer  e  which  change  <z* 
into  i;  e.  g.,  confice,  perfice.  Ingcr,  for  ingerc,  is  rare  and 
antiquated. 

Of  scire  the  imperative  sci  is  not  in  use,  and  its  place 
is  supplied  by  the  imperative  future  scito.  Scitote  is  pre- 
ferred to  scite,  in  order  to  avoid  the  possible  confusion 
with  scite,  the  adverb,  which  signifies  "  skilfully."  /  * 

Note. — The  imperative  future  of  the  passive  voice,  but  more  especially 
of  deponents,  has  some  irregularities  in  the  early  language  and  later  imi- 
tations of  it:  (a)  The  active  form  is  used  instead  of  the  passive  one  ;  thus 
we  find  arbitrate,  amplexato,  utito,  nitito,  for  arbitrator,  amplexator,  &c.  ;  and 
censento  for  censcntor  ;  utunto,  tuento,  patiunto,  in  laws.  (See  Cic.,  de  Leg., 
iii.,  3,  fol.)  (6)  In  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  we  not  uncom- 
monly find  the  forms  hortmnino,  veremino,  and  others,  for  hortator,  veretor, 
&C.  The  forms  antestamino,  arbitramino,  praefamino,  profitemino,  fruimino, 
and  progredimino  occur  in  Cato,  Plautus,  and  in  laws  ;  and  passages  of 
this  kind  have  given  rise  to  the  erroneous  opinion  that  there  is  a  second 
person  plural  in  minor,  such  as  hortaminor. 

[§  165.]  7.  Respecting  the  quantity  of  the  i  in  the  ter- 
minations rimus  and  ritis,  in  the  future  perfect  and  the 
perfect  subjunctive,  the  statements  of  the  ancient  gram- 
marians not  only  differ,  but  contradict  one  another.  The 
poets  use  it  long  or  short  according  as  the  verse  requires 
it,  though,  to  judge  from  the  analogy  of  erimus,  eritis,  it 
seems  to  be  naturally  short.  In  connexion  with  this 
(comp.  §  29),  it  must  be  observed  that  the  termination  ris 
of  the  second  person  singular  is  used  by  poets  both  long 
and  short,  as  in  Horace,  Carm.,  III.,  23,  3,  and  IV.,  7,  20, 
and  21,  and  in  the  following  distich  of  Ovid,  Am.,  I.,  4,  31: 
Quae  tu  reddiderls,  ego  primus  pocnla  sumam, 
Et  qua  tu  biberls,  hac  ego  parte  bibam  : 

where,  however,  the  influence  of  the  caesura  may  of  it- 
self lengthen  the  syllable. 

[§  166.]  8.  Instead  of  the  termination  ris  in  the  second 
person  in  the  passive,  re  is  also  used,  and  with  Cicero 
this  is  the  common  termination  in  the  present  and  imper- 
fect subjunctive,  and  in  the  imperfect  and  future  indica- 
tive, even  in  cases  where  the  repetition  of  the  syllable  re 
produces  a  disagreeable  sound,  as  in  i-erererc,  pro  Quint., 

N 


146  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

16  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  18  :  mercrcrc,  Divin.,  18  ;  de  Fin.,  ii.,  35. 
In  the  present  indicative,  on  the  other  hand,  re  is  used  for 
ris  only  in  the  following  passages  :  Divin.,  12,  in  fin.,  and 
in  Vcrr.,  iii.,  80,  ink.,  arbitrare  ;  pro  Balb.,18,  ddectare  ; 
Philip.,  ii.,  43,  inaugurare;  ad  Fam.,  vi.,  2 1 , recdrdare  ;  and 
v.,  13,  vidcre.  Such  forms  as  a?ncre,  moneare,  loquare,  au- 
diarc,  amarere,  amabarc,  amaberc,  monererc,  loquerere,  &c., 
are  of  common  occurrence  in  all  the  conjugations. 

[§  167.]  9.  The  participle  future  passive  of  the  third 
and  fourth  conjugations  (including  the  deponents)  is  form- 
ed in  undus  instead  of  cndus,  especially  when  i  precedes. 
In  the  verb  potior  potiundus  is  the  usual  form.  In  other 
verbs  it  seems  to  have  been  indifferent  which  of  the  two 
forms  was  used,  though  in  some  phrases,  such  as  in  jini- 
bus  dii-idundis  orregundis,  injure  dicundo,  there  seems  to 
have  been  something  conventional  in  the  use  of  these 
forms.  We  must  leave  it  to  the  student's  own  observa- 
tion to  collect  other  peculiarities  of  this  kind.  Respect- 
ing the  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  see  §  248. 

[§  168.]  10.  This  is  the  place  to  speak  of  what  is  call- 
ed the  conjvgatio  pcriphrastica,  or  the  conjugation  by  cir- 
cumlocution. This  name  is  applied  in  general  to  any  con- 
jugation formed  by  means  of  a  participle  and  the  auxili- 
ary verb  essc  ;  but  it  is  usually  limited  to  the  conjugation 
formed  by  means  of  the  two  participles  future  in  the  ac- 
tive and  passive,  and  of  the  verb  csse,  for  a  conjugation 
made  up  of  the  participle  present  and  csse  does  not  occur 
in  Latin  (e.  g.,  amans  sum  would  be  the  same  as  amoj, 
and  the  combinations  of  the  participle  perfect  passive 
with  sum,  sim,  eram,  csscm,  cro,  csse,  are  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  ordinary  conjugation  of  a  verb  in  the  passive 
voice ;  as,  for  example,  amatus  eram,  which  is  the  pluperfect 
passive  of  amo.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  in  the  con- 
jugation of  the  passive  the  perfects  of  csse  are  sometimes 
used  instead  of  the  above-mentioned  forms  for  an  incom- 
plete action,  such  as  sum,  cram,  cro,  &c.  Amatum  fuisse , 
therefore,  is  equal  to  amatum  csse  as  an  infinitive  perfect 
passive  ;  amatus  fucram  is  equivalent  to  amatus  cram,  and 
amatus  fuero  to  amatus  cro.  Amatus  fucro,  in  particular, 
is  used  so  frequently  for  amatus  cro  that  formerly  it  was 
looked  upon  as  the  ordinary  future  perfect  passive,  and 
was  marked  as  such  in  the  tables  of  the  four  conjuga- 
tions.* But  when  the  participle  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
*  We  have  abandoned  the  common  practice,  partly  on  account  of  the 


REMARKS    ON    THE    CONJUGATIONS.  147 

an  adjective,  and  expresses  a  permanent  state,  a  differ- 
ence is  clearly  discernible  ;  e.  g.,  epistola  scripta  est,  when 
it  is  in  a  perfect  tense,  signifies  the  letter  has  been  written; 
but  if  scripta  is  conceived  as  an  adjective  (in  contradis- 
tinction to  a  letter  not  written),  the  meaning  is,  the  letter 
is  written,  and  epistola  scripta  Juit,  in  this  case,  would  sig- 
nify the  letter  has  been  written  (has  been  a  written  one), 
or  has  existed  as  a  written  one,  meaning  that  at  present  it 
no  longer  exists.  And  this  is  the  usual  sense  in  which  fui 
is  used  with  the  participle  perfect ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxviii.,  56, 
Literni  monumentum  monumentoque  statua  superimposita 
fuit  (is  there  no  longer),  quam  tempestate  dcjcctam  nuper 
vidimus  ipsi ;  Martial,  i.,  44,  bis  tibi  triceni  fuimus  vocati, 
that  is,  "  we  were  invited,  but  got  nothing  to  eat ;"  tantum 
spectavimus  omnes.  The  passages,  therefore,  in  which  ama- 
tus  fui  is  found  as  an  ordinary  perfect  in  the  sense  of  ama- 
tus  sum  may  be  doubted  in  good  authors. 

Note.— Justin  (i.,  19),  however,  writes  :  Itaquc  prove  bellum  natum,inquo 
et  diu  et  varia  victoria  proeliatum  fait  (passive)  :  Gellius  (v.,  10)  ;  Sic  magis- 
ter  eloquentiae  confutatus  est,  et  captionis  versute  excogitatae  frustratus  fuit 
(passive):  and  Plautus  several  times  in  deponents;  e.  g.,  oblitusfui,  Poenul. 
Prolog.,  40  ;  miratusfui,  ibid,  v.,  6,  10  ;  and  other  passages. 

[§  169.]  But  by  the  combination  of  the  participle  future 
active  with  the  tenses  of  essc  a  really  new  conjugation  is 
formed  denoting  an  intention  to  do  something.  This  in- 
tention may  arise  either  from  the  person's  own  will,  or 
from  outward  circumstances,  so  that,  e.  g.,  scripturus  sum 
may  either  mean  "  I  have  a  mind  to  write,  or  I  am  to 
write,"  or  "  I  have  to  write."  The  former  sense  is  also 
expressed  by  "  I  am  on  the  point  of  writing,"  or  "  I  am 
about  to  write,"  and  this  signification  is  earned  through 
all  the  tenses  of  cssc. 


Scripturus  sum,  I  am  about 


to  write. 


Scripturus  eram,  I  was  about 


to  write. 


Scripturus    ero,    I    shall  be 
about  to  write. 


Scripturus  Jui,  I  was  or  have 
been  about  to  write. 

Scripturus  fueram,  I  had 
been  about  to  write. 

Scripturus  fucro,  I  shall  have 
been  about  to  write. 


But  the  last  of  these  forms  was  very  seldom  used,  and 
occurs  only  in  one  passage  of  Seneca,  Epist.,  ix.,  §  14, 
sapiens  non  vivct  si  fuerit  sine  liominc  victurus,  that  is,  if  he 

analogy,  and  partly  because  the  number  of  instances  in  which  the  regular 
future  perfect  with  ero  occurs  is  so  considerable  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
about  it.  We  do  not  quote  any  passages,  because  this  truth  is  now  uni- 
versally recognised. 


148  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

should  be  obliged  to  live  without  human  society.     The 
subjunctive  occurs  in  the  same  manner. 


Scripturus  sim. 
Scripturus  cssem. 


Scripturus  fuerim. 
Scripturus  juissem. 


Scripturus  sim  and  scripturus  esscm  serve,  at  the  same 
time,  as  subjunctives  to  the  future  scribam;  but  scripturus 
fuerim  and  scripturus  fuissem  are  not  used  as  subjunctives 
to  the  future  perfect,  scripsero.  The  infinitive  scripturum 
fuissc  denotes  an  action  to  which  a  person  was  formerly 
disposed,  and  answers  to  the  English  "I  should  have  writ- 
ten," so  that  in  hypothetical  sentences  it  supplies  the  place 
of  an  infinitive  of  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  in 
Sueton.,  Caes.,  56;  Pollio  Asinius  Cacsarem  cxistimat  suos 
rescripturum  ct  correcturum  commentaries  fuisse, .  that  is, 
that  he  would  have  re-written  and  corrected,  if  he  had 
lived  longer.  The  infinitive  with  esse  likewise  first  de 
notes  an  intention  :  scripturum  esse,  to  intend  writing,  or 
to  be  on  the  point  of  writing ;  but  it  then  assumes,  in  or- 
dinary language,  the  nature  of  a  simple  infinitive  future, 
for  which  reason  it  is  incorporated  in  the  table  of  conjuga- 
tions. For  the  particulars,  see  the  Syntax,  Chap.  LXXVI. 

Note. — In  the  passive  these  gerundive  tenses  (tempora  gerundiva),  as  they 
may  be  called,  are  expressed  by  longer  circumlocutions  :  in  eo  est,  orfutu- 
rum  est  ut  epistola  scribatur,  the  letter  is  to  be  written,  or  about  to  be  writ- 
ten ;  in  co  erat,  or  futurum  erat  ut  epistola  scriberetur,  the  letter  was  to  be 
written,  or  about  to  be  written  ;  in  eo  erit,  or  futurum  erit  ut  epistola  scriba- 
tur, it  will  then  be  necessary  for  the  letter  to  be  written. 

[§  170.]  The  participle  future  passive  expresses  (in  the 
nominative)  the  necessity  of  suffering  an  action,  and  in 
combination  with  the  tenses  of  esse  it  likewise  forms  anew 
and  complete  conjugation  (tempora  necessitates );  e.  g., 
amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved  ;  amandus  eram,  it  was 
necessary  for  me  to  be  loved,  and  so  on  with  all  the  tenses 
of  esse.  Its  neuter,  combined  with  esse  and  the  dative  of  a 
person,  expresses  the  necessity  of  performing  the  action 
on  the  part  of  that  person,  and  may  likewise  be  earned 
through  all  the  tenses  ;  as, 
mihi  scribendum  est,  I  must  \milii  scribendum  fuit,  I  have 

write.  been  obliged  to  write. 

mihi  scribendum  erat,  I  was  mihi  scribendum  fucr at,  I  had 


obliged  to  write. 
milii  scribendum  erit,  I  shall 


been  obliged  to  write. 
mild  scribendum -fuerit,  I  shall 


be  obliged  to  write.  |     have  been  obliged  to  write. 

And  so,  also,  in  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive:  milii  scri- 
bendum esse  ;   mihi  scribendum  fuisse. 


FIRST    CONJUGATION.  149 


LIST  OF  VERBS 

WHICH   ARE 

IRREGULAR  IN  THE   FORMATION  OF  THELR  PERFECT  AND  SUPINE. 


CHAPTER  XLIV. 

FIRST     CONJUGATION. 

[§  171.]  THE  irregularity  of  the  verbs  of  this  conjuga- 
tion consists  chiefly  in  this,  that  they  take  ui  in  the  per- 
fect and  itum  in  the  supine,  like  verbs  of  the  second  ; 
which  i,  however,  is  sometimes  thrown  out.  It  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  list*  that  some  verbs,  in  some  form 
or  other,  again  incline  towards  a  regular  formation  of  their 
tenses.  frf&t. 

Crcpo,  crepui,  crepitum,  make  a  noise,  rattle,  creak. 

Compounds  :  concrepo,  make  an  intense  noise;  discrepo,  differ;  increpo, 
chide,  rattle. 

Cubo,  cubui,  cubitum,  cubare,  lie. 

There  is  some  authority  for  the  perfect  cubavi,  incubavi.  (See  Ouden- 
dorp  on  Caes.,  B.  Civ.,  iii.,  63.)  Compounds:  accubo,  recline  at  table; 
excubo,  keep  watch ;  incubo,  lie  upon  ;  recubo,  lie  upon  the  back  ;  secttbo, 
lie  apart,  and  some  others.  When  the  compounds  take  an  m  before  b, 
they  are  conjugated  after  the  third,  but  keep  their  perfect  and  supine  in 
MI,  itum.  (See  Chap.  XL VIII.) 

Domo,  ui,  itum,  tame,  subdue. 

Edomo  and  perdomo  strengthen  the  meaning. 

Sono,  ui,  itum,  resound.     (Participle  sonaturus.) 

Consono,  agree  in  sound ;  dissono,  disagree  in  sound ;  persono,  sound- 
through  ;  resono,  resound.  (Resonavit,  Manil.,  v.,  566.) 

Tono,  ui  (itum),  thunder. 

Attono  (active),  strike  with  astonishment  (participle  attonitus) ;  intono, 
commonly  intransitive,  make  a  sound  (participle  intonatus) ;  circumtono. 

Veto,  ui,itum,  forbid.     (Vetavit,  only  in  Persius,  V.,  90.) 
Mico,  ui  (without  supine),  dart  out,  glitter. 

Ennco,  ui,  atum,  dart  forth  rays ;  but  dimico,  fight,  makes  dimicavi,  atum. 

Frico,fricui,fricatum,  tmdfrictum,  rub. 

Defrico,  infrico,  perfrico,  rcfrico,  are  formed  in  the  same  way. 

*  It  has  not  been  the  object  to  include  in  this  list  every  irregular  verb, 
especially  compounds,  but  those  only  which  are  necessary  in  good  prose. 
When  no  meaning  is  assigned  to  a  compound  verb,  it  is  because  the  sense 
is  easily  discoverable  from  that  of  the  root  and  the  preposition  with  which 
it  is  compounded. 

N2 


150  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Seco,  ui,  sectum,  cut.     (Part,  secaturus.) 

Deseco,  reseco,  cut  off;  disseco,  cut  in  parts. 

Juvo,juvi,  support,  assist;  the  supine  jutum  is  rare  (see 
Tac.,  Ann.,  xiv.,  4) ;  but  the  participle  juvaturus  is  found 
in  Sallust,  Jug.,  47  ;  and  Plin.,  Ejtist.,  iv.,  15. 

So,  also,  the  compound  adjuvo,  adjuvi,  adjiitum,  in  the  participle  adju- 
turus  (Liv.,  xxxiv.,  37),  and  adjuvaturus,  in  Petron.,  16$.  Frequentative, 
adjuto. 

Lavo,  lavi,  lavatum,  lautum,  lotum,  lavarc,  wash,  or  bathe, 
which  is  properly  lavari. 

The  infinitive  laverc,  whence  the  perfect  lavi  seems  to  come,  is  pre- 
served in  old  Latin,  and  is  found  in  poetry,  e.  g.,  Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  12, 
init.,  mala  vino  lavere. 

Ncco,  kill,  is  regular ;  but  from  it  are  formed,  with  the 
same  meaning,  cncco,  avi,  atum,  and  cnecui,  enectum, 
both  of  which  forms  are  equally  well  established,  but 
the  participle  is  usually  c/icctus ;  intcrneco  has  inter- 
nccatus. 

From  Plico,  fold,  are  formed  appltco,  avi,  alum,  and  ui, 
itum ;  so  cxplico,  avi,  atum,  unfold,  explain;  implico, 
implicate.  Cicero  regularly  uses  applicavi  and  expli- 
cai'i ;  otherwise  usage,  on  the  whole,  decides  in  favour 
of  the  perfect  ui  and  the  supine  atum.  But  those  de- 
rived from  nouns  in  plex  form  the  perf.  and  sup.  regu- 
larly :  supplico,  duplico,  multiplico.  Of  replico,  whose 
perfect  rcpllcavi  occurs  in  the  Vulgate,  replicatus  only 
is  in  use  (replictus  is  an  isolated  form  in  Statius,  Silv., 
iv.,  9,29). 

Poto,  drink,  is  regular,  except  that  the  supine  usually,  in- 
stead of  potatum,  is  potum,  whence  potus,  which  is  both 
active  and  passive,  having  been  drunk,  and  having 

.  drunk.  Compounds,  api^otus,  active  ;  and  epotus,  pass- 
ive. 

Do,  dcdi,  datum,  dare,  give. 

Circumdo,  surround  ;  pcxsundo,  ruin  ;  satisdo,  give  security ;  venundo, 
sell,  are  formed  like  do.  The  other  compounds,  addo,  condo,  reddo,  be- 
long to  the  third  conjugation.  (See  Chap.  XLV1I.)  From  a  second 
form  duo,  we  find  in  early  Latin  the  subjunctive  duim,  duis,  duit,  also  in 
the  compounds  credo  and  perdo — creduam  and  creduim,  perduim.  Cic.,  p. 
Reg.  Deiot.,  7  :  di  te  perduint.  See  $  162. 

Sto,  steti,  statum,  stare,  stand. 

The  compounds  have  iii  in  the  perfect ;  e.  g.,  consto,  to  consist  of;  ex- 
sto,  exist,  or  am  visible  ;  insto,  insist ;  obsto,  hinder ;  persto,  persevere  ; 
praeslo,  surpass  ;  rssto,  remain  over  and  above.  Only  those  compound- 
ed with  a  preposition  of  two  syllables  retain  eti  in  the  perfect,  viz.,  an- 
testo,  circumsto,  intersto,  supcrslo.  The  supine,  which  is  mentioned  espe- 
cially on  account  of  the  participle  future,  does  not  exist  in  all  the  com- 
pounds, but  wherever  it  is  found  it  is  atum.  The  supine  praestitum  of 


SECOND    CONJUGATION.  151 

prarsto  is  certain  in  late  authors  only,  whereas  praestaturus  is  frequent. 
Of  disto,  the  perfect  and  supine  are  wanting. 

The  active  verbs  juro  and  cocno  have  a  participle  with 
a  passive  form,  but  an  active  signification  :  juratus  (with 
the  compounds  conjuratus  and  injuratusj,  one  who  has 
sworn;  and  coenatus,  one  who  has  dined.  From  the  anal- 
ogy of  conjuratus,  the  same  active  signification  was  after- 
ward given  to  conspiratus,  one  who  has  formed  a  conspir-* 
acy  or  joined  a  conspiracy. 


CHAPTER  XLV. 

SECOND     CONJUGATION. 

[§  172.]  THE  irregularity  of  verbs  of  the  second  conju- 
gation consists  partly  in  their  being  defective  in  their 
forms,  and  partly  in  their  forming  the  perfect  and  su- 
pine, or  one  of  them,  like  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation. 
With  regard  to  the  first  irregularity,  there  are  a  great 
many  verbs  in  this  conjugation  which  have  no  supine, 
that  is,  which  not  only  have  no  participle  perfect  passive 
(which  cannot  be  a  matter  of  surprise,  since  their  mean- 
ing does  not  admit  of  it),  but  also  no  participle  future  ac- 
tive. (See  §  153.)  The  regular  form  of  the  perfect  is  we, 
and  of  the  supine  "it-urn  ;  but  it  must  be  observed,  at  the 
same  time,  that  some  verbs  throw  out  the  short  i  in  the  su- 
pine ;  and  all  verbs  which  in  the  present  have  a  v  before 
eo  undergo  a  sort  of  contraction,  since,  e.  g.,  we  find  cdvi, 
cautum,  instead  of  cavui,  cavitum,  from  caveo ;  but  this 
can  scarcely  be  considered  as  an  irregularity,  since  v  and 
u  was  only  one  letter  with  the  Romans.  Respecting  the 
lengthening  of  the  vowel  in  dissyllabic  perfects,  see  §  18. 

We  shall  subjoin  a  list  of  the  regular  verbs  of  this  con- 
jugation as  exercises  for  the  beginner,  confining  ourselves 
to  the  form  of  the  present. 


Caleo,  am  warm. 

Inchoat.  calesco. 
Careo,  am  without. 
Dcbeo,  owe. 
Doleo,  feel  pain. 
Hcibeo,  have. 

Compounds :    adhibeo,    cohibeo, 
&c.,  a  being  changed  into  i. 
Jdceo,  lie. 
Liceo,  am  to  be  sold. 

Not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
impersonal  licet,  it  is  permitted. 
See  Chap.  LX. 


Mereo,  merit. 
Moneo,  admonish. 
Noceo,  injure. 
Pdreo,  obey  (appear). 

Compound :  appdreo,  appear. 
Placeo,  please. 
Praebeo,  offer,  afford. 
Tdceo,  am  silent. 

The  partic.  tacitus,  is  commonly 
an  adjective. 
Terreo,  terrify. 
Valeo,  am  well. 


152  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

To  these  regular  verbs  we  may  first  add  those  of  which 
we  spoke  shortly  before,  viz.  : 

[§  173.]  (a)   Those  ivliicli  make  the  Perfect  in  vi  instead 
of  vui. 

Cavco,  cavi,  caufitm,  caucre,  take  care. 

Praecaveo,  take  precaution. 

Conriivco,  nivi^  or  nixi  (neither  very  common),  no  supine; 

close  the  eyes. 

Fduco,favi,  fautum,  am  favourable. 
Fdvco,fdvi,fotum,  cherish. 
Movco,  movi,  motum,  move. 

Commoveo  and  permoveo  strengthen  the  meaning  ;  amoveo  and  submo 
veo,  remove  ;  admoveo,  bring  to  ;  promoveo,  bring  forward  ;  removeo,  bring 
back,  or  remove. 

Pavco^pavi  (no  supine),  dread. 

Hence  the  compound  inchoat.  expavesco,  expavi,  is  more  commonly 
used,  especially  in  the  perfect. 

Vovco,  vovi,  votum,  vow  ;  dcvovco,  devote  with  impreca- 
tion. 


FervcO)fervi,  ZJiAferlm  (no  supine),  glow,  am  hot. 

Fervit,fervat,fervcre,  after  the  third  (comp.  Virg.,  Georg.,  i.,  455,  with 
Quintil.,  i.,  6,  7),  is  an  archaism.  The  inchoatives  of  the  third  conju- 
gation, effervesce,  refervesco,  have  the  perfect  in  vi  and  bui  (vi  is  more  fre- 
quent in  Cicero)  ;  in  confervesco,  bui  alone  is  known. 

[§  174.]   (b)    Those  which  make  the  Perfect  in  evi  in- 
stead of  ui. 

Deleo,  delevi,  dclctum,  extinguish,  destroy. 

Flco,flem,flctum,  weep. 

Nco,  nevi,  netum,  spin. 

(From  PleoJtCompleOjCompleviiCompletum,  fill  up;  expleoj 
impleo. 

From  oleo,  grow,  we  have  the  compounds,  dbolco,  abol- 
ish ;  abolesco,  cease  ;  adoleo,  adolesco,  grow  up  ;  exoleo 
or  exolesco,  and  obsoleo  or  obsolesco,  grow  obsolete  ;  all 
of  which  have  evi  in  the  perfect  ;  but  the  supine  of  ab- 
oleo  is  dbolitum,  of  adolcsco,  adultum,  and  the  rest  have 
etum  :  exoletum,  obsoletum.  Besides  abolitwm,  howev- 
er, there  exist  only  the  adjectives  adidtus,  exoletus,  ob- 
soletus. 

[§  175.]  (c)   Those  whicJi  throw  out  the  short  i  in  the 
Supine. 

Doceo,  docui,  doctum,  teach. 

Compounds  :  edoceo  and  perdoceo,  strengthen  the  meaning  ;  dedaceo> 
teach  otherwise. 


SECOND    CONJUGATION.  153 

Tcneo,  tenui  (tentum,  rare),  hold,  keep. 

Abstineo,  abstain ;  attineo,  keep  occupied  by  or  at  a  thing ;  contineo, 
keep  together ;  detineo,  keep  back ;  distineo,  keep  asunder ;  retineo,  re- 
tain ;  sustineo,  keep  upright.  All  these  have  in  the  supine  tentum.  Per- 
tineo,  belong  to,  has  no  supine. 

Miscco,  miscui,  mixtum  or  mistum,  mix. 

Mixtum  is  better  attested  by  MSS.  than  mistum.  Compounds  are,  ad- 
misceo,  commisceo,  immisceo,  permisceo. 

Torrco,  torrui,  tostum,  roast. 

To  these  we  may  add, 

Censeo,  censui,  censum  (participle  also  censltus),  estimate, 
believe. 

Percenseo,  enumerate,  without  supine.  Of  accenseo,  reckon  with,  we 
find  accensus  ;  of  succenseo,  am  angry,  succensurus ;  and  recenseo,  examine, 
makes  both  recensum  and  recensltum,  the  latter  of  which  is,  perhaps,  bet- 
ter attested. 

[§  176.]  (d)    Those  which  make  the  Perfect  regularly 

in  ui,  but  have  no  Supine. 
Arceo,  arcui,  arcere,  keep  off. 

But  the  compounds  coerceo,  coerce ;  exerceo,  exercise,  have  a  supine 
in  itum. 

Calleo,  have  a  hard  skin,  am  skilled  in  (callidus). 

Gandeo,  shine,  glow  (candidus). 

Egeoj  want.     Compound,  indigeo. 

(From  mineoj,  ernmeo,  stand  forth. 

Floreo,  flourish. 

Frondco,  have  foliage  ;  effrondui. 

Horreo,  shudder,  am  horrified  (liorridus). 

Compounds  :  abhorreo,  and  a  number  of  inchoatives  ;  as,  horresco,  per- 
horresco. 

Langueo,  am  languid  (languidus). 
Lateo,  am  concealed. 

Compounds  :  interlateo,  perlateo,  sublateo. 

MadeOj  am  wet  (madidus). 
Niteo,  shine  (nitidus). 

Compounds  :  eniteo,  interniteo,  praeniteo. 

Oleo,  smell. 

Compounds:  aboleo  and  redoleo,  have  the  smell  of;  suboleo,  smell  a 
little. 

Pallco,  am  pale. 
Pateo,  am  open. 
Rigeo,  am  stiff  (rigidus). 
Rubeo,  am  red  (rubidus). 
Sileo,  am  silent. 
Sorbeo,  sorbui,  sip. 

Perf.  sorpsi,  very  rare.     Compounds  ;  absorbeo  and  exsorbeo. 


154  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Sordeo,  am  dirty  (sordidusj. 

Splendeo,  am  splendid  ( splcndidus ) . 

Stiideo,  endeavour,  study. 

Stupco,  am  startled,  astonished  (stupidus). 

Tlmeo,  fear  (timidus). 

Torpco,  am  torpid. 

Tumeo,  swell,  am  swollen  (tumidus). 

Vtgco,  am  animated. 

Vireo,  am  green,  or  flourish. 

Besides  these,  there  is  a  number  of  similar  verbs  which 
are  derived  from  adjectives,  and  occur  more  rarely,  and 
chiefly  in  the  form  of  inchoatives,  for  the  Latin  language 
has  great  freedom  in  the  formation  of  these  intransitive 
verbs,  and  in  that  of  inchoatives  either  with  or  without  a 
primary  form.  Compare  Chap.  LII. 

The  following  are  really  irregular  verbs,  and  follow  the 
analogy  of  the  third  conjugation  : 
[§  177.]     1.    Verbs  which  make  the  Perfect  in  si  and  the 

Supine  in  sum. 

.    7  .  j 

Ardeo,  arsi,  arsum,  ardere,  burn. 

Haereo,  haesi,  liaesum,  cleave. 

Compounds  :  adhaereo,  cohaereo,  inhaereo. 

Jubeo,jussi,  jussum,  command. 

Maneo,  mansi,  mansum,  remain.     (But  memo,  as,  flow.) 

Permaneo  (permanes),  wait  ;  remaneo,  remain  behind. 

Mulcco,  mulsi,  mulsum,  stroke,  caress. 

The  compounds  demulceo  and  permulceo  strengthen  the  meaning. 
The  participle  permulsus  is  certain,  but  demulctus  and  permulctus  like- 
wise occur. 

Mulgeo,  mulsi,  mulsum,  milk. 

Participle  comp.  emulsus.  The  derivative  nouns  mulctus,  us,  the  milk- 
ing, mulctra,  and  mulctrale,  show  that  formerly  mulctum  also  existed. 

Ridco,  risi,  risum,  laugh. 

Compounds:  arrideo  (arrides),  smile  upon  or  please  :  derideo  and  irri- 
deo,  laugh  at,  scorn ;  subrideo,  smile. 

Suadco,  suasi,  suasm?i,  advise. 

Dissuadeo,  dissuade  ;  persuadeo,  persuade  ;  but,  like  suadeo,  with  the 
dative. 

Tergeo,  tersi,  tersum,  tcrgere,  wipe ;  is  used  also  as  a  verb 
of  the  third  conjugation :  tcrgo,  tersi,  tersum,  tergere. 

Cicero  uses  tergo  more  frequently  as  a  verb  of  the  third  conjugation, 
whereas  the  compounds  abstergeo,  detcrgeo,  extergeo,  incline  more  towards 
the  second  (abstergebo,  Cic.,  ad  Q.  Frat.,  ii.,  10),  although  in  these  com- 
pounds, too,  the  forms  of  the  third  are  not  uncommon. 

Of  denseo,  the  ancient  and  poetical  form  for  denso,  den- 
sarc  condense  (see  Bentley  on  Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  28, 19), 


SECOND    CONJUGATION.  155 

the  perfect  densi  is  mentioned  by  the  grammarians,  and 
the  existence  of  a  supine  is  attested  by  the  adjective  dcn- 
sus. 

[§  178.]  2.    Verbs  which  make  the  Perfect  in  si,  but  have 
no  Supine. 

Algco,  alsi,  algerc,  shiver  with  cold. 

The  supine  is  wanting,  but  from  it  is  derived  the  adjective  alsus,  a, 
urn,  cold. 

FulgeOifulsi^fulgere,  shine,  am  bright.    (Fulgere  is  poet- 
ical.) 

Turgeo,  tursi  (rare),  swell. 
TJrgeo  or  urgueo,  ursi,  press. 

3.  Verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  si  and  the  Supine  in  turn. 
Indulgeo,  indulsi,  indultum,  indulge. 

Torqueo,  torsi,  tortum,  twist. 

Compounds  :  conlorqueo,  twist  together  ;  distorqueo,  twist  away;  extor- 
queo,  wrest  out  or  from. 

4.  Verbs  ivith  the  Perfect  in  xi  and  the  Supine  in  turn. 
Augeo,  auxi,  auctum,  increase. 

Luceo,  luxi,  lucere,  shine  ;  has  no  supine. 
Lugeo,  luxi,  lugere,  mourn ;  has  no  supine. 
FrlgeOifrixiifrigere,  am  cold;  has  no  supine. 

[§  179.]  5.    Verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  i  and  the  Supine  in 

sum. 
Prandeo,  prandi,  pransum,  dine.     The  participle  pransus 

has  an  active  signification :  one  who  has  dined. 
Sedeo^sedi,  sessum,  sit. 

AssUeo  (assides},  sit  by  ;  desideo,  sit  down ;  circumsedeo  or  circumsideo, 
surround  ;  insideo,  sit  upon  ;  supersedeo,  do  without ;  possideo,  possess  ; 
dissideo,  dissent ;  praesideo,  preside  ;  resideo,  settle  down.  The  last  three 
have  no  supine. 

Video,  vidi,  visum,  see.  tfefti&.^bS'f. 

Invideo  (invides),  envy,  alicui ;  pervideo,  see  through;  praevideo,  fore- 
see ;  provideo,  provide. 

Strideo,  stridi,  without  supine.     In  poetry  stridere. 

6.    Verbs  with  a  Reduplication  in  the  Perfect. 
Mordeo,  momordi,  morsmn,  bite. 
Pendeo,  pependi,  pensum,  am  suspended. 

Dependeo,  depend,  and  impendeo,  soar  above,  am  impending,  lose  the 
reduplication. 

Spondeo,  spospondi,  sponsum,  vow. 

.Despondeo,  despondi,  promise  ;  responded,  respondi,  answer,  are  like- 
wise without  the  reduplication. 


156  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Tondeo,  totondi,  tonsum,  shear. 

The  compounds  lose  the  reduplication  ;  as,  altondco,  detondea 

[§  180.]  7.    Verbs  without  Perfect  and  Supine. 

Aveo,  desire.     Compare  Chap.  LIX.,  9. 

Calveo,  am  bald  (calvus). 

Canco,  am  gray  (canus). 

Clueo  (also  in  the  passive  clueor,  and  after  the  third  con- 
jugation, duo,  clucrc),  am  called,  is  obsolete. 

Flaveo,  am  yellow  (flavus). 

Foetco,  stink  (foctidus). 

Helco,  am  dull,  stupid  (Jiebes). 

Humco,  am  damp  (humidus). 

Livco,  am  pale  or  envious  (lividus). 

(Mineo)  immineo,  to  be  imminent,  threatening.  Promz- 
neo,  am  prominent. 

Maerco,  moum  (maestus), 

Polleo,  am  strong. 

Renldco,  shine,  smile. 

Scatco,  gush  forth  ( Scatcrc  in  Lucretius), 

SqitalcOj  am  dirty  (squalidus). 

Vegco,  am  gay  (vcgctus). 

Cico,  cierc,  is  the  same  word  as  the  rare  and  obsolete  cio, 
circ,  stir  up ;  both  make  the  perfect  civi,  according  to 
the  fourth  conjugation ;  in  the  supine  they  differ  in 
quantity,  cieo  making  citum,  and  do,  cltmn. 

Note. — In  the  compounds,  too,  e.  g.,  concieo,  excieo,  the  forms  of  the  sec- 
ond and  fourth  conjugation  cannot  be  separated ;  but  we  must  observe 
that,  in  the  signification  of  "to  call,"  the  forms  of  the  fourth  are  preferred, 
e.  g.,  imperf.  cibam,  cirem ;  infinit.  ciri ;  the  participles  concitus  and  excitus 
signify  "  excited  ;"  whereas  excitus  means  "called  out."  Percieo  and  in- 
cieo  retain  the  signification  of  "  to  excite,"  hence  pemtus  and  incitus ;  but 
accire,  to  call  towards,  summon  or  invite  (of  which  the  present  indicative 
does  not  occur),  has  only  accitus.  Derived  from  citum  are :  cito,  quick ;  the 
frequentative  cltare,  and  hence  excito,  incito,  and  suscito. 

[§  181.]  8.  Semideponents.     (See  above,  §  148.) 

Audeo,  ausus  sum,  venture.     (Partic.  future  ausurus.) 

The  ancient  future  subjunctive  (see  $  1G2)  ausim,  ausis,  ausit,  ausint, 
is  a  remnant  of  the  obsolete  perfect  ausi.  The  participle  ausus  and  its 
compound  inausus  are  used  in  poetical  language  with  a  passive  signifi- 
cation. 

Gaudeo,  gavuus  sum,  rejoice.     (Partic.  fut.  gavisurus.) 
Soleo,  solitus  sum,  am  accustomed  (to  do  something). 

The  impersonal  compound  assolet  signifies  "  it  usually  happens." 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  157 


CHAPTER  XL VI. 

THIRD     CONJUGATION. 

IN  the  list  of  verbs  of  this  conjugation  it  seems  to  be 
still  more  necessary  than  in  the  preceding  one  to  include 
those  verbs  which,  according  to  Chapter  XL.,  form  their 
perfect  and  supine  regularly.  We  divide  them  into  sev- 
eral classes  according  to  the  characteristic  letter  which 
precedes  the  o  in  the  present,  agreeably  to  the  method 
which  has  long  since  been  adopted  in  Greek  grammars. 

[§  182.]   1.    Verbs  which  have  a  Vowel  before  o,  including 

those  in  vo. 
The  following  have  the  Perfect  and  Supine  regular  : 

Acuo,  acui,  aciitum,  sharpen. 

Exacuo  and  peracuo,  strengthen  the  meaning ;  praeacuo,  sharpen  at  the 
end. 

Arguo,  accuse,  convict  of  (perf.  passive  in  the  latter  sense 
usually  convictus,  from  convincere).     Argutus,  as  an  ad- 
jective, signifies  "clear." 
Coarguo,  the  same  ;  redarguo,  refute  a  charge. 

Imbuo,  to  dip,  imbue. 

Induo,  put  on  ;  exuo,  strip  off. 

Luo  (participle  luiturusj,  pay,  atone  for. 

Abluo  and  eluo,  wash  off;  polluo,  defile  ;  diluo.  rei'ute,  are  derived  from 
another  luo  (lavo),  and  all  make  the  supine  in  lutum. 

JMimio,  lessen. 

Comminuo,  deminuo,  diminuo,  imminuo,  strengthen  the  meaning. 

(Nuo,  nod,  does  not  occur ;  from  it  are  formed) 

Abnuo,  refuse  ;  annuo,  assent ;  innuo,  allude,  or  refer  to  ;  renuo,  de- 
cline ;  all  of  which  have  no  supine ;  abnuo  alone  has  a  participle  fu- 
ture, abnuiturus. 

Ruo  (supine  ruitum,  ruiturus,  at  least  is  derived  from  it  : 
?'utum  occurs  only  in  compounds,  and  is  otherwise  ob- 
solete), fall. 

Diruo,  diriii,  dirutum,  destroy ;  obruo,  overwhelm ;  proruo,  rush  for- 
ward. Corruo,  fall  down  ;  and  irruo,  rush  on,  have  no  supine. 

Spuo,  spit. 

Conspuo,  spit  on  ;  despuo,  reject  with  disgust. 

Statuo,  establish. 

Constituo  and  instituo,  institute  ;  restituo,  re-establish ;  subttituo,  es- 
tablish instead  of;  destitno,  abandon. 
O 


158  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Sternuo,  sneeze  (without  supine) ;  the  frequentative  ster- 

nuto  is  more  commonly  used. 
Suo,  sew. 

Consuo,  sew  together ;  dissuo  and  resuo,  unsew. 

Triluo,  allot  to. 

Attribuo,  the  same  ;  distribuo,  divide  ;  contribuo,  contribute. 

Solvo,  solvi,  solutum,  loosen. 

Absolve,  acquit ;  dissolve,  dissolve  ;  exsolvo,  release  ;  persolvo,  pay. 

Volvo,  roll  (frequentative  voluto). 

volvo,  unroll ;  involve,  roll  up  ;  pervolvo,  read  through. 

The  following  are  without  a  Supine  : 
Congruo,  congrui,  agree,  and  ingruo,  penetrate.     The  sim- 
ple verb  (gruo  or  ruo  ?)  does  not  exist. 
Mctuo,  mctui,  fear.  (  Thnco,  likewise  without  supine.)    So 

Priscian.  But  mctutum  occurs  in  Lucret.,  v.,  1139. 
Pluo,  pluvi,  usually  impersonal,  it  rains.  Priscian  knows 
only  the  perfect  plui,  which  often  occurs  in  Livy.  Cha- 
risius  mentions  pluxi.  Impluvi  or  implui  are  doubtful. 
The  comp.  compluo  and  perpluo  do  not  occur  in  the  per- 
fect. 

The  following  are  irregular: 

[§  183.]    Capio,  cepi,  captum,  capere,  take  hold  of. 

The  compounds  change  a  into  7,  and  in  the  supine  a  into  e,  except  an- 
tecapio.  Accipio,  receive  ;  excipio,  receive  as  a  guest,  succeed  ;  recipio, 
recover;  suscipio,  undertake;  decipio,  deceive;  percipio,  comprehend; 
praecipio,  give  a  precept. 

Fdcio,feci,factum,  do,  make. 

Arefacio,  dry  up ;  assuefacio  and  consuefacio,  accustom  ;  calefacio  and 
tepefacio,  warm  ;  frigefacio,  cool ;  labefacio,  make  to  totter ;  patefacio, 
open  ;  satisfacio,  satisfy.  These  have,  in  the  passive,  -fio,  -factus  sum, 
-fieri.  But  those  which  change  a  into  ?  form  their  own  passive  iil  -ficior, 
and  make  the  supine  in  -fectum :  affzcio,  affect ;  conficio  and  perficio,  com- 
plete ;  deficio,  fall  off,  am  wanting ;  interficio,  kill ;  proficiot  make  prog- 
ress ;  reficio,  revive,  repair ;  officio,  stand  in  the  way,  injure.  Confit, 
confieri, "however,  is  used  as  a  passive  of  conficio,  but  only  in  the  third 
person,  and  not  by  Cicero.  Defit,  it  is  wanting,  is  common  in  the  comic 
writers. 

Other  compounds  of  facio  follow  the  first  conjugation  :  amplifico,  sac- 
rifico,  and  the  deponents  gratificor,  ludificor. 

Jacio,  jeci,  jactum,  throw. 

The  compounds  change  a  into  i,  and  in  the  supine  into  e,  except  su- 
per jacio,  of  which,  however,  superjectum  also  is  found.  Abjlcio,  throw 
away ;  adjicio,  add ;  dejicio,  throw  down ;  ejicio,  throw  out ;  injicio,  throw 
in ;  objicio,  throw  against ;  rejicio,  throw  back  ;  transjicio  or  trajicio, 
throw  or  carry  across.  These  compounds  are  sometimes  found  with  i 
instead  of^'z:  abicere,inicere,reicere  (in  the  last  ei  is  a  diphthong  in  Virg., 
Eel.,  iii.,  96  :  a  flumine  reice  capellas)  ;  and  this  pronunciation  was  with 
the  ancients  much  more  frequent,  or,  perhaps,  the  common  one,  for  in 
MSS.  it  is  written  so  almost  everywhere;  and  Priscian  mentions  a  form 


THIRD    CONJUGATION.  159 

icio  as  synonymous  with  jacio.  No  certain  conclusion,  however,  can  be 
come  to,  as  the  most  ancient  MSS.,  such  as  the  Codex  Mediceus  of  Vir- 
gil, have  a  simple  i  where  the  length  of  the  preceding  syllable  shows 
the  existence  of  the  consonant  j. 

[§  184.]   The  following  have  x  in  the  Perfect : 
(From  the  obsolete  lacio,  entice,  of  which  lacto  is  the 

frequentative),  allicio,  exi,  ectum,  allure;  illicio,  entice  in; 

petticio,lea.d  astray;  but  elicio  makes  elicui,  elicitum^  draw 

out. 

(From  spccio,  xi,  ctum,  see,  of  which  the  frequentative  is 
spectoj,  aspicio,  exi,  ectum,  look  on;  conspicio^  the  same; 
despicio,  look  down,  despise ;  dispicio  and  perspicio,  un- 
derstand ;  inspido,  look  into ;  respicio,  look  back ;  sus- 
picio,  look  up,  reverence. 

FluOyJli£xi,Jluctum,  flow. 

Affluo,  flow  in ;  confluo,  flow  together ;  effluo,  flow  out ;  interfluo,  flow 
between. 

Struo,  struxi,  structum,  build,  pile. 

Construe  and  exstruo,  build  up ;  destruo,  pull  down ;  instruo,  set  in 
order. 

Vivo,  vixi,  victum,  live.  '^/"  v 

[§  185.]  Other  Irregularities. 

Fddio,fodi,fossum,  dig. 

Effodio,  dig  out;  confodio  and  perfodio,  dig,  pierce  through;  suffodio, 
undermine. 

Fugio,fugi,fugitum,  flee. 

Aufugio  and  effugio,  flee  away,  escape ;  confugio  and  perfugio,  take 
refuge. 

Cupio,  -ivi,  -itum,  desire. 

Discupio,  percupio,  strengthen  the  meaning.  Concupio  only  in  the 
participle  concupiens,  otherwise  concupisco. 

Rapio,  rapui,  raptum,  rob,  snatch. 

Arripio,  arripui,  arreptum,  seize  ;  abripio  and  eripio,  snatch  away ; 
deripio,  plunder ;  surripio,  steal  clandestinely. 

JParzo,  peperi)  partum,  bring  forth.     (But  the  particip.  fut. 

act.  pariturus.)     Lucretius  has  pariri. 
Quatio  (qiiassi  is  not  found),  quassum,  shake. 

ConcutiO)  ussi,  ussum,  shake  violently;  discutio,  shake  asunder;  excutio, 
shake  out,  off  (fig.  examine);  incutio,  drive  into;  percutio,  strike;  reper- 
cutio,  rebound. 

Sapio,  ivi  and  ui  (no  supine),  am  wise. 

Desipio  (without  perfect),  am  foolish  ;  resipio,  have  a  taste  of,  or  be- 
come wise  again. 

(From  the  obsolete  present  cocpioj,  cocpi  and  coeptus  sum, 
coeptum  (coepere),  have  begun.  See  §  221. 


160  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  XLVII. 
[§  186.]  2.  VERBS  IN  "DO"  AND  "TO." 

The  following  are  regular: 
Claudo,  clausi,  clausum,  claudere,  close. 

Conclude,  shut  up,  conclude ;  excludo  and  secludo,  shut  out ;  includo, 
shut  in,  are  all  derived  from  a  form  cludo  which  is  still  in  use. 

Divido,  divisi,  divisum,  divide. 
Lacdo,  injure. 

Allldo,  strike  against;  illldo,  strike  upon;  collido,  strike  together; 
elido,  strike  out. 

Ludo,  sport. 

Colludo,  play  with ;  alludo,  play  upon ;  eludo,  delude,  and  illudo,  ridi- 
cule. 

Plaudo,  si,  sum,  clap. 

Applaudo,  applaud.  The  other  compounds  (with  a  different  pronun- 
ciation) have  -ddo,  -osi,  -osum ;  as,  explodo,  explode ;  complodo,  clap  the 
hands ;  supplodo,  stamp  with  the  feet. 

Rado,  sliave,  scrape  ;    so  in  abrado,  circumrado,  derado, 

crado  ;  corrado,  scrape  together. 
Rodo,  gnaw. 

Abrddo  and  derodo,  gnaw  off;  arrodo,  nibble  ;  circumrodo,  nibble  all 
round  ;  perrodo,  gnaw  through. 

Trudo,  thrust,  with  its  compounds ;  dctrudo,  thrust  down ; 

extrudo,  thrust  out ;  protrudo,  thrust  forward. 
Vado  (no  perfect  or  supine),  go. 

But  evddo,  evasi,  evasum,  escape  ;  invado,  attack  ;  pervado,  go  through. 

[§  187.]   The  following  are  irregular: 
(a)    With  a  Reduplication  in  the  Perfect. 

Cado,  cecidi,  casum,  fall. 

Of  the  compounds,  these  have  a  supine  :  incldo,  incidi,  incasum,  fall  in 
or  upon ;  occido,  set ;  recido,  fall  back.  The  rest  have  none  :  concido, 
sink  together;  deado,  fall  down;  excido,  fall  out  of;  accidit,  it  happens 
(used  most  commonly  of  a  misfortune). 

Caedo,  cecidi,  caeSum,  cut. 

Abscido,  abscidi,  absclsum,  cut  off;  concido,  cut  to  pieces ;  incldo,  cut 
into ;  occido,  kill ;  recido,  cut  away.  So  decido,  excido,  praecldo,  and 
others. 

Pedo,  pepedi  (peditum),  TrepdeoOai. 
Pendo,  pependi,  pensum,  weigh. 

Appendo,  appendi,  appensum,  weigh  out  to ;  expendo,  spend,  also  con- 
sider, like  perpendo ;  suspendo,  hang  from  ;  dependo,  pay ;  impendo,  em- 
ploy upon  or  in  something.  See  §  179. 

)  tetendi,  tensum  and  tentum,  stretch. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION.  161 

Extendo,  ostendo,  protendo,  and  retendo  have  both  supines  ;  but  ex-  and 
protentum  are  more  frequent ;  but  ostensum.  Retentus  is  found  only  in 
Ovid,  Metam.,  iii.,  166,  retensus  only  in  Phaedrus,  iii.,  14,  5.  Detendo  has 
detensus,  in  Caes.,  B.  C.,  iii.,  85 :  this  participle  does  not  elsewhere  oc- 
cur. The  other  compounds  have  only  turn  in  the  supine :  attendo  (sc. 
animwri),  attend;  contendo  (sc.  me),  strive;  distendo,  separate,  or  enlarge 
by  stretching  ;  intendo,  strain  ;  obtendo  and  praetendo,  commonly  used  in 
the  figurative  sense  of  alleging ;  subtendo,  stretch  beneath. 

Tundo,  tutndi,  tunsum  and  tusum,  beat,  pound. 

The  compounds  have  only  tusum  ;  contundo,  contudi,  contusum,  pound 
small ;  extundo  (figurative),  elaborate  ;  obtundo  and  retundo,  blunt. 

Credo ,  credldi,  creditum,  believe. 

Accredo,  accredidi,  give  credit  to. 

The  compounds  of  do,  except  those  mentioned  in  §  171. 

Condo,  condidi,  conditum,  build,  conceal ;  abdo,  abdidi,  hide.  So  addo, 
add  ;  dedo,  give  up  ;  edo,  give  out,  publish ;  perdo,  ruin,  lose  ;  reddo,  give 
back,  render,  with  an  adjective  of  quality;  trado,  deliver  ;  vendo,sel\.  (The 
passive  vendi,  except  the  participles  venditus  and  vendendus,  is  rare,  and 
occurs  only  in  late  writers  ;  venire  is  used  instead.  See  $  215.  But  ab- 
scondo  appears  in  the  perfect  more  frequently  without  the  reduplication, 
abscondi,  than  with  it,  abscondidi.) 

[§  188.]   (1))  Making  di  in  the  Perfect,  and  sum  in  the 
Supine. 

Accendo,  incendo,  succendo,  -cendi,  -censum,  light,  kindle. 
Cudo,  forge. 

Excudo  and  procudo,  fashion,  hammer  out. 

Defendo,  defend,  ward  off. 
Edo,  eat.     See  §  212. 

Extdo  and  comedo,  -edi,  -esum  (but  also  comestus),  consume.    Ibid. 

Ma?ido  (perfect  very  rare),  chew. 
Ojfcndo,  offend. 

Prchendo,  seize ;    in   early  times   frequently   contracted 
into  prendo. 

Apprehendo,  comprehendo,  lay  hold  of  (figurative),  understand;  depre- 
hendo,  detect,  seize  in  the  fact ;  reprehendo,  blame. 

Scando,  climb. 

Ascendo  and  escendo,  climb  tip  ;  descendo,  descend ;  conscendo  and  in- 
scendo,  mount,  embark. 

Strido    (also  strldeo),  stndi  (no  supine),  grate,  make  a 

harsh  noise. 
Fundo,  fiidi,  fusum,  pour. 

Diffundo,  pour  out,  spread  abroad  ;  offundo,  pour  over  ;  prof  undo,  waste; 
offundo,  confundo,  effundo,  infundo. 

[§189.]  (c)  Other  Irregularities,  especially  tJiat  of  a  double 

s  in  the  Supine. 
Cedo,  cessi,  ccssum,  yield,  go. 

Abscedo,  go  away  ;  accedo,  go  to  ;  antecedo,  surpass  ;  concedo,  give  way; 
decedo,  go  away;  discedo,  separate  myself;  excedo,  go  out;  incedo,  march; 

O  2 


162  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

intercede,  come  between,  interpose  ;  recede,  retreat ;  succedo,  come  into 
one's  place. 

Findo,fidi,Jissum,  split. 

Diffindo,  diffidi,  split  asunder. 

Scindo,  scidi,  scissum^  cut. 

Conscindo,  conscidi,  conscissum,  tear  to  pieces;  e.  g.,  vestem,  epistolam ; 
discindo,  inlerscindo  (e.  g.,  pontem),  perscindo,  and  proscindo  have  similar 
meanings.  Rescindo,  annul.  Respecting  the  forms  of  abscindo,  cut  off, 
and  exscindo,  destroy,  there  is  considerable  doubt.  According  to  Gro- 
novius  on  Livy,  xliv.,  5,  and  Drakenborch  on  Silius  Ital.,  xv.,  473,  two 
analogous  formations  are  now  generally  distinguished:  abscindo,  abscidi, 
abscisswn,  and  exscindo,  exscidi,  exscissum  ;  and  abscissum  and  cxcissum  are 
said  to  occur  where  the  present  is  abscindo,  exscindo ;  but  abscisum  and 
excisum  where  abscido  and  excido  are  derived  from  caedo.  But  this  sup- 
position is  contradicted  by  usage  ;  for  we  find,  e.  g.,  urbes  excises,  although 
exscindere  urbem  is  a  frequent  expression  ;  and  all  the  MSS.  of  Horace, 
Serm.,  ii.,  3,  303,  have  caput  abscisum,  although  we  may  say  abscindere 
caput.  In  short,  our  opinion  is,  that  the  forms  abscissum  and  exscissum 
do  not  exist  at  all,  because  in  pronunciation  they  are  the  same  as  ab- 
scisum and  excisum,  from  absciderc  and  excidere,  whose  signification  is  not 
very  different ;  and,  moreover,  that  the  perfect  exscidi,  also,  is  not  founded 
on  any  authority,  since  the  s  by  which  it  is  distinguished  is  not  heard 
in  pronunciation,  and  is  better  not  introduced  in  writing.  Respecting 
the  pronunciation  and  orthography,  see  <$>  6,  and  Chap.  LXVI.  Thus 
there  remain  only  abscindo,  abscidi,  abscindere,  and  excindo,  excindere. 

Frendo  (the  perfect  does  not  occur),  frcssum  and  Jresum, 

gnash  with  the  teeth  ;  also  frcndeo,J render -e. 
M.eto,  messuij  mcssum,  cut,  reap. 

Demeto,  cut  off.  The  perfects  messui  and  demessui  are  not  common ; 
in  the  sense  of  reaping,  ?nessemfeci  is  more  commonly  used. 

Ittilto,  misi,  missum,  send. 

Admitto,  admit,  commit ;  amitto,  lose ;  committo,  intrust,  commit  a 
fault ;  demitto  and  dimitto,  dismiss  ;  emitto,  send  forth ;  immitto,  send  in, 
against  ;  intermitto,  omit  ;  omitto  and  praetermitto,  leave  out ;  permitto, 
permit ;  promitto,  promise ;  remitto,  send  back ;  submitto,  send  up,  send 
aid. 

Pando,  pandi,  passum  (pansum  rare),  spread  abroad. 

Expando  has  expansum  and  expassum  ;  dispando  only  dispansum. 

Peto,  pctivi  (in  poetry,  especially  in  compounds,  petii), 
pcfitum,  ask,  seek. 

Appcto  and  expcto,  strive  for ;  oppeto,  encounter ;  repelo,  repeat,  seek 
again  ;  competo,  meet  together,  correspond. 

Sido  (the  perfect  and  supine  usually  from  scdcoj,  sit  down. 

The  compounds,  too,  usually  take  the  perfect  and  supine  from  sedeo: 

cons'ido,  consedi,  consessum  ;  so  assido,  seat  myself  beside  ;  subsido,  sink  ; 

insido,  sit  upon  ;  desido^  and  rcsido,  seat  myself  down.     But  the  form  sidi 

cannot  be  entirely  denied,  either  in  the  simple  verb  or  its  compounds. 

SistOj  stiti  (obsolete),  statum,  stop  (whence  status},  but 
sisto,  in  a  neutral  sense,  makes  the  perfect  and  supine 
from  stare. 

The  compounds  are  all  intransitive,  and  have  stiti,  stitum ;  subsisto, 
substiti,  substltum,  stand  still ;  absisto  (no  supine)  and  desisto,  desist ;  as- 
sisto,  place  myself  beside ;  consisto,  halt,  consist;  existo,  come  forth 


THIRD    CONJUGATION.  163 

(perf.  exist) ;  insisto,  tread  upon  ;  obsisto  and  resisto,  resist ;  persisto,  per- 
sist. Those  compounded  with  dissyllabic  prepositions  may  make  the 
perfect  in  steti,  e.  g.,  circumsteti  in  Suet.,  Cues.,  82 ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii.,  52. 

Sterto,  stertui  (no  supine),  snore ;  the  perf.  sterti  rests  on 
the  authority  of  the  old  reading  in  Ov.,  Her.,  viii.,  21. 
Verto,  verti,  versum,  turn. 

Adverto  and  converto,  turn  towards  ;  animadverto  (animum  adverto},  turn 
attention  to  ;  averto,  turn  from ;  everto,  destroy ;  perverto  and  subverto, 
overturn. 

Deverto,  turn  in  to  a  house  of  entertainment ;  praeverto,  anticipate  ; 
and  reverto,  turn  back ;  are  used  in  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future 
as  deponents  more  commonly  than  as  actives. 

Fldo,flsus  sum,jidere,  trust. 

So  confido,  confide ;  diffido,  distrust ;  which  have  rarely  confidi,  diffi- 
di,  in  the  perfect. 


CHAPTER  XL  VIII. 

[§   190.]    3.    VERBS    IN    "BO"    AND    "  PO." 

Regular  are  : 
Gliibo  (glupsi),  gluptum  (at  least,  degluptwn  is  found), 

glubere,  peel. 

Nubo,  cover,  am  married  (applied  only  to  the  female), 
participle  nupta,  one  who  is  married. 
Obnubo,  cover  over. 

Scribo,  write. 

Descnbo,  copy  ;  adscribo,  inscribo,  praescribo,  &c. 

Ca?'po,  pluck. 

Concerpo  and  discerpo,  tear  asunder ;  decerpo,  gather. 

Repo,  creep. 

Arrepo,  creep  up  to  ;  irrepo,  obrepo,  subrepo,  prorepo. 

Scalpo,  grave  with  a  pointed  tool,  or  scratch  with  the  fin- 
ger. 
Sculpo,  work  with  the  chisel. 

Exculpo,  cut  out ;  insctilpo,  engrave. 

Serpo,  creep.     The  supine  has  not  yet  been  found. 

Inserpo,-  proserpo. 

[§  191.]   The  following  are  irregular: 

The  compounds  of  cubarc,  to  lie,  which  take  an  m  with  a 
change  of  meaning ;  those  which  do  not  change  the 
simple  cubare  denote  "  to  lie  ;"  the  compounds  of  the  3d 
Conjugation  commonly  signify  "to  lay  one's  self  down.'' 
Accumbo,  -cubui,  -cubitum,  recline  at  table  ;  incumbo,  lean  upon,  apply 
to  something  ;  procumbo,  lie  down;  succumbo,  fall  under  ;  occumbo  (suppl. 
mortem'),  die. 


164  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Bibo,  bibi,  bibttum,  drink. 

JEbibo,  imbibo. 

Lambo,  Iambi  (lambitum,  Priscian),  lambere,  lick. 
RumpOj  rupi,  ruptum,  break,  tear. 

Abrumpo,  break  off ;  erumpo,  break  out ;  corrumpo,  destroy ;  interrumpo, 
interrupt ;  irrumpo,  break  in  ;  perrumpo,  break  through ;  prorumpo,  break 
forth. 

Scabo,  scabi,  scabere,  scratch  with  the  finger. 
Strepo,  strepui,  strepttum,  make  a  noise. 


CHAPTER  XLIX. 

[§  192.]  4.  VERBS  WITH  A  PALATAL  LETTER,  "  G,  C,  CT, 
H,  QU,"  AND  "Gil"  (iN  WHICH  "u"  IS  NOT  CONSIDER- 
ED AS  A  VOWEL),  BEFORE  "  O." 

Regular  are : 

Cingo,  vinxi,  cinctum,  cingere,  gird,  surround. 

Accingo,  in  the  passive,  or  me,  has  the  same  meaning ;  discingo,  ungird , 
and  others. 

FromfagOj  which  rarely  occurs,  are  formed: 

Affligo,  strike  to  the  ground  ;  confligo,  fight ;  infligo,  strike  upon.  Pro 
fiigo  belongs  to  the  first  conjugation. 

Frigo    (supine    regular,  frictum,  rarely  frixumj,   roast, 

parch. 
Jungo,  join. 

Adjungo  and  conjungo,  join  to,  with;  disjungo  and  sejungo,  separate; 
subjungo,  annex. 

Lingo,  lick.     (Hence  ligurio  or  ligurrio.) 
Mungo,  blow  the  nose  (rare) ;  cmungo. 
Plango,  beat,  lament. 
Rego,  rule,  guide. 

Arrigo,  arrexi,  arrectum,  and  engo,  raise  on  high ;  corrigo,  amend ;  dingo, 
direct  ;porrigo,  stretch  out.  Pergo  (for  perrigo),  perrexi,  perrectum,  go  on ; 
surgo  (for  surrigo],  surrexi,  surrectum,  rise ;  and  hence  assurgo,  consurgo, 
exurgo,  insurgo. 

Sugo,  suck,  exugo. 
Tcgo,  cover. 

Contego  and  obtego,  cover  up  ;  detego  and  retego,  uncover  j  protego,  pro- 
tect. 

Tingo  or  tinguo,  dip,  dye. 

Ungo  or  unguo,  anoint. 

Perungo  strengthens  the  meaning ;  inungo,  anoint. 

Stinguti,  put  out  (has  no  perfect  or  supine,  and  is  of  rare 
occurrence). 


THIRD  CONJUGATION.  165 

Compounds  :  extinguo  and  restinguo,  -inxi,  -inctum  ;  so  distinguo  and 
instinguo,  though  from  a  different  root,  the  Greek  ort£u.  Only  the  par- 
ticiple mstinctus  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "  spurred  on,  inspired,"  and  no 
other  tense  is  found  (otherwise  instlgare  is  used). 

TraJw,  draw. 

Pertraho  strengthens  the  meaning ;  attraho,  contraho,  detraho,  extraho, 
protraho,  retraho  ;  subtraho,  withdraw  secretly. 

Veho,  carry  (active) ;  frequent.,  vecto,  -as. 

Adveho,  carry  to  ;  inveho,  carry  or  bring  in.  The  passive  of  this  verb 
vehor,  vectus  sum,  vehi,  is  best  rendered  by  a  neuter  verb  of  motion.  So 
circumvehor,  travel  round  ;  practervehor,  sail  past ;  invehor,  inveigh  against. 
These  verbs,  therefore,  are  classed  among  the  deponents. 

Dico,  say. 

Addico,  adjudge  ;  contradico,  edico^  indico ;  interdico,  forbid ;  praedico. 

Duco,  guide,  lead,  draw. 

Abduco,  adduce,  circumduco  •  conduce,  hire  ;  deduco,  diduco,  educe,  induco, 
introduce,  obduco,  perduco,  produce,  reduce ;  seduce,  lead  aside  j  subduco, 
traduce. 

Coquo,  coxi,  coctu?n,  dress. 

Concoquo,  digest ;  decoquo,  boil  down,  squander. 

[§  193.]     Irregular  in   the    Supine,  throwing  out  n,   or 

assuming  x. 
Fingo,jinxi,Jictum,  feign. 

Conjingo,  the  same ;  affingo,  falsely  ascribe ;  effingo,  imitate ;  refingo, 
fashion  anew. 

JVLingo  (a  more  common  form  of  the  present  is  meio), 

minxi,  mictum,  make  water. 
Pingo,  pinxi,  pictum,  paint. 

Depingo,  represent  by  painting  ;  appingo,  expingo. 

Stringo,  strinxi,  strictum,  squeeze  together. 

Astringo,  draw  close  ;  constringo,  draw  together  ;  dfstringo,  draw  out ; 
distrin'go,  draw  asunder ;  obstringo,  bind  by  obligation ;  perstringo,  ridi- 
cule. 

Figo,jixi,  fixum,  fasten. 

Affigo,  affix  ;  transfigo,  pierce  through. 

Verbs  in  cto,  in  wliicli  t  only  strengthens  the  form  of  the 
Present. 

Flccto,jlcxi,jlcxuin,  bend.     Comp.  inflecto. 

Necto,  nexi  and  ncxui,  nexum,  bind. 

Pccto,  pexi,  pexum,  comb. 

Plecto,  without  perfect  and  supine,  from  the  Greek  7iXi]OOw, 
strike  ;  usually  only  in  the  passive,  plcctor,  am  punish- 
ed, smart  for.  Another  plecto,  from  the  Greek  rrAe/ica), 
twist,  is  obsolete  as  an  active,  but  forms  the  foundation 
of  the  deponents:  amplcctor,  complcctor ;  participle  am- 
plexus,  complexus. 


166  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Of  ango,  anxi,  torment ;  and  ningo,  ninxi,  snow,  no  supine 
is  found. 

Of  dango,  ring  loudly,  neither  perfect  nor  supine ;  ac- 
cording to  analogy,  the  former  would  be  clanxi. 

[§  194.]   The  following  are  irregular  in  the  formation  of 
the  Perfect : 

(a)   Taking  a  'Reduplication. 

Parco,  pepcrci,  parsum,  spare ;  parsi  is  rare,  and  an  archa- 
ism ;  parcitum  is  uncertain. 

The  distinction  is  commonly  made,  that,  in  the  sense  of  sparing  life, 
health,  peperci,  parcitum,  in  that  of  sparing  money,  parsi,  parsum,  are 
used  ;  but  the  distinction  cannot  be  carried  put,  for  the  sense  is,  in  fact, 
the  same,  viz.,  to  consume  as  little  as  possible  of  anything.  Parco  or 
comparer),  -parsi  or  -persi,  -parsum,  to  accumulate  by  saving,  with  the  ac- 
cus.,  occurs,  indeed,  in  comedy ;  but  this  use  of  the  word  is  very  rare, 
and  does  not  seem  to  have  been  common  in  ordinary  life,  where  other 
expressions  were  used,  such  as  pecuniam  facere,  or  in  futures  usus  colli- 
gere,  and  parco  retained  its  dative  and  its  ordinary  meaning. 

Pungo,  pupugi,  punctum,  pierce. 

The  compounds  have  in  the  perfect  punxi ;  as,  compungo,  dispungo,  and 
interpungo,  distinguish  with  points. 

Tango,  tcfigi,  tactum,  touch. 

Attingo  and  contingo,  -tigi,  -tactum,  touch  ;  contingit,  contigit  ;  obtingit, 
obt'igit  (as  impersonals),  it  falls  to  the  lot  ;  usually  in  a  good  sense. 

Pan-go  t  in  the  sense  of  strike,  drive  in,  panxi,  (obsolete 
pcgi),  panctum  ;  in  the  sense  of  bargain,  pepigi,  pac- 
tum.  In  this  sense  paciscor  is  employed  in  the  present. 

The  compounds  have  pegi,  pactum  ;  as,  compingo,  fasten  together;  im- 
pingo.  So,  also,  oppango,  oppegi,  strike  vipon.  Of  depango  and  repango, 
the  perfect  and  supine  are  found  in  the  classics. 

[§  195.]   (1))    Without  changing  the  Characteristic  Letter. 

Ago,  egi,  actum,  agere,  drive. 

Cogo  (coago),  cocgi,  coactum,  drive  together,  force ;  perago,  carry 
through  ;  abigo,  drive  away  ;  adigo,  exigo,  redigo,  subigo,  transigo.  Pro- 
digo,  -egi  (without  supine),  squander;  ambigo,^am  irresolute,  doubt,  and 
satago  (satis  ago),  am  busy,  are  both  without  perfect  and  supine. 

Dego,  dcgi  (rare),  no  supine,  spend  fvitam,  aetatem). 
Frango ,  fregi  fr actum ,  bre ak . 

Confringo  and  perfringo  strengthen  the  meaning ;  ejfringo  and  refringo, 
break  open. 

Lego,  legi,  lectum,  read.     (But  lego,  as,  send  off.) 

So  perlego,  praelego,  with  those  changing  e  into  i ;  as,  colligo,  deligo,  eli- 
go,  and  seligo,  are  conjugated.  But  diligo,  intelligo  (obsolete  intdltgo), 
and  negligo  (obsolete  neglego),  have  -exi  in  the  perfect.  The  perfects  in- 
tellegi  and  ncglegi  are  uncertain  or  unclassical. 

Ico  or  ido,  id,  ictum,  strike,  in  connexion  with  foedus. 
Priscian  (p.  877  and  886)  mentions  both  forms,  but 


THIRD    CONJUGATION.  167 

nothing  can  be  decided,  as  wit  only  occurs  in  the  pres- 
ent, and  iciunt  in  Tacitus  (Ann.,  xi.,  9)  is  only  a  wrong 
conjecture  fo?  facmnt.     Otherwise  ferio  is  used  in  the 
present  instead. 
Vinco,  vici,  victum,  conquer. 

Convinco,  persuade ;  devinco,  overcome  ;  evinco,  carry  a  point,  estab- 
lish by  argument. 

Linquo,  liqui,  leave  (no  supine),  chiefly  used  in  poetry. 

The  compounds  relinquo,  derelinquo,  delinquo,  have  Uctum  in  the  supine. 

[§  196.]   (c)  Perfect  si,  Supine  sum. 
Mergo,  mersi,  mersum,  dip. 

J^mergo,  demergo,  and  immergo,  submergo. 

Spargo,  sparsi,  sparsum,  scatter. 

Aspergo,   conspergo,    and   respergo,   -ersi,  -ersum,   besprinkle ;    expergo, 
sprinkle  abroad. 

Tergo,  tersi,  tersum,  wipe.     (See  above,  §  177.) 
Vcrgo,  vcrgere,  incline  towards,  without  perfect  and  su- 
pine. 


CHAPTER  L. 

[§    197.]    5.    VERBS   WHICH  HAVE   UL,  M,  N,  R"  BEFORE  "o." 

Regular  verbs  in  mo. 
Como,  compsi,  comptum,  comere,  adorn. 
Demo,  take  away. 
.Promo,  bring  out. 

Depromo,  cxpromo,  the  same  in  signification. 
Sumo,  take. 

Absumo  and  consumo,  consume  ;  assumo,  desumo. 

Temno,  temnere,  despise  (poetical). 

Contem.no,  contempsi,  contemptum,  the  same  meaning. 

Irregular. 

[§  198.]  (a)    Conjugated  according  to  the  Analogy  of  tlie 
Second  Conjugation. 

AIo,  alui,  alitum  (or  altum),  alerc,  nourish. 

Altus  occurs  in  Cicero  and  Sallust ;  afterward  alitus  becomes  the 
common  form,  as  in  Livy  and  Val.  Maximus.  See  Garatoni  on  Cic.,  p. 
Plane.,  33. 

Colo,  colui,  cultum,  till. 

Excolo  and  percolo  strengthen  the  meaning;  incolo,  inhabit  a  country. 

Consulo,  consului,  consultum,  ask  advice. 
Molo,  molui,  molitum,  grind. 


168  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Occulo,  occului,  occultum,  conceal. 
Fremo,fremui,  fremitum,  murmur. 

Adfremo,  confremo. 

Gemo,  gcmui,  gemitum,  groan. 

Congemo  (congemisco),  ingemo  (ingemisco'),  ui,  no  supine,  lament. 

Tremo,  tremui  (no  supine),  tremble. 

Conlremo  strengthens  the  meaning. 

Vomo,  vomui,  vomitum,  vomit. 

Evomo,  revorno. 

Gigno,  beget,  has  (from  the  obsolete  genoj,  genui,  geni- 
tum. 

Ingigno,  implant ;  progigno,  bring  forth. 

Pono,  posui  (posivi  obs.),  positum^  place. 

Afittpono,  prefer ;  appono,  place  by  ;  compono,  arrange ;  depono,  lay 
down ;  dispono,  set  out,  or  in  order ;  expono,  explain ;  oppono,  oppose ; 
postpone,  to  place  after ;  praepono,  prefer ;  sepono,  set  on  one  side.  Re- 
specting the  short  o  in  the  perfect  and  supine,  see  §  18,  3. 

(From  the  obsolete  cello ) — 

Antccello,  excello,  praecello,  iti  (without  supine),  surpass ;  but  percello, 
perculi,  pcrculsum,  strike  down. 

[§  199.]  (b)  Forming  the  Perfect  icitli  Redujrtication. 
Cano,  cecini,  cantum,  cancrc,  sing. 

Succlno,  succinui,  succentum,  sing  to  ;  so  occino  (or  occano"),  sing,  sound 
against ;  concino,  ui,  harmonize,  or,  in  an  active  sense,  begin  a  song, 
without  supine,  but  the  substantive  concentus  is  derived  from  it.  Of 
accino,  intercino,  and  recino  (or  rccano)  no  perfect  or  supine  is  found  ;  but 
from  accino  we  have  the  substantive  accentus. 

Curro,  cucurri,  cur  sum,  run. 

The  compounds  accurro,  decurro,  excurro,  incurro,  percurro,  praecurro, 
and  others,  sometimes  retain,  but  more  frequently  drop  the  reduplica- 
tion in  the  perfect. 

Fallo,fefelli,falsum,  cheat. 

Refello,  refelli  (no  supine),  refute. 

Pello,  pepuli,  pulsum,  drive  away. 

Appello,  app'&li,  appulsum,  come  to  land.  In  the  same  way  are  con- 
jugated compello,  urge,  compel ;  depello,  propello,  repello,  drive  away  ; 
expello,  drive  out ;  impello  and  perpello,  urge  on. 

[§  200.]  (c)  Making  vi  in  the  Perfect. 
Cerno,  crevi,  crctum,  separate,  see,  perceive.  In  the  sense 
of  seeing,  perceiving,  the  verb  has  neither  perfect  nor 
supine.  The  perfect  crevi  is  used  in  juristical  lan- 
guage in  the  sense  of  decrevi,  and  in  the  phrase  hcredi- 
tatem  cernere,  for  licreditatem  adire. 

Compounds  :  Decerno,  decrevi,  decretum,  decree  ;  so  discerno,  excerno, 
secerno,  separate,  distinguish. 

Lino,  levi  (or  livi),  Ittum,  srnear. 

CoUtno,  illino,  perlino,  oblino  (participle  oblitus,  not  to  be  confounded 


THIRD    CONJUGATION.  169 

with  obUlus,  from  obliviscor],  perlino,  besmear.  There  is  also  a  regular 
verb  of  the  fourth  conjugation  of  the  same  meaning,  from  which  the 
compounds  allinio,  circumtinio,  illinio,  and  others  used  by  later  writers, 
are  derived. 

Sino,  sivi,  situm,  allow.  In  the  perfect  subjunctive  we 
find  sirim,  siris,  sir  it,  along  with  siverit.  (Situs,  situ- 
ated, is  perhaps  derived  from  this  verb.) 

Deaino,  desivi  and  desii  (at  least,  dcmt  for  desiit  in  Martial,  see  §  100, 
note,  for  desierunt  is  no  proof),  desitum,  cease.  Desitus  est  is  also  used 
as  a  perfect  with  the  infin.  passive,  like  cocptus  est.  (See  §  221.) 

Sperno,  sprevi,  spretum,  despise. 

Sterno,  strdvi,  stratum,  stretch  out  on  the  ground. 

Consterno,  inslerno,  spread  out  (but  constcrno,  as,  frighten) ;  prosterno, 
throw  down  ;  substerno,  spread  under. 

Sero,  in  the  sense  of  sowing,  has  scvi,  satum  ;  in  that  of 
arranging  and  connecting  together  it  is  said  to  have 
serui,  sertum,  but  these  forms  of  the  simple  verb  do  not 
occur,  though  scrta,  garlands,  is  derived  from  sertum. 

The  compounds  are  variously  conjugated  according  to  their  meaning. 
Consero  and  inse.ro  make  -m,  -ertum,  in  the  sense  of  joining  ;  -evi,  -itum,  in 
the  sense  of  sowing.  The  following  compounds  are  used  only  in  the 
sense  of  joining :  Dcsv.ro,  di&sero,  cxscro,  and  accordingly  make  only 
send,  sertum.  That  the  verbs  scro,  scvi,  and  sero,  send,  are  really  the 
same,  is  proved  by  the  interchange  of  inserere  and  conserere  in  good 
authors,  of  which  any  dictionary  may  furnish  examples. 

Tero,  trivi,  tritum,  rub. 

Contf.ro,  rub  to  pieces  ;  attero,  rub  away,  injure  (perfect  also  atterui)  ; 
extero,  remove  by  rubbing. 

[§  201.]   (d)   Other  Irregularities. 

Velio,  vclli,  and  vulsi  (but  more  frequently  velli),  vulsum, 
pluck  out. 

The  compounds  convello,  revello,  and  divello  have  only  velli  in  the  per- 
fect ;  but  avello  and  evello  have  also  avulsi  and  evulsi. 

Psallo,  psalli,  psattere,  play  on  a  stringed  instrument. 

E?no,  emi,  cm,ptum,  buy. 

Coemo,  collect  by  purchase ;  redimo,  purchase  back.  The  significa- 
tion "take"  appears  in  the  compounds  adimo,  take  away;  dirimo,  di- 
vide ;  eximo,  take  out ;  interimo,  take  away,  kill  ;  pcrimo,  destroy. 

Premo,  pressi,  pressum,  press. 

Oomprlmo,  press  together  ;  de.primo,  opprimo,  supprimo,  press  down  ; 
exprimo,  press  out. 

Ge?~o,  gessi,  gcstum,  carry,  transact. 

Congcro,  bring  together ;  digero,  arrange  ;  ingero,  introduce. 

Uro,  ussi,  ustum,  bum. 

Aduro,  kindle  ;  comburo,  consume  by  fire  ;  inftro,  bum  in,  brand  ;  cxnro, 
burn  out. 

Verro,  verri,  vcrsu?n,  sweep  out. 
o,  (jiincslvi ,  nir.acftlft/m,  seek. 


170  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Another  pronunciation  of  the  same  word  is  quacso.  (See  §  224.)  Ac- 
quiro,  acquire ;  conqwro,  collect ;  anquiro,  cxquiro,  inquiro,  perquiro,  ex- 
amine ;  requiro,  miss,  require. 

(Furo),furere,  rage  (without  perfect  or  supine);  insanivi 
is  used  as  a  perfect  instead.  Even  the  first  person 
present  is  not  found,  though  Juris  wa&.Jwrit  are  com- 
mon. 

Fero,  tulij  latum,ferrc,  is  irregular  in  several  points.  See 
below,  §  213. 


CHAPTER  LI. 

[§  202.]    6.    VERBS    IN    "SO"   AND    "  XO." 

Depso,  depsui,  dcpsitum,  and  dcpstum,  knead. 
Pinso,pinsui  a,ndpinsi,pinsitum  andpistum  (olsopinsumj, 

pound,  grind. 
Viso,  visij  viscrc,  visit.     The  supine  visum  belongs  to  vi- 

dere,  from  which  visere  itself  is  derived. 
Texo,  tcxui,  textual,  weave. 

Compounds  frequently  with  a  figurative  signification:  atlexo,  add; 
context),  put  together  ;  obtcxo,  cover ;  pe.rlexo,  carry  out ;  praetexo,  add  a 
hem  ;  retexo,  to  undo  that  which  is  woven,  destroy. 

After  the  Analogy  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation  : 

Arcesso,  or  acccrso,  -iri,  -itnm,  summon. 

Both  modes  of  writing  this  word  are  found  in  good  MSS.  and  edi- 
tions ;  compare  Schneider's  Elementarlehre,  p.  257,  foil.,  and  the  quota- 
tions in  Kritz  on  Ballast,  Catil.,  40.  The  infinitive  passive  arcessiri  oc- 
curs sometimes,  as  in  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  v.,  11,  Oudendorp. 

Capcsso,  undertake. 

Facesso,  give  trouble,  especially  with  negotmm  and  peri- 

culum,  also  equivalent  to  proficiscor,  get  off  (facesseris, 

in  Cic.,  Div.,  in  Q.  Cacc.,  14). 
Incesso,  attack ;  no  supine.     Perfect,  incessivi  :  incessi  is 

doubtful  (Tac.,  Hist.,  iii.,  77),  unless  we  refer  to  this 

root,  and  not  to  inccdo,  the  frequently  occurring  phrase, 

cui'a,  despcratio,  &c.,  inccssit  animos. 
Lacesso,  provoke. 

[§  203.]   7.    Verbs  in  sco,  either  not  Inchoative  ft*  or  of 

which  the  Simple  i?  no  longer  found. 
Cresco,  crevi,  crctum,  grow. 

*  [On  an  accurate  examination  of  their  meaning,  however,  such  verhs 
as  cresco,  nosco,  &c.,  will  be  found  to  be  actual  inchoatives,  and  might  as 
well  have  bpen  arranged  under  the  succeeding  chapter  ]— Am.  Ed. 


THIRD    CONJUGATION.  171 

So,  also,  con-,  de-,  excreaco,  and  without  a  supine,  accresco,  incresco, 
grow  up,  and  succresco,  grow  up  gradually. 

Nosco,  novi,  notum,  become  acquainted  with.  The  ori- 
ginal form  is  gnosco  (Greek  y^yi'dja/coj),  and  the  g  reap- 
pears in  the  compounds,  if  possible. 

The  perfect  novi  takes  the  signification  of  the  present,  "  I  know" 
(§221);  the  supine  is  mentioned  only  on  account  of  the  compounds, 
for  the  participle  notus  has  become  an  adjective,  and  the  participle  fu- 
ture does  not  occur.  The  comp.  agnosco,  recognise,  cognosco  (perf.  cog- 
novi,  I  know),  and  recognosco,  recognise,  have,  in  the  supine,  agnitum, 
cogmtum,  recognitum  ;  ignosco,  pardon,  has  ignotum  ;  dignosco  and  inter- 
nosco  have  no  supine. 

Pasco,  pavi,  pastum,  feed. 

Depasco,  feed  down.     The  deponent  pascor,  feed  or  eat. 

Quicsco,  quievi,  quietum,  rest. 

Acquiesco,  repose  with  satisfaction ;  conquiesco,  requiesco,  rest. 

Sucsco,  suevi,  suctum,  mostly  intransitive,  grow  accustom- 
ed, or,  more  rarely,  accustom  another.  But  suetus  sig- 
nifies "  accustomed." 

So,  also,  assuesco,  consuesco,  insuesco,  generally  accustom  one's  self; 
desue.sco,  disaccustom  one's  self.  Some  passages  where  they  occur  in 
a  transitive  sense  (in  which  otherwise  the  compounds  with  facio  are 
used,  see  §  183)  are  referred  to  by  Bentley  on  Horace,  Kerm.,  i.,  4, 105. 

Compcsco,  compcscui  (no  supine),  restrain. 

Dispcsco,  dispcscui  (no  supine),  divide. 

Disco,  didici  (no  supine  :  disciturus  in  Appuleius),  learn. 

Addisco,  addidici,  learn  in  addition ;  dedisco,  unlearn  ;  edisco,  learn  by 
heart. 

Posco,  poposci  (no  supine),  demand. 

Deposco,  depoposci,  and  reposco,  demand  back ;  exposco,  expoposci,  chal- 
lenge. 

Gl/sco,  glisccre,  increase. 

Hisco,  hiscerc,  open  the  mouth,  gape. 


CHAPTER  LII. 

INCHOATIVES. 

[§  204.]  THE  inchoatives  (see  §  234)  in  sco  are  partly 
formed  from  verbs  (chiefly  of  the  second  conjugation*), 
and  partly  from  nouns  (substantives  or  adjectives),  and 
are  accordingly  called  incJioativa  verbal  i  a,  or  inckoativa 
nominalia,  that  is,  verbal  or  nominal  inchoatives.  The 
first  have  no  other  perfect  than  that  of  the  simple  verb ; 

*  According  to  a  passage  in  Gellius,  vi.,  15,  they  were  probably  pro- 
nounced with  a  naturally  loner  e  ;  a?,  calcsco,  pallesco, 


172  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  others  either  have  none,  or  form  it  in  a  similar  way  in 
ui.  Few  of  the  verbal  inchoatives  have  the  supine  of  the 
simple  verb. 

Only  those  which  are  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are 
given  in  the  following  list.  There  are  a  great  many 
more,  but  their  formation  is  easy  and  analogous.  Thus 
we  may  form  inchoatives  to  the  intransitive  verbs  in 
Chap.  XLV.,  if  there  is  any  occasion  for  it,  and  we  may 
be  assured  that  it  occurs  in  some  passage  or  other  of  the 
ancients. 

1,  Verbal  Inchoatives  with  the  Perfect  of  the  Simple  Verb. 

Acesco  (aceo),  acui,  grow  sour  ;  coacesco,  peracesco. 

Albesco  and  exalbesco  (albco),  exalbui,  grow  white. 

Aresco  (area),  arui,  grow  dry. 

Calesco  (caleo),  calui,  become  warm. 

Canesco  (canco),  canui,  become  gray. 

Conticesco  (taceo),  conticui,  am  reduced  to  silence. 

Contremisco  (tremo),  contremui,  tremble. 

Defervesco  (ferveo'),  deferbui,  gradually  lose  my  heat. 

Dclitcsco  (lateo),  delitui,  lurk. 

Effervcsco  (ferveo),  efferbui,  grow  hot. 

Ejccandesco  (candeo),  excandui,  grow  of  a   white   heat ;   figuratively,  am 

'  enraged. 

Extimesco,  pcrtimcsco  (timco},  extimm,  am  terrified. 
Fiorcsco,  de-,  effloresco  (floreo).  efflorui,  bloom. 
Haercsco,  and  ad-,  inhaercsco  (haerco),  ad-,  inhaesi,  adhere  to. 
Horresco,  exhorrcsco,  perhorresco  (horreo),  exkorrui,  am  struck  with  horror. 
Ingcmisco  (gemo),  ingemui,  groan. 
Intumesco  (lumeo),  intumui,  swell  up. 
Irraucisco  (raucio),  irrausi,  become  hoarse. 

Languesco,  elanguesco,  relanguesco  (langueo),  elangui,  become  feeble. 
JLiquesco  (liqueo),  licui,  rnelt  away. 
Madcsco  (?7iad?o),  madui,  become  wet. 

Marcesco  (marceo),  comp.  com?narcesco,  emarcesco,  emarcui,  fade. 
Occallesco  (calleo),  occallui,  acquire  a  callous  surface. 
Pallesco,  expallesco  (palleo),  pallui,  turn  pale. 
Putresco  (putreo),  putrui,  moulder. 
Resipisco  (.s-apz'o),  resipui  and  resipivi,  recover  wisdom. 
Rubesco,  erubesco  (rubeo),  grow  red.,  blush. 
Senesco,  conscnesco  (seneo},  consenui,  grow  old.     The  participle  sencctus, 

grown  old,  is  little  used. 

Stupesco  and  obstupesco  (stupeo),  obstupui,  am  struck. 
Tabesco  (tabeo),  tabui,  pine,  waste  away. 
Tepesco  (tepeo},  tepui,  grow  lukewarm. 
Viresco,  comp.  conviresco,  eviresco,  rcviresco  (vireo),  virui,  grow  green. 

2.  Verbal  Inchoatives  which  have  the  Supine  as  well  as 

Perfect  of  the  Simple  Verb. 

I  Abolesco,  abolevi,  abolitum.  cease,  am  annihilated. 

<  Exolesco,  exolevi,  exoletum,  grow  useless  by  age.     So,  also,  obsolesco. 

(  Adolesco,  adolevi,  adultum,  grow  up.     See  §  174,  Oleo. 
Coalesco  (alere],  coalui,  coalttum,  grow  together. 
Concupisco  (cupere),  concupivi,  concupitum,  desire. 
Convalesco  (valere),  convalui,  convalltum,  recover  health. 


FOURTH    CONJUGATION.  173 

Exardesco  (ardere),  exarsi,  exarsum,  am  inflamed. 

Indolesco  (dolere),  indohii,  itum,  feel  pain. 

Inveterasco  (inveterare],  inveteravi,  atum,  grow  old. 

Obdormisco  (dormire),  ivi,  itum,  fall  asleep  ;  edormisco,  sleep  out. 

Revivisco  (vivere),  revixi,  revictum,  recover  life. 

Scisco,  (scire),  scivi,  scitum,  resolve,  decree.    Hence  plebiscitum,  populiscitum. 

[§  205.]  3.  Inchoatives  derived  from  Nouns, 
(a)  Without  a  Perfect. 

Aegresco  (aeger),  grow  sick. 

Ditesco  (dives),  grow  rich. 

Dulcesco  (dulcis),  grow  sweet. 

Grandesco  (grandis),  grow  large. 

Gravesco  and  rngravesco  (gravis),  grow  heavy. 

Incurvesco  (curvtis),  become  crooked. 

Integrasco  (integer},  become  renovated. 

Juvenesco  (juvenis),  grow  young. 

Mitesco  (mitis),  grow  mild. 

Mollesco  (mollis),  grow  soft. 

Pinguesco  (pinguis),  grow  fat. 

Plumesco  (pluma),  get  feathers. 

Puerasco,  repuerasco  (puer),  become  a  child  (again). 

Sterilesco  (sterilis),  become  barren. 

Teneresco,  tenerasco  (tener),  become  tender. 

(I)  With  a  Perfect. 

Crebresco,  increbresco,  and  percrcbresco  (creber),  crebrui,  grow  frequent  or  cur- 
rent. 

Duresco,  obduresco  (durus),  dunii,  grow  hard. 

Evanesco  (vanus},  evanui,  disappear. 

Innotesco  (notus),  innotui,  become  known. 

Macresco  (macer},  macrui,  grow  lean. 

Mansuesco  (mansuetus'),  mansuevi,  grow  tame. 

Maturesco  (maturus),  maturui,  grow  ripe. 

Nigresco  (niger),  nigrui,  grow  black. 

Obmutesco  (rnutus),  obmutui,  become  dumb. 

Obsurdesco  (surdus),  obsurdui,  become  deaf. 

Recrudesco  (crudus),  recrudui,  to  open  again  (of  a  wound  that  had  been 
closed). 

Vilesco  and  evilesco  (vilis),  evilui,  become  cheap  or  worthless. 


CHAPTER  LIU. 

FOURTH     CONJUGATION. 

[§  206.]  THE  desiderative  verbs  (see  §  232)  in  urio, 
e.  g.,  coenaturio,  dormiturio,  empturio,  have  neither  per- 
fect nor  supine,  with  the  exception  of  esurio,  desire  to  eat, 
perfect  csurivi,  participle  csuriturus ;  nupturio,  desire  to 
marry,  and  parturio,  am  in  labour,  have  only  perfects, 
nupturivi  and  parturivi,  but  no  supine. 

The  following  verbs  vary,  either  in  the  perfect  or  in 
the  supine,  or  in  both,  from  the  regular  form  (wi,  itumj. 
P  2 


174  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

do,  civi,  citum,  regular;  but  see  §  180. 

Eo,  ivi,  itum,  with  its  compounds.     See  Defective  Verbs, 

§  215. 
Far  do )  far  si,  far  turn  (also  written  farctum),fardre,  stuff. 

The  swpme  farsuni  is  more  rare,  and  not  as  good. 

Cow/erciojand  refercio,  fersi,  fcrtum,  fill  up  ;  effercio,  infercio,  are  conju- 
gated like  the  simple  verb. 

Fuldo,fulsi)fultum,  fuldre,  prop. 

The  perfect  thus  presents  no  external  difference  from  the  perfect  of 
fulgeo. 

Haurio,  Jiausi,  liaustum,  liaurirc,  draw. 

The  supine  hausum  is  rare,  but  the  participle  hausurus  is  as  common 
as  hausturns. 

QH.CO,  quii-i  or  quii,  qultu-m,  quire.     See  §  216. 
Raucio,  rausi,  rausum,  raucire,  am  hoarse  (raucus). 

The  compound  irrauserit,  in  Cic.,  de  Oral.,  i.,  01.     See  §  201. 

Saepio,  saepsi,  saeplum,  sacpire  (some  write  sepioj,  hedge 

in. 
Satio,  salui,  more  rarely  salii  (saltum),  satire,  spring. 

In  the  comp.  desilio,  exilio,  itisilio,  &c.,  the  perf.  -silui  is  far  better  than 
the  forms  in  silii  and  salivi,  and  must  be  restored  in  the  authors  of  the 
best  age  from  the  MSS.  See  Drakenb.  on  Liv.,  ii.,  10,  and  Schwarzon 
Pliny,  Paneg.,  06.  The  supine  does  not  exist  either  in  the  simple  verb 
or  in  the  compounds,  though  the  derivatives  saltus,  us,  desultor,  insultare, 
lead  us  to  a  form  saltum,  and  in  compounds  sultum.  The  regular  verb 
satire,  salt,  must  not  be  confounded  with  salire,  spring.  The  former  is 
synonymous  with  the  obsolete  salfre  or  sallere,  from  which  salsus  is  de- 
rived. 

Sancio,  sanxi,  sancitum  and  sanctum,  sancire,  decree,  sanc- 
tion. Sanctus  is  found  as  a  participle,  though  it  is  com- 
monly an  adjective,  but  sancitus  is  more  common. 

Sarcio,  sarsi,  sartum,  sarcire,  patch. 
Resarcio,  repair. 

Sentio,  sensi,  sen-sum,  sentire,  feel,  think. 

Consentio,  agree  ;  dissentio,  disagree  ;  praesentio,  perceive  beforehand. 
The  compound  assentio  is  not  as  common  as  the  deponent  assentior,  but 
is  founded  on  good  authority,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  ix.,  9,  assentio  :  ad 
Fam.,v..  2,  assensi ;  and  three  other  instances  of  the  perfect,  which 
are  quoted  by  Bunemann  on  Lactant.,  i.,  15,  19. 

Sepetio,  -ivi,  sepultum,  scpelire,  bury. 
Venio,  veni,  ventum,  venire,  come. 

Advenio,  arrive  ;  convenio,  meet ;  obvenio,  encounter ;  pervenio,  reach ; 
invenio,  find. 

Vincio,  vinxi,  vinctum,  vincire,  bind. 
Devincio,  bind  closely,  bind  by  duty. 

Amicio,  amictum,  amicire,  clothe.  (The  perfects  amixi 
and  amicui  are  attested  by  the  grammarian  Diomedes, 
p.  364,  but  are  not  found  in  our  authors.  Amicivi  (am- 
icissej,  on  the  other  hand,  occurs  in  Fronto.) 


FOURTH    CONJ  Uti  AT1UX. 


175 


)  ui,  Hum,  aperrc,  open. 

So  operio  and  cooperio,  cover.  But  comperio  makes  comperi,  compertum, 
comperire  (is  used  in  the  present  and  infinitive,  also  as  a  deponent,  c&m- 
perior,  comperiri),  experience,  and  reperio,  reperi  (or  repperi),  repertum,  find. 

Ferio—ferirc,  strike.  (In  the  active  percussi  is  used  as 
a  perfect,  and  in  the  passive  ictus  sum.) 

Ferocio—ferocirc,  am  wild  or  insolent. 

Visio — visire,  (36  KG). 

Ptmio,  punish,  is  regular,  but  is  sometimes  used  by  Cic- 
ero as  a  deponent,  de  Off'.,  i.,  25,  punitur :  TuscuL,  i., 
44,  puniantur :  Fliilip.,  viii.,  3,  puniretwr:  p.  Milon., 
13,  punitus  es :  de  Invent.,  ii.,  27,  punitus  sis. 


CHAPTER  LIV. 

LIST  OF  DEPONENT  VERBS. *f 


[§   207.]    JJEPONENT    VERBS 

Adminiculor,  aid. 

Adversor,  oppose  myself. 

Adulor,  flatter. 

Aemulor,  rival. 

*Altercor,  quarrel. 

Alucinor,  (also  alluc.  and  halluc.), 
dote,  talk  idly. 

Amplexor,  embrace. 

Ancillor,  am  a  handmaid. 

Apricor,  sun  myself. 

Aquor,  fetch  water  ;  frumentor,  col- 
lect corn  ;  lignor,  collect  wood  ; 
materior,ie\\  timber;  pabulor, forage. 

Arbitror,  think. 

Architector,  build  (amarchitectus'). 

Argumentor,  prove. 

Argutor,  chatter,  am  arguhts. 

Aspernor,  despise. 

Assentor,  agree,  flatter. 

Auctidnor,  sell  at  auction. 

Aucupor,  catch  birds,  am  auceps. 

Aversor,  dislike,  avoid  with  horror. 

Auguror  (augur"),       \ 

*Auspicor  (auspex},  I  practise  sooth- 

Hariolor   (hariolus),  j       saying. 

Valicinor  (vates),       ) 


OF    THE   FIRST    CONJUGATION. 

Auxilior,  aid. 

Bacchor,  revel  as  a  Bacchanal. 

Calumnior,  cavil. 

Cavillor,  ridicule. 

Cauponor,  deal,  retail. 

Causor,  allege. 

Circulor,  form  a  circle  around  me. 

Comissor,  feast. 

Comitor,  accompany  (comes,   active 

only  in  the  poets). 
Commentor,  reflect  upon,  dispute. 
Contionor,  harangue. 
*Conflictor,  contend. 
Conor,  attempt. 
Consilior,  advise. 
Conspicor,  behold. 
Contemplor,  contemplate. 
Convicior,  revile. 
Convlvor,  feast  (conviva). 
Corriicor,  chatter  as  a  crow. 
Criminor,  accuse. 
Cunctor,  delay. 
Depeculor,  plunder. 
Despicor,  despise  ;  despicio,  but  despi- 

catus  is  passive,  despised. 
Deversor,  lodge. 


*  The  words  to  which  an  asterisk  is  prefixed  are  used  also  as  actives, 
but  better  as  deponents.  Some  deponents  have  been  omitted  in  the  list, 
which  are  either  of  very  rare  occurrence  or  more  commonly  used  as  ac- 
tives. Respecting  the  latter,  see  the  note  at  the  end. 

t  [The  Latin  deponents  are  in  fact  middle  verbs,  the  active  voices  of 
which  have  passed  out  of  use.  Many  of  these  old  actives  may  be  found 
in  the  fragments  of  the  early  writers  ;  as,  for  example,  Ennius.  What 
are  called  common  verbs  are,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  verbs  which  have 
the  middle  and  passive  voice,  each  mo-re  or  less  in  use,  but  have  lost  the 
active.] — Am.  Ed. 


170 


J-ATIM    GllA.MMAll. 


Digladior,  fight. 

Dignor,  think  worthy.  Cicero,  how- 
ever, sometimes  uses  it  in  a  pass- 
ive sense,  "I  am  thought  wor- 
thy." 

Dedignor,  disdain. 

Dominor,  rule  (dominus}. 

Elucubror,  produce  by  dint  of  labour. 

Epulor,  feast. 

Exccror,  execrate. 

*Fabricor,  fashion. 

Fabulor,  confabulor,  talk. 

Famulor,  serve  (famulus'). 

Feneror,  lend  at  interest  (the  active, 
"  to  restore  with  interest,"  occurs 
in  Terence  ;  in  later  writers  it  is 
the  same  as  the  deponent). 

Fcrior,  keep  holyday. 

Frustror,  disappoint. 

Furor,  suffuror,  steal. 

Glorior,  boast. 

Graccor,  live  in  the  Greek  style,  that 
is,  luxuriously. 

Grassor,  advance,  attack. 

Gratificor,  comply  with. 

Grator  and  gratulor,  give  thanks, 
present  congratulations. 

(Gravor,  think  heavy,  is  the  passive 
of  gravo.) 

Helluor,  gluttonize  (helluo). 

Hortor,  exhort ;  adhortor,  e.xliorlor, 
dehortor. 

Hospitor,  am  a  guest  (hospes),  lodge. 

Imaginor,  imagine. 

Imiior,  imitate. 

Indignor,  am  indignant,  spurn. 

Jnfitior,  deny. 

Insidior,  plot. 

Interpreter,  explain,  am  an  interpres. 

Jaculor,  throw,  dart. 

Jocor,  jest. 

Laetor,  rejoice  (laetus}. 

JLamentor,  lament. 

Lalrocinor,  rob,  am  a  latro. 

Lenocinor  (alic'id),  flatter. 

Libidinor,  am  voluptuous. 

Licitor,  bid  at  an  auction. 

Lucror,  gain. 

Luctor,  strive,  wrestle  (abluctor  and 
reluctor,  resist). 

*Ludificor,  ridicule. 

Machmor,  devise. 

Medicor,  heal. 

Mr.'litor,  meditate. 

Mercor,  buy. 

*Meridior,  repose  at  noon. 

Mctor,  measure  out. 

Minor  and  minitor,  threaten. 

Miror,  wonder  ;  demiror,  the  same  ; 
admiror,  admire. 


Miseror,  commiseror,  pity. 

Moderor.  restrain,  temper. 

Modular,  modulate. 

Morigeror,  comply,  am  morigerus. 

Moror,  delay  ;  trans,  and  intrans. ; 
comp.  commoror. 

*Muncror,  remuneror,  aliquem  aliqua 
re,  reward. 

Mutuor,  borrow. 

J^egotior,  carry  on  business. 

Nidulor,  build  a  nest. 

Nugor,  trifle. 

Nund'mor,  deal  in  buying  and  selling. 

Nutncor,  nourish. 

Odoror,  smell  out. 

Ominor,  prophesy ;  abominor,  abomi- 
nate. 

Operor,  bestow  labour  on. 

Opinor,  think. 

Opitulor,  lend  help. 

*Oscitor,  yawn. 

Oscular,  kiss. 

Otior,  have  leisure. 

*  Palpor,  stroke,  flatter. 
Parasttor,  act  the  parasite  (parasitus). 
Patrocmor,  patronise. 

Pcrcontor,  inquire. 

Peregrinor,  dwell  as  a  stranger. 

Periclltor,  try,  in  later  writers,  am  in 

danger. 

Philosophor,  philosophize. 
*Pigneror,  take  a  pledge,  bind  by  a 

pledge. 

Pigror,  am  idle  (piger). 
Piscor,  fish. 

*  Popular,  lay  waste. 
Praedor,  plunder. 

Praestolor,  wait  for,  with  the  dat.  or 
accus.  (the  quantity  of  the  a  is  un- 
certain, though  probably  short). 

Praevaricor,  walk  with  crooked  legs, 
act  dishonestly,  as  a  praevaricator, 
that  is,  as  a  false  accuser. 

Prlcor,  pray  ;  comprecor,  invoke  ;  de~ 
precor,  deprecate :  imprecor,  impre- 
cate. 

Proelior,  fight  a  battle. 

Rafiocinor,  reason. 

Recorder,  remember. 

Refragor,  oppose. 

Rimor,  examine  minutely. 

Rixor,  wrangle. 

Ruaticor,  live  in  the  country. 

Scitor  and  sciscitor,  inquire. 

Kcrutor,  pcrscrutor,  search. 

Sector,  the  frequentative  of  sequor, 
follow  ;  assector,  consector,  insector. 

Sermocinor,  hold  discourse. 

Solor,  consolor,  comfort. 

Spatior,  expatior,  walk, 


DEPONENT    VERBS.  177 

Specular,  keep  a  look  out.  Vador,  summon  to  trial. 

Stipulor,  make  a  bargain  ;  adstipulor,  Vagor  and  valor,  wander. 

agree.  Veliflcor,  steer  towards  (figuratively, 
Stomachor,  am  indignant.  gain  a  purpose),  whence  it  is  con- 

Suavior,  kiss.  strued  with  the  dative  ;  as,  honori 

Suffrdgor  (the  contrary  of  refragor},        meo. 

assent  to.  Velitor,  skirmish  with  light  troops. 

Suspicor,  suspect.  Veneror,  venerate. 

Tergiversur,  shuffle.  Venor,  hunt. 

Testor  and  testificor,  bear  witness.  Verecundor,  feel  shame  at  doing. 

Tricor,  make  unreasonable  difficul-  Versor  (properly  the  passive  of  verso], 

ties  (tricas).  dwell,  am  occupied  in  ;  aversor,  de- 

Tristor,  am  sad.  test ;  obversor,  float  before. 

Trutmor,  weigh.  Vociferor,  vociferate. 

Tumultuor,  make  uproar.  Urinor,  dip  under  water  (to  void 
Tutor,  defend.  urine  is  urinam  facere  or  reddere). 

Note. — We  must  here  notice  some  verbs  which  are  commonly  used  as 
actives,  but  by  some  writers,  and  of  good  authority,  as  deponents  also. 
Such  are:  communicor,  commurmuror  (Cic.,  in  Pis.,  25),  fluctuor,  fruticor 
(Cic.),  lacrimor,  luxurior,  nictor.  Velificor,  in  the  figurative  sense  of  striving 
after,  is  used  by  Cicero  as  a  deponent,  but  in  the  primary  sense  of  "  sail- 
ing" it  is  much  more  usually  active.  Adidor,arbitror,  criminor,  and  more 
especially  dignor,  are  used  by  Cicero  as  passives,  as  well  as  deponents, 
throughout,  and  not  merely  in  the  participle,  as  is  the  case  with  many 
others.  See  the  Chapter  on  the  Participle,  in  the  Syntax. 


CHAPTER  LV. 

[§  208.]    DEPONENTS    OF    THE    SECOND    CONJUGATION. 

Fatcor,fassus  sum,Jatcri,  acknowledge. 

Confiteor,  confessus  sum,  the  same,  but  usually,  confess  a  crime ;  pro- 
fiteer, profess;  diffiteor  (no  participle),  deny. 

Liceor,  licitus  sum,  with  the  accus.,  bid  at  an  auction. 

Polliceor,  promise. 

Medeor,  without  a  participle,  for  which  medicatus,  from 

medicari,  is  commonly  used. 
*Mercor,  meritus  sum,  deserve.     The  active  is  used  in  the 

sense  of  serving  or  earning,  as  merere  stipendia  ;  but 

the  forms  are  not  kept  distinct. 

Commercor,  demereor,promereor,l\3.\e  the  same  meaning. 

JMisereor,  miseritus  or  misertus  sum,  pity. 

Respecting  the  impersonal  verb  miseret  or  miseretur  me,  see  §  225. 
Rcor,  ratus  sum,  reri,  think. 
Tueor,  tuitus  sum,  look  upon,  fig.  defend. 

Contueor,  intueor,  look  upon.  There  was  an  old  form  tuor,  after  the 
third  conjugation,  of  which  examples  are  found  in  the  cornic  writers 
and  in  Lucretius;  and  in  Nep.,  Chabr.,  1,  3,  intuuntur  is  found  for  the 
common  intuentur.  The  adject,  tutus  is  derived  from  the  form  tuor. 

Vercor,  vcritus  sum,  fear. 

Revercor,  reverence  ;  subvercor,  slightly  fear. 


178  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  LVI. 

[§209.]    DEPONENTS    OF    THE    THIRD    CONJUGATION. 

FROM  the  obsolete  apiscor,  aptus  sum,  apisci,  are  derived  : 

Adipiscor,  adeptus  sum,  and  indipiscor,  obtain. 

Expergiscor,  experrectus  sum,  expcrgisci,  awake. 

The  verb  expergefacere  signifies  to  awaken,  whence  expergefaclus,  awa- 
kened. Expergo,  with  its  participle  expergitus,  is  obsolete. 

Fruor,  fructus  and  fruitus  sum,  frui,  enjoy.     (Particip. 
fruilurus). 

Perfmor,  perfructus  sum,  strengthens  the  meaning. 

Fungor,functus  sum,  fungi,  perform,  discharge. 

Dffungor,  perfungor,  completely  discharge,  finish. 

Gradior,  grcssus  sum,  grddi,  proceed. 

Aggredior,  aggressus  sum,  aggrcdi,  assail ;  congredior,  meet ;  digredior, 
depart ;  egredior,  go  out  of;  ingredior,  enter  on  ;  progredior,  advance  ;  re- 
gredior,  return. 

Irascor,  irasci,  properly  an  inchoative,  grow  angry;  iratus 
sum  means  only,  I  am  angry.  I  have  been  or  was  an- 
gry may  be  expressed  by  succensui. 

Labor,  lapsus  sum,  Idbi,  fall. 

Colldbor,  sink  together ;  dildbor,  fall  in  pieces ;  prolabor,  fall  down ; 
delabor,  relabor. 

Luquor,  locutus  sum,  loqui,  speak. 

Alloquor,  address  ;  colloquor,  speak  with;  eloquor,  interloquor ;  obloquor, 
speak  against,  revile. 

(From  the  obsolete  miniscor), 

Comminiscor,  commentus  sum,  comminisci,  devise,  imagine  (the  participle 
commentus  usually  in  a  passive  sense,  feigned) ;  reminiscor,  reminisci, 
has  no  perfect ;  recordatus  sum  is  used  instead  of  it. 

Morior,  mortuus  sum  (participle  future,  moriturus),  mori, 
die  (moriri  is  obsolete,  but  still  occurs  in  Ovid,  IMetam., 
xiv.,  215). 

Emorior,  commorior,  demorior. 

Nanciscor,  nactus  sum,  nancisci,  obtain.  The  participle 
is  also  found  written  nanctus,  as  in  many  passages  of 
Livy. 

Nascor,  natus  sum,  nasci  (nasciturus  only  in  late  writers), 
am  born  ;  passive  in  sense,  but  without  an  active.     It 
was  originally  gnascor,  and  the  g  reappears  in  agnatus, 
cognatus. 
Enascor,  innascor,  renascor. 

Nitor,  nisus  or  nixus  sum,  niti,  lean  upon,  strive. 

Adnltor,  strive  for;  connitor  and  enitor,  exert  myself;  in  the  sense  of 
"bring  forth,"  or  "give  birth,"  enixa  est  is  preferable;  obnitor,  strive 
against. 


DEPONENT    VERBS.  179 

Obliviscor,  oblltus  sum,  oblivisci,  forget. 
Paciscor,  pactus  sum  (or  pepigi),  make  a  bargain. 

Cornp.  compaciscor,  depaciscor,  or  compeciscor  and  depeciscor,  compactusj 
depactus  sum,  whence  the  adverb  compaclo  or  compecto  for  ex  or  de  compac- 
to,  according  to  contract. 

Pascor,  pastus  sum,  feed ;  intransitive.  Properly  the  pass- 
ive of  pasco,  pavi,  pastum,  give  food  ;  see  above,  Chap. 
LI. 

Patio?-,  passus  sum,  pati,  suffer. 

Perpetior,  perpessus  sum,  perpeti,  endure. 

(From  plecto,  twine), 

Amplector  and  complector,  complexus  sum,  embrace. 

Prqficiscor,  profectus  sum,  proficisd,  travel. 
Queror,  questus  sum,  queri,  complain. 

Conqiieror,  lament. 

Ringor,  ringi,  grin,  show  the  teeth,  whence  rictus. 
Sequor,  secutus  sum,  sequi,  follow. 

Assequor  and  consequor,  overtake,  attain ;  exequor,  execute ;  inseqvor, 

follow ;   obsequor,  comply  with ;  persequor,  pursue  ;  prosequor,  attend ; 

subsequor,  follow  close  after. 

Vekor,  see  §  192. 

Vescor,  vesci,  eat.     Edi  is  used  as  the  perfect. 
Ulciscor,  ultus  sum,  ulcisci,  revenge,  punish. 
Utor,  usus  sum,  uti,  use. 

Abutur,  abuse;  deutor  only  in  Nepos,  Eum.,  11. 

Devertor,  pracvertor,  and  revertor,  see  under  vcrto.  They 
take  their  perfects  from  the  active  form :  reverti,  rever- 
teram,  revertissem  ;  only  the  participle  reversus  is  used 
in  an  active  sense,  one  who  has  returned. 

Reversus  sum  for  reverti  is  very  rare,  but  occurs  in  Nep.,  Them.,  5 ; 
Veil.,  ii.,  42  ;  Quintil.,  vii.,  8, 2 ;  xi.,  2, 17,  and  other  less  classic  authors, 
but  never  in  Cicero. 


CHAPTER  LVIL 

[§  210.]  DEPONENTS  OP  THE  FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 

Assentior,  assensus  sum,  assentiri,  assent.  (As  an  active, 
assentio,  assensi,  assensum,  asscntire,  it  is  not  so  com- 
mon ;  see  above,  §  206.) 

Blandior,  blanditus  sum,  blandiri,  flatter. 

Experior,  expertus  sum,  expcriri,  experience,  tiy. 

Comperior,  am  informed,  is  used  only  in  the  present  tense,  along  with 
comperio  ;  the  perfect,  therefore,  is  comperi. 

Largior,  largitus  sum,  largiri,  give  money ;  dilargio,  dis- 
tribute money. 


1 80  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Mentior,  mentitus  sum,  mentiri,  lie  ;  ementior,  the  same, 
Metior,  mensus  sum,  metiri,  measure. 

Dimetior,  measure  out ;  emetior,  measure  completely  ;  permetior. 

Molior,  molitus  sum,  moliri,  move  a  mass  ( moles )  ;  plan, 
Amolior,  remove  from  the  way ;  dernolior,  demolish,  and  others. 

Opperior,  oppertus  sum,  in  Terence,  and  apperitus  sum  in 

Plautus,  opperiri,  wait  for. 
Ordior,  or  sits  sum,  ordiri,  begin. 

Exordior,  the  same  ;  redordior,  begin  over  again. 

Orior,  ortus  sum,  oriri  (partic.  oriturus),  rise.  (The 
partic.  fut.  pass,  oriundus  has  a  peculiar  signification 
"descended"  from  a  place  or  person.)  The  present 
indicat.  follows  the  third  conjugation  :  oreris,  oritur, 
onmur.  In  the  imperf.  subjunct.  both  forms  orerer  and 
orirer  are  found.  See  Liv.,  xxiii.,  16;  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.r 
47  ;  comp.  xL,  23. 

So,  also,  the  compounds  coorior  and  exorior  (cxorcretur  in  Lucretius,  ii., 
506) ;  but  of  adorior,  undertake,  the  forms  adoriris  and  adorltur  are  cer- 
tain, whereas  adoreris  and  adorltur  are  only  probable  ;  adoreretur  is  com- 
monly edited  in  Sueton.,  Claud.,  12. 

Partior,  partitus  sum,  partiri,  divide  (rarely  active). 

Dispertior,  dispertitus  sum  (more  frequently  active),  distribute ;  imper- 
tior  (also  impertio,  impartio,  impartior),  communicate. 

Potto?',  potitus  sum,  potiri,  possess  myself  of. 

It  is  not  uncommon,  especially  in  the  poets,  for  the  present  indicative 
and  the  imperfect  subjunctive  to  be  formed  after  the  third  conjugation ; 
potitur,  potimur,  poteretur,  poteremur. 

Sortior,  sortltus  sum,  sortiri,  cast  lots. 
Punior,  for  punio.     See  §  206,  in  fin. 


CHAPTER  LVIII. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

[§  211.]  THE  term  Irregular  Verbs  is  here  applied  to 
those  which  depart  from  the  rule  not  only  in  the  formation 
of  their  perfect  and  supine,  but  have  something  anomalous 
in  their  conjugation  itself.  They  are,  besides  sum  (treated 
of  before,  §  156),  possum,  edo,fcro,  volo,  nolo,  malo,  eo, 
quco,  nequeo,fio. 

1.  Possum,  I  am  able. 

Possum  is  composed  of  potts  and  sum,  often  found 
separately  in  early  Latin ;  by  dropping  the  termination 
ofpotis,  we  obtain  potsum,  possum.  It  therefore  follows 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  181 

the  conjugation  of  sum  in  its  terminations,  but  the  conso- 
nants t,  s,  andy,  produce  some  changes  when  they  come 
together. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Possum,  poles,  potest.  possim,  possls,  possit. 

possiimus,  potestis,  possunt.  possimus,  possitis,  possint. 

Imperfect. 

poteram,  poteras,  poterat.  possem,  posses,  posset, 

poteramus,  -eratis,  -erant.  possemus,  possetis,  possent. 

Future. 

potero,  poteris,  poterit. 
poterimus,  -erltis,  -erunt. 

Perfect. 

>"f.    potui,  potuisti,  potuit.  potuerim, -eris,  -erit. 

potuimus,  -istis,  -erunt.  potuenmus,  -Uis,  -int. 

Pluperfect. 

potueram,  -eras,  -erat.  potuissem,  -isses,  -isset. 

potueramus,  -eratis,  -erant.  potuissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 

Future  Perfect, 
potuero,  potueris,  potuerit. 
potuenmus,  potuentis,  potuerint. 

(No  IMPERATIVE.) 

INFINITIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  and  Imp.  posse.  Potens  (has  become  an  adjective). 

Perf.  and  Pin  p.  potuisse. 


2.  Edo,  I  eat. 

[§  212.]  The  verb  edo,  edi,  esum,  edcrc,  is  declined  regu- 
larly according  to  the  third  conjugation,  but  here  and 
there  it  has  syncopated  forms,  besides  its  regular  ones, 
similar  to  the  corresponding  tenses  of  sum,  except  that 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  in  the  second  person  singular 
of  the  indie,  present  and  of  the  imperative  makes  a  differ- 
ence, the  e  in  es,  from  edo,  being  long  by  nature.  The 
tenses  in  which  this  resemblance  occurs  are  seen  in  the 
following  table  : 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Imperfect. 

Sing.  Edo,  edis,  edit  Sing,  ederem,  ederes,  ederet 

(or    es,     esf).  (or  essem,    esses,    esset). 

Plur.  edimus,  editis,  edunt.  Plur.  ederemus,  ederetis,  ederent 

(estis.)  (or  essemus,    cssetis,    essent). 

IMPERATIVE.  INFINITIVE. 

Sing,  ede,  es.  edere  or  esse. 

Plur.  edite,  este. 
Sing,  edito,  esto. 

Plur.  edite,  este,  editote,  estate.  In  the  Passive  only  editur,  estur  ;  ed- 
edunto  erelur,  essetur. 

Q 


182  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

In  the  same  way  the  compounds  abedo,  ambedo,  comedo, 
exedo,  and  peredo  are  conjugated. 

3.  Fcro,  I  bear. 

[§  213.]  Fero  consists  of  very  different  parts,  perfect 
tuli  (originally  tetuli,  which  is  still  found  in  Plautus  and 
Terence);  supine,  latum  ;  infinitive,  ferre;  passive,  ferri. 
But  with  the  exception  of  the  present  indicat.  and  the  im- 
perative, the  detail  is  regular. 

Active.  Passive. 

INDICATIVE.  INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  Sing.  Fcro,fers,fert.  Pres.  Sing,  feror,  ferris,  fertur. 

Plur.  ferimus,fertis,ferunt.  Plur.  fer~imur,ferimini,feruntur. 

IMPERATIVE.  IMPERATIVE. 

Pres.  Sing.  fcr.         Plur.  ferte.  Pres.  Sing,  ferre.      Plur.  ferimini. 

Fut.    Sing,  ferto.      Plur.  fertote.  Fut.    Sing,  fertor.     Plur.  feruntor. 
ferto.                 ferunto.  fertor. 


Note. — The  rest  is  regular  ;  imperfect,  ferebam ;  future,  feram,  -es  ;  fu- 

ire  passive,  ferar,  fcreris  (ferere),feretur,  &c.  ;  present  subjunctive,  feram, 

feras;  passive,  ferar,  ferar  is,  feratur  ;  imperfect  subjunctive,  ferrem  ;  pass- 

ivi      ' 


The  compounds  of  fero — affero,  antefero,  circumfero,  confero,  defero,  and 
thers,  have  little  that  is  remarkable.  Aufero  (originally  abfero)  makes 
abstuli*  ablatum,  auferre.  Suffero  has  no  perfect  or  supine,  for  sustuli,  sub- 
latum,  belong  to  tollo.  Cicero,  however  (N.  D.,  iii.,  33).  has  poenas  sustu- 
lit,  but  sustinui  is  commonly  used  in  this  sense.  Differo  is  used  only  in  the 
present  tense,  and  those  derived  from  it  in  the  sense  of  "  differ ;"  distuli 
and  dilatum  have  the  sense  of  "  delay." 


4.    Volo,  I  will.     5.  Nolo,  I  will  not.     6.  Malo,  I  will 

rather. 

[§  214.  Nolo  is  compounded  of  ne  (for  non)  and  volo. 
The  obsolete  ne  appears  in  three  persons  of  the  present 
in  the  usual  form  of  non  ;  malo  is  compounded  of  mage 
(i.  e.,  magis)  and  volo,  properly  mavolo,  mavdlem,  con- 
tracted malo,  mallem. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Volo.  Nolo.  Malo. 

vis.  non  vis.  mavis, 

vult.  non  vult.  mavult. 

Plur.  volumus.  noliimus.  malumus. 

vultis.  non  vultis.  mavultis. 

volunt.  nolunt.  malunt. 

*  [This  apparent  anomaly  may  easily  be  explained  by  supposing  the  au 
in  aufero  to  have  been  originally  ab,  and  to  have  been  softened  down  in  pro- 
nunciation before  /.  This  would  be  the  more  easy,  since  ab  must  have 
had  a  sound  approximating  to  av  in  English.] — Am.  Ed. 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


183 


INDICATIVE. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  volebam,  &c. 

nolebam,  &c. 

malebam,  &c. 

Plur.  volebajnus,  &c. 

nolebamus,  &c. 

malebamus,  &c. 

Fwiwre. 

Sing,  volam,  voles,  et. 

nolam,  noles,  et. 

malam,  males,  et. 

Plur.  volemus,  etis,  ent. 

nolemus,  etis,  ent. 

malemus,  etis,  ent. 

Perfect 

Sing,  volui. 

nolui. 

malui. 

voluisti,  &c. 

noluisti,  &c. 

maluisti,  &C. 

Pluperfect. 

valuer  am,  &c. 

nolueram,  &C. 

malueram,  &c. 

Future  Perfect. 

voluero,  is,  &c. 

noluero,  is,  &c. 

maluero,  is,  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing,  velim. 

nolim. 

malim. 

veils. 

noUs. 

malts. 

velit. 

nolit. 

malit. 

Plur.  velimus. 

nofimus. 

mallmus. 

velltis. 

nolitis. 

malitis. 

velint. 

nolint. 

maUnt. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  vellem,  &c. 

nollem,  &c. 

mallem,  &c. 

Plur.  vellemus,  &c. 

nollejnus,  &c. 

mallemus,  «Stc. 

Perfect. 

Sing,  voluerim,  &c. 

noluerim.  &c. 

maluerim,  &c. 

Plur.  voluenmus,  &c. 

noluefimus,  &c. 

maluenmus,  &c. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing,  voluissem,  &c. 

noluissem,  &c. 

maluissem,  &c. 

Plur.  voluissemus,  &c. 

noluissemus,  &C. 

maluissemus,  &c. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Present. 

jpa^wre. 

Sing.  2d  Pers.  no/z.    Plur. 

notoe.       Sing.  2d 

Pers.  Tio/tto.     Plur.  nolitote. 

3d 

Pers.  nolito,               nolunto. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  t;eZfe. 

nolle. 

malle. 

Perf.  voluisse. 

noluisse. 

maluisse. 

PARTICIPLE. 

volens. 

nolens. 

GERUND. 

volendi. 

nolendi. 

volendo. 

7.  Eo,  I  go. 

?Ve,  is  for  the  most  part 


[§  215.]   The  verb  eo,  w 

formed  regularly,  according  to  the  fourth  conjugation; 
only  the  present,  and  the  tenses  derived  from  it,  are 
irregular. 


184  LATIN    URAMMAll. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Eo,  is,  it.  Sing,  earn,  eas,  eat. 

Plur.  Imus,  itis,  eunt.  Plur.  eamus,  edtis,  eant. 

Imperfect. 

Sing,  ibam,  ibas,  ibat.  Sing,  irem,  ires,  iret. 

Plur.  ibamus,  ibatis,  ibant.  Plur.  iremus,  iretis,  irent. 

Future.  IMPERATIVE. 

Sing,  ibo,  ibis,  ibit.  Pres.  Sing.  2,  i.    Plur.  ite, 

Plur.  ibimus,  ibitis,  ibunt.  Put.  2,  ito.  itote. 

3,  ito.  eunlo. 

INFINITIVE. 
Pres.  ire. 

Perf.  ivisse  or  isse. 
Fut.    iturum  (-am,  -wm)  esse. 
GERUND.  SUPINE. 

Gen.  eundi.     Dat.  eundo,  &c.  itum,  itu. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres.  iens,  euntis.  Fut.  iturus,  -a,  -wn. 

In  the  passive  voice  it  exists  only  as  an  impersonal,  itur, 
itum  est.  Some  compounds,  however,  acquire  a  transitive 
meaning ;  they  accordingly  have  an  accusative  in  the  ac- 
tive, and  may  also  have  a  complete  passive  :  e.  gr.,  adco, 
I  approach  ;  inco,  I  enter ;  practcreo,  I  pass  by.  Thus 
the  present  indie,  pass,  adeor,  adiris,  aditur,  adlmur,  adi- 
mini,  adeuntur  ;  subjunct.  a  dear  ;  imperf.  adibar  ;  subj. 
adirer ;  fut.  adibor,  adiberis  (c),  adibitur,  &c. ;  imperat. 
pres.  adirc,  adimini ;  fut.  aditor,  adeuntor ;  participles, 
aditus,  adeundus. 

These  and  all  other  compounds,  abco,  coeo,  cxco,  intcrco 
and  perco  (perish),  prodeo,  rcdco,  have  usually  only  ii  in 
the  perfect :  peril,  redii.  Circumeo  and  circuco,  I  go 
round  something,  differ  only  in  their  orthography,  for  in 
pronunciation  the  m  was  lost ;  in  the  derivatives,  circuitus 
and  circuitio,  it  is,  therefore,  with  more  consistency,  not 
written.  Vcnco,  I  am  sold,  a  neutral  passive  verb  with- 
out a  supine,  is  compounded  of  vcnum  and  eo,  and  is  ac- 
cordingly declined  like  ire;  whereas  ainbio,  I  go  about, 
which  changes  the  vowel  even  in  the  present,  is  declined 
regularly  according  to  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  has  the 
participle  ambiens,  ambientis,  and  the  gerund  ambiendi. 
The  part.  perf.  pass,  is  ambitus,  but  the  substantive  am- 
bitus has  a  short  i.  See  the  Commentators  on  Ovid, 
Metam.,  i.,  37. 

Note. — A  second  form  of  the  future,  earn  instead  of  ibo,  is  mentioned  by 
Priscian,  but  is  not  found  in  any  other  writer.  It  is  only  in  compounds, 
though  chiefly  in  late  and  unclassical  authors,  that  we  find  -cam,  ies,  iet, 
ient,  along  with,  ibo,  ibis,  &c.  See  Bimemann  on  Lactant.,  iv.,  13,  20. 


UlllEGULAll    VEKUri.  185 

Transiet  in  Tibull.,  i.,  4,  27,  is  surprising.*  Veneo,  I  am  sold,  sometimes 
abandons  the  conjugation  of  eo,  and  makes  the  imperfect  veniebam  instead 
of  vembam,  for  so,  at  least,  we  find  in  good  MSS.  of  Cicero,  Philip,,  ii.,  37, 
and  in  Verr.,  III.,  47.  Ambio  sometimes  follows  eo;  e.  g.,  ambibat  in  Ovid, 
Metam.,  v.,  361  :  Liv.,  xxvii.,  18 :  Plin.,  Epist.,  vi.,  33  :  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii., 
19;  and  ambibunt,  for  ambient,  is  said  to  occur  in  Pliny  (.ST.  N.,  viii.,  35?}. 


[§  216.]  8.  Queo,  I  can.  9.  Nequeo,  I  cannot. 
These  two  verbs  are  both  conjugated  like  eo :  perfect, 
quivi,  nequivi ;  supine,  qmtum,  nequitum.  Most  of  their 
forms  occur ;  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  present,  they 
are  not  very  frequent  in  prose,  and  some  authors,  such  as 
Nepos  and  Caesar,  never  use  this  verb  at  all.t  Instead 
of  nequeo,  non  quco  also  was  used,  and  in  Cicero  the  latter 
is  even  more  frequent.  Quis  and  quit  are  found  only 
with  non. 

INDICATIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Queo,  quis,  quit.  Ifequeo,  non  quis,  non  quit. 

Plur.  quimus,  quitis,  queunt.  ncquimus,  nequitis,  nequeunt. 

Imperfect. 

Sing.  Quibam,  quibat,  &C.  nequlbam,  nequibat,  -ant. 

Future. 

Sing.  Quibo.     Plur.  quibunt.  Sing. Plur.  nequibunt. 

Perfect. 
Sing.  Quivi,  quivit.  nequivi,  nequisti,  nequivit  (lit). 

Plur.  quiverunt.  •    nequiverunt   or  ne- 

quierunt  (e}. 
Pluperfect. 

nequicrat,  nequierant. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present. 

Sing.  Queam,  queas,  queat.  ncqueam,  nequcas,  nequeat. 

Plur.  queamus,  queatis,  queant.  nequeamus,  nequeatis,  nequeant. 

Imperfect. 
Sing.  Quirem,  quiret.  nequirem,  nequiret. 

Plur.  quirent.  nequiremus,  nequirent. 

Perfect. 

Sing. quiverit.  nequivcrim,  nequierit,  nequierint. 

Pluperfect. 

Sing. nequisset. 

Plur.  quissent.  nequissent. 

*  [We  ought  very  probably  to  read  transiit  with  Heinsius,  on  MS.  au- 
thority, making,  at  the  same  time,  a  change  in  the  punctuation.  (Consult 
Jjachmann,  ad  /oc.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Queo  is  much  weaker  than  possum,  and  appears  to  denote  mere  possi- 
bility under  existing  circumstances.  Compare  Doderlein,  Lat.  Syn.,  vol. 
iv.,  p.  160.]— Am.  Ed. 

Q2 


180  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE. 
Quire,  quivisse  (quisse).  nequire,  nequivisse  (nequisse). 

PARTICIPLE. 
Quiens  (gen.  queuntis}.  nequiens  (gen.  nequeuntis] . 

There  is  also  a  passive  form  of  these  verbs  ;  quitur,  nequitur,  quita  est,  ne- 
quitum  est,  but  it  occurs  very  rarely,  and  is  used,  like  coeptus  sum,  only 
when  an  infinitive  passive  follows :  e.  g.,  in  Terence ;  forma  in  tenebris 
?wsci  non  quita  est,  the  figure  could  not  be  recognised. 


[§  217.]  10.  Fto,  I  become,  or  am  made.* 
Fio  is  properly  an  intransitive  verb,  the  Greek 
without  a  supine.  But  owing  to  the  affinity  existing  be 
tween  the  ideas  of  becoming  and  being  made,  it  was  used 
also  as  a  passive  offacio,  from  which  it  took  the  perfect 
factus  sum,  and  the  latter  then  received  the  meaning  "  I 
have  become,"  along  with  that  of  u  I  have  been  made." 
In  consequence  of  this  transition  into  the  passive,  the  in- 
finitive became  Jieri  instead  of  the  original  form  Jiere. 
Hence,  with  the  exception  of  the  supplementary  forms 
fromfaccre  ( factus,  faciendus,  factus  sum,  eram,  &c.),  and 
the  passive  termination  of  the  infinitive,  there  is  110  ir- 
regularity in  this  verb.  In  the  present,  imperfect,  and 
future  it  follows  the  third  conjugation ;  for  the  i  belongs 
to  the  root  of  the  word,  and  is  long,  except  in  Jit  and 
those  forms  in  which  an  r  occurs  in  the  inflection.  (See 

§  16.) 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Present. 

Sing.  Fio,fis,  fit.  fiam,fias,fiat. 

Plur.  fimus,  fitis,  fiunt.  fiamus,  fiatis,  fiant. 

Imperfect.  Imperfect. 

Smg.fiebam,  as,  at.  fierem,  es,  et. 

Plur.  fiebamus,  atis,  ant.  fieremus,  etis,  ent. 

Future.  IMPERATIVE. 

Sing.fiam,fies,fiet.  Pres.  Smg.fi.     Plur.fite. 

Plur.  fiemus,  fietis,  fient.  (rare,  but  well  attested). 

INFINITIVE. 

fieri  (factum  esse,factum  iri).  Part.  Pres.  is  wanting. 

Note. — Among  the  compounds  the  following  must  be  noticed  as  defec- 
tives :  infit,  which  is  used  only  in  this  third  person  sing.,  he  or  she  begins  ; 
e.  g.,  loqui,  or  with  the  ellipsis  of  loqui ;  and  defit,  defiat,  defiant,  defieri, 
which  does  not  occur  in  prose.  Respecting  confit,  see  above,  §  183. 

*  [As  regards  the  old  forms,  and  the  quantity  offio,  consult  Anthon's 
Lat.  Pros.,  p.  16,  not.  (ed.  1842).]— Am.  Ed. 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS.  187 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

[§  218.]    DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 

THE  term  Defective  Verbs  is  here  applied  to  those 
only  in  which  the  effectiveness  is  striking,  and  which  are 
found  only  in  certain  forms  and  combinations,  for  there 
are,  besides,  a  very  large  number  of  defective  verbs,  of 
which  certain  tenses  are  not  found  on  account  of  their 
meaning,  or  cannot  be  shown  to  have  been  used  by  the 
writers  whose  works  have  come  down  to  us.  Many  of 
them  have  been  noticed  in  the  lists  of  verbs  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapters ;  with  regard  to  others,  it  must  be  left  to 
good  taste,  cultivated  by  reading  the  best  authors,  as  to 
whether  we  may  use,  e.  g.,  cupc,  from  cupio,  like  cape,  from 
capio,  and  whether  we  may  say  dor,  I  am  given,  like  pro- 
dor,  or  putatus  sum,  like  habitus  sum.  (Putatum  est  oc- 
curs in  Cicero,  p.  Murcn.,  17.)  We  shall  here  treat  of 
the  verbs  aio  and  inquam,  I  say  ;  fari,  to  speak ;  the  per- 
fects cocpi,  memini,  novl  and  odi ;  the  imperatives  apage, 
ave,  salve,  vale  ;  cedo  and  quaeso  ;  and,  lastly,  offorem. 

1.  Aio,  I  say,  say  yes,  or  affirm.* 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Present. 

Sing.  Aio,  ais,    ait.  Sing. aias,  ait. 

Plur. aiunt.  Plur. aiant. 

Imperfect.  (The  imperative  ai  is  obsolete.  The,,^,  /£  ^_ 

Sing.  aieba?n,  aiebas,  aiebat.  participle  aiens  is  used  only  as  an  ad- 

Plur.  aiebamus,  aiebatis,  aiebant.  ject.  instead  of  affirmativus.) 

Perfect.  All  the  rest  is  wanting,  or  unclass- 

Sing. dit  (like  the  present). t       ical. 

Note. — In  prose,  as  well  as  in  poetry,  airi1  ?  do  you  think  so?  is  frequent- 
ly used  for  aisne,  just  as  we  find  viden\  abin\  for  videsne,  abisne.  See  §  24. 
The  comic  writers,  especially  Terence,  use  the  imperfect  aibam,  &c.,  as  a 
word  of  two  syllables. 

[§  219.]   2.   Inquam,  I  say.| 
This  verb  is  used  only  between  the  words  of  a  quota- 

*  \_Aio  is  evidently  connected  with  the  Sanscrit  aha.  ("  dixi,"  "ino«am"), 
and  also  with  the  Greek  rj-fj.1  for  0?/-ywf.  (Compare  Pott,  Etym.  Forsch., 
vol.  i.,  p.  281.)  ]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [This  third  person  of  the  perfect  is  very  doubtful.  (Compare  Struve, 
iiber  die  Lat.  Decl.  und  Conj.,  p.  213.)  Late  church  writers,  however,  have 
aisti,  aierunt,  &c.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Inquam  and  sum  are  the  only  two  Latin  verbs  which  still  show  traces 


188  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

tion,  while  ait,  aiunt,  are  found  most  frequently  in  the 
oratio  obliqua. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Present.  Present. 

Sing.  Inquam,  inquis,  inquit.*  Sing. inquias,  inquiat. 

Plur.  inqulrnus,  inquitis,  inquiunt.  Plur.  inquiatis,  inquiant. 

Imperfect.  Future. 

Sing,  inquiebam,  &c.  Sing. inquies,  inquiet. 

Plur.  inquiebamus,  &c.  Plur.  

Perfect.  IMPERATIVE. 

Sing.  inquisti,  inquit.  Sing,  inque,  inquito. 

Plur.  inquis t is, .  Plur.  inquite. 

Note. — The  first  person  of  the  perfect  (more  probably  inqui  than  inquii) 
is  not  found  ;t  the  present  inquam  is  used  instead,  and  inquit  may,  there- 
fore, just  as  well  be  taken  for  the  present.  The  present  subjunctive  has 
been  here  given  according  to  Priscian,  p.  87G,  but  has  not  yet  been  con- 
tinned  by  any  other  authority. 


[§  220.]   3.  Fari,  to  speak,  say.J 

This  very  irregular  verb,  with  its  compounds  affdri,  ef- 
fari,  prof  art,  is,  generally  speaking,  more  used  in  poetry 
than  in  ordinary  prose.  The  third  persons  of  the  present, 
fatur,fantur,  the  imperatives/are,  and  the  participlejfata-s, 
a,  um  (cjf'atum  is  used  also  in  a  passive  sense),  occur 
most  frequently.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund,  yjmdo,  is 
used  in  a  passive  sense  even  in  prose,  in  the  plirasefando 
audirc,  to  know  by  hearsay. 

Compounds  :  affamur,  Ovid  ;  affamim,  Curtius  ;  affabar,  Virgil ;  effabor 
and  cffabens,  also  occur  in  poetry.  The  first  person  fur,  the  subjunctive 
fer,feris,fe1ur,  &c.,  and  the  participle  fans  in  the  nominative,  do  not  oc- 
cur, though  the  other  cases  of  fans  are  found  in  poetry.  Fandus,  a,  um, 
only  in  the  combination  fandum  ct  nefandum ;  fanda,  ncfanda,  which  are 
equivalent  to  fas  et  nrfas. 


[§  221.]  4.    Coepi,        5.  Mcmini,      6.  Novi,      7.    Odi, 
I  have  begun.  I  remember.     I  know.       I  hate. 
These  four  verbs    are    perfects  of  obsolete   presents 
which  have  gone  out  of  use,  with  the  exception  of  nosco, 

of  the  m  termination  in  the  present  tense,  and  the  original  forms  of  these 
verbs  were  undoubtedly  inquami  and  sumi.  This  ending  in  -mi  connects 
them  at  once  with  the  Greek  verbs  in  -/j,i,  and  also  with  the  Sanscrit.] — 
Am.  Ed. 

*  [Compare  with  in-quit  the  English  quoth,  the  Anglo-Saxon  qutthan, 
and  the  Welsh  gwedyd.~] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [Scaliger,  however,  reads  inquii  in  Catullus  (x.,  27),  and  is  followed 
by  Doring  and  others.  The  metre  and  context  both  require  inquii,  which 
cannot,  therefore,  be  said  to  be  a  form  "  not  found."]— Am.  Ed. 

[Pott  compares  Fa-ri  with  the  Sanscrit  blia-sh,  "  loqui,"and  the  Greek 
£. — Am.  Ed. 


DEFECTIVE    VERBS. 


189 


mcminit. 
meminimus. 
meministis. 
meminerunt. 


and  coepio,  coeperc.  They  consequently  have  those  tenses 
only  which  are  derived  from  the  perfect.  In  meaning, 
memmij  novi,  and  odi  are  presents ;  novi,  I  know,  shows 
the  transition  most  clearly,  for  it  properly  means  "I  have 
learned  to  know."  (See  §  203.)  Hence  the  pluperfect  has 
the  meaning  of  an  imperfect :  mcmineram,  I  remember- 
ed ;  noveram,  I  knew  ;  oderam,  I  hated,  not  "  I  had  ha- 
ted," and  the  future  perfect  has  the  signification  of  a  sim- 
ple future,  e.  g.,  odcro,  I  shall  hate ;  memincro,  I  shall  re- 
member. Otherwise  the  terminations  are  quite  regular. 

INDICATIVE. 

Perfect. 

Memini.  Novi.  Odi. 

merninisti.  novisti  (nosti).  odisti. 

novit.  odit. 

novimus.  odimus. 

novistis  (nostis~).  odistis. 

noverunt  (norunt).  oderunt. 

Pluperfect, 
memineram,  &c.        noveram,  &c.  oderarn,  &c. 

(noram.) 
Future. 

memincro,  &C.  novero.  odero,  &C. 

noveris,  &C. 
(noris.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Perfect, 
mcminerim,  &c.        noverim,  &C.  oderim,  &c. 

(norim.) 
Pluperfect. 

meminissem,  &c.      novissem,  &c.  odissem,  &c. 

(nossem,.) 

IMPERATIVE. 

only  the  sing,  me 

mento  and  plur. 
mementote. 

INFINITIVE. 

coepissc.  meminisse.  novisse.  odissc. 

PARTICIPLES. 


coepisti. 

coepit. 

cocpimus. 

cocpistis. 

coeperunt. 

coeperam,  &c. 


cocpero,  &c. 


coeperim,  &c. 


coepissem,  &c. 


Perf.  pass,  coeptus 
(begun). 
Fut.  act.  coepturus. 


(perosus,  exosus,  with 
an  active  meaning.) 
osurus. 


Note. — Hence  coepisse  has  a  perfect  passive  coeptus  (a,  uni)  sum ;  e.  g., 
Liv.,  xxx.,  30;  quia  a  me  helium  coeptum  est :  xxviii.,  14;  quum  a  ne.utris 
pugna  coepta  esset ;  but  it  is  used  especially  in  connexion  with  an  infinitive 
passive,  as  in  pans  institui  coeptus  est ;  Tyrus  septimo  mense,  quani  oppv.gnari 
coepta  erat,  capta  est ;  de  re  publica  consult  coepti  su?>ius ;  the  active  forms 
coepit,  coeperat,  however,  may  likewise  be  used  in  this  connexion.  Com- 
pare desitus  est,  §  200.  Compounds  are  occoepi,  which  is  not  unfrequcntly 
used  along  with  the  regular  occipio  (the  same  as  incipid)  and  commemini. 


100  LATIN    URAMMAR. 

f§  222.]  8.  Apage,     9.  Ave,     10.   Salve,     11.    Vale, 
be  gone.          hail.  hail.  farewell. 

Note. — Apage  is  the  Greek  imperative  axays  of  urrdyu,  and  akin  to 
abigo ;  apage  istas  sorores  !  away  with  them  !  especially  apage  te,  get  thy- 
self off,  or,  with  the  omission  of  the  pronoun,  apage,  begone.  Salveo  in 
Plautus,  TrucuL,  ii.,  2,  4,  maybe  regarded  as  the  present  of  salve.  Comp. 
Probus,  Inslit.  Gram.,  p.  141,  ed.  Lindemann.  Vale  and  ave,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  regular  imperatives  ofvaleo,  I  am  well,  and  aveo,  I  desire ;  and 
they  are  mentioned  here  only  on  occount  of  their  change  of  meaning. 

The  plural  is,  avete,  salvete,  valete ;  the  imperat.  fut.  aveto,  salveto,  valeto. 
The  future,  salvebis,valebis,  is  likewise  used  in  the  sense  of  an  imperative, 
and  the  infinitives  mostly  with  jubeo :  avere,  salvere,  valere. 


[§  223.]   12.   Cedo,  give,  tell. 

This  word  is  used  as  an  imperative  in  familiar  lan- 
guage, for  da  and  die,  both  with  and  without  an  accusa- 
tive. A  plural  cette  occurs  in  old  Latin. 

The  e  is  short  in  this  word,  which  thus  differs  from  the  complete  verb 
cedo,  I  yield,  give  way. 


[§  224.]   13.   Quaeso,  I  beseech. 

Quaeso  is  originally  the  same  as  quaero,  but  in  good 
prose  it  is  generally  inserted  in  another  sentence.  Be- 
sides this  first  person  singular,  we  find  only  the  first  per- 
son plural  quaesumus. 

14.  For  cm  ^  I  should  be. 

This  imperfect  subjunctive,  which  is  conjugated  regu- 
larly, has  arisen  froiujfuerem,  of  the  obsolete  verby^o,  and 
belongs  to  sum.  (See  above,  §  156.) 


CHAPTER  LX. 

IMPERSONAL     VERBS. 

[§  225.]  1.  THE  term  Impersonal  Verbs  strictly  applies 
only  to  those  of  which  no  other  but  the  third  person  sin- 
gular is  used,  and  which  do  not  admit  a  personal  subject 
(I,  thou,  he),  the  subject  being  a  proposition,  an  infinitive, 
or  a  neuter  noun  understood.  (See  §  441,  &c.)  Verbs 
of  this  kind  are  : 

Miserct  (me),  I  pity,  perfect  miseritum  cst. 

Piget  (me},  I  regret,  piguit  or  pigitum  cst. 

Poenitet  (me),  I  repent,  poenituit,  fut.  poenitebit. 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS.  11)1 

Pudet  (me),  I  am  ashamed,  puduit  or  puditum  cst. 
Taedet  (me),  I  am  disgusted  with,  (taeduit,  very  rare), 
pertaesum  est. 

Oportet,  it  behooves,  oportuit,  fut.  oportebit. 

Note. — Miseruit,  the  regular  perfect  of  miseret,  occurs  so  seldom,  that  we 
have  not  here  noticed  it.  The  form  commonly  used  is  miseritum  ormisertum 
est,  which  is  derived  from  the  impersonal  me  miseretur  tui,  which  is  not 
uncommon,  although  the  deponent  misereri  is  otherwise  used  only  as  a 
personal  verb,  rnisereor  tui.  Compare  the  passages,  Cic.,  p.  Ligar.,  5  ;  cave 
tefratrum  pro  salute  fratris  obsecrantium  misercatur :  in  Verr.,  L,  30;  jam  me 
tui  misereri  non  potest,  where  the  verb  is  likewise  impersonal. 

[§  226.]  2.  Besides  these  impersonals,  there  are  some 
others,  which  likewise  have  no  personal  subject,  but  yet 
are  used  in  the  third  person  plural,  and  may  have  a  nom- 
inative (at  least  a  neuter  pronoun)  as  their  subject.  Such 
verbs  are  : 

Libet  (mikij,  I  like,  choose  ;  perf.  libuit,  or  libitum  est. 

Licet  (mihi),  I  am  permitted;  perf.  licuit,  or  licitum  est. 

Dccct  (me),  it  becomes  me,  and  dedccet,  it  does  not  be- 
come me  ;  perf.  dccuit,  dcdccuit. 

Liquct,  it  is  obvious ;  perf.  licuit. 

Note. — Libuit  has  been  mentioned  here  as  a  perfect  of  libet,  but  it  is  usu- 
ally found  only  as  a  present,  in  the  sense  of  libet. 

[§  227.]  3.  There  is  also  a  considerable  number  of 
verbs  which  are  used  impersonally  in  the  third  person, 
while  their  other  persons  occur  with  more  or  less  differ- 
ence in  meaning.  To  these  belong:  interest  and  refert 
in  the  sense  of  "  it  is  of  importance  to,"  with  which  no 
nominative  can  be  used  as  a  subject;  farther,  accidit,  jit, 
even  it,  and  contingit,  it  happens  ;  accedit,  it  is  added  to,  or 
in  addition  to ;  attinet  and  pertinct  (ad  aliquid),  it  con- 
cerns ;  conducit,  it  is  conducive ;  convenit,  it  suits ;  con- 
stat,  it  is  known  or  established ;  cxpedit,  it  is  expedient ; 
delectat  and  juvat,  it  delights,  pleases  ;  fall-it,  fugit,  and 
practerit  me,  it  escapes  me,  I  do  not  know;  placet,  it 
pleases;  perf.  placuit  andplacitum  est;  pracstat,\t  is  bet- 
ter ;  rcstat,  it  remains ;  racat,  it  is  wanting ;  est,  in  the 
sense  of  liect,  it  is  permitted  or  possible,  e.  g.,  cst  vldcrc, 
non  est  diccrc  vemm,  but  especially  in  poetry  and  late  prose 
writers. 

[§  228.]  4.  The  verbs  which  denote  the  changes  of  the 
weather  ;  pluit,  it  rains  ;  ningit,  it  snows ;  grandinat,  it 
hails  ;  lapidat  (perf.  also  lapidalum  cst),  stones  fall  from 
heaven;  fulgurat  andfulminat,  it  lightens  (with  this  dif- 
ference, that  fulmmat  is  used  of  a  flash  of  lightning  which 


102  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

stiikes  an  object) ;  tonat,  it  thunders ;  luccscit  and  illuces- 
cit  (perf.  illuxitjj  it  dawns ;  vesperasdt  and  advesperascit 
(perf.  aclvesperavit),  the  evening  approaches  :  in  all  these 
cases  the  subject  understood  is  supposed  to  be  dcus  or 
coelum,  which  are,  in  fact,  often  added  as  their  subjects. 

[§  229.]  5.  The  third  person  singular  passive  of  a  great 
many  words,  especially  of  those  denoting  movement  or 
saying,  is,  or  may  be  used  impersonally,  even  when  the 
verb  is  neuter,  and  has  no  personal  passive,  e.  g.,  curritur, 
they  or  people  run ;  itur,  vcntum  est,  clamatur,  flctur,  scri- 
bittir,  Inbitur,  &c. 

[§  230.]  G.  All  these  impersonal  verbs,  as  such,  have 
no  imperative,  the  place  of  which  is  supplied  by  the  pres- 
ent subjunctive,  e.  g.,  pudcat  fc,  be  ashamed  of!  The 
participles,  also  (together  with  the  forms  derived  from 
them,  the  gerund  and  the  infinitive  future),  are  wanting, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  libcns,  licens  and  Uciturus, 
poenitens  and  pocnitcndus,  pudcndus. 


CHAPTER  LXI. 

ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS. 

[§231.]  WE  have  hitherto  treated  of  the  changes  which 
one  particular  form  of  nouns  and  verbs,  supposed  to  be 
known  (the  nominative  in  nouns,  and  the  infinitive  in 
verbs),  may  undergo  in  forming  cases  and  numbers,  per- 
sons, tenses,  moods,  &c.  But  the  origin  of  that  form  it- 
self, which  is  taken  as  the  basis  in  inflection,  is  explained 
in  that  special  branch  of  the  study  of  language  which  is 
called  Etymology.  Its  object  is  to  trace  all  the  words  of 
the  language  to  their  roots,  and  it  must,  therefore,  soon 
lead  us  from  the  Latin  to  the  Greek  language,  since  both 
are  nearly  allied,  and  since  the  Greek  was  developed  at 
an  earlier  period  than  the  Latin.  Other  languages,  too, 
must  be  consulted,  in  order  to  discover  the  original  forms 
and  significations.  We  cannot,  however,  here  enter  into 
these  investigations,  and  must  content  ourselves  with  as- 
certaining, within  the  Latin  language  itself,  the  most 
prominent  laws  in  the  formation  of  new  words  from  other 
more  simple  ones  ;  a  knowledge  of  these  laws  is  useful  to 
the  beginner,  since  it  facilitates  his  acquiring  the  language. 
But  we  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  nouns  (substantive 


ETYMOLOGY    OF    NOUNS    AND    VERBS.  193 

and  adjective)  and  verbs,  for  the  derivation  and  composi- 
tion of  pronouns  and  numerals  have  been  discussed  in  a 
former  part  of  this  work  ;  with  regard  to  the  (unchangea- 
ble) particles,  on  the  other  hand,  etymology  is  necessary, 
as  it  supplies  the  place  of  inflection. 

The  formation  of  new  words  from  others  previously 
existing  takes  place  either  by  Derivation,  or  the  addition 
of  certain  terminations  ;  or  by  Composition.  In  regard 
to  derivation,  we  have  to  distinguish  primitive  and  deriv- 
ative words  ;  and,  with  regard  to  composition,  simple 
and  compound  words.  We  shall  first  treat  of  derivation. 

I.  VERBS. 

Verbs  are  derived  either  from  other  verbs  or  from 
nouns. 

A.  With  regard  to  the  former,  we  distinguish  four 
classes  of  verbs  :  1.  Frequentative;  2.  Desidcrative  ;  3. 
Diminutive  ;  and  4.  Inchoative. 

1.  Frequentatives,  all  of  which  follow  the  first  conjuga-  /, 
tion,  denote  the  frequent  repetition,  or  an  increase  of  the 
action  expressed  by  the  primitive  verb.  They  are  de- 
rived from  the  supine  by  changing  the  regular  atum  in 
the  first  conjugation  into  ito,  itare  ;  other  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation,  as  well  as  of  the  others,  remain  un-  y-,?^ 
changed,  the  termination  of  the  supine,  urn,  alone  being  J$, 
changed  into  o,  are.  Of  the  former  kind  are,  e.  g.,  clamo, 
clamito ;  impero,  impcrito ;  rogito,  volito ;  of  the  latter, 
domo,  domitum,  domito  ;  adjuvo,  adjittum,  adjuto  ;  and 
from  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  :  curro,  cursum,  cur  so  ; 
cano,  cantum,  canto  ;  dico1  dictum,  dicto  ;  nosco,  notum^ 
noto ;  and  so,  also,  acccpto,  pulso,  dcfenso,  gesto,  quasso, 
tracto.  Some  of  these  latter  frequentatives,  derived  from 
verbs  of  the  third  conjugation,  serve,  again,  as  primitives, 
from  which  new  frequentatives  are  formed ;  as,  cursito, 
dictito,  defensito.  There  are  some  double  frequentatives 
of  thi3  kind,  without  the  intermediate  form  of  the  simple 
frequentative  being  used  or  known ;  such  as  act i to  from 
ago  facto  J;  and  so,  also,  lectito  from  lego,  scriptito  from 
scribo,  liacsito  from  haereo,  visito  from  video,  vcntito  from 
venio,  advento. 

Some  few  frequentatives  with  the  termination  ito,  itare, 
are  not  derived  from  the  supine,  but  from  the  present  of 
the  primitive  verb.  This  formation  is  necessary  when 


194  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  primitive  verb  has  no  supine,  as  is  the  case  with  lateo, 
paveo — latito,  pavito.  But  the  following  are  formed  in 
this  manner  without  there  being  such  a  reason :  agito, 
noscito,  quacrito,  cogito.  Some  frequentatives  have  the 
exponential  form ;  as,  amplexor,  from  amplector,  minitor 
from  minor,  tutor  from  tucor,  scitor  and  sciscitor  from  scisco. 
[§  232.]  2.  Desiderativcs  end  in  urio,  urire  (after  the 
fourth  conjugation),  and  express  a  desire  of  that  which  is 
implied  in  the  primitive.  They  are  formed  from  the  su- 
pine of  the  latter,  e.  g.,  esurio,  csuris,  I  want  to  eat,  from 
edo,  esum  ;  so,  also,  coenaturio  from  coenatum,  dicturio  from 
dictum,  empturio  from  cmptum,  parturio  from  partum,  and 
in  this  manner  Cicero  (ad  Att.^  ix.,  10)  jocosely  formed 
Sullaturit  et  proscripturit,  he  would  like  to  play  the  part 
of  Sulla  and  to  proscribe. 

Note. — Some  verbs  in  urio  after  the  fourth  conjugation,  such  as  ligurire, 
scaturire,  prurire,  are  not  desideratives,  and  it  should  be  observed  that  the 
u  in  these  words  is  long. 

[§  233.]  3.  Diminutives  have  the  termination  illo,  i~llare, 
which  is  added  to  the  stem  of  the  primitive  verb  without 
any  farther  change,  and  they  describe  the  action  expressed 
as  something  trifling  or  insignificant ;  e.  g.,  cantillare,  from 
cantare^to  sing  in  an  under  voice, or  sing  with  a  shaking; 
conscribillarc,  scribble  ;  sorbillare,  from  sorbcrc,  sip.  The 
number  of  these  verbs  is  not  great. 

[§  234.]  4.  IncJwativcs  have  the  termination  sco,  and 
follow  the  third  conjugation.  They  express  the  beginning 
of  the  act  or  condition  denoted  by  the  primitive ;  e.  g., 
caleo,  I  am  warm ; .  calesco^  I  am  getting  or  becoming 
warm;  areo,  I  am  dry;  aresco,!  begin  to  be  dry;  langueo, 
I  am  languid ;  languesco,  I  am  becoming  languid.  It  fre- 
quently happens  that  a  preposition  is  prefixed  to  an  in- 
choative, as  in  timeo,  pertimesco  ;  taceo,  conticesco.  The 
vowel  preceding  the  termination  sco,  scere,  is  either  a 
(ascoj,  e  (escoj,  or  i  (isco),  according  as  the  inchoative  is 
derived  from  a  primitive  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  and 
fourth  conjugation  (in  the  last  two  cases  it  is  isco) ;  e.  g., 

labascp  from  Icibarc,  totter. 
pallesco  from  pallere,  be  pale. 
ingemisco  from  gemere,  sigh. 
obdormisco  from  doi*mire,  sleep. 

Many  inchoatives,  however,  are  not  derived  from  verbs, 
but  from  substantives  and  adjectives,  e.  g,, 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.        195 

puerasco,  I  become  childish,  from  pucr. 
maturesco,  I  become  ripe,  from  maturus,  a,  um. 

All  inchoatives  take  their  perfect  and  the  tenses  deri- 
ved from  it  from  the  primitive  verb,  or  form  it  as  it  would 
be  in  the  primitive.  (See  Chap.  LIL,  the  list  of  the  most 
important  inchoatives.)  It  must,  however,  be  observed 
that  not  all  verbs  ending  in  sco  are  inchoatives.  See  § 
203. 

[§  235.]  B.  In  regard  to  the  derivation  of  verbs  from 
nouns,  we  see  that  in  general  the  language  followed  the 
principle  of  giving  the  termination  of  the  second  conju- 
gation to  verbs  of  an  intransitive  signification,  and  that  of 
the  first  to  such  as  have  a  transitive  signification.  Thus 
we  have,  e.  g., 

(a)  flos,floris,florere,  bloom.  and  from  adjectives  : 
frons,frondis,frondere,  have  fo-          albus,  albere,  be  white. 

liage.  calvus,  calvere,  be  bald. 

vis,  vires,  virere,  be  strong.  flavus,  flavere,  be  yellow. 

lux,  lucis,  lucere,  shine.  hebes,  hebere,  be  blunt  or  dull, 

but,  albus,  albare,  whitewash. 

(b)  numerus,-  numerare,  count.    •  aptus,  aptare,  fit. 

signum,  signare,  mark.  liber,  a,  um,  liberare,  liberate. 

fraus,  fraudis,fraudare,  deceive.         celeber,  bris,  bre,  celebrare,  make  fre- 
nomen,  nominis,  nominare,  name.  quent,  or  celebrate. 

vulnus,  vulneris,  vulnerare,  wound,      memor,  memorare,  mention. 
arma,  armare,  arm.  communis,   communicare,   communi- 

cate. 

Both  kinds  are  found  compounded  with  prepositions,  without  the  sim- 
ple verbs  themselves  being  known  or  much  used  ;  e.  g., 

Laqueus,  illaqueare,  entwine  ;  acervus,'coacervare,  accumulate  ;  stirps,  ex- 
tirpare,  extirpate  ;  hilaris,  exhilarare,  cheer. 

The  observation  of  §  147  must  be  repeated  here,  that 
many  deponents  of  the  first  conjugation  (in  ari)  are  deri- 
ved from  substantives  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  "  to 
be  that  which  the  substantive  indicates  ;"  e.  g.,  among  the 
first  verbs  in  the  list  there  given,  we  find  aemulari,  ancil- 
lari,  architectari,  aucupari,  augur  ari ;  and,  in  like  man- 
ner, comes,  comitis,  comitari ;  dominus,  dominari ;  fur, 
furari.  See  §  237.  The  Latin  language  has  much  free- 
dom in  formations  of  this  kind,  and  we  may  even  now 
form  similar  words,  just  as  Persius  invented  (or  was  the 
first,  as  far  as  we  know,  that  used)  cornicari,  chatter  like 
a  crow,  and  Horace  graecari,  live  luxuriously,  like  a  Grac- 
culus. 


196  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

II.  SUBSTANTIVES. 
[§  236.]  Substantives  are  derived : 
A.  From  Verbs. 

1.  By  the  termination  or,  appended  in  place  of  the  um 
of  the  supine  in  transitive  verbs,  to  denote  a  man  perform- 
ing the  action  implied  in  the  verb  ;   e.  g., 

amator,  monitor,         lector,  auditor, 

adulator,        fautor,  condltor,          condltor, 

adjutor,  censor,  petitor,  largltor, 

and  a  great  many  others.  Those  which 'end  in  tor  form 
feminines  in  trix  ;  &s,fautrix,adjutrix,  victrix  ;  and  if  in 
some  cases  no  such  feminine  can  be  pointed  out  in  the 
writings  that  have  come  down  to  us,  it  does  not  follow, 
considering  the  facility  of  their  formation,  that  there  nev- 
er existed  one.  In  regard  to  the  masculines  in  sor,  the 
formation  of  feminines  is  more  difficult,  but  tonsor  makes 
tonstrix  ;  defensor,  dcfcnstrix  ;  and  expulsor,  throwing  out 
the  s,  makes  expultrix. 

Some  few  substantives  of  this  kind  ending  in  tor  are 
formed,  also,  from  nouns  ;  as,  aleator,  gambler,  from  alea; 
janitor,  fromjanua;  viator,  from  via. 

2.  The  same  termination  or,  when  added  to  the  unal- 
tered stem  of  a  word,  especially  of  intransitive  verbs,  ex- 
presses the  action  or  condition  denoted  by  the  verb  sub- 
stantively  ;   e.  g.,  pavere,  pavor,  fear  ;  furere,  furor,  fury  ; 
nit  ere,  nitor,  shine  or  gloss.     So,  also,  e.  g., 

clamor,  albor,  horror,  favor,  ardor, 
amor,  rubor,  timor,  maeror,  splendor. 
[§  237.]  3.  Two  terminations,  viz.,  io,  gen.  ionis,  and  us, 
gen.  us,  when  added  to  the  supine  after  throwing  off  the 
um,  express  the  action  or  condition  denoted  by  the  verb 
abstractedly.  Both  terminations  are  frequently  met  with 
in  substantives  derived  from  the  same  verb,  without  any 
material  difference  ;  as,  concursio  and  concursus,  consensio 
and  consensus ;  so,  also,  contemptio  and  contemptus,  digres- 
sio  and  digressus,  motio  and  motus,  potio  and  potus,  tracta- 
tio  and  tractatus,  and  others.  Some  verbs  in  are  which 
have  different  forms  of  the  supine  (see  §  171),  make,  also, 
substantives  of  two  forms  ;  thus  we  \i3Nefricatio  andyh'o 
tio,  lavatio  and  lotio,  potatio  and  potio,  and,  according  to 
their  analogy,  also  cubatio  and  cubitio,  although  the  supine 
of  cubare  is  cubitum  only. 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.        197 

In  this  manner  are  formed  from  actives  and  deponents, 
for  example^ 

(a)  sectio.  motio.  lectio.  auditio. 
cunctatio.  cautio.  ultio.  sortitio. 
acclamatio.  admonitio.  actio.  largitio. 

(b)  crepitus.  fletus.  cantus.  ambitus, 
sonitus.  visus.  congressus.     ortus. 

Note. — Strictly  speaking,  the  Latin  language  makes  this  difference,  that 
the  verbal  substantives  in  io  denote  the  action  or  condition  as  actually  go- 
ing on,  and  those  in  us  as  being  and  existing;  but  this  difference  is  Ire-  s.  t~7$- , 
quently  neglected,  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  writers  of  the  silver*5^"/ 
age  (especially  Tacitus)  prefer  the  forms  in  us  without  at  all  attending  to 
the  difference.  A  third  termination,  producing  pretty  nearly  the  same 
meaning,  is  ura;  as  in  pictura,  painting;  conjectura,  conjecture;  cultura, 
cultivation.  Sometimes  it  exists  along  with  the  other  two,  as  in  positio, 
positus,  positura  ;  censio,  census,  censura.  Usually,  however,  one  of  them 
is  preferred,  in  practice,  with  a  definite  meaning.  Thus  we  have  me.rcatus, 
the  market,  and  mercatura,  commerce.  In  some  substantives  the  termi- 
nation ela  produces  the  same  meaning ;  as,  querela,  complaint ;  loquela, 
speech ;  corruptela,  corruption. 

[§  238.]    4.   The  termination  men  expresses  either  the 
thing  to  which  the  action  belongs,  both  in  an  active  and 
passive  sense;  as,  fulmen,  fromjulgc?-e,  lightning;  flumen,/.  /-?/ 
from  fluere,  river ;  agmen,  from  agere,  troop  or  army  in    '  ' 
its  march ;  examen,  from  exigere,  a  swarm  of  bees  driven 
out :   or,  the  means  of  attaining  what  the  verb  expresses  ; 
e.  g.,  solamen,  a  means  of  consolation  ;   nomen  a  means 
of  recognising,  that  is,  a  name.     The  same  thing  is  ex- 
pressed also  by  the  termination  mcntum,  which  sometimes 
occurs  along  with  men  ;   as,  tcgmen  and  tcgumentum,  vela- 
men  and  velamentum,  but  much  more  frequently  alone,  as 
in  adjumentum,  from  ad/juvarc,  a  means  of  relief;  condi- 
mentum,  from  condire,  condiment,  i.  e.,  a  means  of  sea- 
soning ;  documentum,  a  document,  a  means  of  showing  or 
proving  a  thing.     Similar  words  are  : 
allevamentum.  monumentum.  additamentum.  experimentum. 
ornamentum.    fomentum.       alimentum.        blandimcntum . 
Some  substantives  of  this  kind  are  derived  from  nouns  ; 
thus,  from  ater,  black,  we  have  atramentum.     The  con- 
necting vowel  a  before  mentum,  however,  may  show  that  a 
link  was  conceived  to  exist  between  the  primitive  ater  and  £//^/7 
the  derivative  atramentum,  such,  perhaps,  as  a  verb  dtrare^a/.^ 
blacken.     In  like  manner,  we  have  calccamentum,  a  cov-     '  '*'' 
ering  for  the  feet ;  capiliamentum,  a  headdress,  wig. 

[§  239.]  5.  The  terminations  bulum  and  culum  (or  ulumy 
when  c  or  g  precedes)  denote  an  instrument  or  a  place 
R  2 


198  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

serving  a  certain  purpose;  e.  g.,  venabulum,  a  hunter's 
spear;  veMculum,  a  vehicle  ;  jaculum,  a  javelin;  cingulum, 
a  girdle.  So,  also, 

umbraculum.     cubiculum.       ferculum.        mnculum.* 

poculum.  latibulum.        stabulum.       operculum. 

The  termination  culum  is  sometimes  contracted  into  clum, 
as  in  rjinclum ;  and  clum  is  changed  into  crum,  and  bu- 
lum  into  brum,  when  there  is  already  an  I  in  the  stem  of 
the  word;  e.  g.,jfulcrum,  support;  lavacrum,  bath;  sepul- 
crum,  sepulchre  ;  Jlagrum,  scourge  ;  vcntilabrum.  A  simi- 
lar meaning  belongs  to  trum  in  aratrum,  plough ;  claus- 
trum,  lock ;  rostrum,  beak.  Some  words  of  this  class  are 
derived  from  substantives  ;  as,  turibulum,  censer  (tus,  tu- 
ris);  acctabulum,  vinegar  cruet;  candelabrum,  candelabre. 

6.  Other  and  less  productive  terminations  are  a  and  o, 
which,  when  appended  to  the  stem  of  the  word,  denote 
the  subject  of  the  action:  conviva,  guest;  advena,  stran- 
ger ;  scriba,  scribe  ;  transfuga,  deserter  ;  crro,  vagrant ; 
bibo,  drunkard;  comedo,  glutton.  By  means  of  the  termi- 
nation io  words  are  derived  from  substantives,  denoting 
a  trade  to  which  a  person  belongs ;  as,  ludio,  the  same  as 
kistrio,  an  actor;  pcllio,  furrier;  restio,  rope-maker. 

-ium  expresses  the  effect  of  the  verb  and  the  place  of 
the  action;  e.  g.,  gaudium,  joy  ;  odium,  hatred;  collo- 
quium, colloquy  ;  conjugium  and  connubium,  marriage  ; 
aedificium,  building,  edifice ;  re-  and  confugium,  place  of 
refuge  ;  comitium,  place  of  assembly. 

-igo  expresses  a  state  or  condition ;  origo,  from  oriri, 
origin  ;  vertigo,  giddiness  ;  rubigo,  a  blight ;  petigo  and 
impetigo,  scab  ;  prurigo,  itch  ;  and  hence,  porrigo,  scurf. 
A  similar  meaning1  belongs  to  ido  in  cupido,  libido,  formido. 

?.rx:jre  0  nl  -r,       ° 

[§  240.]   B.  From  other  Substantives. 

1.  The  diminutives,  or,  as  Quintilian,  i.,5,  46,  calls  them, 
vocabula  deminuta,  are  mostly  formed  by  the  terminations 
ulus,  ula,  ulum,  or  culus,  a,  um,  according  to  the  gender  of 
the  primitive  word  :  ulus,  a,  um,  is  appended  to  the  stem 
after  the  removal  of  the  termination  of  the  oblique  cases, 
e.g.,virga,virgula;  sermis,  servulus ;  pucr,  puerulus ;  rex 

(regis),  regulus ;  caput  (capitis),  capitulum.\     So,  also, 

, • ., 

*  [The  student  ought  to  have  been  informed  here  that  in  vinc-ulum,  as 

in  jac-ulum,  the  c  belongs  to  the  stem,  while  in  oper-culum  it  belongs  to  the 

termination.] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [A  much  simpler  classification  than  the  one  here  given  may  be  found 

in  Priscian,  viz. : 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       199 

portula.      nummulus.     rapulum.       facula. 
litterula.     Jiortulus.         oppidulum.     adolescentulus. 
Instead  of  ulus,  a,  um,  we  find  olus,  a,  um,  when  the  ter- 
mination of  the  primitive  substantive,  us,  a,  um,  is  prece- 
ded by  a  vowel ;  e.  g., 

Jiliolus.  gloriola.  ingeniolum. 

alveolus.  lineola.  horreolum. 

The  termination  cMus,  a,  um,  is  sometimes  appended  to 
the  nominative  without  any  change,  viz.,  in  the  words  in 
I  and  r,  and  those  in  os  and  us  of  the  third  declension, 
which  take  an  r  in  the  genitive  ;  e.  g., 

corculum.        fraterculus.     flosculus.       munusculum. 

tubcrculmn.  sororcula.  osculum.  corpusculum. 
And  so,  also,pulvisculus,  vasculum,  from  vas,  vasis ;  arbus- 
cula,  from  the  form  arbos  ;  and,  in  a  somewhat  different 
manner,  rumusculus,  from  rumor  ;  lintriculus  and  ventricu- 
lus,  from  linter  and  venter.  Sometimes  the  s  of  the  nom- 
inative terminations  is  and  cs  is  dropped,  as  in 

igniculus.          aedicula.         nubecula.  diecula. 

pisciculus.         pellicula.         vulpecula.         plebecula. 

In  words  of  other  terminations  of  the  third  declension, 
and  in  those  of  the  fourth,  i  steps  in  as  a  connecting  vow- 
el between  the  stem  of  the  word  and  the  diminutive  ter- 
mination culus  ;  e.  g,, 

ponticulus.         denticulus.         versiculus.          anicula. 
particula.  ossiculum.          articulus*  corniculum. 

coticula*  rcticulum.          scnsiculus.         geniculum. 

The  termination  ellus,  a,  um,  occurs  only  in  those  words 
of  the  first  and  second  declensions  which  have  I,  n,  or  r 
in  their  terminations.  Thus,  oculus  makes  ocellus;  tabula, 
tabella  ;  asinus,  asellus ;  liber,  lib ellus  ;  libra,  lib clla  ;  lu- 
crum,  lucellum.  So,  also,  popellus,fabella,  lamella,  patel- 

(A)  If  the  primitive  be  of  the  first  or  second  declension,  -ulus,  -a,  -um,  is 
adopted  ;  the  gender  depending  on  that  of  the  primitive. 

(B)  If  it  be  of  the  third,  fourth,  or  fifth,  -culus,  -a,  -um,  is  preferred. 

The  exceptions  arise  from  contraction,  or  euphonic  variety.  If  the 
stem  of  the  first  or  second  declension  terminate  in  I,  n,  r,  a  contraction 
generally  takes  place,  producing  the  termination  -ellus,  -a,  -um,  or  -Ulus, 
-a,  -um.  Thus,  besides  puerulus,  we  have  puellus ;  and  the  secondary  form 
puellula.  If  it  end  in  i  or  e,  then  -olus  is- written  for  -ulus.  With  respect 
to  the  other  declensions,  if  the  stem  end  in  any  of  the  harsher  consonants, 
c,  g,  t,  d,  the  first  termination  without  the  guttural  is  naturally  preferred. 
If  it  end  in  on,  then  -unculus  is  written  instead  of  -onculus.  (Journal  of 
Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  10 1.)]— Am.  E<L 


200  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


la,  agellus,  cultellus,  flabdlum,  flagellum,  labdlum,  sacel- 
lum.  Cute/la  is  the  same  as  cistula,  and  thence  we  have 
again  cistellula,  just  as  puellula  from  puella.  Catcllus 
from  canis,  and  porcellus  from  porcus,  cannot  be  brought 
under  any  rule.  The  termination  illus,  a,  um,  occurs 
**»*W, ,  more  rarely,  as  in  barillum,  sig ilium,  tigillum,  pupillus, 

Y/  fffiS          pupulus,  from  the  obsolete  pupus  ;  villum  from  vinum. 

'™^'  So,  also,  codicillus,  lapillus,  anguilla.  The  termination 
unculus,  a,  w?i,  is  appended  chiefly  to  words  in  o,  gen.  onis 

or  inis ;   as,  . 

X  -£LO  /U. 
scrmuncuius.         ra.tiuncuia.  homunculus.  &  3 

pugiunculus.         quaestiuncula.  mrguncula. 

A.  few  diminutives  of  this  sort  are  formed  also  from 
words  of  other  terminations,  viz.,  avunculus  from  avus^ 
domuncula  from  domus,  furunculus  from  fur,  ranunculus 
from  rana.  The  diminutive  termination  Icus  occurs  sel- 
dom;  but  it  is  found  in  equus,  equuleus ;  acus,  aculcus ; 
liinnus,  liinnulcus. 

Note. — Only  a  few  diminutives  differ  in  gender  from  their  primitive 
words  ;  as,  aculeus,  from  acus,  fern.  ;  curriculum,  from  currus,  masc. ;  and, 
also,  ranunculus,  from  rana,  and  scamillus  (a  footstool),  from  scamnum,  along 
with  which,  however,  we  also  find  the  regular  diminutives  ranula  and 
scamellum.  Hence  there  are  instances  of  double  diminutives  ia  cases 
where  the  primitives  have  double  forms  (see  <$>  98) ;  e.  g.,  catillus  and  catil- 
lum  ;  pileolun  and  pileolum,  and  a  few  others.  The  diminutives  of  common 
nouns  ($  40)  are  said  to  have  regularly  two  forms,  one  in  us  and  the  oth- 
er in  a,  to  designate  the  two  sexes  ;  as,  infantulus  and  infantula,  tirunculust 
a,  from  infans  and  tiro. 

[§  241.]  2.  The  termination  ium  appended  to  the  radi- 
cal syllable  of  the  primitive  expresses  either  an  assem- 
blage of  tilings  or  persons,  or  their  relation  to  one  anoth- 
er; e.  g.,  collcga,  collegium,  an  assembly  of  men  who  are 
collegac  (colleagues)  of  one  another;  so  convivium,  repast,, 
or  assembly  of  convivac ;  servitium,  the  domestics,  also 
servitude;  sacerdotium,  the  office  of  priest;  minister,  min- 
isterium,  service  ;  cxul,  exilium,  exile  ;  censors,  consortium, 
community.  When  this  termination  is  appended  to  ver- 
bal substantives  in  or,  it  denotes  the  place  of  the  action, 
as  in  repositorium,  repository ;  conditorium,  a  place  where 
a  thing  is  kept,  tomb ;  auditorium,  a  place  where  people 
assemble  for  the  purpose  of  listening  to  a  person. 

[§  242.]  3.  -arium  denotes  a  receptacle  ;  e.  g.,  grana- 
rium,  a  granary  or  place  where  grain  is  kept ;  armariwnto 
(armaj,  a  cupboard ;  armamentarium,  arsenal,  or  place- 
where  the  armamenta  are  kept.  So,  also,  plantarium  and 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       201 

seminar ium,  aerarium,  columbarium,  tabularium,  valetudi- 
narium. 

[§  243.]  4.  -etum,  appended  to  the  names  of  plants,  de- 
notes the  place  where  they  grow  in  great  number ;  e.  g., 
quercus,  quercetum,  a  plantation  of  oaks  ;  so,  also,  vinetum, 
laMretum,  escidetum,  dumetum,  myrtetum,  olivetum  ;  and, 
after  the  same  analogy,  saxetum,  a  field  covered  with 
stones ;  and,  with  some  change,  salictum  (from  salix), 
pasture,  instead  of  salicetum ;  virgultum  instead  of  vir- 
guletum  ;  arbustum,  from  arbos  (for  arbor J,  instead  of  ar- 
boretum. £AAA4M^*~~,  />.  <^MJ^.  t/f^  /£-&•£>. 

[§  244.]  5.  -He,  appended  to  names  of  animals,  indicates 
the  place  in  which  they  are  kept ;  e.  g.,  bubile  (rarely  bo- 
vilej,  stall  of  oxen ;  equile,  stable  (of  horses) ;  so,  also, 
caprile,  hoedile,  ovile.  Some  which  are  formed  from  verbs 
indicate  the  place  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb;  as, 
cubile,  sedile.  All  these  words  are  properly  neuters  of 
adjectives,  but  their  other  genders  are  not  used.  Com- 
pare §  250. 

[§  245.]  G.  With  regard  to  patronymics,  or  names  of 
descent,  which  the  Latin  poets  have  adopted  from  the  po- 
etical language  of  the  Greeks,  the  student  must  be  refer- 
red to  the  Greek  Grammar.  The  most  common  termina- 
tion is  ides;  as,  Pria?nus,  Priamides  ;  Cccrops,  Cecropidcs  ; 
names  in  eus  and  clcs  make  ides  (e£(%c) ;  e.  g.,  Atrides,  Pe~ 
lides,  Heraclidae.  The  names  in  as  of  the  first  declen- 
sion make  their  patronymics  in  ades;  as,  Aeneas,  Aeneades. 
The  termination  iades  should  properly  occur  only  in  names 
ending  in  ius,  such  as  Thestius,  Thestiades ;  but  it  is 
used  also  in  other  names,  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  particular  verse ;  as,  Laertes,  Laertiades  ;  Atlas, 
Atlantiadcs  ;  Abas,  Abantiades ;  Tclamon,  Tclamoniades. 

The  feminine  patronymics  are  derived  from  the  mascu- 
lines, ides  being  changed  into  is,  ides  into  eis,  and  iades 
into  ias ;  e.  g.,  Tdntalidcs,  Tantalis;  Nereus  (Ncrides), 
Nereis;  Thestius  (Thestiades),  Thestias.  Aeneades  (from 
Aeneas)  alone  makes  the  feminine  Aeneis,  because  the  reg- 
ular feminine,  Aeneas,  would  be  the  same  as  the  primitive. 
In  some  instances  we  find  the  termination  me  or  ione  ;  as, 
Neptunine,  Acrisione. 

[§  246.]   C.  From  Adjectives. 

1.  The  termination  itas  is  the  most  common  in  forming 
substantives  denoting  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjec- 


202  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

tive  as  an  abstract  notion,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  English 
ty  or  ity.  The  adjective  itself,  in  appending  itas,  under- 
goes the  same  changes  as  in  its  oblique  cases,  especially 
in  the  one  which  ends  in  i.  Thus,  from  atrox,  atroci,  we 
obtain  atrocitas ;  from  cupidus,  cupidi,  cupiditas.  So, 
also,  capax,  capacitas ;  celer,  celeritas ;  saluber,  salubri- 
tas  ;  crudelis,  crudelitas  ;  facilis,  facilitas  ;  clarus,  dari- 
tas ;  fecundus,  fecunditas ;  verus,  veritas.  Libcrtas  is 
formed  without  a  connecting  vowel,  andfacultos  and  diffi- 
cultas  with  a  change  of  the  vowel,  as  in  the  adverb  diffi- 
culter. 

The  adjectives  in  ius  make  their  substantives  in  ietas  ; 
e.  g.,  anxietas,  ebr ietas,  pietas,  varietas ;  those  in  stus 
make  them  in  stas  :  lionestas,  venustas,  vetustas;  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner,  potestas  and  voluntas  are  formed  from  posse 
and  velle. 

2.  Another  very  common  termination  is  ia,  but  it  oc- 
curs only  in  substantives  derived  from  adjectives  of  one 
termination,  which  addm  to  the  crude  form  of  the  oblique 
cases.  From  audax,  dat.  audaci,  we  have  audacia,  and 
from  concors,  concordi,  concordia.  So,  also,  demens,  de- 
mentia ;  constans,  constantia  ;  impudentia,  clegantia  ;  ap- 
petentia  and  despicientia  occur  along  with  appetitio  and 
appctilus,  dcspectio  and  despectus.  Some  adjectives  in  us 
and  cr,  however,  likewise  form  their  substantives  in  ia  ; 
e.  g.,  miser,  miscria ;  angustus,  angustia, ;  perfidus,  per- 
Jidia;  and  several  verbal  adjectives  in  cundus ;  &s,facun- 
&us,  facundia ;  iracundus,  iracundia ;  vcrecundus,  vere- 
cundid. 

[§  247.]  3.  There  are  numerous  substantives  in  which 
tudo  is  appended  to  the  case  of  the  adjective  ending  \ni;- 
e.  g.,  acritudn,  acgrltudo,  altitudo,  crastitudo,  longitudo, 
magnitude,  fortitude,  similitudo  ;  and  in  polysyllables  in 
tus,  tudo  directly  grows  out  of  this  termination,  as  in 
consuetudo,  mansuetudo,  inquietude,  sollicitudo.  Vdletudo 
stands  alone.  Some  of  these  substantives  exist  along  with 
other  forms  ;  as,  beatitudo,  claritudo,  Jirmitudo,  lenitudo, 
and  sanctitudo,  along  with  beatitas,  daritas,  Jirmitas,  &c. 
In  these  cases  the  words  in  udo  seem  to  denote  the  dura- 
tion and  peculiarity  of  the  quality  more  than  those  in  itas. 
To  these  we  must  add  the  termination  monia,  which  pro- 
duces the  same  significatipn,  e.  g.,  sanctimonia,  castimo- 
nia,  acrimonia,  after  the  analogy  of  which  parsimonia 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       203 

and  gruerimonia  (stronger  than  querda)  are  formed  from 
verbs. 

4.  Substantives  in  itia,  from   adjectives  in  us,  are  of 
more  rare  occurrence;  3&,  justitia,  from  Justus,  justi.     So, 
avaritia,  laetitia,  maestitia,  pudicitia  ;  but  also  tristitia 
from  tristis. 

5.  The  termination  edo  occurs  only  in  a  few  substan- 
tives ;    as,  albedo,  dulcedo,  graved*)  (heaviness  or  cold  in 
the  head),  pinguedo  (along  with  pinguitudo), 

III.  ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives  are  derived : 

A.  From  Verbs. 

[§  248.]  1.  With  the  termination  bundus,  chiefly  from 
verbs  of  the  first  conjugation,  e.  g.,  errabundus,  from  er~ 
rare,  cogitabundus,  from  cogitarc,  gratulabundus,  from 
gratulari,  populabundus ,  from  populari.  Their  signifi- 
cation is,  in. general,  that  of  a  participle  present,  with  the 
meaning  strengthened,  a  circumstance  which  we  must 
express  in  English  by  the  addition  of  other  words ;  e.  g., 
haesitabundus,  full  of  hesitation  ;  dcliberabundys,  full  of 
deliberation ;  mirabundus,  full  of  admiration  ;  fencrabun- 
dus,  full  of  veneration;  lacrimabnndus,  weeping  profusely. 
Thus  Gellius  explains  laetabundus  as  one  qui  abunde  lae- 
ius  est.  There  are  but  few  adjectives  of  this  kind  derived 
from  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation :  frcmcbundus,  geme- 
bundus,  furibundus,  ludibundus,  moribundus,-nitibundus. 
There  is  only  one  from  a  verb  of  the  second  conjugation, 
viz.,  pudibundhs  ;  and,  likewise,  only  one  from  a  verb  of 
the  fourth,  lascivibundus. 

Note^ — These  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  however,  cannot  be  regarded 
as  mere  participles,  for  in  general  they  do  not  govern  any  case.  But  we 
rind  in  Livy  the  expressions  vitaburidus  caslra,  mirabundi  vanam  speciem.  A 
considerable  list  of  such  expressions  is  given  in  Ruddimannus,  Instit. 
Grammat.  Lat.,  torn,  i.,  p.  309,  ed.  Lips. 

Some  verbal  adjectives  in  cundus  are  of  a  similar  kind  t 
facundus,  eloquent ;  iracundus,  irascible ;  verecundus,  fu 
of  bashfulness;  rubicundus,  the  same  as  rubens,  reddish. 

[§  249.]  2.  The  ending  tdus,  chiefly  in  adjectives  formed 
from  intransitive  verbs,  simply  denotes  the  quality  ex- 
pressed by  the  verb : 

calidus,  from  calere.  rubidus,  from  rubcre. 

algidus,  from  algere.  turgidus,  from  turgerei   - 

madidus,  from  madcre.       rapidiis,  from  rapefe. 


204  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

The  termination  uus  is  of  more  rare  occurrence  ;  e.  gv, 
congruus,  from  congrno,  agreeing ;  assiduus,  nocuus  and 
innocuus.  When  derived  from  transitive  verbs,  it  gives  to 
the  adjective  a  passive  meaning,  as  in  irriguus,  well  wa- 
tered ;  conspicuus,  visible  ;  individuus,  indivisible. 

3.  The  terminations  ilis  and  bills  denote  the  possibility 
of  a  thing  in  a  passive  sense  ;  e.  g.,  amabilis,  easy  to  love, 
hence  amiable  ;  placabilis,  easy  to  be  conciliated ;   dele- 
bilis,  easy  to  be  destroyed ;    vincibilis,  easy  to  be  con- 
quered ;  ~facilis,  easy  to  do ;  docilis,  docile ;  fragilis,  fra- 
gile.    Some  of  these  adjectives,  however,  have  an  active 
meaning:  horribilis,  producing  horror,  horrible ;  terribilis, 
terrible,  that  is,  producing  terror ;  fertilis,  fertile. 

4.  -ax,  appended  to  the  stem  of  the  verb,  expresses  a 
propensity,  and  generally  a  faulty  one  : 

pugnax.  furax. 

edax  and  vorax.  audax. 

loquax.  rapax. 

adjectives  in  ulus  have  a  similar  meaning;  as, 
credulus,  credulous  ;  bibulus,  fond  of  drinking  ;  querulus, 
querulous. 

[§  250.]  B.  From  Substantives,  viz. 
(a)  From  Appellatives : 

1.  The  ending  eus  denotes  the  material,  and  sometimes 
similarity;   e.  g., 

ferreus.         ligneus.         plumbeus.         virgineus. 
aureus.          citreus.  cinereus.  igneus. 

argenteus.     buxcus.          corporeus.         vitreus. 
Some  adjectives  of  this  kind  have   a  double  form  in 
•weus  and  -nus ;    as,  eburneus  and  eburnus,  ficulneus  and 
ficulnus,  iligneus  and  ilignus,  querneus  and  quernus,  sa- 
ligneus  and  salignus. 

2.  -icus   expresses  belonging  or  relating  to   a  thing; 
e.  g.,  classicus,  from  classis  ;  civicus,  relating  to  a  citizen; 
dominions,  belonging  to  a  master;  rusticus,  rural;  aulicus, 
relating  to  a  court ;  bellicus,  relating  to  war,  &c. 

3.  The  termination  ills  (compare  §  20)  has  the  same 
meaning,  but  assumes  also  a  moral  signification ;  e.  g., 
civilis  and  hostilis,  the  same  as  civicus  and  hosticus,  but 
also  answering  to  our  civil  and  hostile.     So  servilis,  seni- 
lis,  anilisj  juvenilis,  puerilis,  virilis. 

4.  The  endings  aceus  and  icius  sometimes  express  a  ma- 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       205 

terial  and  sometimes  the  origin;  e.  g.,  cTiartaceus,  membra- 
naceus,  papyraceus  ;  caementicius,  latericius,  patricius,  tri- 
bunicius.  So,  also,  those  derived  from  participles  :  colla- 
ticius,  arisen  from  contributions  ;  com?nenticius,  fictitious  ; 
subditicius,  supposititious,  and  others. 

[§  251.]  5.  The  termination  alls  (in  English  al)  is  ap- 
pended not  only  to  words  in  #,  but  also  to  substantives 
of  other  terminations,  in  which,  however,  the  termination 
is  appended  to  the  crude  form  of  the  oblique  cases  ;  e.  g., 
ancora,  conviva,  letum — ancoralis,  convivalis,  letalis  ;  but 
from  rex,  regis,  we  have  regalis  ;  virgo,  virginalis  ;  sacer- 
dos,  sacerdotalis ;  caput,  capital? s ;  corpus,  corporalis.  So, 
also,  avguralis,  aditialis,  comitialis,  annalis,  fluvialis,  7nor- 
talis,  novalis,  socialis,  and  others.  Also  from  proper 
names  ;  as,  Augustalis,  Claudialis,  Flavialis,  Trajanalis, 
to  denote  classes  of  priests  instituted  in  honour  of  those 
emperors.  The  ending  aris  is  somewhat  more  seldom, 
and  principally  occurs  in  such  words  as  contain  an  I ; 
such  as  articulariS)  consularis,  popularis,  puellaris,  vul- 
garis,  Apollinaris. 

The  termination  atilis  denotes  fitness  for  the  thing  ex- 
pressed by  the  root;  as,  aquatilis,  Jluviatilis,  volatilis. 

6.  The  termination  ius  occurs  most  frequently  in  de- 
rivatives from  personal  nouns  in  or  ;  e.  g.,  accusatorius, 
amatorius,  aleatoriiis,  censorius,  imperatorius,  praetorius, 
uxorius.  It  occurs  more  rarely  in  substantives  of  other 
terminations,  though  we  have  regius,  patrius,  aquilonius. 
From  substantives  in  or  which  do  not  denote  persons,  but 
abstract  notions,  adjectives  are  formed  by  simply  append- 
ing us;  as,  decor,  decorus;  and  so,  also,  canorus,  odorus, 
honorus  (less  frequently  used  than  honestus). 

[§  252.]   7.  -inus  is  found  especially  in  derivations  from 

names  of  animals  (especially  to  denote  their  flesh) ;  e.  g., 

asininus.         ferinus.  haedinus.         anserinus. 

caninus.  equinus.  caballinus.       anatinus. 

camelinus.       taurinus.          arietinus.         viperinus. 

But  it  also  occurs  in  adjectives  derived  from  names  of 

other  living  beings;   e.  g.,  divinus,  libertinus,  inquilmus 

(from  incolaj,  masculinus,  femininus  (marinus,  living  in 

the  sea,  stands  alone).     Medicina,  sutrina,  tonstrina,  pis- 

trinum,  textrinum,  are  to  be  explained  by  the  ellipsis  of  a 

substantive,  and  denote  the  locality  in  which  the  art  or 

trade  is  carried  on. 

S 


206  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

The  termination  mus,  on  the  other  hand,  occurs  chiefly 
in  derivations  from  names  of  plants  and  minerals,  to  de- 
note the  material  of  which  a  thing  is  made ;  e.  g.,  cedri- 
nus,  fagmus,  adamantmus,  crystalttnus,  and  the  ending 
tinus  in  derivative  adjectives  denoting  time;  as,  crastmus, 
diutmus,  hornotinus,  annotmus.  See  §  20. 

8.  The  termination  arius  expresses  a  general  relation 
to  the  noun  from  which  the  adjective  is  formed,  but  more 
particularly  the  occupation  or  profession  of  a  person;  e.  g., 

coriarius.       carbonarms.     scapharius.       ostiarius. 
statuarius.     acrarius.  namcularius.    consiliarius. 

sicarius.         argentarius.     codicarius.        dassiarius. 

9.  The  ending  osus  denotes  fulness  or  abundance;  as  in 

aerumnosus.          aqiiosus.  bclUcosus. 

animosus.  lapidosus.         caliginosus. 

artificiosus.  vinosus.  tenebricosus. 

The  ending  uosus  occurs  exclusively  in  derivations  from 
words  of  the  fourth  declension  :  actuosus,  portuosus,  saltu- 
osus,  vultuosus  ;  but  also  monstruosus,  which  is  used  along 
with  monstrosus. 

10.  The  termination  lentus  denotes  plenty,  and  is  com- 
monly preceded  by  the  vowel  u,  and  sometimes  by  5 : 

fraudulcntus.         mnolentus.  pulvcrulentus. 

turbulcntus.  opulcntus.  violcntus.  \ 

esculentus.  potulentus.  sanguinolentus. 

11.  Less  productive  and  significant  terminations  are: 
-anus,  which  denotes  belonging  to  a  thing ;  urbanus,  mon- 
tanus,  kumanus  (from  homo)   (respecting  the  adjectives 
formed  from  numerals  by  means  of  this  termination,  see 
§  118.    Thus,  we  fmdfebris  tcrtiana,  quartana,  a  fever  re- 
turning every  third  or  fourth  day) ;  ivus  generally  denotes 
the  manner  or  nature  of  a  thing :  furtivus,  votivus,  aesti- 
vus,  tempestivus  ;  also  from  participles  :  captiviis,  nativus, 
sativus  ;  ernus  denotes  origin  :  fraternus,  maternus,  pater- 
nus,  infernus,  extcrnus.     The  same  termination  and  urnus 
occur  in  adjectives  denoting  time :  vernus,  liibernus,  Jies- 
ternus,   aeternus    (from    acviternus),    diurnus,    nocturnus ; 
Itwius   occurs   in  finitimus,   Icgitimus,   maritimus.      The 
termination  -ster,  in  the  adjectives  mentioned  in  §  100,  de- 
notes the  place  of  abode,  or  a  quality. 

[§  253.]  A  very  extensive  class  of  derivative  adjectives 
end  in  atus,  like  participles  perfect  passive  of  the  first 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       207 

conjugation,  but  they  are  derived  at  once  from  substan- 
tives, without  its  being  possible  to  show  the  existence  of 
an  intermediate  verb.  Thus  we  have,  e.  g.,  aurum  and 
auratus,  gilt ;  but  a  verb  aurare  does  not  occur,  and  its 
existence  is  assumed  only  for  the  sake  of  derivation. 
Some  adjectives  of  this  kind  are  formed  from  substantives 
in  is  and  end  in  itus ;*  as,  auritus,  provided  with  ears;  pel- 
litus,  covered  with  a  skin  ;  turritus,  having  towers ;  and 
so,  also,  mellitus,  sweet  as  honey.  Some  few  are  formed 
by  the  ending  utus  from  substantives  in  us,  gen.  us  ;  as, 
cornutus,  astutus  ;  and,  according  to  this  analogy,  nasutus,\ 
from  nasus,  i.  Those  in  atus  are  very  numerous  ;  e.  g., 

barbatus.  calceatus.  aeratus. 

togatus.  clipeatus.  dentatus. 

galeatus.  oculatus.  falcatus. 

[§  254.]  (I)  From  Proper  Names. 
We  may  here  distinguish  four  classes:   1,  names  of 
men ;  2,  of  towns ;  3,  of  nations ;   4,  of  countries. 

1.  The  termination  ianus  is  the  most  common  in  form- 
ing adjectives  from  Roman  names  of  men,  not  only  from 
those  ending  in  ius,  such  as  Tullianus,  Servilianus,  but 
also  from  those  in  us  and  other  endings ;  as,  Crassianus, 
Marcellianus,  Paulianus,  Cacsarianus^  Catonianus,  Cice- 
ronianus :  anus  occurs  only  in  names  in  a,  and  is  there- 
fore found  less  frequently;  as,  Cinnanus,  Sullanus  ;  still, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  find  septa  Agrippiana,  legio  Gal- 
biana.  Gracchus  is  the  only  name  in  us  that  commonly 
makes  GraccJianus  ;  for  Augustamis,  Lepidanus,  and  Lu- 
cullanus  occur  along  with  Augustianus,  Lepidianus,  and 
Lucullianus.  The  termination  inus  is  found  chiefly  in  de- 
rivatives from  names  of  families,  e.  g.,  Messalinus,  Pau- 
linus,  Rufinus,  Agrippina,  Plancina  ;  in  real  adjectives  it 
occurs  much  more  rarely,  but  it  is  well  established  in 
Jugurtha,  Jugurthinus  (for  which,  however,  Jugurthanus 
also  might  have  been  used) ;  Plautus,  Plautinm ;  Verres, 
Verrinus,  to  distinguish  them  from  Plautius,  Plautianus ; 
Verrius,  Vcrrianus.  In  Suetonius,  moreover,  we  find  bel- 
lum  ViriatJiinum,  fossa  Drusina,  and  in  Cicero  oratio  Me- 

*  [Auritus,  pellitus,  &c.,  are  the  very  forms  to  which  analogy  would  lead. 
(Consult  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  i.,  p.  105.)] — Am.  Ed. 

•\.[Nasutus  is  not  a  very  irregular  form,  when  we  consider  the  converti- 
bility of  the  vowels  3  and  u,  or  6  and  «;  and  the  consequent  confusion  in 
so  many  words  between  the  second  and  fourth  declensions.] — Am.  Ed. 


208  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

tellina  (an  oration  delivered  against  Metellus),  ad  Att.,  i., 
13  ;  bellum  Antiochinum,  Philip.,  xi.,  7 ;  and  paries  Antio- 
ckinae,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  8.  The  termination  eus  in  Caesareus, 
Herculeus,  Romuleus,  is  used  only  by  poets. 

There  are  two  terminations  for  forming  adjectives  from 
Greek  names  of  men,  eus  or  lus  (in  Greek  eio$,  see  §  2) 
and  icus.  Some  names  form  adjectives  in  both  termina- 
tions with  a  slight  difference  in  meaning,  e.  g.,  Philippeus 
and  Philippicus,  Pythagoreus  and  Pythagoricus,  Isocrate- 
us  and  Isocraticus,  Homerius  and  Homericus.  Of  others, 
one  form  only  is  used;  as,  Demosthenicus,  Platonicus,  So- 
craticus.  To  these  we  must  add  those  in  -iacus,  formed 
from  names  in  ias,  e.  g.,  Archias.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  Antiochtus,  Aristotelius,  or,  with  a  different  pronunci- 
ation, Acliilleus,  Epicurcus,  Heracleus,  Sophodcus,  Thco- 
doreus.  Sometimes  adjectives  in  eus  are  formed,  also, 
from  Latin  names,  though,  at  the  best  period  of  the  lan- 
guage, never  without  a  definite  reason ;  e.  g.,  in  Cicero, 
in  Verr.,  iii.,  49,  Marcdlea  and  Vcrrea,  Greek  festivals  in 
honour  of  those  persons  ;  but  afterward  we  find,  without 
this  peculiar  meaning,  August  eus,  Luculleus  (in  Pliny  and 
Suetonius),  Ncroneus,  Roman  objects  being  thus  designa- 
ted by  words  with  a  Greek  termination. 

Note. — It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  the  Roman  gentile  names  in 
ins  were  originally  adjectives,  and  were  always  used  as  such.  We  thus 
read  lex  Cornelia,  Julia,  Tullia,  via  Flaminia,  Valeria,  Appia,  aqua  Julia,  cir- 
cus Flaminius,  theatrum  Pompeium,  horrea  Sulpicia,  instead  of  the  adjectives 
in  anus.  Nay,  the  Romans  made  this  very  proper  distinction,  that  the  ad- 
jectives in  his  denoted  everything  which  originated  with  the  person  in 
question,  and  was  destined  for  public  use,  while  those  in  anus  denoted  that 
which  was  named  after  the  person  for  some  reason  or  other ;  e.  g.,  lex  Sul- 
picia, but  seditio  Sulpiciana ;  aqua  Appia,  but  mala  Appiana  ;  porticus  Pom- 
peia,  but  classis  Pompeiana,  &c.  The  former  meaning  is  also  expressed 
when  the  name  itself  is  used  adjectively  ;  as,  aqua  Trajana,  portus  Traja- 
nus,  though  an  adjective  in  ianus  was  formed  even  from  names  ending  in 
anus ;  as,  malum  Sejamanum,  SCtum  Silanianum.  According  to  this  anal- 
ogy, Augustus,  a,  urn,  was  used  for  Augustianus,  Augustanus,  or  Augustalis  ; 
e.  g.,  domus  Augusta,  pax  Augusta,  scriptores  historiae  Augustae.  The  poets 
went  still  farther,  and  Horace,  for  example  (Carm.,  iv.,  5,  1),  says,  Romu* 
lae  gentis  custos,  for  Romuleae. 

[§  255.]  2.  From  names  of  places,  and  chiefly  from 
those  of  towns,  adjectives  are  derived  ending  in  ensis,  inust 
as,  and  anus. 

(a)  -ensis,  also  from  common  or  appellative  nouns,  e.  g., 
castrensis,  from  castra  ;  circensis,  from  circus  ;  and  from 
names  of  towns:  Cannae,  Cannensis ;  Catina,  Catinensis; 
Ariminum^  Ariminensis;  Comum,  Comensis;  Mediolanum, 


ETYMOLOGY    OP    NOUNS    AND    VERBS.  209 

Me diolanensis  ;  Sulmo,  Sulmonensis  ;  from  (Greek)  towns 
in  la  (ea)  :  AntiocJiensis,  Antigonensis ,  Attalensis,  Nicom- 
edensis,  but  in  Heracliensis  the  i  is  preserved. 

(/3)  -mus,  from  names  in  la  and  ium  ;  e.  g.,  Ameria, 
Amerinus ;  Aricia,  Aricinus  ;  Florentia,  Florentines; 
Caudium,  Caudinus  ;  Clusium,  Clusinus  ;  Canusium,  Ca- 
nusinus.  And  so,  also,  from  Latium,  Latinus,  and  from 
Capitolium,  Capitolinus. 

(y)  -as  (for  all  genders)  is  used  less  extensively,  and 
only  forms  adjectives  from  names  of  towns  in  um,  though 
not  from  all.  It  occurs  in  Arpinum,  Arpinas  ;  Aquinum, 
Aquinas  ;  Privernum,  Privernas  ;  Ferentinum,  Fcrentinas 
(ager);  Casilinum,  Casilinas  (along  with  Casilinensis). 
But  Ravenna  also  makes  Ravennas  ;  Capena,  Capenas ; 
Ardca,  Ardeas;  Interamna,  Interamnas  (also  ager) ;  Fru- 
slno,  Frusinas.  Antium  makes  Antias,  but  we  find  also 
Antiense  templum  and  Antiatinae  sortes. 

((5)  -anus,  from  names  of  towns  in  a  and  ae ;  e.  g.,  Roma, 
Romanus  ;  Alba,  Alb  amis  ;*  Sparta,  Spar tanus ;  Cumae, 
Cumanus ;  Syracusae,  Syracusanus  ;  Thebae,  Thcbanus; 
also  from  some  in  um  and  i:  Tusculum,  Tusculanus ;  Fun- 
di,  Fundanus. 

[§  256.]  Greek  adjectives,  however,  formed  from  names 
of  towns,  or  such  as  were  introduced  into  Latin  through 
the  literature  of  the  Greeks,  follow  different  rules,  which 
must  be  learned  from  a  Greek  Grammar.  We  will  here 
only  remark  that  the  most  frequent  ending  is  ms,  by  means 
of  which  adjectives  are  formed,  also,  from  Greek  names 
of  countries  and  islands  ;  e.  ^Aegyptus^  Aegyptius ;  Les- 
bos, Lesbius  ;  Rhodus,  Rhodius  ;  Corinthus,  Corinthius  ; 
Ephesus,  EpJicsius ;  Chms,  CJilus  (instead  of  OkiiusJ ; 
Lacedaemon,  Laccdacmonius  ;  Marathon,  Marathonius  ; 
Salamis,  Salaminius ;  Eretria,  Eretrius.  Other  names 
in  a  take  the  termination  aeus  ;  as,  Smyrna,  Smyrnaeus  ; 
Tegea,  Tcgeaeus  ;  Larissa,  Larissaeus ;  Perga,  Pergaeus, 
and  so,  also,  Cumae  (Kv^?/)  makes  the  Greek  adjective 
Cumaeus.  In  the  case  of  towms  not  in  Greece,  even  when 
they  are  of  Greek  origin,  we  most  frequently  find  the  ter- 
mination mus  :  Tarentum,  Tarcutinus ;  Agrigentum,  Agri- 
gentinus  ;  Centuripae,  Centuripinus  ;  Metapontum,  Meta- 
pontinus;  Rliegium,  Rkeginus,  whereas  the  Latin  Rcgi- 

*  Albanus  is  formed  from  Alba  Longa ;  Albensis  from  Alba,  on  Lake  Fu- 
cinus. 

S2 


210  LATIN    G  BAM  MAR. 

um  Lepidi  makes  the  adjective  Regiensis.  It  not  unfre- 
quently  happened  that  the  Romans,  as  may  be  observed 
in  some  instances  already  mentioned,  formed  adjectives 
from  Greek  names  of  towns  in  their  own  way,  and  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  Greek  forms  ;  e.  g.,  Atheniensis  in- 
stead of  Athenacus,  Thebanus  instead  of  Thcbaeus  (while 
Thebaicus  is  an  adjective  derived  from  the  Egyptian 
Thebes),  Eretriensis  along  with  Eretrius,  Syracusanus 
along  with  Syracusius,  Elcusinus  more  frequently  than 
the  Greek  form  Elcusinius.  The  Greek  ending  £t>c  was 
most  commonly  changed  into  ensis  ;  sometimes,  however, 
it  was  retained  along  with  the  Latin  form  ;  as,  Halicar- 
nasseus  and  Halicarnassensis.  In  like  manner,  the  Greek 
irrjg  was  sometimes  retained,  as  in  Abdcrites  ;  and  some- 
times changed  into  anus,  as  in  Panormitanus,  Tyndarita- 
nus,  especially  in  all  the  Greek  names  of  towns  compound- 
ed with  polls ;  as,  Neapolitanus,  Mcgalopolitanus.  The 
other  Greek  terminations  are  usually  retained  in  Latin. 

[§  257.]  3.  From  names  which  originally  belong  to  na- 
tions, adjectives  are  formed  in  icus  and  ius,  in  most  cases 
in  icus;  e.  g.,  from  Afcr,  Britannus,  Gallus,  Gcrmanus,  Ita- 
lus,  IMarsus,  J\Icdus,  Cclta,  Pcrsa,  Scytlia,  Arabs,  Aethiops, 
we  have  the  adjectives  Af/icus,  Britannicus,  Celt  icus, 
Aral  icus,  &c. ;  those  in  ius  are  formed  from  some  Greek 
names  ;  as,  Syrus,  Syrius;  Cdix,  Cdicius ;  Thrax,  Thra- 
cius.  Other  names  of  nations  are  at  once  substantives  and 
adjectives;  as,  Graecus,  Etruscus,  Sardus,  or  adjectives 
and,  at  the  same  time,  substantives;  as,  Romanus,  Latinus, 
Sabinus.  Other  substantive  names,  again,  serve,  indeed, 
as  adjectives,  but  still  form  a  distinct  adjective  in  icus  ; 
as,  Hispanus,  Hispanicus  ;  Appidus,  Appulicus  ;  Samnis^ 
Samniticus.  In  like  manner,  Caeres,  Vciens,  Gamers,  Ti- 
burs  are  both  substantives  and  adjectives,  but  still  form 
distinct  adjectives  according  to  the  analogy  of  names  of 
towns :  Caeretanus,  Veientanus,  Camertinus,  Tiburtinus. 

Note. — It  must  be  remarked  that  poets  and  the  later  prose  writers,  in 
general,  use  the  substantive  form  also  as  an  adjective ;  e.  g.,  Marsus  aper, 
Colcha  venena,  although  Colchicus  and  Marsicus  exist ;  Horat.,  Carm.,  iv.,  6, 
7,  Dardanas  turres  quateret ;  vers.  12,  in  pulvere  Teucro  ;  vers.  18,  Achivis 
flammis  urere,  instead  of  Achaicis.  And  this  is  not  only  the  case  with 
these  forms  of  the  second  declension  which  externally  resemble  adjec- 
tives, but  Ovid  and  Juvenal  say  Numidae  leones,  Numidae  ursi,  instead  of 
Numidici ;  and  Persius  says,  Ligus  ora  for  Ligustica.  The  Greek  feminine 
forms  of  names  of  nations  are  likewise  used  as  adjectives ;  thus,  Virgil 
says,  Cressa  pharetra  for  Cretica,  Ausonis  ora  for  Ausonia,  and  the  like.  The 
eame  liberty  is  taken  by  poets  with  the  names  of  rivers  in  us.  Thus,  Hor- 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       211 

ace,  Carm.,  iv.,  4,  38,  has,  Metaurum  fiumen  ;  de  Art.  Poet.,  18,  flumen 
Rhenum.  Even  prose  writers  sometimes  follow  their  example  in  this  re- 
spect:  Plin.,  Hist.,  Nat.,  iii.,  16,  ostium  Eridanum;  Ca.es.,  B.  G.,  hi.,  7, 
and  Tacit.,  Ann.,  I,  9,  Hist.,  iv.,  12,  mare  Oceanum. 

[§  258.]  4.  The  names  of  countries,  with  some  excep- 
tions, such  as  the  Latin  names  of  districts,  Latium  and 
Samnium,  and  those  borrowed  from  the  Greek  language, 
Aegyptus,  Epii'us,  Persis,  are  themselves  derived  from  the 
names  of  nations  ;  e.  g.,  Britannia,  Gallia,  Italia,  Syria, 
Thracia,  sometimes  with  slight  changes,  as  in  Sardi,  Sar- 
dinia ;  and  Siculi,  Sicilia.  Africa  and  Corsica  are  real 
adjectives,  to  which  terra  is  understood.  From  some  of 
these  countries  adjectives  are  formed  with  the  termina- 
tions ensis  and  anus  ;  as,  Graeciensis,  Hispaniensis,  Sicili- 
ensis  ;  Africanus,  Gallicanus,  Germanicianus,  which  must 
be  carefully  distinguished  from  the  adjectives  derived  from 
the  names  of  the  respective  nations.  Thus,  exercitus  His- 
paniensis signifies  an  army  stationed  in  Spain,  but  not  an 
army  consisting  of  Spaniards ;  but  spartum  Hispanicum 
is  a  plant  indigenous  in  Spain.  The  following  are  some 
peculiar  adjectives  of  Greek  formation  :  Aegyptiacus, 
Syriacus.  Graecanicus  is  strangely  formed,  and  expresses 
Greek  origin  or  Greek  fashion. 

[§  259.]   C.  From  other  Adjectives. 

Diminutives  are  formed  from  some  adjectives  by  the 
terminations  ulus,  olus,  culus,  and  ellus,  according  to  the 
rules  which  were  given  above,  §  240,  with  regard  to 
diminutive  substantives.  Thus  we  have  parvulus,  lior- 
ridulus,  nasutulus,  primulus ;  aureolus ;  pauperculws,  le- 
viculus,  tristiculus  ;  miscllus,  novellus,  pulcliellus,  tencllus. 
Double  diminutives  are  formed  from  paucus  and  pau- 
lus ;  paululus  or  patixillus,  and.pauxillulus,  a,  urn  ;  and 
from  bonus  (benusj,  bcllus  and  bcllulus.  Respecting  the 
diminutives  derived  from  comparatives,  comp.  §  104,  2, 
Note. 

The  termination  aneus,  appended  to  the  stem  of  an  ad- 
jective (and  participle)  in  us,  expresses  a  resemblance  to 
the  quality  denoted  by  the  primitive;  e.  g.,  supervacaneus, 
of  a  superfluous  nature ;  but  there  are  only  few  words  of 
this  kind:  rejectancus,  subitaneus,  collcctancus,  and,  ac- 
cording to  their  analogy,  consentaneity,  praecidancus,  suc- 
cidaneus. 
/^  [§  260.]  Besides  derivation,  new  words  are  also  formed 

" 


212  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

by  composition.  In  examining  such  words,  we  may  con- 
sider either  the  first  or  the  second  part  of  which  a  com- 
pound consists. 

The  first  word  is  either  a  noun,  a  verb,  or  a  particle. 
The  second  remains  unchanged ;  e.  g.,  benefacio,  bene- 
ficium,  maledico,  satago  ;  a  contraction  takes  place  only 
in  nolo,  from  ne  (for  non)  and  volo,  and  in  malo,  from 
mage  (for  magis)  and  volo.  Prepositions  are  used  more 
frequently  than  any  other  particles  in  forming  compound 
words.  Respecting  their  signification  and  the  changes 
produced  in  pronunciation  by  the  meeting  of  heterogene- 
ous consonants,  see  Chap.  LXVI. 

There  are  only  a  few  words  in  which  verbs  form  the 
first  part  of  a  compound,  and  wherever  this  is  the  case 
the  verb f ado  forms  the  latter  part;  as  in  arefacio,  cale- 
facio,  madcfacio,  patefacio^  condoccfacio,  commonefacio, 
assucfacio,  and  consuej'acio.  The  only  change  in  the  first 
verbs  (which  belong  to  the  second  conjugation)  is,  that 
they  throw  off  the  o  of  the  present. 

When  the  first  word  is  a  noun  (substantive  or  adjective), 
it  regularly  ends  in  a  short  i. 

patricida.       armigcr.         particeps.          aequiparo. 

art  if  ex.  aquilifer.         ignivomus.        amplifico. 

tubicen.  capripes.          misericors.        breviloqucns. 

causidicus.      carnivorus.      rupicapra.        alienigcna. 

aedifico.  bcUigcro.  stillicidium.  viliptndo. 
So,  also,  Keeps,  tngcminif retires,  centifolia  rosa,  centimanus 
Gyges,  from  centum,  whereas  otherwise  the  compositions 
with  numerals  are  different ;  as,  quadrupes,  and  without 
any  change  :  quinqueremis.  A  contraction  takes  place  in 
tibicen  for  tibiicen,  from  tibia-  arid  cano,  whereas  in  tubicen 
andjidiccn  the  connecting  vowel  is  short,  according  to  the 
rule,  there  being  no  i  in  the  words  tuba  and  fides.  When 
the  second  word  begins  with  a  vowel,  the  connecting  i  is 
thrown  out,  as  in  magnanimus,  unanimis,  with  which  we 
may  compare  unimanus  and  uniformis. 

Those  words  the  parts  of  which  are  declined  separately, 
may  likewise  be  regarded  as  compounds,  although  they 
form  one  word  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  commonly  writ- 
ten as  such;  as,  respublica,jusjurandum,  rosmarinus,  tres- 
viri.  So,  also,  those  of  which  the  first  word  is  a  genitive; 
as,  senatusconsultum,  plebiscitum,  duumvir,  triumvir^  that 
is,  one  of  the  duoviri  or  tresviri. 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  NOUNS  AND  VERBS.       21 

Note.— The  Greek  language  regularly  makes  the  first  part  of  a  com- 
pound, when  it  is  a  noun,  end  in  o;  e.  g.,  ^iAocro^of,  Aoyoypuc&of, 
ffu/j,aTo<j>vha!;,  2vpo0om£  As  many  such  Greek  compounds  passed  over 
into  the  Latin  language,  such  as  phitosophus,  philologus,  graecostasis,  Gallo- 
graeci,  we  may  form  similar  compounds  in  modern  Latin,  but  only  in  the 
case  of  proper  names ;  as,  Francogalli,  Graeco-Latinus.  There  is  no  good 
reason  for  rejecting  them,  if  they  really  denote  one  thing  which  is  formed 
by  the  combination  of  two  elements. 

[§  261.]  The  latter  word  in  the  composition  determines 
to  what  part  of  speech  the  whole  belongs.  In  compo- 
sitions with  particles,  the  second  word  either  remains  un- 
changed, or  undergoes  only  a  slight  variation  in  its  vowel. 
This  variation  must  be  here  considered,  especially  with 
regard  to  the  radical  vowel  of  the  verb ;  for  the  vowels 
it  o,  Uj  a  and  e  remain  unchanged,  as  in  ascribo,  commmor, 
appono,  excoloj  adduco,  illdbor,  subrepo  ;  but  a  and  e,  and 
the  diphthong  ae,  frequently  undergo  a  change :  1.  a  re- 
mains only  in  the  compounds  of  caveo,  maneo,  and  tralw  ; 
but  in  most  other  cases  it  is  changed  into  I,  e.  g.,  constituo 
from  statuo,  accipio  from  capio,  abjicio  from  jacio,  arripio 
from  rapio,  incido  from  cado,  adigo  from  ago  ;  so,  also, 
attingo  from  tango,  confringo  fromfrango  ;  it  is  changed 
into  e  in  ascendo,  aspcrgo^  confercio,  rcfello,  impertio  (along 
with  impartio).  2.  e  sometimes  remains  unchanged  ;  as 
in  appeto,  contego,  contero,  congcro,  but  sometimes  it  is 
changed  into  1:  assideo  from  scdeo,  abstineo  from  tenco, 
arrigo  from  rego,  aspicio  from  specio.  Both  forms  occur 
in  the  compounds  of  Icgere  ;  e.  g.,  perlego,  read  through; 
intelligo,  understand,  but  intellego,  too,  was  used  in  early 
times.  3.  The  diphthong  ae  remains  unchanged  only  in 
the  compounds  of  haereo  ;  as,adkacro;  it  is  changed  into 
z  in  the  compounds  of  caedo,  laedo,  quaero  ;  e.  g.,  incido, 
illido,  inqmro.  Other  particulars  may  be  gathered  from 
the  lists  of  irregular  verbs. 

In  the  composition  of  nouns  with  verbs,  the  second 
word  undergoes  more  violent  changes,  and  the  rules 
already  given  respecting  derivation  must  be  taken  into 
account  here.  But  nouns  are  also  formed  in  composition 
with  verbs  by  the  mere  abbreviation  of  the  ending,  and 
without  any  characteristic  syllable  of  derivation.  Thus 
we  have  from  cano,  tubicen;  from  gero,  claviger,  armiger ; 
from/m?,  cistifer,  signifer  ;  from  f ado,  artifex,  pontifex  ; 
from  capio,  princeps,  municeps,  particeps.  Compounded 
adjectives  are  derived  from  verbs  by  the  termination  us, 
which  is  appended  to  the  verbal  stem :  mortiferits,  igni- 


214  LATIN    GRAMMAR.  , 

vomus,  dulcisonus,  like  consonus,  carnivorus,  causidicus  ; 
and  from  substantives  with  a  very  slight  or  no  change  at 
all ;  e.  g.,  ccntimanus,  capripes,  misericors,  uniformis. 

Note. — When  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  are  separated  by  the  inser- 
tion of  one  or  two  unaccented  words,  it  is  called,  by  a  grammatical  term, 
a  tmesis.  Such  a  tmesis,  however,  occurs  in  prose  only  in  the  case  of  rela- 
tive pronouns  compounded  with  cunque,  more  rarely  in  those  with  libet  and 
in  adjectives  or  adverbs  compounded  with  per,  so  that  we  may  say,  e.  g., 
quod  enim  cunque  judicium  subierat  vicit  •  qua  re  cunque  potero  tibi  serviam  / 
quale  id  cunque  est ;  per  mihi  gratumfeceris  ;  per  mihi,  inquam,  gratum,feceris. 


CHAPTER  LZII. 

ETYMOLOGY  OF  PARTICLES. 

ADVERBS. 

[§  2G2.]  1.  As  the  adjective  qualifies  a  substantive,  so  the 
adverb  qualifies  a  verb,  an  adjective  (consequently  a  par- 
ticiple also),  and  even  another  adverb;  e.  g.,  prudens 
homo  prudcntcr  agit ;  felix  homo  felicitcr  vivit ;  eximie 
doctus  ;  domus  celeriter  extructa  ;  satis  bene  scripsit. 

Note. — There  are  only  certain  cases  in  which  an  adverb  can  be  joined 
with  a  substantive,  viz. :  when  the  substantive  is  used  as  an  adjective  or 
participle,  and  accordingly  denotes  a  quality;  as,  populus  late  rex  for  late 
regnans,  ruling  far  and  wide;  admodum  piier  erat,\\e  was  very  young,  or 
very  much  like  a  boy  ;  or  when  a  participle  is  understood  to  the  adverb, 
e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  ii.,  20,  gravibus  superne  ictibus  conflictabantur ;  that  is, 
superne  accidentibus ,  coming  from  above:  ibid.,  12,  61,  nullis  extrinsecus 
adjumentis  velavit ;  that  is,  extrinsecus  ductis  or  assumptis,  by  outward  or  ex- 
ternal reasons.  Jn  this  manner  Livy  frequently  uses  the  adverb  circa  in 
the  sense  of  neighbouring;  e.  g.,  i.,  17,  ?nultarum  circa  civitatum  irritatis 
animis.  An  adverb  may  be  joined  with  pronominal  adjectives,  when  their 
adjective  character  predominates ;  as  in  homo  plane  noster,  entirely  ours, 
that  is,  devoted  to  us. 

2.  Adverbs  belong  to  those  parts  of  speech  which  are 
incapable  of  inflexion,  for  they  have  neither  cases  nor 
any  other  forms  to  denote  the  difference  of  persons^ 
tenses,  or  moods.  But  an  adverb  approaches  nearest  the 
declinable  parts  of  speech,  inasmuch  as  adverbs  derived 
from  adjectives  or.  participles  take  the  same  degrees  of 
comparison  as  the  latter.  We  have  therefore,  in  the 
first  place,  to  consider  only  the  etymology  of  adverbs,  and 
then  their  degrees  of  comparison. 

With  regard  to  their  etymology,  adverbs  are  either 
simple  or  primitive  (primitiva)  or  derived  (derivata). 
We  shall  first  treat  of  derivative  adverbs  ;  their  number 
is  great,  and  certain  laws  are  followed  in  their  formation. 

[§  263.]  3.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  derivative  adr 


ADVERBS,  215 

verbs  end  in  e  and  ter,  and  are  derived  from  adjectives 
and  participles  (present  active  and  perfect  passive). 

Adjectives  and  participles  in  us,  a,  um,  and  adjectives 
in  er,  a,  um  (that  is,  those  which  follow  the  second  de- 
clension), make 

Adverbs  ivith  tlie  termination  e. 

Thus,  altus,  longus,  molestus,  doctus,  emcndatus,  ornatus, 
make  the  adverbs  alte,  longe,  moleste,  docte,  emendate,  or- 
nate. With  regard  to  adjectives  in  er,  a,  um,  the  forma- 
tion of  adverbs  varies  according  as  they  throw  out  the  e 
in  the  oblique  cases  or  retain  it  (see  §  48  and  51),  for  the 
adverbs  follow  the  oblique  cases.  Thus,  liber  and  miser 
make  libere  and  miscre  ;  but  aeger  (aegri)  and  pulcher 
(pulchri)  make  aegre  and  pulchre.  Sonus  makes  the  ad- 
verb bene,  from  an  ancient  form  benus.  Bene  and  male  are 
the  only  adverbs  of  this  class  that  end  in  a  short  e. 

Note  1. — Inferne,  below,  and  interne,  within,  although  derived  from  adjec- 
tives in  us,  are  used  with  a  short  e,  the  former  by  Lucretius  and  the  latter 
by  Ausonius,  the  only  writers  in  which  these  adverbs  respectively  occur. 
To  these  we  must  add  superne,  above,  in  Lucretius  and  Horace,  Carm,,  ii., 
20,  11,  though  in  the  latter  the  quantity  of  the  e  is  a  disputed  point.  It 
cannot  be  ascertained  whether  the  poets  made  the  e  in  these  words  short 
by  a  poetical  license,  or  whether  these  adverbs  have  anything  particular. 

Note  2. — Some  adverbs  in  e  differ  in  their  meaning  from  their  respective 
adjectives,  but  they  must  nevertheless  be  regarded  as  derived  from  them. 
Thus,  sane  (from  sanus,  sound,  well)  signifies  "certainly;"  valde  (from  va- 
lidus,  strong,  contracted  from  valide,  which  furnishes  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison) signifies  "  very ;"  and  plane  signifies  "  plainly,"  like  planus,  but  also 
takes  the  meaning  of  "  entirely,"  or  "  thoroughly." 

[§  264.]  4.  All  other  adjectives  and  the  participles  in 
ns  (consequently  all  adjectives  which  follow  the  third  de- 
clension) form  their 

//-  *  30.  Adverbs  in  ter  *  ^  ^ 

and  retain  the  changes  which  occur  in  the  genitive.  The 
genitive  is  is  changed  into  iter,  except  the  genitive  in  ntis 
(from  the  nom.  in  ns),  which  makes  the  adverb  in  nter ; 
e.  g.,  elegans,  elegantcr  ;  amans,  amanter ;  convenient,  con- 
venienter  ;  but  par,  pariter  ;  utilis,  ut'diter  ;  tenuis,  tcnui- 
ter ;  celer,  eris,  celeriter  ;  saluber,  salubriter,  and  so,  also, 
ferociter,  simpliciter,  duplicitcr,  concorditer,  audaciter  (or 
more  frequently  contracted  into  audacter). 

Note  1. — The  termination  ter  serves,  also,  to  form  the  adverbs  alitcr,  oth- 
erwise, and  propter,  beside ;  the  former  from  the  original  form  alis,  neuter 

*  [Pott  regards  the  suffix  ter  as  originally  identified  with  the  other  ad- 
verbial one  in  tus,  and  he  compares  both  with  the  Sanscrit  ending  tas. 
(Etymol.  Forsch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  91.)]— -An*.  Ed. 


216  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

olid,  and  the  latter  from  prope,  being  abridged  for  propiter.  (See  No.  7, 
note  1.)  Vehementer  is  derived  from  vehemens,  but  takes  the  signification 
of  "very,"  like  valde  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  21,  vehe.me.nter  se  moderatum 
praebuit.  The  indeclinable  nequam  has  the  adverb  nequiter. 

Note  2. — The  adjectives  mentioned  in  <J  101,  which  have  double  termi- 
nations, us,  a,  iim,  and  is,  e,  ought  to  have  also  a  double  form  of  their  ad- 
verbs, but  this  is  the  case  only  in  hilare  and  hilariter ;  with  regard  to  imbe- 
cillus,  it  remains  uncertain,  as  the  positive  of  the  adverb  does  not  occur ; 
and  in  the  case  of  the  other  adjectives  of  this  kind,  the  adverb  is  wanting 
altogether.  There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  adjectives  in  us,  a,  urn,  of 
which  the  adverbs  have  two  forms  (abundantia) ;  as,  dure,  duriter ;  firms, 
firmiter  ;  nave,  naviter  ;  humane,  inhumane — humaniter,  inhumaniter  ;  large, 
largiter;  luculente,  lucule.nter  ;  turbulente,  turbulenter ;  and  in  the  early  lan- 
guage many  more,  which  are  mentioned  by  Priscian,  xv.,  3.  Of  violentus, 
fraudulently,  and  temulentus,  adverbs  in  ter  only  exist :  violenter,  fraudulen- 
ter,  temulenter. 

[§  265.]  5.  Although  in  grammar  an  adverb  is  assign- 
ed to  every  adjective,  yet  the  dictionary  must  frequently 
be  consulted,  for  there  are  some  adjectives  whose  very 
signification  does  not  admit  the  formation  of  an  adverb ; 
as,  for  example,  those  which  denote  a  material  or  colour ; 
while,  with  respect  to  others,  we  can  say  no  more  than 
that  no  adverb  of  them  is  found  in  the  writers  whose 
works  have  come  clown  to  us,  as  of  the  adjectives  amens, 
dims,  discors,  gnarus,  rudis,  trux,  imbellis,  immobilis,  in- 
Jlexibilis,  and  others  compounded  in  the  same  manner. 
Of  vetus  the  adverbs  are  vestuste  and  antique,  and  offidus, 
Jidcliter,  derived  from  other  adjectives  of  the  same  mean- 
ing. It  frequently  happens  that  adverbs  exist  in  the  de- 
grees of  comparison,  without  their  form  of  the  positive 
being  found  ;  e.  g.,  tristiter  and  socorditer  are  not  to  be 
found,  and  instead  of  uberiter,  ubertim  is  used  ;  but  the 
comparatives  tristius,  socordius,  uberius,  and  the  superla- 
tives are  in  common  use.  The  adverb  magne  does  not 
occur,  but  its  irregular  comparative  magis  and  the  super- 
lative maxime  are  of  very  common  occurrence.  Midtumt 
plus •,  plurimum  have  no  adverbs,  but  these  neuters  in  some 
cases  serve  themselves  as  adverbs. 

[§  266.]  6.  Sometimes  particular  cases  of  adjectives 
supply  the  place  of  the  regularly  formed  adverbs  in  e : 
(a)  of  some  adjectives  in  us,  #,  um,  and  er,  a,  um,  the  ab- 
lative singular  in  o  is  used  as  an  adverb;  e.  g.,  arcano  and 
secreto,  secretly ;  cito,  quickly  ;  continue,  immediately ; 
crebro,  frequently;  falso,  wrongly;  gratuito,  gratis;  liqui- 
do,  clearly;  manifesto,  manifestly ;  mutuo,  as  a  loan,  hence 
mutually  ;  necessario,  necessarily  ;  perpetuo,  perpetually ; 
precario,  by  entreaties  ;  raro,  rarely  ;  sedulo,  sedulously  ; 


ADVERBS.  217 

serw,  seriously ;  subito,  suddenly ;  tuto,  safely.  To  these 
must  be  added  some  adverbs  formed  from  participles  : 
auspicato,  composite,  consulto,  dirccto,  festinato,  ncc-  or  in- 
opinato,  improviso,  iterato,  merito,  optato,  praeparato,  sor- 
tito.  Along  with  several  of  these  ablative  adverbs,  the 
forms  in  c  also  are  occasionally  used ;  but  apart  from  the 
origin,  the  forms  in  o  do  not  differ  either  in  meaning  or  in 
their  degrees  of  comparison  from  those  in  e. 

Note  1. —  Vere  and  vero  have  a  somewhat  different  sense:  the  regular 
adverb  of  verus,  true,  is  vcre ;  but  vero  is  used  in  answers  in  the  sense  of 
"  in  truth,"  or  '•  certainly,"  but  it  is  more  commonly  applied  as  a  conjunc- 
tion in  the  sense  of  "  but,"  or  "  however."  We  will  explain  its  use  in  an- 
swers by  an  example.  When  I  am  asked,  adfuistine  heri  in  convivio  ?  I  an- 
swer, ego  vero  adfui;  or,  without  a  verb,  ego  vero,  minime  vero ;  and  vero  thus 
being  merely  indicative  of  a  reply,  will  often  be  untranslatable  into  Eng- 
lish. The  case  of  certe  and  certo  is  generally  different  from  that  of  vere 
arid  vero:  the  adverb  which  usually  takes  the"  meaning  of  its  adjective  is 
certo, while  certe  takes  the  signification  of  "  at  least,"  to  limit  an  assertion; 
e.  g.,  victi  sumus,  aut,  si  dignitas  vinci  non  potest,Jracti  certe.  Certe,  howev- 
er, is  frequently  used,  also,  in  the  sense  of  our  "  certainly,"  especially  in 
the  phrase  certe  scio,  which,  in  Cicero,  is  even  more  frequent  than  certo 
scio.  See  my  note  on  Cic.,  lib.  i.,  in  Verr.,  1. 

Note2.—  Omnino,  from  omnis,  altogether,  or  in  general,  may  also  be 
reckoned  in  this  class  of  adverbs.  The  etymology  of  oppido,  very,  is  very 
doubtful.*  Profecto,  truly,  also  belongs  to  this  class,  if  it  be  derived  from 
profectus  a,  urn ;  but  if  it  be  the  same  as  pro  facto,  which  is  more  probable, 
it  belongs  to  those  which  we  shall  mention  under  No.  10. 

[§  267.]  7.  (b)  In  some  adjectives  of  the  third  declen- 
sion the  neuter  singular  supplies  the  place  of  the  adverb  ; 
as,  facile,  difficile,  recens,  sublime,  impune,  and  abunde, 
which,  however,  is  not  derived  from  an  adjective  abun&is, 
but  from  abundus.  To  these  we  must  add  some  belong- 
ing to  adjectives  of  the  second  declension  :  ccterum,  plc- 
rumque,  plurimum,  potissimum  more  frequent  th&npotissime, 
multwm,  and  paulum  (for  which,  however,  in  combination 
with  comparatives,  the  ablatives  multo  and  paulo  are  more 
commonly  used),  nimium  (the  same  as  nimisj,  parum,  and, 
lastly,  the  numeral  adverbs  primum,  iterum,  tertium,  quar- 
turn,  &c.,  which  have  also  the  termination  o  (see  §  123), 
and  postremum  (o),  and  ultimum  (o),  which  are  formed 
according  to  the  analogy  of  the  numeral  adverbs.  Poets 
in  particular,  and  Tacitus,  who  follows  their  example,  are 
accustomed  to  use  the  neuter  of  adjectives,  of  the  second 
as  well  as  of  the  third  declension,  as  adverbs  ;  e.  g.,  mul- 

*  [Probably  to  be  traced  to  the  Sanscrit  root  pad,  "to  go,"  and  hence 
the  primitive  meaning  would  be,  perhaps,  uin  circuit,"  "from  on  all  sides," 
i.  e.,  "very,"  &c.  (Pott,  Etymol.  Forsch.,  vol.  i.,  p.  245.)  Donaldson, 
however,  connects  it  with  the  Greek  erri~e 8ov,  and  makes  it  synonymous 
Vfith plane.  (Varronianus,  p.  62.)] — Am.  Ed. 

T 


218  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

turn  similis,  acutum  cernere,  mite,  dulce,  crassum,  perfidum 
ridere,  indoctum  cancre,  cerium,  and  inccrtum  vigilare,  triste 
and  torvum  clamare,  immitc  sibilare,  aeternum  discordare, 
and  in  the  plural,  multa  gemere^  tristia  ululare,  crebra  fe- 
rire. 

Note  1. — We  have  every  reason  to  consider  the  adverb  prope,  which  has 
become  a  preposition,  as  the  neuter  of  an  obsolete  adjective,  propis ;  for 
propter,  which,  as  an  adverb,  has  the  same  meaning,  is  evidently  the  regu- 
lar adverb,  being  contracted  from  propiter,  and  the  comparative  propior  and 
the  adverb  propius  must  likewise  be  traced  to  propis.  Saepe  is,  perhaps,  a 
word  of  the  same  kind,  but  the  degrees  of  the  adjective,  saepior  and  sae- 
pissimus,  are  no  longer  in  use. 

Note  2. — Instead  of  difficile,  however,  the  regular  adverbial  forms  difficili- 
ter  and  difficulter  are  still  more  common.  Faciliter  is  unclassical. 

[§  268.]  8.  A  considerable  number  of  adverbs  have  the 
termination  im,  and  are  for  the  most  part  derived  from 
participles  ;  e.  g.,  cacsim,  punctim,  conjunction,  mixtim, 
contcmptim,  cursim,  citatim,  gravatim  (the  same  as  gra- 
vaJ^J^nominatim,,  passim  (from  pander c J,  pracsertim  (from 
'prae  and~~scro~J'9  privatim,  pedetcntim,  raptim,  sensim,  carp- 
tim,  separatim,  statim^  strictim,  tractim.  Adverbs  of  this 
kind,  however,  are  formed  also  from  other  parts  of  speech, 
but  they  generally  take  the  participial  termination  atim, 
even  when  they  are  not  derived  from  nouns  of  the  first  de- 
clension :  catcrvatim,  cuneatim,  gregatim,  turmatim,  curia- 
tim,  gradatim,  ostiatim,  oppidatim,  provinciatim,  vicatim, 
paulatim,  singulatim,  generatim,  summatim,  minutatim. 
Also,  confcstim  (connected  with  fest  'marc ),  furt im,  singul- 
tim,  tributim,  ubertim,  viritim,  mcissim.  Affatim  is  of 
doubtful  etymology  ;  interim  is  derived  from  inter ;  olim 
from  the  obsolete  ollus,  which  is  the  same  as  illc. 

[§  2G9.]  9.  A  smaller  class  of  adverbs  is  formed  from 
nouns  by  the  termination  itus,  generally  to  denote  origin 
from  that  which  is  expressed  by  the  primitive ;  as,  coeli- 
tus,  from  heaven ;  funditus,  from  the  foundation,  radical- 
ly;  meduttitu8,penitus,primitus  the  same  asprimum,  radi- 
citus,  stirpitus.  Some  are  derived  from  adjectives  ;  as, 
antiquitus,  divinitus,  and  humanitus. 

Among  the  same  class  we  reckon  those  adverbs  which 
end  in  us  or  itus,  and  are  not  derived  from  nouns,  but  from 
other  parts  of  speech.  That  they  are  derivatives  is  obvi- 
ous, but  their  signification  is  variously  changed.  Such 
are  cominus,  from  a  near  point ;  cminus,  from  afar ;  intus, 
from  within  ;  subtus,  from  below ;  extrinsecus  and  intrin- 
secus,  from  without  and  within  ;  mordictis  '(from  morderej. 


ADVERBS.  219 

e.  g.,  mordicus  tenere;  versus,  towards  (from  verterej,  which 
is  commonly  used  as  a  preposition. 

[§  270.]  10.  A  large  number  of  adverbs,  lastly,  arises 
from  the  adverbial  use  of  different  cases  of  substantives, 
and  from  the  composition  of  different  parts  of  speech.  In 
this  manner  arose  the  adverbs  of  time :  noctu,  vesperi, 
mane,  tcmpore  or  tempori,  simul  (from  similis),  diu  and 
quamdiu,  tamdiu,  aliquamdiu,  inter  diu,  hodie  (though 
contracted  from  hoc  die),  quotidie,  quotannis,  postridic, 
pcrendic,  pridie,  nudius  tertius  (from  nunc  dies  tertius,  the  ».  ^  ^ 
day  before  yesterday,  or  the  third  day  from  the  present), 
nudius  quartus,  nudius  quintus,  nudius  tertiusdecimus,  pro- 
pcdiem,  initio,  principio,  repcnte  and  derepente  (ablative  of 
repens),  imprimis  and  cumprimis,  protenus  and  protinus 
(from  pro  and  the  preposition  tcnus),  alias,  actutum,  com- 
modum  (just  or  directly,  while  the  regular  adverb  com- 
mode retains  the  meaning  "conveniently"),  modo,  post- 
modo,  alternis,  inter  dum,  cummaximc,  tummaxime,  nunc 
ipsum  and  turn  ipsum,  dcnuo  (i.  e.,  de  novoj,  ilicet  (ire 
licet),  illico  (properly  in  loco),  and  extemplo  ;  inter ea  and 
praeterea  lengthen  the  a,  so  that  it  is  not  quite  certain 
whether  they  may  be  considered  as  compounds  of  inter, 
praeter,  and  ea,  the  neuter  plural.*  So,  also,  the  adverbs 
of  place  :  foris,foras,  insuper,  obviam,  obiter  (from  ob  and 
iter),  peregre,  praesto,  recta  (scil.  via),  una.  In  liactenus, 
eatenus,  quatenus,  aliquatcnus,  the  ablative  is  governed  by 
the  preposition  tenus.  The  signification  of  these  adverbs 
is  originally  that  of  locality,  but  they  are  frequently  used, 
also,  in  a  figurative  sense. 

[§  271.]  The  mode  or  manner  of  an  action,  in  answer 
to  the  question  qui  (an  ancient  ablative  of  quid ),  howl  is 
expressed  by  adverbs  of  the  same  class  ;  as,  sponte,  an  old 
ablative  ;  forte,  an  ablative  offors ;  fortuito  (u),  forsit, 
forsitan  (fors  sit  an),  forsan  and  fors  have  the  same 
meaning  as  fortasse  and  fortassis  (in  prose  fortassc  and 
forsitan  alone  are  used) ;  nimirum,  scilicet,  videlicet,  utpote 
(from  ut  and pote, properly  "  as  possible,"  hence  "namely," 
or  "as"),  dumtaxat,  praeterqiiam,  quomodo,  qucmadmo- 
dum,  admodum,  quamobrcm,  quare,  quapropter,  quantopcre, 
tantopere,maximopere  andsmnmopcre,  or,  separately,  quanta 

*  Prof.  Key,  The  Alphabet,  p.  77,  foil.,  accounts  for  the  length  of  the  a 
by  the  very  probable  supposition  that  the  original  forms  were  posteam, 
inteream,  praeteream,  on  the  analogy  of  the  existing  words  postqiiam,  ante- 
quam,  praeterquam,  &C. — TRAXSL. 


220  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

opere,  tanto  opere,  &c. ;  quantumvis  or  quamvis,  alioqui  or 
alioquin,  ceteroqui  or  cetcroquin,  frustra,  to  be  explained 
by  the  ellipsis  of  via,  and  to  be  derived  fTGmfraus,Jraudo  ; 
incassum ,  nequicquam,  summum  (not  ad  summum),  tan-turn, 
solum,  and  tantummodo,  solummodo,  gratis  (from  gratiis, 
whence  ingratiis)^  vulgo,  brfariam,  trifariam,  multifariam 
and  omnifariam,  with  which  partem  must  be  understood. 
Lastly,  partim,  which  was  originally  the  same  as 
partem,  as  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  46,  partim  copiarum  ad  tumu- 
lum  expugnandum  miff  it,  parti?n  ipse  ad  arccm  ducit,  but 
it  is  more  commonly  used  either  with  a  genitive  or  the 
preposition  ex,  in  the  sense  of  alii — alii ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Phil., 
viii.,  11,  quum  partim  e  nobis  ita  timidi  sinf,  ut  omnem 
populi  Romani  beneficiorum  mcmoriam  abjecerint,  partim 
ita  a  republica  aversi,  ut  Imic  se  hostifavcre  prae  seforant ; 
and  in  the  sense  of  alia — alia,  as  in  Cic.,  De  Off'.,  ii.,  21, 
eorum  autem  beneficiorum  partim  cjusmodi  sunt,  ut  ad  uni- 
versos  civcs  pertincant,  partim  singulos  ut  attingdnt. 

[§  272.]  Note. — On  the  signification  of  some  of  the  above-mentioned  adverbs. 
The  adverbs  continue, protinus,  statim,  confestim,  subito,  repente  and  dere.pente, 
actutum,  illico,  ilicet,  extemplo,  signify  in  general  "directly"  or  "imme- 
diately," but,  strictly  speaking,  continuo  means  immediately  after ;  statim, 
without  delay ;  confestim,  directly ;  subito,  suddenly,  unexpectedly ;  pro- 
ti»us,  farther,  i.  e.,  in  the  same  direction  in  which  the  beginning  was  made; 
hence,  without  interruption ;  repente,  and  derepente,  which  strengthens  the 
meaning,  signifies  "  at  once,"  and  is  opposed  to  sensim,  gradually ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  33,  amicitias,  quae  minus  delectent  et,  minus  probentur,  magis 
decere  censent  sapientcs  sensim  dissuere,  quam  repente  praecidere  ;  actutum  is  in- 
stantaneously, eodem  actu ;  ilicet  occurs  more  rarely  than  illico,  but  has 
almost  the  same  meaning,  "forthwith,"  or  "  the  instant ;"  e.  g.,  Sallust, 
Jug.,  45,  ubi  formido  ilia  mentibus  decessit,  ilicet  lascivia  atque  superbia  inces- 
sere ;  Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  10,  simulatque  increpuit  suspicio  tumultus,  artes  illico 
nostrae  conticescunt.  Extemplo,  which  is  similar  in  its  derivation  (for  tern- 
plum  is  a  locus  religiosus),  is  similar  also  in  meaning;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xh.,  1,  alii 
gerendum  helium  exlemplo,  antequam  contrahere  copias  hostes  possent,  alii  con- 
sulendum  prius  senatum  censebant. 

\$  273.]  Praesertim,  praecipue,  imprimis,  cumprimis,  and  apprime,  are  gener- 
ally translated  by  "  principally  ;"  but  they  have  not  all  the  same  meaning. 
Praesertim  is  our  "  particularly,"  and  sets  forth  a  particular  circumstance 
with  emphasis  ;  praecipue  retains  the  meaning  of  its  adjective,  praecipuus 
being  the  opposite  of  communis  •  jus  praedpuum,  therefore,  is  a  privilege, 
and  opposed  to  jus  commune,  so  that  praecipue  answers  to  our  "especially." 
The  sense  of  imprimis  and  cumprimis  is  clear  from  their  composition — be 
fore  or  in  preference  to  many  others,  principally ;  apprime,  lastly,  occurs 
more  rarely,  and  qualifies  and  strengthens  only  adjectives ;  as,  apprime 
doctus,  apprime  utilis.  Admodum,  also,  strengthens  the  meaning;  it  prop- 
erly  signifies  "  according  to  measure,"  that  is,  in  as  great  a  measure  as 
can  be,  e.  g.,  admodum  gratum  mihifeceris  ;  litter ae  tuae  me  admodum  delect a- 
runt.  In  combination  with  numerals  it  denotes  approximation,  and  oc- 
curs  frequently  in  Livy  and  Curtius  ;  in  Cicero  we  find  only  nihil  admodum, 
that  is,  "  in  reality  nothing  at  all." 

[<$>  274.]  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  difference  among  the  words 
which  we  generally  translate  by  "  only,"  viz. :  modo,  dumtaxat,  solum,  tan- 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  221 

turn,  solummodo,  tantummodo.  The  common  equivalent  for  "  only"  is  modo  ; 
solum  (alone)  is  "  merely,"  and  points  to  something  higher  or  greater ; 
tantum  is  only  or  merely,  but  intimates  that  something  else  was  expected, 
e.  g.,  dixit  tantum,  non  probavit.  These  significations  are  strengthened  by 
composition :  tantummodo  and  solummodo,  the  latter  of  which,  however, 
occurs  only  in  late  writers.  Dumtaxat*  is  not  joined  with  verbs,  and 
seems  to  answer  to  our  "solely;"  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  40,  peditntu 
dumtaxat procul  ad  speciem  utitur,  solely  from  afar  :  Curt.,  viii.,  4,  (1),  quo  (car- 
mine) significabatur  male  instituisse  Lfraecos,  quod  tropaeis  regum  dumtaxat 
nomina  inscriberenlur ;  ibid.,  ix.,  36,  (9),  aestus  lotos  circa  flumen  campos  inun- 
daverat,  tumulis  dumtaxat  eminentibus,  velut  insulis  parvis.  In  another  signi- 
fication this  word  is  the  same  as  certe,  at  least  (see  §  266),  and  denotes  a 
limitation  to  a  particular  point ;  as  in  Cicero,  nos  animo  dumtaxat  vigemus, 
refamiliari  comminuti  sumus,  in  courage,  at  least,  I  am -not  wanting;  valde 
me  Athenae  delectarunt,  urbs  dumtaxat  et  urbis  ornamenta  et  hominum  benivo- 
lentia.  Saltern,  also,  signifies  "  at  least,"  but  denotes  the  reduction  of  a  de- 
mand to  a  minimum  ;  e.  g.,  when  I  say,  redde  mihi  libros,  si  non  onw.es, 
saltern  tres,  or,  as  Cicero  says,  eripe  mihi  hunc  dolorem,  aut  minue  saltern  ; 
finge  saltern  aliquid  commode. 

[§  275.]  Frustra  conveys  the  idea  of  a  disappointed  expectation,  as  in 
frustra  suscipere  labores ;  nequicquam  that  of  the  absence  of  success,  as  in 
Horat.,  Carm.,  i.,  3,  21,  nequicquam  deus  abscidit  Oceano  terras,  si  tarnen 
irnpiae  rates  transiliunt  vada.  Licassum  is  less  commonly  used  ;  it  is  com- 
posed of  in  and  cassum,  hollow,  empty,  and  therefore  properly  signifies 
"  into  the  air,"  or  "  to  no  purpose  ;"  as,  tela  incassum  jactare. 

Alias  and  alioqui  both  mean  "  elsewhere,"  but  alias  signifies  "  at  another 
time,"  or  "  in  another  place,"  whereas  alioqui  (like  ceteroqui  and  celerurn) 
means  "  in  other  respects ;"  as  in  Livy,  triumphal-urn  de  Tiburtibus,  alio- 
quin  mitis  victoria f nit,  or  "or  else"  (in  case  of  a  thing  mentioned  before 
not  taking  place),  like  aliter ;  as  in  Tacitus,  dedit  tibi  Augustus  pecuniam 
non  ea  lege,  ut  semper  daretur  :  languescet  alioqui  industria.  No  difference  in 
the  use  of  alioqui  and  alioquin  has  yet  been  discovered.  The  addition  or 
omission  of  the  n,  at  least,  does  not  appear  to  depend  upon  the  letter  at 
the  beginning  of  the  word  following. 


CHAPTER  LXIII. 

PRIMITIVE     ADVERBS. 

[§  276.]  1.  THE  Simple  or  Primitive  Adverbs  are  few  in 
number  when  compared  with  the  derivatives,  especially 
with  those  derived  from  adjectives,  and  ending  in  e  and 
ter.  The  signification  of  the  latter  depends  upon  that  of 
their  adjective,  and  has  generally  a  very  definite  extent  ; 
but  the  primitive  adverbs  express  the  most  general  cir- 
cumstances that  are  to  be  considered  in  connexion  with 
a  fact,  and  are  indicated  by  the  questions  how  1  when  ] 
where  ?  whether  1  and  the  general  answers  to  them  ;  but 

*  [Donaldson  derives  this  adverb  from  taxo,  -are,  "to  estimate,"  and  he 
makes  the  primitive  meaning  of  the  adverb  to  be,  "  provided  one  esti- 
mates it,"  "  estimating  it  accurately,"  i.  e.,  "  only,"  "  at  least,"  "  so  far  as 
that  goes."  (Varronianus,  p.  181.)  The  derivation  given  by  Grotefend  is 
far  inferior :  "  duntaxat  aus  dum  taceo  (cetera),  sat  (est  hoc)."  Donaldson 
pronounces  it  absurd.]— Am.  Ed. 

T  2 


222  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

they  are  for  this  reason  deserving  of  particular  attention, 
together  with  their  compounds  and  derivatives.* 

2.  To  this  class  belong  the  negative  particles:  non, 
hand,  and  ne,  together  with  iinmo  ;  the  affirmatives  :  nae, 
quidem,  and  utique,  certainly  (from  which  word  the  nega- 
tive adverb  ncutiquam,  by  no  means,  is  formed),  nempe, 
namely,  surely;  vcl,  in  the  sense  of  "even"  (see  §  108); 
and  the  interrogative  cur,  why]  (probably  formed  from 
quare  or  cui  rci)  :  the  words  which  express,  in  a  general 
way,  the  mode  of  an  action,  viz. :  paene,fere,  andfcrme, 
nearly,  almost ;  tcmere,  at  random ;  rite,  duly,  according 
to  custom;  vix,  scarcely;  nimis  (and  nimium,  see  §  267), 
too  much  ;  satis  or  sat,  enough,  sufficiently  ;  saltern,  at 
least;  sic  and  ita,  so,  thus;  and  item  and  itidem  (which 
are  derived  from  ita),  just  so,  and  the  double  form  idcn- 
tidem,  which,  however,  has  assumed  the  meaning  of  a 
particle  of  time,  "constantly,"  "one  time  like  the  other;" 
ut  or  uti,  as,  and  hence  sicut  or  sicuti ;  quam,  how  much ; 
tarn,  so  much;  tamquam,  like;  perinde  and. proinde  (de- 
rived from  inde),  as  though,  like ;  secus,  otherwise,  differ- 
ently ;  the  adverbs  of  place  :  uspiam  and  usquam,  some- 
where; nmquam,  nowhere;  procul,  far;  propc,  near  (§  267, 
note);  ubi,  where  1  ibi,  there;  unde,  whence ]  inde,  hence, 
together  with  their  numerous  compounds  and  correlatives, 
of  which  we  shall  speak  presently  ;  the  adverbs  of  time  : 
quando,w\ieii1  with  its  compounds  aliquando, once;  quan- 
doque,  at  some  time  ;  quandocunque,  whenever ;  quondam, 
formerly  (contains  the  original  relative  quum,  which  has 
become  a  conjunction) ;  nunc,  now ;  tune  and  turn,  then ; 
unquam,ever;  nunquam,  never ]  jam, already;  etiam  (from 
et  and  jam)  and  quoque,  also  ;  etiamnunc  and  etiamtum, 
still,  yet ;  semel,  once  ;  bis,  twice  (the  other  adverbial  nu- 
merals, see  Chap.  XXXIII.) ;  saepe,  often  ;  usque,  ever ; 
fieri  or  here,  yesterday;  eras,  to-morrow  ;  olim,  formerly; 
mox,  soon  after;  dudum,  previously;  pridem,  long  since; 
tandem,  at  last  or  length  ;  demum,  not  until  ;  from  inde 
are  derived  delude  and  exindc,  or  abridged  dein  and  exin, 

*  With  regard  to  the  following  list  of  particles,  which,  from  their  great 
importance  towards  understanding  the  ancient  writers,  has  been  drawn  up 
with  care,  we  must  observe  that  by  the  term  primitive  adverbs  we  do  not 
understand  those  of  which  no  root  is  to  be  found,  but  those  which  cannot 
in  any  useful  or  practical  way  be  included  among  the  classes  of  derivative 
adverbs  mentioned  before.  A  more  deep  etymological  investigation  would 
lead  us  into  too  slippery  ground,  on  which  we  could  expect  but  little 
thanks  either  from  teachers  or  pupils. 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  223 

thereupon,  afterward  ;  subinde*  immediately  after,  or  re- 
peatedly; dcinceps,  in  succession;  denique,  lastly;  further, 
the  adverbs  with  the  suffix  per :  semper,  always  ;  nuper, 
lately  ;  parumper  and  paulisper,  for  a  short  time  ;  tantis- 
per,  for  so  long,  commonly  to  indicate  a  short  time,  "  for 
so  short  a  time." 

Most  of  the  prepositions  are  originally  adverbs,  but  as 
they  usually  take  the  case  of  a  substantive  after  them,  they 
are  regarded  as  a  distinct  class  of  the  parts  of  speech. 
But  they  must  still  be  looked  upon  as  adverbs  when  they 
are  joined  with  a  verb  without  a  case  ;  as  in  Virgil,  Pone, 
sub  it  conjunx,  "  behind  there  follows  my  wife."  Hence 
it  happens  that  clam,  secretly,  and  coram,  in  the  presence 
of,  are  generally  reckoned  among  the  prepositions,  where- 
as palam  (propalam),  publicly,  is  universally  .called  an 
adverb,  though  it  is  formed  precisely  in  the  same  manner. 
Ante  and  post,  when  used  as  adverbs,  generally  have  the 
lengthened  forms  anted  and  posted  (also  antcJiac  and  post- 
liac),  but  occur  as  adverbs,  also,  without  any  change  of 
form. 

Note  1. — We  must  not  pass  over  unnoticed  the  transition  of  particles  of 
place  into  particles  of  time,  which  occurs  in  other  languages  also.  This 
accounts  for  the  use  of  hie,  ibi,  ubi,  where  we  should  use  an  adverb  ex- 
pressive of  time.  Nor  can  we  wonder  at  several  of  these  adverbs  appear- 
ing frequently  as  conjunctions  (in  which  character  they  will  have  to  be 
mentioned  again  in  Chap.  LX  VII.),  for  whenever  they  serve  to  connect  sen- 
tences, they  become,  grammatically  speaking,  conjunctions ;  but  when 
within  a  sentence  they  denote  a  circumstance  connected  with  a  verb,  they 
are  real  adverbs.  Some  of  them  are  used  in  both  characters. 

[§  277.]  Note  2. — The  Signification  of  the  above  Primitive  Adverbs. 

The  ordinary  negation  is  non ;  hand  adds  to  the  negation  a  special  sub- 
jective colouring,  with  very  different  meanings — either  "  not  at  all,"  or 
"not  exactly."  The  comic  writers  use  this  negation  frequently,  and  in  all 
kinds  of  combinations  ;  but  the  authors  of  the  best  age  limit  its  use  more 
especially  to  its  combination  with  adjectives  and  adverbs  denoting  a  meas- 
ure ;  e.  g.,  hand  multum,  hand  magnum,  hand  parvus,  hand  rnediocris,  haud 
paulo,  haud  procul,  haud  longe,  especially  haud  sane,  in  connexion  with  oth- 
er words ;  as,  haud  sane  facile,  res  haud  sane  difficilis,  haud  sane  intelUgo  ; 
also,  haud  quisquam,  haud  unquam,  haud  quaquam,  by  which  combination, 
something  more  is  expressed  than  by  the  simple  negation.  In  connexion 
with  verbs,  haud  appears  much  less  frequently,  and,  on  the  whole,  only  in 
the  favourite  phrase  haud  scio  an,  which  is  the  same  as  nescio  an,  until  la- 
ter writers,  such  asXivy  and  Tacitus,  again  make  unlimited  application 
of  it. 

Ne  does  not  belong  to  this  place  as  a  conjunction  in  the  sense  of  "  in 
order  that  not,"  but  only  in  so  far  as  it  is  used  for  non  in  the  connexion  of 
ne-quidem,  not  even,  and  with  imperatives ;  e.  g.,  Tu  ne  cede  malis,  sed  con- 
tra audentior  ito,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Hence  nee  (neque},  also,  must 
be  mentioned  here,  because  it  is  used  instead  of  ne-quidem,  seldom  with 

*  The  accent  on  the  antepenultima  for  the  compounds  of  inde  is  neces- 
sary, according  to  Priscian,  p.  1008,  (618  Kr.) 


224:  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Cicero,  but  more  frequently  with  Quintilian;  e.  g.,  ii.,  13,  7,  alioqui  me 
scriberem  ;  v.,  10,  1J9,  alioqui  nee  tradidisse.m ;  i ,  v.,  18,  extra  carmen  non  de- 
prehendas,  sed  nee  in  carmine  vitia  dncenda  swit. 

Immo  signities  "no,"  but  with  this  peculiarity  that,  at  the  same  time, 
something  stronger  is  put  in  the  place  of  the  preceding  statement  which 
is  denied  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ix.,  7,  causa  igitur  non  bona  est  ?  Immo  opti- 
ma, scd  agetur  foedissime  ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  23,  si  patriam  prodere  conabitur  pater, 
silebitne  films  ?  Immo  vero  obsecrabit  patrem,  tie  id  facial.  This  increase 
may  be  sometimes  expressed  in  English  by  "  nay,"  or  "  nay  even."  But 
this  does  not  justify  the  assertion  that  immo  is  an  affirmative  adverb. 

[^  278  ]  Quidem  is  commonly  used  to  connect  sentences,  and  must  then 
be  looked  upon  as  a  conjunction  ;  but  it  is  employed  also  as  an  adverb  to 
set  forth  a  word  or  an  idea  with  particular  emphasis,  and  then  answers  to 
our  "  certainly"  or  "indeed."  Very  frequently,  however,  especially  with 
pronouns,  it  only  increases  their  force  by  the  emphasis ;  e.  g.,  optare  hoe 
quidem  est,  non  docere,  this  I  call  wish,  but  not  teach  ;  praecipitare  ist.ud  qui- 
dem est,  non  descendtre.  Hence  it  also  happens  that,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  quidem  is  necessary  to  connect  sentences,  a  pronoun  is  added,  for 
the  sake  of  quidem,  which  might  otherwise  be  dispensed  with.  Cicero, 
e.  g.,  says  :  Oratorias  exercitatio'/ies  nontu  quidem,  ut  spero,  reliquisti,  sedccrte 
philosophiam  illis  anteposuisti.  From  quidem  arose  equidem,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  be  a  compound  of  ego  and  quidem,  and  is  used  exclusively  in 
this  sense  by  Cicero,  Virgil,  and  Horace  ;  but  in  others,  and  more  particu- 
larly in  later  authors,  it  occurs  precisely  in  the  same  sense  as  quidem ;  e. 
g.,  Sallust.,  Cat.,  52,  16,  quare  vanum  equidem  hoc  consilium  est ;  Curt.jV., 
35,  certiora  deinde  cognoscit  ex  Sagistane  Babylonia,  non  equidem  vinctwn  re- 
gem,  sed  in  periculo  ease,  aut  mortis  aut  vincidorum. 

Nempe  answers  pretty  nearly  to  our  "surely,"  and  frequently  assumes 
a  sarcastic  meaning,  when  we  refute  a  person  by  concessions  which  he  is 
obliged  to  make,  or  by  deductions.  It  is  never  used  for  the  merely  ex- 
planatory "  namely,"  or  "  that  is,"  which,  in  the  case  of  simple  ideas,  is 
either  not  expressed  at  all,  or  by  the  forms  is  (ea,  id)  est,  qui  est,  dico,  or  in- 
telligi  volo,  or  by  the  adverbs  scilicet  and  videlicet.  Respecting  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  expressed  in  the  connexion  of  propositions,  see  §  345. 

[§  279.]  The  adverbs  paene,  f /.re,  and/erme,  to  which  we  may  add  prope, 
on  account  of  its  meaning  (from  <$>  267.  note},  all  serve  to  limit  a  statement, 
but  there  are  certain  differences  in  their  application.  Paene  and  prope  ap- 
proach each  other  nearest :  paene.  being  almost  and  prope  nearly  ;  and  thus 
we  say  in  Latin  paene  dixerim  and  prope  dixcrim  in  quite  the  same  sense,  I 
might  almost  say.  As  prope  contains  the  idea  of  approximation,  so  paene 
denotes  a  degree.  Thus  we  say  :  hi  viri  prope  aequales  sunt,  are  nearly  of 
the  same  age  ;  and  Caesar,  on  the  other  hand,  says,  non  solum  in  omnibus 
(Galliae)  civitatibus,  sed  paene  etiam  in  singulis  domibus  faction  fs  sunt,  "but 
almost  in  every  family,"  which  is  more  than  the  factions  in  the  towns. 
Propemodum,  in  a  certain  degree,  is  formed  from  prope.  Fere  aiiAferme  dif- 
fer from  the  other  primitive  adverbs,  in  regard  to  their  long  e,  for  the  oth 
ers  end  in  a  short  e.  They,  therefore,  seem  to  be  derived  from  adjectives  ; 
but  the  derivation  from  ferns  leads  to  no  results.  The  two  words  differ 
only  in  form,  and  are  used  in  inaccurate  and  indefinite  statements,  espe- 
cially with  round  numbers  and  such  notions  as  may  be  reduced  to  a  num- 
ber. We  say  centum  fere  homines  aderant  to  express  our  "  somewhere  about 
one  hundred  ;"  paene  or  prope  centum,  nearly  a  hundred,  implying  thereby 
that  there  should  have  been  exactly  one  hundred.  And  so,  also,  fere  om- 
nes,fere  semper ;  and  with  a  verb,  sic  fere  fieri  solet,  so  it  mostly  or  gener- 
ally happens,  the  same  as/ere  semper  fit.  Hence  it  is  frequently  used  as  a 
mere  form  of  politeness,  when  there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  correct- 
ness of  a  statement ;  as  in  quoniamfere  constat,  as  it  is  a  fact,  I  presume. 

[^  280.]  Temcre,  at  random,  is  opposed  to  a  thing  which  is  done  consulfo, 
or  deliberately  ;  hence  the  expressions  inconsulte  ac  temere,  temere  et  impru- 
denter,  temere  et  nidlo  consilio.  Combined  with  non,  temere  acquires  (but  not 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  225 

in  Cicero)  a  peculiar  signification  ;  it  becomes  the  same  as  non  facile,  and 
softens  an  assertion  ;  for  instance,  in  Horace  :  vatis  avarus  non  temere  est 
animus,  a  poet  is  not  easily  avaricious  ;  or,  non  temere  quis  tarn  invitis  omni- 
bus ad  principatum  accessit  quam  Titus.  Rite  seems  to  be  an  ancient  abla- 
tive like  ritu ;  its  meaning  accords  with  the  supposition,  but  the  form  (ris, 
ritis)  is  uncertain. 

[§  281.]  The  words  sic,  ita,  tarn,  answer  to  the  English  "so;"  and  to 
them  we  may  add  tantopere,from  §  271,  and  adeo,  from  §  289.  With  regard 
to  their  difference,  we  remark  that  sic  is  more  particularly  the  demonstra- 
tive "  so"  or  "  thus,"  as  in  sic  sum,  sic  vita  hominum  est,  sic  se  res  habet ;  ita 
defines  more  accurately,  or  limits,  and  is  our  "  in  such  a  manner,"  or  "  in 
so  far  ;"  e.  g.,  ita  senectus  honesta  est,  si  suum  jus  retinet ;  ita  defendito,  ut  ne- 
minem  laedas.  Very  frequently,  however,  ita  assumes  the  signification  of 
sic,  but  not  sic  the  limiting  sense  of  ita,  respecting  which  we  shall  have 
occasion  to  speak  in  another  place  ($  726).  Tarn,  so  much,  increases  the 
degree,  and  has  its  natural  place  before  the  adjectives  and  adverbs,  but 
rarely  before  verbs  where  tantopere  is  used  instead.  Adeo,  to  that  degree 
or  point,  increases  the  expression  to  a  certain  end  or  result ;  e.  g.,  adeone 
hospes  es  in  hac  urbe,  ut  haec  nescias  ?  Hence  in  the  connexion  of  proposi- 
tions, it  forms  the  transition  to  the  conclusion  of  an  argument,  or  to  the 
essential  part  of  a  thing,  Cicero,  when  he  has  related  a  thing,  and  then, 
chooses  to  introduce  the  witnesses  or  documents  themselves,  frequently 
says,  id  adeo  ex  ipso  senatusconsulto  cognoscite  ;  id  adeo  sciri  facillime  potest 
exlitteris  publicis  civitatum  (in  Verr.,i\.,  64  ;  iii.,  51),  and  puts  the  adeo  al- 
ways after  a  pronoun.  (Comp.  Spalding  on  QuintiL,  ii.,  16,  18.) 

[$  282.]  Ut,  as,  must  be  mentioned  here  as  a  relative  adverb  expressive 
of  similarity.  From  it  is  formed  utique  by  means  of  the  suffix  que,  which 
will  be  considered  in  §  288.  It  signifies  "  however  it  may  be,"  and  hence 
"  certainly."  Curt.,  iv.,  44,  nihil  quidem  habeo  venale,  sed  fortunam  meant 
utique  non  vendo, 

The  compounds  sicut,  velut,  tamquam,  to  which  we  must  add  quasi,  when 
used  without  a  verb  and  as  an  adverb,  signify  "  as"  or  "  like."  The  dif- 
ference in  their  application  seems  to  be,  that  tamquam  and  quasi  express  a 
merely  conceived  or  imaginary  similarity,  whereas  sicut  denotes  a  real  one. 
Hence  Cicero  says,  tamquam  serpens  e  latibulis  intulisti  te ;  gloria  virtutem 
tamquam  umbra  sequitur  ;  philosophia  omnium  artium  quasi  parens  est,  where 
the  similarity  mentioned  is  a  mere  conception  or  supposition ;  but  it  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  reality  in  me  sicut  alterum  parentem  diligit ;  defendo  te 
sicut  caput  meum.  Velut  is  used  by  late  authors  in  the  same  sense  as  quasi ; 
but  in  Cicero  it  has  not  yet  acquired  this  signification,  but  has  the  pecu- 
liar meaning  of  our  "for  example  ;"  as,  bestiae,  quae  gignuntur  e  terra,  velut 
crocodili  ;  non  elogia  monumentorum  hoc  significant,  velut  hoc  ad  portam  ?  and 
other  passages.  All  these  adverbs  occur,  also,  as  conjunctions ;  in  Cicero, 
however,  only  tamquam  (besides  quasi),  with  and  without  the  addition 
of  si. 

Perinde  and  proinde  have  the  same  meaning,  and  are  adverbs  of  similar- 
ity ;  but  perinde  is  much  more  frequently  found  in  prose  writers.  The 
reading  is  often  uncertain ;  and  as  proinde  is  well  established  as  a  con- 
junction in  the  sense  of  "  therefore"  (see  §  344),  many  philologers  have 
been  of  opinion  that  proinde,  wherever  the  sense  is  "  like,"  is  only  a  cor- 
ruption of  perinde.  But  this  supposition  is  contradicted  by  the  authority 
of  the  poets,  who  use  proinde  as  a  word  of  two  syllables.  (Comp.  Ruhn- 
ken  on  Rutil.  Lupus,  p.  31.)  We  most  frequently  find  the  combinations 
perinde  ac,  perinde  ac  si,  as  if,  as  though  ;  perinde  ut,  in  proportion  as,  to 
connect  sentences.  (See  §  340.)  But  without  any  such  additions,  Cice- 
ro, for  example,  de  Fin.,  i.,  21,  says,  vivendi  artern  tantam  tamque  operosam 
et  perinde  fructuosam  (and  as  fruitful)  relinquat  Epicurus  ? 

[$  283.]  Slews  has  been  classed  among  the  primitives,  because  its  deriva- 
tion is  uncertain.  We  believe  that  it  is  derived  from  sequor ;  and  we  might, 
therefore,  have  included  it,  like  mordicus,  among  those  adverbs  mentioned 


226  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  §  269.  We  liold  that  its  primary  signification  is  "  in  pursuance,"  "  af- 
ter," "  beside,"  which  still  appears  in  the  compounds  intrinsecus  and  ex* 
trinsecus.  (§  289.)  Hence  it  corncs  to  signify  '•  less,"  or  "  otherwise,"  viz., 
"  than  it  should  be."  Thus  we  say,  mihi  aliter  videtur,  recte  secusne,  nih.il 
ad  te,  justly  or  less  justly,  where  we  might  also  say  an  minus ;  si  res  secus 
ceciderit,  if  the  thing  should  turn  out  differently,  that  is,  less  well.  A  com- 
parative seems  (also  spelled  sequins)  occurs  very  rarely,  because  secus  itself 
has  the  signification  of  a  comparative  ;  it  is  joined  with  an- ablative,  nihilo 
seems,  not  otherwise,  nevertheless  ;  quo  seems  the  same  as  quo  minus,  in  or- 
der that  not. 

[$  284.]  To  unquam,  ever,  and  usquam,  somewhere,  we  must  apply  that 
which  has  already  been  said  of  quisquam,  <J  129:  they  require  a  negation 
in  the  sentence;  and  although  this  negation  may  be  connected  with 
another  word,  unquam  and  usquam  become  the  same  as  nunquam  and  nus~ 
quam  ;  e.  g.,  ntque  te  usquam  vidi,  the  same  as  te  nusquam  vidi.  The  place 
of  a  negative  proposition  may,  however,  be  taken  by  a  negative  question  ; 
as,  num.  tu  earn  unquam  vidisti?  hast  thon  ever  seen  him  1  But  uspiam  is 
not  negative  any  more  than  the  pronoun  quispiam  ;  but  it  is  the  same  as 
alicubi,  except  that  its  meaning  is  strengthened,  just  as  quispiam  is  the 
same  as  aliquis.  In  the  writings  of  modern  Latinists  and  grammarians  we 
find  the  form  nuspiam,  which  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  nusquam.  But  nus- 
piam  does  not  exist  at  all,  and  its  formation  is  contrary  to  analogy. 

[§  285.]  It  is  difficult  to  define  thedifference  between  turn  and  tune,  because 
the  editions  of  our  authors  themselves  are  not  everywhere  correct.  But 
in  general  the  difference  may  be  stated  thus :  tune  is  "  then,"  "  at  that  time," 
in  opposition  to  nunc ;  turn  is  "then,"  as  the  correlative  of  the  relative 
quum  ;  e.  g.,  quwn  omnes  adessent,  turn  ille  exorsus  est  dicere,  when  all  were 
present,  then  he  began  to  speak.  Without  a  relative  sentence,  turn  is  used 
in  the  sense  of  our  "  hereupon,"  "  thereupon  ;"  but  we  may  always  sup- 
ply such  a  sentence  as  "  when  this  or  that  had  taken  place."  The  same 
difference  exists  between  etiamnunc  and  etiamtum,  which  we  translate  by 
"still"  or  "yet,"  and  between  nunc  ipsum  and  tumipsum,  quummaxime  and 
tummaxime,  just  or  even  then ;  for  etiamnunc,  nunc  ipsum,  and  quummaxime 
refer  to  the  present ;  but  etiamtum,  turn  ipsum,  and  tummaxime  to  the  past ; 
e.  g.,  etiamnunc  pucr  est,  and  etiamtum  puer  erat ;  adest  quummaxime  frater 
meus,  and  aderat  tummaxime  frater,  my  brother  was  just  then  present. 
Compare  $  732. 

[<$>  286.]  Jam,  combined  with  a  negative  word,  answers  to  our  "  longer ;" 
e.  g.,  ni/ul  jam  spero,  I  no  longer  hope  for  anything  ;  Brutus  Mutinae  vixjam 
suslinebat,  could  scarcely  maintain  himself  any  longer.  It  is  also  used  for 
the  purpose  of  connecting  sentences,  and  then  answers  to  our  "further" 
or  "  now." 

Usque,  ever  and  anon,  does  not  occur  very  frequently  in  this  sense ; 
e.  g.,  in  Horace,  Epist.,  i,  10,  24,  naturam  expellas  furca,  tamen  usque  re- 
curret.  It  is  commonly  accompanied  by  a  preposition,  viz.,  ad  and  in,  or 
ab  and  ex,  and  denotes  time  and  place  :  e.  g.,  tismie  ad  portam,  usque  a  prima 
aetate.  See  Chap.  LXV.,  4. 

[<$>  287.]  Nuper,  lately,  is  used  in  a  very  relative  sense,  and  its  meaning 
depends 'upon  the  period  which  is  spoken  of;  for  Cicero  (de.  Nat.  Dear., 
ii.,  50)  says  of  certain  medical  observations,  that  they  were  nuper,  id  est 
paucis  ante  saeculis  reperta,  thinking  at  the  time  of  the  whole  long  period 
in  which  men  had  made  observations.  In  like  manner,  the  length  of  time 
expressed  by  modo  (see  ^  270)  and  mox  is  indefinite.  The  latter  word,  as 
was  observed  above,  originally  signified  "  soon  after,"  but  is  very  often 
used  simply  in  the  sense  of  '•  afterward."  Dudum  is  probably  formed  from 
diu  (est)  dum,  and  answers  to  the  English  "previously"  or  "  before,"  in 
relation  to  a  time  which  has  just  passed  away ;  whence  it  may  often  be 
translated  by  "  shortly  before  ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xi.,  24,  quae  dudum  ad 
me  et  quae  etiam  ante  ad  Tulliam  scripsisti,  ea  sentio  esse  vcra.  But  the  length 
->f  time  is  set  forth  more  strongly  in  jamdudum,  long  before,  or  long  since. 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  227 

This  word,  with  poets,  contains  the  idea  of  impatience,  and  signifies 
"without  delay,"  "  forthwith,"  as  in  the  line  of  Virgil,  Aen.,  il,  103,  jam- 
dudum  sumite  poenus.  The  same  strengthening  of  the  meaning  appears  in 
jampridem,  long  since,  a  long  time  ago.  Tandem,  at  length,  likewise 
serves  to  express  the  impatience  with  which  a  question  is  put,  and  even 
more  strongly  than  nam  0  134) ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  L,  9,  haec  utrum  tandem 
lex  est  an  legum  omnium  dissolutio  ? 

[§  288.]  3.  The  Adverbs  of  Place,  mentioned  above, 
No.  2,  ubi,  where  1  and  unde,  whence  1  together  with  the 
adverbs  derived  from  the  relative  pronoun,  viz.,  quo, 
whither  ]  and  qua,  in  what  way  1  are  in  relation  to  other 
adverbs,  demonstratives,  relatives,  and  indefinites,  which 
are  formed  in  the  same  manner.  All  together  form  a  sys- 
tem of  adverbial  correlatives  similar  to  that  of  the  pro- 
nominal adjectives.  (See  above,  §  130.)  We  shall  be- 
gin with  the  interrogative  form,  which  is  the  simplest. 
Its  form  (as  in  English)  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  relative, 
and  differs  from  it  only  by  its  accent.  The  relative  ac- 
quires a  more  general  meaning,  either  by  being  doubled, 
or  by  the  suffix  cunque,  which  is  expressed  in  English  by 
"  ever,"  as  in  "  wherever."  Without*  any  relative  mean- 
ing, the  simple  form  acquires  a  more  general  signification 
by  the  suffix  que,  or  by  the  addition  of  the  particular  words 
vis  and  libet.  (We  call  it  an  adv  erbium  loci  generate.) 
The  fact  of  the  suffix  que  not  occurring  with  quo  and  qua 
is  easily  accounted  for  by  the  possibility  of  confounding 
them  with  the  adverb  qiioque  and  the  ablative  quaque ; 
but  still,  in  some  passages  at  least,  quaque  is  found  as  an 
adverb,  and  so  also  the  compound  usquequaque,  in  any 
way  whatever.  The  demonstrative  is  formed  from  the 
pronoun  is,  and  its  meaning  is  strengthened  by  the  suffix 
dem.  The  indefinite  is  derived  from  the  pronoun  aliquis, 
or  by  compositions  with  it.  We  thus  obtain  the  follow- 
ing correlative  adverbs : 

*  We  say  without  in  regard  to  the  general  analogy.  There  are,  how- 
ever, passages  in  which  the  suffix  que  forms  a  generalizing  relative,  and  in 
which,  e.  g.,  quandoque  is  used  for  quandocunque,  as  in  Horat.,  Ars  Poet., 
359,  quandoque  bonus  dormitat  Homerus,  and  frequently  in  Tacitus.  See 
the  commentators  on  Livy,  i.,  24,  3. 


228 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


Interrog-. 

Relative. 

Demonstr. 

Indefinite. 

Universal. 

Ubi,  where  1      \ubi,  where. 

ibi,  there. 

ahciibi,  some- 

ublque,      ) 

\ubiubi. 
\ubicunque. 

ibidem. 

where. 

ubilis,    I  ev,ery- 

ubtlibet,     5where" 

Unde,  whence  1  'unde,  whence. 

inde,  thence. 

alicunde,  from 

undlque,     \    from 

undeunde. 

indidfm. 

some  place. 

undevis,     >  every- 

undecungue. 

undelibet,  )  where. 

Quo,  whither? 

quo,  whither. 

eo,  thither. 

aliquo,  to  some 

quovis,       )       to 

quoquo. 

eodem. 

place. 

quolibet,    >  every 

quocunque. 

)  place. 

Qua,    in    what'jua,     fn     the 
direction  1  i^way  in  which. 

ea,     in      that 
way. 

aliqua,  in  some 
way. 

qunvis,      \      in 
quahbet,   >  every 

what  way  1 

)    way. 

quaqua. 

eadem. 

quacunque. 

[§  289.]  To  these  we  must  add  those  which  are  formed 
by  composition  with  alms,  nullus,  uter,  and  answer  to  the 
question  where  1  alibi,  elsewhere ;  nullibi,  nowhere  (which, 
however,  is  based  only  on  one  passage  of  Vitruvius,  vii., 
1,  its  place  being  supplied  by  nusquam)  ;  utrubi  or  utrobi, 
in  which  of  two  places  1  with  the  answer  utroblque,  in  each 
of  the  two  places.  Inibi  is  a  strengthening  form  of  ibi, 
and  signifies  "  in  the  place  itself."  To  the  question 
whence  ?  answer  aliunde,  from  another  place  ;  utrimque, 
from  both  sides,  which  formation  we  find  again  in  intrin- 
secus,  from  within,  and  extrinsecus,  from  without.  To  the 
question  whither  ]  answer  alio,  to  another  place ;  to  utro, 
to  which  of  two  sides  1  answer  utroque,  to  both  sides,  and 
neutro,  to  neither.  The  following  are  formed  with  the 
same  termination,  and  have  the  same  meaning :  quopiam 
and  quoquam,  to  some  place  (the  former  in  an  affirmative, 
and  the  latter  in  a  negative  sentence,  like  quisquam) ; 
intro,  into ;  retro,  back ;  ultra,  beyond ;  citro,  this  side, 
chiefly  used  in  the  combination  of  ultro  et  citro,  ultro  citro- 
que  (towards  that  and  this  side),  but  ultro  also  signifies  "in 
addition  to,"  and  "  voluntarily."  Porro  is  formed  frompro, 
and  signifies  "onward"  or  "farther,"  e.  g.,  porro pergere. 
In  the  latter  sense  it  is  used  also  as  a  conjunction  to  con- 
nect sentences.  Compounds  of  eo  are  :  adeo,  up  to  that 
degree  or  point,  so  much ;  eousquc,  so  long,  so  far ;  and 
of  quo:  quousque  and  quoad,  how  long?  We  have  farther 
to  notice  the  adverbs  with  the  feminine  termination  of  the 
ablative  a  (which  is  probably  to  be  explained  by  supply- 
ing viaj,  which  have  become  prepositions  j  viz. :  citra, 
contra,  extra,  intra,  supra,  derived  from  the  original  forms, 
cis,  con,  ex,  in,  super;  also,  infra,  below;  and  ultra,  beyond 
(from  the  adjectives  infer  and  tdtcr,  which,  however,  do 
not  occur) ;  circa,  around ;  and  juxta,  by  the  side  or  in 


PRIMITIVE    ADVERBS.  229 

like  manner.  The  derivation  of  the  last  two  is  doubtful, 
but  they  belong  to  the  adverbs  of  place.  In  this  way 
arose,  also,  nequaquam  and  kaudquaquam,  in  no  way; 
usquequaqiie,  in  all  points,  in  all  ways,  composed  of  the 
above-mentioned  quaque  and  usque. 

[§  290.]  We  here  add  the  correlatives  to  the  question 
whither  1  quorsum  or  quorsus  ?  (contracted  from  quover- 
sum  or  quoversus).  The  answers  to  them  likewise  end 
in  us  and  um  (but  sometimes  the  one  and  sometimes  the 
other  is  more  commonly  used)  :  horsum,  hither ;  aliquo- 
versum,  towards  some  place  ;  atiorsum,  towards  another 
place  ;  quoquoversus,  towards  every  side ;  utroqueversum, 
introrsum,  prorsum,  forward  (prorsus  is  better  known  in 
the  derivative  sense  of  "  entirely") ;  rursum,  or  more  fre- 
quently retrorsum,  backward  (rursus  remained  in  use  in 
the  sense  of  "  again") ;  swrsum,  heavenward  (also,  sursum 
versus,  a  double  compound) ;  deorsum,  downward ;  dex- 
trorsum,  to  the  right;  sinistrorsum,  to  the  left;  advcrsus  or 
adversum,  towards  or  opposite,  usually  a  preposition; 
seorsus  or  seorsum,  separately. 

[§  291.]  4.  The  above-mentioned  demonstratives,  ibi, 
there ;  inde,  hence,  and  eo,  thither,  are  used  only  with 
reference  to  relative  sentences  which  precede  ;  e.  g.,  ubi 
te  Tieri  vidi,  ibi  nolim  te  iterum  conspicere,  where  I  saw 
thee  yesterday,  there  I  do  not  wish  to  see  thee  again  ; 
undc  venerat,  eo  rediit,  he  returned  thither,  whence  he  had 
come.  More  definite  demonstratives,  therefore,  are  requi- 
site, and  they  are  formed  in  Latin  from  the  three  demon- 
strative pronouns  by  means  of  special  terminations. 

The  place  where  1  hie,  istic,  illic,  (there), 
whither  ]  hue,  istuc,  illuc,  (thither), 
whence  ?  kinc,  istinc,  illinc,  (thence). 
Instead  of  istuc  and  illuc t  the  forms  isto  and  illo  also  are 
in  use.  These  adverbs  are  employed  with  the  same  dif- 
ference which  we  pointed  out  above  (§  127)  as  existing 
between  the  pronouns  Me,  istc,  and  ille,  so  that  7iic,  hue, 
and  hinc  point  to  the  place  where  I,  the  speaker,  am  ; 
istic,  istuc,  and  istinc,  to  the  place  of  the  second  person,  to 
whom  I  speak ;  and  illic,  illuc,  and  illinc  to  the  place  of 
the  third  person  or  persons,  who  are  spoken  of.  The  fol- 
lowing are  compounds  oiliuc  axi&hinc:  adhuc, until  now ; 
kucusque,  as  far  as  this  place;  abliinc  and  dekinc,£com  this 
moment  (counting  backward).  To  the  question  qua  ?  m 


230  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

what  way?  we  answer  by  the  demonstratives  Jiac,  istac, 
iliac,  which  are  properly  ablatives,  the  word,  via  being 
understood . 

Note  1. — Cicero  thus  writes  to  Atticus,  who  was  staying  at  Rome,  while 
he  himself  lived  in  exile  at  Thessalonica,  in  Macedonia  (iii.,  12) :  Licet 
tibi  significarim,  ut  ad  me  venires,  id  omi-ttam  tamen  ;  intelligo  te  re  istic  pro- 
desse,  hie  ne  verbo  quidem  levare  me  posse.  Islic,  where  you  are,  that  is,  at 
Koine,  you  can  be  really  useful  to  me-;  hie,  here  where  I  live,  that  is,  at 
Thessalonica,  you  would  not  even  be  able  to  comfort  me  with  a  word.  In 
this  manner  the  Romans,  in  their  letters,  briefly  and  distinctly  express  the 
localities  of  the  writer  and  the  person  addressed,  as  well  as  of  the  persons 
written  about. 

[<J  29:1]  Note  2 — Adhuc  expresses  the  duration  of  time  down  to  the  pres- 
ent moment,  and  therefore  answers  to  our  "still,"  when  it  signifies  "un- 
til now"  (we  also  lind  usque  adhuc) ;  and,  strictly  speaking,  it  should  not 
be  confounded  either  with  etiamnunc,  which  does  not  contain  the  idea  of 
duration  of  time,  and  answers  to  the  question  when?  or  with  usque  eo 
and  etiamtum,  which  are  the  corresponding  expressions  of  the  past  time. 
But  even  good  authors  apply  the  peculiar  meaning  of  the  word  to  the  pres 
ent,  and  use  adhuc,  also,  of  the  relative  duration  of  the  time  past ;  e.  g., 
Liv.,  xxi.,  48,  Scipio  quarnquam  gravis  adhuc  vulnere  erat,  tamen — profeclus  t:st  ; 
Curt.,  vil.,  19,  praecipitatus  ex  equo  barbarus  adhuc  tamen  repugnabat.  "  Not 
vet"  is  expressed  by  nondum,  even  in  speaking  of  the  present,  more  rare- 
ly by  adhuc  non. 


CHAPTER  LXIV. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADVERBS. 

[§  293.]  1.  THE  Comparison  of  Adverbs  is  throughout 
dependant  upon  the  comparison  of  adjectives,  for  those 
adverbs  only  have  degrees  of  comparison  which  are  de- 
rived from  adjectives  or  participles  by  the  termination  e 
(o)  or  tcr ;  and  wherever  the  comparison  of  adjectives  is 
wanting  altogether  or  partly,  the  same  deficiency  occurs 
in  their  adverbs. 

2.  The  comparative  of  adverbs  is  the  same  as  the  neu- 
ter of  the  comparative  of  adjectives  (majus  only  has  the 
adverb  magis,  §  265),  and  the  superlative  is  derived  from 
the  superlative  of  the  adjectives  by  changing  the  termina- 
tion us  into  e;  e.  g.,  doctior,  doctius  ;  elegantior,  eleganti* 
us  ;  cmendatior,  emendatius  ;  superlative,  doctissimus •,  doc- 
tissime  ;  elegantissime,  emendatissime  ;  summus,  summe. 
The  positives  in  o  (e.  g.,  cito,  raro)  also  make  the  superla- 
tive in  e ;  meritissimo  and  tutissimo^  however,  are  more 
commonly  used  than  meritissime  and  tutissime. 

Note. — Thus  the  positive  (see  <$>  111)  is  wanting  of  dctcrius,  deterrime  ; 
potius,  potissime  (we  more  frequently  find  potissimum)  ;  prius,  primum  or 
primo  (for  prime  is  not  used,  but  apprime,  principally)  ;  the  positive  ociter, 
to  which  ocius  and  ocissime  belong,  occurs  very  rarely,  since  the  compara- 


PREPOSITIONS.  231 

tive  ocius  has,  at  the  same  time,  the  meaning  of  a  positive.  Of  valde,  very 
(contracted  from  valide,  «j  263),  the  degrees  validius  and  validissime  do  not, 
indeed,  occur  in  Cicero,  but  are  used  in  the  silver  age  of  the  language. 

[§  294.]  3.  The  primitive  adverbs,  and  those  derived 
from  other  words  by  the  terminations  im  and  tus,  together 
with  the  various  adverbs  enumerated  in  §  270,  foil.,  that 
is,  in  general  all  adverbs  which  are  not  derived  from  ad- 
jectives and  participles  by  the  endings  e  (or  o  instead  of 
it)  and  ter,  do  not  admit  the  degrees  of  comparison.  The 
only  exceptions  are  dm  and  saepe :  diutius,  diutissime  ; 
saepius,  saepissime.  Nuper  has  a  superlative  nuperrime, 
but  no  comparative,  and  satis  and  temperi  have  the  com- 
paratives satius  (also  used  as  a  neuter  adjective)  and  tern- 
perius  (in  Cicero).  Respecting  seems,  the  comparative  of 
secus,  see  §  283. 

Note. — There  are  a  few  diminutive  adverbs:  clanculumfrom  dam,  primu- 
lum  from  primum,  ccleriuscule,  saepiuscule,  from  the  comparatives  celerius 
and  saepius.  Belle,  prettily,  is  a  diminutive  of  bene,  and  from  bdle  are  de- 
rived bellus  and  bellissimun,  without  a  comparative,  and  hence  the  adverb 
bellissime. 


CHAPTER  LXV. 

PREPOSITIONS.* 

[§  295.]  1.  PREPOSITIONS  are  indeclinable  words,  or, 
to  use  the  grammatical  term,  particles,  which  express  the 
relations  of  nouns  to  one  another,  or  to  verbs ;  e.  g.,  a 
town  in  Italy;  a  journey  through  Italy;  my  love  for  you; 
the  first  century  after  Christ ;  he  came  out  of  his  house  ; 
he  lives  near  Berlin  ;  on  the  Rhine,  &c.  They  govern  in 

*  ["  Prepositions  are  pronouns  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  They 
express  relations  of  place,  and  in  their  ordinary  use  are  employed  to  de- 
note the  relative  positions  of  visible  objects.  Grammarians  tell  us  that 
they  govern  cases,  and  it  is  the  prevailing  practice  to  arrange  them  accord- 
ing to  the  cases  which  they  are  said  to  govern.  But  this  is  palpably  false  ; 
for,  in  all  languages  which  have  any  inflections,  a  case  may  express  by  it- 
self any  relation  which  the  addition  of  a  preposition  could  give  to  it,  and, 
in  languages  which,  like  the  Sanscrit,  have  a  complete  assortment  of  ca- 
ses, many  relations  of  place  are  invariably  expressed  by  the  cases  without 
any  particle  prefixed.  Such  would  have  been  the  fact  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  too,  but  the  rules  of  euphony,  convenience,  the  influence 
of  writing,  and  a  multitude  of  other  causes,  have  contributed  to  mutilate 
the  terminations  of  the  nouns,  as  well  as  of  the  verbs,  and  thus  preposi- 
tions, the  force  of  which  was  originally  included  in  the  case  endings, 
have  come  to  be  prefixed  for  the  sake  of  greater  distinctness,  just  as  in 
Greek  the  particular  noun  is  placed  after  the  pronoun,  called  the  article, 
in  repetitions,  and  just  as  the  nominative  case  is  prefixed  to  the  verb." 
(Donaldson's  New  Cratylus,  p.  212.)] — Am.  Ed. 


232  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Latin  either  the  accusative  or  ablative,  and  some  (though 
mostly  in  a  different  sense)  both  cases.  Their  Latin  name 
is  derived  from  the  fact  of  their  being  placed,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  before  their  noun.  We  have  already  observ- 
ed (Chap.  LXII.)  that  a  considerable  number  of  these 
particles  are  properly  adverbs,  but  are  justly  reckoned 
among  the  prepositions,  as  they  more  or  less  frequently 
govern  a  case.  Apart  from  their  etymology,  and  consid- 
ering only  their  practical  application  in  the  language,  we 
have  the  following  classes  of  prepositions  : 

1.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative. 
Ad)  to. 

Apud,  with,  near. 

Ante,  before  (in  regard  to  both  time  and  place). 
Adversus  and  adversum,  against. 
Cis,  citra,  on  this  side. 
Circa  and  circum,  around,  about. 
Circiter^  about  (indefinite  time  or  number). 
Contra,  against. 
Erga,  towards. 
Extra,  without. 

Infra,  beneath,  below  (the  contrary  of  supra). 
Inter,  among,  between. 
Intra,  within  (the  contrary  of  extra). 
Juxta,  near,  beside. 
OZ»,  on  account  of. 
Penes,  in  the  power  of. 
Per,  through. 
Pone,  behind. 

Post,  after  (both  of  time  and  space). 
Praeter,  beside. 
Prope,  near. 

Propter,  near,  on  account  of. 
Secundum,  after  (in  time  or  succession),  in  accordance 

with  ;  as,  secundum  naturam  vivere. 
Supra,  above. 
Trans,  on  the  other  side. 
Versus  (is  put  after  its  noun),  towards  a  place  ;  e.  g.,  in 

Galliam  versus,  Massiliam  versus. 
Ultra,  beyond. 

2.  Prepositions  with  the  Ablative. 
A,  ab,  dbs  (a  before  consonants ;  db  before  vowels  and 


PREPOSITIONS.  233 

some  consonants ;  and  abs  only  in  the  combination  of 
abs  te,  for  which,  however,  a  te,  also,  is  used),  from,  by. 

Absque,  without  (obsolete). 

Coram,  before,  or  in  the  presence  of. 

Cum,  with. 

De,  down  from,  concerning. 

E  and  ex  (c  before  consonants  only,  ex  before  both  vowels 
arid  consonants),  out  of,  from. 

Prae,  before,  owing  to. 

Pro,  before,  for. 

Sine,  without. 

Tenus  (is  put  after  its  noun),  as  far  as,  up  to. 

3.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative. 

In,  with  the  accus. — 1,  in,  on,  to,  to  the  question  "Whith- 
er ] — 2,  against.  With  the  ablat.,  in,  on,  to  the  ques- 
tion Where  1 

Sub,  with  the  accus. — 1,  under,  to  the  question  Whither  ? 
2,  about  or  towards,  in  an  indefinite  statement  of  time; 
as,  sub  vcspcram,  towards  evening.  With  the  ablat., 
under,  to  the  question  Where  \  Dcsub  is  also  used  in 
this  sense. 

Super,  with  the  accus.,  above,  over;  with  the  ablat.,  upon, 
concerning,  like  dc. 

Subter,  under,  beneath,  is  used  with  the  accusative,  wheth- 
er it  expresses  being  in  or  motion  to  a  place  ;  it  rarely 
occurs  with  the  ablative,  and  is  in  general  little  used. 

Remarks  upon  the  Signification  of  the  Prepositions. 

[§296.]   1.  Prepositions  ivith  the  Accusative. 

Ad  denotes  in  general  an  aim  or  object  both  in  regard  to  time  and  place, 
and  answers  to  the  questions  Whither?  and  Till  when?  e.  g.,  ve-nio.pro- 
ficiscor  ad  te  ;  Sophocles  ad  summam  senectutem  tragoedias  fecit.  Hence  it 
also  denotes  a  fixed  time  ;  as,  ad  horam,  at  the  hour  ;  ad  diem,  on  the  day 
fixed  upon  ;  ad  tempusfacere  aliquid,  to  do  a  thing  at  the  right  time.  In 
other  cases  ad  te?npus  signifies  "  for  a  time  ;"  e.  g.,  perlurbatio  animi  ple- 
rumque  brevis  est  et  ad  tempus.  Sometimes,  also,  it  denotes  the  approach 
of  time  ;  as,  ad  lucem,  ad  vcsperam,  ad  extremum,  towards  daybreak,  evening, 
towards  the  end ;  and  the  actual  arrival  of  a  certain  time,  as  in  Livy,  ad 
prima  signa  veris  profectus,  at  the  first  sign  of  spring. 

Ad,  in  a  local  sense,  signifies  "  near  a  place,"  to  the  question  Where  ? 
as,  ad  urbem  csse,  to  be  near  the  town  ;  ad  portas  urbis  ;  crucntissima  pugna 
ad  lacum  Trasimenum ;  pugna  navalis  ad  Tenedum  ;  urbs  sita  est  nd  mare  ; 
it  is  apparently  the  same  as  m,  in  such  phrases  as  ad  acdcm  Bdlonac ;  or 
with  the  omission  of  the  \vord  aedem:  ad  Opls ;  ad  omnia  deoritm  temp/a 
gratulationem  fecimus  ;  negotium  habere  ad  portwn  ;  ad  forum  ;  but  in  all  these 
cases  there  is  an  allusion  to  buildings  or  spaces  connected  with  the  places 
named.  With  numerals  ad  is  equivalent  to  our  "to  the  amount  of"  or 
"nearly;"  e.  g..  ad  ducentos,  to  the  amount  of  two  hundred,  or  nearly  two 

U2 


234  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

hundred,  and  without  any  case  it  is  an  adverb  like  circiter,  as  ill  Caesar, 
occisis  ad  hominum  milibus  quatuor,  reliqui  in  oppidum  rejecti  sunt ;  Liv.,  viii., 
18,  ad  viginti  matronis  per  viatorem  accitis  (ablat.  absol.)  ;  iv.,  59,  quorum  ad 
duo  milia  et  quingenti  capiuntur.  The  phrase  omnes  ad  unum,  ad  unum  omnes 
pericrunt,  means,  "  even  to  the  very  last  man,"  including  the  last  himself. 

Ad,  denoting  an  object  or  purpose,  is  of  very  common  occurrence,  and 
hence  arises  its  signilication  of  "  in  respect  of ;"  e.  g.,  vidi  forum  comiti- 
umque  adornatum,  ad  speciem  magnifico  ornatu,  ad  sensum  cogitationemque 
acerbo  et  lugubri ;  or  J acinus  ad  me?noriam  poster itatis  insigne  ;  homo  ad  labor es 
belli  impiger,  ad  usum  et  disciplinam  peritus  ;  ad  consilia  prudens,  &c.  But 
this  preposition  is  used  also  in  figurative  relations  to  express  a  model, 
standard,  and  object  of  comparison,  where  we  say  "according  to,"  or  "in 
comparison  with  ;"  as,  ad  modum,  ad  effigiem,  ad  similitudinem,  ad  speciem 
alicujus  rei,  ad  nor  mam  t  ad  exemplum,  ad  arbitrium  et  nutum,  ad  voluntatem 
alicujus  facerc  aliquid  ;  persuadent  mathematici,  terram  ad  universum  coeli  com- 
plexum  quasi  puncti  instar  obtinere.  Particular  phrases  are,  ad  verbum,  word 
for  word  ;  nihil  ad  hanc  rem,  ad  hunc  hominem,  nothing  in  comparison  with 
this  thing  or  this  man. 

[§  297.]  Apud,  "  with,"  both  in  its  proper  and  figurative  sense  ;  e.  g., 
with  me  the  opinion  of  the  multitude  has  no  weight,  apud  me  nihil  valet 
hominwn  opinio.  Jn  connexion  with  names  of  places  it  signifies  "near," 
like  ad  ;  e.  g.,  Epaminondas  Lacedaemonios  vicit  apud  Mantineam  ;  male  pug- 
natum  est  apud  Caudium,  apud  Anienem  (the  name  of  a  river).  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  early  writers  sometimes  (see  my  note  on 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  22),  and  Tacitus  and  later  authors  frequently,  use  apud 
for  in,  and  not  merely  for  ad  ;  as,  Augustus  apud  urbem  Nolam  extinctus  est ; 
statua  apud  theatrum  Pompeii  locatur  •  apud  Syriam  morbo  absumptus  est  •  apud 
scnatum  dixit,  and  in  many  other  passages,  in  which  the  context  leaves 
no  doubt.  In  apud  praetorcm  and  apud  judices  the  preposition  must  like- 
wise be  taken  to  denote  the  place  of  the  judicial  transactions  ;  we  use  in 
this  case  "  before,"  which,  however,  cannot  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  ante. 

Apud  is  used,  also,  with  the  names  of  authors,  instead  of  in  with  the 
name  of  their  works  ;  as,  apud  Xenophontem,  apud  Terentium,  apud  Cice- 
ronem  legitur,  &c.,  but  not  in  Xenuphonte,  because  in  Latin  the  name  of  an 
author  is  not  used  for  that  of  his  works,  as  in  our  language. 

Ante,  "  before,"  denotes  also  a  preference  ;  as,  ante  omnia  hoc  mihi  maxima 
placet,  above  all  other  things  ;  hie  erat  gloria  militari  ante  omnes,  he  excelled 
all. 

[§  298.]  Cis  and  citra  are  commonly  used  in  reference  to  place ;  e.  g., 
cis  Taurum  montem,  and  are  the  contrary  of  trans  ;  citra  Rubiconein,  on  this 
side  of  the  Rubicon.  But  in  later,  though  good  prose  writers  (Quintilian, 
Pliny),  it  frequently  occurs  for  sine,  "  without."  as  in  citra  invidiam  nomi- 
nare ;  citra  musicen  grammatics  non  potest  esse  perfecta  nee  did  citra  scientiam 
musices  potest. 

Circum  is  the  more  ancient,  and  circa  the  later  form  ;  Cicero  uses  them 
both  in  the  sense  of  "  around"  (a  place) ;  and  circum,  with  the  strength- 
ened meaning,  "  all  around  ;"  e.  g.,  urbes  quae  circum  Capuam  sunt,  and 
urbes  circa  Capuam ;  homines  circum  and  circa  se  habere  ;  terra  circum  axem  se 
convertit ;  homo  praetore?n  circum  omnia  fora  sectatur.  The  phrases  circum 
amicos,  circum  vicinos,  circum  villas,  circum  insulas  mittere,  signify  to  send 
around  to  one's  friends,  &c.  Circa  is  used,  besides,  of  time  also,  in  the 
sense  of  sub  (but  not  by  Cicero) ;  Livy  and  Curtius,  e.  g.,  say,  circa  lucis 
ortum,  circa  eandem  horam,  circa  Idas.  Circa  in  the  sense  of  concerning, 
like  de,  erga,  and  adversus,  the  Greek  Kara,  occurs  only  in  the  silver  age 
of  the  language,  in  Quintilian,  Pliny,  and  Tacitus  ;  e.  g.,  varia  circum  haec 
opinio  •  circa  deos  et  religiones  negligentior  •  publica  circa  bonas  artes  socordia. 

Circiter  is  used,  it  is  true,  with  an  accusative,  as  in  circiter  meridiem, 
about  noon  ;  circiter  Calendas,  circiter  Idus  Martias,  circiter  octavam  horam, 
but  it  is  more  frequently  an  adverb. 

[§  299.]  Adversus  and  contra  originally  signify  "  opposite  to  j"  but  they 


PREPOSITIONS.  235 

express  also  the  direction  of  an  action  towards  an  object,  with  this  dif- 
ference, that  contra  always  denotes  hostility,  like  our  "against"  (while 
erga  denotes  a  friendly  disposition,  "towards"),  whereas  adversus  is  used 
in  either  sense.  Thus  Cicero  says,  praesidia  ilia,  quae  pro  templis  omnibus 
cernitis,  contra  vim  collocata  sunt ;  and  frequently  contra  naturam,  contra 
leges  •  but  meus  erga  te  amor,  paternus  animus,  benivolentia,  and  similar  ex- 
pressions. We  say  adversus  aliquem  impetum  facere  as  well  as  modestum, 
justum  esse,  and  reverentiam  adhibere  adversus  aliquem.  But  erga  also  occurs 
now  and  then  in  a  hostile  sense,  not,  indeed,  in  Cicero,  but  in  Nepos  and 
Tacitus  ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Datam.,  10,  odio  communi,  quod  erga  regem  susceperant. 

[$300.]  Extra,  "without,"  "outside  of,"  occurs  also  in  the  sense  of 
praeter,  excepting,  apart ;  as,  extra  jocum. 

Infra,  e.  g.,  infra  lunam  nihil  est  nisi  mortale  et  caducum.  It  also  implies 
a  low  estimation ;  as  in  infra  se  omnia  humana  ducere,  judicare,  or  infra  »e 
posita  ;  and  "below"  or  "under"  in  regard  to  measure  or  size  :  uri  sunt 
magnitudine  paulo  infra  elephantos. 

Inter  denotes  also  duration  of  time,  like  our  "  during ;"  as,  inter  tot 
annos,  inter  coenam,  inter  epulas.  With  regard  to  its  ordinary  signification 
"  among,"  we  must  observe  that  inter  se  is  our  "  one  another ;"  e.  g.,  amant 
inter  se  pueri,  obtrectant  inter  se,furtim  inter  se  aspiciebant,  where,  in  reality, 
another  pronoun  is  omitted. 

Intra,  "  within,"  to  both  questions  Where?  and  Whither?  intra  hostium 
praesidia  esse  and  venire  ;  nullam  intra  Oceanum  praedonum  navem  esse  audi- 
tis  ;  majores  nostri  A.ntiochum  intra  montem  Taurumregnare  jusserunt.  It  also 
denotes  time,  both  in  its  duration  and  a  period  which  has  not  come  to  its 
close,  e.  g.,  omnia  commemorabo  quae  intra  decem  annos  nefarie  facta  sunt,  du- 
ring the  last  ten  years  ;  intra  nonum  diem  opera  absoluta  sunt,  intra  decimum 
diem  urbem  cepit,  that  is,  before  nine  or  ten  days  had  elapsed. 

Juxta,  "  beside,"  e.  g.,juxta  murum,  juxta  urbem,  sometimes  also  "  next  to" 
in  rank  and  estimation,  as  in  Livy :  fides  humana  colitur  apud  eos  juxta  di- 
vinas  relision.es.  But  it  is  only  unclassical  authors  that  use  juxta  in  the 
sense  of  secundum,  or  according  to. 

Ob,*  "  on  account  of,"  implies  a  reason  or  occasion,  e.  g.,  ob  egregiam 
virtutem  donatus  •  ob  delictum  ;  ob  earn  rem,  for  this  reason;  quamobrem  or 
quamobcausam,  for  which  reason  ;  ob  hoc  ipsum,  for  this  very  reason.  In  the 
sense  of  ante,  its  use  is  more  limited,  as  in  ob  oculos  versari. 

Penes  rarely  occurs  as  a  preposition  of  place  in  the  sense  of  apud,  and 
is  more  commonly  used  as  denoting  in  the  possession  or  power  of;  e.  g., 
penes  regem  omnis  potestas  est ;  penes  me  arbitrium  est  hujus  rei. 

[$  301.]  Per,  denoting  place,  signifies  "  through,"  and  occurs  very  fre- 
quently ;  but  it  also  signifies  "in"  in  the  sense  of  "  throughout ;"  e.  g., 
Caesar  conjurationis  socios  in  vincidis  habendos  per  municipia  censuit,  that  is, 
in  all  the  municipia;  per  domos  hospitaliter  invitantur ;  milites  fuga  per  prox- 
imas  civitates  dissipati  sunt.  When  it  denotes  time,  it  signifies  during  :  per 
noctem  cernuntur  sidera ;  per  hosce  dies,  during  these  days ;  per  idem  tempus, 
during  the  same  time  ;  per  triennium,  per  secessionem  plebis,  during  the  se- 
cession of  the  plebs. 

Per,  with  the  accusative  of  persons,  is  "  through,"  "by  the  instrumental- 
ity of,"  e.  g.,  perte  salvus  sum.  Per,  in  many  cases,  expresses  the  manner 
in  which  a  thing  is  done  ;  as,  per  litteras,  by  letter;  per  injuriam,  per  scelus 
et  latrocinium,  per  potestatem  duferre,  eripere,  with  injustice,  criminally,  by 
authority  ;  per  ludum  ac  jocum  fortunis  omnibus  evertit,  by  play  and  joke  he 
drove  him  out  of  his  property  ;  per  iram,  from  or  in  anger ;  per  sirnulationem 

*  [The  Latin  ob  and  the  Greek  km  appear  to  have  had  one  and  the  same 
origin,  and  are  both  connected  with  the  Sanscrit  abhi  and  api.  In  Ennius, 
ob  is  a  preposition  signifying  merely  motion  to  a  place  ;  thus,  in  Festus, 
"  ob  Romam  noctu  legiones  ducere  coepit,"  and  so,  also,  in  the  fragment  of  the 
Telamon,  quoted  by  Cicero  (Tusc.  Disp.,  iii.,  18).  Compare  obeo,  "  to  go 
to,"  "  to  visit."  New  Cratylus,  p.  219.] — Am.  Ed. 


236  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

amicitiae  me  prodiderunt ;  per  specicm  honoris  or  auxilii  ferendi,  &c.,  per  cau- 
sam.  under  the  pretext ;  per  occasionem,  on  the  occasion  ;  per  ridiculum,  in 
a  ridiculous  manner.  In  many  cases  a  simple  ablative  might  be  used  in- 
stead of  per  with  the  accus.,  but  per  expresses,  in  reality,  only  an  accident- 
al mode  of  doing  a  thing,  and  not  the  real  means  or  instrument. 

Per,  in  the  sense  of  "on  account  of," occurs  only  in  a  few  phrases:  per 
aetatem,  on  account  of  his  age  ;  per  valetudinern,  on  account  of  illness  ;  per 
me  licet,  it  is  allowed,  as  far  as  I  am  concerned.  In  supplication  or  swear- 
ing it  is  the  English  "by  ;"  as,  jurare  per  aliquid,  aliquem  orare  per  aliquid  ; 
and  so,  also,  in  exclamations  :  per  deos  immortelles,  per  Jovcm,  &c. 

[§  302.]  Pone,  "behind,"  is  not  frequently  used  either  as  an  adverb  or  a 
preposition,  and  is  almost  obsolete.  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  says,  manus  pone  ter- 
gum  vinctae,  for  post  tcrgum. 

Praeter.  From  the  meaning  "  beside,"  or  "  along"  (implying  motion  or 
passing  by),  as  in  Cicero  :  IServi  praeter  oculos  Lolli  pocula  fcrebant,  there 
arises  the  signification  of  "excepting;"  e.  g.,  in  Livy :  In  hoc  legato  veslro 
nee  hominis  quidquam  est  praeter  figuram  et  speciem,  neque  Romani  civis  praeter 
habitum  et  sonum  Latinae  linguae ;  and  in  Cicero,  Amicum  tibi  ex  consularibus 
neminem  esse  video  praeter  Lucullum,  except,  or  besides  Lucullus.  It  also 
signifies  "  besides"  when  something  is  added  to  what  has  been  already 
said,  and  it  is  then  followed  by  etiam  ;  e.  g.,  praeter  auctoritatem  etiam  vires 
ad  cocrcendum  habet,  praeter  ingentem  populationem  agrorum — pugnatum  etiam 
fgregie  est,  and  may  often  be  translated  by."  independent  of,"  or  "not  to 
mention." 

Praeter  also  indicates  a  distinction,  as  in  praeter  ceteros,  praeter  alios,  prae- 
ter  omnes  exccllere  orfacere  aliquid. 

The  signilication  of  "against,"  or  "contrary  to,"  is  connected  with  that 
of  beside;  e.  g.,  praeter  consuetudinem,  praeter  Opinionem,expectationem,volun- 
tatem  alicujus  •  praeter  modum,  immoderately ;  praeter  naturam,  contrary  to 
nature. 

Propter,  for  prope,  near,  is  not  uncommon,  e.  g.,  propter  Sicilian,  insulae 
Vulcaniae  sunt ;  duo  filii  propter  patrcm  cubantes,  &c.  It  has  already  been 
remarked  (§  2G4)  that  it  is  a  contraction  of  propiter. 

But  it  most  frequently  signifies  "  on  account  of,"  implying  the  moving 
cause,  as  in  ego  te  propter  humanitatem  et  modestiam  luam  diligo.  It  is  more 
rarely  used  in  the  sense  of  per  with  persons,  as  in  propter  te  liber  sum,  prop- 
ter quos  vivit,  through  whose  aid  he  lives. 

[$  303.]  Secundum  is  derived  from  sequor,  secundus,  and  therefore  prop- 
erly signifies  "next, ""in  the  sequel,"  "in  succession;"  e.  g.,  secundum 
comitia,  immediately  after  the  comitia ;  Livy,  Hannibal  secundum  tarn  pros- 
peram  ad  Cannas  pugnam  victoris  magis  quam  bellwn  gerentis  curis  intentus  erat. 
Also  "  next  in  rank  ;"  as  in  Cicero,  secundum  deum  homines  hominibus  max- 
line,  utiles  csse  possunt ;  secundum  fratrem  tibi  plurimum  tribuo  ;  secundum  te 
nihil  est  mihi  amicius  solitudine  ;  Livy  says  that  the  Roman  dominion  was 
maximum  secundum  deorurn  opes  imperium.  The  signification  "  along"  is 
still  more  closely  connected  with  its  original  meaning,  as  in  secundum  mare 
iterfacc.re,  stcundum  flumen  paucae  stationes  equitum  videbantur. 

In  a  figurative  sense  secundum  is  the  opposite  of  contra:  consequently, 
1,  "in  accordance  with;"  as,  secundum  naturam  vivere,  secundum  arbitrium 
alicujus  facere  aliquid  ;  2,  "  in  favour  of,"  as  in  secundum  praesentem  judica- 
vit,  secundum  te  decrevit,  secundum  causam  nostram  disputavit.  So,  also,  in 
the  legal  expression  vindicias  secundum  libertatem  dare,  postulare,  for  a  per- 
son's liberty. 

Supra  is  the  opposite  of  infra,  and  is  used  to  both  questions,  Where  ? 
and  Whither?  In  English  it  is  "above,"  implying  both  space  and  meas- 
ure, e.  g.,  supra  vires,  supra  consuetudinem,  supra  numerum  ;  and  with  nu- 
merals, supra  duos  menses,  seniores  supra  sexaginta  annos.  It  is  more  rarely 
used  in  the  sense  of  praeter,  beside  ;  in  Livy,  supra  belli  Latini  metum  id 
quoque  accesserat ;  and  in  that  of  ante,  before,  as  in  Caesar,  paula  supra  hane 
memoriam  a  little  before  the  present  time. 


PREPOSITIONS.  237 

Versus  is  joined  also  (though  rarely)  to  the  prepositions  ad  or  in  :  ad 
Oceanum  versus  proficisci,  in  Italiam  versus  navigare. 

Ultra  not  unfrequently  occurs  as  denoting  measure  ;  e.  g.,  ultra  feminam 
mollis,  ultra  fortem  temerarius,  more  than  a  woman,  and  more  than  a  brave 
man  usually  is. 


2.  Prepositions  with  the  Ablat 


ve. 


[§  304.]  Ab  (this  is  the  original  form,  in  Greek  OTTO),  from,  in  regard  to 
both  place  and  time  (a  cujus  morte,  ab  illo  tempore  tricesimus  annus  est),  and 
also  to  denote  a  living  being  as  the  author  of  an  action,  as  in  amari,  diligi 
ab  aliquo,  discere  ab  aliquo,  and  with  neuter  verbs  which  have  the  meaning 
of  a  passive  ;  e.  g.,  interire  ab  aliquo,  which  is  the  same  as  occidi  ab  aliquo. 
The  following  particulars,  however,  must  be  observed  : 

(a)  With  regard  to  its  denoting  time,  we  say  a  prima  aetate,  ab  ineunte 
aetate,  a  primo  tempore  or  primis  temporibus  aetatis,  ab  initio  aetatis  and  ab  in- 
fantia,  a  pueritia,  ab  adolescentia,  as  well  as  in  connexion  with  concrete 
nouns  :  a  puero,  a  pueris,  ab  adolescentulo,  ab  infante,  all  of  which  expres- 
sions signify  "  from  an  early  age."  The  expressions  a  parvis,  a  parvulo, 
a  tenero,  a  teneris  unguiculis  are  less  common,  and  of  Greek  origin.  A  puero 
is  used  in  speaking  of  one  person,  and  a  pueris  in  speaking  of  several  ;  e. 
g.,  Diodorum  Stoicum  a  puero  audivi,  or  Socrates  docuit  fieri  nullo  modo  posse, 
ut  a  pueris  tot  rerum  insitas  in  animis  notiones  haberemus,  nisi  animus,  antequam 
corpus  intrasset,  in  rerum  cognitions  viguisset. 

Ab  initio  and  a  principio,  a  primo  properly  denote  the  space  of  time  from 
the  beginning  down  to  a  certain  point.  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  says,  urbem  Romam 
a  principio  reges  habuere,  that  is,  for  a  certain  period  after  its  foundation. 
Frequently,  however,  this  idea  disappears,  and  ab  initio,  &c.,  become  the 
same  as  initio,  in  the  beginning  ;  e.  g.,  Consult  non  animus  ab  initio,  non  fides 
adextremum  defuit,  he  was  neither  wanting  in  courage  at  first,  nor  in  faith- 
fulness at  the  last;  ab  initio  hujus  defensionis  dixi,  at  the  beginning  of  my 
defence. 

(6)  When  ab  denotes  place,  it  frequently  expresses  the  side  on  which  a 
thing  happens,  or,  rather,  whence  it  proceeds  ;  as,  afronte,  a  tergo,  ab  occasu 
et  ortu  (solis)  ;  Alexander  afronte  et  a  tergo  hostem  habebat  ;  Horatius  Codes  a 
tergo  pontem  interscindi  jubcbat  ;  Ccesar  a  dextro  cornu  proelium  commisit. 
Hence  a  reo  dicere,  to  speak  on  behalf  of  the  defendant,  and  with  the  verb 
stare  ;  as,  a  senatu  stare,  to  stand  on  the  side  of  the  senate,  or  to  be  of  the 
party  of  the  senate  ;  a  bonorum  causa  stare,  to  be  on  the  side  of  the  patriots, 
or  without  the  verb  stare,  in  the  same  sense  :  hoc  est  a  me,  this  is  for  me, 
in  my  favour,  supports  my  assertion  ;  haecfacitis  a  nobis  contra  vosmet  ipsos, 
to  our  advantage,  orfacere  in  an  intransitive  sense  :  hoc  nihilo  magis  ab  ad- 
versariis,  quam  a  nobis  facit,  this  is  no  less  advantageous  to  our  opponents 
than  to  ourselves.  So,  also,  the  adherents  or  followers  of  a  school  are 
called  a  Platone,  ab  Aristotele,  a  Critolao,  although  in  these  cases  we  may 
supply  profecti.  that  is,  persons  who  went  forth  from  such  a  school.  Some- 
times, though  chiefly  in  the  comic  writers,  ab  is  used  instead  of  a  genitive  : 
ancilla  ab  Andria,  fores  and  ostium  ab  aliquo  concrcpuit. 

[§  305.]  In  a  figurative  sense  it  signifies  "  with  regard  to  ;"  e.  g.,  Anto- 
nius  ab  equitatu  firmus  esse  dicebatur  ;  imparati  sumus  quum  a  milifibus,  turn  a 
pecunia  •  mediocriter  a  doctrina  instructus  ;  inops  ab  amicis  ;  felix  ab  omni 
laude  ;  Horace,  Nihil  est  ab  omni  parte  beatum.  In  the  sense  of  "  on  the 
side  of,"  it  also  denotes  relationship  ;  as  in  Augustus  a  matre  Magnum  Pom- 
peium  artissimo  contingebat  gradu,  on  his  mother's  side. 

Ab  denotes  that  which  is  to  be  removed,  and  thus  answers  to  our 
"  from,"  or  "  against  ;"  e.  g.,  forum  defendcre  a  Clodio,  custodire  templum  ab 
Hannibale,  munirevasa  a  f  rigor  c  et  tempestatibus,  that  is,  contra  frigus.  So, 
also,  tutus  a  periculo,  secure  from  danger,  and  timere  a  suis,  to  be  afraid  of 
one's  own.  friends. 

Statim,  confestim,rec,ens  ab  aliqua  re,  "  immediately  after,"  have  originally 
reference  to  place,  but  pass  from  their  meaning  of  place  into  that  of  time; 


238  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

e.  g.,  Scipio  confestim  aproelio — ad  naves  rediit,  immediately  after  the  battle 
Scipio  returned  to  the  fleet ;  hastes  a  prospera  pugna  castra  oppugnaverunt, 
Liv. ;  ab  itinerefacere  aliquid,  to  do  a  thing  while  on  a  journey. 

Ab,  further,  often  describes  a  circumstance  as  the  cause  of  a  thing,  and 
may  be  translated  by  "in  consequence  of,"  "from,"  or  "out  of;"  as  in 
Livy,  dicebantur  ab  eodem  animo  ingenioque,  a  quo  gesta  sunt,  in  consequence 
of  the  same  sentiment;  ab  eademfiducia  animi,  ab  ira,  a  spe.  Legati  Car- 
thaginienses  aliquanto  minore  cum  misericordia  ab  recenti  memoria  perfidiae 
auditi  sunt,  in  consequence  of  the  yet  fresh  recollection;  Curtius,  Alex- 
ander vates  quoque  adhibere  coepit  a  superstitione  animi,  from  superstitious 
prejudices. 

Ab,  used  to  denote  an  official  function,  is  quite  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin 
language  ;  e.  g.,  alicujus  or  alicui  esse  (scil.  servum  or  libertum)  a  pedibus,  to 
be  a  person's  lackey,  ab  epistolis  (secretary),  a  rationibus  (keeper  of  ac- 
counts), a  studiis,  a  voluptatibus . 

[<5>  306.]  Absque  is  found  only  in  the  comic  writers,  and  modern  Latinists 
should  not  introduce  such  antiquated  words  into  their  writings.  See 
Burmann  on  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  i.,  36 ;  Ruhnken,  Diet.  Terent.,  p.  228,  ed. 
Schopen.  There  is  only  one  passage  in  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  i.,  19,  nullam  a 
me  epistolam  ad  te  sino  absque  argumentopervcnire,  in  which  the  writer  seems 
to  have  intentionally  used  absque,  because  he  could  not  well  have  written 
the  proper  word  sine,  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  sino. 

[<J>  307.]  Cum,  "  with,"  not  only  expresses  "  in  the  company  of  persons," 
as,  cum  aliquo  esse,  cum  aliquo  ire,  venire,  proficisci,  facer  e  aliquid  (also  secum, 
that  is,  with  one's  self),  but  also  accompanying  circumstances  ;  as,  Verres 
JLampsacum  venit  cum  magna  calamitate  et  props  pernicie  civitatis  ;  hastes  cum 
detrimento  sunt  depulsi,  and  numerous  other  instances ;  also  equivalent  to 
our  "in,"  in  the  sense  of  "  dressed  in  ;"  as  in  hac  officina  Praetor  (Verres) 
major  em  par  (cm  diei  cum  tunica  pulla  seder  e  solebat  et  pallio.  When  combined 
•with  verbs  denoting  hostility,  cum,  like  our  "  with,"  has  the  meaning  of 
"  against ;"  cum  aliquo  helium  gerere,  to  be  at  war  with  somebody  ;  thus,  cum 
aliquo  queri,  to  complain  of  or  against  a  person. 

[^  308.]  De  is  most  commonly  "concerning,"  "about,"  or  "on,"  as  in 
multa  de  te  audivi,  liber  de  contemnenda  morte,  scil.  scnptus  ;  Regulus  de  cap- 
tivis  commutandis  Romam  missus  est.  Also  in  the  phrases  de  te  cogito,  I  think 
of  thee  ;  actum  est  de  me,  I  am  undone.  Consequently,  traditur  de  Homero 
is  something  very  different  from  traditur  ab  Homero ;  in  the  former  sen- 
tence Homer  is  the  object,  and  in  the  latter  the  subject.  In  the  episto- 
lary style,  when  a  new  subject  is  touched  upon,  de  is  used  in  the  sense 
of  quod  attinet  ad  aliquid  ;  as  in  Cicero,  de  fratre,  conjido  ita  esse,  ut  semper 
volui ;  de  me  autem,  suscipe  paulisper  meas  paries,  et  earn  te  esse  finge,  qui  sum 
ego  ;  de  rationibus  referendis,  non  erat  incommodum,  &c.  But  very  frequently 
it  has  the  signification  of  "  down  from,"  or  "  from  a  higher  point ;"  as, 
descendere  de  rostris,  de  coelo  ;  Verres  palam  de  sella  ac  tribunali  pronuntiat ; 
further,  it  denotes  the  origin  from  a  place  ;  as,  homo  de  schola,  declamator  de 
ludo,  nescio  qui  de  circo  maxima,  Cic.,  pro  Milan.,  24  ;  or  "  of,"  in  a  partitive 
sense  ;  as,  homo  de  plebe,  unus  de  populo,  unus  de  multis,  one  of  the  many  ; 
unus  de  septem,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men  ;  C.  Gracchum  de  superioribus 
paene  solum  lego ;  versus  de  Phoenissis,  verses  from  the  tragedy  of  the 
Phoenissae  ;  partem  de  istius  impudentia  reticebo,  and  in  the  phrases  de  meo, 
tuo,  suo,  &c.,  de  alieno,  de  publico. 

De  also  denotes  time,  which  arises  from  its  partitive  signification. 
Cicero  says,  Milo  in  comitium  de  nocte  venit,  that  is,  even  by  night,  or 
spending  a  part  of  the  night  in  coming  to  the  comitium  ;  vigilare  de  nocte, 
Alexander  de  die  inibat  convivia,  even  in  the  daytime  ;  hence  multa  de  nocte, 
media  de  nocte,  that  is,  "in  the  depth  of  night,"  "in  the  middle  of  the 
night,"  the  signification  of  the  point  of  beginning  being  lost  in  that  of  the 
time  in  general.  Fac,  si  me  amas,  ut  considerate  diligenterque  naviges  de 
mense  Decembri,  i.  e.,  take  care,  as  you  are  sailing  in  (a  part  of)  the  month 
of  December. 


PREPOSITIONS.  239 

In  other  cases,  also,  de  is  not  unfrequently  used  for  ab  or  ex;  thus,  Cice- 
ro says,  audivihoc  de  parents  meo  puer,  and  with  a  somewhat  far-fetched  dis- 
tinction between  what  is  accidental  and  what  is  intentional ;  in  Verr.,  hi., 
57,  I*?on  hoc  nunc  primwn  audit  privutus  de  inimico,  reus  ab  accusatore  •  effu- 
gere  de  manibus  ;  Dionysius  mensas  argenteas  de  omnibus  delubris  jussit  aiifor- 
ri ;  especially  in  connexion  with  emere,  mercari,  conducere  de  aliquo.  Glori- 
am,  victoriam  parere,  parare,  de  aliquo  or  ex  aliquo ;  triumphum  agere  de  Gallis, 
Allobrogibus,  Aetolis,  or  ex  Gallis,  &c.,  are  used  indiscriminately. 

In  some  combinations  de  has  the  signification  of  %<in  accordance  with," 
or  "after,"  like  secundum:  de  consilio  meo,  de  amicorum  sententia,  de  consilii 
sententia,  according  to  the  resolution  of  the  council ;  de  communi  sententia  ; 
de  more.  In  other  cases  de,  with  a  noun  following,  denotes  the  manner  or 
cause  of  an  action:  denuo^de  integro,  afresh;  de  improviso,  unexpectedly; 
de  industria,  purposely ;  de  facie  novi  aliquem,  I  know  a  person  by  his  ap- 
pearance. In  combination  with  res  and  causa :  qua  de  re,  qua  de  causa,  qui- 
bus  de  causis,  for  which  reasons. 

[§  309.]  Ex*  (for  this  is  the  original  form  ;  it  was  changed'into  e  when 
consonants  followed,  whence  a  certain  custom  was  easily  formed),  "  from," 
"  out  of,"  is  quite  common  to  denote  a  place,  as  an  answer  to  the  question 
whence?  and  in  some  peculiar  phrases,  such  as  ex  equo pugnare ;  ex  equis 
colloqui,  to  converse  while  riding  on  horseback  ;  ex  muro  passis  manibus  pa- 
cem  petere  ;  ex  arbor  e  pendere  ;  ex  loco  superior  e  dicere;  ex  itinere  scribere ;  con- 
spicari  aliquid  ex  propinquo,  e  longinquo  videre  aliquid,  ex  transverso  impetum 
facere;  ex  adverso,  and  e  regione  (not  ex),  opposite  ;  ex  omni  parte,  in  or  from 
all  parts.  Ex  aliquo  audire,  accipere,  cognoscere,  scire,  and  the  like,  to  hear 
from  a  person's  own  rnouth  ;  victoriam  reportare  ex  aliquo  populo,  where  ex  is 
the  same  as  de.  Ex  vino,  ex  aqua  coquere,  bibere,  where  we  say,  "  with 
wine,"  &c.,  are  common  medical  expressions. 

Ex,  when  a  particle  of  time,  denotes  the  point  from  which  ;  ex  illo  die, 
from  that  day  ;  ex  hoc  tempore,  ex  quo  (not  e),  since  ;  ex  consulatu,  ex  praetura, 
ex  dictatura,  after  the  consulship,  &c. ;  diem  ex  die  expectare,  to  wait  one 
day  after  another,  or  day  after  day. 

Ex,  "  from,"  denoting  cause  ;  as  in  ex  aliquo  or  aliqua  re  dolere,  laborare  ex 
pedibus,  e  renibus,  ex  oculis,  ex  capite  ;  perire  ex  vulneribus  ;  ex  quodam  rumore 
nos  te  hie  ad  mensem  Januarium  expectabamus  ;  ex  lassitudine  artius  dormire, 
after  a  fatigue,  or  on  account  of  fatigue  ;  quum  e  via  languerem,  from  or  af- 
ter the  journey;  ex  quo  vereor,  whence  I  fear,  and  still  more  frequently  ex 
quo,  whence,  or  for  which  reason.  Hence  it  has  also  the  signification  of 
"in  consequence  of,"  or  " in  accordance  with,"  and  that  in  a  great  many 
expressions  ;  such  as  ex  lege,  ex  decreto,  ex  testamento,  ex  Senatusconsulto, 
ex  Senatus  auctoritate,  ex  sententia  equivalent  to  de  sententia,  ex  consuetudine, 
e  more. 

With  this  we  must  connect  the  cases  in  which  ex  denotes  the  manner 
of  an  action  ;  as  in  ex  animo  laudare,  to  praise  heartily ;  ex  sententia  and  ex 
voluntate,  according  to  one's  wish  ;  e  natura  vivere,  in  accordance  with  na- 
ture ;  ex  improviso,  ex  inopinato,  ex  composite,  ex  praeparato,  ex  aequo,  &c. 

Ex  denoting  a  change  of  a  previous  state  :  e  servo  te  libertum  meumfeci ; 
nihil  est  tarn  miserabile  quam  ex  beato  miser  ;  repente  Verres  ex  homine  tamquam 
epoto  poculo  Circaeo  factus  est  verres. 

In  a  partitive  sense,  ex  denotes  the  whole  from  which  something  is  ta- 
ken, and  is  of  frequent  occurrence  :  thus,  unus  e  plebe,  unus  e  mult  is,  is  the 
same  as  unus  de  plebe  and  de  multis.  Connected  with  this  are  the  phrases 
aliquid  est  e  re  mea,  something  is  to  my  advantage ;  e  republica  (not  ex},  for 
the  good  of  the  state. 

*  [Various  conjectures  have  been  made  with  respect  to  the  origin  of 
this  little  word.  Pott  supposes  that  it  is  connected  with  the  Sanscrit 
vahis  (extra) ;  that  the  -his  is  represented  by  the  Greek  -£,  and  that  a  di- 
gamma  has  fallen  out  in  the  Greek  word.  (Etymol.  Forsch.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  183.) 
Hartung  looks  upon  the  Greek  t/c  as  a  subsidiary  form  of  OVK.  (Partik. 
ii.,  81/V-Am.  Ed, 


240  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  310.]  Prae,  "  before,"  signifies  place  only  in  combination  with  agere, 
ferre,  or  other  verbs  expressing  motion,  and  with  pronouns,  prae  me  fero, 
prae  se  fert,  prae  vobis  tulistis,  which  denote  the  open  display  of  a  thing  or 
of  a  sentiment. 

Prae  is  commonly  used  in  comparisons ;  as  in  Cicero,  prae  se  omnes  con- 
temnit :  ut  ipse  Consul  in  hac  causa  prae  me  minus  etiam  quam  privatus  esse 
videatur,  in  comparison  with  me  ;  Ro mam  prae  sua  Capita  irridebunt  •  omni- 
um minus  atque  omnia  pericula  prae  salute  sua  levia  duxerunt. 

It  is  frequently  used,  also,  in  the  sense  of  "  on  account  of,"  implying  an 
obstacle;  e.  g.,  sole/n  prae  sagittarurn  multitudine  non  vidcbitis ;  non  medius 
fidius  prae  lacrimis  possum  rcliqua  nee  cogitare  nee  scribere ;  non  possum  prae 
fletu  et.  dolore  diutius  in  hoc  loco  commorari,  and  so  always  with  a  negative 
particle,  which,  however,  is  sometimes  implied  in  the  negative  significa- 
tion of  the  verb  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  40,  quum  prae  indignitatererum  stupor  silen- 
tmrnque  ceteros  pa/rum  defixisset ;  xxxviii.,  33,  silentium  prae  metu  ceterorum 
fuit. 

[$  311.]  Pro,  in  regard  to  place  "  before,"  or  "  in  front  of  a  thing ;"  e.  g., 
pro  vallo,  pro  castris  aciem  instruere,  that  is,  in  the  front  of,  close  by,  or  un- 
der the  wall  ;  copias  pro  oppido  collocare ;  pro  templis  omnibus  praesidia  collo- 
cata  stint ;  hasta  posita  est  pro  aede  Jovis  Statoris  ;  Antonius  sedens  pro  aede 
Castoris  m  for  o.  It  also  signifies,  "at  the  extreme  point  of  a  thing,"  so 
that  the  person  spoken  of  is  in  or  upon  the  thing,  e.  g. ,  pro  suggestu  aliquid 
pronuntiare,  pro  tribunali  edicere,  pro  rostris  laudare.  Hence,  also,  pro  testi- 
monio  dicere,  to  declare  as  a  witness,  and  other  expressions  denoting  place, 
where  pro  is  the  same  as  in  ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  44,  stabant  pro  contione, 
the  same  as  m  contione ;  ibid,  ii.,  81,  pro  muris  vocans,  on  the  edge  of  the 
wall. 

The  signification  of  something  standing  "before"  a  thing  is  the  origin 
of  that  of  ''  for,"  both  in  the  sense  of  "  instead,"  and  that  of  protection : 
Unus  Cato  est  pro  centum  milibtts  ;  Marcelh statua  pro  patibulo  fuit ;  homo  jam 
pro  damnato  est ;  se  gerere  or  esse  pro  cive ;  habere  pro  hostibus,  pro  sociis  ;  ha- 
bcre.  pro  ci-rto  ;  aliquid  pro  mercede,  pro  praemio  est ;  aliquid  pro  nihilo  estimare, 
haberc,  putare  •  also  "for"  in  speaking  of  payment,  pro  vectura  solvere,  to 
pay  for  trcight ;  dixit  se  dimidium,  quod  pactus  esset,  pro  illo  carmine  daturum  • 
praemia  mihi  data  sunt  pro  hac  industria  maxima.  "  For,"  the  opposite  of 
"  against,"  hoc  pro  me  est,  or  valere  debet ;  Cicero  pro  Murena  orationem  habuit, 
and  in  numerous  other  instances. 

[^  312.]  Pro,  "in  accordance  with,"  or  "in  proportion  to,"  occurs  very 
frequently  ;  e.  g.,  civitatibus  pro  numero  militum  pecuniarum  summas  descri- 
bere,  according  to  the  number  of  soldiers  furnished  by  them ;  ego  vos  pro 
mea  sumrna  ct  vobis  cognita  in  rempublicam  diligentia  moneo,  pro  auctoritate  con- 
sulari  hortor,  pro  magnitudine  periculi  obtestor,  ut  pad  consulatis.  Hence,  in 
many  particular  phrases;  as,  pro  tempore  or  pro  temporibus,  in  accordance 
with  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  that  is,  pro  conditionc  t.emporum,  but  by 
no  means  "  for  the  time  being,"  or  "  for  a  time  ;"  pro  re  or  pro  re  nala,  ac- 
cording to  circumstances  or  emergencies  ;  pro  meo  jure,  according  to  my 
right ;  pro  eo  ut,  pro  en  «c,  according  as ;  e.  g.,  Di  gratiam  mihi  referent  pro  eo 
ac  mereor,  i.  e.,  pro  eo  quod,  quantum,  according  to  my  merits  ;  especially  to 
denote  divisions  or  share  ;  pro  partc,  or  pro  mea,  tua,  sua,  parte  for  my  part, 
as  far  as  lies  in  me ;  pro  virili  parte,  according  to  the  capacity  of  an  indi- 
vidual ;  as  in,  pro  virili  parte  rempuhlicam  defendere  ;  pro  portione,  in  propor- 
tion ;  pro  rata  portione,  or  pro  rata  parte,  in  a  correct  proportion.  In  the 
phrase  pro  se  quisque,  every  one  for  his  part,  the  three  words  have  almost 
grown  into  one  ;  P.  g.,  pro  se  quisque  aurum,  argentum  et  aes  in  publicum  con- 
ferunt,  every  one,  though  with  a  somewhat  strengthened  meaning,  "  every 
one  without  exception."  Quam  pro  after  comparatives  deserves  especial 
notice;  e.  g.,  major  quam  pro  numero  hominum  pugna  editur  •  sedes  excelsior 
quam  pro  habitu  corporis. 

[<j  313.]  Tenus  is  used  to  denote  limitation  ;  e.  g.,  Antiochus  Tauro  tenus 
regnare  jussus  est,  as  far  as  Mount  Taurus,  especially  in  the  combination 


PREPOSITIONS.  241 

of  verbo  and  nomine  tenus,  as  far  as  the  word  or  the  name  goes.  So,  also, 
ore  tenus  sapientia  exercitatus  in  Tacitus,  that  is,  that  he  could  speak  wisely, 
but  not  act  wisely.  It  is  only  in  poetry  that  this  preposition  is  connected 
with  a  genitive,  and  chiefly  with  a  genitive  plural ;  e.  g.,  labrorum  tenus,  up 
to  the  lip  ;  crurum  tenus,  lattrum  tenus  ;  but  in  Livy,  xxvi.,  24,  too,  we  find 
Corcyrae  tenus.  The  accusative  is  still  more  rare. 

3.  Prepositions  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative. 

[§  314.]  In  with  the  accusative  expresses  the  point  in  space  towards 
which  a  movement  is  directed,  like  our  "  to,"  or  "  into  :"  in  aedem  ire,  in 
publicum  prodire,  in  Graeciam  proficisci,  in  civitatem  recipere  •  also  the  direc- 
tion in  which  a  thing  extends,  e.  g.,  decem  pedes  in  latitudinem,  in  longi- 
tudinem,  in  altitudinem,  in  breadth,  length,  height ;  further,  independent  of 
locality,  it  denotes  the  object  towards  which  an  action  is  directed,  either 
with  a  friendly  or  hostile  intention  :  amor  in  patriam,  odium  in  malos  cives, 
in  ducts  vehemens,  in  milites  liberalis,  dicere  in  aliquem,  and  so,  also,  oratio  in 
aliquem,  a  speech  against  some  one. 

It  also  denotes  an  object  or  purpose  :  haec  commulari  ex  veris  in  falsa  non 
possunt ;  in  majus  celebrare,  for  something  greater,  so  that  it  becomes  some- 
thing greater  ;  is  imperator  in  poenam  exercitus  expetitus  esse  videtur  ;  pecunia 
data  est  in  retn  militarem  •  paucos  in  speciem  captivos  ducebant,  for  the  sake  of 
appearance;  in  contumeliam  perfugae  appellabantur,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
gracing them;  cum  in  earn  sententiam  multa  dixisset,  in  support  of  this 
opinion;  in  hanc  formulam,  in  has  leges,  in.  haec  verba,  &c.,  scnbere,foedus 
Jacere. 

[§  315.]  When  joined  with  words  denoting  time,  it  expresses  a  prede- 
termination of  that  time  like  the  English  "for;"  e.  g.,  invitare  aliquem  in 
posterum  diem,  for  the  following  day  ;  praedicere  in  multos  annos,  in  paucos 
dies,  in  multos  menses  subsidia  vitae  habere,  in  hodiernum  diem,  for  this  present 
day  ;  and  so  in  many  phrases  ;  as,  in  diem  vivere,  to  live  only  for  the  day  ; 
infuturum,  in  posterum,  in  reliqu-um,  for  the  future  ;  in  aeternum,  in  perpetuum, 
for  ever  :  in  praesens,  for  the  present ;  in  all  these  cases  the  word  tempus 
may  be  added.  Without  denoting  time,  in  is  used  also  with  the  accusa- 
tive of  other  words  to  express  the  future  ;  e.  g.,  Patres  in  incertum  comi- 
tiorum  eventum  auctores  fiunt,  give  their  sanction  to  the  yet  uncertain  reso- 
lutions of  the  comitia. 

When  joined  with  the  numeral  singuli,  or  when  this  word  is  to  be  un- 
derstood, in  expresses  a  distribution,  like  the  English  "  on,"  "  for,"  or 
"  over  ;"  e.  g.,  in  singular  civitates  binos  censores  describere  ;  queritur  Sicilia 
tota,  Verrem  ab  araloribus  pro  frumento  in  modios  singulos  duodenos  sestertios 
exegisse  ;  so,  also,  pretium  in  capita  statuere  ;  i.  e.,  in  singula  capita;  ternis 
nummis  in  pedem  tecum  trausegit,  i.  e.,  in  singulos  pedes.  We  must  here  no- 
tice also  the  expression  in  singulos  dies,  or  in  dies  alone,  "  from  day  to  day," 
with  comparatives  and  verbs  containing  the  idea  of  a  comparative,  such  as 
creficere,  augere. 

It,  lastly,  denotes,  in  some  phrases,  the  manner  of  an  action  ;  servilem, 
hostilem,  miser andum  in  modum  ;  mirum,  mirabilem,  mirandum  in  modum  •  in 
imiversum,  in  general ;  in  commune,  in  common ;  in  vice?n,  alternately,  or 
instead  of ;  in  Bruti  locum  consulatum  petere,  in  the  place  or  instead  of. 

[§  316.]  In  with  the  ablative,  when  it  denotes  place,  most  commonly 
expresses  "  being  in  a  place  or  in  a  thing,"  while  with  the  accusative  it 
indicates  a  movement  or  direction  towards  it.  It  may  sometimes  be 
translated  by  "on,"  or  "upon,"  but  always  answers  to  the  question 
Where  ?  e.  g.,  coronam  in  collo  habere  ;  aliquid  in  humcris  ferre  ;  in  ripa  flu- 
minis  ;  in  litore  maris  urbs  condita  est ;  pons  influmine  est.  When  a  number 
or  quantity  is  indicated  it  answers  to  "  among ;"  e.  g.,  esse,  haberi,  poni, 
numerari  in  bonis  civibus  ;  in  magnis  viris,  in  medwcribus  oratoribus,  in  septem 
vagantibus,  among  the  seven  planets,  so  that  in  is  equal  to  inter.  A  par- 
ticular phrase  is  aliquid  in  mambus  est,  a  thing  is  in  hand,  or  has  been 
commenced  ;  as  in  Livy,  haec  contentio  rninime  idoneo  tempore,  quum  tantum 
A. 


242  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

belli  in  manibus  esset,  occuparat  cogitationes  hominum.  In  manibus  habere,  to 
be  engaged  upon  a  thing  ;  as  in  Cicero,  Quam  spem  nunc  habeat  in  manibus 
et  quid  moliatur,  breviter  jam  exponam.  Aliquid  in  oculis  est,  a  thing  is  ob- 
vious. 

Now  and  then  we  find,  in  good  authors,  in  with  the  accusative,  where 
the  grammatical  rule  requires  the  ablative.  See  the  commentators  on 
Livy,  ii.,  14  ;  but  this  is  limited  to  a  very  few  political  and  legal  expres- 
sions, such  as  in  potestatem,  in  amicitiam  dicionemque  esse,  manere  (Cic., 
Divin.  in  Q.  Caecil.,  20  ;  in  Verr.,  \.,  38),  in  vadimonium,  in  moram  esse,  and 
even  these  cases  must  be  considered  only  as  exceptions.  In  the  comic 
writers,  however,  we  not  unfrequently  find  mihi  in  mentem  est.  See  Bent- 
ley  on  Terent,  Heaut.,  v.,  2,  33. 

[<$>  317.]  The  general  signification  of  in  with  the  ablative  is  "  in,"  or 
"  with,"  and  without  reference  to  locality  it  denotes  a  coincidence  of  cer- 
tain circumstances  and  attributes  ;  e.  g.,  in  hoc  homine,  in  hoc  re,  hoc  ad- 
miror,  hoc  laudo,  hoc  displicet,  in  this  man  ;  a  phrase  of  this  kind  is  quantum 
in  eo  or  in  me,  te,  &,c.,fuit,  as  much  as  was  in  my  power.  In  the  following 
sentences  it  is  our  "with,"  or  "notwithstanding:"  in  summa  copia  orato- 
rinn,  nemo  tamen  Ciceronis  laudem  aequavit  ;  in  summis  tuts  occupationibus, 
with  all  thy  very  important  engagements  ;  alter,  uti  dixit  Isocrates  in 
Ephoro  et  Theopompo,  frenis  egit,  alter  calcaribus,  as  Isocrates  said  when 
speaking  of  Ephorus  and  Theopompus. 

[§  318.]  When  real  expressions  of  time,  such  as  saeculum,  annus,  mensis, 
dies,  nox,  vesper,  are  employed,  the  simple  ablative  denotes  the  time  at 
which  (see  $  475)  ;  but  in  is  used  with  substantives,  which  by  themselves 
do  not  denote  time,  but  acquire  that  meaning  by  being  connected  with 
in  ;  as,  in  consulatu,  in  praetura,  in  meo  reditu,  in  primo  conspectu,  in  principio, 
in  bello,  although  in  these  cases,  too,  the  simple  ablative  is  sometimes  used  ; 
but  in  appears  more  especially  in  connexion  with  a  gerund  ;  as,  in  legendo 
and  in  legendis  libris,  in  urbe  oppugnanda,  in  itinerc  faciendo,  all  these  ex- 
pressions in  the  first  instance  denoting  time,  but  passing  into  kindred 
meanings.  In  praesenti  or  praesentia  signifies  "  at  the  present  moment," 
or  "  for  the  present."  The  phrase,  est  in  eo,  ut  aliquidjiat,  signifies  some- 
thing is  on  the  point  of  happening. 

[$319.]  Sub,*  e.  g.,  Rornani  sub  jugum  missi  sunt  ;  se  conjicere  sub  scalas, 
to  throw  one's  self  under  the  stairs  ;  alicui  scamnum  sub  pedem.  dare,  and 
figuratively,  sub  imperium  tuum  redeo,  and  so,  also,  aiiquid  cadit  sub  aspectum, 
"  a  thing  falls  within  the  horizon,"  as  well  as  cadit  sub  judidum  et  delectum 
sapientis,  sub  intelligentiam,  it  belongs  to  the  philosopher,  is  left  to  him. 
When  it  denotes  time,  it  signifies,  1,  "about,"  that  is,  shortly  before  ;  as, 
sub  ortum  solis,  shortly  before  sunrise  ;  sub  noctem,  sub  vesperam  ;  2,  more 
rarely,  "  immediately  after  ;"  e.  g.,  sub  eas  litteras  statim  recitatae  sunt  tuae, 
Cic.,  ad  Fain.,  x.,  16;  statim  sub  mentionem,  Coelius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  viii., 
4  ;  Africa  bello,  quod  fuit  sub  recentem  Romanam  pacem,  Liv.,  xxi.,  11  ;  arid 
sub  haec  dicta,  sub  hanc  vocem,  are  used  by  the  same  writer.  The  phrase 
sub  idem  tempus  contains  only  an  approximate  definition  of  time,  and  signi- 
fies "  about  the  same  time." 

Sub,  with  the  ablative,  is  always  "  under;"  first,  with  regard  to  things 
that  strike  our  senses  ;  and,  secondly,  to  denote  inferiority>in  rank  :  sub 
divo,  or  sub  dio,  under  the  sky,  in  the  open  air;  sub  oculis,  under,  i.e.,  before 
our  eyes  ;  sub  regibus  esse,  sub  imperio,  sub  hoc  sacramento  militari,  sub  magis- 
tro  esse  :  it  rarely  denotes  a  condition,  and  only  in  late  writers  ;  e.  g.,  sub 
lege,  sub  poena.  Sub  specie,  "  under  the  appearance,"  and  sub  obtentu,  "  un- 
der the  pretext,"  are  little  used.  Sometimes  sub  is  found  with  the  abla- 
tive to  denote  time,  but  only  where  contemporaneity  is  to  be  indicated  ; 
e.  g.,  Ovid.,  Fast.,  v.,  491,  Haec  tria  sunt  sub  eodem  tempore  festa  ;  Caes., 
Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  27,  ne  sub  ipsa  profectione  milites  oppidum  irrumperent  ;  and  in 


V-TTO  are  manifestly  related  to  each  other,  and  to  the  San* 
scrit  u-par.     So,  again,  su-per,  v-trep,  and  u-piri.]—  Am.  Ed. 


PREPOSITIONS.  243 

like  manner  we  may  say  sub  adventu,  e.  g.,  Romanorum,  while  they  were 
arriving.  Compare  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  ii.,  55  ;  who,  however,  gives  to 
this  sub  too  great  an  extent. 

[<J  320.]  Super  has,  in  prose,  the  ablative  only  when  used  in  the  sense 
of  de,  "  concerning,"  or  "  in  respect  of ;"  as  in  super  aliqua  re  ad  aliquem 
scnbere,  but  chiefly  in  writers  of  the  silver  age  of  the  language. 

With  the  accusative  it  signifies  "  over,"  "  above,"  and  answers  to  both 
questions  Whither '?  and  Where  ?  super  aliquem  sedere,  accumbere,  situs  est 
Aeneas  super  Numicium  flumen,  Aeneas  was  buried  above  the  river  ;  that  is, 
on  its  banks,  but  on  an  eminence  of  the  bank.  The  phrase  super  coenam 
signifies  "during  dinner."  With  numerals  it  is  "above,"  or  "more  than  ;" 
e.  g.,  Annulorum  tantus  ace rvus  fait,  ut  metient ibus  dimidium  super  trts  modios 
explesse  sint  quidam  auctores,  one  half  more  than  three  modii,  or  three  rnodii 
and  a  half;  and  in  other  expressions;  as,  res  super  vota  flaunt ',  more  than 
was  wished.  In  these  two  significations  of  ''  above"  (in  its  sense  of  place 
as  well  as  that  of  "  more  than"),  super  is  the  same  as  supra  ;  but  it  is  used 
more  frequently  than  the  latter  in  the  sense  of"  besides,"  or  "in  addition 
to:"  super  helium  annona premil ;  super  morbum  etiam  fames  affecit  exercitum, 
super  cetera;  so,  also,  in  the  phrase  alius  super  alium,  one  after  the  other. 

Kubter  is  rarely  used  with  the  ablative,  and  only  in  poetry ;  Cicero  uses 
the  accusative  in  the  expression  Plato  iram  in  pectore,  cupiditatem  subfer 
praecnrdia  locavit.  Otherwise  it  frequently  occurs  as  an  adverb,  in  the 
sense  of  our  "  below."' 

[§321.]  2.  The  adverbs  clam?  palam,  simul,  and  pro- 
cul  are  sometimes  connected  by  poets  and  late  prose 
writers  with  an  ablative,  and  must  then  be  regarded  as 
prepositions :  clam  and  its  diminutive  clanculum,  "  with- 
out a  person's  knowledge  ;"  e.  g.,  clam  uxore  mea  etfilio, 
are  frequently  found  as  prepositions  in  the  comic  writers, 
but  are  joined  also  with  the  accusative :  palam  is  the  op- 
posite of  clam,  and  the  same  as  coram  ;  e.  g.,  palam  pop- 
ulo,  in  the  presence  of  the  people ;  simul  is  used  by 
poets,  without  the  preposition  cum,  in  the  sense  of  "with;" 
e.  g.,  Sil.  Ital.,  v.,  418,  avulsa  est  protinus  hosti  ore  simul 
cervix,  the  neck  together  with  the  face  :  Horace  uses 
simul  his,  together  with  these,  and  Tacitus  frequently  ; 
e.  g.,  AnnaL,  iii.,  64,  Septemviris  simul ;  procul,  with  the 
omission  of  ab,  is  frequent  in  Livy  and  Tacitus,  and  sig- 
nifies, "  far  from ;"  e.  g.,  procul  urbe,  mari,  voluptatibus, 
and  in  the  phrase  procul  dubio  or  dubio  procul,  instead  of 
sine  dubio. 

[§  322.]  Respecting  usque  as  an  adverb,  see  above,  § 
286.  It  is  commonly  accompanied  by  a  preposition  ab 

*  ["  Clam  and  palam  are  locatives  of  the  same  nature  as  partim.  The 
former,  which  was  also  written  calim  (Fest.,  p.  47),  contains  the  root  of 
celo,  KAeTrrw,  KahvKTu,  &c.  Palam  is  the  same  case  of  an  adjective,  con- 
nected with  palatum,  irvhr],  &c.  That  it  is  a  noun,  appears  farther  from 
the  fact,  that  it  is  used  also  with  the  preposition  in  (in  palam,  i.  e.,  aperte 
Gloss.  Isid.),  like  in-cassum.  (Compare pro-palam.)  The  same  is  the  case 
with  coram  =  co'oram  (/car'  ofi/aa},  with  which  we  may  compare  coi'minus 
e'minus  (£K  XeiP°£\ — (Donaldson's  Varronianus,  p.  243).] — Am.  Ed. 


244  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

and  ex,  or  ad,  in  and  sub,  and  expresses  the  idea  of  con- 
tinuity from  one  point  to  another  ;  e.  g.,  vetus  opinio  est, 
usque  ab  heroicis  ducta  temporibus  ;  usque,  ex  ultima  Syria 
atquc  Aegypto  navigare;  similis  plausus  me  usque  ad  Capi- 
tolium  celebravit  ;  usque  in  PampJiyliam  legates  mittcre  ; 
usque  sub  cxtremum  brumae  imbrem,  where  usque  is  our 
"  until."  It  is  only  in  poetry  and  late  prose  writers,  that 
usque  alone  is  used  for  usque  ad;  e.  g.,  Curtius,  viii.,  31, 
says  of  the  Indians,  corpora  usque  pedes  ca?'baso  vclant. 
This  is  independent  of  the  names  of  towns,  where  the 
prepositions  ad  and  ab  are  generally  omitted. 

[§  323.]  3.  But  many  of  the  above-mentioned  prepo- 
sitions are  used  as  adverbs,  that  is,  without  a  noun  de- 
pending on  them.  This  is  chiefly  the  case  with  those 
which  denote  place  :  ante  and  y>ost,  adversum  and  exad- 
versum  (opposite),  circa  (around),  circumcirca  (all  around), 
contra  (opposite),  coram  (in  the  presence  of),  extra,  infra, 
juxta,prope  andp?-oj>tcr  (near),^o%e  (behind),  supra,  ultra, 
super  and  subter.  Circitcr,  also,  and  sometimes  ad  (§  296), 
are  used  in  the  adverbial  sense  of  "  about,"  or  "  nearly," 
with  numbers,  which  are  indefinitely  stated.  Contra,  when 
used  without  a  case  and  for  the  purpose  of  connecting 
sentences,  is  a  conjunction,  like  our  "but,"  or  "however." 

Note.  —  Instead  of  ante  and  post  as  adverbs,  we  have,  also,  the  special 
forms  anted  and  posted  (consequently  the  conjunctions  antedquam,  posted- 
quam)  :  see  $  276.  Ante,  however,  is  preferred  as  an  adverb  in  combination 
with  participles  ;  e.  g.,  ante  dicta,  vita  ante  acta;  and  post  is  frequently  used 
to  connect  sentences. 

Contra,  as  an  adverb,  occurs  in  the  phrase  of  Plautus,  auro  contra,  or 
contra  auro;  that  is,  gold  being  placed  on  the  other  side;  so  that  at/roisnot 
a  dative,  but  an  ablative  ;  for  which  other  authors,  however,  use  the  prep- 
osition contra  aurum,  for  gold,  when  a  price  is  indicated. 

Juxta,  as  an  adverb,  commonly  signifies  "  equally,"  or  "in  like  manner," 
and  is  the  same  as  aeque  ;  e.  g.,  in  Livy,  aliaque  castella  (dedita  sunt)  juxta 
ignobilia  ;  Sallust,  eorum  ego  vitam  mortemque  juxta  aestimo,  1  deem  of  equal 
importance  ;  margaritae  afeminis  juxta  virisque  gestantur,  by  women  as  well 
as  by  men.  It  is  frequently  followed  by  ac  or  atque,  in  the  sense  of  "  as." 

Praeter  is  used  as  an  adverb  for  praeterquam  ;  that  is,  not  with  the  accu- 
sative, but  with  the  case  required  by  the  verb  preceding,  as  in  Sallust  : 
ceterae  multitudini  diem  statuit,  ante  quam  sine  fraude  (without  punishment) 
liceret  ab  armis  discedere,  praeter  rerum  capitalium  coridemnatis.  We  thus 


might  say,  hoc  nemini,  praeter  tibi,  videtur  ;  but  it  is  better  to  say  praeter  te, 
Or    raeteruam    nzsz    tibi. 


cap 
;  b 

praeterquam  (nzsz)  tibi. 
Prope  and  propter  are  very  frequently  used  as  adverbs  ;  prope,  however, 
is  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  preposition  ab,  as  in  tam  prope  a  Sicilia 
bellum  gestum  est,  so  near  Sicily  ;  prope  a  meis  aedibus  sedebas,  near  my  house. 
Ultra,  as  an  adverb,  and  accompanied  by  a  negative  particle,  signifies 
"no  longer,"  hand  ultra  pati  possum  ;  bellum  Latinum  non  ultra  dilatum  est. 
When  it  denotes  place  or  measure  it  signifies  "  farther,"  or  "  beyond." 

[§  324-]    4.    It  was  remarked  above  that  the  prepo- 


PREPOSITIONS.  245 

sitions  versus  and  tenus  are  placed  after  their  case.  Some 
other  prepositions,  also,  may  take  the  same  place,  but  not 
indiscriminately.  Thus,  the  four  prepositions  ante,  contra, 
inter,  and  propter  are  sometimes  placed  after  the  relative 
pronoun  (occasionally  after  the  demonstrative  hie  also) ; 
e.  g.,  diem  statuunt,  quam  ante  ab  armis  discederet,  quern 
contra  venit,  quos  inter,  quern  propter :  other  prepositions 
of  two  or  more  syllables;  as, circa, circum, penes,  ultra,  and 
adversus,  are  more  rarely  used  in.  this  way ;  the  monosyl- 
labic prepositions  post,  per,  ad,  and  de  are  thus  used  only 
in  isolated  cases  or  phrases,  and  de  scarcely  in  any  other 
than  legal  formulae  ;  e.  g.,  quo  de  agitur,  res  qua  de  judi- 
catum  est.  Farther,  those  same  four  dissyllabic  prepo- 
sitions, ante,  contra,  inter,  and  propter,  together  with  the 
monosyllabic  ob,  post,  de,  ex  and  in,  when  they  govern  a 
substantive  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  pronoun,  are 
frequently  placed  between  the  adjective  and  substantive  ; 
e.  g.,  medios  inter  hostes,  certis  de  causis,  magna  ex  parte, 
aliquot  post  menses,  and  still  more  frequently  between  the 
relative  pronoun  and  the  substantive  ;  e.  g.,  quod  propter 
studium,  qua  in  re,  quam  ob  rem,  quam  ob  causam.  Per, 
ab,  and  ad  are  but  rarely  placed  in  this  way.  The  prep- 
osition cum  is  always  placed  after,  or,  rather,  appended 
to  the  ablative  of  the  personal  pronouns  me,  te,  se,  nobis 
and  vobis.  The  same  is  commonly  the  case  with  the  ab- 
latives of  the  relative  pronoun,  quo,  qua,  and  quibus,  but 
we  may  also  say  cum  quo,  cum  qua,  and  cum  quibus. 
This  preposition  also  prefers  the  middle  place  between  the 
adjective  or  pronoun  and  the  substantive.  (See  §  472.) 
What  has  been  said  here  applies  to  ordinary  prose  ;  and 
the  practice  of  those  prose  writers  who  place  the  above- 
mentioned  prepositions  and  others  even  after  substantives 
must  be  regarded  as  a  peculiarity.  In  Tacitus,  for  ex- 
ample, we  often  find  such  arrangements  as,  Misenum 
apud,  viam  propter,  Scythas  inter,  Euphratem  ultra,  cu- 
biculum  Caesaris  juxta,  litora  Calabriae  contra,  ripam  ad 
Araxis,  verbera  inter  ac  contumelias,  and  the  like.  The 
place  of  coram  after  its  noun  seems,  comparatively  speak- 
ing, to  be  established  by  better  authority  than  that  of  any 
other.  Poets  go  still  farther,  and  separate  a  preposition 
entirely  from  the  case  belonging  to  it ;  e.  g.,  in  Horace, 
Serm.,  i ,  3,  70,  Amicus  dulcis  cum  mea  compensct  vitiis 
bona. 

X2 

/  0 


246  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  LXVI. 

PREPOSITIONS   IN   COMPOSITION. 

[§  325.]  THE  majority  of  the  prepositions  are  used  also 
to  form  compound  words,  especially  verbs,  modifying, 
naturally,  by  their  own  meaning  that  of  the  words  to 
which  they  are  joined.  The  prepositions  themselves 
often  undergo  a  change  in  their  pronunciation  and  or- 
thography, on  account  of  the  initial  letter  of  the  verb  to 
which  they  are  prefixed.  But  the  opinions  of  ancient  as 
well  as  modern  grammarians  differ  on  no  point  so  much 
as  upon  the  detail  of  these  changes,  some  taking  into  ac- 
count the  facility  of  pronunciation,  and  assimilating  the 
concurrent  letters  of  the  prepositions  and  the  simple  verb 
accordingly,  others  preferring  to  leave  the  prepositions 
unchanged,  at  least  in  writing,  because  the  former  method 
admits  of  much  that  is  arbitrary.  Even  in  old  MSS.  and 
in  the  inscribed  monuments  of  antiquity  the  greatest  in- 
consistency prevails,  and  we  find,  e.  g.,  existere  along  with 
exsistere,  colic ga  along  with  conlcga,  and  imperium  along 
with  inperium,  in  the  same  book.  In  the  following  re- 
marks, therefore,  as  we  must  have  something  certain  and 
lasting,  we  can  decide  only  according  to  prevalent  usage, 
but  there  are  some  points  which  we  must  determine  for 
ourselves  as  well  as  we  can. 

Ad  remains  unchanged  before  vowels,  and  before  the 
consonants  d,  j,  v,  m  ;  before  other  consonants  it  under- 
goes an  assimilation,  that  is,  the  d  is  changed  into  the  let- 
ter which  follows  it,  and  before  qu  into  the  kindred  c,  as 
in  dcquifo,  acquiesco.  Before  gn  the  d  is  dropped,  as  in 
agnatus,  agnosco.  But  grammarians  are  not  agreed  as  to 
whether  the  d  is  to  be  retained  before  /,  n,  r,  s,  and  still 
less  as  to  whether  it  may  stand  beforeyi  Even  the  most 
ancient  MSS.  are  not  consistent,  and  we  find  in  them,  e.  g., 
adloquor,  adfecto,  adspiro,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  allicio, 
affligo,  assuetuS)  aspectus,  asccndo.  Our  own  opinion  is  in 
favour  of  the  assimilation,  and  we  make  an  exception  only 
in  the  case  of  adscribo,  on  account  of  the  agreement  of 
the  MSS.  on  this  point.  The  signification  of  ad  remains 
the  same  as  usual,  as  in  adjungo,  assumo,  affero,  appono, 
alloquor.  In  approbo  and  afflr?no  it  either  expresses  a  di- 


PREPOSITIONS.  247 

rection  towards,  or  merely  strengthens  the  meaning  of  the 
simple  verb. 

Ante  remains  unchanged  ;  in  anticipare  and  antislare 
alone  the  e  is  changed  into  i,  though  antesto  also  is  ap- 
proved of.  Its  meaning  is  "before,"  as  in  antcpono,  an- 
tefero. 

Circum  remains  unchanged,  and  retains,  in  writing,  its 
m'  even  before  vowels,  although  in  pronunciation  (but 
without  the  elision  of  the  vowel  preceding)  it  was  lost. 
Only  in  circumeo  and  its  derivatives  the  m  is  often  drop- 
ped; as,  circueo.  Its  meaning  is  "around,"  "about,"  as  in 
circumago,  circumdo,  circumfero. 

Inter  remains  unchanged,  except  in  the  word  intelligo. 
Its  meaning  is  "  between"  or  "  among,"  as  in  interpono. 

Ob  remains  generally  unchanged,  and  undergoes  the 
assimilation  only  before  c,jf,  g,  and  p.  In  obsolesco,  from 
the  simple  verb  olco,  and  in  ostendo,  from  tendo,  we  must 
recognise  an  ancient  form  obs,  like  abs  for  ab.  Its  mean- 
ing of  "  against"  or  "  before"  appears  in  oppono,  offero^ 
occurro,  oggannio. 

[§  326.]  Per  remains  unchanged  even  before  /,  though 
some  think  otherwise  ;  in  petticio,  however,  it  is  universal- 
ly assimilated.  The  r  is  dropped  only  in  the  word  pejero, 
I  commit  a  perjurium.  Its  meaning  is  "  through,"  as  in 
perlego,  perluceo,  perago.  When  added  to  adjectives  it 
strengthens  their  meaning  (§  107),  but  in  perfidus  and 
perjurus  it  has  the  power  of  a  negative  particle. 

Post  remains  unchanged,  except  in  pomoerium  and  po- 
meridianuSi  in  which  st  is  dropped ;  its  meaning  is  "after,'1 
as  in  postpone. 

Praeter  remains  unchanged,  and  signifies  "passing by," 
as  in  praetcreo,  practermitto. 

Trans  remains  unchanged  before  vowels,  and  for  the 
most  part  also  before  consonants.  In  the  following  words 
the  ns  is  dropped:  trado,  trdduco,  trajicio,  trano,  which 
forms  are  more  frequent  than  transdo,  transduce,  transjicio, 
transno,  though  the  latter  are  not  to  be  rejected.  When 
the  verb  begins  with  s,  the  *  at  the  end  of  trans  is  better 
omitted,  and  we  should  write  transcribe,  transilio.  Its 
meaning,  "through,"  "over,"  or  "across,"  appears  in 
transeo,  trajicw,  and  transmitto,  I  cross  (a  river);  trado, 
surrender. 

[§  327.]  A,  ab,  abs,  viz. :  a  before  m  and  v  ;  ab  before 


248  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

vowels  and  most  consonants,  even  before  f,  though  afm 
exists  along  with  abfici ;  in  aufero  (to  distinguish  it  from 
affero)  and  aiifugio,  ab  is  changed  into  av  or  au ;  abs  oc- 
curs only  before  c  and  £,  but  appears  mutilated  in  asporto 
and  aspernor.  Its  meaning  is  "  from,"  or  "  away,"  as  in 
amitto,  avehor,  abeo,  abjicio,  abrado,  aufcro,  abscondo,  abs- 
tineo. 

JDe,  "down,"  or  "  away  from,"  as  in  dejicio,  desccndo,  de- 
traho,  detero,  rub  off;  despicior  look  down  upon,  despise. 
In  some  compounds,  especially  adjectives,  it  has  a  nega- 
tive power,  as  in  decolor,  deformis,  demens,  desipio,  de- 
spero  ;  in  deyjiiror,  dcccmo,  and  dejero,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
seems  to  strengthen  the  meaning. 

E  and  ex,  viz. :  ex  before  vowels,  and  before  consonants 
sometimes  e  and  sometimes  ex :  ex  before  c,  p,  q,  s,  t,  ex- 
cept in  escendo  and  epoto  ;  before  f  it  assimilates  to  it ;  e 
is  used  before  all  the  other  consonants,  except  in  exlex. 
We,  therefore,  should  write  exspecto,  exsilium,  exstinguo, 
mit  the  ancient  grammarians,  as  Quintilian  and  Priscian, 
are  for  throwing  out  the  s,  and  in  MSS.  we  usually  find 
extinguo,  cxtruxi,  exequor,  and  expccto,  exul,  exilium,  not- 
withstanding the  ambiguity  which  sometimes  may  arise. 
Its  meaning  "out  of,"  or  "from,"  appears  in  ejicio,  emineo, 
enato,  cripio,  ejfcro  (extuli),  excello,  expono,  exquiro,  ex- 
traho,  exaudio,  exigo,  exulcero,  &c.  The  idea  of  comple- 
tion is  implied  in  several  of  these  compounds,  as  in  ejfieio, 
enarro,  cxoro. 

[§  328.]  In  is  changed  into  im  before  b  and  p  and  an- 
other m,  and  it  is  assimilated  to  I  and  r.  Its  meaning  is 
"  in"  or  "  into,"  as  in  incur ro,  impono,  illido,  irrumpo. 
When  prefixed  to  adjectives  and  participles,  which  have 
the  signification  of  adjectives,  it  has  a  negative  power, 
and  does  not  appear  to  be  the  preposition  in,  but  equiva- 
lent to  and  identical  with  our  in  or  im;  e.  g.,  indoctus,  in- 
cautus,  ineptus  (from  aptus*),  insipiens,  improvidus,  impru- 
dens,  imparatus,  the  negative  of  paratus,  because  there  is 
no  verb  imparo.  Some  other  compounds  of  this  kind  have 
a  double  meaning,  since  they  may  be  either  negative  ad- 
jectives, or  participles  of  a  compound  verb;  e.^indictus, 
unsaid,  or  announced;  infractus,  unbroken, or  broken  into; 
invocatus,  uninvited,  or  accosted,  called  in.  The  partici- 
ple perf.  passive,  when  compounded  with  in,  often  ac- 
quires the  signification  of  impossibility ;  e.g.tinvictus,w&- 


PREPOSITIONS.  249 

conquered  and  unconquerable  ;  indefessus,  indefatigable  ; 
infinitus,  immeasurable. 

Prae  remains  unchanged,  but  is  shortened  when  a  vow- 
el follows.  (See  above,  §  15.)  Its  meaning  is  "before," 
as  in  praefero,  praccipio,praeripio.  When  prefixed  to  ad- 
jectives, it  strengthens  their  meaning.  (See  §  107.) 

Pro  remains  unchanged,  but  in  many  words  it  is  short- 
ened even  before  consonants.  (See  above,  §  22.)  For 
the  purpose  of  avoiding  hiatus,  a  d  is  inserted  in  prodeo, 
prodigo,  and  in  those  forms  of  the  verb  prosum  in  which 
the  initial  e  would  cause  hiatus  ;  as,  prodes,  prodest,  pro- 
deram.  (See  above,  §  156.)  Its  meaning,  "  forth,"  or 
"forward,"  appears  in  profero,  procurro,  prodeo,  projicio, 
prospicio. 

[§  329.]  Sub  remains  unchanged  before  vowels  (but 
sumo  seems  to  be  formed  from  subimo^  as  demo  and  promo 
are  formed  from  the  same  root),  but  undergoes  assimila- 
tion before  c,f,  g,  m,  p ;  not  always  before  r,  for  we  have 
surripio,  and  yet  subrideo,  where,  however,  the  difference 
in  meaning  is  to  be  taken  into  account.  In  suscipio,  sus- 
cito,  suspendo,  sustineo,  and  the  perfect  sustuli,  an  s  is  in- 
serted instead  of  the  &,  whence  an  ancient  form  subs  is 
supposed  to  have  existed  analogous  to  abs  and  obs.  The 
b  is  dropped  before  sp,  but  before  sc  and  st  it  is  retained. 
Its  meaning  is  "under,"  as  insummitto^suppono,  sustineo; 
or  "  from  under,"  as  in  subduco,  summoveo,  surripio  ;  an 
approach  from  below  is  expressed  in  subeo,  succedo,  sus- 
picio,  look  up  to,  esteem  ;  and  to  do  a  thing  instead  of 
another  person,  in  subsortior.  It  weakens  the  meaning  in 
such  verbs  as  subrideo,  subvereor,  and  in  adjectives,  such 
as  subabsurdus,  subtristis,  subrusticus,  subobscurus. 

Super,  "  above,"  as  in  superimpono,  supersto,  supersedeo, 
set  myself  above,  or  omit. 

Subter,  "from  under,"  as  in  subterfugio. 

Com,  for  cum,  appears  in  this  form  only  before  b,  p,  m  ; 
before  Z,  n,  r,  the  final  m  is  assimilated  to  these  letters, 
and  before  all  other  consonants  it  is  changed  into  n.  Be- 
fore vowels  the  m  is  dropped,  e.  g.,  coeo,  cohaereo,  and  in 
addition  to  this  a  contraction  takes  place  in  cogo  and  cogi- 
to  (from  coago,  coagito.)  The  m  is  retained  only  in  a  few 
words  ;  as,  comes,  comitium,  comitor,  comedo.  It  signifies 
"with, "or  "together,"  as  in  conjungo,  consero,  compono, 
collido,  colligo,  corrado,  coeo,  coalesco,  cohaereo.  In  some 


250  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

verbs  and  participles  it  merely  strengthens  the  meaning ; 
as,  corrumpo,  concerpo,  confringo,  consceleratus. 

[§  330.]  Note. — We  must  not  leave  unnoticed  here  what  are  called  the 
inseparable  prepositions  (among  which  con  is  reckoned,  although  it  is  only 
a  different  pronunciation  for  cum) ;  that  is,  some  little  words,  which  are 
never  used  by  themselves,  but  occur  only  in  compound  verbs  and  adjec- 
tives, where  they  modify  the  meaning  in  the  same  way  as  the  above-men- 
tioned separable  prepositions.  The  following  is  a  list  of  them : 

Amb  (from  the  Greek  d//cpi),  "around,"  "about," as  in  ambio, amburo (am- 
bustus),  ambigo,  ambiguus.  In  amplector,  amputo,  the  b  is  dropped  on  account 
of  thep ;  before  palatals  amb  is  changed  into  an;  e.  g.,  anceps,  anquiro,  and 
also  before/,  in  the  word  anfractus. 

Dis  or  di,  denoting  separation,  as  in  digero,  dirimo,  dijudico,  dispono,  dis- 
sero,  distinguo,  dimitto  (to  be  distinguished  from  demitto).  It  strengthens 
the  meaning  in  discupio.  Before  c,  p,  q,  t,  dis  is  retained  entire  ;  before  j, 
we  sometimes  have  dis,  as  in  disjicio,  disjungo ;  and  sometimes  di,  as  in 
dijudico.  Before  s,  with  a  consonant  after  it,  di  is  used,  and  dis  when  the  s 
after  it  is  followed  by  a  vowel :  di-spergo,  di-sto,  dis-socio,  dis-suadeo ;  diser- 
tus,  however,  is  formed  from  dissero.  Before  f,  dis  is  changed  into  dif,  as 
in  differo.  Di  is  used  before  all  other  consonants. 

Re  signifies  "  back,"  remitto,  rejicio,  revertor.  Before  a  vowel  or  an  h  a 
d  is  inserted,  redeo,  redigo,  redhibeo ;  this  is  neglected  only  in  compounds 
formed  by  late  and  unclassical  writers  ;  e.  g.,  reaedifico,  reagens.  The  d  in 
reddo,  I  give  back,  is  of  a  different  kind.  Re  denotes  separation  in  resolvo, 
revello,  retego,  recingo,  recludo,  refringo,  reseco  ;  and  in  relego,  rebibo,  and  oth- 
ers, it  denotes  repetition. 

Se,  "aside,"  "on  one  side,"  seduco,  sevoco,  secubo,  sepono,  sejungo.  In  ad- 
jectives it  signifies  "  without,"  securus,  sobrius  for  sebrius  (non  ebrius),  socors 
for  secors.  Seorsum  is  contracted  from  sevorsum,  aside.  A  d  is  inserted  in 
seditio,  separation,  sedition,  from  se  and  itio. 

The  prefixes  ne  and  ve  are  of  somewhat  different  nature  ;  ne  has  nega- 
tive power,  as  in  nefas,  nemo  (?ie  hemo,  obsolete  for  homo),  nescio.  Ve  is 
likewise  negative,  but  occurs  in  a  much  smaller  number  of  words,  viz., 
in  vesanus  and  vecors  (vecordia),  senseless.  In  vegrandis  and  vepallidus  it 
seems  to  denote  ugliness. 


CHAPTER  LXVIL 

CONJUNCTIONS.* 

[§331.]  1.  CONJUNCTIONS  are  those  indeclinable  parts 
of  speech  which  express  the  relations  in  which  sentences 
stand  to  one  another.  They  therefore  are,  as  it  were,  the 
links  of  propositions,  whence  their  name  conjunctions. 

jyote  i. — Some  conjunctions,  and  more  particularly  all  those  which  form 
the  first  class  in  our  division,  connect  not  only  sentences,  but  single  words. 
This,  however,  is  in  reality  the  case  only  when  two  propositions  are  con- 
tracted into  one,  or  when  one  is  omitted,  as  in  Mars  sive  Mavors  bellisprae- 
sidet ;  here  sive  Mavors  is  to  be  explained  by  the  omission  of  sive  is  Mavors 
appellandus  est,  which  phrase  is,  in  fact,  not  unfrequently  used.  The  prop- 
ositions vive  diuac  feliciter  and  ratio  et  oratio  homines  conjungit,  again,  may 
be  divided  each  into  two  propositions,  joined  by  the  conjunctions  vive  diu 

*  [Compare  Crombie's  Gymnasium,  vol.  i.,  p.  xlv.,  seq.] — Am.  Ed. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  251 

«£  vlve  feliciter  and  ratio  conjungit  homines  et  oratio  conjungit  homines.  The 
practice  of  language,  however,  did  not  stop  short  in  this  contraction,  but 
as  we  may  say  ratio  et  oratio  conjungunt  homines,  and  as  we  must  say  pater 
etjilius  dormiunt,  the  language,  by  the  plural  of  the  predicate,  clearly  indi- 
cates that  the  two  nouns  are  united.  Hence  we  may  say  that  the  (copu- 
lative) conjunctions  et,  que,  ac,  and  atque  join  single  words  also.  With  re- 
gard to  the  other,  especially  the  disjunctive  conjunctions  (for  there  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  conjunction  "  also"),  we  must  have  recourse  to  the 
above  explanation,  that  two  propositions  are  contracted  into  one,  for  in  ego 
aut  tuvincamus  necesse  est,  the  nos,  which  comprehends  the  two  persons,  is 
the  subject  of  vinc&mus,  and  not  ego  aut  tu. 

Note  2. — Many  of  the  conjunctions  to  be  mentioned  presently  originally 
belonged  to  other  parts  of  speech ;  but  they  have  lost  their  real  significa- 
tion, and  as  they  serve  to  join  propositions,  they  may  at  once  be  looked 
upon  as  conjunctions  ;  e.  g.,  ceterum,verum,  vero,  licet,  quamvis,  and  such 
compounds  as  quare,  idcirco,  quamobrem.  But  there  are  also  many  adverbs 
denoting  time  and  place,  respecting  which  it  is  doubtful  whether,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  mode  of  their  application  in  language,  they  should  not  be 
classed  among  conjunctions.  Those  denoting  time  (e.  g.,  deinde,  denique, 
postremum)  retain,  indeed,  their  original  signification,  but  when  they  are 
doubled  ;  as,  turn — turn,  nunc — nunc,  modo — modo,  they  evidently  serve  only 
to  connect  propositions ;  the  adverbs  of  place,  on  the  other  hand,  are  just- 
ly classed  among  the  conjunctions  when  they  drop  their  meaning  of  place 
and  express  a  connexion  of  propositions  in  respect  of  time,  or  the  relation 
of  cause  and  effect,  as  is  the  case  with  ubi,  ibi,  and  inde,  and  with  eo  and 
quando. 

2,  In  regard  to  their  form  (Jigura),  they  are  either  sim- 
ple or  compound.     Of  the  former  kind  are,  e.  g.,  et,  ac,  at, 
sed,  nam  ;   and  of  the  latter  atque,  itaque,  attamen,  siqui- 
dem,  enimvero,  verum-enimvero. 

3.  In  reference  to  their  signification,  they  may  be  divi- 
ded into  the  following  classes.     They  denote  : 

[§  332.]  1.  A  union  (conjunctiones  copulativae)  ;  as,  et, 
ac,  atque,  and  the  enclitic  que,  combined  with  the  nega- 
tion belonging  to  the  verb,  neque  or  nee,  or  doubled  so  as 
to  become  an  affirmative,  nee  (neque)  non,  equivalent  to  et. 
Etiam  and  quoque  also  belong  to  this  class,  together  with  , 
the  adverbial  item  and  itidem.  As  these  particles  unite 
things  which  are  of  a  kind,  so  the  disjunctive  conjunc- 
tions, signifying  a  or,"  connect  things  which  are  distinct 
from  each  other.  They  are  aut,  vel,  the  suffix  ve,  and  sive 
or  seu. 

Note. — Ac*  is  never  used  before  vowels  (which,  however,  do  not  include 
J)  or  before  an  h ;  atque  occurs  most  frequently  before  vowels,  but  before 
consonants  also.  Hence  the  two  forms  in  the  same  sentence  of  Cicero, 
p.  Balb.,  3,  non  contra  ac  liceret,  sed  contra  atque  oporteret,  and  it  is  probable 
that  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry  the  hiatus  was  avoided  by  elision.  The 
rule  here  given  is  not  invalidated  by  the  fact  of  ac  being  found  here  and 
there  before  vowels  in  editions  of  Latin  authors,  as  is  the  case,  for  ex- 
ample, in  two  passages  of  Ernesti's  edition  of  Cicero,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  6, 
and  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  48.  For  as  this  difference  in  the  use  of  ac  and  atque  was 

*  [Compare  Reisig's  Vorlesungen.,  ed.  Haase,  p.  414.]— aim.  Ed. 


252  LATIN    GRAMMA5. 

not  noticed  till  recently*  (in  the  schools  of  the  Dutch  philologers,  Bur- 
mann  and  Drakenborch),  and  as  the  MSS.  have  not  yet  been  collated  in 
all  cases  of  this  kind,  such  isolated  remnants  of  former  carelessness  can- 
not be  taken  into  account.  Drakenborch  (on  Liv.,  x.,  36,  in  fin.)  observes 
that  wherever,  before  his  time,  ac  was  found  in  Livy  before  vowels,  the 
MSS.  give  either  atque,  out,  at,  or  something  else,  and  that  even  those  pas- 
sages in  which  he  retained  it,  such  as  iii.,  16,  ac  emergentibus  malis,  should 
be  corrected.  We  cannot,  however,  enter  into  the  question  why  ac  was 
not  used  before  a  vowel,  while  nee  and  neque  are  used  indiscriminately  both 
before  vowels  and  consonants.  One  language  avoids  a  sound  as  displeas- 
ing which  in  another  produces  no  such  effect ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  the  fact 
itself  is  beyond  all  doubt.  Another  remark,  however,  which  is  made  by 
many  grammarians,  that  ac  is  not  used  by  good  writers  before  c  and  q,  is 
unfounded,  at  least  ac  before  con  is  frequent  in  Cicero,  and  other  authors 
do  not  even  scruple  to  use  ac  before  ca,  which  is  otherwise,  and  with  jus- 
tice, considered  not  euphonious. 

[<^  333.]  The  difference  between  et  and  que  is  correctly  described  by 
Hermann  in  Elmsley's  ed.  of  the  Medea,  p.  331,  ed.  Lips.,  in  these  words; 
"e*  (KCM)  is  a  copulative  particle,  and  que  (re)  is  an  adjunctive  one."  In 
other  words,  et  connects  things  which  are  conceived  as  different,  and  que 
adds  what  belongs  to  or  naturally  flows  from  things.  In  an  enumeration, 
of  words,  therefore,  que  frequently  forms  the  conclusion  of  the  series ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero  says :  hi,  qui  solis  et  lunae  reliquorumque  siderum  ort.us,  obitus 
motusque  cognorunt ;  and  by  means  of  que  he  extends  the  preceding  idea, 
without  connecting  with  it  anything  which  is  generally  different ;  as  in 
de  ilia  ciintate  totaque  provincia  optime  merit  us  ;  Dolabella  qitique  ejus  facinoris 
ministri  fuerunt ;  jus  potestatemquc  habcre  •  Pompeius  pro-  patris  major  umque 
suorum  animo  studioque  in  rempublicam  suaque  pristina  virtute  fecit.  In  con- 
necting propositions  with  one  another,  it  denotes  a  consequence  or  result, 
and  is  equivalent  to  "  and  therefore,"  which  explains  its  peculiarly  fre- 
quent application  in  senatusconsulta  (which  are  undoubtedly  the  most  valid 
documents  in  determining  the  genuine  usage  of  the  Latin  language), 
framed  as  they  were  to  prevent  different  points  being  mixed  up  in  one 
enactment;  e.  g.,  in  Cic.,  Philip.,  ix..  7,  Quum  Ser.  Sulpicius  salutem  reip. 
vitae  suae  pracposuerit,  contraque  vim  gravitatemque  morbi  contenderit,  ut — per- 
veniret,  isque  vitam  amiserit,  ejusque  mors  consentanea  vitaefuerit  ;  quum  talis 
vir  mortem  obierit,  senatui  placere,  Scr.  Sulpicio  statuam  aeneam — statui,  czr- 
cumque  earn  locum  liberos  posterosque  ejus — habere,  eamquc  causam  in  bsisi  in- 
scribi,  utique  Coss. — locent,  quantique  locaverint,  tantam  pecuniam — attribuen- 
dam  solvendamque  curent. 

Atque  is  formed  from  ad  and  que,  and  therefore  properly  signifies  "  and 
in  addition,"  "  and  also,"  thus  putting  things  on  an  equality,  but  at  the 
same  time  laying  stress  upon  the  connexion.  We  express  this  by  pro- 
nouncing "and"  more  emphatically  than  usual.  For  example,  socii  et 
exterae  nationes  simply  indicates  the  combination  of  two  things  independent 
of  each  other ;  but  in  socii  atque  exterae  nationes  the  latter  part  is  more  em- 
phatic, "and  also  the  foreign,"  &c.  In  the  beginning  of  a  proposition 
•which  farther  explains  that  which  precedes,  and  where  the  simple  con- 
nexion is  insufficient,  the  particles  atque  and  ac  introduce  a  thing  with 
great  weight,  and  may  be  rendered  in  English  by  "now  ;"  e.  g.,  atqe  haec 
quidem  mea  sententia  est ;  atque — de  ipsis  Syracusanis  cognoscite ;  also  in 

*  Or,  we  should  rather  say,  was  not  noticed  again,  for  the  observation  was 
first  made  in  a  brief  but  unequivocal  manner  by  Gabriel  Faernus,  in  his 
note  on  Cic.,  pro  Place.,  3,  in  fin.,  ed.  Rom.,  1563  ;  but  it  was  disregarded. 
It  is  still  more  remarkable,  that  none  of  the  ancient  grammarians,  though 
they  carefully  notice  other  phenomena  of  a  similar  kind,  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  draw  attention  to  this  circumstance,  which  is  by  no  means 
unimportant.  The  passages  in  Ernesti's  edition  of  Cicero,  above  referred 
to,  have  been  corrected  in  Orelli's  edition. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  253 

answers,  cognostine  hos  versus  ?  Ac  memoriter.  Num.  hie  duae  Bacchides 
habitant?  Atque  ambae  sorores,  i.  e.,  yes,  and  that,  &c.  Ac  is  the  same  as 
atque,  but  being  an  abridged  form,  it  loses  somewhat  of  its  power  in  con- 
necting single  words  ;  but  it  retains  that  power  which  puts  the  things 
connected  by  it  on  an  equality,  and  its  use  alternates  with  that  of  et ;  it  is 
preferred  in  subdivisions,  whereas  the  main  propositions  are  connected  by 
et ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  15,  Cur  tibi  fasces  ac  secures,  et  tantam  vim  imperil 
tantaque  ornamenta  data  censes  ?  Divin.,  12,  Difficile  est  tantam  causam  et 
diligentia  consequi,  et  memoria  complecti,  et  oratione  expromere,  et  voce  ac  viribus 
sustinere. 

[§  334.]  Neque  is  formed  from  the  ancient  negative  particle  and  que,  and 
is  used  for  et  non.  Et  non  itself  is  used  when  the  whole  proposition  is 
affirmative,  and  only  one  idea  or  one  word  in  it  is  to  be  negatived  ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  Brut.,  91,  Athenis  apud  Demetrium  Syrum,  vetere.m  et  non  ignobilem  di- 
cendi  magistrum,  exerceri  solebam;  in  Verr.,  i.,  l,patior  et  non  molestefero  ;  de 
Of  at.,  Hi.,  36,  videris  mihi  aliud  quiddam  et  non  id  quod  suscepisti  disputasse, 
and  when  our  "  and  not"  is  used  for  "  and  not  rather,"  to  correct  an  im- 
proper supposition  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  31,  si  quam  Rubrius  injnriam  suo 
nomine  ac  non  impidsu  tuofecisset.  See  <$>  781.  Et  non  is,  besides,  found  in 
the  second  part  of  a  proposition  when  et  precedes,  but  neque  may  be  and 
frequently  is  used  for  et  non  in  this  case ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  23, 
Manlius  et  semper  me  coluit,  et  a  studiis  nostris  non  abhorret ;  ad  Att.}  ii.,  4, 
id  et  nobis  erit  perjucundum,  et  tibi  non  sane  deviurn.  JVec  (neque)  non  is  not 
used  in  classical  prose  in  quite  the  same  way  as  et  to  connect  nouns,  but 
only  to  join  propositions  together  (see  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  95),  and 
the  two  words  are  separated;  e.  g.,  Nepos,  Att.,  13,  Nemo  Attico  minus 
fuit  aedificator,  neque  tamen  non  imprimis  bene  habitavit.  Cicero  several 
times  uses  nee  vero  non,  and  the  like ;  but  in  Varro  and  later  writers,  such 
as  Quintilian,  nee  non  are  not  separated,  and  are  in  all  essential  points 
equivalent  to  et. 

[$  335.]  Etiam  and  quoque,  are  in  so  far  different  in  their  meaning,  that 
etiam,  in  the  first  place,  has  a  wider  extent  than  quoque,  for  it  contains 
also  the  idea  of  our  "even;"  and,  secondly,  etiam  adds  a  new  circum- 
stance, whereas  quoque  denotes  the  addition  of  a  thing  of  a  similar  kind. 
Hence  etiam  is  properly  used  to  connect  propositions.  This  difference 
seems  to  be  correctly  expressed  in  stating  that  etiam  is  "  and  farther,"  and 
quoque  "  and  so,  also."  As  in  this  manner  quoque  refers  to  a  single  word, 
it  always  follows  that  word ;  etiam,  in  similar  cases,  is  usually  placed  be- 
fore it,  but  when  it  connects  propositions  its  place  is  arbitrary.  Et,  too, 
is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  "  also,"  in  classical  prose;  e.  g.,  Curt., 
iii.,  31,  non  errasti,  mater,  nam  et  hie  Alexander  est;  Cic.,  de  Legg.,  ii.,  16, 
quod  et  nunc  multis  in  fanis  Jit,  for  mine  quoque;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  61,  siniul  ft 
verebar ;  and  v.,  1,  simul  et  de  illo  vulnere — multa  dixit ;  and  often  non  modo — 
sed  et;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  1,  non  modo  JRomae,  sed  et  apud  exteras  nationes ; 
Nepos,  Thrasyb.,  1,  non  solum  princeps,  sed  et  solus  bellum  mdixit.  (See 
Bremi's  remark  on  this  passage,  who  states  that  sed  et.  is  not  merely  "  but 
also,"  but  always  "but  even.")  But  passages  of  this  kind  are  not  very 
numerous,  and  not  always  certain,  for  the  MSS.  usually  have  etiam,  so 
that  this  use  of  et  in  prose  (for  poets  cannot  be  taken  into  account)  must 
at  least  be  very  much  limited,  and  it  should  not  be  used  to  that  extent  in 
which  modern  Latinists  apply  it. 

[$  336.]  The  disjunctive  conjunctions  differ  thus  far,  that  aut  indicates 
a  difference  of  the  object,  and  vel  a  difference  of  expression.  Vel*  is  con- 
nected with  the  verb  velle  (vel— vel,  will  you  thus,  or  will  you  thus  ?),  and  the 
single  vel  is  used  by  Cicero  only  to  correct  a  preceding  expression,  com- 
monly combined  with  dicam,  or  potius,  or  etiam;  e.  g.,  peteres  vel  potius 
rogares;  stupor  em  hominis  vel  dicam  pecudis  videte  (Philip.,  U.,  12}  ;  laudanda 
est  vel  etiam  amanda  (p.  Plane.,  9) ;  it  very  rarely  occurs  without  such  an 

*  [Compare  Crombie's  Gymnasium,  vol.  i.,  p.  211.] — Am.  Ed. 


254  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

addition,  but  even  then  its  meaning  is  corrective  ;  e.  g.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  20,  sum- 
mum  bonum  a  virtute  profectum,  vel  (or  rather)  in  ipsa  virtute  positum  ;  de  Nat. 
Dear.,  ii.,  15,  in  ardore  coelesti,  qui  aether  vel  coelum  nominatur,  where  it  like- 
wise denotes  not  so  much  the  equivalence  of  the  terms,  as  the  preference 
which  is  to  be  given  to  the  Latin  word.  (Concerning  the  use  of  vel  to  de- 
note an  increase,  see  ()  108  and  §  734,  where,  also,  its  signification  of  "for 
example,"  velut,  is  explained.  Both  these  significations  are  derivable  from 
what  has  here  been  said.)  From  this  in  later,  though  still  good  prose, 
arpstrthe  use  of  vel  in  the  sense  of  "  or,"  that  is,  that  in  point  of  fact  one 
thing  is  equal  to  another,  a  meaning  which  ve,  in  connecting  single  words, 
has  even  in  Cicero ;  e.  g.,  Philip.,  v.  19,  Consules  alter  ambovefaciant,  that 
is,  in  point  of  fact,  it  is  the  same  whether  both  consuls  or  only  one  of  them 
do  a  thing;  Top.,  5,  Esse  ea  dico,  quae  cerni  tangive  possunt,  that  is,  either 
of  the  two  is  sufficient.  Sive  either  retains  the  meaning  of  the  conjunc- 
tion si  (which  is  commonly  the  case),  and  is  then  the  same  as  vel  si,  or  it 
loses  it  by  an  ellipsis  (perhaps  of  dicere  mavis),  and  is  then  the  same  as  vel, 
denoting  a  difference  of  name,  as  in  Quintilian,  vocabulum  sive  appellatio  ; 
Cic.,  regie  seu  potius  tyrannice.  The  form  sen  is  used  by  Cicero  very  rarely, 
and  almost  exclusively  in  the  combination  seu  potius ;  but  in  poetry  and 
later  prose  it  occurs  frequently. 

[$  337.]  The  disjunctive  conjunctions  aut  and  ve  serve  to  continue  the 
negation  in  negative  sentences,  where  we  use  "nor;"  e.  g.,  Verres  non 
Honori  aut  Virtuti  vota  debebat,  sed  Veneri  et  Cupidini ;  and  we  may  say, 
also,  non  Honori  neque  Virtuti,  and  in  other  cases  we  might  use  ve,  analo- 
gous to  the  affirmative  que.  See  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  45,  and  the 
commentators  on  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  32,  in  fin.  Examples:  Cic.,  p.  Place., 
5,  Itaque  non  optimus  quisque  nee  gravissimus,  sed  impudentissimus  loquacissi- 
musque  deligitur ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  9,  31,  Huncnec  hosticus  auferet  ensjs,  nee 
laterum  dolor  aut  tar  da  podagra  ;  ibid.,  i.,  4,  73,  Nee  recito  cuiquam  nisi  amicis, 
non  ubivis  coramve  quibuslibet ;  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  13,  Nullum  membrum  reip. 
re.peries,  quod  non  fractum  debilitatumve  sit ;  and  in  negative  questions,  Cic., 
Philip.,  v.,  5,  Num  leges  nostras  moresve  novit?  in  Verr.,  v.,  13,  Quid  me 
attinet  dicere  aut  conjungere  cum  istius  flagitio  cujusquam  praeterea  dedecus  ?  or 
after  comparatives,  Cic., p.  Mur.,  29,  Accessit  istuc  doctrina  nonmoderata  nee 
mitis,  sed  paulo  asperior  et  durior,  quam  veritas  aut  natura  patiatur.  It  is  only 
in  those  cases  in  which  both  words  are  to  be  united  into  one  idea  that  a 
copulative  conjunction  is  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  hi.,  86,  nummos  non 
exarat  arator,  non  aratro  ac  manu  quaerit.  Comp.  the  longer  passage  in  Cic., 
De  Nat.  Dear.,  ii.,  62,  in  fin. 

[()  338.]  The  Latin  language  is  fond  of  doubling  the  conjunctions  of  this 
kind,  whereby  words  and  propositions  are  more  emphatically  brought  un- 
der one  general  idea.  The  English  "  as  well  as"  is  expressed  by 

et — et,  which  is  of  very  common  occurrence  ; 

et — que  occurs  not  unfrequently  in  late  writers,  in  Cicero  by  way  of 
exception  only ; 

que — et  connects  single  words,  but  not  in  Cicero  ; 

que — que  is  found  only  in  poetry. 

The  only  prose  writer  who  uses  it  is  Sallust,  Cat.,  9,  seque  remque  publicam 
curabant ;  Jug.,  10,  meque  regnwnque  meum  gloria  honoravisti ;  but  It  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  case  of  the  conjunction  being  appended  to  the  relative 
pronoun;  e.  g.,  quique exissent ,  quique  ibi  mansissent ;  captivi,  quique  Campa- 
norum,  quique  Hannibalis  militum  erant,  in  Livy  ;  or  junctis  exercitibus,  quique 
sub  Caesare  fuerant,  quique  ad  eum  venerant,  in  Velleius.  The  latest  critics 
have  removed  similar  passages  from  the  works  of  Cicero ;  see  the  com- 
ment, on  de  Orat.,  i.,  26,  andde  Fin.,  v.,  21  ;  noctesque  diesque,  in  de  Fin.,  i., 
16,  is  an  allusion  to  a  passage  in  a  poem.  Negative  propositions  are  con- 
nected in  English  by  "  neither— nor,"  and  in  Latin  by 

neque — neque,  or  nee — nee  ; 

neque — nee,  which  is  not  unfrequent,  and  by 

nee — neque,  which  seldom  occurs. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  255 

Propositions,  one  of  which  is  negative  and  the  other  affirmative,  "  on  the 
one  hand,  but  not  on  the  other,"  or  "  not  on  the  one  hand,  but  on  the 
other,"  are  connected  by 

et—neque  (nee}  )  both    f         frequent  occurrence. 

neque  (nee) — et  } 

nee  (neque) — que,  occurs  occasionally. 

[()  339.]  Our  "  either — or,"  is  expressed  by  aut — aut,  denoting  an  oppo- 
sition between  two  things,  one  of  which  excludes  the  other,  orbyreZ — vel, 
denoting  that  the  opposition  between  two  things  is  immaterial  in  respect 
of  the  result,  so  that  the  one  need  not  exclude  the  other.  E.  g.,  Catiline, 
in  Sallust,  says  to  his  comrades,  vel  imperatore  vel  milite  me  utimini,  that  is, 
it  is  indifferent  to  me  in  which  capacity  you  may  make  use  of  me,  only 
do  make  use  of  me.  A  similar  idea  is  described  more  in  detail  by  Ter- 
ence, .Etm.,ii.,3,  28,  Hanc  tu  mihi  vel  vi,  vel  clam,  vel  precario  fac  tradas : 
mea  nihil  refert,  dum  potiar  modo ;  i.  e.,  you  may  effect  it  even  in  a  fourth 
way,  if  you  like.  Sive — sive  is  the  same  as  vel  si — vel  si,  and  therefore 
transfers  the  meaning  of  vel — vel  to  the  cases  in  which  it  is  applied ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  Illo  loco  libentissime  soleo  uti,  sive  quid  mecum  cogito,  sive  aliquid  scribo 
aut  lego.  If  there  is  no  verb,  and  nouns  only  are  mentioned  in  opposition 
to  each  other,  an  uncertainty  is  expressed  as  to  how  a  thing  is  to  be 
called;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  14,  Cretum  leges,  quas  sive  Juppiter  sive  Minos 
sanxit,  laboribus  erudiunt  juventutem,  i.  e.,  I  do  not  know  whether  I  am  to 
say  Juppiter  or  Minos;  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  i.,  2,  His  in  rebus  si  apud  te  plus 
auctoritas  mea,  quam  tua  sive  natura  paulo  acrior,  sive  quaedam  dulcedo  ira- 
cundiae,  sive  dicendi  sal  facetiaeque  valuissent,  nihil  sane  esset,  quod  nos  poe- 
niteret. 

[§  340.]  2.  The  following  express  a  comparison,  "as," 
"like,"  "than  as  if"  (conjunctiones  comparativae)  ;  ut  or 
uti,  sicut,  velut,  prout,  praeut,  the  poetical  ceu,  quam,  tam- 
quam  (with  and  without  si),  quasi,  ut  si,  ac  si,  together 
with  ac  and  atque,  when  they  signify  "as." 

Note. — Ac  and  atque  are  used  in  the  sense  of  "  as,"  or  "  than,"  after  the 
adverbs  and  adjectives  which  denote  similarity  or  dissimilarity :  aeque, 
juxta,  par  and  pariter,  perinde  and  proinde,  pro  eo,  similis,  dissimilis  and  si- 
militer,  talis,  totidem,  alius  and  aliter,  contra,  secus,  conlrarius  •  e.  g.,  non  aliter 
scribo  ac  sentio  ;  aliud  mihi  ac  tibi  videtur  ;  saepe  aliiid  Jit  atque  existimamus  ; 
simile  fecit  atque  alii  ;  cum  totidem  navibus  rediit  atque  erat  profectus.  Quam 
after  these  words  (as  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  vi.,  30,  perinde  se  quam  Tiberium 
falli  pptuisse)  is  not  often  used,  except  in  the  case  of  a  negative  parti- 
cle being  joined  with  alius ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  virtus  nihil  aliud  est,  quam  in  se 
perfecta  et  ad  summum  perducta  natura,  where  nisi  might  be  used  instead  of 
quam.  Respecting  proinde  ac,  instead  of  the  more  frequent  perinde  ac,  see 
above,  §  282.  Et  and  que  do  not  occur  in  this  connexion  like  ac  and  atque ; 
and  wherever  this  might  appear  to  be  the  case,  from  the  position  of  the 
words,  as  in  Sallust,  juxta  bonos  et  malos  interjicere  ;  suae  hostiumque  vitae 
juxta  pepercerant  ;  and  in  Cicero,  nisi  aeque  amicos  et  nosmetipsos  diligimus, 
the  et  and  que  retain  their  original  signification  "  and  ;"  but  where  the 
words  compared  are  separated,  as  in  reip.  juxta  ac  sibi  consuluerunt ;  or 
where  propositions  are  compared,  as  in  Cic.,  de  Fin.,iv.,  12,  similem  habeat 
vultum  ac  si  ampullam  perdidisset,  the  ac  or  ut  has  justly  been  restored  in 
the  passages  in  which'formerly  et  was  read. 

Ac  is  used  for  quam,  after  comparatives  in  poetry,  in  Horace  generally, 
and  in  a  few  passages,  also,  of  late  prose  writers ;  but  never  in  Cicero ;  e. 
g.,  Horat.,  Epod.,  xv.,  5,  artius  atque  hedera  ;  Serm.  i.,  2,  22,  ut  non  se  pejus 
cruciaverit  atque  hie  ;  i.,  10,  34.,  In  silvam  non  lignaferas  insanius  ac  si,  &C. 

[§341.]  3.  The  following  express  a  concession  with 
the  general  signification  "  although"  ( conjunctiones  conces- 


256  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

c.- 

sivaej ;  etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi  (or  tamenetsi),  quamquam^} 
quamvis,  quantumvis,  quamlibet,  licet,  together  with  ut  in 
the  sense  of  "even  if"  or  "although,"  and  quum,  when  it 
signifies  "although,"  which  is  not  unfrequently  the  case. 

Note. — Those  particles  which  signify  "yet,"  especially  tamen,  form  the 
correlatives  of  the  concessive  conjunctions  ;  e.  g.,  ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est 
laudanda  voluntas,  Tametsi  is  a  combination  of  the  two  correlatives  ;  and 
in  its  application  we  not  unfrequently  meet  with  a  repetition  of  the  same 
particle  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  tametsi  vicisse  debeo,  tamen  de  meo  jure  decedam;  tametsi 
enim  verissimum  esse  intelligebam,  tamen  credibile  fore  non  arbitrabar.  The  ad- 
verb quidem  also  belongs  to  this  class  of  conjunctions  when  it  is  used  to 
connect  propositions,  and  is  followed  by  sed.  See  §  278. 

A  difference  in  the  use  of  these  conjunctions  might  be  observed  :  some 
might  be  used  to  denote  real  concessions,  and  others  to  denote  such  as  are 
merely  conceived  or  imagined  ;  and  this  would,  at  the  same  time,  deter- 
mine their  construction,  either  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive.  But  such 
a  difference  is  clearly  perceptible  only  between  quamquam  and  quamvis. 
(See  §  574.)  We  shall  here  add  only  the  remark,  that  quamquam  has  a 
peculiar  place  in  absolute  sentences,  referring  to  something  preceding,  but 
limiting  and  partly  nullifying  it ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  9,  Quamquam  quid 
loquor?  Yet  why  do  I  speak?  p.  Muren.,  38,  in  fin.,  quamquam  hujusce  rei 

nestas  omnis  in  vobis  sita  est,  judices  ;  that  is,  and  yet,  judges,  why  should 
ay  more  ?  for  surely  you  have  the  decision  entirely  in  your  own  hands. 

[§342.]  4.  The  following  express  a  condition,  the  fun- 
damental signification  being  "if"  ( conjunctiones  condicio- 
nales) ;  si,  sin,  nisi  or  ni,  si?nodo,  dum?nodo,  if  only,  if  but 
(for  which  dum  and  modo  are  also  used  alone),  dummodo 
ne,  or  simply  modo  ne  or  dumnc. 

Note. — In  order  to  indicate  the  connexion  with  a  preceding  proposition, 
the  relative  pronoun  quod  (which,  however,  loses  its  signification  as  a  pro- 
noun) is  frequently  put  before  si,  and  sometimes,  also,  before  nisi  and  etsi, 
so  that  quodsi  may  be  regarded  as  one  word.  Comp.  $  806. 

Sin  signifies  "  if  however,"  and  therefore  stands  for  si  autem  or  si  vero  ; 
not  unfrequently,  however,  autem  is  added,  and  sometimes  vero  (sin  vero  in 
Columella,  vii.,  3,  and  Justin). 

[§  343.]  Ni  and  nisi  have  the  same  meaning,  except  that  ni  is  especially 
applied  in  judicial  sponsiones ;  e.  g.,  centum  dare  spondeo,  ni  dixisli,  &c. 
Instead  of  nisi,  we  sometimes  find  the  form  nisi  si.  Both  particles  limit  a 
statement  by  introducing  an  exception,  and  thus  differ  from  si  non,  which 
introduces  a  negative  case,  for  si  alone  has  the  character  of  a  conjunction, 
and  non,  the  negative  particle,  belongs  to  the  verb  or  some  other  word  of 
the  proposition.  It  is  often  immaterial  whether  nisi  or  sino?t  is  used;  e.  g., 
Nep.  Con.,  2,  fuit  apertum,  si  Conon  nonfuisset,  Agesilaum  Asiam  Tau.ro  tenus 
regi  fuisse  erepturum  ;  and  the  same  author,  Ages.,  6,  says,  talem  se  impera- 
torem  praebuit,  ut  omnibus  apparuerit  nisi  ille  fuisset,  Spartam  futuram  non 
fuisse.  And  thus  Cicero,  Cat.,  Maj.,  6,  might  have  said,  memoria  minuitur, 
si  earn  non  exerceas,  instead  of  nisi  earn  exerceas  ;  and  nisi,  on  the  other  hand, 
might  have  been  used  instead  of  si  non,  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  18,  glebam 
commosset  in  agro  decumano  Siciliae  nemo,  si  Metellus  hanc  epistolamnon  misis 
set.  But  the  difference  is  nevertheless  essential ;  e.  g.,  if  I  say  impune  erit, 
si  pecuniam  promissam  non  dederitis,  I  mean  to  express  that,  in  this  case,  the 
ordinary  punishment  will  not  be  inflicted  ;  but  if  I  say,  impune  erit,  nisi  pe- 
cuniam dederitis,  the  meaning  is,  "it  shall  remain  unpunished,  except  in  the 
case  of  your  having  paid  the  money  ;"  which  implies,  "  but  you  shall  be 
punished  if  you  have  paid  the  money."  Si  non,  therefore,  can  be  used 
only  when  one  of  the  sentences  is  not  complete  ;  as  in  Horace,  Quo  mihi 


CONJUNCTIONS.  257 

fortunam,  si  non  conceditur  uti  ?  What  is  the  good  of  having  property,  if  I 
am  not  allowed  to  make  use  of  it?  If  we  express  the  former  sentence 
by  nullius  pretii  fortunae  mnt,  we  may  continue  in  the  form  of  an  exception, 
nisi  concedatur  us  uti,  or  in  the  form  of  a  negative  case,  si  non  concedatur  uti. 
Si  non  is  farther  used  only  when  single  words  are  opposed  to  one  another, 
as  is  particularly  frequent  in  such  expressions  as  dolorem,  si  non  poterofran- 
gere,  occultabo  ;  desiderium  amicorum,  si  non  aequo  animo,  at  forti  feras  ;  cum 
spe,  si  non  optima,  at  aliqua  tamen  vivere.  In  this  case  si  minus  may  be  used 
instead  of  si  non  ;  e.  g  ,  Tu  si  minus  ad  nos,  nos  accurremus  ad  te.  It  after 
an  affirmative  proposition  its  negative  opposite  is  added  without  a  verb, 
our  "  but  if  not"  is  commonly  expressed  (in  prose)  by  si  (or  sin)  minus,  sin 
aliter ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  5,  educ  tecum  etiam  omnes  luos  :  si  minus,  quam 
plurimos  ;  de  Oral.,  ii.,  75,  omnis  cura  mea  solet  in  hoc  versari  semper,  si  pos- 
sim,  ut  boni  aliquid  efficiam  ;  sin  id  minus,  ut  certe  nequid  mali ;  but  rarely  by 
si  non,  which  occurs  in  Cicero  only  once  (ad  Fam.,  vii.,  3,  in  fin.). 

[§  344.]  5.  The  following  express  a  conclusion  or  in- 
ference with  the  general  signification  of  "  therefore  ;" 
consequently  (  conjunctiones  conclusivae) ;  ergo,  igitur,  /, 
itaque,  eo,  idco,  iccirco,  proinde  y  propterca,  and  the  rela- 
live  conjunctions,  signifying  "wherefore;"  quapropter, 
quare,  quamobrem,  quocirca,  unde. 

Note.— Ergo  and  igitur  denote  a  logical  inference,  like  "  therefore." 
Itnque  expresses  the  relation  of  cause  in  facts  ;  it  properly  signifies  "  and 
thus,"  in  which  sense  it  not  unfrequently  occurs ;  e.  g.,  itaque  fecit.  Re- 
specting its  accent,  see  §  32.  Idea,  iccirco,  and  propterea  express  the  agree- 
ment between  intention  and  action,  and  may  be  rendered  by  "  on  this  ac- 
count." Eo  is  more  frequently  an  adverb  of  place,  "thither;"  but  it  is 
found  in  several  passages  of  Cicero  in  the  sense  of  "  on  this  account,"  or 
"  for  this  purpose;"  e.  g.,  in  Verr.,  i.  14,  ut  hoc  pacto  rafionem  re.ff.rre  liceret, 
eo  Sullanus  repents  factus  est;  Liv.,  ii.,  48,  muris  se  tenebant,  eo  nulla  pugna 
memorabilis  fuit.  Proinde,  in  the  sense  of  "consequently,"  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  perinde ;  both  words,  however,  are  used  in  the  sense  of 
<l  like,"  so  that  we  cannot  venture  to  adopt  the  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
other.  (See  <J>  282.)  But  as  we  are  speaking  here  of  conclusive  conjunc- 
tions, we  have  to  consider  only  proinde,  which  implies  an  exhortation;  y?, 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Proinde,  si  sapis,  vide  quid  tibi faciendum  sit ;  and  so,  also,  iu^i^-T-fi 
other  writers  ;  as,  proinde  fac  magno  animo  sis,  "  consequently,  be  of  good 
courage  !"  Unde  is  properly  an  adverb,  "  whence,"  but  is  used  also  as  a 
conjunction  in  a  similar  sense,  alluding  to  a  starting  point.  Hmc  and  inde 
cannot  properly  be  considered  as  conjunctions,  as  they  retain  their  real 
signification  of  "  hence."  But  adeo  may  be  classed  among  the  conjunc- 
tions, since  the  authors  of  the  silver  age  use  it  as  denoting  a  general  in- 
ference from  what  precedes,  like  our  "so  that,"  or  simply  "so;"  e.  g., 
Quintil.,  i.,  12,  7,  Adeofacilius  est  multafacere  quam  diu. 

[§345.]  6.  The  following  express  a  cause,  or  reason, 
with  the  demonstrative  meaning  of  "  for,"  and  the  relative 
of  "because"  (conjunctiones  causales)  :  na?n,  namque, 
enim,  denim,  quia,  quod,  quoniam,  quippe,  qmini,  quando% 
quandoquidem,  siquidem.  The  adverbs  nimirum,  nempe^ 
scilicet,  and  videlicet  are  likewise  used  to  connect  propo- 
sitions. 

Note. — Between  nam  and  enim  there  is  this  practical  difference,  that 
nam  is  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  and  enim  after  the  first  or 
second  word  of  a  proposition.  The  difference  in  meaning  seems  to  con* 

y  2 


258  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

sist  in  this,  that  nam  introduces  a  conclusive  reason,  and  enim  merely  a 
confirming  circumstance,  the  consideration  of  which  depends  upon  the 
inclination  of  the  speaker.  Nam,  therefore,  denotes  an  objective  reason, 
and  enim  merely  a  subjective  one.  Namque  and  etenim,  in  respect  of  their 
signification,  do  not  essentially  differ  from  nam  and  enim,  for  the  copula- 
tive conjunction,  at  least  as  far  as  we  can  judge,  is  as  superfluous  as  in 
neque  enim,  respecting  which,  see  §  808.  But,  at  the  same  time,  they  indi- 
cate a  closer  connexion  with  the  sentence  preceding;  and  the  proper  place 
for  etenim,  therefore,  is  in  an  explanatory  parenthesis.  Namque,  in  Cicero 
and  Nepos,  occurs  only  at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  and  usually  (in 
Nepos  almost  exclusively)  before  vowels ;  but  even  as  early  as  the  time 
of  Livy,  we  find  it  after  the  beginning  of  a  proposition  just  as  frequently 
as  at  the  beginning  itself.  We  may  add  the  remark,  that  enim  is  some- 
times put  at  the  beginning  by  comic  writers  in  the  sense  of  at  enim  or  sed 
enim.  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  xxxiv.,  32,  $  13,  denies  that  Livy  ever  used 
it  in  this  way. 

Nam,  enim,  and  etenim  are  often  used  in  Latin  in  the  sense  of  our 
"  namely,"  to  introduce  an  explanation  which  was  announced  ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
Partit.,  11,  Rerum  bonarum  et  malarum  tria  sunt  genera:  nam  aut  in  animis, 
aut  in  corporibus,  aut  extra  esse  possunt.  Nimirum,  videlicet,  and  scilicet  like- 
wise answer  to  our  "  namely,"  or  "  viz."  Nimirum  is  originally  an  adverb 
signifying  "  undoubtedly,"  or  "  surely  ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Mur.,  15,  Si  diligen- 
ter  quid  Mithridates  potuerit — consideraris,  omnibus  regibus — hunc  regem  nimi- 
rum  antepones.  As  a  conjunction  it  introduces  the  reason  of  an  assertion, 
suggesting  that  it  was  looked  for  with  some  impatience ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  ii.,  63,  is  est  nimirum  soter,  qui  salutem  dedit.  Videlicet  and  scilicet  in- 
troduce an  explanation,  and  generally  in  such  a  manner  that  videlicet  indi- 
cates the  true,  and  scilicet  a  wrong  explanation,  the  latter  being  introduced 
only  for  the  purpose  of  deriving  a  refutation  from  it ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Mil., 
21,  Cur  igitur  eos  manumisit  ?  Metuebat  scilicet,  ne  indicarent,  but  he  was  not 
afraid  of  it,  as  is  shown  afterward.  However,  the  words  nam,  enim,  etenim, 
nimirum,  videlicet  are  sometimes  used  in  an  ironical  sense,  and  scilicet 
(though  rarely  in  classical  prose)  sometimes  introduces  a  true  reason 
without  any  irony.  Nempe  signifies  "  namely"  only  when  another  per- 
son's concession  is  taken  for  granted  and  emphatically  dwelt  upon;  it  may 
then  be  rendered  by  "  surely."  Comp.  above,  §  278. 

[<$>  346.]  Quia  and  quod  differ  from  quoniam  (properly  quum  jam}  in  this  : 
the  former  indicate  a  definite  and  conclusive  reason,  and  the  latter  a  mo- 
tive :  the  same  difference  is  observed  in  the  French  parceque  and  puisque. 
Idea,  iccirco,  propterea  quod,  and  quia  are  used  without  any  essential  differ- 
ence, except  that  quia  introduces  a  more  strict  and  logical  reason,  whereas 
quoniam  introduces  circumstances  which  are  of  importance,  and  properly 
signifies  "  now  as."  Quando,  quandoquidem,  and  siquidem  approach  nearer 
to  quoniam  than  to  quia,  inasmuch  as  they  introduce  only  subjective  rea- 
sons. Quandoquidem  denotes  a  reason  implied  in  a  circumstance  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  siquidem  a  reason  implied  in  a  concession  which 
has  been  made.  Siquidem  is  composed  of  si  and  quidem,  but  must  be  re- 
garded as  one  word,  as  it  has  lost  its  original  meaning,  and  as  si  has  be- 
come short.  Cic.,  p.  Mur.,  11,  Summa  etiam  utilitas  est  in  Us,  qui  militari 
laude  antecellunt,  siquidem  eorum  consilio  et  periculo  quum  re  publica  turn  etiam 
nostris  rebus  perfrui  possumus  ;  Tusc.,  i.,  1,  antiquissimum  e  doctis  genus  est 
poetarum,  siquidem  (since  it  is  admitted,  for  no  doubt  is  to  be  expressed 
here)  Horrtxrus  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Romam  condifam.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  is  still  used  in  the  sense  of  "if  indeed  ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  34, 
Nos  vero,  si  quidem  in  voluptate  sunt  omnia  (if,  indeed,  all  happiness  consists 
in  enjoyment),  longe  multumque  superamur  a  bestiis ;  in  Cat.,  ii.,  4,  ofortu- 
natam  remp.,  si  quidem  hanc  sentinam  ejecerit.  In  these  cases  si  and  quidem 
should  be  written  as  two  separate  words. 

Quippe,  when  combined  with  the  relative  pronoun  or  quum,  is  used  to 
introduce  a  subjective  reason.  When  it  occurs  in  an  elliptical  way,  with- 


CONJUNCTIONS.  259 

out  a  verb,  it  is  equivalent  to  "  forsooth,"  or  "indeed ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
i.,  6,  sol  Democrito  magnus  videtur,  quippe  homini  erudito  ;  sometimes  it  is 
followed  by  a  sentence  with  enim,  as  in  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  3,  a  le  quidem 
apte  et  rotunde  (dicta  sunt) ;  quippe ;  habes  enim  a  rhe.toribus.  And  in  this 
way  quippe  gradually  acquires  the  signification  of  nam. 

[§347.]  7.  The  following  express  a  purpose  or  object, 
with  the  signification  of  "in  order  that,"  or,  "in  order  that 
not"  ( conjunctiones  finales );  ut  or  uti,  quo,  nc  or  ut  ne,  neve 
or  ncu,  qum,  quo?nmus. 

Note. —  Ut,  as  a  conjunction,  indicates  both  a  result  and  a  purpose,  "  so 
that,"  and  "in  order  that ;"  when  a  negative  is  added  to  it,  in  the  former 
sense,  it  becomes  ut  non  ;  in  the  latter  ne  or  ut  ne.  Ut  nan  is  very  rarely 
used  for  ne  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  20,  ut  non  conferam  vita?n  neque  existi- 
mationem  tuam  cum  illius — hoc  ipsum  conferam,  quo  tu  te  superiorem  fingis  ;  p. 
Leg.,  Mnnil.,  15,  Itaque  ut  plura  non  dicam  neque  aliorum  exemplis  confirmem, 
&c.,  instead  of  ne  plura  dicam,  neve  confirmem.  For  neve,  which  is  formed 
from  vel  ne,  is  "  or  in  order  that  not,"  and  frequently,  also,  "  and  in  order 
that  not."  See  t)  535.  Ut  ne  is  a  pleonasm,  not  differing  perceptibly  from 
ne,  except  that  it  chiefly  occurs  in  solemn  discourse,  and  hence  especially 
in  laws.  The  two  particles  occur  together  as  well  as  separately,  e.  g.,  op- 
eram  dant,  ut  judicia  ne  fiant ;  and  still  more  separated  in  Cic.,  de  Nat. 
Dear.,  i.,  17,  Sed  ut  hie,  qui  intervenit,  me  intuens,  ne  ignoret  quae  res  agatur  ; 
de  natura  agebamus  deorum ;  Div.  in  Q.  Oaec.,  4,  qui  praesentes  vos  orant,  ut 
in  actore  causae  suae  deligendo  vestrum  judicium  ab  suo  judicio  ne  discrepet.  It 
must,  however,  be  observed  that  ut  ne  is  very  frequently  used  by  Cicero, 
but  rarely  by  other  and  later  writers; -in  Livy  it  occurs  only  in  two  pas- 
sages, and  in  Valerius  Maximus  and  Tacitus  never.  See  Drakenborch  on, 
Liv.,  x.,  27.  The  pleonasm  quo  ne,  for  ne,  occurs  in  a  single  passage  of 
Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  1,  37. 

[§  348.]  8.  The  following  express  an  opposition,  with 
the  signification  of  "but"  (conjunctiones  adversativaej ; 
sed,  autem,  verum,  vero,  at  (poetical  ast),  at  enim,  atqui, 
tamen,  attamen,  sedtamen,  veruntamcn,  at  vero  ( enimvero ) , 
verumenim,  vero,  ceterum. 

Note.— Sed  denotes  a  direct  opposition  ;  autem  marks  a  transition  in  a  ^j  7 
narrative  or  argument,  and  denotes  at  once  a  connexion  and  an  opposition,  ' 
whereas  sed  interrupts  the  narrative  or  argument.  The  adverb  porro, 
farther,  is  likewise  used  to  express  such  a  progression  and  transition,  but 
does  not  denote  opposition,  except  in  later  authors,  such  as  Quintilian. 
See  Spalding  on  Quintilian,  ii.,  3,  5.  Verum  and  vero  stand  in  a  similar 
relation  to  each  other.  Verum,  with  its  primary  meaning  "  in  truth,"  de- 
notes an  opposition,  which  at  the  same  time  contains  an  explanation,  and 
thus  brings  a  thing  nearer  its  decision,  as  our  "but  rather."  Non  ego,  sed 
tu,  is  a  strong,  but  simple  opposition  ;  but  non  ego,  verum  tu,  contains  an 
assurance  and  explanation.  Cic.,  ire  Verr.,  iv.,  10,  says  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Messana  had  formerly  acted  as  enemies  to  every  kind  of  injustice, 
but  that  they  favoured  Verres  ;  and  he  then  continues  :  Verum  hate  civitas 
isti  praedoni  ac  piritae  Siciliae  Phaselis  (receptaculum  furtorum)  fuit,  i.  e., 
but  I  will  explain  the  matter  to  you,  for  the  iact  is,  that  this  town  was  the 
repository  of  his  plunder,  and  shared  in  it.--  Vero  bears  to  verum  the  same 
relation  as  autem  to  sed :  it  connects  things  which  are  different,  but  denotes 
the  point  in  favour  of  which  the  decision  should  be;  e.  g  ,  Cic.,  p.  Arch.,  8, 
Homerum  Colophonii  civem  esse  dicunt  suum,  Chii  swum  v.indicant,  Salaminii 
repetunt,  Smyrnaei  vero  suum  esse  conformant ;  in  Verr.,  Hi.,  4,  Odistis  hominum 
novormn  industriam,  dcspicitis  eorum  frugalitatem,  pudvrem  contemnitis,  ingeni- 


2QO  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

urn  vero  et  virtutem  depressam  extinctamque  cupitis.  It  thus  forms  the  transi- 
tion to  something  more  important  and  significant  in  the  phrase,  Illud  vert 
plane  non  est  ferendum,  i.  e.,  that  which  I  am  now  going  to  mention.  Re 
specting  the  use  of  vero  in  answers,  in  the  sense  of  "  yes,"  see  <$>  716. 
Enimvero  is  only  confirming,  "  yes,  truly,"  "  in  truth,"  and  does  not  denote 
opposition.  See  the  whole  passage  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  2ti,  enimvero  hoc 
ferendum  non  est;  and  Terent.,  Andr.,  i.,  3,  init.,  Enimvero,  Dave,  nil  laciest 
segnitiae  neque  socordiae,  i.  e.,  now  truly,  Davus,  there  is  no  time  for  delay 
here.  Comp.  Gronovius  on  Livy,  xxvii.,  30.  Enimvero,  further, forms  the 
transition  to  that  which  is  most  important,  like  vero ;  as  in  Tac.,  Ann., 
xii.,  64,  Enimvero  certamen  acerrimum,  amita  potius  an  mater  apud  Neronem 
praevaleret,  which  is  the  same  as  acerrimum  vero  certamen.  The  compound 
verum  enimvero  denotes  an  emphatic  opposition  which,  as  it  were,  surpass- 
es everything  else  in  importance,  as  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  84,  Si  ullo  in  loco 
ejus  promnciae  frumentum  tanti  fuit,  quanti  iste  aestimavit,  hoc  crimen  in  istum 
reum  valere  oportere  non  arbitror.  Verum  enimvero  cum  esset  IfS.  binis  aut 
etiam  ternis  quibusvis  in  locis  provinciae,  duodenos  sestertios  exegisti. 

[^  349.]  At  denotes  an  opposition  as  equivalent  to  that  which  precedes  ; 
e.  g.,  non  ego,  at  tu  vidisti,  I  have  not  seen  it,  but  you  have,  and  that  is  just 
as  good  ;  homo  etsi  non  sapientissimus,at  amicissimus ;  and  so  we  frequently 
find  it  after  si  in  the  sense  of  "  yet,"  or  "  at  least,"  and  denoting  a  limita- 
tion with  which,  for  the  time,  we  are  satisfied  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Quint.,  31, 
Quint  ius  Naevium  obsecravit,  ut  aliquam,  si  nonpropinquitatis,  at  net  at  is  suae  ; 
si  non  hominis,  at  humanitatis  rationem  haberct.  Hence  it  is  especially  used 
to  denote  objections,  even  such  as  the  speaker  makes  himself  for  the  pur- 
pose of  upsetting  or  weakening  that  which  was  said  before;  Cic.,  p.  Flac., 
14,  At  enim  negas,  &c.  ;  p.  Mur.,  17,  At  enim  in  praeturae  petitione  prior  re- 
nurttiatus  est  Servius.  By  atqui  we  admit  that  which  precedes,  but  oppose 
something  else  to  it,  as  by  the  English  "but  still,"  "  but  yet,"  or  "never- 
theless ;"  e.  g.,  in  Terent.,  Pkorm.,  i.,  4,  26,  iVbn  sum  apud  me.  Atqui  opus 
est  nunc  cum  maxime  ut  sis  ;  Horat.,  Ser?n.,  i.,  9,  52,  Magnum  narras,  vix  cre.d- 
ibile.  Atqui  sic  habet  ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  viii.,  3,  O  rem  difficilem,  inquis,  et  inexpli- 
cabilem.  Atqui  explicunda  est.  And  so,  also,  in  the  connexion  of  sentences, 
when  that  which  is  admitted  is  made  use  of  to  prove  the  contrary,  as  in 
Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  22,  Videtis  nihil  esse  morti  tarn  simile  quam  somnwn.  Atqui 
dormientium  animi  maxime  declarant  divinitatem  suam,  and  yet  the  souls  of 
sleeping  persons  show  their  divine  nature.  Atqui  is  used,  lastly,  in  syllo- 
gisms, when  a  thing  is  assumed  which  had  before  been  left  undecided,  as 
in  Cic.,  Parad.,  iii.,  1,  Quodsi  virtut.es  sunt  pares  inter  se,  paria  etiam  vitia  esse 
necesse  est.  Atqui  pares  esse  virtutes  facile  polest  perspici.  Atqui  thus  fre- 
quently occurs  as  a  syllogistic  particle  in  replies  in  disputations,  but  it 
does  not  denote  a  direct  opposition  of  facts.  Ceterum  properly  signifies 
"  as  for  the  rest,"  but  is  often  used,  especially  by  Curtius,  in  the  same 
sense  as  sed.  Contra  ea,  in  the  sense  of  "  on  the  other  hand,"  may  be 
classed  among  the  conjunctions,  as  in  Livy,  Superbe  a  Samnitibus  legati 
prohibiti  commercio  sunt,  contra  ea  benigne  ab  Siculorum  tyrannis  adjuti.  So, 
also,  adeo,  in  as  much  as  this  adverb  is  used  in  a  peculiar  way  to  form  a  tran- 
sition to  something  essential,  on  which  particular  attention  is  to  be  be- 
stowed ;  e.  g.,  when  Cicero,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  61  has  told  us  that  he  prefers 
introducing  the  witnesses  and  documents  themselves,  he  forms  the  transi- 
tion, Id  adeo  ex  ipso  Senatusconsulto  cognoscite;  and  so,  frequently,  ibid,iv., 
63,  id  adeo  ut  mihi  ex  illis  demonstratum  est,  sicvos  ex  me  cognoscite;  p.  Caec.t 
3,  id  adeo,  si  placet,  considerate.  The  pronoun  always  accompanies  it.  Au- 
tem  may  be  used  in  its  place  ;  in  English  it  may  be  rendered  by  "  and," 
but  the"  pronoun  must  be  pronounced  with  emphasis. 

[§  350.]  9.  Time  is  expressed  by  the  conjunctiones  tem- 
porales  :  quum,  quum  primum,  ut,  ut  primum,  ubi,  post- 
quam,  antequam  and  priusquam,  quando,  simulac  or  simul- 
atque,  or  simul  alone,  dum,  usque  dum,  donee,  quoad. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  261 

Note. — Ut,  as  a  particle  of  time,  signifies  "  when."  Ubi,  properly  an  ad- 
verb of  place,  is  used  in  the  same  sense.  Simulatque  answers  to  our  "  as 
soon  as,"  in  which  sense  simul  alone  is  also  used.  Quando  instead  of 
quum.  is  rare,  as  in  Cic.,  in  Hull.,  ii.,  16,  auctoritatem  Senatus  exto.ru  heredita- 
tis  aditae  sentio,  turn,  quando,  rege  Aegyptio  mortuo,  legatos  Tyrum  misimus. 
The  words  dum,  donee  (donicum  is  obsolete),  and  quoad  have  the  double 
meaning  of  "  as  long  as,"  and  "  until ;"  e.  g.,  donee  eris  felix,  multos  nume- 
rabis  amicos,  "  as  long  as  you  are  in  good  circumstances  ;"  and  foris  expec- 
tavit,  donee  or  dum  exiit,  "  until  he  came  out."  Donee  never  occurs  in  Cae- 
sar, and  in  Cicero  only  once,  in  Verr.,  i.,  6,  usque  eo  timui,  ne  quisle  meafide 
dubitaret,  donee  ad  rejiciendos  judices  venimus,  but  it  is  frequently  used  in 
poetry  and  in  Livy.  The  conjunction  dum  often  precedes  the  adverb  in- 
terea  (or  interim),  and  the  two  conjunctions  dum  and  donee  are  often  prece- 
ded by  the  adverbs  usque,  usque  eo,  usque  adeo,  the  conjunction  either  fol- 
lowing immediately  after  the  adverb,  or  being  separated  from  it  by  some 
words,  as  in  Cicero,  mihi  usque  curae  erit,  quid  agas,  dum  quid  egeris  sciero. 

[§  351.]  10.  The  following  interrogative  particles*  like- 
wise belong  to  the  conjunctions  ;  num,  utru??i,  an,  and  the 
suffix  ne,  which  is  attached  also  to  the  three  preceding 
particles,  without  altering  their  meaning,  numne,  utrumne, 
anne,  and  which  forms  with  hon  a  special  interrogative 
particle  nonne ;  also  ec  and  en,  as  they  appear  in  ecquis, 
ecquando  and  enumquam,  and  numquid,  ecquid,  when  used 
as  pure  interrogative  particles. 

Note. — The  interrogative  particles  here  mentioned  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  the  interrogative  adjectives  and  adverbs,  such  as  quis?  uter? 
ubi  ?  The  latter,  by  reason  of  their  signification,  may  likewise  connect 
sentences,  in  what  are  called  indirect  questions.  (See  §  552.)  The  in- 
terrogative particles  have  no  distinct  meaning  by  themselves,  but  serve 
only  to  give  to  a  proposition  the  form  of  a  question.  This  interrogative 
meaning  may,  in  direct  speech,  be  given  to  a  proposition  by  the  mere  mode 
of  accentuating  it,  viz.,  when  a  question  at  the  same  time  conveys  the  idea 
of  surprise  or  astonishment ;  but  in  indirect  questions  those  interrogative 
particles  are  absolutely  necessary  (the  only  exception  occurs  in  the  case 
of  a  double  question,  see  $  554).  Numquid  and  ecquid  can  be  reckoned 
among  them  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  sometimes  mere  signs  of  a  question, 
like  num,  quid  in  this  case  having  no  meaning  at  all ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  ii., 
2,  Numquid  vos  duas  habetis  patrias,  an  est  ilia  unapatria  communis  ?  have  you, 
perhaps,  two  native  countries,  or,  &c. ;  ecquid  (whether)  in  Italiam  venturi 
sitis  hac  hieme,fac  plane  sciam.  This  is  very  different  from  another  passage 
in  the  same  writer :  ecquid  in  tuam  statuam  contulit  ?  has  he  contributed 
anything  ?  rogavit  me,  numquid  vellem,  he  asked  me  whether  I  wanted  any- 
thing :  in  these  latter  sentences  the  pronoun  quid  retains  its  signification. 
For  en  or  (when  followed  by  a  q)  ecis  (like  num,  ne  and  an}  a  purely  inter- 
rogative particle,  probably  formed  in  imitation  of  the  natural  interrogative 
sound,  and  must  be  distinguished  from  en,  '-behold  !"  See  §  132.  It  nev- 
er appears  alone,  but  is  always  prefixed  to  some  other  interrogative  word. 
Enumquam  is  the  only  word  in  which  the  en  is  used  differently,  e.  g.,  enum- 
quam audisti  ?  didst  thou  ever  hear  ?  enumquam  futurum  est  ?  will  it  ever 
happen  ? 

But  there  are  differences  in  the  use  of  these  particles  themselves.  Num 
(together  with  numne,  numnam,  numquid,  numquidnam.)  and  ec  (en)  in  its 
compounds,  give  a  negative  meaning  to  direct  questions,  that  is,  they  are 
used  in  the  supposition  that  the  answer  will  be  "no ;"  e.  g.,  num  putas  me 

*  [Consult  Philological  Museum,  No.  v.,  p.  317,  seq.~\ — Am.  Ed. 


262  LATIN    GRAMMAR, 

tarn  dementem  fuisse  ?  you  surely  do  not  believe  that,  &c.  Ecquid  alone  is 
sometimes  used  also  in  an  affirmative  sense,  that  is,  in  the  expectation  of 
an  affirmative  answer ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  2,  sed  hens  tu,  ecquid  vides  ca- 
lettdas  venire  ?  in  Catil.,  i.,  8,  ecquid  attendis,  ecquid  animadvertis  horum  sileti- 
tium  ?  do  you  not  observe  their  silence  ?  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  in  general  the  negative  sense  of  these  particles  appears  only  in 
direct,  and  not  in  indirect  questions,  for  in  the  latter  num  and  ec  are  simply 
interrogative  particles  without  implying  negation;  e.  g.,  quaesiviexeo,  num. 
in  senatum  esset  venturus,  whether  he  would  come  to  the  senate,  or  ecquis 
esset  venturus,  whether  any  body  would  come. 

[§  352.]  Ne,  which  is  always  appended  to  some  other  word,  properly 
denotes  simply  a  question  ;  e.  g.,  putasne  me  istud  facere  potuisse  ?  Do  you 
believe  that,  &c.  But  the  Latin  writers  use  such  questions  indicated  by 
ne  also  in  a  more  definite  sense,  so  that  they  are  sometimes  affirmative 
and  sometimes  negative  interrogations.  (Respecting  the  former,  see  Heu- 
singer  on  Cic.,  de  Off.,ni.,  17.)  The  negative  sense  is  produced  by  the 
accent  when  ne  is  attached  to  another  word,  and  not  to  the  principal  verb  ; 
e.  g.,  mene  istud  potuisse  facere  putas  ?  Do  you  believe  that  I  would  have 
done  that '(  or,  hoc.ine credible  est?  Is  that  credible?  The  answer  expected 
in  these  cases  is  "no."  So,  also,  in  a  question  referring  to  the  past;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  18,  Apollinemne  tu  Delium  spoliare  ausus  es?  where  the  an- 
swer is,  "that  is  impossible."  But  when  attached  to  the  principal  verb, 
ne  very  often  gives  the  affirmative  meaning  to  the  question,  so  that  we  ex- 
pect the  answer  "yes,"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Acad.,  ii.,  18,  videsne,  ut  in proverbio  sit 
ovorum  inter  se  similitude  ?  Do  you  not  see  that  the  resemblance  among 
eggs  has  become  proverbial  ?  Cat.  Maj.  10,  videtisne,  ut  apud  Homerum 
saepissime  Nestor  de  virtulibus  suis  praedicet  ?  Do  you  not  see,  &c.  In  the 
same  sense  we  might  also  say,  nonne  vidctis  ?  for  nonne  is  the  sign  of  an 
affirmative  interrogation  ;  e.  g.,  Nonne  poetae  post  mortem  nobilitari  volunt  ? 
Canis  nonne  lupo  similin  est  ?  Utrum,  in  accordance  with  its  derivation 
(from  uter,  which  of  two),  is  used  only  in  double  questions,  and  it  is  imma- 
terial whether  there  are  two  or  three;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  10,  Utrum 
has  (Milonis)  corporis,  an  Pythagorae  tibi  mails  vires  ingenii  dari  ?  ad  Att.,  ix., 
2,  Utrum  hoc  tu  parum  commeministi,  an  ego  non  satis  intellexi,  an  mutasti  sen- 
tentiam  ?  Senec.,  Ep.,  56,  Si  sitis  (if  you  are  thirsty),  nihil  interest,  utrum 
aqua  sit,  an  vinum;  nee  refert,  utrum  sit  aureum  poculum,  an  vitreum,  an  manus 
concava.  Utrum  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  the  interrogative  particle 
Tie,  which,  however,  is  usually  separated  from  it  by  one  or  more  other 
words;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eun.,iv.,  4,  54,  Utrum  taceamne  anpraedicem?  Cic., 
de  Nat ,  Dear.,  ii.,  34,  Videamus  utrum  ea  fortuitane  sint,  an  eo  statu,  &c.  ; 
Nep.,  Iph.,  3,  quum  interrogaretur  utrum  pturis  patrem  matremne  faceret.  In 
later  writers,  however,  we  find  utrumne  united  as  one  word.  Ne  is  rarely 
appended  to  adjective  interrogatives,  though  instances  are  found  in  poe- 
try, as  in  Horat.,  flat.,  ii.,  2,  107,  uterne  ;  ii.,  3,  295,  quone  malo  ;  and  317, 
quantane.  It  is  still  more  surprising  to  find  it  attached  to  the  relative  pro- 
noun, merely  to  form  an  interrogation.  Ibid.,  i.,  10,2;  Terent.,  Adelph., 
ii.,  3,  9. 

[$  353.]  An,  as  a  sign  of  an  indirect  interrogation,  occurs  only  in  the 
writers  of  the  silver  age  (beginning  with  Curtius).  It  then  answers  to 
"  whether  ;"  e.  g.,  consulit  deinde  (Alexander),  an  totius  orbis  imperium  fatis 
sibi  deslinaret  pater.  In  its  proper  sense  it  is  used  only,  and  by  Cicero  ex- 
clusively,* in  a  second  or  opposite  question,  where  we  use  "or,"  as  in  the 

*  The  passages  which  formerly  occurred  here  and  there  in  Cicero,  with 
an  in  the  sense  of  "  whether"  in  simple  indirect  questions,  are  corrected 
in  the  latest  editions.  See  p.  Cluent.,  19,  §  52;  in  Catil,  ii.,  G,  t)  13;  in 
Verr.,  iv.,  12,  §  27.  There  remains  only  quaesivi  an  misisset  in  the  last 

Eassage,  of  which  no  certain  correction  is  found  in  MSS.,  although  the 
lull  itself  is  obvious,  and  Topic.,  21,  $  81,  where  quum  an  sit,  aut  quid  sit, 
aut  quale  sit  quaeritur,  must  be  corrected  according  to  MSS.  into  aut  sitne, 
aut  quid  nit,  &C. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  263 

passage  of  Seneca  quoted  above.  A  sentence  like  quaero  an  argentum  ei 
dederis  cannot,  therefore,  be  unconditionally  recommended  as  good  Latin 
(though  it  is  frequently  done),  arid,  according  to  Cicero,  who  must  be  re- 
garded as  our  model  in  all  matters  of  grammar,  we  ought  to  say  numpe- 
cuniam  ei  dederis,  or  dederisne  ei  pecuniam.  In  direct  interrogations,  when 
no  interrogative  sentence  precedes,  an,  anne,  an  vero  can  likewise  be  used 
only  in  the  sense  of  our  "  or,"  that  is,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  preceding 
interrogation  is  supplied  by  the  mind.  E.  g.,  when  we  say,  "  I  did  not 
intentionally  offend  you,  or  do  you  believe  that  I  take  pleasure  in  hurting 
a  person?"  we  supply  before  "or"  the  sentence,  "  Do  you  believe  this  I" 
and  connect  with  it  another  question  which  contains  that  which  ought  to 
be  the  case  if  the  assertion  were  not  true.  The  Latin  is,  invitus  te  offendi, 
an  putas  me  delectari  laedendis  hominibus  ?  Examples  are  numerous.  Cic., 
Philip.,  i.  6,  Quodsi  scisset,  quam  sententiam  dicturus  essem,  remisisset  aliquid 
profecto  de  severitate  cogendi  (in  senatum).  An  me  censetis  decreturumfuisse, 
&c.,  that  is,  he  would  certainly  not  have  obliged  me  to  go  to  the  senate, 
or  do  you  believe  that  I  should  have  voted  for  him?  p.  Mil.,  23,  Causa 
Milonis  semper  a  senatu  probata  est ;  videbant  enim  sapientissimi  homines  facti 
rationem,  praesentiam  animi,  defensionis  constantiam.  An  vero  obliti  estis,  &c. ; 
de  Fin.,  1.,  8,  Sed  ad  haec,  nisi  molestum  est,  habeo  quae  velim.  An  me, 
inquam,  nisi  te  audire  vellem,  censes  haec  dicturum.  fidsse  ?  In  this  sentence 
we  have  to  supply  before  an,  dicesne  ?  An,  after  a  preceding  question,  is 
rendered  by  "not?"  and  it  then  indicates  that  the  answer  cannot  be 
doubtful;  e.  g.,  Cic.,m  Verr.,\.,2,  Quiddicis?  An  hello  fugitivorum  Siciliam 
virtute  tualiberatam  ?  Do  you  not  say  that  Sicily,  &c.  (In  Latin  we  must 
evidently  supply  utrum  aliud?)  So,  also,  Cat.  Maj.,  6,  A  rebus  gerendis 
senectus  abstrahit.  Quibus  ?  An  his,  quae  gerunturjuventuteacviribus  ?  Sup- 
ply Aliisne?  de  Off.,\.,  15,  Quidnam  benrficio  provocati  facere  debemus  ?  An. 
imitari  agrosfer tiles,  qui  multo  plus  efferunt  quam  acceperunt?  Must  we  not 
imitate?  Hence  such  questions  may  also  be  introduced  by  nonne,  but 
without  allusion  to  an  opposite  question  which  is  implied  in  an. 

[()  354.]  There  is,  however,  one  great  exception  to  the  rule  that  an  is 
used  only  to  indicate  a  second  or  opposite  question,  for  an  is  employed 
after  the  expressions  dubito,  dubium  est,  incertum  est,  and  .several  similar 
ones  ;  such  as  delibero,  haesito,  and  more  especially  after  nescio  or  hand  scio, 
all  of  which  denote  uncertainty,  but  with  an  inclination  in  favour  of  the 
affirmative.  Examples  are  numerous.  Nep.,  Thrasyb.,  1,  Si  per  se  virtus 
sine  for  tuna  ponder  anda  sit,  dubito  an  hunc  primum  omnium  ponam,  if  virtue  is 
to  be  estimated  without  any  regard  as  to  its  success,  I  am  not  certain 
whether  I  should  not  prefer  this  man  to  all  others.  Compare  Heusinger's 
note  on  that  passage.  Curt.,  iv.,  59,  Dicitur  acinace  stricto  Dareus  dubitasse, 
an  fugae  dedecus  honesta  morte  vitaret,  that  is,  he  was  considering  as  to 
whether  he  should  not  make  away  with  himself.  It  is  not  Latin  to  say 
Dubito  annon  for  dubito  an,  for  the  passage  of  Cicero,  de  Off.,  iii.,  12,  dubitat 
an  turpe  non  sit,  signifies,  he  is  inclined  to  believe  that  it  is  not  bad,  putat 
non  turpe  esse,  sed  honestum.  Respecting  incertum  est,  see  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj., 
20,  Moriendum  enim  certe  est,  et  id  incertum,  an  eo  ipso  die,  and  this  is  uncer- 
tain, as  to  whether  we  are  not  to  die  on  this  very  day.  Nescio  an,  or  hand 
scio  an,  are  therefore  used  quite  in  the  sense  of  "  perhaps,"  so  that  they 
are  followed  by  the  negatives  nulius,  nemo,  nunquam,  instead  of  which  we 
might  be  inclined  to  use  ullus,  quisquam,  unquam,  if  we  translate  nescio  an 
by  "I  do  not  know  whether."  See  §  721.  The  inclination  towards  the 
affirmative  in  these  expressions  is  so  universal,  that  such  exceptions  as  in 
Curtius,  ix.,  7,  et  interdum  dubitabat,  an  Macedones — per  tot  naturae  obstantes 
difficultates  secuturi  essent,  even  in  later  writers,  although  in  other  connex- 
ions they  use  an  in  the  sense  of  "  whether,"  must  be  looked  upon  as  rare 
peculiarities.  We  must  farther  observe,  that  when  the  principal  verb  is 
omitted,  an  is  often  used  in  precisely  the  same  sense  as  aut ;  this  is  very 
frequently  the  case  in  Tacitus,  but  occurs  also  in  Cicero,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  32, 
Themistocles,  quum  ei  Simonides,  fl?i  quis  alius,  artern  memoriae  polliceretitr, 


264  LATIN   GRAMMAR. 

&C. ;  ad  Aft.,  i.,  2,  nos  hie  te  ad  mensem  Januarium  expectamus,  ex  qiiodam 
rumore,  an  ex  litteris  tuis  ad  alios  missis.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
the  expression  incertum  est  is  understood  in  such  cases ;  in  Tacitus  it  is 
often  added.  Compare  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  9;  ad  Att.,  ii.  7,  3;  Brut.,  23, 
89.  Cicero,  however,  could  not  go  as  far  as  Tacitus,  who  connects  an 
with  a  verb  in  the  indicative;  Ann.,  xiv.,  7,  Igitur  longum  utriusque  si- 
lentium,  ne  irriti  dissuaderent,  an  eo  descensum  credebant,  instead  of  incertum 
est  factumne  sit  earn  ob  causam,  ne  irriti  dissuaderent,  an  quia  credebant. 

The  conjunction  si  is  sometimes  used  in  indirect  interrogations  instead  of 
num.,  like  the  Greek  d ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxix.,  50,  nihil  aliud  (Philopoemenem) 
locutumferunt,  quam  quaesisse,  si  incolumis  Lycortas  evasisset.  After  the  verb 
experior,  I  try,  it  is  used  also  by  Cicero,  Philip.,  ix.,  1,  non  recusavit,  quo- 
minus  vel  extrcmo  spiritu,  si  quam  opem  reip.ferre  posset,  experiretur.  Respect- 
ing expectare  si,  see  Schneider  on  Caes.,  Hell.  Gall.,  ii.,  9. 

[§  355.]  11.  Most  conjunctions  are  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  proposition  which  they  introduce ;  only  these 
few,  cnim,  autem,  vero,  are  placed  after  the  first  word  of 
a  proposition,  or  after  the  second,  when  the  first  two  be- 
long together,  or  when  one  of  them  is  the  auxiliary  verb 
esse,  as  in  Cicero  (de  Orat.,  i.,  44),  incredibile  est  cnim, 
quam,  sit  omne  jus  civile,  praeter  lioc  nostrum,  inconditum 
ac  paenc  ridiculum  ;  but  rarely  after  several  words,  as  in 
Cic.,  p.  Cluc?it.,  60,  Per  quern  porro  datum  venenum  ? 
wide  sumptum  ?  quae  deinde  interceptio  poculi  ?  cur  non  de 
integro  autem  datum  ?  Compare  Ellendt  on  Cic.,  Brut., 
49.  Quidem  and  quoquc,  when  belonging  to  single  words, 
may  take  any  place  in  a  proposition,  but  they  are  always 
placed  after  the  word  which  has  the  emphasis.  Itaque 
and  igitur  are  used  by  Cicero  with  this  distinction,  that 
itaque,  according  to  its  composition,  stands  first,  while 
igitur  is  placed  after  the  first,  and  sometimes  even  after 
several  words  of  a  proposition  ;  e.  g.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  32, 
Huic  homini  parcetis  igitur,  judices  ?  de  Nat.  Deor.,  iii., 
17,  Ne  Orcus  quidcm  deus  igitur?  But  other  authors, 
especially  later  ones,  place  both  indiscriminately  either 
at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  or  after  it.  In  like 
manner,  tamen  is  put  either  at  the  beginning  of  a  propo- 
sition, or  after  the  first  word. 

[<$>  356.]  Note.— All  the  other  conjunctions  stand  at  the  beginning;  with 
some  this  is  the  case  exclusively ;  viz.,  with  et,  etenim,  ac,  at,  atque,  atqui, 
neque,  nee,  out,  vel,  sive,  sin,  sed,  nam,  verum,  and  the  relatives  quare,  quo- 
circa,  quamobrem  ;  others  are  generally  placed  at  the  beginning,  but  when  a 
particular  word  is  to  be  pronounced  with  peculiar  emphasis,  this  word 
(and  all  that  belongs  to  it)  stands  first,  and  the  conjunction  follows  it,  as 
in  Cicero,  Tantum  moneo,  hoc  tempus  si  amiseris,  te  esse  nullum  unquam 
magis  idoneum  reperturum  ;  valere  ut  malis,  quam  dives  esse  ;  nullum  injustitia 
partum  praemium  tantum  est,  semper  ut  timeas,  semper  ut  adesse,  semper  ut  im- 
pendere  aliquam  poenam  putes.  The  same  is  not  unfrequently  the  case  in 
combinations  of  conjunctions  with  pronouns,  especially  with  the  relative 
pronoun;  e.  g.,  Hoc  quum  dicit,  illud  vult  intelligi ;  qui  quoniam  quid  dicerft 


CONJUNCTIONS.  265 

intdligi  noluit,  omittamus,  Cic.  It  must  be  observed,  as  a  peculiarity,  that 
MLt,  even  without  there  being  any  particular  emphasis,  is  commonly  placed 
after  the  words  nix,  paene,  and  prope,  and  also  after  the  negatives  nullus, 
nemo,  nihil,  and  the  word  tantum;  e.  g.,  vix  ut  arma,  retinere  posset ;  nihit  ut 
de  commodis  suis  cogitarent.  The  conjunctions  que,  ve,  and  ne  are  appended 
to  other  words,  and  stand  with  them  at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition ; 
but  when  a  monosyllabic  preposition  stands  at  the  beginning  they  often 
attach  themselves  to  the  case  governed  by  those  prepositions ;  e.  g.,  Ro- 
mam  Cato  (Tusculo)  demigravit,  inforoque  esse  coepit ;  legatum  miserunt,  ut  is 
apud  eum  causam  aratorum  ageret,  ab  eoque  peteret ;  and  so,  also,  ad  populum 
ad  plebemve  ferre  ;  in  nostrane  potestate  est  quid  meminerimus  ?  We  never 
find  adque,  obque,  aque ;  whereas  proque  summa  benevolentia,  and  the  like, 
are  used  exclusively;  and  in  other  combinations  either  method  may  be 
adopted :  cumque  his  copiis  and  cum  firmisque  praesidiis ;  exque  his  and  ex 
Usque  •  eque  republica,  deque  universa  rep.  and  de  provinciaque  decessit.  Apud 
quosque,  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  35,  is  an  excusable  peculiarity,  because  apudque 
quos  would  be  against  all  euphony. 

[$  357.]  What  was  said  above  concerning  the  different  positions  of 
itaque  and  igitur  in  Cicero  is  well  known,  and  generally  correct ;  but  it  is 
not  so  well  known  that  igitur  is,  nevertheless,  placed  by  that  author  now 
and  then  at  the  beginning  of  a  proposition,  and  that  not  only  in  philosophic 
reasonings,  as  Bremi  states  on  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  18,  and  as  we  find  it  in  dc 
Fin.,  iv.,  19,  si  illud,  hoc:  non  aute?n  hoc,  igitur  ne  illud  qu idem  ;  but  in  the 
ordinary  connexion  of  sentences;  in  Rull.,  ii.,  27,  igitur  pecuniam  omnem 
Decemviri  tenebunt ;  de  Prov.  Cons.,  4,  igitur  in  Syria  nihil  aliud  actum  est; 
LaeL,  11,  igitur  ne  suspicari  quidem  possumus  ;  Philip.,  ii.,  16,  in  fin.,  igitur 
Jratrem.  exheredans  te  faciebat  heredem ;  Philip.,  X.,  8,  igitur  illi  certissimi 
Caesaris  dctorum  patroni  pro  I).  Bruti  salute  belium  gerunt ;  de  Leg.,  i. ,  6, 
Igitur  doctissimis  viris  projicisci  placuit  a  lege ;  ad  Alt.,  vi.,  i.,  22,  Igitur  tu 
quoque  salutem  utique  adscribito.  Sallust  too  frequently  places  igitur  at  the 
beginning.  But  itaque  in  the  second  place  does  not  occur  in  Cicero,  for 
in  Philip.,  vii.,  3,  we  must  read,  according  to  the  best  MS.,  igitur,  instead 
of  itaque,  in  the  sentence,  ego  itaque  pads,  ut  ita  dicam,  alumnus,  and  in 
Partit.  Oral.,  7,  quidem  is  more  correct.  In  Curtius,  itaque  appears  in  the 
second  place  only  once  (vii.,  39).  In  like  manner,  the  rule  cannot  be 
upset  by  the  few  passages  in  which  Cicero  places  vero,  in  answers,  at  the 
beginning  (just  as  enim  is  used  by  the  comic  writers).  See  de  Republ,  i., 
37,  $'  43  ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  24 ;  in  Rull,  ii.,  25 ;  p.  Mur.,  31,  $  65. 

[§  358.]  All  this  applies  only  to  the  practice  of  prose  writers.  Poets, 
according  to  the  necessity  of  the  verse,  place  even  the  prepositive  con- 
junctions after  one  or  more  words  of  a  proposition;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Epod., 
17,  45,  et  tu,  poles  nam,  solve  me  dementiae  ;  Serm.,  i.,  5,  86,  quattuor  hinc 
rapimur  viginti  et  milia  rhedis  ;  ibid.,  i.,  10,  71,  vivos  et  roderet  ungues.  They 
separate  et  from  the  word  belonging  to  it ;  as,  Horat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  4,  6,  audire 
et  videor  pios  errareper  lucos  ;  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  3,  Auctius  atque  dii  melius  fecere  ; 
and  they  append  que  and  ve  neither  to  the  first  word  of  a  proposition,  nor 
to  their  proper  words  in  other  connexions  ;  e.  g.,  Tibull.,  i.,  3,  55, 
Hie  jacet  immiti  consumptus  morte  Tibullus, 

Messallam  terra  dum  scquiturque  mari, 
instead  of  the  prose  form  terra  marique  ;  and  in  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  3,  139, 

Non  Pyladen  ferro  violare  aususve  sororem. 

But  it  is  to  be  observed  that  those  conjunctions  in  such  arbitrary  positions 
are  joined  only  to  verbs.  Isolated  exceptions,  such  as  in  Horat.,  Carm., 
ii.,  19,28,  pads  eras  mediusque  belli;  and  iii,  1,  12,  Moribus  hie  meliorque 
fama  contendat ;  Ovid.,  Met.,  ii.,  89,  dum  resque  sinit ;  and  Pcdp  Albin., 
de  Morte  Drusi,  20,  cannot  be  taken  into  account. 

Z 


266  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  LXVIII. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

[§  359.]  1.  INTERJECTIONS  are  sounds  uttered  under 
the  influence  of  strong  emotions.  They  are  indeclinable, 
and  stand  in  no  close  connexion  with  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence ;  for  the  dative  and  accusative,  which  are  joined 
with  some  of  them,  are  easily  explained  by  an  ellipsis. 
See  §  402  and  403. 

2.  The  number  of  interjections  in  any  language  cannot 
be  fixed.     Those  which  occur  most  frequently  in  Latin 
authors  are  the  following  : 
-  (a)  Of  joy :  io,  iu,  ha,  he,  hahahe,  euoe,  euax. 

fbj  Of  grief:  vac,  lieu,  chcu,  ohe,  au,  hei,  pro. 

(c)  Of  astonishment :  o,  en  or  ccce,  hui,  hem,  ehem,  aha, 
atat,  papac,  vah  ;   and  of  disgust :  phui,  apage.      (See  § 
222.) 

(d)  Of  calling :   lieus,  o,  cho,  ehodum  ;    of  attestation : 
pro,  also  written  prcili. 

(e)  Of  praise  or  flattery  :  eia,  eiige. 

[§  360.]  3.  Other  parts  of  speech,  especially  nouns, 
substantive  and  adjective,  adverbs  and  verbs,  and  even 
complex  expressions,  such  as  oaths  and  invocations,  must 
in  particular  connexions  be  regarded  as  interjections. 
Such  nouns  are:  pax  (be  still!),  malum,  indignum,  ne- 
Jandum,  miserum,  miserabilc — to  express  astonishment 
and  indignation ;  macte,  and  with  a  plural  macti,  is  ex- 
pressive of  approbation.  (See  §  103.)  Adverbs :  nae, 
profecto,  cito,  bcne,  belle  !  Verbs  used  as  interjections 
are :  quaeso,  precor,  oro,  obsccro,  amabo  (to  all  of  which 
te  or  vos  may  be  added),  used  in  imploring  and  request- 
ing. So,  also,  age,  agitc,  ccdo,  sodes  (for  si  audes),  sis, 
sultis  (for  si  vis,  si  vultis),  and  agesis,  agedum,  agitedum. 

Note. — Nae  in  the  best  writers  is  joined  only  with  pronouns :  nae  ego, 
nae  illi  vehementer  errant,  nae  ista  gloriosa  sapientia  non  magni  aestimanda  est, 
Pyrrhus,  after  the  battle  of  Heraclea,  said,  Nae  ego,  si  iterum  codem  modo 
vicero,  sine  ullo  milite  in  Epirum  revertar,  Oros.,  iv.,  1. 

[§  361.]  4.  Among  the  invocations  of  the  gods,  the  fol- 
lowing are  particularly  frequent :  meherculc,  mehercle, 
Jiercule,  hercle,  or  mehcrcules,  Jicrculcs,  mcdius  fidius,  me- 
castor,  ecastor,  pol,  cdepol,  per  deum,  per  deum  immortalem, 
per  deos,  per  Jovcm,  pro  (or  proh)  Juppitcr,pro  sancte  (su- 


SYNTAX.  267 

preme)  Juppiter,  pro  dii  immortalcs,  pro  deum  fidem,  pro 
deum  atque  hominum  fidem ,  pro  deum  or  pro  deum  immor- 
talium  (scil.jfidemj,  and  several  others  of  this  kind. 

Note.— Me  before  the  names  of  gods  must  be  explained  by  an  ellipsis  : 
the  complete  expression  was,  ita  me  (e.  g.,  Hewules}  juvet ;  or  with  the 
vocative,  ita  me  Hercule  juves.  The  interjection  medius fidius  arose,  in  all 
probability,  from  me  dius  (Aidf)  fidius,  which  is  archaic  for  filius,  and  is 
thus  equivalent  to  mehercules,  for  Hercules  is  the  son  of  that  god.  Meher- 
cule  is  the  form  which  Cicero  (Qrat.,  47)  approves,  and  which,  along  with 
hercule,  occurs  most  frequently  in  his  writings.  See  my  note  on  in  Verr., 
in.,  62.  The  oath  by  Pollux  (pol)  is  a  very  light  one,  and  hence  it  is 
given  especially  to  women  in  the  comic  writers.  In  edepol  and  edecastor  the 
e  is  either  the  same  as  me,  or  it  is  a  mere  sound  of  interjection  ;  de  is  deus.  * 


SYNTAX. 

I.  CONNEXION  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.! 
CHAPTER  LXIX. 

[§  362.]  1.  THE  subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  concern- 
ing which  anything  is  declared,  and  the  predicate  that 
which  is  declared  concerning  the  subject.  The  subject 
appears  either  in  the  form  of  a  substantive,  or  in  that  of 
an  adjective  or  pronoun,  supplying  the  place  of  a  substan- 
tive. Whenever  there  is  no  such  grammatical  subject, 
the  indeclinable  part  of  speech  or  proposition  which  takes 
its  place  is  treated  as  a  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender. 
(Compare  §  43.) 

[§  363.]  Note  1. — The  manner  in  which  a  pronoun  supplies  the  place  of 
a  substantive  requires  no  explanation.  An  adjective  can  be  used  as  i 
substantive  only  when  a  real  substantive  is  understood.  J  The  substan- 
tive most  frequently  and  easily  understood  is  homo,  and  many  Latin  words 
which  are  properly  adjectives  have  thus  acquired  the  meaning  of  substan- 
tives ;  e.  g.,  amicus,  familiaris,  aequalis,  vicinus,  &c.  (see  §  410,  foil.),  and 
others,  such  as  socius,  servus,  libertinus,  reus,  candidalus,  although  most  fre- 
quently used  as  substantives,  nevertheless  occur  also  as  adjectives.  But 
upon  this  point  the  Dictionary  must  be  consulted,  and  we  only  remark  that 

*  [The  more  common,  and  very  probably  the  more  correct  opinion 
makes  edepol  and  edecastor  to  be  for  per  cedem  P^ollucis,  and  per  acdem  Cas- 
toris,  i.  e.,  "  by  the  temple  of  Pollux,"  &c.  These  forms  are  still  farther 
shortened  into  Epol,  Ecastor.  The  dental  D  appears  to  have  been  dropped 
in  the  forms  of  the  old  Latin  language  when  preceded  and  followed  by  a 
vowel,  just  as  we  find  it  to  be  frequently  the  case  in  the  French  forms  of 
Latin  words.  (Donaldson's  Varronianus,  p.  272,  note.)"] — Am.  Ed. 

t  [For  a  more  extended  view  of  this  subject,  consult  Weissenborn 
(Lat.  Schulgramm.,  p.  184,  seqq.).] — Am.  Ed. 

J  [Writers  on  general  grammar  make  the  adjective  as  truly  a  noun,  or 
the  name  of  a  thing,  as  a  substantive.  (Consult  Donaldson's  New  Cratylus, 
p.  375,  seqq.)] — Am.  Ed. 


268  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ordinary  adjectives  are  used  as  substantives  with  the  ellipsis  of  homo,  as 
bonus,  nocens,  innocens.  But  an  adjective  in  the  singular  is  not  commonly 
used  in  this  way,  and  we  scarcely  ever  find  such  a  phrase  as  probus  nemi 
nem  laedit,  instead  of  homo  probus  neminem  laedit.  Sapiois,  a  sage,  or  a  phi 
losopher,  and  liber,  a  free  man,  alone  are  used  as  substantives  in  the  sin 
gular.  In  the  plural,  however,  the  omission  of  the  substantive  homines, 
denoting  general  classes'  of  men,  is  much  more  frequent,  and  we  find, 
e.  g.,  pauperes,  divites,  boni,  improbi,  docti,  and  indocti,  just  as  we  say  the 
rich,  the  poor,  &c.  It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  very  few  adjec- 
"tives,  when  used  as  substantives,  can  be  accompanied  by  other  adjectives, 
and  we  cannot  say,  e.  g.,  multi  docti  for  multi  homines  (viri)  docli.*  The 
neuters  of  adjectives  of  the  second  declension,  however,  are  used  very 
frequently  as  substantives,  both  in  the  singular  and  plural.  Thus  we  read 
bonum,  a  good  thing ;  contrarium,  the  contrary  ;  verum,  that  which  is  true  ; 
malum,  evil  ;  honestum  in  the  sense  of  virtus,  and  bona,  mala,  contraria,  &.c 
In  the  plural  neuter  adjectives  of  the  third  declension  are  used  in  the 
same  way  ;  as,  turpia,  levia,  coelestia.  But  the  Latins,  in  general,  preferred 
adding  the  substantive  res  to  an  adjective,  to  using  the  neuter  of  it  as  a 
substantive  ;  as,  res  contrariae,  res  multae,  res  leviorcs,  just  as  we  do  in 
English. 

[^  364.]  Note  2.— It  is  worth  noticing  that  the  word  miles  is  frequently 
used  in  Latin  in  the  singular  where  we  should  have  expected  the  plural ; 
e.  g.,  in  Curtius,  iii.,  init.,  Alexander  ad  conducendum  ex  Pe.loponneno  militem 
Cleandrum  cum  pecunia  mittit ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.,  31,  cingebatur  interim  milite 
domus,  strepebant  etiam  in  vestibulo.  Similar  words,  such  as  equcs,pedes,  are 
used  in  the  same  way,  and  the  instances  are  very  numerous.!  Romanus, 
Poenus,  and  others  are  likewise  used  for  Romani  and  Poeni  in  the  sense  of 
Roman,  Punian  soldiers. 

[§  365.]  2.  The  predicate  appears  either  in  the  form  of 
a  verb,  or  of  the  auxiliary  combined  with  a  noun. 

The  predicate  accommodates  itself  as  much  as  possible 
to  its  subject.  When  the  predicate  is  a  verb,  it  must  be 
in  the  same  number  as  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  arbor  virct,  the 
tree  is  green;  arbores  virent,  the  trees  are  green;  deus  est, 
God  is ;  dii  sunt,  the  gods  are  or  exist.  When  the  pred- 
icate is  an  adjective,  participle,  or  adjective  pronoun, 
combined  with  the  auxiliary  esse,  it  takes  the  number  and 
gender  of  the  subject;  e.  g.,  puer  cst  modestus,  libri  sunt 
mei,  prata  sunt  secta.  When  the  predicate  is  a  substan- 
tive with  the  auxiliary  essc,  it  is  independent  of  the  sub- 
ject both  in  regard  to  number  and  gender ;  e.  g.,  captivi 
militum  praeda  fuerant  ;  amicitia  vinculum  quoddam  est 
lioininum  inter  se.  But  when  a  substantive  has  two  forms, 
one  masculine  and. the  other  feminine;  as,  rex,  rcgina ; 
magister,  magistra ;  inventor,  inventrix ;  indagator,  in- 
dagatrix  ;  corruptor,  corruptrix  ;  praeceptor,  praeceptrix, 

*  [But  we  can  say  multa  bona,  plurimi  improbi,  &c.  Consult  Billroth, 
Lat.  Gr.,  p.  204,  ed.  Ellendt.]—Am.  Ed. 

f  [In  all  these  cases  we  are  to  regard  miles,  eques,  &c.,  as  collective 
nouns.  A  much  rarer  usage  is  the  following,  rex  for  reges  (Cic.,  Deiot.,  9, 
26);  amicus  for  amicorum  genus,  (Cic.,  Lael.,  16,65.)] — Am.  Ed. 


SYNTAX.  269 

the  predicate  must  appear  in  the  same  gender  as  the  sub- 
ject ;  e.  g.,  licentia  corruptrix  est  morum  ;  stilus  optimus 
est  dicendi  effector  et  magister.  When  the  subject  is  a 
neuter  the  predicate  takes  the  masculine  form,  the  latter 
being  more  nearly  allied  to  the  neuter  than  the  feminine ; 
e.  g.,  tcmpus  vitae  magister  est.  When  the  subject  is  a 
noun  epicene  (see  §  42),  the  predicate  follows  its  gram- 
matical gender  ;  as,  aquila  volucrum  regina,fida  ministra 
Jovis,  though  it  would  not  be  wrong  to  say  aquila  rex  vo- 
lucrum. 

It  is  only  by  way  of  exception  that  esse  is  sometimes 
connected  with  adverbs  of  place ;  such  as  aliquis  or  all- 
quid  prope,  propter,  longe,  procul  est,  or  when  esse  signi- 
fies "  to  be  in  a  condition ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam,  ix.,  9, 
praeterea  rectissime  sunt  apud  te  omnia,  everything  with 
you  is  in  a  very  good  state  or  condition;  de  Leg.,  i.,  17, 
quod  est  longe  aliter  ;  Liv.,  viii.,  19  (dicebant),  se  sub  im- 
perio  populi  Romani  Jidcliter  atque  obedienter  futuros. 
Sallust  and  Tacitus  connect  esse,  also,  with  the  adverbs 
abunde,  impune,  ond.J'rustra,  and  use  them  as  indeclinable 
adjectives  ;  e.  g.,  omnia  mala  abunde  erant ;  ea  resfrustra 
fuit;  dicta  impune  erant*  &/a^4.4u, 

[§  306.]  Note  1. — Collective  nouns,  that  is,  such  as  denote  a  multitude 
of  individual  persons  or  things;  e.  g.,  multitude,  turba,  vis,  exercitus,  juven- 
tus,  nobilitas,  gens,  plebs,  vulgus,  frequently  occur  in  poetry  with  a  plural 
verb  for  their  predicate ;  e.  g.,  Ovid.,  Metam.,  xii.,  53,  Atria  turba  tenent, 
veniunt  lege  vulgus  euntque ;  Fast.,  ii.,  507,  Tura  f erant  placentque  novum  pia 
turba  Quirinwn.  As  for  the  practice  of  prose  writers,  there  is  no  passage 
in  Cicero  to  prove  that  he  used  this  construction  (see  my  note  on  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,i.,  31,  80),  and  in  Caesar  and  Sallust  it  occurs  either  in  some  soli- 
tary instance,  as  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  6,  quum  tanta  multitudo  lapides  ac 
tela  conjicerent,  or  the  passages  are  not  critically  certain.  (See  Oudendorp 
on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  hi.,  17,  and  Corte  on  Sallust,  Jugurth.,  28.)  But 
Livy  takes  greater  liberty,  and  connects  collective  substantives  with 
the  plural,  as  ii.,  5,  Desectam  segetem  magna  vis  hominum  immissa  corbibus 
fudere  in  Tiberim  ;  xxiv.,  3,  Locros  omnis  multitudo  abeunt ;  xxxii.,  12,  Cetera 
omnis  multitudo,  velut  signum  aliquod  secuta,  in  umim  quum  convenisset,  fre- 

Stenti  agmine  petunt  Thessaliam.  (Compare  Drakenborch  on  xxxv.,  26.) 
e  even  expresses  the  plurality  of  a  collective  noun  by  using  the  noun 
standing  by  its  side  in  the  plural ;  as  in  xxvi.,  35,  Haec  non  in  occulto,  sed 
propalam  inforo  atque  oculis  ipsorum  Consulum  ingens  turba  circumfusi  freme- 
bant ;  xxv.,  34,  Cuneus  is  hostium,  qui  in  confertos  circa  ducem  impetumfecerat, 
•ut  exanimem  labentem  ex  equo  Scipionem  vidit,  alacres  gaudio  cum  clamore  per 
totam  aciem  nuntiantes  discurnmt  ;  xxvii.,  51,  turn  enimvero  omnis  aetas  currere 
obvii ;  SO,  also,  in  i.,  41,  clamor  inde  concursusque  populi,  mirantium  quid  rei 
esset.  But  such  instances  are,  after  all,  rare  and  surprising.  The  case  is 
different  when  the  notion  of  a  plurality  is  derived  from  a  collective  noun 
of  a  preceding  proposition,  and  made  the  subject  of  a  proposition  which 
follows.  Instances  of  this  kind  occur  now  and  then  in  Cicero;  de  Nat. 

*  [Consult  Weissenborn,  Lat.  Schulgr.,  p.  180,  §  155,  Anm.  3.]— Am.  Ed. 

Z  2 


270  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Deor.,  ii.,  6,  ut  hoc  idem  generihumano  evenerit,  quod  in  terra  collocati  sint,  be- 
cause they  (viz.,  homines)  live  on  earth  ;  p.  Arch.,  12,  qui  est  ex~eo  numero, 
qui  semper  apud  omnes  sancti  sunt  habiti ;  and  with  the  same  collective  noun, 
p.  Marc.,  i.  ;  p.  Quint.,  23.  They  are  still  more  frequent  in  Livy  ;  iv.,  56, 
Ita  omnium  populorum  juventus  Antium  contracta :  ibi  castris  positis  hostem 
opperiebantur  ;  vi.,  17,  Jam  ne  node  quidem  turba  ex  eo  loco  dilabebatur,  refrac- 
turosque  carcerem  minabantur.  See  the  passages  iri  Drakenborch  on  xxi., 
7,  1 

[§  367.]  A  plural  verb  is  sometimes  used  by  classical  prose  writers 
(though  not  by  Cicero)  after  uterque,  quisque  (especially  pro  se  quisque},  pars 
— pars  (for  alii—alii],  alius — alium,  and  alter — alterum  (one  another  or  each 
other),  for  these  partitive  expressions  contain  the  idea  of  plurality  ;  e.  g., 
Caes.,  Bell.,  Civ.,  iii.,  30,  Eodem  die  uterque.  eorum  ex  castris  stativis  txerci- 
tum  cducunt  ;  L/iv.,  ii.,  15,  missi  honuratissimus  quisque  ex  patribus  ;  ii.,  59, 
cetera  mult  Undo  decimus  quisque  ad  supplicium  lecti.  Sometimes  the  plural 
of  a  participle  is  added  ;  as  Curt.,  iii.,  6,  pro  se  quisque  dextram  ejus  amplexi 
grates  kabebant  velut  praesenti  deo  ;  Liv.,  ix.,  14,  Pro  se  quisque  non  haec  Fur- 
culas,  nee  Caudium,  nee  saltus  invios  esse  memorantes,  caedunt  pariter  resisten- 
tes  fusosque  •  Tacit.,  Ann.,  ii.,  24,  pars  navium  haustae  sunt,  plures  ejectae 
(instead  of  pars — pars,  the  place  of  one  of  them  being  frequently  supplied  by 
pauci,  nonnulli,  plcriquc  or  plures,  as  in  our  case)  ;  Liv.,  ii,  10,  dum  alius  alium 
ut  proelium  incipiant,  circumspectant.  Expressions  like  these  may  derive  their 
explanation  from  propositions,  in  which  the  comprehensive  plural  is  used 
in  the  first  part,  and  afterward  the  partitive  singular ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Jug., 
58,  At  nostri  repcntino  metu  perculsi,  sibi  quisque  pro  moribus  consulunt :  alii 
fugere,  alii  arma  capere,  magna  pars  vulnerati  aut  occisi  ;  and  in  Livy,  Ceteri 
suo  quisque  tempore  aderunt,  or  Decemviri  perturbati  alius  in  aliam  partem  cos- 
trorum  discurrunt. 

[§  368.]  Note  2,— The  natural  rule,  according  to  which  the  adjective 
parts  of  speech  take  the  gender  of  the  substantives  to  which  they  belong, 
seems  to  be  sometimes  neglected,  inasmuch  as  we  find  neuter  adjectives 
joined  with  substantives  of  other  genders  :  Triste  lupus  stabulis ;  varium 
et  mutabilc  semper  femina  in  Virgil,  and  Omnium  rerum  mors  est  extremum, 
even  in  Cicero.  But  in  these  cases  the  adjective  is  used  as  a  substantive, 
and  triste,  for  example,  is  the  same  as  "something  sad,"  or  "  a  sad  thing," 
and  we  might  use  res  tristis  instead  ;  as,  Livy,  ii.,  3,  says,  leges  rem  surdam, 
int'xorabilem  esse.  A  real  exception  occurs  in  what  is  called  constructio  ad 
synesim,  that  is,  when  substantives,  which  only  in  their  figurative  sense 
denote  human  beings,  have  a  predicate  in  the  true  gender  of  the  person 
spoken  of,  without  regard  to  the  grammatical  gender  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  x.,  1,  cap- 
ita  conjurationis  ejus,  quaestione  ab  Consulibus  ex  senatusconsulto  habita,  virgis 
caesi  ac  securi  percussi  sunt.  So,  also,  auxilia  (auxiliary  troops)  irati,  Liv., 
xxix.,  12,  where  Gronovius's  note  must  be  consulted.  The  relative  pro- 
noun (see  §  371),  when  referring  to  such  substantives,  frequently  takes  the 
gender  of  the  persons  understood  by  them.  Thus,  mancipium,  animal,  furia, 
scelus,  monstrum,  prodigium,  may  be  followed  by  the  relative  qui  or  quae.  ac- 
cording as  either  a  man  or  a  woman  is  meant ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  32, 
Qiiod  unquam  hujusmodi  monstrum  aut  prodigium  audivimus  aut  vidimus,  qui 
cum  reo  transigat,  post  cum  accusatore  decidat  ?  ad  Fam.,  i.,  9,  Primum  ilia  furia 
muliebrium  religionum.  (Clodius),  qui  non  phiris  feccrat  Bonam  Deam  quam  Ires 
sorores,  impunitatem  est  assecutus.  See  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxix.,  12.  Af- 
ter milia  the  predicate  sometimes  takes  the  gender  of  the  persons,  whose 
number  is  denoted  by  milia ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,iv.,  19,  duo  milia  Tyriorum,  crudbus 
affixi,  per  ingens  litoris  spatium  pependenmt ;  Liv.,  xl.,  41,  ad  sepfem  milia 
hominum  in  naves  impositos  praeter  oram  Etrusci  maris  Neapolim  Iransmisit. 
Usually,  however,  the  neuter  is  used.  See  the  collection  of  examples  in 
Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxxvii.,  39,  in  fin.  As  to  other  cases  of  constructio 
ad  synesim,  which  do  not  belong  to  grammar,  but  are  irregularities  of  ex- 
pression, see  Corte  ou  Sallust,  Cat.,  18. 

[$  369.]  Note  3.— When  the  substantive  forming  the  subject  has  a  dif- 


SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  271 

ferent  number  from  that  which  is  its  predicate,  the  verb  esse  (and  all  other 
verbs  of  existence)  follows  the  subject,  as  in  the  above  quoted  passage  of 
Livy,  xxi.,  15,  Quamquam  captivi  militum  praeda  fuerant.  So,  also,  Cic.,  de 
Fin.,  v.,  10,  quae  (omnia)  sine  dubio  vitae  sunt  eversio  ;  Ovid,  Met.,  viii.,  636, 
tola  domus  duo  sunt ;  Tac.  Ann.,  iv.,  5,  praecipuum  robur  Rhenum  juocta  octo  le- 
gioncs  erant,  for  legiones  is  the  subject;  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  iv.,  5,  angustiae, 
unde  procedit  Peloponnesus,  Isthmos  appellantur.  But  we  also  find,  and  per- 
haps even  more  frequently,  that  the  verb  takes  the  number  of  the  sub- 
stantive which  is  properly  the  predicate  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  4,  aude  nunc, 
o  furia,  de  tuo  consulatu  dicere,  cujus  fuit  initium  ludi  Compitalicii ;  Sallust, 
Jug.,  21,  possedere  ea  loca,  quae  proxuma  Carthaginem  Numidia  appellatur  ; 
Terent.,  Andr.,  iii.,  2,  23,amantium  irae  amoris  integratio  est ;  Liv.,  i.,  34,  cui 
Tarquinii  materna  tantum  patria  esset ;  ii.,  54,  Manlio  Veientes  provincia  evenit; 
xlv.,  39,  pars  non  minima  triumphi  est  victimae  praecedentes.  In  propositions 
like  that  of  Seneca,  Epist.,  4,  Atagnae  divitiae  sunt  lege  naturae  composite^ 
paupertas ;  and  Cicero,  Parad.,  in  fin.,  Contention  vero  suis  rebus  esse  maximae 
sunt  certissimaeque  divitiae,  the  plural  is  less  surprising.  But  it  is  clear 
that,  where  the  subject  and  predicate  may  be  exchanged  or  transposed,  the 
verb  takes  the  number  of  the  substantive  nearest  to  it.  When  the  predi- 
cate is  a  participle  combined  with  esse  or  videri,  the  participle  takes  the 
gender  of  the  substantive  which  is  nearest  to  it,  according  to  the  rule  ex- 
plained in  §  376.  Thus  we  find  in  Cicero,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  43,  non  omnis  error 
stultitia  est  dicenda  ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  7,  unde  etiam  universus  hie  mundus  una  civitas 
communis  deorum  atque  hominum  existimanda  (est)  ;  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i.,  2,  44, 
paupertas  mihi  onus  visum  est  miserum  et  grave.  If  we  transpose  non  est  om- 
nis stultitia  error  dicendus,  and  visa  mihi  semper  est  paupertas  grave  o?ius  et 
miserum,  the  propositions  are  just  as  correct.  But  in  Justin,  i.,  2,  Semira- 
mis,  sexum  mentita,  puer  esse  credita  est,  the  feminine  would  be  necessary 
for  the  sake  of  clearness,  even  if  there  were  no  verb  esse. 

[§370.]  3.  When  nouns  are  combined  with  one  anoth- 
er, without  being  connected  by  the  verb  esse,  or  by  a  rel- 
ative pronoun  and  esse,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  only 
one  idea,  as  in  "  a  good  man,"  the  adjective,  participle, 
or  pronoun  follows  the  substantive  in  gender,  number,  and 
case ;  e.  g.,  huic  modesto  puero  credo,  Jianc  modestam  vir- 
ginem  diligo. 

When  two  substantives  are  united  with  each  other  in  this 
way,  they  are  said,  in  grammatical  language,  to  stand  in 
apposition  to  each  other,  and  the  one  substantive  explains 
and  defines  the  other  ;  e.  g.,  oppidum  Pacstum,  arbor  lau- 
rus,  Taurus  inons,  lupus  piscis,  Socrates  vir  sapientissimus. 
The  explanatory  substantive  (substantivum  appositum) 
takes  the  same  case  as  the  one  which  is  explained  ;  e.  g., 
Socratem,  sapientissimum  virum,  Athenienses  intcrfcccrunt 
(an  exception  occurs  in  names  of  towns,  see  §  399).  They 
may  differ  in  number  and  gender;  as,  urbs  Atkcnac,  pisces 
signum ;  Virg.,  Eclog.,  ii.,  1,  Formosum  pastor  Cory  don 
ardebat  Alexin,  delicias  domini ;  but  when  the  substan- 
tive in  apposition  has  two  genders,  it  takes  the  one  which 
answers  to  that  of  the  other  substantive.  (Comp.  above, 
§  365.)  The  predicate  likewise  follows  the  substantive 


272  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

which  is  to  be  explained,  as  in  Cicero,  Tulliola^  ddiciolae 
nostrae,  tuum  munusculum  Jlagitat ;  Quum  duo  fulmina 
nostri  imperil  subito  in  Hispania,  Cn.  ct  P.  Scipiones,  ex- 
tincti  occidissent,  for  the  words  duo  fidmina,  though  placed 
first,  are  only  in  apposition.  When  plural  names  of  pla- 
ces are  explained  by  the  apposition  urbs,  oppidum,  civitas, 
the  predicate  generally  agrees  with  the  apposition ;  e.  g., 
Pliny,  Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorum  opulcntis&imumr  con- 
crematum  cstfulmine. 

O  vitae  philosophia  dux  (magistra),  virtutis  indagatrix  ex- 
pultrixquc  vitiorum  !  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  2  :  PytJiagoras  ve- 
lut  genitricem  mrtutum  frugalitatem  omnibus  ingercbat 
(commendabat),  Justin.,  xx.,  4. 

Note.— Occasionally,  however,  the  predicate  follows  the  substantive  irx 
apposition  ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Hist.,  i.,  Oral.  Phil.,  Qui  videmini  intenta  mala, 
quasi  fulmen,  optare  se  quisque  ne  attingat,  although  the  construction  is,, 
opt  are  ne  mala  se  attingant.  It  arises  from  the  position  of  the  words,  the 
verb  accommodating  itself  to  the  subject  which  is  nearest.  Hence  it  not 
unfrequently  happens,  1,  that  the  verb,  contrary  to  the  grammatical  rule> 
agrees  with  the  nearest  noun  of  a  subordinate  sentence ;  as  in  Sallust, 
Cat.,  25,  Sed  ei  cariora  semper  omnia,  quam  decus  atque  pudicitia  fuit ;  Cic., 
Phil.,  iv.,  4,  Quis  igitur  ilium  consulcmf  nisi  latrones,  putant  ?  and,  2,  that  the 
adjective  parts  of  speech  take  the  gender  and  number  of  the  noun  in  ap- 
position or  of  the  subordinate  sentence  ;  e.g.,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  5,  Co- 
rinthum  patres  vestri,  totius  Graeciae  lumen,  extinctum  esse  voluerunt ;  Nep., 
Them.,  1,  illorum  urbem  ut  propugnaculum  oppositum  esse  barbaris. 

[§  371.]  4.  When  a  relative  or  demonstrative  pronoun; 
refers  to  a  noun  in  another  sentence,  the  pronoun  agrees 
with  it  in  gender  and  number ;  e.  g.,  tarn  modestus  ille 
puer  est,  quern  vidisti,  de  quo  audivisti,  cujus  tutor  es^  ut 
omncs  eum  diligant.  When  the  verb  itself  or  a  whole  prop- 
osition is  referred  to,  it  is  treated  as  a  neuter  substantive, 
and  in  this  case  id  quod  is  generally  used  instead  of  quod  ? 
e.  g.,  Nep.,  Timol.,  1,  Timolcon,id  quod  diffieilius  putatur,. 
multo  sapientius  tulit  secundam,  quam  adversamfortunam. 

[$  372. ]  Note. — Exception  to  this  rule  :  when  a  word  of  a  preceding  prop- 
osition, or  this  proposition  itself,  is  explained  by  a  substantive  with  the 
verbs  esse,  dicere,  vocare,  appellare,  nominaret  habere,  putare,  &c.,  or  their 
passives,  the  relative  pronoun  usually  takes  t'he  gender  and  number  of 
the  explanatory  substantive  which  follows;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xlii.,  44,  Thebae 
ipsae,  quod  Boeotiae  caput  est,  in  magno  tumultu  erant.  (A  great  many  in- 
stances of  the  same  kind  are  collected  by  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxxii.,  30.)- 
Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  80,  Caesar  Gomphos  pervenit,  quod  est  oppidum  Thes- 
saliae  ;  Cic.,  Brut.,  33,  extat  ejus  peroratio,  qui  epilogus  dicitur  ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  7, 
animal  plenum  rationis,  quern,  vocamus  Iwminem ;  p.  Sext.,  40,  domicilia  con- 
juncta,  quas  urbes  dicimus,  moenibus  saepserunt ;  Phil.,  v.,  14,  Pompeio,  quod 
imperil  Romani  lumen  fuit,  extincto;  in  Pis.,  39,  P.  Rutilio,  quod  specimen  ha» 
buit  haec  civitas  innocentiae  ;  Liv.,  i.,  45,  Romaefanum  Dianae  populi  Latini 
cum  populo  Romano  fccerunt :  ea  erat  confessio,  caput  rerum  Romam  esse ;  Cic.,. 
de  Off.,  iii.,  10,  Si  omnia  facienda  surd,  quae  amid  velint,  non  amicitiae  talest 


SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE.  273 

scd  conjurationes putandae  sunt ;  i.e.,  such  things  or  connexions  cannot  be 
looked  upon  as  friendships,  but  are  conspiracies.  So,  also,  ista  quidem  vis, 
surely  this  is  force  ;  haecfuga^est,  nonprofectio;  ea  ipsa  causa  belli  fuit,  for 
id  ipsum,  &c.  This  explains  the  frequent  forms  of  such  explanatory  sen- 
tences as  qui  tuus  est  amor  erga  me ;  quae  tua  est  humanitas,  for  with  the 
demonstrative  pronoun  it  would  likewise  be  ea  tua  humanitas  est,  this  or 
such  is  thy  kindness. 
Levis  est  animi  lucem  splendoremque  fugientis,  justam  gloriam,  qui  estfructus 

verae  virtutis  honestissimus,  repudiare,  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  24. 
Omnium  artium,  quae  ad  rectum  vivendi  viam  pertinent,  ratio  et  disciplina  studio 

sapientiae,  quae philosophia  dicitur,  continetur,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  1. 
Idem  velle  et  idem  nolle,  ea  demumfirma  amicitia  est,  Sallust,  Cat.,  20. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  when  a  noun  is  to  be  explained  and 
to  be  distinguished  from  another  of  the  same  kind,  the  relative  pronoun 
follows  the  general  rule,  agreeing  in  gender  and  number  with  the  substan- 
tive to  be  explained;  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  v.,  l\,flumen,  quod  appellatur 
Tamesis,  i.  e.,  that  particular  river;  Nep.,  Paws.,  3,  genus  est  quoddam 
hominum,  quod  Ilotae  vocatur ;  especially  when  a  demonstrative  pronoun  is 
added,  as  in  Curt.,  iii.,  20,  Dareus  ad  eum  locum,  quern  Amanicas  pylas  vacant, 
pervenit.  But  when  the  noun  following  is  a  foreign  word,  the  pronoun 
agrees  with  the  preceding  one;  as  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  5,  cohibere  motus 
animi  turbatos,  quos  Graeci  7rd6l]  nominant ;  Quintil.,  viii.,  3,  16,  quum  idem, 
frequentissimc  plura  verba  significent,  quod  avvuvvnia  vocatur.  Compare 
Gronov.  on  Senec.,  Consol.  ad  Marc.,  19,  and  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  ii.,  38, 
with  the  commentators  there  mentioned. 

[§  373.]  5.  When  the  subject  consists  of  several  nouns 
in  the  singular,  the  predicate  is  generally  in  the  plural,/^,^/^ 
if  either  all  or  some  of  those  nouns  denote  persons ; 
if  they  denote  things,  either  the  singular  or  plural 
be  used.     If,  however,  one  of  the  nouns  is  in  the  plural, 
the  predicate  must  likewise  be  in  the  plural,  unless  it 
attach  itself  more  especially  to  the  nearest  substantive  in 
the  singular.  x 

Apud  Regillum  hello  Latinorum  in  nostra  acie  Castor  et' 

Pollux  ex  equis  pugnare  visi  sunt,  Cic.,  De  Nat.  Dcor., 

ii.,  2. 
Cum  tempus  necessitasque  postulat,  decertandum  manu  est, 

et  ^mors  servituti  turpitudinigue  anteponenda,  Cic.,  De 

Off.,  i.,  23. 
Bcneficium  et  gratia  homines  inter  se  conjungunt. 

Vita,  mors,  divitiae,  paupertas  omnes  homines  vehemcn- 
tissime  pcrmovent,  Cic.,  De  Off.,  ii.,  10. 

Note  1 .—  When  the  subject  consists  of  two  nouns  denoting  things  in  the 
singular,  the  predicate  varies  between  the  singular  and  plural,  according 
as  the  two  nouns  constitute,  as  it  were,  only  one  idea,  or  two  different  or 
opposite  ones.  It  may  be  remarked  here  that  the  subject  Senatus  popu- 
lusque  Romanus  (but  also  Syracusanus,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  21;  Centuripinus, 
ibid.,  iii.,  45,  Saguntinus,  Liv.,  xxviii.,  39)  is  always  followed  by  the  pred- 
icate in  the  singular.  A  relative  pronoun,  referring  to  two  singular  nouns, 
is  always  in  the  plural,  unless  it  be  intended  to  refer  only  to  the  last. 

Even  when  the  subject  consists  of  the  names  of  two  or  more  persons, 
the  predicate  is  not  unfrequently  found  in  the  singular  and  that  not  only 


274  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  cases  where  it  may  seem  that  the  writer  at  first  thought  only  of  one 
person  and  afterward  the  other,  as  in  Cic.,  Orat.,  12,  nam  quum  concisus  ei 
Thrasymachus  mimitis  numeris  videretur  et  Gorgias  ;  or  7 We.,  i.,  \,siquidem 
Homer  us  fuit  et  Hesiodus  ante  Romam  conditam  ;  comp.  Brut.,  11,  init.  ;  but 
also  without  this  excuse,  as  Cic.,  Brut.,  8,  Sed  ut  intelleclum  est,  quantam 
vim  haberet  accurata  et  facta  quodammodo  oratio,  turn  etiam  magistri  dicendi 
multi  subito  extiterunt.  Nam  Leontinus  Gorgias,  Thrasymachus  Chalcedonius, 
Protagoras  Abderites,  Prodicus  Ceus,  Hippias  Eleus  in  honore  magno  fuit, 
aliique  multi  temporibus  iisdem  ;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  12,  Qualis  apud  Graecos  Pher- 
rcydes,  Hellanicus,  Acusilas  fuit  aliique  permulti,  talis  noster  Cato  et  Pictor  et 
Piso  ;  de  Divin.,  i.,  38,  hac  ratione  et  Chrysippus  et  Diogenes  et  Antipater  uti- 
tur  ;  de  Fat.,  17,  in  qua  sententia  Democritus,  Heraclitus,  Empedocles,  Aristote- 
lesfuit ;  in  Verr.,  i.,  30,  condemnatur  enim  perpaucis  sententiis  Philodamus  et 
ejus  filius ;  ibid.,  iv.,  42,  dixit  hoc  apud  vos  Zosippus  et  Ismenias,  homines  no- 
bilissimi ;  de  Oral.,  i.,  62,  haec  quum  Antonius  dixisset,  sane  dubitare  visits  est 
Sulpicius  et  Cotta;  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  2,  intercedit  M.  Antonius,  Q.  Cassius, 
tribuni  ple.bis.*  It  is  unnecessary  to  add  passages  from  the  poets,  who,  es- 
pecially Horace,  frequently  use  the  predicate  in  the  singular,  when  the  sub- 
ject consists  of  several  nouns  denoting  persons;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Carm.,  ii., 
13,  in  fin.,  Quin  et  Prometheus  et  Pelopis  parens  dulci  laborum  decipitur  sono. 
Comp.  Bentley  on  Carm.,  i.,  24,  8.  The  plural,  however,  must  be  consid'- 
ered  as  the  rule  in  prose.  Only  the  words  unus  et  alter  have  invariably  the 
predicate  in  the  singular.  When  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting 
persons  and  things,  the  plural  of  the  predicate  is  preferable  to  the  singu- 
lar; e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  iv.,  15,  coitio  cojisulum  et  Pompeius  obsunt ;  Liv., 
xxviii.,  18,  nee  dubitare  quin  Sypltax  regnumque  e  jus  jam  in  Romanorum  essent 
potestate,  and  so  in  xxxix.,  51,  Prusiam  suspect um  Rornanis  et  receptus  Han- 
nibal et  helium  adversus  Eumenem  motum  faciebant,  is  more  probable  than 
faciebat. 

[§  374.]  Note  2. — When  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  connected  by  the 
disjunctive  conjunction  aut,  the  predicate  is  found  in  the  plural  as  well  as 
in  the  singular,  though  it  would  be  more  in  accordance  with  our  feeling  to 
use  the  singular;!  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  9,  Si  Socrates  aut  Antistkenes  dice- 
ret  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  28,  si  Aeacus  aut  Minos  diceret ;  but  de  Off.,  i.,  41,  nee  quem- 
quam  hoc  errore  dud  oportet,  ut,  si  quid  Socrates  aut  Aristippus  contra  morem 
consuetudinc?nque  civilem  fecerint  locutive  sint,  idem  sibi  arbitretur  licere  ;  Liv., 
v.,  8,  ut  quosque  studium  privatim  aut  gratia  occupaverunt.  In  Cicero,  de  Orat., 
ii.,  4,  the  reading  is  uncertain :  ne  Sulpicius  aut  Cotta  plus  quam  ego  apud 
te  valcre  videantur.  Ernesti,  who  approves  of  videatur  exclusively,  was  not 
struck  by  the  same  peculiarity  in  the  preceding  passage.  With  aut — aut 
the  singular  is  unquestionably  preferred,  as  in  Cic.,  Philip.,  xi.,  11,  nee  enim 
mine  primum  aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  salutem  libertatemque  patriae  legem  sane- 
tissimam  et  morem  optimum  judicavit ;  with  nee — nee  we  likewise  prefer  the 
singular,  with  Bentley  on  Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  13,  6,  but  the  plural  occurs 
in  Pliny,  Pancgyr.,  75,  erant  enim  (acclamationes)  quibus  nee  scnatus  gloriari 
nee  princeps  posscnt,  where  posset  would  certainly  be  just  as  good.  Comp. 
Liv.,  xxvi.,  5,  in  fin.  The  plural  seems  to  be  necessary  only  when  the 
subject  does  not  consist  of  two  nouns  of  the  third  person,  but  contains  a 
first  or  second  person,  as  in  Terence,  Adelph,,  i.,  2,  23,  haec  si  neque  ego 
neque  tu  fecimus  ;  D.  Brutus  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  20,  quod  in  Decemviris 
neque  ego  neque  Caesar  habiti  essemus.  With  seu — seu  and  tarn — quam  the 
predicate  is  in  the  plural :  Frontin.,  de  Aquaed.,  Praef.  and  §  128  (ut  pro- 
prium  jus  tarn  res  publica  quam  privata  haberent). 

*  [In  these  and  similar  passages  it  will  always,  we  think,  appear,  on  close 
examination,  that  some  greater  degree  of  activity,  or  some  particular  im- 
portance, or  superiority,  is  to  be  connected  with  the  subject  to  which  the 
verb  immediately  refers  in  number.]— Am.  Ed. 

t  [In  these  constructions  the  predicate  refers  to  all  the  subjects  equally 
at  the  same  time,  and  in  the  same  manner,  and  therefore  the  plural  is  em- 
ployed. (Kiihner,  G.  G.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  47,  8,  ed.  Jelf.)]—Am.  Ed. 


SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.  275 

[§  375.]  Note  3. — When  the  subject  is.  a  singular  noun  joined  to  another 
(either  plural  or  singular)  by  the  preposition  cum,  the  grammatical  con- 
struction demands  that  the  predicate  should  be  in  the  singular,  as  in  Cic., 
ad  Att.j  vii.,  14,  tu  ipse  cum  Sexto  scire  velim  quid  cogites  ;  ad  Quint.  Frat., 
iii.,  2,  Domitius  cum  Messala  certus  esse  vidcbatur  ;  Ovid,  Fast.,  L,  12,  tu  quoque 
cum  Druso  praemia  fratre  feres.  But  the  plural  is  more  frequent,  the  sub- 
ject being  conceived  to  consist  of  more  than  one  person ;  Liv.,  xxi.,  60, 
ipse  dux  cum  aliquot  principibus  capiuntur  ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  43,  Lentulus  cum 
ceteris  —  constituerant ;  Jug.,  101,  Bocchus  cum  peditibus — invadunt  ;  Nep., 
Phoc.,  2,  ejus  consilio  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris,  qui  bene  derep.mererfexistima- 
bantur,  populiscito  in  exilium  erant  expulsi;  and  to  judge  from  these  and  oth- 
er instances  quoted  by  Corte  on  the  passages  of  Sallust,  it  seems  that  the 
plural  is  preferred,  when  the  main  subject  is  separated  from  the  predicate 
by  intermediate  sentences,  so  that  the  plurality  spoken  of  is  more  strong- 
ly impressed  on  the  writer's  mind  than  the  grammatical  subject.  Even 
in  reference  to  gender  (of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter),  nouns  connect- 
ed with  each  other  by  cum  are  treated  as  if  they  were  connected  by  et. 
Ovid,  Fast.,  iv.,  55,  Ilia  cum  Lauso  de  Numitore  sati ;  Liv.,  xlv.,  28,  filiam 
cumfilio  accitos ;  Justin,  xiv.,  lG,Jilium  Aleocandri  cum  malre  in  arcem  Amphi- 
politanam  custodiendos  mittit. 

[§  376.]  6.  With  regard  to  the  gender,  which  the  pred- 
icate (an  adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun)  takes  when  it 
belongs  to  several  nouns,  the  following  rules  must  be  ob- 
served : 

(a)  When  the  nouns  are  of  one  gender,  the  predicate 
(adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun)  takes  the  same. 

(b)  When  they  are  of  different  genders,  the  masculine 
(in  case  of  their  denoting  living  beings)  is  preferred  to  the 
feminine,  and  the  predicate  accordingly  takes  the  mascu- 
line.    When  the  nouns  denote  things,  the  predicate  takes 
the  neuter,  and  when  they  denote  both  living  beings  and 
things  mixed  together,  it  takes  either  the  gender  of  the 
living  beings  or  the  neuter. 

Jam,  pridem  pater  miJii  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  Ter. 

Labor  voluptasque,  dissimilia  natura,  societate  quadam  in- 
ter se  naturali  juncta  sunt,  Liv.,  v.,  4. 

Jane,fac  aeternos  pacem  pacisque  ministros  !  Ovid,  Fast. 

Romani,  si  me  scelusfratris,  te  sencctus  absumpserit,  regcm 
regnumque  Macedoniae  suafutura  sciunt,  Liv.,  xl.,  10. 
Or  the   predicate   (adjective,  participle,  or  pronoun) 

agrees  only  with  one  of  the  nouns,  and  is  supplied  by  the 

mind  for  the  others  ;  this  is  the  case,  especially,  when  the 

subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting  living  beings  and  things. 

T/irasybulus  contemptus  est  pri?no  a  tyrannis  atque  ejus  sol- 
itudo,  Nep.,  Tkras.,  2. 

L.  Brutus  cxulem  et  regcm  ipsum,  ct  libcros  cjus,  ct  gentem 
Tar quiniorum  esse  jussit,  Cic.,  De  Re  PubL,  ii. 

Hominis  utilitati  agri  omncs  ct  maria  parent^  Cic. 


276  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Nunc  emergit  amor,  nunc  desideriu?n  ferre  non  possum,  nunc 
milii  nihil  libri,  nihil  litterae,  nihil  doctrina  prodcst :  ita 
dies  et  noctes  tamquam  avis  ilia,  mari  prospecto,  evolare 
cupio,  Cic.,  ad  Att.^  ix.,  10,  2. 

[$  377.]  Note. — We  have  not  mentioned  the  case  of  a  subject  consisting: 
of  living  beings  of  the  feminine  and  neuter  genders  ;  e.  g.,  soror  tua  et  ejus 
mancipium.  No  instance  of  such  a  combination  occurs,  but  we  should  be 
obliged  to  make  the  predicate  ;  e.  g.,  inventae  or  inventi  sunt,  according  as 
mancipium  may  denote  a  male  or  female  slave.  The  grammatical  prefer- 
ence of  the  masculine  gender  to  the  feminine  is  clear,  also,  from  the  fact 
of  themascul.  words  filii,  fratres,  soceri,  reges,  comprising  persons  of  both 
sexes  ;  as  in  Livy,  legati  missi  sunt  ad  Ptolemaeum  Cleopatramque  reges  ~t 
Tac.,  Ann.,  x\i.,4,fratrum  incafctoditum  amorem,  in  speaking  of  a  brother  and 
his  sister.  The  following  examples  of  the  predicate  being  in  the  neuter 
gender,  when  the  subject  consists  of  nouns  denoting  things,  may  be  add- 
-f .  y  2-f,  ed  to  those  already  quoted.  Sallust,  divitiae,  decus,  gloria  in  oculis  sita  sunt; 
Livy,  Formiis  portam  murwnque  de  coelo  tacta  esse ;  Merico  urbs  et  ager  in  Si- 
cilia  jussa  dari ;  and  so,  also,  with  the  relative  pronoun  ;  Sallust,  otiumatque 
divitiae,  quae  prima  mortales  putant.  The  neuter  is  farther  not  unfrequently 
used  when  the  two  nouns  of  the  subject  (denoting  things)  are  of  the  same 
gender  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxvii.,  32,  postquam  ira  et  avaritia  imperio  potentiora 
erant  ;  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  Hi.,  24, /or tunom  nemo  ab  inconstanlia  et  temeritate 
sejunget,  quae  digna  certe  non  sunt  deo.  Those  passages,  on  the  other  hand, 
in  which  the  subject  consists  of  names  of  things  of  different  gender,  and 
the  predicate  agrees  in  gender  with  a  more  distant  masc.  or  femin.,  must 
be  considered  as  exceptions ;  but  in  such  cases  the  noun  with  which  the 
predicate  agrees  is  usually  the  more  prominent,  the  other  or  others  being 
considered  as  dependant  or  subordinate ;  e.  g.,  Plancus  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam., 
X.,  24,  Amor  tuus  ac  judicium  de  me  utrum  mihi  plus  dignitatis  an  voluptatis  sit 
allaturus,  non  facile  dixerim ;  i.  e.,  thy  love,  and  thy  favourable  opinion  of 
me,  which  is  the  result  of  it ;  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  i.,  1,  Lucus  ille  et  haec  Arpina- 
tium  quercus  agnoscitur,  saepe  a  me  lectus  in  Mario,  the  oak  being  only  a  part 
of  the  grove.  See  the  commentators  (Wesenberg)  on  Cic.,  p.  Sext.,  53, 
and  on  Suet.,  Caes.,  75. 

[§  3178.]  7.  When  the  personal  pronouns  ego,  tu,  nos, 
vos,  combined  with  one  or  more  other  nouns,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition,  the  predicate  follows  the  first  per- 
son in  preference  to  the  second  and  third,  and  the  second 
in  preference  to  the  third. 

Si  tu  et  Tullia,  lux  nostra,  valetis,  ego  et  suavissimus  Cice- 
ro valemus,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  5. 

Quid  est  quod  tu  aut  ilia  cum  Fortuna  hoc  nomine  queri 
possitis,  Sulpic.  in  Cic.,  ad  Fa?ri.,  iv.,  5. 

Note. — So,  also,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  45,  hoc  jure  et  majores  nostri  et  nos  sem- 
per usi  sumus  ;  in  RulL,  i.,  7,  Errastis,  Rulle,  vehementer  et  tu  et  nonnulli  col- 
legae  tui.     But  in  this  case,  also,  the  predicate  frequently  agrees  with  one 
"  •  lf     "  Cicero, 


of  the  subjects,  and  is  supplied  by  the  mind  for  the  others ;  e.  g.,  Ci 
Vos  ipsi  et  senatus  frequens  restitit ;  et  ego  et  Cicero  meus  flagitabit.  With  re- 
gard to  the  relative  pronoun,  the  above  rule  remains  in  force,  and  we  must 
accordingly  say,  tu  et  pater,  qui  in  convivio  eratis ;  ego  et  tu,  qui  eramus. 


NOMINATIVE    CASE.  277 

II.  ON  THE  USE  OF  CASES. 
CHAPTER  LXX. 

NOMINATIVE    CASE. 

[§  379.]  1.  THE  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative (see  §  362),  and  the  noun  of  the  predicate  only 
when  it  is  connected  with  the  subject  by  the  verb  esse  and 
similar  verbs  :  apparere,  appear ;  exist&re,  fieri,  evader  e, 
come  into  existence,  become;  videri,  seem,  appear;  ma- 
nere,  remain ;  or  the  passives  of  the  actives  mentioned-  in 
§  394,  viz.,  did,  appellari,  existimari,  Jiaberi,  &c. ;  e.  g., 
Justus  videbatur,  he  appeared  just ;  rex  appellabatur ,  he 
was  called  king.  The  personal  pronouns  ego,  tu,  ille,  nos^ 
vos,  and  illi  are  implied  in  the  terminations  of  the  verb, 
and  are  expressed  only  when  they  denote  emphasis  or  op- 
position. 
(In)  rebus  angustis  animosus  atque  fortis  appare,  Horat., 

Car?n.,  ii.,  10,  21. 

Appius  adeo  novum  sibi  ingenimn  induerat,  ut  plebicola  re- 
pente  omnisque  aurae  popularis  captator  evader et,  Liv., 
iii.,  33. 

'Ego  reges  ejeci,  vos  tyrannos  introducitis  ;  ego  libcrtatcm, 
quae  non  erat,  peperi^  vos  partam  servare  non  vultis,  says 
L.  Brutus  in  the  Auct.,  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  53. 
Note  1. — The  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the 
only  case  in  which  the  subject  is  not  in  the  nominative,  but  in  the  accu- 
sative.   (See  §  599.)    In  this  case  the  predicate,  with  the  above-mention- 
-ed  verbs,  is  likewise  in  the  accusative. 

[§  380.]  Note  2. — Videri  is  used  throughout  as  a  personal  verb,  as  (ego) 
videor,  (tu)  videris,  &c.,  vir  bonus  esse  ;  videmur,  videmini  viri  boni  esse,  or 
hocfecisse.  The  impersonal  construction  is  sometimes  found,  as  in  Cic., 
Tusc.,  v.,  5,  Non  mihividetur,  ad  beate  vivendum  satis  posse  virtut  em,  (compare 
Davis's  remark),  but  much  more  rarely  than  the  personal  one.*  When  con- 
nected with  the  dative  of  a  person,"it  is  equivalent  to  the  English  "to 
think  or  fancy;"  e.  g.,  amens  mihi  fuisse  videor ;  fortunatus  sibi  Damocles 
videbatur  (esse)  ;  si  hoc  tibi  intellexisse  videris,  or  even  in  connexion  with 
videre ;  e.  g.,  videor  mihi  videre  imminent  en  reipublicae  tempestates,  &c.  It 
should,  however,  be  observed  that  the  dative  of  the  first  person  is  some- 
times omitted  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  61,  satis  docuisse  videor ;  ibid., 
i.,  2J,  saepe  de  L.  Crasso  videor  audisse ;  de  Fin.,  ii.,  5,  cum  Graece,  ut  videor, 
luculenter  sciam,  i.  e.,  as  it  seems  to  me,  or  as  I  think. 

[§381.]  2.  The  nominative  is  sometimes  not  expressed 

*  [The  so-called  impersonal  construction  of  videor  will  be  found,  on 
closer  inspection,  to  be  merely  the  verb  joined  to  a  subject-nominative,  or 
clause  taken  as  a  nominative.] — Am.  Ed. 


278  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  Latin.  Thus  the  word  homines  is  understood  with  a 
verb  in  the  third  person  plural  active,  in  such  phrases  as 
laudant  hunc  regem,  they,  or  people  praise  this  king  ; 
dicunt,  tradunt,ferunt  hunc  regem  essejustum,  people  say 
that  this  king  is  just. 


CHAPTER  LXXI. 

ACCUSATIVE    CASE. 

[§  382.]  1.  THE  accusative  denotes  the  object  of  an 
action,  and  is  therefore  joined  to  all  transitive  verbs, 
whether  active  or  deponent,  to  express  the  person  or 
thing  affected  by  the  action  implied  in  such  verbs  ;  e.  g., 
pater  amat  (  tuctur  )  jilium.  When  the  verb  is  active,  the 
same  proposition  may  be  expressed  without  change  of 
meaning  in  the  passive  voice,  the  object  or  accusative  be- 
coming the  subject  or  nominative;  thus,  instead  of  pater 
amat  Jilmm,  we  may  s&yjilius  amatur  a  pair  e. 

The  transitive  or  intransitive  nature  of  a  verb  depends 
entirely  upon  its  meaning  (see  §  142),  which  must  be 
learned  from  the  Dictionary.  It  must,  however,  be  ob- 
served that  many  Latin  verbs  may  acquire  a  transitive 
meaning,  besides  the  original  intransitive  one,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, govern  the  accusative. 

[§  383.]  Note  1.  —  Some  verbs  are  called  transitive  and  others  intransi- 
tive, according  as  they  occur  more  frequently  in  the  one  sense  or  the 
other.  All  particulars  must  be  learned  from  the  Dictionary.  Ludere,  to 
play,  for  example,  is  naturally  an  intransitive,  but  has  a  transitive  mean- 
ing in  the  sense  of  "play  the  part  of;"  e.  g.,  ludit  bonum  civem,  he  plays 
the  good  citizen,  affects  to  be  a  good  citizen.*  Horrore  properly  signifies 
"  to  feel  a  shudder,"  and  fastidire  "  to  be  disgusted  with,"  but  both  are 
frequently  used  as  transitives  ;  horrere  dolor  em,  fastidire  preces  or  mores  ali- 
cujus,  to  dread  pain,  to  reject  a  person's  petition,  to  be  disgusted  with  his 
manners.  There  are  several  other  such  verbs  ;  as,  dolere,  gemere,  lamentari, 
lugere,  maerere,  lacrimare,  plorare  ;  e.  g.,  casum  hunc.  Festinare  and  properare, 
moreover,  signify  not  only  "  to  hasten,"  but  "  to  accelerate  ;"  e.  g.,  mortem 
suam  ;  manere,  not  only  "to  wait,"  but  "to  expect;"  e.  g.,  hostium  ad- 
ventum;  ridere,  to  laugh  and  to  ridicule  (Hke  irridere).  Such  examples  be- 
ing sanctioned  by  usage,  the  Latin  writers,  in  some  cases,  extended  the 
principle  still  farther,  and  Cicero  (de  Fin.,  ii.,  34)  has  the  bold,  but  beau- 
tiful and  expressive  phrase,  Quum  Xerxes,  Hellesponto  juncto,  Athone  per- 
fosso,  mare  ambulavisset,  terram  navigasset,  instead  of  the  ordinary  expres- 
sion in  mari  ambulavisset,  in  terra  navigasset.  In  such  phrases  as  dormio 
totam  hiemem,  tertiam  aetatem  vivo,  nodes  vigilo,  the  accusative  might  seem 
to  express  only  duration  of  time  (§  395)  ;  but  as  the  passive  forms  also  oc- 

*  [That  is,  the  state  in  which  a  person  is  represented  by  an  intransitive 
verb  may  be  conceived  of  as  directed  towards  an  object,  and  thus  have  a 
partly  transitive  force.]  —  Am,  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  279 

cur,  tota  mihi  dormitur  hiems,  jam  tertia  vivitur  aetas,  nodes  vigilantur  amarae, 
it  will  be  more  judicious  to  consider  the  verbs  dormire,  vivere,  vigilare,  in 
those  cases  as  transitives,  equivalent  to  "  spend  in  sleeping,  living, 
waking." 

The  words  which  denote  "to  smell"  or  "taste  of  anything,"  viz.,  olere, 
redolere,  sapere,  resipere,  are  in  the  same  manner  used  as  transitive  verbs, 
and  joined  with  an  accusative  (instead  of  the  ablative,  which  they  would 
require  as  intransitive  verbs).  Their  meaning  in  this  case  is  "  to  give  back 
the  smell  or  taste  of  anything  ;"  e.  g.,  olet  unguenta ;  piscis  ipsum  mare  sapit ; 
unguenta  gratiora  sunt,  quae  terram,  quam  quae  crocum  sapiant ;  uva  picem  re- 
sipiens  •  and  in  a  figurative  sense,  olet  peregrinum,  redolet  antiquitatem ;  to- 
gether with  such  expressions  as,  anhelat  crudelitatem,  pingue  quiddam  ct 
peregrinum  sonat,  sanguincm  nostrum  sitiebat.  The  poets  go  still  farther, 
and  use,  e.  g.,  pallere,  paverc,  tremere,  trepidare,  aliquid,  instead  of  timers  ; 
ardere,  calerc,  tepere,  perire,  deperire  mulierem,  instead  of  amare  mulierem. 
Such  expressions  should  not  be  imitated  in  prose,  any  more  than  the  use 
of  a  neuter  adjective  instead  of  an  adverb  ;  as  in  torvum  clamure,  tremendum 
sonare,  lucidum  fulgent  oculi,  concerning  which,  see  §  26^.^.  Tacitus,  how- 
ever, says,  Ann.,  iv.,  60,  Tiberius  falsum  renidens  vultu  ;  and,  vi.,  37,  Euphra- 
ten  nulla  imbrium  vi  sponte  et  immensum  attolli. 

[§  384.]  We  must  here  mention  a  peculiar  mode  of  joining  an  accusa- 
tive with  intransitive  verbs,  which  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  Greek,* 
and  also  in  English.  It  consists  of  a  substantive  of  the  same  root  as  the 
verb,  or,  at  least,  one  of  the  same  meaning,  being  added  in  the  accusative  ; 
but  this  substantive  is  usually  qualified  by  an  adjective;  e.  g.,  vitamju- 
cundam  vivere  ;  longam  viam  ire,  hoc  helium  bellare,  gravcm  pugnam  (proelium) 
pugnare,  alterius  gaudium  gaudere,  bonas  preces  precari,  risum  Sardonium  ,-n  j  / 
ridere,  consimilem  ludum  ludere,  servitutem  servire  durissimam,  somnium  som-\  . 

/   7  ~ti'i/<1  \ji 

mare.  .     / 

(Odi)  qui  Curios  simulant  et  Bacchanalia  vivunt. — Juven.,  ii.,  3. 

[§  385.]  But  even  without  any  change  or  modification  of  meaning,  in- 
transitive verbs  may  have  the  accusative  of  pronouns  and  adjective  pro- 
nouns in  the  neuter  gender,  in  order  to  express,  in  a  general  way,  the  di- 
rection in  which  a  feeling  or  condition  is  manifested ;  if  this  tendency 
were  expressed  more  definitely  by  a  substantive,  the  accusative  could  not 
be  used.  We  thus  frequently  find  such  phrases  as,  hoc  laetor,  I  rejoice  at 
this ;  hoc  non  dubito,  I  do  not  doubt  this  ;  hoc  laboro,  illud  tibi  non  assentior, 
aliquid  tibi  succenseo,  non  possum  idem  gloriari,  unum  omnes  student,  where 
the  accusative  of  a  definite  substantive,  such  as  hanc  unam  re.m  omnes  stu- 
dent, could  not  have  been  used.  So  Terence  says,  id  operam  do,  I  strive 
after  this  ;  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  vi.,  8,  consilium  petis,  quid  tibi  sim  auctor  ;  and 
Livy  often  uses  the  phrase  quod  quidam  auctores  sunt,  which  is  attested  by 
some  authors. 
Dolores  autem  nunquam  tantam  vim  habent,  ut  non  plus  habeat  sapiens  quod 

gaudeat  quam  quod  angatur,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  14. 
Utrumque  laetor,  et  sine  dolor  e  corporis  te  fuisse  et  animo  valuisse,  Cic.,  ad 

Fam.,  vii.,  1. 

Note  2.— The  rule  that  in  the  change  of  a  proposition  from  the  active 
into  the  passive  form  the  accusative  of  the  object  becomes  the  nominative 
of  the  subject,  remains  in  force  even  when  after  the  verbs  denoting  "  to 
say"  or  "command"  the  accusative  does  not  depend  upon  these  verbs,  but 
belongs  to  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  an  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  dico 
regem  esse  justum,  jubeo  te  redire  (see  §  607) ;  in  the  passive,  rex  dicitur  Justus 
esse,  juberis  redire,  as  though  dico  regem  or  jubeo  te  belonged  to  each  other. 

*  [In  Greek,  many  verbs  which  are  not,  in  good  writers,  followed  by 
their  cognate  substantives,  are  in  later  writers  found  with  them.  (Lobeck, 
Paral.,  509.)]— Am.  Ed. 


280  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  386.]  2.  Intransitive  verbs  which  imply  motion;  as, 
ire,  vaderc,  volare,  and  some,  also,  which  imply  "  being  in 
a  place;"  as,jacere,  stare  and  sedere,  acquire  a  transitive 
meaning  by  being  compounded  with  a  preposition,  and  ac- 
cordingly govern  the  accusative.  This,  however,  is  gen- 
erally the  case  only  in  verbs  compounded  with  the  prep- 
^fcs'itions  circum,  per,  practcr,  trans,  and  super,  and  in  those 
compound  verbs  which  have  acquired  a  figurative  mean- 
ing. Such  verbs  become  perfect  transitives,  and  the  ac- 
cusative which  they  take  in  the  active  form  of  a  proposi- 
tion as  their  object,  becomes  the  nominative  of  the  sub- 
ject, when  the  proposition  is  changed  into  the  passive 
form ;  e.  g.,  flumcn  transitur,  socictas  initur,  mors  pro  rc- 
publica  obitur.  With  other  compounds  the  accusative  is 
only  tolerated,  for  generally  the  preposition  is  repeated, 
or  the  dative  is  used  instead  of  the  preposition  with  its 
case  (§  415). 

Amicitia  nonnunquam  2>raccurrit  judicium,  Cic.,  Lael.,  17. 
Nihil  cst  turpius  quam  cognitioni  et  pracceptioni  assension- 
em  praecurrerc,  Cic.,  Acad.,  i.,  12. 

Note. — The  rule  here  given  applies  to  a  great  number  of  verbs,  for  there 
are  many  which  imply  motion  ;  as,  ire,  ambulare,  cedere,  currere,  equitare, 
flucre,  gradi,  labi,  nare,  and  nature,  repere,  satire,  scandere,  vadere,  vchi,  volare, 
and  perhaps,  also,  venire,  and  their  compounds  are  very  numerous.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  them  :  adire,  accedere,  adequitare,  adnare,  aggredi,  allabi, 
ascendere,  assilire  and  assultare,  advenire  and  adventare,  advehi,  advolare,  ad- 
volvi,  anteire,  ante.cedcre,  antecurrere,  antegredi,  antevenire,  circumfluere,  circum- 
ire,  circumvenire,  circumvolare,  coire,  convenire,  egredi,  elabi,  erumpere,  evadere, 
excedere,  exire,  inire,  incedere,  incurrere  and  incursare,  ingredi,  illabi,  innare  and 
innatare,  insilire,  insultare,  invehi,  interfluere,  intervenire,  invadere  (irrumpere}, 
irreperc,  obambulare,  obequitare,  obire,  perambulare,  percurrere,  permeare,  perva- 
dere,  pervagari,  pervolare,  praecedere.,  praecurrere,  praefluere,  praegredi,  praeve- 
nire,  praeterire,  praeterfluere,  praetergredi,  praetervehi,  praetervolare,  subire,  suc- 
cedere,  subrepere,  supergredi,  supervadere,  supervenire,  transire,  transnare,  Iran- 
silire,  transvolare.  To  these  we  must  add  some  compound  verbs  which  do 
not  imply  motion,  but  in  general  "  being  in  a  place ;"  as.  adjacere,  assidere, 
accumbere  and  accubare,  adstare,  antestare,  circumsidere,  circumstare,  and  cir- 
cumsistere,  incubare,  insidere,  instare,  interjacere,  obsidere,  praesidere,  praeja- 
cere,  praestare,  superstare.  All  these  verbs  may  be  joined  with  an  accusa- 
tive of  the  place  to  which  the  action  implied  in  the  verb  refers ;  in  poeti- 
cal language  many  more  verbs  are  joined  with  an  accusative,  partly  from 
a  resemblance  with  those  mentioned  above,  and  partly  because  a  transi- 
tive meaning  and  construction  are,  in  general,  well  suited  to  a  lively  de- 
scription. Tacitus,  Hist.,  Hi.,  29,  for  example,  says,  balista  obruit  quos  in- 
ciderat,  where  quos  is  not  governed  by  the  preposition  in  Cfor  he  uses  the 
accus.  also  wita  prepositions  which  otherwise  require  the  ablative  :  prae- 
sidebat  exercitum,  praejacet  castra,  elapsus  est  vinculd),\)\\i  is  the  real  accusat. 
of  the  object.*  We  must  not,  however,  forget  that,  with  the  exception 
of  verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  circum,  per,  praeter,  trans,  and 
super,  we  are  speaking  only  of  what  may  be,  and  what  frequently  occurs 

*  [Compare  Botticher,  Lex.  Tacit.,  p.  15.]— Am.  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  281 

in  modern  Latin  prose ;  for  the  ancient  Romans  seldom  used  the  accusa- 
tive with  such  verbs ;  they  preferred  them  in  their  intransitive  sense  ei- 
ther with  a  preposition  or  the  dative.  The  verbs  compounded  with  ante 
alone  are  construed  indifferently  either  with  the  accusative  or  the  dative, 
and  antegredi  occurs  only  with  the  accusative.  Cicero,  in  the  case  of 
verbs  compounded  with  ex,  repeats  the  preposition  ex  or  ab ;  Sallust  and 
Livy  use  the  ablative  alone,  which  is  governed  by  the  preposition  under- 
stood. It  is  not  till  the  time  of  Tacitus  that  we  find  these  verbs  construed 
with  the  accusative  ;*  e.  g.,  evado  amnem,  silvas,  sententias  judicum. 

[$  387.]  We  must  especially  notice  those  verbs  which  acquire  a  transi- 
tive meaning  by  a  modification  of  their  original  signification,  i.  e,  by  be- 
ing used  in  a  figurative  sense.  Such  verbs  either  lose  their  intransitive 
meaning  altogether,  or  retain  it  along  with  the  transitive  one,  and  accord- 
ingly govern  the  accusative  either  exclusively,  or  only  in  their  particular 
transitive  meaning.  Of  this  kind  are  adeo  and  convenio  in  the  sense  of  "  I 
step  up  to  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  speaking  to  him ;"  aggredior  (and 
adorior),  invado  and  incedo,  I  attack,  where  especially  the  perfect  incessit 
aliquem,  e.  g.,  cupido,  cura,  metus,  must  be  observed  ;  alluo,  wash,  in  speak- 
ing of  the  sea  or  a  river ;  anteeo,  antecedo,  antevenio,  praecedo,  praegredior, 
praevenio,  all  in  the  sense  of  "  I  excel"  (the  principle  of  which  is  followed 
also  by  praemineo,  praesto,  antecello,  excello,  and  praecello)  ;  coeo,  I  conclude, 
e.  g.,  an  alliance  ;  excedo  and  egredior,  I  transgress,  e.  g.,  the  bounds  ;  inco 
and  ingredior,  I  begin  a  thing ;  obeo,  I  visit,  undertake ;  occumbo  (mortem, 
which  is  much  more  frequent  than  morti  or  morte),  I  suffer  death,  or  die  ; 
obsideo  and  circwnsideo,  1  besiege  ;  subeo,  I  undertake.  But  even  among 
these  verbs  there  are  some,  such  as  incedere  and  invadere,  which  are  prefer- 
red in  the  more  ancient  prose  with  a  preposition  or  with  the  dative.  Livy, 
for  example,  frequently  says,  patres  incessit  cura,  and  Sallust  uses  metus  in- 
vasit  populares ;  but  Cicero,  Antonius  invasit  in  Galliam,  or  timor  invasit  im- 
probis  ;  Terence,  quae  nova  religio  nunc  in  te  incessit ;  Caesar,  dolor  incessit 
improbis.  Anteire  is  the  only  one  among  the  verbs  signifying  "  to  excel"  that 
is  used  by  Cicero  with  the  accusative,  though  not  exclusively,  and  antr.ce- 
dere,  praestare,  antecellere,  and  excellere  are  used  by  him  only  with  the  dative; 
the  others  do  not  occur  in  his  works  in  this  sense. 

There  are,  on  the  other  hand,  some  verbs  which,  according  to  the  above 
rule,  might  be  joined  with  the  accusative,  but  never  are  so,  and  take  either 
the  dative  or  a  preposition,  viz. :  arrepere,  obrepere,  incumbere  (()  416).  Lastly, 
verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  and  ex,  which  imply  mo- 
tion, are  construed  with  the  ablative,  the  idea  of  separation  being  pre- 
dominant; the  few  verbs  mentioned  above  only  form  an  exception  to  the 
rule. 

[§  388.]    3.    The  verbs   dcficio,  juvo,   adjuvo,   defugio, 
effugio,  profugio,  refugio,  and  subterfugio,  and  the  depo- 
nents  imitor,  sequor,  and  sector,  govern  the   accusative. 
They  are  real  transitives,  and  have  a  personal  passive. 
Fortes  for  tuna  adjuvat,  Ter.,  PJwrm.,  i.,  4,  26. 
Nemo  mortem  effugere  potest,  Cic.,  Philip.,  viii.,  10. 
Gloria  virtutem  tanquam  unibra  sequitur,  Cic.,  Tusc. 

Note  1. — The  compounds  of  sequor  and  sector:  asseqiwr,  asscctor,  conse- 
quor,  consector,  insequor,  insector,  persequor,  proscquor,  likewise  govern  the 
accusative  ;  obsequor,  I  comply  with,  alone  governs  the  dative.  Comitor,  I 
accompany,  may  be  classed  with  sequor,  for  it  usually  governs  the  accu- 
sative ;  but  Cicero  in  some  passages  (de  Re  PubL,  ii.,  24,  Tusc.,  v.,  24  and 

*  [But  evado  is  found  thus  construed  more  than  once  in  Livy,  namely, 
ii.,  65;  vii.,  36;  xxi.,  32;  xxviii.,  2  ;  xlv.,  41.     Consult  Drakenborchy 
ii.,  65,  3,  and  Botticher,  Lex.  Tacit.,  p.  16.]—  Am.  Ed. 

A  A  2 


282  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

35),  uses  it  with  the  dative,  in  accordance  with  its  original  meaning  "  to 
be  a  companion  to  a  person"  (<J>  235).  The  few  passages  in  which  defitio 
occurs  with  the  dative  cannot  affect  the  rule ;  thus  we  read,  vires,  tela 
nostros  defecerunt  ;  tempus  me  deficit ;  and  in  the  passive,  quum  miles  a  viri- 
bus  deficeretur ;  aqua  ciboque  defectus.  The  frequentative  adjuto  is  used 
with  the  dative  only  by  unclassical  writers ;  otherwise  it  has  the  accusa- 
tive like  juvo.  The  passive  forms  of  defugio,  refugio,  and  effugio  are  rare, 
but  always  in  accordance  with  the  rule  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  36,  haec  in- 
comrnoda  morte  effugiuntur :  p.  Plane.,  32,  nullas  sibi  dimicationes  pro  me  de- 
fugiendas  putavit ;  Quintil.,  iv.,  5,  Interim  refugienda  est  distinctio  quaestionum. 
Of  the  other  compounds  the  passive  cannot  be  proved  to  have  been  used. 

[§  389.]  Note  2. — The  verb  aequare  and  its  compounds  have  likewise 
their  object  in  the  accusative.  Aequare  properly  signifies  "  to  make  equal," 
rem  cum  re  or  rein  rei,  one  thing  to  another  ;  e.  g.,  urbem  solo  aequare,  turrim 
moenibus;  and  without  a  dative,  "  to  attain;"  e.  g.,gloriam  alicujus,  superior  es 
reges,  cursum  equorum.  The  accusative  of  the  person  may  be  joined,  with- 
out any  difference  in  meaning,  by  the  ablative  of  the  thing  in  which  I 
equal  any  one;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  ix.,  26,  Nondum  fem.in.am  aequavimus  gloria,  et 
jam  nos  laudis  saetietas  cepit  ?  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  compound 
adaequare ;  and  the  dative  with  this  verb,  in  the  sense  of  "attain"  or 
"equal,"  is  doubtful  or  unclassical.  (See  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  viii.,  41.) 
Exacquare  commonly  signifies  "  to  make  equal,"  or  "  equalize  ;"  and 
aequiparare  "  to  attain  ;"  and  both  govern  the  accusative. 

Note  3. — Aemulari,  emulate,  commonly  takes  the  accusative  of  the  thing 
in  which,  and  the  dative  of  the  person  whom  we  emulate ;  aemulor  pru- 
dentiam,  vir lutes  majorum,  and  aemulor  alicui  homini,  although  some  authors 
use  it  in  both  connexions  with  the  accusative,  like  imitari.  Adulari* 
properly  used  of  dogs,  signifies  "to  creep"  or  "  sneak  up  to  a  person," 
and  figuratively,  like  the  Greek  rrpo^Kwclv,  the  servile  veneration  paid 
to  Asiatic  kings,  and  hence,  in  general,  to  "  flatter."  In  its  proper  sense  it 
occurs  only  with  the  accusative ;  e.  g.,  Colum.,  vii.,  12,  Canes  mitissimi 
furem  quoque  adulantur ;  in  its  figurative  sense,  also,  it  is  found  only  with 
the  accusative:  Valer.  Maxirn.,  vi.,  3.,  extr.,  Athenienses  Timagoram  inter 
officium  salutationis  Darium  regem  more  gen  tis  illius  adulatum  capitali  supplicio 
affecerunt.  In  its  most  common  sense  of  "  servile  flattery,"  it  is  used  by 
Cicero,  likewise,  with  the  accusative,  in  Pis.,  41,  adulans  omnes ;  by  Nepos 
with  the  dative  ;  Attic.,  8,  neque  eo  magis  potenti  adulatus  est  Antonio  ;  by 
Livy  with  both  cases,  see  xxxvi.,  7,  and  xlv.,  31  (for  in  xxiii.,  4,  there  is 
no  reason  for  giving  up  the  old  reading  plebem  affari),  and  Quintilian  (ix.,3) 
states  that  in  his  time  the  dative  was  commonly  used.  Tacitus  and  other 
late  writers,  however,  returned  to  the  ancient  practice  and  used  the  accu- 
sative. It  should  be  remarked  that  the  active  form  adulo  was  not  uncom- 
mon ;  as  in  Valer.  Maxim.,  iv..  3,  in  fin.,  Cum  olera  lavanti  (Diogeni)  Aris- 
lippus  dixisset,  si  Dionysium  adulare  velles,  ita  non  esses  •  Immo,  inquit,  si  tu 
ita  esse  velles,  non  adulares  Dionysium.  Compare  the  commentators  on 
Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  10,  §  24. 

[§  390.]  4.  Five  impersonal  verbs  (§  225),  which  ex- 
press certain  feelings,  viz. :  piget,  (I  am)  vexed ;  pudet, 
(I  am)  ashamed  ;  poenitet,  (I)  repent ;  taedet,  (I  am)  dis- 
gusted, and  miseret,  (I) 'pity,  take  an  accusative  of  the 
person  affected.  As  to  the  case  by  which  the  thing  ex- 
citing such  a  feeling  is  expressed,  see  §  441. 

oc    *  [Doderlein  traces  this  verb  to  aulari,  and  connects  it  with  the  move- 
^ments  of  the  dog  in  the  courtyard  on  the  approach  of  his  master.     Com- 
pare Horace's  "Janitor  aula"  and  Ovid,  Met.,  xiv.,  45.     (Doderlein,  Lat. 
Syn.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  175.)]— Am.  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  283 

Note.— On  the  principle  ofpuditum  est,  Cicero  (de  Fin.,  ii.,  13)  uses  veri 
tumest  as  an  impersonal  verb  with  the  accusative  of  the  person,  Cyrenaici, 
quos  non  est  veritum  in  voluptate  summum  bonum  ponere. 

Dccet,  it  is  becoming,  and  its  compounds  condecet,  de- 
decet,  and  indecet,  likewise  govern  the  accusative  of  the 
person,  but  they  differ  from  the  above-mentioned  imper- 
sonal verbs,  inasmuch  as  they  may  have  a  nominative  as 
their  subject,  though  not  a  personal  one. 
Candida  pax  homines,  trux  decct  iraferas,  Ovid,  A.  A. 

Note.— In  the  early  language  (especially  in  Plautus)  decet  is  found,  also, 
with  the  dative.  We  may  here  notice  some  other  verbs  which,  when 
used  as  impersonals,  govern  the  accusative,  this  case  being  suited  to  their 
original  meaning  ;  juvat  and  delectat  me,  I  am  rejoiced  ;fallit,fugit,  praeterit 
me,  it  escapes  me,  that  is,  I  have  forgotten,  or  do  not  know.  Latet  me 
occurs  more  frequently  than  latet  mihi,  but  the  impersonal  character  of 
this  verb  is  not  founded  on  good  authority,  for  the  passage  of  Cicero,  in 
Cat.,  i.,  6,  is  corrupt.  Cicero  uses  this  verb  without  any  case ;  lateo,  1  am 
concealed  or  keep  out  of  sight. 

[§  391.]  5.  The  verbs  docere  (teach),  with  its  compounds 
cdocere  and  dedocere,  and  cclare  (conceal),  have  two  accu- 
satives of  the  object;  one  of  the  thing,  and  another  of  the 
person,  as  in  Nepos,  Eum.,  8,  Antigonus  iter,  quod  liabt- 
bat  adversus  Eumenem,  omnes  celat. 

Fortuna  belli  artem  victos  quoque  docet,  Curt.,  vii.,  30,  (7). 
Cat'diw  juventutem,  quam  illexerattmultis  modis  mala  fa- 

cinora  edocebat,  Sallust,  Cat.,  16. 

Note  1. — When  such  a  proposition  takes  the  passive  form,  the  accusa- 
tive of  the  person  becomes  the  nominative  ;  as,  omnes  celabantur  ab  Ant/go-    f 
no ;  but  the  thing  may  remain  in  the  accusative,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  32,  Latinae^.2.2.  ? 
legiones  longa  societate  militiam  Romanam  edoctae,  and  omnes  belli  artes  edoc-     , 
tus.     But  it  rarely  occurs  with  doctus  and  edoctufr,  and  with  celari  scarcely    {/£*^ 
ever,  except  when  the  thing  is  expressed  by  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun,  e.  g.,  fa^./fyr-. 
hoc  or  id  celabar,  I  was  kept  in  ignorance  of  it ;  for  celare,  and  especially  its 
passive,  generally  has  the  preposition  de,  as  in  Cic.,  non  est  pwfecto  de  illo 
veneno  celata  mater  ;  debes  existimare  te  maximis  de  rebus  afratre  esse  celat'itm. 
The  construction  aliqua  res  mihi  celatur  in  Nep.,  Alcib.,  5,  is  very  singular. 
Docere  and  edocere,  with  their  passive  forms,  are  likewise  used  with  de,  but 
only  in  the  sense  of  "  to  inform,"  as  in  Cicero,  judices  de  injuriis  alicujus 
docere  •   Sulla  de  his  rebus  docetur  •  Sallust,  de  itinere  hostium  senatum  edocct. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that  although  any  word  expressing  an 
art  may  be  joined  to  doceo  and  doceor  (doceo  te  artem,  doceor  te  Latine  loqui, 
doceor  artem,  doceor  (commonly  disco]  Latine  loqui),  the  instrument  on  which 
the  art  is  practised  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  ix., 
22,  Socratem  fidibus  docuit  nobilissimus  fidicen ;  Liv.,  xxix.,  1,  quern  doccndum 
cures  equo  armisque,  and  in  a  passive  signification,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  8,  disce- 
bant  fidibus  antiqui.  Litterae  may  be  used  either  in  the  accus.  or  ablat.,  Cic., 
in  Pis.,  30,  Quid  nunc  te,  asine,  litteras  docea?n  ;  Brut.,  45,  doctus  Graecis  lit- 
teris,  doctus  et  Graecis  litteris  et  Latinis. 

[()  392.]  Note  2. — The  verbs  compounded  with  trans :  transduco,  trans- 
jicio,  transporto,  take  a  double  accusative,  on  account  of  the  omission  of 
the  preposition,  which,  however,  is  often  added,  e.  g.,  Agesilaus  Helles- 
pontum  copias  trajecit ;  Hannibal  nonaginta  milia  peditum,  duodecim  milia 
equitum  Ibenim  transduxit ;  Caesar  exercitum  Rhenum,  transportavit,  Ligerim 


284  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

transducit,  but,  also,  multitudinem  hominum  trans  Rhenurn  in  Galliam  trans- 
ducere.  In  the  passive  construction  the  accusative  dependant  upon  trans 
is  retained  ;  as  in  Caesar,  ne  major  multitude)  Germanorum  Rhenum  trans- 
ducatur  •  Belgae  Rhenum  antiquitus  transducti.  -Transjicere  and  transmittere 
are  also  used  intransitively,  the  pronouns  me,  te,  se,  &c.,  being  under- 
stood. The  participles  transjectus  and  transmissus  may  be  used  both  of 
that  which  crosses  a  river  and  of  the  river  which  is  crossed,  amnis  tra- 
jectus,  transjninsui!,  and  classis  transmissa,  Marius  in  Africam  trajectus,  and 
the  name  of  the  water  may  be  added  in  the  ablative,  mari,freto. 

[§393.]   6.   The  verbs  posco,  rcposco,  flagito,  I  demand ; 
oro,  rogo,  I  entreat ;  interrogo  and  pcrcontor,  I  ask  or  in- 
quire, also  admit  a  double  accusative,  one  of  the  person, 
.  and  another  of  the  thing,  but  the  verbs  which  denote  de- 

mrinding  or  entreaty  also  take  the  ablative  of  the  person 
^'wwith  the  preposition  ab,  and  those  denoting  inquiring  may 
take  the  ablative  of  the  thing  with  dc.  Peto,  postulo,  and 
quacro  are  never  used  with  a  double  accusative,  but  the  first 
two  have  always  the  ablative  of  the  person  with  ab,  and 
quaero  with  ab,  dc  and  ex. 
Nulla  solus  bello,  paccm  te  poscimus  omncs,  Virg.,  Acn., 

xi.,  362. 
Lcgati  Hcnncnscs  ad  Vcrrem  adcunt  eumque  simulacrum 

Ccreris  et  Victoriae  rcposcunt,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  51. 
Pusionem   quendam    Socrates   apud   Platonem  interrogat 

quaedam  Gcomctrica,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  24. 

Note  \. — A  double  accusative  is  used  most  commonly  when  the  thing 
is  expressed  indefinitely  by  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun  or  an  adjective;  e.  g., 
hoc  te  vehementer  rogo ;  illud  te  et  oro  et  hortor  ;  sine  te  hoc  exorem,  let  me  en- 
treat this  of  you  ;  nihil  aliud  vos  orat  atque  obsecrat  •  hoc  quod  te  interrngo 
responds.  The  accusat.  with  the  passive  is  rare,  but  in  accordance  with 
the  rule ;  thus  we  say,  rogatus  sententiam,  aske^d  for  his  opinion  (for  rogo 
may  mean  the  same  as  interrogo},  interrogatus  tfstimonium. 

Note  2. — Respecting  what  is  called  the  Greek  accusative,  which  only  sup- 
plies the  place  of  the  Latin  ablative,  see  <$>  458. 

[§  394.]  7.  The  following  verbs  (which  in  the  passive 
voice  have  two  nominatives)  have  in  the  active  two  accu- 
satives, one  of  the  object  and  the  other  of  the  predicate, 
dicere,  vocare,  appellare,  nominare,  nuncupare,  also  scribere 
and  inscribere  ;  ducere,  liabcrc,  judicare,  existimare,  nume- 
rare,  putare  (arljitrari),  also  intelligere^  agnoscere,  repe- 
rire,  invenire,facere  (pass.  JieriJ,  reddcre,  instituere,  consti- 
tuere,  creare,  deligere,  designarc,  declarare,  rcnuntiare,  and 
others  ;  se  praebere,  se  praestare.  Thus  we  say  in  the  ac- 
tive, Ciceronem  universus  populus  adversus  Catilinam  con- 
sulem  dedaravit  (Cic.,  in  Pis.,  1),  and  in  the  passive,  Cic- 
ero ab  universo  populo  consul  declaratus  est. 
Romulus  urbem,  quam  condidit,  Romam  vocavit. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  285 

Socrates  totius  mundi  se  incolam  et  civem  arbitrabatur^ 

Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  37. 

JBene  de  me  meritis  gratum  me  praebeo,  Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  38. 
Scytharum  gens  antiquissima  semper  Jiabita  est. 

Note  1. — Hence  we  say,  facio  te  certiorem,  I  inform  thee,  with  the  geni- 
tive ;  e.  g.,  consilii  mei,  or  with  the  preposition  de:  de  consilio  meo ;  and  in 
the  passive  voice,  certior  factus  sum.     With  other  adjectives  reddere  is  pref-   — 
erable  tofacere  ;  e.  g.,  reddere  aliquem  placidum  et  mollem,  meliorem,  iratum,    tf 
&c.  ;  homines  caecos  reddit  cupiditas  ;  loca  tuta  ab  hostibus  reddebat.     In  the 
passive  we  rarely  find  reddi  for  fieri.  ^/fa  j 

Utor,  in  a  similar  sense,  is  used  with  a  double  ablative  :  utor  aliquo  ma- 
gistro,  1  have  a  person  for  my  teacher ;  utor  aliquo  aequo,  benigno,  I  find  a 
person  just,  kind  towards  myself.  Terent.,  Heaut.,  ii.,  1,  5,  Mihi  si  unquam 
filius  erit,  nae  illefacili  me  utetur  patre,  he  shall  have  in  me  an  indulgent 
father. 

Note  2. — With  regard  to  the  participle  passive,  the  rule  respecting  the 
agreement  of  the  predicate  with  the  cases  of  the  subject  rarely  applies  to 
any  other  cases  than  the  nominative  and  accusative,  at  least  in  ordinary 
language.     There  are,  however,  a  few  instances  of  the  ablative  in  the 
construction  of  the  ablative  absolute  ;  Nep.,  Hann.,  3,  Hasdrubale  impera- 
tore  suffecto  ;  Liv.,  iv.,  46,  magistro  equitum  creato  filio  suo  profectus  est  ad 
helium;  ibid.,  xlv.,  21,  Consulibus  certioribus  factis ;  Flor.,  hi.,  21,  ex  sena-     < 
tusconsulto  adversariis  hostibus  judicatis.     There  are  no  instances  of  otheis> 
oblique  cases.     It  is  not,  however,  improbable  that  a  Roman  might  have 
said,  Dareus  Scytharum  genti,  quamquam  just.issimae  habitae,  bellum  intulit. 

Note  3. — The  verbs  putare,  ducere,  and  habere  may  have  the  preposition 
pro  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  predicate,  but  not  quite  in  the  same 
sense,  pro  expressing  rather  an  approximation;  e.  g.,  habere  pro  hoste,  to 
deem  a  person  equal  to  an  enemy  ;  aliquid  pro  non  dicto  habere,  to  consider 
a  thing  as  though  it  had  not  been  said ;  aliquid  pro  ccrto  putare,  to  regard  a 
thing  as  thougti  it  were  certain ;  pro  nihilo,  as  though  it  were  nothing. 
We  may  here  notice,  also,  the  phrases  aliquem  in  numero ;  e.  g.,  impera- 
torum,  sapientium,  and  aliquem  in  loco  parentis  ducere  or  habere. 

[§  395.]  8.  The  accusative  is  used  with  verbs  and  ad- 
jectives to  express  the  extent  of  time  and  space,  in 
answer  to  the  questions,  how  far  ]  how  long  ]  how 
broad1?  how  deep]  how  thick]  e.  g.,  nunquam pedem  a 
me  discessit,  he  never  moved  one  step  from  me ;  a  recta 
conscientia  non  transversum  unguem  (or  digitum)  oportet 
discedere,  not  one  finger's  breadth ;  fossa  duos  pedes  lata 
or  longa  ;  cogitationem  sobrii  hominis  punctum  temporis 
suscipe,  take,  for  one  moment,  the  thought  of  a  rational 
man ;  so,  also,  Mithridates  annum  jam  tertium  et  viccsi- 
rfium  regnat;  tres  annos  mecum  habitavit,  or  per  tres  annos, 
which,  however,  implies  that  the  period  was  a  long  one. 

Campus  Marathon  ab  Athenis  circiter  miliapassuum  decem 

abest,  Nep.,  Milt.,  4. 

Quaedam  bestiolae  unum  tantum  diem  vivunt,  Cic. 
Decem  quondam  annos  urbs  oppugnata  est  ob  unam  muli- 

crem  ab  univcrsa  Graecia,  Liv.,  v.,  4. 


286  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Lacrimans  in  carcere  mater  noctes  diesque  assidebat,  Cic., 
in  Verr.,  v.,  43. 

[$  396.]  Note  1. — The  ablative  is  rarely  used  by  Cicero  to  express  the 
duration  of  time;*  e.  g.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  2,  Scriptum  est  a  Posidonio  triginta 
annis  vixisse  Panaetium,  posteaquam  libros  de  officiis  edidisset ;  but  it  is  more 
frequent  in  the  authors  of  the  silver  age  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.,  53,  quattuordecim 
annis  exilium  tolerav it  •  Suet.,  Calig.,  59,  vixit  annis  undetriginta.  The  abla- 
tive of  distance  must,  in  general,  be  regarded  as  an  exception,  although  it 
occurs  not  only  in  later  writers,  but  in  Caesar  and  Livy,  abest,  distat  quin- 
que  milibus  passuum,  or  spatio  aliquot  milium  ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xii.,  17,  Exercitus 
Komanus  tridui  itinere  abfuit  ab  amne  Tanai ;  but  Cicero  and  others,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  rule,  say  iter  quinque,  decem  dierum,  or  biduum,  triduum, 
or  bidui,  tridui  (scil.,  spatium)  abest  ab  aliquo  loco.  If,  however,  not  the  dis- 
tance is  to  be  expressed,  but  only  a  place  to  be  designated  by  the  circum- 
stance of  its  distance  from  another,  the  ablative  should  be  used,  though 
the  accusative  sometimes  occurs;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxvii.,  41,  millefere  et  quin- 
gentos  pas.ius  castra  ab  hoste  local ;  xxv.,  13,  tria  passuum  milia  ab  ipsa  urbe 
loco  edito  castra  posuit,  and  in  other  passages.  Spatio  and  intervello  are  the 
only  words  in  which  the  ablative  is  used  exclusively ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxv.,  9, 
quindecim  ferme  milium  spatio  castra  ab  Tarento  posuit,  but  the  ablative  is 
found,  also,  in  many  other  cases,  agreeably  to  the  rule;  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell. 
Gall.,  i.,  48,  Eodem  die  castra  promovit  et  milibus  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  cas- 
tris  sub  monte  consedit.  When  the  place  from  which  the  distance  is  calcu- 
lated is  not  mentioned,  but  understood  from  what  precedes,  ab  is  placed 
at  the  beginning,  as  if  the  ablative  of  the  distance  depended  on  it;  e.  g., 
Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  7,  a  milibus  passuum  duobus  castra  posuerunt,  i.  e.,  at. 
a  distance  of  2000  paces  from  the  spot,  or  2000  paces  off,  duo  inde  milia 
(for  more  instances  from  Caesar,  see  Schneider  on  Caes.,  /.  c.) ;  Liv.,  xxiv., 
46,  a  quingentis  fere  passibus  castra  posuit;  Flor.,  ii.,  6,  56,  non  jam  a  tertio 
lapide  (i.  e.,  at  a  distance  of  three  miles),  sed  ipsas  Carthaginis  portas  obsidi- 
OUK  quatiebat.  (Compare  Matthiae,  Greek  Grammar,  §  573,  p.  994,  5th  ed.) 

[$  397.J  Note  2. — Old,  in  reference  to  the  years  which  a  person  has  lived, 
is  expressed  in  Latin  by  natus,  with  an  accusative  of  the  time;  e.  g.,  De- 
cessit  Alexander  mensem  unum,  annos  tres  et  triginta  natus  (Justin,  xii.,  16). 
Alexander,  therefore,  died  quarto  et  trigesimo  anno,  or  aetatis  anno.  A  per- 
son's age,  however,  may  be  expressed  without  natus,  by  the  genitive,  if 
his  name  is  closely  joined  to  the  words  denoting  the  time  (see  §  426) ; 
e.  g.,  Alexander  annorum  trium  et  triginta  decessit,  i.  e.,  as  a  man  of  thirty- 
three  years.  The  expressions  "older"  or  "younger  than  thirty-three 
years,"  are  accordingly  rendered  in  Latin  by  plus  or  minus  (see  §  485)  tres 
et  triginta  annos  natus  ;  but,  also,  by  major  or  minor,  either  without  quam; 
as,  major  (minor}  annos  tres  et  triginta  nalus,  and  major  (minor')  annorum  trium 
et  triginta ;  or  with  quam :  major  (minor)  quam  annos  tres  et  triginta  natus, 
and  major  (minor}  quam  annorum  trium  et  triginta.  Natu  may  be  joined  to 
annorum,  as  anno  is  to  aetatis  in  the  case  of  ordinal  numerals.  Lastly,  the 
ablative  is  made  to  depend  upon  the  comparative ;  major  (minor)  tribus  et 
triginta  annis ;  and  in  the  Roman  laws  we  frequently  find  the  expression 
minor  viginti  quinque  annis. 

[§  398.]  9.  The  names  of  towns,  and  not  unfrequently 
of  small  islands,  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  verbs  im- 
plying motion,  without  the  preposition  in  or  ad,  which 
are  required  with  the  names  of  countries ;  e.  g.,  Juvenes 
Ro?nani  Athenas  studiorum  causa  prqficisci  solebant.  We 

*  [The  strict  distinction  appears  to  be  this  :  with  the  ablative  we  ask, 
in  what  time ;  but  with  the  accusative,  throughout  what  time.  Compare 
Billroth,  L.G.,t)  208.]— Am.  Ed. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  287 

may  here  mention  at  once  all  the  rules  relating  to  the 
construction  of  the  names  of  towns.  If  they  denote  the 
place  whence,  they  are  in  the  ablative  ;  if  the  place  where  ? 
singular  nouns  of  the  first  and  second  declensions  are  put 
in  the  genitive,  all  plurals  and  nouns  of  the  third  declen- 
sion in  the  ablative.*  When  we  have  to  express  "through 
a  town,"  the  preposition  per  is  required. 
Dcmaratus  quidam,  Tarquinii  rcgis  pater,  tyrannum  Cyp- 

selum  quodfcrre  non  poterat,  Tarquinios  Corinthofugit, 

et  ibi  suas  fortunas  constitute,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  37. 
Dionysius   tyrannus   Syracusis   expulsus    Corinthi  pueros 

docebat,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii.,  12. 
Romae  Consules,  Athenis  Archontes,  Carthagine^  Sufetes, 

sive  judices,  quotannis  creabantur,  Nep.,  Hann. 

Note  1.  —  The  use  of  names  of  countries  without  a  preposition,  like  the 
names  of  towns,  and  of  names  of  towns  with  the  prepositions  in,  ab,  ex,  is 
an  irregularity  which  should  not  be  imitated.  Of  these  prepositions  ab 
is  found  most  frequently,  especially  in  Livy,  though  sometimes,  also,  in 


Cicero  :  ab  Epidauro  Piraeeum  advectus,  ab  Epheso  in  Syriam  vrofectus,  a 
lla  adh  ' 

s  absol 

oppum   n     icilia,  quo    a       enea,ugente  a      roa, 

Ad  is  joined  with  names  of  towns  when  only  the  direction  towards  a  place 


,  , 

Brundisio  nulla  adhuc  fama  venerat  ;  and  cases  may  occur  in  'which  the 
preposition  is  absolutely  necessary;  as  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  33,  Segesta  est 
oppidum  in  Sicilia,  quod  ab  Aenea,fugiente  a  Troja,  conditum  esse  demonstrant. 


is  to  be  expressed,  and  not  the  place  itself;  e.  g.,  in  Cicero,  iter  dirigere  ad 
Mutinam;  tres  viae  sunt  ad  Mutinam,  farther,  when  the  vicinity  of  a  place 
is  to  be  denoted  (§  296)  ;  in  this  sense,  the  elder  Cato  says,  in  Cic., 
Cat.  —  aj.j  5,  adolescenlulus  miles  profectus  sum  ad  Capuam,  quintoque  anno 

*  This  rule,  varying  as  it  does  with  the  number  and  declension  of  a 
name  of  a  town,  is  obviously  quite  arbitrary,  and  not  traceable  to  any 
principle.  The  first  (at  least  in  England)  proper  explanation  of  this 
apparent  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language  is  given  by  a  writer  in  the 
Journal  of  Education  (vol.  i.,  p.  107),  from  which  we  extract  the  following 
passage  :  "  We  are  usually  directed  to  translate  at  Rome  by  the  genitive, 
at  Athens  by  the  ablative,  &c.,  giving  different  rules  according  as  the 
number  or  the  gender  differs,  while,  in  fact,  they  are  all  datives.  With 
Romae,  Athenis,  there  is  no  difficulty.  As  to  Beneventi,  domi,  &c.,  an  ear- 
lier form  of  the  dative,  of  the  second  declension  was  oi  (oiKot),  whence 
arose  the  double  form  nullo  and  nulli.  In  the  plural  the  two  languages 
exhibit  the  same  analogy  ;  dovhoi,  Jov/Loif,  in  Greek,  and  in  Latin  pueri, 
puerls.  In  the  third  declension  a  common  occurrence  has  taken  place." 
This  explanation  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  in  most  cases  we  find  Car- 
thagini,  Anxuri,  Tiburi,  and  also  Lacedcemoni,  when  the  place  where  ?  is  to 
be  expressed.  See  above,  <$>  63,  in  ,fin.  —  TRANSL. 

f  The  writer  above  quoted  justly  remarks  :  "  Our  editions  often  present 
Carthagine,  Lacedcsmone,  where  the  MSS.  have  the  correct  dative.  It  is 
true  that  authority  exists  for  the  other  form  ;  but  the  change  of  Carthagini 
into  Carthagine  is  precisely  similar  to  the  change  of  heri  into  here,  picta'i 
into  pictae,  and  not  unlike  the  absorption  of  the  i  in  the  datives  of  so  many 
declensions,  Greek  and  Latin:  gradui  gradu,  fideifide.  In  the  third  de- 
clension, the  preceding  consonant  saved  it  from  total  extinction.  The 
commonest  effect  of  time  upon  language  is  to  soften  away  the  final  letters. 
Hence  miraris,  mirare  ;  agier,  agi  ;  ipsus,  ipse  ;  quis,  qui;  fuerunt,  fuere; 
homo,  homo  ;  iytov,  iya)  ;  ego,  ego"  &c.  —  TRANSL. 


288  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

post  ad  Tarentum  Quaestor,  that  is,  in  castra,  ad  Capuam,  ad  Tarentum.  So 
ad  is  also  used  to  denote  the  approach  of  a  fleet  to  a  maritime  town;  e.  g., 
Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  100,  Laelius  cum  classe  ad  Brundisium  venit. 

What  has  been  said  above  in  reference  to  islands  applies  not  only  to 
those  which  have  tow*ns  of  the  same  name,  such  as  Delos,  Rhodus,  Sa- 
mos,  Corcyra,  but  to  others,  also,  as  in  Cicero:  Ithacae  vivere  otiose;  in 
Nepos,  Cunon  plurimum  Cypri  vixit,  Iphicrates  in  Thracia,  Timotheus  Lesbi ; 
Pausaniam  cu?n  classe  Cyprum  atque  Hellespontum  miserunt ;  so,  also,  Cher- 
sonesum  colonos  mittere,  Chersonesi  habitare ;  but  Cicero,  de  Divin.,  i.,  25, 
says,  in  Cyprum  redire.  The  larger  islands;  as,  Sardinia,  Britannia,  Creta, 
Euboea,  Sicilia,  are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  names  of  countries ;  and 
the  few  exceptions  which  occur  cannot  be  taken  into  account ;  e.  g.,  Cic  , 
p.  Leg.  Man.,  12,  inde  Sardiniam  cam  classe  venit ;  Liv.,  xxxii.,  16,  Euboeam 
trajecerunt ;  Flor.,  iii.,  10,  Britanniam  transit ;  and  some  others. 

Names  of  countries,  also,  are  not  unfrequently  used  in  the  accusative 
without  the  preposition  in  when  motion  is  expressed.  This  is  most  fre- 
quently the  case  with  Aegyptus  (once  even  in  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  22), 
and  other  Greek  names  of  countries  in  us;  as,  Epirus,  Pelopojmesus,  Cher- 
sonesus,  Bosporus,  perhaps  owing  to  their  resemblance  to  names  of  towns  ; 
but  also  with  others;  e.g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  7,  Itlyncum  profectus ; 
Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  41,  Macedoniam  pervenit ;  Liv.,  x.,  37,  Etruriam  transducto 
exercitu ;  xxx.,  24,  Africam  transiturus.  All  these  expressions,  however, 
are  only  exceptions,  rarely  used  by  the  earlier  writers,  and  somewhat 
more  frequently  by  the  later  ones.  Even  names  of  nations,  when  used 
for  those  of  countries,  are  construed  in  this  way  by  Tacitus,  Ann.,  xii., 
32,  ductus  inde  Cangos  exercitus ;  xii.,  15,  Ipse  praeceps  Iberos  ad  patrium 
regnum  pervadit.  The  genitive  of  names  of  countries  in  answer  to  the 
question  where  ?  is  much  more  rare,  and  is  confined  to  Aegypti  in  Caesar, 
Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  106  ;  Chersonesi  in  Nep.,  Milt.,  1  ;  Florus,  i ,  18,  ll,uses  Lu- 
caniae  in  the  same  way ;  in  Sallust  the  combination  Romae  Numidiaeque  is 
easily  accounted  for.* 

The  grammatical  explanation  of  this  genitive,  however,  is  connected 
\vith  difficulties.  Formerly  grammarians  accounted  for  it  by  the  ellipsis 
in  loco ;  modern  comparative  philology  has  called  in  the  aid  of  the  locative 
singular  in  i  of  the  Sanscrit  language,  which  is  akin  to  the  Latin.  (See 
Bopp,  Vergldch.  Grammatik,  p.  229.)  This  would  account  for  the  ae  in  the 
first  declension,  the  ancient  form  being  ai  (see  $  45),  and  for  the  i  in  some 
nouns  of  the  third  declension  ;  e.  g.,  Tiburi,  Carthagini,  ruri.  (See  §  62, 
foil)  The  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  "  motion  to,"  and  of  the  ab- 
lative to  denote  the  place  where  or  whence,  is  perfectly  in  accordance 
with  the  syntactical  system  of  the  Latin  language ;  and  this  accounts  for 
the  fact  of  later  writers,  especially  Justin,  frequently  putting  names  of 
towns  of  the  second  declension  in  the  ablative  to  denote  the  place  where; 
e.  g.,  Abydo,  Corintho,  Liv.,  v.,  52,  in  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  for  et  La- 
•vinii.  t 

[§  399.]  Note  2. — With  regard  to  adjectives  and  nouns  of  apposition 
joined  with  names  of  towns,  the  following  rules  must  be  observed.  When 
a  name  of  a  town  is  qualified  by  an  adjective,  the  answer  to  the  question 
where?  is  not  expressed  by  the  genitive,  but  by  the  preposition  in  with  the 
ablative;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xi.,  16,  in  ipsa  Alexandria;  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat., 
xiv.,  3,  in  Narbonensis  provinciae  Alba  Helvia  ;  and,  consequently,  not  Albae 
Longae,  but  rather  the  simple  ablative  Alba  Long a ;  as  in  Virgil,  Aen.,  vi., 
766.  In  Cicero,  however,  we  find  Teani  Apttli  (p.  Cluent.,  9),  in  the' Apu- 
lian  Teanum.  When  a  name  of  a  town  answers  to  the  question  where? 

*  According  to  the  remark  made  above,  Aegypti,  Chersonesi,  Lucaniae, 
&c.,  are  all  datives,  answering  to  the  Sanscrit  locative,  and  not  genitives. 
— TRANSL. 

f  According  to  what  was  said  above,  these  are  not  exceptions  ;  Abydo, 
Corintho,  being  datives,  and  not  ablatives. — TRANSL. 


ACCUSATIVE    CASE.  289 

in  the  ablative,  the  addition  of  an  adjective  produces  no  change ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  xvi.,  6,  Malo  vel  cum  timore  domi  esse,  quam  sine  timore  Athenis 
tuis ;  Liv.,  i.,  18,  Numa  Pompilius  Curibus  Sabinis  habitabat ;  ibid.,  xxviii., 
17,  Carthagine  nova  rdiquit ;  and  hence  the  reading  in  the  epitome  of  the 
same  book  should  be  Carthagini  nova,  and  not  novae.  In  answer  to  the 
questions  whither?  and  whence?  the  accus.  and  ablat.  are  used  both  with 
and  without  prepositions;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Heroid.,  ii.,  83,  Aliquis  doctas  jam 
nunc  eat,  inquit,  Athenas  ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  19,  quae  ipsa  Samo  sublata  sunt ; 
but  Propert.,  iii.,  20,  magnum  iter  ad  doclas  proficisci  cogor  Athenas  ;  and 
Martial,  xiii.,  107,  de  vitifera  venisse  Vienna. 

When  the  words  urbs,  oppidum,  locus,  &c.,  follow  the  names  of  towns 
as  appositions,  they  generally  take  a  preposition ;  e.  g.,  Demuratus  Corin- 
thius  se  contuht  Tarquinios,  in  urbem  Etruriae  florentissimam  ;  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
V.,  51,  Cleomenes  dicit,  sese  in  terram  esse  egressum,  ut  Pachyno,  e  terrestri 
praesidio,  milites  colligeret.  In  answer  to  the  question  where  ?  however,  the 
simple  ablative  may  be  used,  but  never  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Arch,, 
3,  Archias  Antiochiae  natus  est,  celebri  quondam urbe  et  copiosa  ;  p.  Rab.  Post., 
10,  Deliciarum  causa  et  voluptatis  cives  Romanos  Neapoli,  m  celeberrimo  oppido, 
cum  mitdla  saepe  vidimus.  When  these  words,  with  their  prepositions,  pre- 
cede the  names  of  towns,  the  latter  are  invariably  put  in  the  same  case ; 
e.  g.,  ad  urbem  Ancyram,  ex  urbe  Roma,  ex  oppido  Thermis,  in  oppido  Athenis  • 
Nep.,  Cim.,  3,  in  oppido  Citio ;  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.,  21,  in  oppido  Adrumeto.  Ex- 
ceptions are  rare  ;  Vitruv.,  Praef.,  lib.  x.,  nobili  Graecorum  et  ampla  civitate 
Ephesi ;  and  in  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  v.,  18,  Cassius  in  oppido  Antiochiae  cum  omni 
exercitu  est,  where  Antiochiae  depends  upon  oppido,  just  as  we  say  "  in  the 
town  of  Antioch." 

[§  400.]  Note  3. — The  words  domus  and  rus  are  treated  like  the  names 
of  towns,  consequently  domum  (also  domos  in  the  plur.)  and  rus,  home, 
into  the  country ;  domo  and  rure,  from  home,  from  the  country  ;  domi,  ruri 
(more  frequent  than  rure),  at  home,  in  the  country.  But  although  the 
rule  requires,  e.  g.,  domo  abesse,  to  be  absent  from  home,  Livy  uses  esse  ab 
domo ;  and  besides  domi  se  tenere,  to  keep  at  home,  we  also  find  domo  se 
tenere.*  (See  the  comment,  on  Nep.,  Epam.,  10.)  Domi  also  takes  the 
genitives  meae,  tuae,  nostrae,  vestrae,  and  alienae ;  but  if  any  other  adjective 
is  joined  with  it,  a  preposition  must  be  used;  e.  g.,  in  ilia  domo,  in  domo 
publica,  inprivata  domo.  When  the  name  of  the  possessor  is  added  in  the 
genitive,  both  forms,  domi  and  in  domo,  are  used ;  e.  g.,  domi  or  in  domo 
Caesaris  or  ipsius.  In  the  case  of  domum  and  domo,  the  rule  is,  on  the 
whole,  the  same ;  we  say,  e.  g.,  domum  meam  venit,  nihil  domum  suam  intu- 
lit,  domos  suas  invitant,  domo  sua  egredi ;  but  in  domum  meretriciam  induci  ; 
in  domum  veterem  remigrare  e  nova  ;  Livy,  in  domum  Maelii  tela  inferuntur  ; 
Cicero,  e  domo  Caesaris  multa  ad  te  delata  sunt;  Cicero,  however,  very 
commonly  says,  domum  alicujus  venire,  convenire,  domos  omnium  concur sare. 

Humus,  bellum,  and  militia  are,  to  some  extent,  construed  in  a  similar 
way,  their  genitives!  being  used  to  denote  the  place  where?  humi.  on  the 
ground  (but  not  humum,(\.  throw)  upon  the  ground,  and  rarely  humo,  from 
the  ground,  prepositions  being  required  to  express  these  relations  ;  hence 
humo  is  often  used  as  an  ablative  of  place  for  humi) ;  belli  and  militiae, 
always  in  combination  with,  or  in  opposition  to,  domi:  belli  domique,  or 
domi  bMique,  domi  militiaeque,  at  home  and  in  the  camp  ;  nee  ducem  belli,  nee 
principem  domi  desideramus  ;  nihil  domi,  nih.il  militiae  gestum.  But  we  also 
find  in  bello,  in  war,  Vtciniae  for  in  vicinia,  occurs  in  Terence  in  such  con- 
nexions, as,  hie,  hue,  viciniae,  where,  however,  the  genitive  might  be  re- 
garded as  dependant  upon  the  adverb  (see  §  431),  but  Plautus  (Bacch.,  ii., 
2,  27)  uses  it  without  the  adverb  ;  proximae  viciniae  habitat.  Foras  (out 
through  the  door)  and  foris  (out  at  the  door)  have  become  adverbs,  but 
the  one  is  properly  an  accusat.,  and  the  other  an  ablat. 

*  [These  are  all  locative  cases.     Consult  note  on  page  287.] — Am.  Ed. 
f  [Or,  more  correctly,  locatives.] — 'Am.  Ed. 
.f<Z.4    BB 


290  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  401.]  The  poets  may  express  by  the  accusative  any 
locality  answering  to  the  question  whither  ?  as  in  Virgil, 
Italiamfato  profugus  Lavinaque  venit  litora  ;  Speluncam 
Dido  dux  et  Trojanus  candcm  devcniunt ;  Ovid,  Verba 
refers  awes  non  pervenientia  nostras. 

[§  402.]  10.  In  exclamations  the  accusative  of  the  per- 
son or  thing  wondered  at  is  used,  either  with  the  inter- 
jections o,  heu,  elieu,  or  without  them.  The  accusative 
may  be  explained  by  supplying  some  verb  of  emotion  or 
declaration,;  e.  g.,  Heu  me  miserum  !  O  wretched  man 
that  I  am  !  hcu  dementiam  existimantium  !  O  the  folly  of 
those  who  believe,  &c. !  or  without  heu :  me  miserum  ! 
Beatos  quondam  duccs  Ronianos  !  exclaims  Corbulo  in 
Tacit.,  Ami.,  xi.,  20  ;  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  v.  25,  Huncine  liomi- 
nem!  hancineimpudentiam,judices!  hanc  audaciam  !  and 
in  an  ironical  sense,  p.  CocL,  26,  In  balneis  delituerunt : 
testes  egregios  !  de  Orat.,  iii.,  2,  O  fallacem  hominum  spem 
fragilcmque  fortunam  ct  inancs  nostras  contentioncs  ! 

[§  403.]  Note  1. — With  these  as  with  all  other  interjections  the  vocative 
also  is  used,  when  the  person  or  thing  itself  is  invoked  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip., 
xiii.,  17,  o  miser,  quum  re,  turn  hoc  ipso  quod  non  sentis,  quam  miser  sis  !  Vae 
and  hei  are  usually  joined  with  the  dative ;  as,  vae  misero  mihi!  vae  victis  ! 
hei  mihi,  qualis  erat  ! 

Note  2. — Ecce  and  en  (Greek  i]v ,  rjvi)  are  preferred  with  the  nominative  ; 
as,  Ecce  tuae  litterae  !  Ecce  nova  turba  atque  rixa  !  En  ego  !  En  memoria 
mortui  sodalis  !  en  metus  vivorum  existimationis  !  Ecce  with  the  accusative 
occurs  only  in  comedy,  in  the  expression  ecce  me .'  and  in  the  contracted 
forms  eccum,  eccos,  eccillum,  eccillam,  eccistam. 

[§  404.]  11.  The  following  prepositions  govern  the  ac- 
cusative :  ad,  apud,  ante,  advcrsus  and  adversum,  cis  and 
citra,  circa  and  circum,  circiter,  contra,  erga,  extra,  infra, 
inter,  intra,juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  pone,  post,  praeter,  prope, 
propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  versus,  ultra,  and  in  and 
sub  when  joined  with  verbs  of  motion.  Respecting  super 
and  subter,  see  §  320. 


CHAPTER  LXXII. 

DATIVE    CASE. 

[§  405.]  1.  THE  dative  is  the  case  of  reference,  or,  if  we 
compare  it  with  the  accusative,  the  case  denoting  the  re- 
moter object;  for  as  the  accusative  serves  to  denote  the 
effect  or  that  which  is  acted  upon,  in  contrast  to  the  agent 
or  active  subject,  so  the  dative  denotes  that  with  refer- 
ence to  which  the  subject  acts,  or  in  reference  to  which 


DATIVE    CASE.  291 

it  possesses  this  or  that  quality  j  e.  g.,  scribo  vobis  Tiunc 
librum,  I  write  this  book  (the  agent  and  effect,  or  cause 
and  effect),  for  you  (with  reference  to  you,  for  your  ad- 
vantage) ;  prosum  tibi,  I  am  useful  to  you  (in  reference  to 
you).*  Hence  the  dative  is  used. 

(a)  With  all  transitive  verbs,  besides  the  accusative, 
either  expressed  or  understood,  to  denote  the  person  in 
reference  to  whom  or  for  whom  a  thing  is  done ;  e.  g., 
date  panem  pauperibus,  commendo  tibi  liberos  meos,  mitto 
tibi  librum,  rex  milii  domuin  acdificavit ;  in  the  following 
sentences  the  accusative  is  understood,  or  its  place  is  sup- 
plied by  the  sentences  which  follow  :  suadeo  tibi,  persua- 
deo  tibi,  nuntiavit  imperatori,  promisit  militibus.  This 
rule  implies  that  the  person  for  whose  benefit  or  loss 
anything  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  dative  (dativus  corn- 
modi  et  incommodi)  ;  e.  g.,  Pisistratus  sibi,  non  patriae, 
Megarenses  vicit,  Justin ;  Non  scliolae,  sed  vitae  discimus, 
Senec.,  Epist.,  106. 

[§  406.]  (b)  With  intransitive  verbs,  which,  though 
they  usually  do  not  govern  any  case,  may  yet  express 
that  the  action  is  done  with  reference  to  something  or 
somebody.  We  mention  here,  especially,  vacare,  nubere, 
and  supplicare.  Vaco  signifies  "  I  am  free,"  hence,  vaco 
alicui  rei,  I  have  leisure  for  a  thing,  or  occupy  myself 
with  it ;  as,  vaco  philosophiae.  Nubo  originally  signifies 
"I  cover;"  and  as,  according  to  an  ancient  custom,  the 
bride  on  her  wedding-day  covered  her  face,  she  was  said 
nubere  alicui  viro,  "  to  cover  herself  for  a  man,"  that  is, 
"  to  marry."  (In  the  passive,  however,  we  find  nupta 
cum  viro.)  Supplico  signifies  "I  am  a  suppliant"  (sup- 
plex)  ;  hence,  supplico  alicui,  I  implore  a  person.  Homo 
non  sibi  se  soli  natum  meminerit,  sed  patriae^  sed  suis,  Cic., 
De  Fin.,  ii.,  14. 
Civitas  Romana  inter  bellorum  strepitum  parum  olim  va- 

cabat  liber alibus  disciplinis.  Sueton.,  De  Grammat. 
Plures  in  Asia  mulieres  singulis  viris  solent  nubere,  Cic. 
Neque  Caesari  solum,  sed  etiam  amicis  ejus  omnibus  pro  te, 

sicut  adhucfeci,  libentissime  supplicabo.    Cic.,  Ad  Fam., 

vi.,  14. 

[^  407.]  Note  1. — Suadeo  tibi  hanc  rem,  has  nothing  that  is  strange  to  us, 
as  we  use  the  same  construction  in  English.  Persuadeo  denotes  the  com- 

*  [Some  grammarians  have  called  the  dative  the  acquisitive  case,  as 
being  used  after  any  verb,  denoting  that  anything  is  done  to,  or  for  any 
person.  (Crombie's  Gymnasium,  vol.  i.,  p.  10.)]— Am.  Ed. 


292  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

pletion  ofsuadeo,  and  must  be  noticed  here  because  its  construction  differs 
from  that  of  our  verb  "  to  persuade."  We  use  the  passive  form  "  I  am  per- 
suaded," but  in  Latin  we  must  say  hoc  (or  any  other  neuter  pronoun)  mihi 
persuadetur,  as  the  construction  is  managed  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  the 
clause  which  follows  the  subject ;  persuadetur  mihi,  per suasum  mihi  est,  mihi 
persuasum  habeo  (this  occurs  only  in  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  2)  esse  aliquid, 
out  also  de  aliqua  re.  Persuadeo  te  has  been  found  in  a  fragment  of  Cicero, 
p.  Tull.,  §  39,  ed.  Peyron,  but  is  otherwise  altogether  unclassical ;  "it  ex- 
plains, however,  the  personal  participle  persuasus  which  occurs  now  and 
then.* 
Mihi  quidem  nunquam  persuaderi  potuit,  animos,  dum  in  corporibus  essent  mor- 

talibus,  vivcre,  quum  exissent  ex  his,  emori,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  22. 

[()  408.]  Note  2.— The  free  application  of  the  dative,  or  what  is  termed 
the  dativus  commodi  et  incommodi,  enabled  the  Romans  to  speak  with  great 
nicety  and  conciseness.  Compare,  for  example,  the  following  passages, 
whose  number  might  be  greatly  increased :  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  8  (Verres) 
hunc  hominem  Veneri  absolvit,  stbi  condemnat,  to  the  loss  of  Venus  (whose 
temple  was  to  have  received  a  bequest)  he  acquits  him,  but  for  his  own 
benefit  he  condemns  him  ;  Terent.,  Adelph.,  i.,  2,  35,  quod  peccat,  Demea, 
mihi  peccat.  In  Plautus  (Capt.,  iv.,  2,  86),  a  person  answers  to  the  imper- 
tinent remark  esurire  mihi  videris :  mihi  quidem  esurio,  non  tibi ;  i.  e.,  it  does 
not  concern  you.  The  dative  of  personal  pronouns  is  very  often  used 
where  it  is  superfluous  as  far  as  the  meaning  is  concerned,  but  it  always 
conveys  the  expression  of  a  lively  feeling,  and  is  therefore  termed  dativus 
3  try,  ethicus ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  Praef.,  Ad  ilia  mihi  pro  se  quisque  acriter  intendat  ani- 

mum  ;  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  3,  15,  Quid  mihi  Celsus  agit?  What  is  my  old 
friend  Celsus  doing?  In  some  cases  the  pronoun  gives  to  the  expression 
an  almost  personal  shade  of  meaning;  Sallust,  Cat.,  52,  hie  mihi  quisquam 
misericordiam  nominal  !  Let  no  one  talk  to  me  of  mercy  !  Cic.,  Philip., 
viii.,  4,  hie  mihi  etiam  Q.  Fufius  pads  commoda  commemorat !  The  following 
phrases,  also,  should  be  observed:  quid  tibi  vis?  what  do  you  want?  quid 
sibi  iste  vult  ?  what  does  he  want  ?  quid  vult  sibihaec  oratio  ?  what  does  this 
speech  mean  ?  quid  haec  sibi  dona  volunt  ?  what  is  the  meaning  of  these 
presents  ?  or  what  is  their  object  ? 

[§  409.]  2.  The  dative  is  joined  with  all  adjectives 
(and  adverbs)  whose  meaning  is  incomplete,  unless  a 
person  or  an  object  is  mentioned  for  or  against  whom,  for 
whose  benefit  or  loss  the  quality  exists.  Of  this  kind  are 
those  which  express  utility  or  injury,  pleasantness  or  un- 
pleasantness, inclination  or  disinclination,  ease  or  difficulty, 
suitableness  or  unsuitableness ,  similarity  or  dissimilarity ', 
equality  or  inequality. 

Adjectives  expressing  a  friendly  or  hostile  disposition 
towards  a  person,  may  take  the  prepositions  in,  erga,  ad- 
versus,  instead  of  the  dative ;  and  utilis.,  inutilis,  aptus, 
ineptus  generally  take  the  preposition  ad  to  express  the 
thing  for  which  anything  is  useful  or  fit ;  e.  g.,  homo  ad 
nullam  rem  utilis ;  locus  aptus  ad  insidias  ;  but  the  per- 
son to  or  for  whom  a  thing  is  useful  or  fit,  is  always  ex- 
pressed by  the  dative. 

*  [  Opiniomali,  quo  viso,  et  persuaso,  aegritudo  insequitur  necessario.  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  3,  29.) — Cum  animus  auditoris  persuasus  videtur  esse  ab  Us,  qui  ant« 
.contra  dixerttnt.  (Autt.  ad  Heren.,  I,  6.)] — Am.  Ed. 


DATIVE    CASE.  ^93 

Canis  nonnc  similis  lupo  ?  atque,  ut  Ennius,  "  simia  quam 
similis^  turpissima  bestia,  nobis  /"  Cic.,  De  Nat.  Deor., 
i.,  35. 

Fidelissimi  ante  omnia  Jiomini  canis  et  cquus,  Plin. 

Invia  virtuti  nulla  cst  via,  Ovid,  Met.,  xiv.,  113. 

Cunctis  esto  benignus,  nulli  blandus,  paucis  familiaris, 
omnibus  aequus,  Seneca. 

[§  410.]  Note  1. — Amicus,  inimicus,  familiaris,  are  properly  adjectives, 
arid  as  such  have  their  degrees  of  comparison,  and  are  joined  with  the  da- 
tive ;  as  in  Nepos,  Miltiades  amicior  omnium  liber  tat  i}  quam  suae.  fuit  domi- 
nation!;  and  homo  mihi  amicissimus,  mihi  familiar  is  simus,  are  very  common 
expressions.  When  used  as  substantives,  they  are  joined  with  a  genitive 
or  an  adjective  ;  as,  amicus  patris  mei,  amicus  meus ;  and  it  is  owing  to  their 
character  of  substantives  that  even  in  the  superlative  we  find  amicissimus, 
famiiiarissimus,  inimicisstmus  (and  on  the  same  principle  iniquissimus)  meus. 
Cicero,  in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  uses  the  genitive,  amicissimus  noslrorum  hominum. 
Invidus,  envious,  and  intimus,  intimate,  when  used  as  adjectives,  take  the 
dative  ;  as  in  Cicero,  intimus  erat  Clodio  ;  but  as  substantives  they  take  the 
genitive  or  a  possessive"  pronoun ;  e.  g.,  ab  invidis  tuis,  ex  intimis  meis,  in- 
vidus  laudis.  Hostis,  on  the  other  hand,  though  a  real  substantive,  some- 
times takes  a  dative  according  to  the  analogy  of  inimicus;  e.  g.,  dis  homini- 
busque  hostis. 

[§  411.]  Note  2. — The  dative  is  also  joined  with  adjectives  and  adverbs 
denoting  affinity  and  propinquity  •  as,  contcrmi?ius,  propinquus,  vicinus ,  finiti- 
mus,  affinis.  As  prope,  the  preposition,  governs  the  accusative,  its  degrees 
of  comparison  ($  2G6)  propior  and  propius,  proximus  and  proxime,  take  both 
the  dative  and  accusative  ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  ix.,  12,  propius  tribunal  accedcre,  and 
in  Sallust,  Libyes  propius  mare  Africum  agitabant,  proxime  Hispaniam  Mauri 
sunt.  (Compare  Gronovius  on  Livy,  xxii.,  40.)  Affmis,  in  the  sense  of 
"  partaking,"  sometimes  takes  the  genitive  ;  as  in  Cicero,  affmis  hujus 
suspicionis  ;  affinis  rei  capitalis,  together  with  afjinis  huic  sceleri,  ei  turpitudini. 
Vicinus  and  vicina  are  both  adjectives  and  substantives,  and  in  the  latter 
sense  they  take  the  genitive. 

The  following  adjectives  govern  both  the  dative  and  the  genitive : 
aequalis,  cognominis,  contrarius,  communis,  peculiaris,  proprius,  superstes.  The 
genitive  is  very  frequent  with  proprius ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Imprimis  hominis  est 
propria  veri  investigation  Aliae  nationes  servitutem  pati  possunt, populi  Romani 
est  propria  libertas,  especially  when  the  neuter  proprium  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive in  the  sense  of  "property,"  or  "peculiarity;"  e.  g.,  Proprium  est 
oratoris  ornate  dicere.  The  same  is  the  case  with  communis ;  as  in  Cic., 
de  Fin.,  v.,  23,  Haec  justitiae  ita  propria  sunt,  ut  sint  reliquarum  rirtutum  com- 
mwiia.  Hence  a  possessive  pronoun  is  frequently  joined  to  proprius  ;  as, 
ademit  nobis  omnia,  quae  nostra  erant  propria ;  both  constructions  are  com- 
bined in  Cic.,  p.  Sulla,  3,  Nulla  est  enim  in  re  publica  causa  mea  propria: 
tempus  agendifuit  magis  mihi  proprium,  quam  ceteris.  Aequalis  governs  the 
genitive  only  in  the  sense  of  "  contemporary,"  in  which  it  occurs  also  as  a 
substantive,  whence  meus  aequalis ;  but  the  dative  is  not  unusual  in  this 
sense.  Superstes  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Terence  with  the  dative,  but  in 
later  writers  the  genitive  is  more  prevalent.  Even  Cicero  (ad  Quint.  Frat., 
i.,  3)  says,  Utinam  te  non  solum  vitae,  sed  etiam  dignitatis  superstitem  reliquis- 
sem,  and  Tacitus  often  uses  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Agr.,  3,pauci,  ut  ita  dixerim, 
non  modo  aliorum  sed  etiam  nostri  superstites  sumus. 

The  adjectives  similis,  assimilis,  consimilis,  dissimilis,  par  and  dispar,  take 
the  genitive,  when  an  internal  resemblance,  or  a  resemblance  in  character 
and  disposition,  is  to  be  expressed.  Thus  we  always  find  mei,  tui,  sui, 
nostri,  vestri  similis ;  Liv.,  i.,  20,  quia  in  civitate  bellicosa  plures  Romuli,  quam 
Numae  similes  reges  putabat  fore ;  iii.,  64,  collaudatis  c&nsulibus,  quod  persa- 


294  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

verarent  ad  ultimum  dissimiles  decemvirorum  esse ;  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  10,  Dux 
ille  Graeciae  nusquam  cptat,  ut  Ajacis  similes  habeat  decem,  at  ut  Nestoris. 
And  Cicero  may  therefore  say  both  mors  somni  and  somno  similis.  Par  and 
dispar  are  joined  with  the  genitives  of  pronouns,  like  similis ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
in  Pis.,  4,  Q.  Metellum,  cujus  paucos  pares  haec  civitas  tulit ;  Cat.  Maj.,  21, 
Simplex  animi  natura  est,  neque  habet  in  se  quicquam  admixtum  dispar  sul  atque 
dissimile. 

[§  412.]  3.  Hence  the  dative  is  joined  with  those  in- 
transitive verbs  which  express  the  same  ideas  as  the  ad- 
jectives mentioned  in  §  409,  and  also  with  those  denoting 
to  command,  serve,  trust,  mistrust,  approach,  threaten,  and 
to  be  angry.  They  are  comprised  in  the  following  list : 
prosum,  auxilior,  adminiculor,  opitulor,  patrocinor,  sub- 
venio,  succurro,  medeor ;  nocco,  obsum,  dcsu7?i,  qfficio,  in- 
commodo,  insulto,  insidior ;  faveo,  placeo,  gratificor,  indul- 
geo,  ignosco,  studco,  parco,  adulor,  blandior,  lenocinor,  pal- 
por,  assentior,  assentor,  respondeo ;  adversor,  rcfragor, 
obsto,  renitor,  repugno,  resisto,  invideo,  aemulor,  obtrecto, 
convicior,  maledico  ;  placeo,  arrideo — displiceo  ;  impero 
(may  be  used,  also,  as  a  transitive),  pareo,  cedo,  ausculto, 
obedio,  obsequor,  obtcmpero,  morigeror  (morem  geroj,  alicui 
dicto  audicns  sum,  servio,  inservio,  ministro,famulor,  ancil- 
lor,  praestolor  ;  credo  (is  used,  also,  in  a  transitive  sense), 
Jido,confido,  diffido;  imminco,proj)inqiio,appropinguo,im- 
pendco,  occur ro ;  'minor,  commmor  (both  are  used,  also,  in  a 
transitive  sense),  irascor,  stomachor,  succensco.  To  these 
must  be  added  the  impersonals  convenit,  it  suits ;  conducit 
and  expedit,  it  is  conducive,  expedient;  dolet,  it  grieves. 
The  beginner  must  take  especial  care  not  to  use  the  passive 
of  these  verbs  personally,  to  which  he  might  easily  be 
tempted  by  the  English  equivalents ;  e.  g.,  I  am  envied, 
I  a?n  molested,  I  am  scolded,  I  am  spared,  and  the  like. 
In  Latin  the  passive  is  impersonal:  mihiinvidetur,obtrec- 
tatur,  incommodatur,  milii  maledicitur ,  parcitur.  Jubeo, 
I  command,  forms  an  exception,  requiring  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive.* 

Probus  invidet  nemini,  Cic.,  Timaeus,  3. 
Efficit  hoc  philosophia  :    medetur  animis,  inanes  sollici- 

tudines    detrahit,   cupiditatibus   liberat,  pellit    timores, 

Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  4. 
Antiochus  se  nee  impensae,  nee  labori,  nee  periculo  parsu~ 

rum  pollicebatur,  donee  liberam  vere  Gracciam  atque  in 

ca  principes  Aetolos  fecisset,  Liv.,  xxxv.,  44. 

*   [Consult,  on  the  construction  of  jubeo,  the  remarks  of  Crombie 
(Gymnas.,  vol.  i.,  p.  123,  seqq.).] — Am.  Ed. 


DATIVE    CASE.  295 

Demosthenes  ejus  ipsius  artis,  cui  studebat,  primam  litteram 
non  poterat  dicere,  Cic.,  De  Orat.,  i.,  61. 

§  413.]  Note  l.—Medicor,  like  medeor,  takes  the  dative,  but  also  the 
accusative.  Medico,  in  the  sense  of  "  to  mix  substances  in  an  artificial 
manner,"  governs  the  accusative.  Benedico,  like  maledico  (I  speak  well  or 
ill  of  a  person,  and  hence,  I  praise  or  blame),  governs  the  dative ;  but 
benedico,  in  this  sense,  is  very  rare  :  in  the  sense  of  "  blessing,"  with  the 
accusative,  it  occurs  only  in  the  ecclesiastical  writers.  Obtrectare  alicui, 
and  alicui  rei,  to  detract,  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  accusative  ;  but  not 
in  Cicero  ;  as,  obtrectare  numen  deorum,  libellum.  Invideo  is  commonly  used 
intransitively  with  one  dative,  either  of  the  person  or  the  thing;  but  some- 
times the  accusative  of  the  thing  is  added  to  the  dative  of  the  person ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii..  2,  invident  nobis  optimum magistr am  (naturam);  Horat., 
Serm.,  i.,  6,  50,  honorem  mihi  invidet.  Quintilian  (ix.,  3),  however,  observes 
that  his  contemporaries  used  the  ablative  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the 
earlier  writers,  but  only  when  invidere  is  equivalent  to  privare  ;  this  con- 
struction first  occurs  in  Livy,  ii.,  40,  non  inviderunt  laude  sua  mulieribus 
Romani  (according  to  the  best  MSS.) ;  very  frequently  in  the  younger 
Pliny,  and  sometimes  in  Tacitus;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  JEpist.,  ii.,  10,  Quousque  et 
tibi  et  nobis  invidebis,  tibi  maxima  laude,  nobis  voluptate  ?  (See  Corte  on 
Epist.,  i.,  10.)  Tac.,  Ann.,  i.,  22,  ne  hostes  quidem  sepulturd  invident,  scil. 
occisis  ;  German.,  33,  ne  spectaculo  quidem  proelii  invidere,  scil.  nobis.  The 
genitive  instead  of  this  ablative  or  ancient  accusative,  in  Horace,  Serm., 
ii.,  6, 84,  neque  ille  sepositi  ciceris  nee  longae  invidit  avenae,  is  a  mere  Grecism  ;* 
and  the  personal  passive  in  the  same  poet  (Ars  Poet.,  56),  cur  ego  invideor, 
is  a  grammatical  innovation,  which  the  poet  tried  intentionally,  and  as  an 
example.  Respecting  adulor  and  aemulor  with  the  dative  and  accusative, 
see  ()  389.  Praestolor,  I  wait  upon  a  person,  and  ausculto,  I  listen  or  obey, 
are  used  by  equally  good  authorities  both  with  a  dative  and  accusative, 
though  Cicero  prefers  the  dative.  Dominor,  I  rule,  is  joined  with  a 
dative  or  genitive  only  in  the  latest  Latin  writers ;  in  the  classical  lan- 
guage it  does  not  govern  any  case,  but  according  to  its  proper  meaning, 
"  I  am  master,"  is  joined  with  in  aliquem,  or  in  aliqua  re;  e.  g.,  dominatur  in 
cetera  animalia,  or  in  civitate.  Fido  and  conjido  take  the  dative ;  e.  g.,  con- 
jido  mihi,  causae  meae,  virtuti  constantiaeque  militum  ;  the  thing  which  pro- 
duces the  confidence  is  put  in  the  ablative  (ablativus  causae,  see  §  452) ; 
e.  g.,  conjido  arle,  natura  loci,  celeritate  navium,  propinquitate  castrorum,  and 
this  ablative  occurs,  on  the  whole,  more  frequently  than  the  dative.  The 
adjective  fretus,  which  has  the  same  meaning,  occurs  with  the  dative  only 
in  Livy,  iv.,  37,fortunae  fretus  ;  vi.,  13,  nulli  rei;  vi.,  31,  discordiae  hostium, 
and  usually  has  the  ablative.  Cedo,  I  yield,  give  up,  when  used  transi- 
tively, takes  a  dative  of  the  person  and  an  accusative  of  the  thing ;  cedo 
tibi  locum,  regnum,  mulierem ;  sometimes,  however,  the  thing  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative  ;  as,  cedo  tibi  Jtortorum  possessione.  So,  also,  concedo :  con- 
cedo  tibi  locum,  praemia,  libertatem,  or  concedo  tibi  loco,  de  victoria.  Convenit 
aliquid  mihi,  something  suits  me  ;  convenit  mihi  tecum,  is  used  impersonally 
in  the  sense  of  "we  agree,"  and  equivalent  to  convenimus  de  aliqua  re.\ 
The  verbs  denoting  similarity  or  dissimilarity  should  be  construed  with 
the  dative,  like  the  adjectives  similis  and  dissimilis,  but  in  prose  they  are 
commonly  joined  with  the  prepositions  cum  and  ab;  e.  g.,  congruo,  con- 
tentio,  abhorreo,  dissideo.  Comp.  §  468,  foil. 

[<J  414.]  Note  2. — Several  verbs  have  a  different  meaning  according  as 
they  take  the  accus.  or  dat. 
Metuo  and  Hmeo  te,  I  fear  thee ;  tibi,  I  am  alarmed  on  thy  account,  which 

is  also  expressed  by  tud  causa. 

*  [The  regular  construction  occurs,  in  the  same  poet,  at  Serm.,  L,  6,  50, 
and  Epist.,  i.,  14,  41.]— Am.  Ed. 

f  [Compare  Crombie,  Gymnas.,  vol.  i.,  p.  110.] — Am.  Ed. 


290  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Consulo  te,  I  consult  thee ;  tibi,  I  provide  for  thy  interests. 

Prospicio  and  provideo  te,  I  see  thee  at  a  distance ;  tibi,  1  provide  for  thy 
interests. 

Caveo,  without  any  case,  "I  am  on  my  guard;"  a  te,  against  thee,  and  in 
a  legal  sense,  "  I  make  thee  give  security  to  me  for  something,"  de  aliqua 
re.  Caveo  te,  I  avoid  thee ;  caveo  tibi,  I  provide  or  am  concerned  for  thy 
safety,  and  hence  in  a  legal  sense  "  1  give  thee  security." 

Tempera  and  modcror  aliquid,  I  regulate  or  arrange  a  thing ;  mihi,  animo, 
irae,  lacrimis  (scil.  meis),  I  set  bounds  to,  or  check.  Tempera  mihi  ab 
aliqua  re,  I  abstain  from  a  thing,  and  tempera  (scil.  mihi)  tibi,  I  am  sparing 
in  regard  to  thee,  or  I  spare  thee,  equivalent  to  parco  tibi. 

[§415.]  4.  Verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions 
ad,  antc,mcon,  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  sub,  and  super,  re- 
taining, as  compounds,  the  meaning  of  the  prepositions, 
may  be  joined  with  a  dative  instead  of  repeating  the 
preposition  or  an  equivalent  one  with  the  case  it  requires. 
They  are  either  transitives,  and  as  such  have  an  accusa- 
tive besides,  or  intransitives  without  an  accusative  of  the 
object. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  transitive  verbs 
of  this  kind  :  addo,  ajfero,  ajfigo,  adhibco,  adjicio,  adjungo, 
ad?novco,  alllgo,  applico  ;  circumjicio  ;  compare,  compono, 
confero,  conjungo  ;  immiscco,  impono,  imprimo,  incldo,  in- 
cludo,  infcro,  ingcro,  injicio,  insero,  inuro  ;  interjicio,  inter- 
pono  ;  objicio,  off  undo,  oppono  ;  posthabeo,  postpono  ;  prae- 
fero,  pracficio,  praepono  ;  subjicio,  suppono,  substcrno. 

The  following  are  intransitive  :  accedo,  acquiesco,  ad- 
Jiaereo,  alludo,  annuo,  arrepo,  assidco,  aspiro  ;  antecello  ; 
cohaerco,  colludo,  congruo,  consentio,  consono  ;  excello  ;  in- 
cido,  incubo  and  incumbo,  indormio,  inhacreo,  inhio,  immo- 
rior,  immoror,  innascor,  insisto ;  intcrjacco,  intervenio  ; 
obrepo,  obstrepo,  obvcrsor  ;  pracminco,  praesideo,  praeva- 
leo  ;  succumbo,  supersto,  supervivo,  and  the  compounds  of 
esse  :  adsum,  insum,  intersum,  praesum,  subsum,  super  sum. 

Note. — We  must  pay  particular  attention'  to  the  difference  between  the 
dative  joined  with  these  verbs,  and  the  dative  governed  by  those  mentioned 
in  ()  412.  With  the  latter  it  is  necessary,  and  dependant  upon  the  signifi- 
cation of  the  verbs  ;  but  with  those  just  enumerated  it  is  to  be  regarded 
as  a -short  mode  of  speaking,  in  which  the  dative  supplies  the  place  of  a 
preposition  with  its  case  ;  e.  g.,  leges  axibus  ligneis  incisae,  and  leges  in  aes 
incisae,  or  Senatusconsultum  in  aere  incisum.  The  beginner  must  farther 
observe  that  we  are  speaking  of  those  compounded  verbs  only  in  which 
the  prepositions  retain  their  meaning  of  place,  for  in  some  compounded 


with  ad  and  cum  this  is  not  the  case  ;  e.  g.,  confugere,  to  take  refuge,  can- 
not take  either  the  preposition  cum  or  a  dative,  the  meaning  of  the  prepo- 
sition con  being  lost  in  this  compound.  This  is  still  more  apparent  in  con- 


fringere,  corrumpere,  where  con  (cum)  only  strengthens  the  sense  of  the 
simple  verb.  Affirmare  and  apprubare  may  indeed  be  joined  with  a  dative, 
but  only  because  they  are  transitive  verbs,  and  not  on  account  of  the 
preposition  they  contain.  We  have  not  been  able  above  to  mention 


DATIVE    CASE.  297 

all  those  compound  verbs  in  which  the  preposition  retains  its  mean- 
ing, and  which,  instead  of  repeating  the  preposition,  take  the  dative,  for. 
their  number,  especially  that  of  transitives,  is  unlimited  ;  we  have  given 
those  only  with  which,  comparatively  speaking,  the  dative  occurs  most 
frequently.  There  are  some  with  which  the  dative  is  used  exclusively, 
and  the  repetition  of  the  preposition  would  be  offensive,  the  reason  being 
the  signification  of  the  verbs  themselves :  praeficio  and  praepono,  e.  g., 
might  have  been  mentioned  among  the  verbs  in  t)  412,  being  joined  exclu- 
sively with  the  dative.  But  there  can  be  no  fear  of  mistakes  in  these  words. 

[§  416.]  It  must  be  remarked,  in  general,  that  in  the 
early  and  unpolished  prose,  the  preposition,  or  one  equiva- 
lent to  it,  is  usually  repeated,  more  especially  in  verbs 
compounded  with  ad,  con,  and  in;  e.  g.,  adliibeo,  confero, 
conjungo,  communico,  compare,  imprimo,  inscribo,  insum, 
and  also  interest,  in  the  sense  of  "  there  is  a  difference ;" 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  studium  adhibere  ad  disciplinas  ;  conferte 
(comparate,  contendite)  Jianc  pacem  cum  illo  bello ;  hos- 
pitio  et  amicitia  mecum  conjunxi,  or,  cum  aliquo  conjunctus 
sum  ;  consilia  sua  mecum  communicavit ;  in  omnium  ani- 
mis  dei  notionem  imprcssit  ipsa  natura  ;  in  Jiac  vita  nihil 
inest  nisi  miseria.  The  dative,  however,  is  not  to  be  re- 
jected, being  used  sometimes  by  Cicero,  and  more  fre- 
quently by  later  writers,  lllacrimare,  to  weep  over ; 
e.  g.,  morti  Socratis,  is  generally  used  with  the  dative 
only;  the  preposition,  at  least,  is  never  repeated. 

The  following  verbs  require  some  farther  explanation. 
Incumbo,  I  lean  or  press  upon,  and  figuratively,  "  I  apply 
to  or  study  a  thing;"  in  the  former  sense  alone  it  is 
joined  with  the  dative,  though  sometimes,  also,  with  the 
preposition  super ;  in  its  figurative  sense  it  is  construed 
in  prose  with  ad,  and  still  more  frequently  with  in  with 
the  accusative.  The  verbs  assuescere,  consuescere,  and  in- 
suescere,  to  accustom  a  person  or  one's  self  (se,  however, 
is  omitted)  to  a  thing,  are  sometimes  construed  with  the 
dative  and  sometimes  with  the  ablative  ;  acquiescere,  to 
acquiesce,  likewise  takes  either  the  dative  or  ablative  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  pro  Mil.,  37,  Qui  maxime  P.  Clodii  morte  ac- 
quierunt,  but  more  frequently  in  with  the  ablative,  in  the 
sense  of  "  to  find  peace  or  satisfaction  ;"  e.  g.,  in  tuis  lit- 
teris,  injuvenum  caritate.  Superscdere  likewise  takes  the 
ablative,  and,  indeed,  more  frequently  than  the  dative, 
probably  because  its  sense  is  equivalent  to  abstinere ;  e. 
g.,  super  seder  e  labor  e  itineris. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  determine  which  prepositions  may 
be  used  for  others,  in  case  of  repetition  being  necessary, 


298  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

for  it  always  depends  upon  the  sense  :  in  is  used  for  ad; 
e.  g.,  accedere  in  oppidum,  aspirare  in  curiam;  ab  for  ex; 
e.  g.,  eripere  ex  miseriis,  and  a  miseria  ;  ad  for  in  ;  e.  g., 
incumbere  ad  studia;  in,  ad,  ante,  and  contra  forob;  e.  g., 
aliquid  obrcpit  in  animum,  obrepere  ad  honores,  obversari 
ante  oculos,  vallum  objicere  contra  impetum  liostium  ;  ad 
and  ante  for  pro  ;  e.  g.,  procumbere  ante  pedes,  ad  genua. 

[§  417.]  The  compounds  of  verbs  of  motion  are  con- 
strued with  both  cases,  either  the  dative  or  the  accusative, 
and  some  compounds  of  jacere,  stare  and  sedere,  follow 
their  analogy.  (See  §  386.)  Hence  the  verbs  of  excelling, 
if  their  simple  verbs  denote  motion,  are  construed  chiefly 
with  the  accusative,  and  antecello,praecello  andp?'aemineo, 
which  at  least  admit  the  accusative,  follow  their  example. 
(See  §  386.)  The  following  must  be  noticed  separately 
on  account  of  their  twofold  construction  :  allatro,  I  bark 
at,  address  in  a  coarse  manner ;  attendo,  I  attend  to  (the 
same  as  animum  attendo  ad  aliquid  or  ad  aliquem) ; 
obumbro,  I  overshadow — all  these  occur  most  frequently 
with  the  accusative,  whence  they  have  a  personal  passive; 
but  illudo,  I  ridicule,  is  found  with  the  dative  as  often  as 
with  the  accusative ;  e.  g.,  illudo  memoriae,  existimationi 
alicujus,signis  et  aquilis  Romanis,  and  praecepta  rhetorum, 
corpus  Vari.  Despero,  I  despair  of  a  thing,  is  used  as  an 
intransitive  verb  with  de  or  with  the  dative ;  e.  g.,  desperat 
de  re  publica,  sibi,  fortunis  suis  ;  as  a  transitive  verb 
(I  give  up)  it  takes  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.,  despero  rem 
publicam,  pacem. 

Praeverto,  in  the  transitive  sense  of  "  I  prefer,"  takes 
an  accusative  of  the  object  and  a  dative,  instead  of  which, 
however,  the  preposition  prae  may  be  repeated  ;  e.  g., 
uxorem  praeverto  prae  republica  or  reipublicae  ;  in  the  in- 
transitive sense  of  "  I  go  before,"  "  precede,"  or  "  antici- 
pate," it  may  take  either  the  accusative  or  dative,  prae- 
verto te,  fata,  pietas  praevertit  amori ;  in  a  reflective 
sense,  praeverto,  scil.  me,  or  praevertor,  it  takes  either 
the  preposition  ad  or  the  dative,  praeverto  ad  interna, 
praeverto  rei  mandatae.  The  deponent  again  takes  the 
meaning  of  "  I  prefer,"  aliquam  rem  alicui  rei,  Liv.,  viii., 
13,  consules  coacti  omnibus  earn  rem  praeverti. 

[§418.]  5.  The  verbs  aspergo  and  inspergo,  circumdo 
and  circumfundo,  dono  and  impertio,  exuo  and  induo  are 
used,  like  the  above-mentioned  transitives,  with  an  accus. 


DATIVE    CASE.  299 

of  the  thing  and  a  dative  of  the  person,  or  with  an  accus. 
of  the  person  and  an  ablat  of  the  thing ;  e.  g.,  circumdo 
alicui  custodias,  or  circumdo  alique?n  custodiis,  and,  conse- 
quently, in  the  passive  voice  custodiae  tibi  circumdantur  or 
(tu)  circumdaris  custodiis*  So,  also,  maculas  aspergo  vitae 
tuae,  or  maculis  vitam  tuam  aspergo  ;  dono  tibi  pecuniam, 
01  pecunid  te  dono ;  impertio  tibi  laudes,  or  laudibus  te 
impertio,  &c.  We  find  exuo  tibi  clipeum,  induit  sibi  tor- 
quern,  or  still  more  frequently  exuo  and  induo  western,  the 
dative  expressing  my  own  person  being  omitted.  Exuo 
te  aliqua  re  occurs  only  in  the  figurative  sense  of  "  I  rob 
thee  of  a  thing."  Induo,  I  betake  myself  into  some  place, 
is  commonly  joined  with  the  preposition  in  or  with  a  da- 
tive. Intercludo,  I  cut  off,  alicui  aliquid  ;  e.  g.,  Iwstibus 
fugam,  or  as  a  verb  implying  distance,  aliquem  aliqua  re 
and  ab  aliqua  re;  e.  g.,  milites  itinere,  or  ab  exercitu. 
Interdico  tibi  aliquid,  I  forbid  thee  something ;  the  con- 
struction interdico  te  aliqua  re  does  not  occur,  but  a  mix- 
ture of  both  interdico  tibi  aliqua  re  (e.  g,,  in  the  Roman 
form  of  outlawry  aqua  et  ignij,  I  forbid  thee  the  use  of  a 
thing.  The  double  construction  of  mactare  does  not  be- 
long to  this  place,  as  it  arises  from  two  different  mean- 
ings of  the  word,  the  original  one  "to  honour,"  requires  the 
accusative  and  ablative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Vatin.,  6,  puerorum 
extis  deos  manes  mactare  soles ;  the  derivative  meaning 
"  to  slaughter"  is  the  ordinary  one,  victimas  diis  mactare. 

{§  419.]  6,  With  passive  verbs  the  dative  is  sometimes 
used  alone,  instead  of  ab  with  the  ablative. 
Quidqmd  in  hac  causa  mihi  susceptum  est,  Quirites,  id 

omne  me  rei  publicae  causa  suscepisse  confirmo,  Cic., 

p.  Leg.  Man.,  24. 
Barbarus  hie  ego  sum,  quia  non  intelligor  ulli,  Ovid,  Trist. 

Note. — It  is  a  rule  of  the  Latin  language  to  join  the  dative  instead  of  ab 
with  the  ablative  to  the  participle  future  passive;  e.  g.,moriendum  mihi  est. 
See  §  649.  If  this  were  not  the  case,  we  should  consider  the  dative  with 
passive  verbs  as  a  Grecism,  for  it  rarely  occurs  in  the  earlier  Latin  prose 
(especially  in  Cicero  and  Caesar),  and  with  the  exception  of  a  few  in- 
stances, is  confined  to  the  participle  perfect  passive  and  the  tenses  formed 
from  it.  In  poetry  and  the  later  prose  writers  instances  like  the  above 
quotation  from  Ovid  are  extremely  numerous,  as  poets  in  general  were 
fond  of  introducing  Greek  constructions.  The  following  passages  are  the 
only  ones  in  which  Cicero  adopted  the  practice,  de  Invent.,  i.,  46,illanobis 
alio  tempore  explicabuntur ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  16,  tibi  consulatus  quaerebatur  ;  de  Nat. 
Dear.,  il.,48,  sic  dissimillimis  bestiolis  communiter  cibus  quaeritur  ;  de  Off.,  Hi., 
9,  honesta  bonis  viris,  non  occulta  quaeruntur;  f  Cat.  Maj.,  11,  semper  in  his 

*  [Compare  Crombie,  Gymnas.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  211.]— Am.  Ed. 
f  [Compare  Heusinger,  ad  loc.]—A'n.  K<L 


300  LATIN   GRAMMAR, 

•'fu 

ftudiis  laborihusque  viventi  non  intelligitur,  quando  obrepat  senectus  ;  ad  Alt.,  i,, 
16,  in  ea  praesertim  epistola,  quam  nolo  aliis  legi,  probably  for  ab  aliis.  I 
doubt  whether  there  are  any  other  passages  in  Cicero^for  the  phrase  mihi 
probatur  is  of  a  different  kind,  since  probo  tibi  is  of  quite  common  occur- 
rence in  the  sense  of  "  I  make  a  thing  plausible  to  thee." 

[§  420.]  7.  Esse  witli  the  dative  of  a  person  expresses 
the  English  "  to  have  ;"  e.  g.,  sunt  mihi  multi  libri,  I  have 
many  books,  the  same  as  liabco  multos  libros. 
Homini  cum  dco  similitude  est,  Cic.,  dc  Leg.,  i.,  8. 
An  nescis,  longas  regibus  csse  manus  ?  Ovid,  Hcroid.,  17. 

Note. — We  must  here  notice  a  Grecism  which  occurs  in  Sallust  and 
Tacitus  ;  aliquid  mihi  volenti  est,  I  like  a  thing.  Sallust,  Jug.,  84,  quia 
neque  ple.bi  militia  volenti  (esse)  putabatur ;  Tacit.,  Agr.,  18,  quibus  bellum  vo- 
ientibus  erat ;  Ann.,  i.,  59,  ut  quibusqne  bellum  invitis  aitt  cupientibus  erat,  as- 
in  Greek  rovro  poi  fiov'A.o/j.Evu  iariv.  Comp.  Tac.,  Hist.,  iii.,  43;  Ann., 
xv.,  3G.  Abest  and  deest  mihi,  as  opposed  to  est  mihi,  therefore  mean 
*(  I  have  not ;"  as  in  Cic.,  Brut.,  80,  Hoc  unum  illi,  si  nihil  utilitatis  habebat, 
abfuit,  si  opus  erat,  defuit ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  2,  abest  enim  historia  litteris  nostris. 

[§  421.]  Hence  mild  est  nomen  or  cognomen  (also  cogno- 
mentum,  and  in  Tacitus  vocabulum)  signifies  "  I  have  a 
name,"  that  is,  "my  name  is,"  or  "I  am  called."  The 
name  itself  is  put  either  in  the  nominative  or  the  dative, 
being  attracted  by  the  dative  of  the  person. 
Syracusis  est  fons  aquae  dulcis,  cui  nomen  Arethusa  est, 

Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  iv.,  53. 

Consules  leges  decc?nviralcs,  quibus  tdbulis  duodecim  est  no- 
men,  in  aes  incisas,  in  publico  proposuerunt^  Liv.,  iii.,  57. 

Note. — The  same  is  the  case  with  the  (passive)  expressions  datum,  in- 
dituiri,  factum  est  nomen  ;  e.  g.,  Tarquinius,  cui  cognomen  Superbo  ex  moribus 
datum.  The  name  itself  is  commonly  put  in  the  dative,  also,  with  the 
active  verbs  dare,  addere,  indere,  dicere,  ponere,  imponere,  tribuere  alicui 
nomen;  e.  g.,  dare  alicui  cognomen  tardo  ac  pingui ;  desipiunt  omnes  aeque  ac 
tu,  qui  tibi  nomen  insano  posuere,  Horat. ;  but  it  may  also  be  put  in  the  same 
case  as  nomen,  that  is,  in  the  accusative ;  as  in  Livy,  stirps  virilis,  cui  As- 
canium  parentes  dixere  nomen,  and  in  the  edict  of  the  censors  in  Suetonius, 
de  Clar.  Rhet.  1,  eos  sibi  nomen  imposuisse  Latinos  rhetores.  The  nominative 
in  Ovid,  Met.,  i.,  169,  (via)  lactea  nomen  habet,  and  xv.,  96,  (aetas)  cuifeci- 
mus  aurea  nomen,  is  a  purely  poetical  license,  where  the  names  are  taken, 
ungrammatically,  as  mere  sounds. 

The  name  may  be  expressed,  also,  by  the  genitive,  according  to  the  gen- 
eral rule,  that  of  two  substantives  joined  to  each  other,  one  is  put  in  the 
genitive;  e.  g.,  Plaut.,  Amphitr.  Prol.,  19,  nomen  Mercurii  est  mihi;  in  prose, 
Veil.  Pat.,  i.,  11,  Q  Metellus  praetor,  cui  ex  virtute  Macedonici  nomen  inditum 
erat;  and  ii,,  11,  Q.  Metello  meritum  virtute  cognomen  Numidici  inditum  est. 
But  this  is  not  the  ordinary  practice  in' the  case  of  real  proper  names,  and 
the  dative  must  be  regarded  as  the  proper  Latin  case.  See  Ruhnken  on 
Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  11. 

[§  422.]  8.  With  the  verbs  esse,  dare,  mittere  and  venire, 
and  others  of  the  same  meaning,  besides  the  dative  of  the 
person,  another  is  used  to  express  the  purpose,  intention, 
and  destination. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  301 

Dare  belongs  to  this  class  both  in  its  sense  of  "  to  give" 
and  in  that  of  "to  put  to  one's  account."  The  following 
verbs  have  a  similar  meaning :  apponere,  ducere,  habere, 
tribuere,  and  vertere.  Esse,  in  this  respect,  is  equivalent 
to  the  English  "to  do,"  in  "it  does  him  honour,"  and  the 
passives  fieri,  dari,  dud,  kaberi,  tribui,  verti,  have  a  simi- 
lar meaning.  Proficisci  is  sometimes  construed  like  ve- 
nire. 

Virtutes  hominibus  decori  gloriaeque  sunt,  Seneca. 
Attains,  Asiae  rex,  rcgnum  suum  Romanis  dono  dedit. 
Mille  Plataeenscs  Atheniensibus  adversus  Persas  auxilw 

venerunt. 
Quid  in  Graeco  sermone  tarn  tritum  atque  cele~bratum  est, 

quam  si  quis  despicatui  ducitur,  ut  Mysorum  ultimus 

csse  dicatur  ?  Cic.,  p.  Flacc.,  27. 

Note. — There  is  a  great  variety  of  datives  of  this  kind  ;  e.  g.,  dono  aliqnid 
muneri,  praemio  •  relinquo  milites  auxilio,  suhsidio,praesidio,  custodiae  ;  tribuitur 
or  datur  mihi  vitio,  crimini,  odio,  probro,  opprobrio,  laudi,  saluti,  utilitati,  emolu- 
mento,  &c.  The  phrase  cui  bonofuit?  signifies  "to  whom  was  it  an  ad- 
vantage ?"  We  must  especially  notice  such  datives  as  esui,  usui,  quaestui, 
dcrisui,  cordi,  curae  aliquid  est,  and  also  canere  receptui,  to  sound  a  retreat ; 
doti  dico,  I  set  aside  as  a  dowry ;  appono  pignori,  I  pawn.  Instead  of  hoc 
argumento  est,  we  may  also  say  hoc  argumentum,  documentum,  indicium  est; 
and  with  dare  and  similar  verbs  we  may  also  use  the  accusative  in  appo- 
sition; e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  22,  Latini  coronam  auream  Jovi  donum  in  Capitolium 
mittunt.  Sometimes,  also,  the  prepositions  in  or  ad  may  be  used ;  e.  g., 
reliquit  ibi  exercitum  ad  praesidium,  gloriam  mihi  in  crimen  verlis. 


CHAPTER  LXXIIL 

GENITIVE    CASE. 

[§423.]  1.  WHEN  two  substantives  are  united  with 
each  other  so  as  to  form  the  expression  of  one  idea,  one 
of  them  is  in  the  genitive;  but  if  one  of  the  substantives 
serves  to  explain  or  define  the  other,  they  are  said  to  be 
in  apposition  to  each  other,  and  both  are  in  the  same 
case.  This  genitive,  dependant  upon  a  substantive,  is  in 
Latin  of  a  double  kind,  according  as  it  expresses  either 
the  subject  or  the  object.  The  genitive  is  subjective  when 
it  denotes  that  which  does  something  or  to  which  a  thing 
belongs;  e.  g.,  hominum  facta,  liber  pueri:  it  is  objective 
when  it  denotes  that  which  is  affected  by  the  action  or 
feeling  spoken  of. 

This  objective  genitive  is  used  very  extensively  in 
Latin,  for  it  is  not  only  joined  with  those  substantives 


302  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

which  are  derived  from  verbs  governing  the  accusative — 
e.  g.,  expugnatio  urbis,  the  taking  of  the  town ;  indagatio 
veri,  the  investigation  of  truth ;  scientia  linguae,  the 
knowledge  of  a  language  ;  amor  patriae,  the  love  of 
one's  country;  cupiditas pecuniae,  desire  for  money;  euro, 
rerum  alienarum,  care  of  other  men's  affairs ;  odium 
hominum,  hatred  against  men — but  with  those,  also,  the 
corresponding  verb  of  which  requires  either  a  different 
case,  or  a  preposition  ;  e.  g.,  taedium  laboris,  disgust  for 
work ;  fiducia  virium  suarum,  confidence  in  his  own 
strength ;  contcntio  Iwnorum,  a  contest  for  honours ;  in- 
citamentum  pcriculorum,  cognitio  orbis  terrarum  omnium- 
que  gentium,  &c. 
Nuper  Gn.  Domitium  scimus  M.  Silano,  consulari  komini, 

diem  dixisse  propter  unius  hominis,  Aegritomari,  paterni 

amid  atque  hospitis,  injurias,  Cic.,  Divin.,  20. 
Est  autem  amicitia  nihil  aliud,  nisi  omnium  divinarum  Tiu- 

manarumque  rerum  cum  benivolentia  et  caritate  summa 

conscnsio,  Cic.,  LaeL,  6. 
Initium  et  causa  belli  (civilis)  incxplebilis  Tionorum  M.arii 

fames,  Flor.,  iii.,  21. 

Note  1. — Something  analogous  to  the  Latin  subjective  and  objective 
genitive  occurs  in  English  in  such  expressions  as  "  God's  love,"  that  is, 
the  love  which  God  shows  to  men  ;  and  the  "  love  of  God,"  that  is,  the 
love  which  men  bear  to  God.  The  Latin  language  having  no  such  means 
of  distinguishing,  is  frequently  ambiguous  ;  e.  g.,  fuga  hominum  may  be 
either  "  the  escape  from  men,"  or,  "  the  flight"  or  "  escape  of  men,"  and 
in  all  such  combinations  as  metus  hostium,  injuria  mulierum,  judicium  Verris, 
triumphus  Boiorum,  opinio  deorum,  the  genitive  may  be  either  subjective  (ac- 
tive) or  objective  (passive),  but  the  context  generally  shows  what  is  meant, 
as  ill  sine  metu  hostium  esse,  magnus  incesserat  timor  sagittarum,  ex  in juria  mu- 
lierum Sabinarum  helium  ortum  est ;  Empedocles  in  deorum  opinione  turpissime 
labitur,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  12.  But  in  case,  of  any  real  ambiguity,  a 
preposition  may  be  used  in  Latin  instead  of  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  ex  injuria 
in  or  adversus  mulieres,  in  opinione  de  diis.  This  is  the  case  especially  with 
substantives  denoting  a  disposition,  either  friendly  or  hostile  towards  any- 
thing ;  e.  g.,  amor  (animus)  meus  erga  te,  odium  (ira)  adversus  Carthaginiense.s, 
bellum  in  Romanos,  conspiratio  contra  dignitatem  tuam  ;  triumphus  de  Gallis, 
judicium  de  te  meum,  liber  de  philosophia,  in  libra  quinto  de  nahtra  deorum.  In 
general,  however,  a  preposition  is  much  more  rarely  used  in  joining  two 
substantives,  and  it  is  a  part  of  the  conciseness  of  the  Latin  language  to 
express  the  relation  of  the  genitive,  if  possible,  by  the  genitive  itself. 
This,  however,  is  impossible,  for  instance,  when  a  place  whence?  or 
whither?  is  mentioned;  e.  g.,  trans-missus  (the  passage)  ex  Gallia  in  Bri- 
tanniam,  reditus  in  coelum,  iter  ex  Italia  in  Macedoniam.  Sometimes  the  two 
kinds  of  construction  are  combined  :  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  28,  Adhibenda  est  igi- 
tur  quaedam  reverentia  adversus  homines  et  optimi  cujusque  et  reliquorum.  (See 
our  note  on  this  passage.)  Sometimes  even  a  subjective  and  an  objec- 
tive genitive  are  found  by  the  side  of  each  other,*  as  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i., 

*  [Compare  Weissenborn,  Lat.  Schulgr.,  §  216,  Anrn.  3,  where  other  ex- 
amples are  also  given.] — Am.  Ed. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  303 

14,  L.  Sullae  et  C.  Caesaris  pecuniarum  translatio  a  justis  dominis  ad  alienos 
non  debet  liberalis  videri ;  ad  Fam.,  X.,  3,  orbitas  reipublicae  talium  virorum ;  in 
Verr.,  V.,  50,  nihil  est  quod  multorum  naufragia  fortunae  colligas  •  Caes.,  Bell. 
Gall.,  i.,  30,  pro  veteribus  Helvetiorum  injuriis  populi  Romani ;  i.  e.,  which  the 
Helvetians  had  done  to  the  Roman  people.  Coinp.  Synt.  ornat.,  §  791. 

[§  424.]  Note  2. — As  a  personal  pronoun  supplies  the  place  of  a  substan- 
tive, its  genitive  generally  with  an  objective  meaning  may  be  joined  with 
a  substantive  ;  e.  g.,  vestri  causam  gero,  I  take  care  of  you  ;  misericordiam 
nostri  habe,  have  pity  upon  us,  especially  with  verbal  substantives  ending 
in  or,  ix,  and  io  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  misitfilium  non  solum  sui  deprecatorem,  sed  eti- 
am  accusatorem  mei ;  nimia  aestimatio  sui ;  valet  ad  commendationem  tui ;  mili- 
tes  ad  deditionem  sui  incitare  ;  rationem  et  sui  et  aliorum  habere.  The  place  of 
the  subjective  genitive  of  personal  pronouns  is  supplied  by  the  possessive 
pronouns,  whence  we  do  not  say  liber  mei,  but  liber  meus.  Sometimes, 
however,  the  genitive  of  personal  pronouns  has  a  subjective  meaning,  as 
in  Curtius,  iv.,  45,  ad  Cyrum  nnbilissimum  regem  originem  sui  referens,  and 
yi.,  32,  conspectus  vestri  venerabilis  (see  the  comment,  on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall., 
i.,  4) ;  and  sometimes,  on  the  other  hand,  a  possessive  pronoun  not  unfre- 
quently  takes  the  place  of  an  objective  genitive,  and  that  not  only  when 
joined  with  verbal  substantives  in  or  and  ix,  e.  g.,  ipse  suns  fuit  accusator, 
terra  altrix  nostra,  but  in  other  cases,  also ;  as,  invidia  tua,  envy  of  thee  ;  jidu- 
cia  tua,  confidence  in  thee  ;  familiaritas  tua,  friendship  for  thee  ;  spes  mea, 
the  hope  placed  in  me  (Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.,  71)  ;  amori  nostro  plusculum  largiare, 
from  love  towards  us ;  noluit  rationem  habere  suam,  that  notice  was  taken 
of  him  ;  non  sua  solum  ratio  habenda  est,  scd  etiam  aliorum,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i., 
39.  This  is  especially  frequent  in  connexion  with  the  substantive  injuriae, 
e.  g.,  injurias  meas,  tuas,  persecutor,  ulciscor,  that  is,  the  wrong  done  to  me, 
thee.  The  peculiar  expressions  med,  tua,  sud,  nostra,  vestrd,  causa,  for  my, 
thy,  his,  &c.,  sake,  must  be  especially  noticed,  for  the  genitives  mei,  tui, 
sui,  nostri,  vestri,  are  never  used  in  this  connexion  with  causa.  Sometimes 
the  genitive  of  the  person  implied  in  such  an  adjective  pronoun  is  added, 
as  in  tuum  hominis  simplids  pectus  vidimus ;  juravi  rempublicam  mea  unius 
opera  esse  salvam  ;  tot  homines  med  solius  solliciti  sunt  causa  ;  ad  tuam  ipsius 
amicitiam  aditum  habuit ;  vestra  ipsorum  causa  hoc  fed.  The  genitive  of  a 
participle  in  this  connexion  occurs  only  in  poetry,*  as  in  Horat.,  Serm.,  i., 
4,  23,  quum  mea  nemo  scripta  legat,  vulgo  recitare  timentis.  See  Heindorf 's 
note  on  this  passage. 

[§  425.]  Note  3. — The  immediate  connexion  between  two  substantives, 
which  is  expressed  by  the  genitive  of  the  substantive  dependant  upon  the 
other,  is  entirely  different  from  the  juxtaposition  of  two  substantives  in 
apposition  to  each  other.  But  there  are  cases  where  the  construction  of 
the  genitive  is  preferred,  although  the  substantives  are,  in  reality,  in  ap- 
position. This  is  the  case  especially  with  vox,  nomen,  verbum,  and  similar 
words,  to  which  the  name  itself  is  joined  in  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de 
Fin.,  ii.,  2,  Epicurus  non  intelligit,  quid  sonet  haec  vox  voluptatis,  that  is,  this 
word  pleasure  ;  ii.,  24,  ex  amore  nomen  amicitiae  ductum  est,  i.  e.,  the  word 
amicitia  ;  Sueton.,  Aug. ,53,  domini  appellationem  semper  exhorruit.  This  is 
regularly  done  when  the  genus  is  defined  by  the  species,  as  in  arbor  fid, 
a  fig-tree  ;  flos  violae,  a  violet ;  virtus  continentiae,  the  virtue  of  abstinence  ; 
vitium  ignorantiae,  the  defect  called  ignorance  ;  familia  Sdpionum,  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Scipios  ;  and  also  in  geographical  names  ;  as,  oppidum  Antiochiae, 
promontorium  Miseni,  in  which  case,  however,  it  is  more  usual  to  put  the 
name  in  apposition  in  the  same  case  as  the  generic  term.  There  are 
some  other  cases  in  which  one  substantive  intended  as  an  explanation  of 
another  is  put  in  the  genitive,  instead  of  the  case  of  the  word  to  be  ex- 
plained (genitivus  epexegeticus) ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  viii.,  35,  Nocturnum  frigus  ve- 
hementius  quam  alias  horrore  corpora  affecit,  opportunurnque  remedium  ignis 

*  [It  occurs  thus  only  before  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny ;  after  that  pe- 
riod it  appears  also  in  prose.  (Orelli,  ad  Horat.,  I  c.)]—  Am.  Ed. 


304  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

oblatum  est,  i.  e.,  a  convenient  remedy,  viz.,  fire.  Cicero  frequently  uses 
genus  and  causa  in  the  same  way ;  e.  g.,  in  Cat.,  ii.,  8,  unum  genus  est  qui  —  ; 
de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  14,  Duae  sunt  hujus  obscuritatis  causae,  una  pudoris,  altera 
sceleris,  the  one  is  shame  and  the  other  malice  ;  Philip.,  i.,  1J,  nee  erit.  jus- 
tior  in  senatum  non  veniendi  causa  morbi,  quam  mortis  ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  51,  ornnia 
propter  earn  causam  sceleris  istiics  evenire  videntur,  for  this  reason,  viz.,  his 
crime.  Comp.  de  Off.,  ii.,  5,  collectis  causis  eluvionis,  pestilentiae,  &c.,  the 
other  causes,  inundation,  plague,  &c.  The  genitive  of  gerunds  is  used  in 
the  same  way  as  that  of  substantives  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  36,  Triste  est 
nomen  ipsum  carendi,  the  very  word  to  want  is  sad ;  Senec.,  ad  Polyb.,  29, 
Est  magna  felicitas  in  ipsa  felicitate  moriendi.  In  such  cases  the  construc- 
tion of  apposition  is  very  unusual  in  Latin  ;  see,  however,  §  598. 
Q.  Metellus  Macedonicus,  quum  sex  liberos  relinqueret,  undecim  nepotes  reliquit, 

nurus  vero  generosque  et  omnes,  qui  se  patris  appellatione  salutarent,  viginti 

septem,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  vii.,  11. 

[§  426.]  2.  The  genitive  in  the  immediate  connexion 
of  two  substantives  also  expresses  the  external  condition 
or  the  internal  nature  of  a  thing ;  and  if  any  of  the  tenses 
of  esse,  fieri,  haberi,  appears  in  such  a  combination,  the 
genitive  is  not  dependant  upon  these  verbs,  but  must  rath- 
er be  explained  by  the  omission  of  a  substantive  ;  as,  homo 
and  res.  This,  at  the  same  time,  constitutes  the  differ- 
ence between  the  genitive  of  quality  (genitivus  qualitatis) 
2  £y/Jan(l  the  ablative  of  quality  with  the  verb  esse.  But  as 
/  there  is  a  special  part  of  speech  to  express  qualities,  viz., 
the  adjective,  the  quality  can  be  expressed  by  a  substan- 
tive only  when  this  substantive  itself  is  qualified  by  an  ad- 
jective. We  cannot  say,  for  example,  homo  ingenii,  a  man 
of  talent  (which  is  expressed  by  homo  ingeniosus),  but  we 
may  say  homo  magni,  su?nmi,  cxccllentis  ingenii.  Again, 
we  cannot  say  homo  annorum,  but  we  may  say  homo  vi- 
ginti or  quadraginta  annorum*  We  must  notice,  also,  the 
genitive  modi,  which,  joined  with  a  pronoun,  supplies  the 
place  of  a  pronoun  of  quality ;  e.  g.,  cujusmodi  libri,  the 
same  as  quotes  libri,  what  kind  of  books ;  hujusmodi  libri, 
that  is,  tales  libri,  such  books.  The  genitive  generis,  which 
is  used  in  the  same  sense,  is  less  frequent. 
Athenienses  belli  duos  duccs  deligunt,  Periclcm,  spectatae 

mrtutis  mrum,  et  Sophoclcm,  scriptorem  tragoediarum, 

Justin,  iii.,  6. 
Titus facilitatis  tantaefuit  et  liber alitatis,  ut  nemini  quid- 

quam  negaret,  Eutrop.,  vii.,  21. 
Hamilcar  secum  in  Hispaniam  duxit  flium  Hannibalem 

annorum  novem,  Nep.,  Ham.,  3. 
Spes  unica  populi  Romani,  L.  Quinctius,  trans   Tiberim 

quattuor  jugerum  colebat  agrum,  Liv.,  iii.,  26. 

*  [Consult  Crombie,  Gymnas,,  vol.  i.,  p.  133,  162.]— Am.  Ed. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  305 

[§  427.]  Note. — The  genitive  thus  serves  to  express  all  the  attributes  of 
a  person  or  thing,  relating  to  its  extent,  number,  weight,  duration,  age, 
and  the  like,  provided  such  attributes  are  expressed  by  the  immediate 
connexion  of  substantives.  Thus  we  say,  colossus  centum  viginti  pedum,  a 
colossus  of  120  feet  in  height;  fossa  quindecim  pedum,  a  ditch  of  15  feet 
(in  length  or  breadth);  corona parvi ponderis,  a  crown  of  little  weight; 
Aristides  exilio  decem  annorum  multatus  est ;  frumentum  dierum  triginta  in  urbe 
erat ;  classis  centum  navium:  or  with  esse,  which,  however,  has  no  influ- 
ence upon  the  construction,  although  we  sometimes  translate  it  by 
"consist  of;"  e.  g.,  classis  Persarum  mille  et  ducentarum  navium  longarum 
fuit,  consisted  of  1200  ships  of  war.  With  the  genitive  of  extent  or  meas- 
ure we  may  connect  the  ablatives,  which  we  express  in  English  by 
"  with  regard  to ;"  as,  longitudine,  latitudine,  crassitudine,  altitudine,  or  in 
longitudinc.ni,  &C.  ;  e.  g.,  duo  actus  jugerum  efficiunt  longitudine  pedum 
CCXL,  latitudine  pedum  CXX ;  Inter  Mosam  Rhenumque  trium  ac  viginti 
milium  spatiofossam  perduxit,  Tac.,  Ann.,  xi.,  20  ;  but  the  genitive  does  not 
depend  upon  these  words. 

The  fact  of  this  genitive  of  condition  or  quality  being  limited  to  the  im- 
mediate connexion  of  two  substantives,  must  be  strongly  impressed  upon 
the  mind  of  the  beginner,  in  order  that  he  may  distinguish  from  it  the  ac- 
cusative denoting  extent  of  space  and  time,  which  is  joined  to  verbs  and 
adjectives,  and  the  ablative  of  quality,  which  is  governed  by  esse,  or  prae- 
ditus,  instructus,  ornatus.  For,  without  the  influence  of  any  other  part  of 
speech,  we  say,/ossa  quindecim  pedum;  but  when  the  adjective  longus  or 
latus  is  added,  we  must  say,  fossa  quindecim  pedes  lata ;  in  like  manner, 
puer  decem  annorum,  but  puer  decem  annos  natus  (t)  395,  foil.).  When  the 
ablative  of  quality  is  closely  joined  with  another  substantive,  praedit-us  or 
the  participle  of  esse  being  understood,  as  in  eximia  forma  pueri,  this  ex- 
pression is  quite  the  same  as  pueri  eximiae  formae  in  meaning,  but  by  »o 
means  in  reference  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  words. 

[<^>  428.]  Lastly,  we  must  notice  some  peculiar  expressions,  in  which 
the  accusative  is  used  adverbially  instead  of  the  genitive  of  quality  :  Secus 
(see  above,  §  84  and  89),  joined  to  virile  or  muliebre,  signifies  "  of  the  male" 
or  "female  sex,"  and  is  equivalent  to  sexus  virilis ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxvi.,  47, 
liberorum  capitum  virile  secus  ad  X  milia  capta.  Genus,  joined  with  a  pro- 
noun, as  hoc,  id,  illud,  quod,  or  with  omne,  is  used  for  hujus,  ejus,  omnis 
generis;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  12,  orationes  aut  aliquid  id  genus  scribere ; 
Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  44,  concredere  nugas  hoc  genus ;  it  is  more  curious  in 
connexion  with  other  cases ;  as,  Varro,  de  L.  I,.,  x.,  in  fin.,  in  verbis  id 
genus,  quae  non  declinantur ;  de  R.  R.,  iii.,  5,  porticus  avilus  omne  genus  ap- 
pletae ;  Sueton.,  Tit.,  7,  uno  die  quinque  milia  omne  genus  ferarum  dedit,  for 
ferarum  omnis  generis.  Pondo  (see  $  87),  joined  quite  as  an  indeclinable 
word  to  the  accusatives  libram  and  libras,  instead  of  the  genitive,  occurs 
frequently  in  Livy  ;  e.  g.,  iv.,  20,  Dictator  coronam  auream  libram  pondo  in 
Capitolio  Jovi  donum  posuit ;  and  in  the  plural,  xxvi.,  47,  Paterae  aureae 
fuerunt  CCLXXVI.,  libras  ferme  omnes  pondo. 

[§  429.]  3.  The  genitive  is  used  to  express  the  whole, 
of  which  anything  is  a  part,  or  to  which  it  belongs  as  a 
part.  This  is  the  case,  (a)  with  substantives  denoting  a 
certain  measure  of  things  of  the  same  kind  ;  e.  g.,  modius, 
medimnum  tritici,  libra  f arris,  magna  vis  auri,  jugerum 
agri,  ala  equitum.  This  genitive  may  be  termed  gcniti- 
vus  generis,  (b)  With  all  words  which  denote  a  part  of 
a  whole  (genitivus  partitivus),  where  we  often  use  the 
preposition  "of"  or  •"  among."  All  comparatives  and 
superlatives  belong  to  this  class  ;  e.  g.,  doctior  horum 
C  c  2 


306  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

(duorum)  juvenum  ;  doctissimus  omnium  ;  eloquentissimus 
Romanorum,  ferocissimi  exulum,  and  also  all  words  im- 
plying a  number,  whether  they  are  real  numerals  or  pro- 
nouns and  adjectives  ;  as,  quis,  aliquis,  quidam,  uter,  alter, 
neuter,  alteruter,  utcrqiic,  utervis,  aliquot,  solus,  nullus, 
nonnulli,  multi,  2muc^  /  or  substantives  ;  as,  nemo,  pars, 
numerus.  The  genitive  belonging  to  the  superlative  of 
adjectives  is  retained,  also,  with  superlatives  as  adverbs. 
Thus  we  say  optimus  omnium  est,  and  also  optime  omnium 
vixit. 
Graecorum  oratorum  praestantissimi  sunt  ii,  qui  fuerunt 

Atkcnis,  eorum  autem  princeps  facile  Demosthenes,  Cic., 

de  Opt.  Gen.  Orat.,  4. 
fopulus  Romanus  legem  dedit,  ut  consulum  utique  alter  ex 

plebc  crcaretur,  Liv.,  vi.,  35. 
Duo  sunt  aditus  in    Giliciam  ex  Syria,  quorum  uterque 

parvis  praesidiis  propter   angustias   intercludi  potest, 

Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xv.,  4. 

[§  430.]  Note  1. — The  poets  use  the  genitive,  also,  with  other  adjectives 
(in  the  positive),  but  this  seldom  occurs  in  prose.  Livy  frequently  has 
the  expressions  delecti  equitum,  expediti  militum;  in  Sallust  (Cat.,  53)  we 
iind  effoeta  parentum,  and  in  Veil.  Pat.,  ii..  8,  veteres  Romanorum  ducum. 
(See  the  remarks  of  Corte  and  Ruhnken  on  these  passages.)  The  geni- 
tive, however,  always  denotes  the  whole,  from  which  a  part  is  taken. 
When,  therefore,  the  above-mentioned  adjectives  are  used  in  the  same 
number  and  case  as  the  substantive  denoting  the  whole,  the  case  is  differ- 
ent, although  the  difference  in  meaning  is  sometimes  very  slight ;  e.  g., 
-multi,  aliquot,  pauci  militum  and  milites  ;  Varro  doctissimus  fuit  Romanorum 
and  doctissimus  Romanus  ;  alter  consulum  and  alter  consul.  Uterque,  how- 
ever, cannot,  like  the  English  "both,"  be  joined  to  a  pronoun  in  the  same 
case,  except  when  a  substantive  is  added;  thus,  "both  these"  or  "these 
two"  cannot  be  translated  into  Latin  by  hie  (or  ille,  qui)  uterque,  but  we 
must  say  horum,  illorum,  quorum  uterque,  whereas  uterque  frater  and  quod 
utrumque  exemplum  are  quite  common  expressions.* 

The  genitive,  however,  cannot  be  used  when  the  numeral  contains  the 
same  number  of  things  as  that  of  which  the  whole  consists,  that  is,  when 
there  is  no  relation  of  a  part  to  a  whole.  We  make  this  remark  only  be- 
cause we  use  the  preposition  "  of"  (the  equivalent  to  the  genitive),  when 
we  are  not  speaking  of  a  greater  whole,  but  of  an  equal  one.  We  say,  for 
example,  "  the  people  who  served  under  Frederic  the  Great,  and  of 
whom  few  are  surviving,"  but  in  Latin  we  cannot  say  quorum  -admodum 
pauci  supersunt,  but  qui  pauci  supersunt,  for  these  few  are  all.  Cic.,  Philip., 
ii.,  6,  Veniamus  ad  vivos,  qui  duo  de  consularium  numero  supersunt  •  Liv.,  i.,  55, 
Tarquinius  sacella  exaugurare  statuit,  quae  aliquot  ibi  a  Tatio  rege  consecrata 
fuerant;  Quintil.,  v.,  10,  63,  (Quaeritur),  quot  sint  species  rerum  publicarum  : 
quas  tres  accepimus,  quae  populi,  quae  paucorum,  quae  unius  potestate  regerentur. 

Instead  of  the  genitive  we  may  also  use  the  prepositions  ex  and  inter,  and 
sometimes  de,  but  never  ab.  (Compare  the  passages  quoted  in  Chap.  LXV.) 

*  [The  reason  of  all  this  simply  is,  that  uterque  never  has  the  force  of 
our  English  "  both"  but  always  denotes  each  of  two  taken  individually.] — 
Am.  Ed. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  307 

[§  431.]  Note  2. — The  words  uter,  alter,  neuter,  differ  from  quis,  alius,  nul 
lus,  by  their  referring  to  a  whole  consisting  of  only  two.  (See  <J  141.) 
The  difference  between  nostri,  vestri,  and  nostrum,  vestrum,  is  this :  the 
forms  ending  in  urn  are  used  as  partitive  genitives  ;  e.  g.,  uterque  nostrum, 
nostrum  cujusque  vita;  nemo  vestrum  ignorat ;  imperium  summum  Romae  ha- 
bebit ;  qui  vestrum  primus  osculum  matri  tulerit ;  but  nostri  meliorpars  animus  est, 
miserere  nostri,  immemor  nostri,  amor  nostri,  odium  vestri,  vestri  similes.  Vestrum, 
however,  occurs,  also,  without  any  partitive  meaning;  e.  g.,frequentiaves 
trum  incredibilis,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  21,  and  Philip.,  iv.,  1 ;  compare  p.  Plane. , 
6 ;  quis  erit  tarn  cupidus  vestrum,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  96 ;  vestrum  quoque  non 
sum  securus,  Liv.,  xxxix.,  16.  The  forms  nostrum,  vestrum,  moreover,  are 
always  used  when  joined  with  omnium,  even  when  the  genitive  is  a  sub- 
jective one;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Oral.,  iii.,  55,  Voluntati  vestrum  omnium  parui; 
in  Cat.,  i.,  7,  patriaquae  communis  est  omnium  nostrum  parens. 

[§  432.]  4.  The  neuters  of  pronouns  and  of  some  ad- 
jectives used  as  pronouns,  are  joined  with  a  genitive  for 
two  reasons  :  first,  because  in  meaning  they  have  become 
substantives ;  and,  secondly,  because  they  express  a  part 
of  a  whole.  Such  neuters  are  :  hoc,  id,  illud,  istud,  idem, 
quid  and  quod  with  their  compounds  (aliquid,  quidquid, 
quippiam,  quidquam,  quodcunque),  aliud ;  tantum,  quan- 
tum, aliquantum,  multum,  plus,  plurimum,  minus,  mini- 
mum, paulum  and  nimium,  with  their  diminutives  and 
compounds ;  tantulum,  tantundem,  quantuhmi,  quantu- 
lumcunque,  &c.  To  these  we  must  add  nihil,  nothing, 
which  is  always  used  as  a  substantive ;  and  the  adverbs 
satis,  enough ;  parum,  too  little ;  abunde,  ajfatim,  and 
sometimes  largiter,  abundantly — when  they  are  used  as 
substantives. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  observed  that  these  neuters  are 
used  as  substantives  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive, and  that  they  must  not  be  dependant  upon  prepo- 
sitions. 
Quantum  incrementi  Nilus  capit,  tantum  spei  in  annum  est, 

Senec.,  Nat.  Quaest.,  iv.,  6. 

Potest  quidquam  esse  absurdius,  quam,  quo  minus  viae  res- 
tat,  tanto  plus  viatici  quaerere,  Cic.,  Cat.  J\'laj.,  IS. 
Procellae  quanto  plus  habent  virium,  tanto  minus  temporis, 

Senec.,  Nat.  Quaest.,  vii.,  9. 

Pythagoras,  quum  in  gcometria  quiddam  novi  mxenissct, 
Musis  Govern  immolasse  dicitur,  Cic.,   de  Nat.  Dear., 
iii.,  36. 
Justitia  nihil  expetit  praemii,  nihil  pretii,  Cic.,  de  Leg., 

i,  18. 

Satis  eloquentiae,  sapientiae  parum  (in  Catilina  fuit),  Sal- 
lust. 
[§  433.]  Note  1. — The  genitive  joined  with  these  neuters  is  often  not  a 


308  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

real  substantive,  but  the  neuter  of  an  adjective,  which  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive, as  above,  quiddam  novi.  It  must  be  observed  here  that  only 
adjectives  of  the  second  declension  (in  um)  can  be  treated  as  substantives, 
and  not  those  of  the  third  in  e,  nor  the  comparative  in  us.  We  may  there- 
fore say  aliquid  novum  and  aliquid  novi,  but  only  aliquid  mcmorabile,  and  gra- 
vius  aliquid.  Aliquid  memorabilis  cannot  be  used,  except,  perhaps,  in  con- 
nexion with  neuters  of  the  second  declension;  e.  g.,  aliquid  novi  ac  me- 
morabilis tibi  narrabo  (as  in  Livy,  v.,  3,  si  quidquam  in  vobis  non  dico  civilis 
sed  humani  esset) ;  but  even  in  this  case  it  is  preferable  to  say  aliquid  novum 
ac  memorabile  ;  as  in  Seneca,  vide  ne  ista  lectio  multorum  auctorum  habeat  ali- 
quid vagum  et  inslabile.  It  must  farther  be  remarked  that,  when  there  is 
any  case  dependant  upon  the  neuter  adjective,  the  latter  can  scarcely  be 
put  in  the  genitive,  and  we  must  say  nihil  expectations  vestra  dignum  dico, 
as  Cicero  (de  Oral.,  i.,  31)  does. 

[$  434.]  Note  2.— The  adverbs  of  place,  ubi,  ubique,  ubicwique,  usquam, 
nusquam  {longe),  unde,  hie,  hue,  eo,  eodem,  quo.  quocunque,  quoquo,  aliquo  are 
joined  with  the  genitives  gentiinn,  terrarum,  loci,  locorum,  and  by  the  addi- 
tion of  such  a  genitive  their  meaning  is  strengthened  ;  e.  g.,  ubinam  gentium 
sumus  ?  abes  longe  gentium  ;  aliquo  terrarum  migrandum  est ;  ubi  terrarum  es  ? 
The  expressions  hoc  loci,  quo  loci  sum,  res  eodem  est  loci,  quo  tu  reliquisti,  in 
Cicero  and  other  writers  are  equivalent  to  quo,  eodem  loco,  and  the  ablatives 
quo,  eodem,  are  used  as  if  loco  were  to  follow.  The  adverbs  hue,  eo.  quo, 
when  used  figuratively  to  express  a  degree,  are  joined  also  with  other 
genitives  ;  e.  g.,  hue  arrogantiae  venerat,  to  this  degree  or  pitch  of  arrogance ; 
eo  insolentiae  furorisque  processit ;  scire  videmini  quo  amentiae  progressi  sitis. 
In  the  phrase  minime  gentium,  by  no  means,  the  genitive  merely  strength- 
ens the  meaning  of  minime. 

In  the  following  expressions  denoting  time  the  genitive  appears  to  be 
quite  superfluous  :  postea  loci,  afterward ;  ad  id  locorum,  up  to  this  point ; 
in  Sallust  and  Livy,  interea  loci,  in  the  mean  time  ;  and  adhuc  locorum,  until 
now,  in  the  comic  writers  ;  turn  temporis,  at  that  time,  occurs  in  late  wri- 
ters, and  should  not  be  imitated.  In  the  phrase  quantum  or  quoad  ejus  fa- 
cere  possum,  or  in  the  passive  form,  fieri  potcst,  the  ejus  refers  to  the  prece- 
ding sentence,  il  as  much  of  it,"  or  "  as  far  as  this  is  possible." 

[§  435.]  5.  Poets  and  prose  writers  later  than  Cicero 
use  the  neuters  of  adjectives  in  general,  both  in  the  sin- 
gular and  plural,  as  substantives,  and  join  them  with  a 
genitive  •  e.  g.,  Curtius,  rcliquum  noctis  acquicvit,  he  slept 
the  remainder  of  the  night;  Livy,  cxiguum  campi  ante 
castra  erat,  for  which  Cicero  would  have  said  exiguus  cam' 
pus  ;  in  ultima  Celtibcriae  pcnetrare  ;  summa  tcctorum  ob- 
tinere, instead  of  in  ultimam  Celtiberiam  j^cnctrare,  and 
summa  tecta  obtinere. 

Note. — So,  also,  ultimum  inopiae  is  equivalent  to  ultima  inopia  ;  medium 
or  extremum  anni,  aetatis,  for  which  media  aetas  is  the  ordinary  expression  ; 
extrema  agminis,  infima  chvi ;  saeva  vcntorum,  opportuna  locorum,  avia  itinerum, 
tacita  suspicionum ;  and  with  a  preposition,  in  immensum  altitudinis  dejecit, 
for  in  immensam  altitudinem  ;  ad  ultimum  vitae  perseverare,  in  ultima  Orientis 
relegare,  cum  pretiosissimis  rerumfugere,  where  the  ablat.  must  not  be  taken 
for  a  feminine,  although  the  expression  is  used  for  cum  pretiosissimis  rebus. 
Ad  multum  did  or  noctis  is  a  peculiar  phrase  of  the  same  kind,  for  a  neuter 
like  multum  may,  indeed,  be  joined  with  a  genitive,  but  not  with  a  prepo- 
sition ;  hence  the  ordinary  construction  is  in  multam  noctem  scribere.  Very 
frequently  there  is  a  peculiar  meaning  in  such  a  neuter  plural :  incerta, 
subita  belli ;  i.  e.,  the  uncertain,  sudden  occurrences  in  war,  or  subitae  occa- 
siones  belli ;  quassata  muri,  the  shaken  parts  of  the  wall ;  infrequentissima 


GENITIVE    CASE.  309 

urbix,  the  most  uninhabited  part  of  the  town  ;  plana  urbis  Tiberis  stagnave- 
rat.  Livy  has  many  expressions  of  this  kind  (Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxxvii., 
58),  and  in  Tacitus  they  are  innumerable.  Respecting  the  analogy  with 
the  Greek  language,  see  Vechner,  Hcllenolex,  i.,  2,  9,  p.  202,  foil.,  and  Hein- 
dorf  on  Horat.,  Sat.,  ii.,  2,  25. 

[§  436.]  6.  Many  adjectives  denoting  a  relation  to  a 
thing  (adjectiva  relativa),  especially  those  which  express 
partaking^  desiring,  fulness,  experience,  capacity,  or  re- 
membering, and  their  contraries,  are  joined  with  the  geni- 
tive of  a  substantive  or  pronoun.  Thus  we  say  memor 
promissi,  remembering  a  promise;  compos  mentis,  in  pos- 
session of  his  mind  ;  ignarus  sermonis  Latini,  ignorant  of 
the  Latin  language.  Such  relations  are  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish by  prepositions. 

The  following,  in  particular,  are  construed  in  this  way  : 
particeps,  affinis  (e.  g.,  alicujus  culpae,  suspicionis:  see,  how- 
ever, §  411),  expers,  inops,  consors,  exsors  ;  cupidus,  studi- 
osus,  avidus,  avarus  ;  plenus,  inanis,  capax,  insatiabilis,fe- 
cundus,fertilis,ferax,  sterilis  ;  peritus,imperitus,  conscius, 
inscius,  nescius,  praescius,  gnarus,  ignarus,  rudis,  insolcns 
and  insolitus,  or  insuetus,pmdens,  providus,  compos,  impos, 
potens  and  impotens  ;  memor,  immemor,  tenax,  curiosus,  in- 
curiosus. 

Pythagoras  sapicntiae  studiosos  appellavit  pJiilosophos,  Ci- 
cero, Tusc.,  v.,  3. 
Themistochs  peritissimos  belli  navalis  fecit  Athenienses, 

Nep.,  Them.,  2. 

Ventwrae  memor es  jam  nunc  estote  senectae,  Ovid. 
Gonscia  mens  rectifamae  mendacia  ridet,  Ovid,  Fast. 
Nescia  mens  hominumfati  sortisquefuturae,  Virgil. 

[§  437.]  Note  1. — The  poets  and  those  prose  writers  who,  deviating  from 
the  ordinary  mode  of  speaking,  use  poetical  constructions,  to  give  anima- 
tion to  their  style  (especially  Tacitus),  extend  the  rule  of  joining  a  geni- 
tive with  adjectives  very  far.  They  construe,  in  particular,  all  adjectives 
expressing  mental  emotion  with  the  genitive  of  the  thing  to  which  it  is  di- 
rected ;  e.  g.,  ambiguus  consilii  ;  anxius  futuri,  securitatis  ;  benignus  vini ;  crr- 
tus  sceleris  ;  dubius  viae  ;  impiger  militiae  ;  interritus  leti ;  incautus  futuri ;  in- 
certus  sententiae  ;  laetus  laboris  •  modicus  voluptatum;  pervicax  irae,  recti ;  piger 
pericnli  ;  segnis  occasionum  ;  socors  futuri ;  securus  futuri;  timidus  lucis  ;  for- 
midolosns  hostium  ;  oblatae  occasionis  propera  ;  ferox  scelerum  Kcjanus  ;  atrox 
odii  Agrippina,~\vhere  in  ordinary  prose  the  prepositions  de,  in  or  ad,  would 
be  required,  and  where  we  use  "  in  respect  of"  or  "  in  regard  to."  In  some 
cases  the  genitive  is  used,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek,  instead  of  the  Latin 
ablative  ;  e.  g.,  integer  vitae,  for  integer  vita  ;  diversus  rnorum ;  lassus  maris, 
viarum,  militiae  ;  vetus  operis  ac  laboris  ;  sacerdos  scie.ntiae  cerimoniarumque 
vetus.  In  some  cases,  however,  the  adjective  is  only  a  bold  expression,  and 
used  in  the  same  sense  as  one  of  those  mentioned  above  ;  e.  g.,  vetus  operis, 
equivalent  to  peritus  operis.  In  the  case  of  superlatives  the  genitive  is  to 
be  explained  in  a  different  way  ;  as,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  vi.,  6,  praestantissimus  sa- 


310  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

pientiae,  for  sapientum ;  i.,  46,  princeps  severitatis  et  munijicentiae  summus,  for 
omnium  qui  et  severi  et  munifici  sint.  Comp.  §  470.  We  must  notice  espe- 
cially the  use  of  the  genitive  animi  (instead  of  the  ablative),  which  occurs 
so  frequently  in  late  prose  writers,  and  is  joined  with  all  adjectives.  (See 
Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  93.)  We  thus  find  aeger,  anxius,  atrox,  aversus, 
caecus,  captus,  confidens,  confusus,  incertus,  territus,  validus,  exiguus,  ingens, 
modicus,  immodicus,  and  nimius  animi ;  and,  owing  to  this  frequent  use  of 
the  genitive  with  adjectives,  it  is  found  also  with  verbs  denoting  anxie- 
ty ;  e.  g.,  absurdefacis,  qui  te  angas  animi ;  discrucior  animi,  and  even  in  Cic- 
ero we  find  more  than  once  ego  quidem  vehementer  animi  pendeo  ;  it  occurs 
more  rarely  with  verbs  denoting  joy  ;  as,  recreabar  animi. 

Note  2. — The  adjectives  plenus  and  inanis  (full,  empty),  as  well  asfertilis 
and  dives,  may  be  construed  also  with  the  ablative  (<*»  457,  foil.),  and  with 
refertus  (the  participle  of  a  verb  denoting  "  to  fill")  the  ablative  is  com- 
monly used ;  plenus  in  the  early  prose  is  rarely  joined  with  the  ablative, 
but  in  later  times  frequently  :  Cicero,  e.  g.,  Philip.,  ii.,  27,  says,  domus 
(Antonii)  erat  aleatoribus  referta,  plena  ebriorum.  We  may  use  either  case  in 
jurisperitus  and  jureperitus,  jurisconsultus  and  jureconsultus  (abridged  ICtus). 
Compos  and  expers  are  but  rarely  found  with  the  ablative  instead  of  the 
genit. ;  as,  Liv.,  iii.,  7J ,  pracda  ingenti  compotem  exercitum  reducunt ;  Sallust, 
pat.,  33,  omnes  fama  alque  fortunis  expertes  sumus.  Immunis  (not  partaking) 
is  commonly  joined  with  the  genitive,  but  when  used  in  the  sense  of  "free 
from,"  it  takes  either  ab  or  the  simple  ablat.  (See  $  468.) 

Conscius  is  construed  with  a  genitive  and  a  dative  of  the  thing;  e.  g,, 
Sallust,  Cat.,  25,  caedis  conscia  fucrat;  Cic.,  p.  Coel.,  21,  huic  facinori  tanto 
mens  tua  conscia  esse  non  debuit.  The  person  who  is  conscious  of  a  thing 
is  always  expressed  by  the  dative  ;  as,  sibi  conscium  esse  alicujus  rei. 

[§  438.]  7.  The  participles  present  active  are  joined 
with  a  genitive  when  they  do  not  express  a  simple  act  or 
a  momentary  condition,  but,  like  adjectives,  a  permanent 
quality  or  condition ;  hence  most  of  them  have  degrees 
of  comparison  like  real  adjectives.  The  following  list 
contains  those  most  in  use :  amans,  appetens,  colens,  fu- 
giens,  inteUigcns,  metuens,  ncgligcns,  olservans,  retinens, 
tolerans,  patiens,  impatiens,  tempcrans,  intemperans  ;  e.  g., 
amans  yiatriac,  Gracchi  amantissiini  plebis  Romanac,  ap- 
vetens  laudis,  sancti  et  rdigionum  colentes,fugiens  laboris, 
imminentium  (fnturi)  intclligcns,  officii  ncgligens,  miles  pa- 
tiens or  impatiens  solis,  pulveris,  tempestatum. 
Epaminondas  adeo  fuit  vcritatis  diligens,  ut  nejoco  quidem 

mentiretur,  Nep.,  Epam.,  3. 
Romani  semper  appetentes  gloriae  praetcr  ccteras  gentes  at- 

que  avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  3. 

Note. — The  passage  from  Nepos  shows  that  the  participles  admitting 
this  construction  are  not  limited  to  such  as  have  the  meaning  of  the  ad- 
jectives mentioned  above  (<j>  436),  but  they  are  used  in  this  way  through- 
out, provided  they  express  a  permanent  quality  ;  miles  patiens  frigus,  for  ex- 
ample, is  a  soldier  who  at  a  particular  time  bears  the  cold,  but  miles  patiens 
frigoris  is  one  who  bears  cold  well  at  all  times.  Hence  cupiens,  efficient,  ex- 
pcriens,  sciens,  sitiens,  timens,  and  a  considerable  number  of  others,  are  joined 
with  a  genitive.  Some  participles  perfect  passive  have  been  mentioned 
in  ()  436,  as  their  number  is  very  limited  ;  and  completus,  expertus,  inexper- 
tus,  invictus,  and  consultus  may  be  classed  with  the  above-mentioned  ad- 


GENITIVE    CASE.  311 

jectives.    If,  in  poetical  language,  we  find  any  other  perfect  participles 
joined  with  a  genitive,  we  must  regard  them  as  adjectives. 

[§  439.]  8.  With  verbs  of  reminding,  remembering,  and 
forgetting  (admoneo,  commonco,  commonefacio  aliquem  ; 
meminit  rcminiscor,  recorder,  also  in  mentem  mihi  venit ; 
obliviscorj  the  person  or  the  thing  of  which  any  one  re- 
minds another  or  himself,  or  which  he  forgets,  is  express- 
ed by  the  genitive  ;  but  there  are  many  instances,  also,  in 
which  the  thing  is  expressed  by  the  accusative. 
Medicus,  ut  primum  mentis  compotem  esse  regem  sensit,  mo- 
do  matris  sororumque,  modo  tantae  victoriae  appropin- 
quantis  admonere  non  destitit,  Curt.,  iii.,  16. 
Hannibal  milites  adhortatus  est,  ut  reminiscerentur  pristi- 
nae  mrtutis  suae,  neve  mulierum  liberumque  (for  et  libe- 
rorum)  obliviscerentur. 
Tu,  C.  Caesar,  oblivisci  nihil  soles,  nisi  injurias,  Cic.,.  p. 

Leg.,  12. 

Non  omnes  (senes)  possunt  esse  Scipiones  aut  Maximi,  ut 
urbium  expugnationes,  ut  pedestrcs  navalesque  pugnas, 
ut  bella  a  se  gesta  triumpJiosque  recordentur,  Cic.,  Cat. 
Maj.,  5. 

[§  440.]  Note. — With  regard  to  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  it  must  be 
observed  that  the  neuters  of  pronouns,  and  the  neuter  adjectives  used  as 
substantives,  are  joined  to  the  above-mentioned  verbs  only  in  the  accusa- 
tive ;  for  their  genitive  would  present  no  difference  from  the  masc.  gender. 
Hence  Cicero  (de  Off.,  ii.,  8)  is  obliged  to  say,  Externa  libentius  in  tali  re 
quam  domestica  recorder ;  and  the  verbs  of  reminding  are  thus  joined  with 
two  accusatives,  one  of  the  person  and  the  other  of  the  thing ;  e.  g.,  Mud 
mepraeclare  admones,  unum  te  admoneo.  (Comp.  §  393.)  An  accusative  of 
the  thing,  expressed  by  a  real  substantive,  occurs  only  with  verbs  of  re- 
membering and  forgetting  /  e.  g.,  memini  or  oblitus  sum  mandata,  benejicia,  dicta 
factaque  tua  ;  pueritiae  memoriam  recordari  ultimam.  An  accusative  of  the 
person  is  very  rarely  used  with  these  verbs  ;  but  memini,  in  the  sense  of 
"  I  remember  a  person  who  lived  in  my  time,"  is  invariably  joined  with  an 
accusative  of  the  person  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  v.,  6,  quod  neque  regesfecerunt, 
neque  ii,  qui  regibus  exactis  regnum  occupare  voluerunt :  Cinnam  memini,  vidi 
Sullam,  modo  Caesarem,  &c.  ;  de  Orat.,  iii.,  50,  Antipater  ille  Sidonius,  quern, 
tu  probe  meministi.  Sometimes  verbs  of  reminding  and  remembering  take  the 
preposition  de ;  memini  takes  demore  especially  when  it  signifies  mentionem 
facere,  but  the  genitive  also  may  be  used.  With  venit  mihi  in  mentem,the 
person  or  thing  may  be  put  in  the  nominal.,  so  as  to  become  the  subject ; 
"  e.  g.,  aliquid,  haec,  omnia  mihi  in  mentem  venerunt. 

[§441.]  9.  The  impersonal  verbs  pudet,  piget,  poenitett 
taedet,  and  miscret  require  the  person  in  whom  the  feel- 
ing exists  to  be  in  the  accusative,  and  the  thing  which 
produces  the  feeling  in  the  genitive.  The  thing  produ- 
cing the  feeling  may  also  be  expressed  by  the  infinitive, 
or  by  a  sentence  with  quod  or  with  an  interrogative  par- 
ticle, e.  g.,  pudet  me  hoc  fecisse,  poenitet  me  quod  te  ofendi, 


312  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

non  poenitet  me  (I  am  not  dissatisfied)  quantum  profecerim. 

As  to  the  forms  of  these  verbs,  see  §  225. 

Malo,  mcfortunaepocnitcat,  quam  victoriae  pudeat,  Curt., 

iv.,  47. 
Eorum  nos  magis  miseret,  qui  nostram  misericordiam  non 

requirunt,  quam  qui  illam  cjflagitant,  Cic.,  p.  Mil.,  34. 
No?i  poenitet  me  vixissc,  quoniam  ita  vixi,  ut  non  frustra 

me.  natum  existimem,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  in  fin. 
Quern  poenitet  pcccassc,  pacne  cst  innocens,  Senec.,  Agam., 

243. 

[§  4 12.]  Note  1. — The  personal  verbs  misereor  and  miseresco,  "  I  pity,"  are 
joined  with  a  genitive,  like  the  impersonal  verbs  miseret  (and  miseretur) : 
miseremini  sociorum,  misertus  tanti  viri,  generis  miseresce  tui;  but  we  also  find 
miserescit  me  tui,  impersonally,  in  Terence  (Hvaut..  v.,  4,  3),  inopis  te  mine 
miserescat  mei.  Miserari  and  commiserari  (to  pity),  on  the  other  hand,  re- 
quire the  accusative.  The  above-mentioned  impersonal  verbs  are  very 
rarely  used  personally ;  as  in  Terence,  Adclph.,  iv.,  5, 36,  non  te  haec  pudent. 
In  the  passage  of  Cicero  ( Tusc.,  v.,  18),  sequitur  ut  nihil  (sapicntem)  poeni- 
teat,  the  word  nihil  must  not  be  taken  for  a  nominative  :  it  is  the  accusa- 
tive, for  both  this  particular  word  and  the  neuters  of  pronouns  are  thus 
used  in  the  accusative  (see  §  385) ;  whereas  real  substantives  would  ne- 
cessarily be  in  a  different  case.  So,  also;  in  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  ii.,  13,  quaeri 
vportet,  utrum  id  f acinus  sit,  quod  poenittre  fuerit.  neccsse,  for  cujus  ret.  The 
participle  prrtaesus  (belonging  to  tacdct)  governs  the  accusative,  contrary 
to  the  rule  by  which  participles  are  joined  with  the  same  case  as  the  verbs 
from  which  they  are  formed  ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Jut,  7,  quasi  pertaesus  ignaviam 
suam  ;  but  it  is  also  used  with  a  genitive,  as  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  xv.,  51,  pos- 
tremo  lentitudinis  eorum  pertaesa. 

[§  443.]  Note  2. — Pudet  requires  a  genit,  also,  in  the  sense  of  "being 
restrained  by  shame  or  respect  for  a  person  ;"  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  iv.,  5, 
49,  et  me  tui pudet ;  Cic.,  in  Clod.,  Nonne  te  hujus  templi,  non  urbis,  nonvit.ae, 
non  lucis  pudet  ?  It  is  found  more  frequently  without  an  accusat.,  as  in 
Livy,  iii.,  19,  pudet  deorum  hominumque ;  ClC.,  Philip.,  xii.,  3,  pudet  hujus  le- 
gionis,  pudet  quartae,  pudet  optimi  excrcitus. 

[§  444.]  10.  The  verbs  of  estimating  or  valuing  and 
their  passives  (acstimarc,  ducere,faccrc,  fieri,  liaberc,  pen- 
dere,  putare,  taxare,  and  esse)  are  joined  with  the  genitive 
when  the  value  is  expressed  generally  by  an  adjective, 
but  with  the  ablative  when  it  is  expressed  by  a  substan- 
tive. (Comp.  §  456.)  Genitives  of  this  kind  are  :  mag- 
ni,  permagni,pluris,  plurimi,  maximi,  parci,  minoris,  min- 
imi, tanti,  quanti,  and  the  compounds  tantldem,  quantivis, 
quanticunque ;  but  never  (or  very  rarely)  multi  and  ma- 
joris.  The  substantive  to  be  understood  with  these  gen- 
itives is  pretii,  which  is  sometimes  expressed  (with  esse). 
Si  prata  et  Jiortulos  tanti  aestimamus,  quanti  est  aestiman- 

da  virtus  ?  Cic.,  Par  ad.,  6. 
Unum  Hepkaestionem  Alexander  plurimi  fecerat,   Nep., 

Emn.,  2. 


GENITIVE    CASE.  313 

Ego  a  meis  me  amari  et  magni  pendi  postulo,  Terent., 

AdelpJi.,  v.,  4,  25. 
Mea  mihi  conscientia  pluris  est,  quam  omnium  sermo,  Cic., 

ad  Att.,  xii.,  28.  #V£V^/VU*A 

Note. —  Tanti  est,  "  it  is  worth  so  much,"  signifies,  also,  absolutely,  "  it  is 
worth  while  ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  9,  Video  quanta  tempestas  invidiae  nobis 
impendeat.  Sed  est  mihi  tanti:  dummodo  into,  privata  sit  calamilas.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  above  genitives  we  must  mention  assis,flocd,  nauci,  pensi,  pili 
habere,  or  commonly  non  habere,  ducere,  aestimare ;  farther,  the  comic  phrase /£/. 
hujus  non  facio,  "  I  do  not  care  that  for  it,"  and  nihili.  But  we  find,  also, 
pro  nihilo  habere,  putare,  and  ducere  •  e.  g.,  omnia,  quae  cadere  in  hominem  pos- 
sint,  despicere  et  pro  nihilo  putare.  The  phrase  aequi  boni,  or  aequi  bonique 
facio,  consulo,  and  boni  consulo,  I  consider  a  thing  to  be  right,  am  satisfied 
with  it,  must  likewise  be  classed  with  these  genitives.  A  genitive  ex- 
pressing price  is  joined,  also,  to  such  words  as  coeno,  habito,  doceo ;  e.  g., 
quanti  habitas  ?  what  price  do  you  pay  for  your  house  or  lodging  ?  quanti 
docet  ?  what  are  his  terms  in  teaching  ? 

[§  445.]   The  same  rule  applies  to  general  statements 
of  price  with  the  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  lending,  and 
hiring  (emere,  vcnderc,  the  passive  venire,  conducere,  lo- 
care,  and  as  passives  in  sense,  stare  and  constarc,  prostare 
and  liccrc,  to  be   exposed  for  sale).     But  the   ablatives 
magno,permagno,plurimo,  parvo,  minima,  nihilo ,  are  used 
very  frequently  instead  of  the  genitive. 
JMercatores  non  tantldcm  vendunt,  quanti  cmerunt,  Cic. 
Nulla  pestis  humano  generi  pluris  stetit,  quam  ^'ra,  Senec. 
Non  potest  parvo  res  magna  constare,  Senec.,  Epist.,  19. 

Note. — With  verbs  of  buying,  therefore,  the  genitive  and  ablative  alter- 
nate according  to  the  particular  words  that  are  used.  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii., 
2,  writes,  Parum  acute  ei  mandasti  potissimum,  cui  expediret  Mud  venire  quam 
plurimo  :  sed  eo  vidisti  multum,  quod  praefinisti,  quo  ne  pluris  emerem — mine, 
quoniam  tuum  pretium  novi,  illicitatorem,  potias  ponam,  quam  illud  minoris  ve- 
neat  •  Plaut.,  Epid.,  ii.,  2,  112,  Quanti  emere possum  minima?  What  is  the 
lowest  price  I  can  buy  at  ?  Aestimare  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  abla- 
tives magno,  permagno,  nonnihilo,  instead  of  the  regular  genitives.  The  ad- 
verbs care,  bene,  male,  sometimes  take  the  place  of  the  ablative  with  the 
verbs  of  buying,  though  not  very  frequently.  Instead  of  nihilo  constat,  it 
costs  me  nothing,  we  find  in  Cicero  gratis  constat. 

[§  446.]  11.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  the  crime 
or  offence,  with  the  verbs  accuso,  incuso,  arguo,  interrogo, 
insimulo,  incrcpo,  infamo  ;  convinco,  coarguo  ;  judico,  dam- 
no,  condemno  ;  absolvo,  libero,  purgo  ;  arcesso,  cifo,  dcfero, 
postulo,  reum  facio,  alicui  diem  dico,  cum  aliquo  ago.  The 
genitive  joined  to  these  verbs  depends  upon  the  substan- 
tive crimine  or  nomine,  which  is  understood,  but  some- 
times also  expressed. 

Genitives  of  this  kind  are,  peccati,  maleficii,  sceleris,  caedis,  veneficii,  par~ 
ricidii,  furti,  repetundannn,  peculates,  falsi,  injuriarum,  rci  capitalis.proditionis, 
majcstatis ;  probri,  stultitiae,  avaritiae,  audaciae,  vanitatis,  Icvitatis,  tcmcritatis 
ignaviae  ;  timoris,  impietatis,  and  others. 
I)   I) 


314  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Miltiades  proditionis  est  accusatus,  quod,  quum  Parum  ey> 

pugnare  posset,  e  pugna  discessisset,  Nep.,  Milt. 
Thrasybulus  legem  tulit,  nc  quis  ante  actarum  rcrum  ac' 
cusaretur  neve  multaretur,  Nep.,  Thras.,  3. 
Note  1 . — To  these  verbs  we  must  add  a  few  adjectives,  which  are  used 
instead  of  their  participles :  reus,  compertus,  noxius,  innoxius,  insons,  mani- 
festus.     Sometimes  the  preposition  de  is  used,  with  the  verbs  of  accusing 
and  condemning,  instead  of  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  de  vi  condemnatus  cst,  no- 
men  alicujus  de  parricidio  dvferre. 

[§  447.]  Note  2. — The  punishment,  with  the  verbs  of  condemning,  is 
commonly  expressed  by  the  genitive  ;  e.  g.,  capitis,  mortis,  multae,  pecuniae, 
quadrupli,  octnpli,  and  less  frequently  by  the  ablative,  capitc,  morte,  multa, 
pecunia.  The  ablative,  however,  is  used  invariably  when  a  definite  sum  is 
mentioned ;  e.  g.,  deccm,  quindecim  milibus  acris.  Sometimes  we  find  the 
preposition  ad  or  in :  ad  pofnam,  ad  bestias,  ad  metalla,  in  metallum,  in  ex- 
pensas,  and  Tacitus  uses,  also,  ad  mortem.  The  meaning  of  capitis  accu' 
sare,  arcesscre,  absolvcre,  and  of  capitis  or  capite  damnare,  condemnare,  must  be 
explained  by  the  signification  of  what  the  Romans  called  a  causa  capitis.* 
Voti  or  votorum  dajnnari,  to  be  condemned  to  fulfil  one's  vow,  is  thus 
equivalent  to  "to  obtain  what  one  wishes." 

[§  448.]  12.  The  genitive  is  used  with  the  verbs  csse 
andj£m,  in  the  sense  of  "  it  is  a  person's  business,  office, 
lot,  or  property,"  the  substantives  res  or  ncgotium  being 
understood;  e/g.,  hoc  cst  pracccptoris,  this  is  the  business 
of  the  teacher ;  non  cst  mearum  virium,  it  is  beyond  my 
strength ;  Asia  Romanorum  facto,  cst,  Asia  became  the 
property  of  the  Romans.  The  same  genitive  is  found, 
also,  with  some  of  the  verbs  mentioned  in  §  394,  esse  be- 
ing understood. 

But  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns  mei, 
tui,  sui,  nostri,  vcstri,  the  neuters  of  the  possessives,  meum, 
tuum,  suum,  nostrum,  vest-rum  cst,  crat,  &c.,  are  used. 
Cujusvis  lioininis  est  errare,  nullius  nisi  insipientis  in  errore 

perseverare,  Cic.,  'Phil.,  xii.,  2. 
Sapientis  judicis  cst,  semper  non  quid  ipse  vcUt,  sed  quid 

lex  ct  religio  cogat,  cogitare,  Cic.,  p.  Cluent.,  58. 
Bello   Gallico  practcr   Capitolium  omnia  Jwstium  cranf, 

Liv.,  vi.,  40. 
Tuum  est,  Jkf.  Cato,  qui  non  mihi,  non  tibi,  sed  patriae 

natus  es,  videre  quid  agatur,  Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  38. 

Note  1. — We  have  here  followed  Perizonius  (on  Sanctius,  Minerva,  in 
many  passages)  in  explaining  the  genitive  by  the  ellipsis  of  negotium.\ 
This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  a  passage  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  12,  non  ho- 
rum  temporum,  non  horum  hominum  ft  moruni  negotiwn  est ;  but  we  ought 
not  to  have  recourse  to  such  an  ellipsis,  except  for  the  purpose  of  illus- 
trating the  idiom  of  a  language,  and  we  should  not  apply  it  to  every  par- 
ticular case;  for,  in  most  instances,  it  would  be  better  and  more  consist- 

*  [Consult  Diet.  Antiq.,  p.  212,  Harpers'  ed.~\ — Am.  Ed. 

f  [Compare  Palairet,  Ellips.  Lat.,  s.  v.  Negotium.]— Am.  Ed, 


GENITIVE    CASE.  315 

ent  with  the  Latin  idiom,  to  supply  proprius,  as  an  adjective  and  proprium 
as  a  substantive.  (Cornp.  §  411.)  In  the  following  sentences  from  Cicero, 
proprium  est  animi  bene  const ituti  lactari  bonis  rebus,  and  sapientis  est  pro- 
prium, nihil  quod  poenitere  possit  facer e,  we  might  omit  proprium  and  use  the 
genitive  alone.  In  the  following  sentences  the  words  munus  and  officium 
might  be  omitted  :  Cic.,  p.  Mil.,  8,  principum  munus  est  resistere  levitati 
multitudinis ,  and  Terent.,  Andr.,  ii.,  1,  30,  neutiquam  officium  liberi  esse  ho- 
minis  puto,  quum  is  nil  mereat,  postulare  id  gratiae  apponi  sibi ;  and  hence  we 
may  also  assume  the  ellipsis  of  munus  and  officium,  for  the  purpose  of  il- 
lustrating the  Latin  idiom. 

Esse  is  joined  with  a  genitive  expressing  quality,  est  stultitiae,  est  levita- 
tis,  est  hoc  Gallicae  consuetudinis,  especially  moris  est,  for  which,  without 
difference  in  meaning,  we  may  say  stultitia  est,  levitas  est,  haec  consuctudo 
est  Gallorum,  mos  est ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  negavit  moris  esse  Grae- 
corum,  ut  in  convivio  virorum  accumberent  mulieres,  the  same  as  morem  esse 
Graecorum. 

Note  2. — As  it  is  the  rule  to  use  the  neuter  of  the  possessive  pronouns, 
instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  so  in  other  cases,  instead 
of  a  genitive  of  a  substantive,  an  adjective  derived  from  the  substantive 
may  be  used;  e.  g.,  humanum  est,  imperatorium  est,  regium  est ;  et  facer  e  et 
patifortia  Romanum  est,  Liv.,  ii.,  12. 

[§  449.]  13.  A  similar  ellipsis  takes  place  with  the  im- 
personal verbs  interesting.  rijjfertt  it  is  of  interest  or  impor- 
tance (to  me),  the  person  to  whom  anything  is  of  im- 
portance being  expressed  by  the  genitive ;  but  instead  of 
the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns,  the  possessives 
mea,  tua,  sua,  nostra,  vestra,  are  used.  These  possessives 
are  commonly  considered  to  be  accusatives  neuter  plu- 
ral, commoda  being  understood ;  but  from  some  verses  in 
Terence,  especially  Pkorm.,  iv.,  5,  11,  and  v.,  8,  47,  we 
are  obliged  to  consider  them  with  Priscian  (p.  1077)  as 
ablatives  feminine  singular,  and  it  is  not  impossible  that 
causa  may  be  understood.*  The  thing  which  is  of  inter- 
est or  importance  is  not  expressed  by  a  substantive,  but 
sometimes  by  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun  ;  e.  g.,  hoc  mea  in- 
terest, and  usually  by  an  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or 
by  ut  and  the  interrogative  particles  with  the  subjunctive; 
e.  g.,  multum  mea  interest,  te  esse  diligcntem,  or  ut  dili- 
gens  sis,  (utrum)  diligens  sis  nee  ne. 
Semper  IMilo,  quantum  interesset  P.  Clodii,  se  perire,  cogi- 

tabat,  Cic.,  p.  Mil.,  21.       \ 
Caesar  dicere  solebat,  non  tarn  sua,  quam  reipullicae  inter- 

esse,uti  salvus  esset,  Suet.,  Caes.,  86. 
Inventae  sunt  epistolae,  ut  certiores  facer  emus  abscntes,  si 

*  This  explanation  solves  only  half  the  difficulty,  but  both  the  use  of 
the  genitive  and  the  length  of  re  in  refert  are  sufficiently  accounted  for  by 
what  has  been  said  in  a  note  at  the  foot  of  p.  19.  We  should  add  here 
that  mea,  tua,  sua,  &c.,  are  accusatives  for  meam,  tuam,  suam,  &c.  Comp. 
Key,  The  Alphabet,  p.  77  — TRANSL. 


316  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

quid  esset,  quos  eos  scire  aut  nostra  aut  ipsorum  interesset, 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.j  ii.,  4. 

Quid  refer t,  utrum  voluerim  fieri ,  anfactum gaudcam  ?  Cic., 
Philip.,  ii.,  12. 

Note  1. — When  an  infinitive  alone  is  joined  to  interesse,  the  preceding 
subject  is  understood,  e.  g.,  omnium  interest  rectefacere,  scil.se.  The  nom- 
inative of  the  subject  in  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  hi.,  19,  non  quo  mea  interesset  loci 
natura,  is  very  singular.  It  has  been  asserted  that  refert  is  not  joined  with 
the  genitive  of  the  person  ;  in  Cicero,  it  is  true,  it  does  not  occur,  for  he 
generally  uses  it  with  the  pronouns  mea,  tua,  sua,  &c. ;  but  other  authors 
use  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Jug.,  119,  faciendum  aliquid,  quod  illorum 
magis,  quam  sua  rettulisse  videretur,  and  Liv.,xxxiv.,  27,  ipsorum  referre,  &c. 
Most  frequently,  however,  refert  is  used  without  either  a  genitive  or  any 
of  the  pronouns  mea,  tua,  &c.  :  refert,  quid  refert  ?  magni,  parvi,  magnopere 
refert.  The  dative  of  the  person  in  Horace,  Serm.,  i.,  1,  50,  vel  die  quid  re- 
ferat  intra  naturae  fines  viventi,  jugera  centum  an  mille  aret,  is  a  singular  pe- 
culiarity. 

[§  450.]  Note  2. — The  degree  of  importance  is  expressed  by  adverbs  or 
neuter  adjectives,  or  by  their  genitives,  magis,  magnopere,  vehementer,  parum, 
minime,  tarn,  tantopere  ;  multum,  plus,  plurimum,  permultum,  infinitum,  mirum 
quantum,  minus,  nihil,  aliquid,  quiddam,  tantum,  quantum  ;  tanti,  quanti,  magni, 
permagni,  parvi.  The  object  for  which  a  thing  is  of  importance  is  express- 
ed by  the  preposition  ad,  as  in  Cicero,  magni  interest  ad  honorem  nostrum; 
a  dative  used  in  the  same  sense  occurs  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  xv.,  65,  non  re- 
ferre  dedecori. 


CHAPTER  LXXIV. 

ABLATIVE    CASE. 

[§  451.]  1.  THE  Ablative  serves  to  denote  certain  re- 
lations of  substantives,  which  are  expressed  in  most  other 
languages  by  prepositions. 

Note. — This  is  an  important  difference  between  the  ablative  and  the 
other  oblique  cases  ;  for  the  latter,  expressing  necessary  relations  between 
nouns,  occur  in  all  languages  which  possess  cases  of  inflection,  and  do 
not,  like  the  French  or  English,  express  those  relations  by  prepositions. 
But  the  ablative  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language,  which  might  in- 
deed be  dispensed  with,  but  which  contributes  greatly  to  its  expressive 
conciseness. 

The  ablative  is  used  first  with  passive  verbs  to  denote 
the  thing  by  which  anything  is  effected  (ablativus  efficien- 
tisj,  and  which  in  the  active  construction  is  expressed  by 
the  nominative ;  e.  g.,  sol  mundum  illustrat,  and  sole  mun- 
dus  illustratur  ;  fecunditas  arborum  me  delectat,  andfecun- 
ditate  arborum  detector.  If  that  by  which  anything  is  ef- 
fected is  a  person,  the  preposition  ab  is  required  with  the 
ablative  (see  §  382),  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  par- 
ticiples of  the  verbs  denoting  "  to  be  born"  fnatus,  genitus, 
ortus,  and  in  poetry,  also,  cretus,  editus,  satusj,  to  which  the 
name  of  the  father  or  family  is  generally  joined  in  the  ab- 


ABLATIVE    CA&E.  317 

lative  without  a  preposition.     Ab  cannot  be  used  with  the 

ablative  of  a  thing  by  which  anything  is  effected,  unless 

the  thing  be  personified. 

Dei  providentid  mundus  admmistratur,  Cic. 

Non  cst  consentancum,  qui  metu  nonfrangatur,  eumfrangi 

cupiditate  ;  nee  qui  invictum  se  a  labore  praestiterit,  vin- 

ci  a  voluptatc,  Cic.,  De  Off.,  i.,  20. 

Note. — The  words  denoting  "born"  usually  have  the  preposition  exorde 
joined  to  the  name  of  the  mother,  but  the  ablative  alone  is  also  found,  and 
there  are  a  few  passages  in  which  ex  or  ab  is  joined  to  the  name  of  the 
father  ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  i.,  1,  15,  Atque  ex  me  hie  natus  non  est,  sed  ex 
fratre  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  vi.,  18,  prognati  ab  Dite  patre.  Ortus  ab  aliquo  is 
frequently  used  in  speaking  of  a  person's  ancestors  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Muren., 
21,  qui  ab  illo  ortus  es  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  4,  plerosque  Bclgas  esse  ortos  a 
Germanis  (the  same  as  oriundos). 

[§  452.]  2.  An  ablative  expressing  the  cause  (ablativus 
causae)  is  joined  with  adjectives,  which,  if  changed  into  a 
verb,  would  require  a  passive  construction ;  e.  g.,  fessus^ 
aeger,  saucius  (equivalent  to  qui  fatigatus ,  morbo  affectus, 
vulneratus  cst) ;  and  with  intransitive  verbs,  for  which  we 
may  generally  substitute  some  passive  verb  of  at  least  a 
similar  meaning ;  as,  interiit  fame,  consumptus  cst  fame  ; 
expcctatio  rumor  e  crevit,  expcctatio  aucta  cst  rumor  e;  gau- 
dco  lionore  tuo,  detector  lionore  tuo.  Thus,  verbs  express- 
ing feeling  or  emotion  are  construed  with  the  ablative  of 
the  thing  which  is  the  cause  of  the  feeling  or  emotion ;  as, 
doleo,  gaudeo,  lactor  ;  exilio,  exulto,  triumplio,  lacrimo, 
paene  desipio  gaudio,  ardeo  cupiditate,  dcsidcrio.  Some- 
times the  prepositions  proptcr  and  per  are  used  instead  of 
such  an  ablative  ;  and  when  a  person  is  described  as  the 
cause  of  an  emotion,  they  are  just  as  necessary  as  ab  is 
with  passive  verbs. 

We  must  notice  in  particular  the  construction  of  the  fol- 
lowing verbs  :  Glorior,  I  boast,  is  joined  with  an  ablative 
denoting  the  cause  ;  e.  g.,  victoria  .mea,  but  is  also  con- 
strued with  de,  and  in  the  sense  of  "  glory  in  a  thing," 
with  in  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  iii.,  36,  propter  virtu- 
tern  recte  laudamur,  et  in  virtute  rectc  gloriamur.  Laboro, 
I  suffer  from  ;  e.  g.,  morbo,  inopia,  odio,  is  frequently  join- 
ed, also,  with  ex,  especially  when  the  part  of  the  body 
which  is  the  seat  of  the  pain  is  mentioned  ;  e.  g.,  ex  pcdi- 
bus,  ex  intestinis.  Nitor  and  inriitor  aliqua  re,  I  lean  upon, 
is  used,  in  a  figurative  sense,  also,  with  in  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero, 
in  vita  Pompeii  nitcbatur  salus  ciritatis  (in  the  sense  of 
"strive  after,"  with  ad  or  in  with  the  accus.;  as,  nitimur 
D  D  2 


318  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  vetitum).  Sfo  aliqua  re,  I  depend  upon  a  thing ;  as, 
judicio  meo,  auctore  aliquo  ;  also  in  the  sense  of  "I  per- 
severe in  or  adhere  to  a  thing  ;"  as,  foedere,  jurejurando, 
condicionibus,  promissis  ;  it  rarely  takes  in,  as  in  Cicero, 
stare  oportet  in  eo,  quod  sit  judicatum.  (Respecting  acqui- 
esco  with  the  ablat.,  see  §  416.)  Fido  and  confido,  "  I 
trust  in  a  thing,"  and  the  adjective  fretus  are  joined  with 
the  ablat.  of  the  thing  trusted  in,  but  may  also  be  used 
with  the  dative  of  the  person  or  thing  trusted  in.  (See  § 
413.)  The  verbs  constare,  contineri,  to  consist  of,  are  con- 
strued with  the  ablat.  to  denote  that  of  which  a  thing  con- 
sists ;  e.  g.,  domus  amoenitas  non  aedificio,  sed  silva  con- 
stab  at ;  tota  honestas  quattuor  virtutibus  continetur ;  but 
constare  is  joined  more  frequently  with  ex  or  in,  and  con- 
tineri, in  the  sense  of  "to  be  contained  in  a  thing,"  is  gen- 
erally used  with  in,  but  even  then  not  unfrequently  with 
the  ablative  alone.  (Consistere,  in  the  sense  of  "  exist," 
is  construed,  like  positum  esse,  only  with  in.) 

Concordia  res  parvae  crescunt,  discordid  maximae  dilabun- 

tur,  Sallust,  Jug.,  10. 
Est  adolescentis  majores  natu  vereri  exque  his  deligere  op- 

timos  ct  probatissimos,  quorum  consilio  atque  auctoritate 

nitatur,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  34. 

Virtute  decet,  non  sanguine  niti,  Claud.,  Cons.  Hon.,  iv.,  219. 
Diversis  duobus  vitiis,  avaritia  et  luxuria,  civitas  Romano, 

laborabat,  Liv.,  xxxiv.,  4. 
Delicto  dolere,  correctione  gaudere  nos  oportet,  Cic. 

[§  453.]  Note  1. — We  must  here  mention,  also,  the  ablat.  virtute,  joined 
with  the  defective  adjective  macte  and  macti,  which,  either  with  the  im- 
perative of  esse  (esto,  este,  estate),  or  without  it,  is  used  as  an  exclamation 
of  encouragement  or  approbation. 

The  use  of  the  accusative  vicem  (with  a  genitive  or  possessive  pronoun), 
instead  of  the  ablative  vice  (in  accordance  with  the  above  rule)  in  con- 
nexion with  intransitive  verbs  and  adjectives  denoting  feelings,  especially 
those  of  care,  grief,  and  sorrow,  is  a  peculiarity  which  does  not  occur 
when  vicem  is  used  in  its  ordinary  sense  of  "  change"  or  "  turn"  (as  in 
Phaedr.,  v.,  1,  6,  tacite  gementes  tristem  fortunae  vicem),  but  only  when  it  is 
equivalent  to  the  English  "for;"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  31,  apparuit  causa  plebi, 
suam  vicem  indignantem  magistrate,  abisse ;  i.  e.,  that  for  their  sake  he  had 
indignantly  resigned  his  office  ;  xxxiv.,  32,  Remittimus  hoc  tibi,  ne  nostram 
vicem  irascaris,  that  you  may  not  be  angry  on  our  account ;  xl.,  23,  Simpli- 
citatem  juvenis  incauti  assentando  indignandoque  et  ipse  vicem  ejus  captabat,  by 
showing  indignation  on  his  account.  In  like  manner,  we  must  explain 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xii.,  23,  Tuam  vicem  saepe  doleo,  quod  nullam  partcm  per  aeta- 
tem  sanae  et  salvae  rei  publicae  gustare  potuisti,  and  in  Verr.,  i.,  44,  si  alienam 
vicem  pro  nostra  injuria  doleremus,  if  we  grieved  for  other  people,  as  though 
a  wrong  had  been  done  to  ourselves.  Hence  we  should  read,  with  Bent- 
ley,  in  Horace,  Epod.,  xvii.,  42,  infamis  Hclenae  Castor  offen&us  vicem,  Cas- 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  319 

tor  offended  on  account  of  his  ill-famed  sister,*  where  Bentley  quotes  the 
following  instances  of  this  use  of  vicem  with  adjectives,  Liv. :  viii.,  35,  suam 
vicem  magis  anxios,  quam  ejus,  cui  auxilium  ab  se  petebatur  ;  xxviii.,  43,  tit 
meant  quoque,  non  solum  rei  publicae  et  exercitus  vicem  videretur  sollicitus  ; 
Curt.,  vii.,  6,  maestus  non  suam  vicem,  sed  propter  ipsum  periclitantium  fra- 
trum,  not  sad  on  his  own  account,  but  on  account  of  his  brothers  who  ran 
into  danger  for  his  sake.  The  ablative  in  this  sense  occurs  only  in  late 
writers  ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  vi.,  2, 35,  and  xi.,  1,  42.  But  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
cide whether  the  accusative  vicem  may  be  used  also  in  the  sense  of  "  like," 
more  modoque,  instead  of  vice,  as  is  commonly  read  in  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  x.,  8, 
Sardanapali  vicem  in  suo  lectulo  mori,  or  whether  we  should  correct  vicem 
into  vice,  as  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  vi.,  21,  quae  dixerat  oraculi  vice  accipiens. 
The  difficult  passage  in  Horace,  Epod.,  v.,  87,  Venena  magnum  fas  ne- 
fasque  non  valent  convertere  humanam  vicem,  must  undoubtedly  be  explained 
in  the  same  manner,  whether  we  retain  the  accusative  or  read  humana 
vice ;  the  meaning  is,  "  Poison  cannot  upset  the  eternal  laws  like  things 
human." 

[$  454.]  Note  2. — With  transitive  verbs,  also,  the  cause  or  the  thing  in 
consequence  of  which  anything  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  ablative,  but 
this  is  the  regular  practice  only  with  substantives  ending  in  the  ablat.  inu 
($  90),  which  have  no  other  cases  ;  e.  g.,  jussu,  rogatu,  admonitu  tuo  veni, 
fed,  misi  or  missus  sum.  With  other  substantives  it  is  more  rare ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  32,  ut  omnes  intelligant  me  non  studio  accusare,  sed  officio 
defender  e  ;  de  Fin.,  ii.,  26,  si  fructibus  et  emoluments  et  utilitatibus  amicitias 
colemus  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  9,  Sunt  etiam,  qui  aut  studio  reifamiliaris  tuendae  aut  odio 
quodam  hominum  suum  se  negotium  agere  dicant ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  23,  inopid  mi- 
nus largiri  poterat ;  Cic.,  Divin.  in  Caec.,  3,judiciorum  desiderio  tribuniciapo- 
testas  efflagitata  est,  judiciorum  levitate  ordo  alius  postulatur,  &c.  ;  de  Leg., 
iii.,  7,  Regale  civitatis  genus  non  tarn  regni,  quam  regis  vitiis  repudiatum  est. 
The  preposition  propter,  or  a  circumlocution  with  causa,  however,  is  gener- 
ally used  instead  of  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  instead  of  joco  dicere,  joco  mentiri, 
we  find  joci  causa  ;  hoc  onus  suscepi  tua  causa  ;  honoris  tui  causa,  propter  am- 
icitiam  nostrum.  When  th^e  cause  is  a  state  of  feeling,  the  best  Latin  wri- 
ters prefer  a  circumlocution  with  the  perfect  participle  of  some  verb  de- 
noting "  to  induce  ;"  e.  g.,  to  do  a  thing  from  some  desire,  cupiditate  duc- 
tus,  inductus,  incitatus,  incensus,  inflammatus,  impulsus,  motus,  captus,  &C. 
Livy  is  fond  of  using  the  preposition  ab  in  this  sense  ;  as,  ab  ira,  a  spe,  ab 
odio,  from  anger,  hope,  hatred.  See  §  305,  and  Hand,  Tursellin.,  i.,  p.  33. 

[§  455.]  3.  An  ablative  is  joined  with  verbs  of  every 
kind  to  express  the  means  or  instrument  by  which  a  thing 
is  done  (ablativus  instrumenti).  Thus  we  say  manu  ducere 
aliquem,  to  lead  a  person  by  the  hand ;  equo,  curru,  nave 
veki,  the  horse,  carriage,  and  ships  being  the  means  of 
moving. 

Benivolentiam  civium  blanditiis  colligere  turpe  est,  Cic. 
Cornibus  tauri,  apri  dentibus,  morsu  leones,  aliae  fuga  se, 

aliae  occultatione  tutantur,  Cic.,  De  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  50. 
Naturam   expellas  furca,  tamen   usque  recurret,  Horat., 

Epist.,  i.,  10,  24. 
Male  quaeritur  kerbis;  moribus  et  forma  conciliandus  amor, 

Ovid,  Heroid.,  vi.,  93. 

^*  [Compare  the  remarks  of  Orelli,  ad  loc.  So  in  Greek,  'Avrjp  d'  6rav 
fid/itara  dv/j.7]d£iv  6oK?)  /car'  OLKOV  rj  deov  fiolpav  r)  avOptJTrov  %dptv  KTJL 
(Simonid.,  Amorg.,  7,  103,  ed.  Schneidew.)] — Am.  Ed. 


320  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Note. — When  a  man  is  the  instrument  by  which  anything  is  effected, 
the  ablative  is  rarely  used,  but  generally  the  preposition  per,*  or  the  cir- 
cumlocution with  opera  alicujus,  which  is  so  frequent,  especially  with  pos- 
sessive pronouns,  that  med,  tud,  sud,  &c.,  opera  are  exactly  the  same  as  per 
me,  per  te,  per  se,  &c.,  and  are  used  to  denote  both  good  and  bad  services  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  4,  mea  opera  Tarentum  recepisti ;  Nep.,  Lys.,  \,  L$- 
sander  sic  sibi  indulsit,  ut  ejus  opera  in  maximum  odium  Crraeciae  Lacedae- 
monii  pervenerint ;  that  is,  ejus  culpa,  through  his  fault.  Beneficio  is  used 
in  the  more  limited  sense  of  good  results ;  as,  beneficio  tuo  salvus,  incolumis 
sum,  where  it  is  the  same  as  per  te.  Per  is  sometimes  used  to  express  a 
means,  but  only  when  we  are  speaking  of  external  concurring  circum- 
stances, rather  than  of  that  which  is  really  done  to  attain  a  certain  object. 
We  always  say,  e.  g.,  vi  oppidum  ccpit,  but  per  vim  ei  bona  eripuit.  See 
$  301.  The  material  instrument  is  always  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone, 
and  never  with  a  preposition,  such  as  cum;  hence  conficere  cennim  sagittis, 
gladio  aliqtiem  vulncrare  ;  compare  §  473. 

[§  456.]  4.  Hence  with  verbs  of  buying  and  selling,  of 
estimation,  value,  and  the  like  (§  444),  the  price  or  value 
of  a  thing  is  expressed  by  the  ablative,  provided  it  is  in- 
dicated by  a  definite  sum  or  a  substantive.     (Respecting 
the  genitive  in  general  expressions,  see  §  444,  where  it  is 
observed  that,  contrary  to  the  general  rule,  the  ablatives 
magno,  permagno,  plurimo,  parvo,  minima,  are  commonly 
joined  to  verbs  denoting  "  to  buy"  and  "  sell.") 
Ego  spem  prctio  non  cmo,  Terent.,  Adclph.,  ii.,  2,  11. 
Si  quis  aurum  vendens  putct  se  orichalcum  vendere,  indi- 

cabitne  ei  vir  bonus  aurum  illud  esse,  an  emet  denario, 

quod  sit  mille  dcnarium  ?  Cic.,  De  Off.,  iii.,  23. 
Viginti  talentis  unam  orationem  Isocrates  vendidit,  Plin., 

Hist.  Nat.,  vii.,  31. 
Denis  in  diem  assibus  anima  et  corpus  (militum)  aestiman- 

tur,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  17. 
Quod  non  opus  est,  asse  carum  est,  Senec.,  Epist.,  94. 

Note. — To  the  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  we  must  add  many  others 
which  express  an  act  or  an  enjoyment,  for  which  a  certain  price  is  paid  ; 
e.  g.,  lavor  quadrante,  habito  triginta  milibus  HS,  docco  talento,  parvo  acre 
mereo.  JEsse  in  the  sense  of  "  to  be  worth"  is  therefore  joined  with  the 
ablative  of  the  definite  price;  e.  g.,  Modius  frumenti  in  Sicilia  binis  sester- 
tiis,  ad  summum  temis  erat ;  sextante  sal  in  Italia  erat.  We  make  this  ob- 
servation chiefly  to  direct  attention  to  the  difference  between  this  ablative 
and  the  genitive  of  quality  which  occurs  in  the  passage  of  Cicero  quoted 
above.  JSst  mille  denarium  there  means,  it  is  a  thing  of  one  thousand  de- 
narii (in  value),  and  may  be  bought  for  that  sum. 

Mutare  and  its  compounds,  commutare  and  permutare,  are  commonly  con- 
strued in  the  same  way  as  the  verbs  of  selling  ;  e.  g.,fidem  suam  et  religi- 
onem  pecunid,  studium  belli  gerendi  agriculturd,  pcllium  tegmina  vestibus,  mantes 
ac  silvas  urbibus,  and  in  Virg.,  Georg.,  i.,  8,  Chaoniam  glandem  pingui  muta- 
vit  arista,  alluding  to  the  first  husbandman,  who  exchanged  corn  for 
acorns.  But  prose  writers  as  well  as  poets  reverse  the  expression,  by 
putting  that  which  we  receive  in  the  accusat.,  and  that  which  we  give  for 

*  [Compare  Hand,  TursdL,  i.,  p.  31  ;  Reisig,  Varies.,  p.  704.]— Am.  Ed. 


ABLATIVE    CASE. 

it  in  the  ablat.,  either  alone  or  with  the  preposition  cum;  e.  g.,  Horat., 
Carm.,  Hi.,  1,  47,  cur  valle  permutem  Sabiiia  divitias  operosiores,  why  should 
I  exchange  my  Sabine  valley  for  more  wearisome  riches  ?  Epod.,  ix.,  27, 
Terra  marique  victus  hostis  Punico  lugubre  mutavit  sagwn ;  Curt.,  iii.,  18, 
exilium  patria  sede  mutaverat ;  Ovid,  Met.,  vii.,  60,  Quemque  ego  cum  rebus, 
quas  totus  possidet  orbis,  Aesonidem  mutasse  velim  ;  Curt.,  iv.,  4,  Habitus  hie 
cum  isto  squalore  permutandus  tibi  est ;  Sulpicius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5, 
hisce  temporibus  non  pessime  cum  Us  esse  actum,  quibus  sine  dolore  licitum  est 
mortem  cum  vita  commutare.  Livy,  too,  uses  both  constructions,  but  the 
ablative  alone  is  better  attested.  See  Drakenborch  on  v.,  20. 

[§  457.]  5.  The  ablative  is  joined  with  nouns  (both 
substantive  and  adjective)  and  verbs  to  express  a  partic- 
ular circumstance  or  limitation,  where  in  English  the  ex- 
pressions "with  regard  to,"  "as  to,"  or  *'  in"  are  used; 
e.  g.,  Nemo  Romanorum  Ciceroni  par  fuit,  or  Cicerone?n 
aequavit  eloquentia,  in  eloquence,  or  with  regard  to  elo- 
quence. Hence  a  great  number  of  expressions  by  which 
a  statement  is  modified  or  limited  ;  as,  mcd  scntentid,  mca 
opinione,  meo  judicio,  frequently  with  the  addition  of  qui- 
dem  ;  natione  Syrus,  a  Syrian  by  birth  ;  genere  facile  pri- 
mus ;  Hamilcar  cognomine  Barcas,  &c. 
Agesilaus  claudusjuit  (claudicabat)  altero  pcdc,  Nepos. 
Sunt  quidam  homines,  non  re,  sed  nomine,  Cicero. 

[§  458.]  Note  1. — The  Latin  poets,  and  those  prose  writers  who  are  fond 
of  poetical  expressions,  sometimes  use  the  accusative  instead  of  this  ab- 
lative, in  imitation  of  the  Greeks  ;  hence  the  accusative  is  termed  accusa- 
tivus  Graecus.  It  occurs  most  frequently  with  passive  verbs,  especially 
with  perfect  participles,  to  determine  the  part  of  the  body  to  which  a 
statement  applies  or  is  limited  ;  e.  g.,  vite  caput  tegitur,  he  is  covered  (or 
covers  himself)  with  a  vine  branch,  but  the  covering  is  limited  to  the 
head:  "his  head  is  covered  with,"  &c. ;  membra  sub  arbuto  stratus,  lying 
with  his  limbs  stretched  out;  redimitus  tempora  lauro,  his  temples  sur- 
rounded with  a  laurel  wreath ;  nube  candentes  humeros  amictus  ;  humeros 
oleo  perfusus ;  miles  fractus  membra  labor  e.  Such  expressions  are  pleasing, 
especially  when  an  ablative  is  joined  to  the  participle  ;  as  in  Livy,  xxi.,  7, 
adversum  femur  tragula  graviter  ictus;  Sueton.,  Octav.,  20,  dexterum  genu 
lapide  ictus;  Ovid,  Met.,  xii.,  269,  Gryneus  eruitur  oculos,  appears  rather 
harsh  for  Gryneo  eruuntur  oculi.  This  use  of  the  accusative  may  be  com- 
pared with  that  explained  in  §  393,  e.doctus  artes  and  interrogatus  sententiam  ; 
for  an  active  verb  may  be  joined  with  a  twofold  accusative,  either  of  the 
person  or  of  a  part  of  the  person ;  as,  rcdimio  te  victorem,  or  redimio  tempora, 
crines ;  and  when  such  a  sentence  takes  the  passive  form,  the  accusative 
of  the  person  becomes  the  nominative,  but  that  of  the  part  remains. 
(Comp.  Buttmann's  Greek  Grammar,  $  131.) 

But  the  poets  go  still  farther,  and  use  this  accusative  of  the  part  also 
with  neuter  verbs  and  adjectives ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Georg.,  iii.,  84.  tremit  artus  ; 
Aen.,  i.,  589,  os  humerosque  deo  similis  ;  Tacit.,  Germ.,  \1 ,  feminae  Gcrma- 
norum  nudae  brachia  et  lacertos,  and  in  the  same  writer  we  find  clari  genus, 
for  the  usual  clari  genere,  where  genus  is  not  an  accusative  of  the  part,  but 
is  completely  a  Greek  construction. 

The  accusative  expressing  the  articles  of  dress,  used  in  poetical  language 
with  the  passive  verbs  induor,  a?nicior,  cingor,  accingor,  exuor,  discingor, 
is  of  a  different  kind ;  but  it  may  be  compared  to  the  accusative  of  the 
part.  The  active  admits  two  constructions  :  induo  me  veste  and  induo  mihi 


322  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

vestem  (see  above,  $  418),  and  in  the  passive  the  two  constructions  are  com- 
bined into  one  ;  and  instead  of  saying  induor  veste,  the  poets  and  those  who 
imitate  them  say  induor  vestem.  Instances  of  this  occur  in  all  the  poets, 
but  they  are  extremely  frequent  in  Ovid ;  e.  g.,  protinus  induitur  faciem 
cultumque  Dianae  ;  induiturque  aures  lente  gradientie  aselli ;  Virg.,  Aen.,  ii., 
510,  inutile  ferrum  cingitur.  To  this  accusative  the  Latin  ablative  is  some- 
times added,  to  denote  the  part  of  the  body  which  is  dressed  or  adorned  ; 
e.  g.,  Ovid,  Met.,  vii.,  161,  inductaque  cornibus  durum  Victima  vota  cadit,  and 
X.,  271,  pandis  inductae  cornibus  aurum  juvencae.  The  accusative  in  Horace, 
Serm.,  i.,  6,  74,  pueri  laevo  suspensi  loculos  tabulamque  lacerto,  is  curious,  but 
suspensi  is  here  used  according  to  the  analogy  of  accincti,  like  the  Greek 

i^TJpTn/J,£VOt  TTJV  TTtVdKa. 

[$  459. J  Note  2. — Something  of  this  Greek  construction  was  adopted  by 
the  Romans  even  in  their  ordinary  language,  and  there  are  some  cases 
where  the  accusative  is  used  in  prose  instead  of  the  ablative.  Magnam 
and  maximum  partem  are  thus  used  adverbially  for  fere  or  magna  (maxima) 
ex  parte  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Orat.,  56,  magnam  partem  ex  iambis  nostra  constat  oratio, 
consists  to  a  great  extent  of  iambics  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  7,  maximam  partem  ad  in- 
juriam  faciendum  aggrediuntur,  ut  adipiscantur  ea,  quae  concupiverunt.  (Comp. 
partim,  §  271.)  In  the  same  manner,  cetera  and  reliqua  are  joined  to  adjec- 
tives in  the  sense  of  ceteris ;  i.  e.,  "for  the  rest,"  or  "in  other  respects;" 
e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  32,  Proximum  regnum,  cetera  egregium,  ab  una  parte  hand  satis 
prosperum  fuit,  and  in  many  other  passages,  cetera  similis,  cetera  laetus, 
cetera  bonus.  Farther,  id  temporis  or  id  (hoc,  idem)  aetatis,  for  eo  tempore,  ea 
aetate ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  50,  purgavit  se,  quod  id  temporis  venisset ;  xl.,  9,  Quid 
hoc  noctis  venis  ?  Cic.,  p.  Cluent.,  51,  non  potuit  honeste  scribere  in  balneis  se 
cum  id  aetatis  filio  fuisse  ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii.,  16,  cum  ceteris  idem  aetatis  no- 
bilibus  ;  i.  e.,  cum  ceteris  ejusdem  aetatis  nobilibus.  On  the  same  principle, 
Tacitus,  Ann.,  xii.,  18,  says,  Romanorum  nemo  id  auctoritatis  aderat,  for  ea 
auctoritate. 

[§  460.]  6.  The  ablative  is  used  with  verbs  denoting 
.plenty  or  want,  and  with  the  corresponding  transitives  of 
filling,  endowing,  depriving.  (Ablativus  copiae  aut  ino- 
piae.J  Verbs  of  this  kind  are  :  1.  abundare,  rednndare, 
affluere,  circumfluere,  scatere,  florere,  pollere,  valere,  vigere 
(in  the  figurative  sense  of  "  being  rich  or  strong  in  any- 
thing") ;  carere,  egere,  indigere,  vacare  ;  2.  complere,  ex- 
plere,  implere,  opplere,  cumulare,  rejerdre,  cibruere,  im- 
buere,  satiare,  exatiare,  saturare,  stipare,  constipare  ;  af- 
Jicere,  donare,  remunerari,  locupletare,  ornare,  augere ; 
privare,  spoliare,  orbare,  fraudare,  defraudare,  nudare, 
exuere,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  meaning.  The  ad- 
jective praeditus  takes  the  place  of  a  perfect  participle 
(in  the  sense  of  "  endowed"),  and  is  likewise  joined  with 
an  ablative. 

Germania  rims  fluminibusque  abundat,  Seneca. 
Quam  Dionysio  erat  misermn,  carere  consuctudine  amico- 

rum,  societate  victus,  sermone  omnino  fdmiliari  !    Cic., 

Tusc.,  v.,  22. 
Arcesilas  philosopJms  quum   acumine  ingenii  floruit,  turn 

admirabili  quodam  lepore  dicendi,  Cic.,  Acad.,  iv.,  6. 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  323 

Consilio  et  auctoritate  non  modo  non  orbari,  sed  etiam  au- 

geri  senectus  solet,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  6. 
Mens  est  praedita  motu  sempiterno,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  27. 

[§  461.]  Note  1. — Afficere  properly  signifies  to  "endow  with,"  but  it  is 
used  in  a  great  many  expressions,  and  may  sometimes  be  translated  by 
"  to  do  something  to  a  person ;"  afficere  aliquem  honore,  beneficio,  laetiticu, 
praemio,  ignominia,  injuria,  poena,  morte,  sepultura.  Remunerari  (the  simple 
munerare  or  munerari  is  not  often  used),  properly  "  to  make  a  present  in 
return,"  hence  "  to  remunerate."  Respecting  the  different  construction 
of  the  verbs  donare,  exuere,  and  others  with  the  accusative  of  the  thing 
and  the  dative  of  the  person,  see  §  418. 

[§  462.]  Note  2. — The  adjectives  denoting/uW  and  empty  are  sometimes 
joined  with  the  ablative,  although  as  adjectiva  relativa  they  take  a  genitive 
(see  f)  436).  Refertus,  filled,  as  a  participle  of  the  verb  refercio,  has  regu- 
larly the  ablative,  and  it  is  only  by  way  of  exception  that,  according  to  the 
analogy  of  phnus,  it  takes  the  genitive;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Font.,  1,  referta  Gallia, 
negotiatorum  est,  plena  civium  Romanorum.  Orbus,  destitute  ;  creber  and  den- 
sus  in  the  sense  of  "  thickly  covered  with,"  are  found  only  with  the  ablat. 
Vacuus,  liber,  immunis,  and  purus  are  joined  with  the  ablative  or  the  prep- 
osition ab.  See  §  468. 

[§  463.]  Note  3. — A  genitive  is  sometimes  joined  with  egeo,  and  frequent- 
ly with  indigeo  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  hoc  bellum  indiget  celeritatis  ;  and  following  the 
analogy  of  plenus,  the  verbs  complere  and  implere  are  joined  with  a  genitive 
not  only  by  the  poets,  but  by  good  prose  writers  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  57, 
quum  completus  jam  mercatorum  career  esset  ;  Cat.  Maj.,  14,  convivium  vicino- 
rum  quotidie  compleo  ;  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  18,  ollam  dcnariorum  implere,  and  in  Livy, 
spei  animorumque  implere,  temeritatis  implere. 

It  is  obvious  that  with  many  of  these  verbs  the  ablative  may  justly  be 
regarded  as  an  ablativus  instrument.  The  verbs  valere,  in  the  sense  of  "be- 
ing healthy  or  well,"  takes  the  ablative  of  the  part ;  as,  corpore,  pedibus, 
stomacho  ;  in  the  sense  of  "  being  strong,"  the  ablat.  joined  to  it  is  gener- 
ally an  ablat.  instrumenti  ;  e.  g.,  valeo  auctoritate,  gratia,  pecunia,  armis  ;  but 
in  many  cases  it  may  be  regarded  also  as  an  ablative  of  plenty,  as  in  va- 
lere eloquentia,  equitatu  valere. 

[§  464.]  7.  Opus  est,  there  is  need,  is  used  either  as  an 
impersonal  verb,  in  which  case  it  takes,  like  the  verbs  de- 
noting want,  an  ablative  ;  e.  g.,  duee  (exemplis)  nobis  opus 
est,  or  personally,  in  which  case  the  thing  needed  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  nominative  (just  as  aliquid  miki  necessari- 
um  est)  ;  e.  g.,  dux  nobis  opus  est,  excmpla  nobis  opus  sunt. 
The  latter  construction  is  most  frequent  with  the  neuters 
of  pronouns  and  adjectives. 

AtTienienscs  PJiilippidem  cursorem  Lacedaemonem  miscrunt, 
utnuntiaret,  quam  celeriopus  esset  auxilio,  Nep.,  Milt.,  4. 
Themistocles  celeriter  quae  opus  erant  reperiebat,  Nep., 
Them.,  1. 

Note  1.— The  genitive  of  the  thing  needed  in  Livy,  xxii.,  51,  temporis 
opus  esse,  and  xxiii.,  21,  quanti  argenti  opusfuit,  is  doubtful.  But  when  the 
thing  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  substantive,  we  find  either  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  or  the  infinitive  alone,  the  preceding  subject  being  un- 
derstood ;  e.  g.,  si  quid  erit,  quod  te  scire  opus  sit,  scribam,  or  quid  opus  est 
tarn  valde  affirmare,  scil.  te  ;  or  the  ablat.  of  the  perfect  participle  is  used 


324  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

with  or  without  a  substantive  ;*  e.  g.,  Tacito  quum  opus  est,  clamas ;  Livy, 
maturato  opus  est,  quidquid  statuere  placet  /  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  x.,  4,  sed  opv-s  fuit 
Hirtio  convento  ;  Liv,,  vii.,  5,  opus  sibi  esse  domino  ejus  convento.  Theablat. 
of  the  supine  (in  u)  is  less  frequent.  Priusquam  incipias,  consulto,  et,  tt&i 
consulueris,  mature  facto  opus  est,  Sallust,  Cat.,  1. 

Note  2. —  Usus  est,  in  the  sense  of  opus  est,  is  likewise  used  impersonal- 
ly, as  in  Livy,  ut  reduceret  naves,  quibus  consuli  usus  nan  esset,  of  which  the 
consul  was  not  in  want. 

[§  465.]  8.  The  ablative  is  joined  with  the  deponent 
verbs  utor ,  fruor ,  fungor ,  2>otior,  and  vcscor,  and  their  com- 
pounds abutor,  perfruor,  dcfungor,  and  pcrfungor. 
Hannibal  quum  victoria  posset  uti,frui  maluit,  Florns. 
Qui  adipisci  vcram  gloriam  volet,  justitiac  fungatur  officiis, 

Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  13. 

Numidae  plerumque  lacte  et  fcrina  came  vescebantur,  Sal- 
lust,  Jug.,  89. 

[<$>  4GG.]  Note.— In  early  Latin  these  verbs  were  frequently  joined  with 
e  accusative,  but  in  the  best  period  of  the  language  it  seldom  occurs, 
and  only  in  less  correct  writers.!  (In  Nepos,  Datum.,  1,  militare  munus 
fungens  is  well  established^  but  Eumen.,  3,  summam  imperil  potiri  is  doubt- 
ful, and  so  are  the  passages  quoted  from  Cicero  with  the  accusat.  See 
my  note  on  de  Off.,  ii.,  23.)  This,  however,  is  the  reason  why  even  class- 
ical writers  use  the  construction  with  the  participle  future  passive,  where 
otherwise  the  gerund  only  could  have  been  used.  (See  §  657.)  Potior 
occurs  (in  classical  writers)  also  with  the  genitive ;  e.  g.,  regni,  imperii, 
but  more  especially  in  the  phrase  rerum  potiri,  to  assume  the  supremacy. 
Apiscor  and  adipiscor  are  used  by  Tacitus  in  the  same  sense  with  a  geni- 
tive (rerum,  dominationis},  and  Horace  goes  so  far  as  to  join  regnare  (which 
is  otherwise  an  intransitive  verb)  with  a  genitive,  Carm.,  hi.,  30,  12,  agres- 
tium  populorum.  Utor  often  signifies  "  I  have,"  especially  when  the  object 
(the  ablat.)  is  accompanied  by  another  noun  (substant.  or  adject.)  in  appo- 
sition ;  e.  g.,  utor  te  arnico,  I  have  you  as  a  friend;  Nep.,  Hannibal  Sosflo 
Lacedaemonio  litter  arum  Graecarum  usus  est  doctore  ;  Cic.,  vide  quam  me  sis 
usurus  acquo,  how  fair  I  shall  be  towards  thee. 

[§467.]  9.  The  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,  and  conten- 
tus  are  joined  with  the  ablative  of  the  thing  of  which  we 
are  worthy,  unworthy,  and  with  which  we  are  satisfied. 
Dignari,  to  be  deemed  worthy,  or,  as  a  deponent,  to  deem 
worthy,  is  construed  like  dignus. 
Si  vere  aestimare  Macedonas,  qui  tune  fuerunt,  volumus, 

fatcbimur,  et  regem  talibus  ministris,  et  illos  tanto  rege 

fuisse  dignissimos,  Curt.,  iv.,  in  fin. 
Quum  multi  luce  indigni  sunt,  et  tamcn  dies  oritur  !    Senec. 

Note. — Dignari  is  used  by  Cicero  only  as  the  passive  of  the  obsolete  ac- 
tive dignare,  and  that  not  only  in  the  participle,  but  in  the  various  tenses. 
The  writers  of  the  silver  age  use  it  as  a  deponent ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,Vespas., 
2,  gratias  egit  ei,  quod  se  honore  coenae  dignatus  esset,  that  he  had  thought  him 
worthy.  When  joined  with  an  infinitive,  dignor  with  those  writers  signi- 

*  [Consult  Reisig,  Varies.,  p.  704.]— Am.  Ed. 

f  [Consult  Sanct.  Minerv.,  iii.,  3. — Ruddiman,  ii.,  p.  196. — Haase  ad  Reis.t 
Varies.,  p.  691.]— Am.  Ed. 


ABLATIVE   CASE.  325 

fies  "  I  think  proper  to  do  a  thing."  Dignus,  in  poetry  and  unclassical 
prose  writers,  is  sometimes  joined  with  a  genitive,  like  the  Greek  a^iog. 
When  it  is  followed  by  a  verb,  the  Latin  language  generally  requires  a 
distinct  sentence  beginning  with  a  relative  pronoun,  the  verb  being  put  in 
the  subjunctive  ;  sometimes,  however,  the  infinitive  is  used,  as  in  English. 
(See  §  568.)  Contentus  is  likewise  joined  with  the  infinitive  of  a  verb  (See 
§  590.)  The  ablat.  with  this  adjective  arises  from  the  meaning  of  the  verb 
contineri,  of  which  it  is,  properly  speaking,  the  participle  passive  ;  hence 
iu  a  reflective  sense  it  signifies  "  confining  one's  self  to,"  or  "satisfying 
one's  self  with  a  thing." 

[§  468.]  10.  The  verbs  of  removing,  preventing,  deliv- 
ering, and  others  which  denote  separation,  are  construed 
with  the  ablative  of  the  thing,  without  any  of  the  prepo- 
sitions ab,  de,  or  ex  ;  but  when  separation  from  a  person  is 
expressed  the  preposition  ab  is  always  used.  The  prin- 
cipal verbs  of  this  class  are  :  arcere,  pellere,  depellere,  ex- 
pellere,  deturbare,  dejicere,  ejicere,  absterrere,  deterrere,  mo- 
vere,  amovere,  demovere,  removere,  proliibere^  excludere ; 
abire,  exirc,  cedere,  decedere,  discedcre,  desistere,  evadere,  ab'J 
stinere;  liber  are,  expedire,  laxare,  solver e,  together  with  the 
adjectives  liber,  immunis,  purus,  vacuus,  and  alienus, which 
may  be  used  either  with  the  preposition  ab  or  the  ablative 
alone  ;  e.  g.,  liber  a  delictis  and  liber  omni  metu,  but  the 
verbs  exolvere,  exonerarc,  and  Icvare,  although  implying  lib- 
eration, are  always  construed  with  the  ablative  alone. 

The  verbs  which  denote  "to  distinguish"  and  " to  differ,"  viz.,  distin,' 
guere,  discernere,  secernere,  differre,  discrepare,  dissidere,  distare,  abhorrere, 
together  with  alienare  and  abalienare,  are  generally  joined  only  with  the 
preposition  ab,  and  the  ablative  alone  is  rare  and  poetical ;  e.  g.,  Tacit., 
Lt.  Ann.,  i.,  53,  neque  ipse  abhorrebat  talibus  studiis  ;  Ovid,  Met.,  hi.,  145,  sol  ex 
aequo  meta  distabat  utrdque.  The  verbs  denoting  "  to  differ"  are  construed 
also  with  the  dative,  and  not  only  in  poetry,  but  sometimes  even  in  prose  ; 
e.  g.,  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  18,  4,  distal  i-nfido  scurrae  armcus ;  ibid.,  ii.,  2,  193, 
simplex  hilarisque  nepoti  discrepat ;  Quintil.,  xii.,  10,  Graecis  Tuscanicae 
statuae  differunt.  The  same  principle  is  followed  by  the  adjective  diver sus ; 
as  in  Quintil.,  I.  c.,  Nihil  tarn  est  Lysiae  diversum  quam  Isocrates ;  Horat., 
Serm.,  i.,  4,  48,  (Comoedia)  nisi  quod  pede  certo  Differt  sermoni,  sermo  merus. 

L.    Brutus  civitatem    dominatu   regio   liberavit,   Cic.,  p. 

Plane.,  25. 

Te  a  quartana  liberatum  gaudeo,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  x.,  15. 
Esse  pro  cive,  qui  civis  non  sit,  rectum  est  non  licere,  usu 

vero  urbis  proliibere  peregrines   sane  intiumantim   est, 

Cic.,  de  Of.,  iii.,  11. 
Apu d  veteres  Germanos  quemcunque  mortalium  arcere  tecto 

nefas  Jiabebatur,  Tacit.,  Germ.,  21. 
Tu,  Juppiter,  Ti.unc  a  tuis  aris,  a  tectis  urbis,  a  moenibics,  a 

vita  fortunisque  civium  arcebis,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  in  fin. 

[$  469.]  Note  1. — The  verb  separare  itself  is  commonly  construed  with 
ab,  but  the  ablative  alone  is  also  admissible ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Trist.,  i.,  10,  28, 
E    E 


326  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Seston  Abydena  separat  urbe  fretum.  Evadere  is  joined  by  Cicero  with  em 
and  06,  but  Livy  and  Sallust  use  it  with  the  ablative  alone  ;  it  may  take 
the  accusative,  according  to  §  386;  e.  g.,  evadere  amnem,  flammam,  insidias, 
silvas,  but  this  occurs  only  in  the  silver  age.  Prohibere,  to  keep  at  a  dis- 
tance, prevent,  admits  of  a  double  construction ;  the  most  common  is  to 
put  the  hostile  thing  or  person  in  the  accusative  ;  as,  hastes  prohibere  popu- 
lationibus  or  ah  oppidis ;  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  7,  a  quo  periculo  prohibete  rem- 
publicam,  and  in  the  same  chapter,  erit  humanitatis  vestrae,  magnum  horum 
civium  numerum  calamit ate  prohibere.  In  like  manner,  defendere  is  joined  with 
the  accusative  of  the  thing  to  be  warded  off,  or  of  the  thing  or  person  to 
be  defended.  In  the  former  sense  defendere  is  commonly  used  with  the 
accusative  alone  ;  as,  defendere  nimios  ardores  solis,  but  ab  aliquo  may  also 
be  added  :  in  the  latter  sense  ab  is  very  frequently  joined  to  it ;  as,  a  peri- 
culo, a  vi,  ab  injuria.  After  the  analogy  of  prohibere,  the  verb  interdicere 
alicui  is  used  almost  more  frequently  with  the  ablative,  aliqua  re,  than 
with  the  accusative  aliquid;  e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  46,  Ariovistus  omni 
Gallia  interdixit  Romania ;  Quintil.,  vi.,  3,  79,  quod  ei  domo  sua  interdixisset, 
and  hence  the  well-known  formula,  alicui  aqua  et  igni  interdicere.  See  the 
excellent  disquisition  of  Perizonius  on  Sanctius,  Minerv.,  p.  345,  foil.,  ed. 
sexta;  compare  §  418. 

The  dative,  with  verbs  denoting  "  to  differ,"  is  attested  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  passages  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  what  was  the  prac- 
tice with  the  verbs  denoting  "  to  distinguish,"  for  there  are  no  decisive 
passages.  Horace  says,  vero  distinguere  falsum,  turpi  secernere  honestum, 
secernere  privatis  publica,  but  it  is  uncertain  whether  vero,  turpi,  and  privatis, 
are  datives  or  ablatives.  The  poets  now  and  then  use  the  dative  instead 
of  ab  with  the  ablative,  with  verbs  denoting  separation;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Eclog., 
vii.j  47,  solstitium  pecori  defendite ;  Georg.,  iii.,  155,  oestrum  arcebis  gravido 
pecori ;  Herat.,  Carm.,  i.,  9,  17,  donee  virenti  canities  abest ;  for  otherwise 
abesse  is  always  joined  with  ab.  (Compare,  however,  $  420.)  Dissentire, 
dissidere,  and  discrepare  are  construed,  also,  with  cum,  and  discordare  cum 
aliquo  is  more  frequent  than  ab  aliquo.  The  genitive,  which  is  sometimes 
joined  by  poets  to  verbs  of  separation,  is  entirely  Greek ;  e.  g.,  Plaut., 
Rud.,  i.,  4,  27,  me  omnium  jam  laborum  levas  ;  Horat.,  Carm.,  ii.,  9,  17,  desine 
mollium  tandem  querelarum  ;  ibid.,  iii.,  27,  69,  abstineto  irarum  calidaeque  rixae  ; 
ibid.,  iii.,  17,  in  fin.,  cumfamulis  operum  solutis  ;  Serm.,  ii.,  3,^6,  morbi  pur- 
gatus  ;  and,  according  to  this  analogy,  the  genitive  is  used,  also,  with  ad- 
jectives of  the  same  meaning  ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  2,  119,  operum  vacuus  ;  de 
Art.  Poet.,  212,  liber  laborum;  Carm.,  i.,  22,  purus  sceleris.  So  Tacitus, 
Annal.,  i.,  49,  uses  diversus  with  the  genitive,  instead  of  ab  aliqua  re. 

[<J  470.]  Note  2. — The  adjective  alienus  (strange),  in  the  sense  of  "unfit" 
or  "unsuited,"  is  joined  either  with  the  ablative  alone  or  with  ab;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  \3,fraus  quasi  vulpeculae,  vis  leonis  videtur,  utrumque  homine 
alienissimum  est ;  non  alienum  putant  dignitate,  majestate  sua,  institutis  suis  ; 
but  Cicero  just  as  often  uses  the  preposition  ab.  In  the  sense  of  "disaf- 
fected" or  ''hostile"  alienus  always  takes  ab ;  e.  g.,  homo  alienus  a  litteris, 
animum  alienum  a  causa  nobilitatis  habere.  In  the  former  sense  of  "unsuited," 
being  the  opposite  oiproprius  (§  411),  it  may  also  be  joined  with  the  geni- 
tive ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  4,  quis  alienum  putet  ejus  esse  dignitatis,  and  in 
the  latter  (after  the  analogy  of  inimicus)  with  the  dative  ;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Caec., 
9,  id  dicit  quod  illi  causae  maxime  est  alienum.  Alius,  too,  is  sometimes  found 
with  the  ablative,  which  may  be  regarded  as  an  ablative  of  separation ; 
e.  g.,  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  16,  20,  neve  putes  alium  sapiente  bonoque  beatum ; 
Epist.,  ii.,  1,  239,  alius  Lysippo ;  Phaedr.,  Prolog.,  lib.  iii.,  41,  alius  Sejano  ; 
Varro.,  de  R.  R.,  iii.,  16,  quod  est  aliud  melle ;  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  2,  in  speak- 
ing of  Brutus  and  Cassius,  says,  nee  quidquam  aliud  libertate  communi  quae- 
sisse.  But  this  ablative  may  also  be  compared  with  the  ablative  joined  to 
comparatives. 

[§  471.]  11.  The  ablative  is  used  with  esse  (either  ex- 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  327 

pressed  or  understood)  to  denote  a  quality  of  a  person  or 
a  thing  (dblativus  qualitatis).  But  the  ablative  is  used 
only  when  the  substantive  denoting  the  quality  does  not 
stand  alone  (as  in  the  case  of  the  genitive,  see  §  426),  but 
is  joined  with  an  adjective  or  pronoun-adjective.  Hence 
we  cannot  say,  e.  g.,  Caesar  fuit  ingenio,  or  homo  ingenio, 
a  man  of  talent  (which  would  be  expressed  by  an  adjec- 
tive), but  we  say  Caesar  magno,  summo,  or  excellenti  in- 
genio,  or  homo  summo  ingenio. 

Agesilaus  statura  fuit  humili  et  corpore  exiguo,  Nepos. 
Omnes  habentur  et  dicuntur  tyranni,  qui  potestate  sunt  per- 

petua  in  ca  civitate,  quae  libertate  usa  est,  Nep.,  Milt. 
L.  Catilina,  nobili  genere  natus,fuit  magna  vi  et  animi  et 

corporis,  sed  ingenio  malo  pravoque,  Sallust,  Cat.,  5. 
Prope  (Hennam)  est  spelunca  quaedam,  infinita  altitudine, 

qua  Ditem  patremferunt  repente  cum  curru  extitisse,  Cic., 

in  Verr.,  iv.,  48. 

Note. — The  explanation  of  the  ablative  of  quality  by  the  ellipsis  of  prae- 
ditus  is  only  intended  to  suggest  some  mode  of  accounting  for  the  fact  of 
a  substantive  being  joined  with  an  ablative.  With  the  same  object  in 
view,  we  prefer  connecting  the  ablative  with  esse  or  its  participle  ens  (though 
it  does  not  occur),  in  the  absence  of  which  a  substantive  enters  into  an 
immediate  connexion  with  an  ablative,  without  being  grammatically  de- 
pendant upon  it :  claris  natalibus  est,  he  is  of  noble  birth  ;  vir  claris  natali- 
bus,  homo  antiqua  virtute  etfide.  With  regard  to  the  difference  between  the 
ablative  and  the  genitive  of  quality,  the  genitive  is  more  comprehensive, 
all  ideas  of  measure  being  expressed  by  this  case  alone  ;  but  in  other  re- 
spects the  distinction  is  not  very  clear.  In  general,  however,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  genitive  is  used  more  particularly  to  express  inherent  quali- 
ties, and  the  ablative  both  inherent  and  accidental  qualities.  Thus,  in 
speaking  of  transitory  qualities  or  conditions,  the  ablative  is  always  used  ; 
as,  bono  animo  sum,  maxima  dolore  eram,  and  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  xii.,  52,  by  using 
the  genitive  securi  animi  es,  suggests  that  he  is  speaking  of  something  per- 
manent, not  merely  transitory.  See  Kriiger's  Grammat.,  p.  532.  The  gen- 
itive of  plural  substantives  is  rare.  Sometimes  the  two  constructio 
with  the  ablative  and  the  genitive,  are  found  combined;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
Fam.,  iv.,  8,  neque  mpnere  te  audeo,  praestanti  prudentia  virum,  nee  confirm 
maximi  animi  hominem  ;  ibid.,  i.,  7,  Lentulum  eximia  spe,  summae  virtutis  ado- 
lescentem  ;  Nep.,  Datam.,  3,  Thyum,  hominem  maximi  corporis  terribilique  facie 
— optima  veste  texit. 

[§  472.]  12.  The  ablative  with  the  preposition  cum  is 
used  to  express  the  manner  in  which  anything  is  done 
(usually  indicated  by  adverbs),  provided  the  manner  is  ex- 
pressed by  a  substantive;  e.  g.,  cum  fide  amicitiam  colere; 
litterae  cum  cura  diligentiaque  scriptae ;  cum  voluptate 
audire  ;  cum  dignitate  potius  cadere,  quam  cum  ignominia 
servire,  are  equivalent  to  fidelitcr  colcrc,  diligcnter  scriptae , 
libenter  audire,  &c.  If  an  adjective  is  joined  with  the 
substantive,  the  ablative  alone  (ablati-vus  modi)  is  gener- 


328  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ally  used,  and  the  preposition  cum  is  joined  to  it  only  when 
an  additional  circumstance,  and  not  an  essential  charac- 
teristic of  the  action,  is  to  be  expressed.  The  substan- 
tives implying  manner ;  as,  modus ,  ratio,  mos,  and  others, 
never  take  the  preposition  cum. 

Thus  we  always  read,  hoc  modo  scripsi ;  non  uno  modo  rem  tractavi ;  omni 
modo  egi  cum  rege  ;  aliqua  ratione  toilers  te  volunt ;  constituerunt  qua  rations 
ageretur,  and  the  like  ;  in  the  same  way,  humano  modo  et  usitato  more  pec- 
care,  more  bestiarum  vagari,  latronum  ritu  vivere,  more  institutoque  omnium  de- 
fendere,  the  genitive  in  these  cases  supplying  the  place  of  an  adjective. 
We  farther  say,  aequo  animofero  ;  maxima  fide  amicitias  coluit ;  summa  aequi- 
tate  res  constituit,  and  very  frequently  viam  incredibili  celeritate  confecit ;  li- 
brum  magna  cura  diligentiaque  scripsit,  the  action  of  the  verb  being  in  intimate 
connexion  with  the  adverbial  circumstance.  But  when  the  action  and  the 
circumstance  are  considered  separately,  the  preposition  cum  is  used  ;  e.  g., 
majore  cum  fide  auditur ;  conclamant  cum  indecora  exultatione  (in  Quintil.) ; 
tanta  multitudo  cum  tanto  studio  adest  (Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  24) ;  Verres  Lamp- 
sacum  venit  cum  magna  calamitate  civitatis  (Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  24),  the  calamitas 
being  only  the  consequence  of  his  presence.  Hence  cum  is  also  used  when 
the  connexion  between  the  subject  and  the  noun  denoting  the  attribute  is 
only  external ;  e.  g.,  procedure  cum  veste  purpurea  ;  heus  tu  qui  cum  hirquina 
astas  barba  (Plaut.,  Pseud.,  iv.,  2,  12) ;  whereas  procedere  coma  madenti,  nudis 
pedibus  incedere,  aperto  capite  sedere,  express  circumstances  or  attributes  in- 
separable from  the  subject. 

Quid  est  aliud  gigantum  modo  bclla?'c  cum  diis,  nisi  natu- 
rae rcpugnare  ?  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  2. 

Legioncs  nostrae  in  eum  sacpe  locum  profectac,  sunt  alacri 
animo  et  crecto,  unde  se  nunquam  redituras  arlitrarentur, 
Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  20. 

Epaminondas  a  judicio  capitis  maxima  discessit  gloria, 
Ner3.,  Epam.j  8. 

Romani  ovantes  ac  gratulantas  Horatium  accipiunt,  co  ma- 
jore cum  gaudio,  quo  prope  metum  resfuerat,  Liv.,  i.,  25. 

Miltiades  (cum  Parum  expugnare  non  potuisset)  Atlie- 
nas  magna  cum  offensione  civium  suorum  rcdiit,  Nep., 
Milt.,  7. 

oJe  1. — The  difference  observed  between  the  ablativus  modi  and  cum,  in 
the  case  of  substantives  joined  with  adjectives,  is  a  nicety  of  the  Latin 
language  which  it  is  difficult  to  explain  by  a  rule,  although  it  is  based  on 
sound  principles.  Cicero,  de  Oral.,  i.,  13,  in  speaking  of  the  peculiar  dif- 
ference between  the  oratorical  and  philosophical  style,  combines  the  two 
constructions :  illi  (the  philosophers)  tenui  quodam  exanguique  sermone  dis- 
putant, hie  (the  orator)  cum  omni  gravitate  et  jucunditate  explicat :  by  cum 
Cicero  here  denotes  the  additional  things  which  the  orator  employs.  If 
he  had  alluded  only  to  the  mode  of  speaking,  he  would  have  said  magna 
gravitate  rem  explicat.  But  there  are,  nevertheless,  some  passages  in  which 
no  difference  is  apparent ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  i.,  39,  Quod  enim  certius  legis 
scriptor  testimonium  voluntatis  suae  relinquere  potuit,  quam  quod  ipse  magna  cum 
cura  atque  diligentia  scripsit?  de  Nat.  Dear.,  ii.,  38,  impetus  coeli  cum  admira- 
bili  celeritate  movetur.  The  beginner  must  observe  that  the  ablativus  modi 
is  more  frequent  than  the  use  of  cum,  which,  we  hope,  is  explained  in  an 
intelligible  manner. 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  329 

The  ablativus  modi  occurs  also  in  the  words  condicio  or  lex,  in  the  sense 
of  "  condition,"  or  "  term,"  and  in  periculum,  danger,  risk  ;  e.  g.,  nulla  con- 
dicione  (like  nullo  pacto)  fieri  potest ;  quavis  condicione  pacem  facere  •  aequa 
condicione  disceptare ;  hac,  ea  condicione  or  lege  ut  or  ne  (§  319);  meo,  tuo, 
vestro,  alicujus  periculo  facere  aliquid  (but  when  the  substantive  stands 
alone,  we  say  cum  periculo,  that  is,  periculose)  ;  auspicio,  auspiciis,  ductu  im- 
perioque  alicujus  rem  gerere  or  militare.  Some  cases  in  which  the  ablative 
is  used,  and  which  are  commonly  considered  as  ablativi  modi,  are  in  re- 
ality of  a  different  kind ;  hac  mente,  hoc  consilio  fed,  for  example,  should 
rather  be  called  ablativi  causae ;  navi  vehi,  pedibus  ire,  pervenire  aliquo, 
capite  oneraferre,  vi  urbes  expugnare,  on  the  other  hand,  are  ablativi  instru- 
menti,  but  they  acquire  the  nature  of  an  ablativus  modi  if  the  substantive 
is  joined  with  an  adjective  ;  as,  magna  vi  irruere,  magna  vi  defenders  aliquem, 
or  they  become  ablatives  absolute,  implying  a  description  ;  e.  g.,  nudis  pedi- 
bus ambulare,processit  madenti  coma,  composite  capillo,  gravibua  oculis,fluenti- 
bus  buccis,  pressa  voce  et  temulenta.  (Pseud.  Cic.,  post  Red.  in  Sen.,  6.) 
See  $  645.  The  ablative  in  Cic.,  Laei,  15,  miror  (de  Tarquinio)  ilia  su- 
perbia  et  importunitate  si  quemquam  amicum  habere  potuit,  must  likewise  be 
regarded  as  an  ablative  absolute,  being  the  same  as  quum  tanta  ejus  su- 
perbia  et  importunitas fuerit.  As  the  preposition  cum  cannot,  be  used  in  any 
of  these  cases,  we  may  consider  it  as  a  practical  rule  that  the  manner  in 
which  a  thing  is  done  is  expressed  by  the  ablativus  modi. 

In  some  expressions  the  ablative  of  substantives  alone  is  found  without 
cum.  Thus  we  say  silentio  praeterire,  or  facere  aliquid  (but  also  cum  silentio 
audire),  lege  agere  ;  jure  and  injuria facere;  magistratus  vitio  creatus  is  a  com- 
mon expression,  indicating  that  an  election  had  not  taken  place  in  due 
form.  Cicero  uses  aliquid  recte  et  ordine,  modo  et  ratione,  ratione  et  or  dine  fit, 
via  et  ratione  disputare,  and  frequently,  also,  ratione  alone  ;  e.  g.,  ratione  facere, 
ratione  voluptatem  sequi  (de  Fin.,  i.,  l"0),  with  reason,  i.  e.,  in  a  rational  way; 
sometimes,  also,  voiuntate  facere  in  the  sense  of  sponte,  voluntarily. 

[<$>  473.]  Note  2.  If  we  compare  the  above  rules  with  those  given  under 
Nos.  1  and  2,  the  ablative  expressing  company  alone  is  excluded,  for  com- 
pany is  expressed  by  cum,  even  in  such  cases  as  servi  cum  telis  comprehensi 
sunt,  cumferro  in  aliquem  invaders,  when  we  are  speaking  of  instruments 
which  a  person  has  (if  he  uses  them,  it  becomes  an  ablativus  instrument!) ; 
farther,  Romam  veni  cumfebri;  cum  nuntw  exire,  as  soon  as  the  news  ar- 
rived; cum  occasu  solis  copias  educere,  as  soon  as  the  sun  set.  It  must  be 
observed,  as  an  exception,  that  the  ancient  writers,  especially  Caesar  and 
Livy,  in  speaking  of  military  movements,  frequently  omit  the  preposition 
cum,  and  use  the  ablative  alone;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vii.,  9,  Dictator  ingenti  exercitu 
ab  urbe  profectus  ;  xxx.,  11,  exercitu  haud  minore,  quam  quern  prius  habuerat, 
ire  ad  hostes  pergit ;  xli.,  1,  eodem  decem  navibus  C.  Furius  duumvir  navalis 
venit ;  i.,  14,  egressus  omnibus  copiis,  where  Drakenborch  gives  a  long  list 
of  similar  expressions  in  Livy,  with  which  we  may  compare  the  commen- 
tators referred  to  by  him  and  Oudendorp  on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  7.  This 
omission  of  the  preposition  occurs,  also,  when  accompanying  circumstances 
are  mentioned,  and  not  persons ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vii.,  20,  quum  populatione  pera- 
grati  fines  essent ;  v.,  45,  castra  clamore  invadunt.  The  Greeks,  especially 
Xenophon,  use  the  dative  in  the  same  way;  compare  Matthiae,  Greek 
Gram.,  ()  405,  and  also  Livy,  x.,  25,  majori  mihi  curae  est,  ut  omnes  locupletes 
reducam,  quam  ut  multis  rem  geram  militibus,  which  is  an  ablativus  instru- 
ment!, unless  it  be  explained  by  the  analogy  of  the  expressions  mentioned 
above. 

[$  474.]  We  may  add  here  the  remark  that  the  participles  junctus  and 
conjunctus  are  joined  by  Cicero  with  the  ablative  alone,  instead  of  the  da- 
tive (according  to  §  412  and  415),  or  the  preposition  cum ;  e.  g.,  ad  Att., 
ix.,  10,  infinitum  bellum  junctum  miserrima  fuga  ;  p.  Cluent.,  6,  repente  est  ex- 
orta  mulieris  importunae  nefaria  libido,  non  solum  dedecore,  verum  etiam  scelere 
conjuncta ;  de  Orat.,  i.,  67,  dicendi  vis  egregia,  summa  festivitate  et  venustate 
conjuncta.  See  Garatoni's  note  on  Philip.,  v.,  7,  hujus  mendicitas  aviditatt 

E  E2 


330  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

conjuncta  infortunas  nostras  imminebat.  See,  also,  p.  Plane.,  10 ;  Philip.,  iii., 
14 ;  Brut.,  44.  This  construction  is  also  found  with  implicatus  in  Cic., 
Phil.,  ii.,  32,  and  with  admixtus  in  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  10.  Compare  the  con- 
struction of  simul  in  $  321. 

[§  475.]   13.  (a)  The  ablative,  without  a  preposition, 
is  used  to  express  the  point  of  time  at  which  anything 
happens.     (Duration  of  time  is  expressed  by  the  accusa- 
tive, see  §  39o.) 
Qua  nocte  natus   Alexander  est,  eadcm  Dianae  Ephesiae 

templum  deflagravit,  Cic.,  De  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  27. 
Pyrrhi  temporibus  jam  Apollo  versus  facer  e  dcsierat,  Cic., 

De  Divin.,  ii.,  5G. 
Pofnpeius  extrema  pueritia  miles  fait  sumrtii  imperatoris^ 

ineunte    adolcsccntia  maximi   ipse   exercitus  imperator, 

Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  10. 

Note. — Our  expressions  "  by  day"  and  "  by  night"  are  rendered  in  Latin 
by  the  special  words  interdiu  and  noctu,  but  the  ordinary  ablatives  die  and 
nocte  also  occur  not  unfrequently,  as  in  the  combination,  die  ac  nocte,  die 
noctuque,  nocte  et  interdiu.  Vespere  or  vesperi  is  "  in  the  evening,"  see  $$  98 
and  63.  Ludis  is  also  used  to  denote  time,  in  the  sense  of  tempore  ludorum, 
and  on  the  same  principle  we  find  Saturnalibus,  Latinis,  gladiatoribus,  for 
ludis  gladiatoriis.  See  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  ii.,  36.  Other  substantives 
which,  properly  speaking,  do  not  express  time,  are  used  in  that  sense  either 
with  the  preposition  in  (compare  §  318),  or  without  it ;  e.  g.,  initio  and 
principio,  adventu  and  discessu  alicujus,  comitiis,  tumultu,  and  bello  ;  but  of 
bello  the  ablative  alone  is  more  common,  if  it  is  joined  with  an  adjective 
or  genitive  ;  as,  bello  Latinorum,  Veienti  bello,  bello  Punico  secundo,  and  after 
this  analogy,  also,  pugna  Cannensi,  for  in  pugna  Cannensi.  Thus,  also, 
we  say,  in  pueritia;  but  when  an  adjective  denoting  time  is  joined  to  pu- 
eritia, the  ablative  alone  is  used.  It  is,  in  general,  very  rare  and  unclassical 
to  use  in  with  substantives  expressing  a  certain  space  of  time ;  as,  hora, 
dies,  annus,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  denoting  the  time  when  anything  hap- 
pens; for  in  tempore  is  used  only  when  tempus  signifies  "distress"  or 
"misery"  (as  it  sometimes  does  in  Cicero:  in  illo  tempore,  hoc  quidem  in 
tempore,  and  in  Livy,  in  tali  tempore,  where  we  should  say  "under  such 
circumstances"),  and  "in  time,"  "at  the  right  time;"  but  in  both  cases 
the  ablative  alone  also  occurs,  and  tempore  in  the  sense  of  "  early"  has 
even  become  an  adverb.  An  earlier  form  of  this  adverb  is  tempori  or  tern- 
peri,  of  which  a  comparative  temperius  is  formed.  Livy  (i.,  18  and  57), 
however,  has  the  expression  in  ilia  aetate,  at  that  period,  for  which  Cicero 
would  have  used  the  ablative  alone. 

[§  476.]  fbj  The  ablative  is  also  used  to  express  the 
time  before  and  the  time  after  a  thing  happened,  and  ante 
audpost  are  in  this  case  placed  after  the  ablative.  The 
meaning,  however,  is  the  same  as  when  ante  and  post  are 
joined  with  the  accusative  in  the  usual  order,  just  as  we 
may  sometimes  say,  in  the  same  sense,  "three  years  after," 
and  "  after  three  years,"  post  tres  annos  decessit,  and  tri- 
lus  annis  post  decessit.  In  this  connexion  the  ordinal  nu- 
merals may  be  employed,  as  well  as  the  cardinal  ones : 
post  tertium  annum,  arid  tertio  anno  2?ost,  are  the  same  as 


ABLATIVE   CASE.  331 

tribus  annis  post ;  for  by  this,  as  by  the  former  expres- 
sions, the  Romans  did  not  imply  that  a  period  of  three  full 
years  had  intervened,  but  they  included  in  the  calculation 
the  beginning  and  the  end  (the  terminus  a  quo  and  the 
terminus  ad  quern).  If  we  add  the  not  unusual  position 
of  the  preposition  between  the  adjective  and  the  substan- 
tive (noticed  above,  §  324),  we  obtain  eight  different 
modes  of  expression,  all  of  which  have  the  same  value. 

(ante)  post  tres  annos,  tribus  annis  post, 

post  tertium  annum,  tertio  anno  post, 

tres  post  annos,  tribus  post  annis. 

tertium  post  annum,  tertio  post  anno. 

When  ante  or  post  stands  last  (as  in  tribus  annis  post  or 
tertio  anno  post),  it  may  be  joined  with  an  accusative  fol- 
lowing it  to  denote  the  time  before  and  after  which  any- 
thing took  place. 
Thermstocles  fecit  idem,  quod  viginti  annis  ante  apud  nos 

fecerat  Coriolanus  (ut  in  exilium  proficisceretur,  B.C. 

471),  Cic.,  Lael.,  12. 
L.  Sextius  primus  de  plebe  consul  factus  est  annis  post  Ro- 

mam  conditam  trecentis  duodenonaginta. 

\_§  477.]  Note. — Post  and  ante  sometimes  precede  the  ablatives  :  ante  an- 
nis octo,  post  paucis  diebus  (Liv.,  xl.,  57,  and  elsewhere),  and  also  before 
such  ablatives  as  are  used  adverbially  ;  post  aliquanto,  post  non  multo,  post 
paulo  (ante  aliquanto,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  18;  ante  paulo,  de  Re  Publ.,  ii.,  4)  ; 
but  the  usual  place  of  these  prepositions  is  that  mentioned  above  in  the 
rule.  Diupost  must  be  avoided,  for  it  is  only  the  ablatives  in  o  that  are 
used  in  this  way. 

When  ante  and  post  are  joined  with  quam  and  a  verb,  the  expression  ad- 
mits of  great  variety  :  we  may  say,  tribus  annis  postquam  venerat,  post  tre& 
innos  quam  venerat,  tertio  anno  postquam  venerat,  post  annum  tertium  quam 
venerat,  or  post  may  be  omitted  and  the  ablative  used  alone ;  tertio  anno 
quam  venerat ;  and  all  these  expressions  have  the  same  meaning,  viz., 
"  three  years  after  he  had  come." 

[§  478.]  (c)  The  length  of  time  before  the  present  mo- 
ment is  expressed  by  abhinc,  generally  with  the  accusa- 
tive, but  also  with  the  ablative  ;  e.  g.,  Demosthenes  abhinc 
annos  prope  trecentosfuit,  and  abhinc  annis  quattuor.  The 
same  is  also  expressed  by  ante  with  the  pronoun  hie,  as 
in  Phaedrus :  ante  Jios  sex  menses  maledixisti  mihi. 
Demosthenes,  qui  abhinc  annos jirope  treccntos  fmt,  jam  turn 
fyiknrrd^uv  Pythiam  dicebat,  id  cst  quasi  cum  Philippe 

facere,  Cic.,  De  Divin.,  ii.,  57. 

Note. — Abhinc,  without  reference  to  the  present  moment,  in  the  sense  of 
ante  in  general,  occurs  only  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  52;  ante,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  used  more  frequently  instead  of  abhinc ;  Cic.,  Leg.  Agr.y  ii.,  18, 


332  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

vos  mihi  praetori  biennio  ante  personam  hanc  imposuistis  •  compare  Tusc.,  i.. 
5,  9.  Hand  (Tursellin.,  i.,  p.  63)  observes  that  no  ancient  writer  ever  used 
an  ordinal  numeral  with  abhinc,  and  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  xiv.,  4)  alone  says, 
septimo  hinc  anno.  Sometimes  the  length  of  time  before  is  expressed  by  the 
ablative  alone  joined  with  hie  or  ille ;  as,  panels  his  diebus,  or  paucis  illis 
diebus,  a  few  days  ago.  Respecting  the  difference  between  these  pro- 
nouns, in  reference  to  the  present  or  past  time,  see  §  703 ;  compare  Cic., 
in  Verr.,  iv.,  18,  $  39,  and  c.  63,  init. 

[§  479.]  (d)  The  length  of  time  within  which  a  thing 
happens  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone  as  well  as  by 
in  with  the  ablative.  Cicero  uses  the  ablative  alone,  and 
introduces  in  only  in  connexion  with  numerals  (in  an- 
swer to  the  question,  "  how  often  during  a  certain  time  ]"); 
e.  g.,  bis  in  die  saturum  fieri,  vix  tcr  in  anno  nuntimn  au- 
dire,  sol  binas  in  singulis  annis  conversiones  facit,  but  not 
exclusively  so.  Other  good  authors  use  in  when  they  wish 
to  express  more  decidedly  the  idea  of  within,  which  is  gen- 
erally expressed  by  intra.  (See  §  300.) 

Agamemnon  cum  univcrsa  Graccia  vix  decem  annis  unarri, 

cepit  urbcm,  Nep.,  Epam.,  5. 
Senatus  decrevit,  ut  legati  Jugurthac,  nisi  rcgnum  ipsum- 

que  dcditum  vcnissent,  in  diebus  proximis  dcccm  Italia 

deccdcrcnt,  Sallust.,  Jug.,  28. 

[§  480.]  Note. — The  ablative  expressing  "  within  a  time"  often  acquires 
the  signification  of  "after"  a  time,  inasmuch  as  the  period  within  which 
a  thing  is  to  happen  is  passed  away.  Thus,  Tarraconem  paucis  diebus  per- 
vcnit,  in  Caesar  (Bell.  Civ.,  ii.,  21),  signifies  "  after  a  few  days,"  and  Sal- 
lust  (Jug.,  39,  4)  follows  the  same  principle  in  saying,  paucis  diebus  in  Af- 
ricam  projiciscitur,  and  (ibid.,  13)  paucis  diebus  Romam  legatos  mittit,  for 
paucis  diebus  post.  (See  Kritz  on  Sallust,  Jug.,  11.)  Suetonius  (Ner.,  3; 
Tib.,  69)  in  the  same  sense  says,  in  paucis  diebus.  This  use  of  the  ablat. 
occurs  in  Cicero  (and  other  good  authors),  inasmuch  as  the  ablative  of 
time,  when  followed  by  a  preposition  with  a  relative  pronoun,  signifies 
"  later  than  ;"  e.  g.,  Plancius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  x.,  18,  ipse  octo  diebus,  qui- 
bus  has  litteras  dabam,  cum  Lepidi  copiis  me  conjungam,  that  is,  eight  days 
after  the  date  of  this  letter ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  36,  Mors  Sex.  Roscii  quatriduo, 
quo  is  occisus  est,  Chrysogono  nuntiatur,  four  days  after  he  had  been  killed; 
Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  48,  accidit  repentimim  incommodum  biduo,  quo  haec  gesta 
sunt,  two  days  after  this  had  happened  ;  v.,  26,  diebus  circiter  xv.,  quibus 
in  hiberna  ventum  est,  defectio  orta  est ;  also  with  quum  instead  of  a  relative 
pronoun,  Plancius  in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  x.,  23,  quern  triduo,  quum  has  dabam 
litteras,  expectabam,  three  days  later  than  the  date  of  this  letter.  Some- 
times in  is  joined  with  the  ablative;  Terent.,  Andr.,  i.,  1,  77,  in  diebus 
paucis,  quibus  haec  acta  sunt,  ?noritur. 

[§  481.]  14.  The  ablative  without  a  preposition  is  used 
to  denote  the  place  where  1  in  some  particular  combina- 
tions ;  as,  terra  marique,  by  land  and  by  sea.  The  names 
of  towns  follow  their  own  rules  (§  398).  The  preposition 
is  omitted  with  the  word  loco  (and  locis),  when  it  is  join- 
ed with  an  adjective,  and  has  the  derivative  meaning  of 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  833 

"  occasion  ;"  e.  g.,  Tioc  loco,  muhis  locis,  aliquot  locis,  certo 
loco,  secundo  loco,  meliore  loco  res  nostrae  sunt ;  but  this  is 
done  more  rarely  when  locus  has  its  proper  meaning  of 
"  spot"  or  "place."  In  loco,  or  simply  loco,  is  equal  to  suo 
loco,  in  its  right  place ;  when  joined  with  a  genitive,  loco 
signifies  "  instead,"  and  in  this  sense  in  loco  is  used  as 
well  as  loco  (also  numero)  alicujus  esse,  ducere,  Jiabcre. 
Libra,  joined  with  an  adjective  or  pronoun ;  as,  hoc,  primo, 
tertio,  is  used  without  iht  when  the  whole  book  is  meant, 
and  with  in  when  merely  a  portion  or  passage  is  meant. 

The  poets  know  of  no  limits  in  the  use  of  the  ablative 
without  in  to  denote  a  place  where  ]  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Met.,  vii., 
547,  silvisque  agrisque  viisque  corpora  foeda  jacent,  any 
more  than  in  the  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  the  place 
whither!  (See  §  401.)  They  farther  use  the  ablative 
without  ex  or  ab,  to  indicate  the  place  whence  1  without 
limiting  themselves  to  the  verbs  of  separation  (§  468);  e. 
g.,  cadere  nubibus,  descendere  coclo,  labi  equo,  currus  carcer- 
ibus  missi. 

[$  482.]  Note. — The  writers  of  the  silver  age  imitated  the  poets,  and  be- 
gan more  and  more  to  use  the  ablative  without  a  preposition  to  designate 
the  place  where  ?  Livy,  for  example,  says,  aequo  dimicatur  campo,  media 
alveo  concursum  est,  media  Etruriae  agro  praedatum  profectus,  ad  secundum 
lapidcjn  Gabina  via  consider  e  jubct  (ii.,  11),  ad  moenia  ipsa  Romae  regione  por- 
tae  Esquilinae  accessere ;  in  the  special  signification  of  regio,  a  division  of 
the  city,  Suetonius  always  uses  it  without  in ;  e.  g.,  regione  campi  Martii, 
and  others  go  still  farther.  The  ablative  denoting  the  place  whence  ?  like- 
wise appears  in  the  prose  of  that  time ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xii.,  38,  ni  cito 
vicis  et  castellis  proximis  subventurn  foret,  for  e  vicis.  With  regard  to  ordi- 
nary prose,  it  only  remains  to  observe  that  the  ablative,  joined  with  the 
adjective  toto  or  tola,  is  generally  used  without  in;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am., 
9,  urbe  tota  gemitus  fit ;  in  Verr.,  v.,  35,  concur sabat  tola  urbe  maxima  multitU' 
do;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  11,  and  very  often  toto  mari ;  Philip.,  xi.,  2,  tota  Asia 
vagatur  ;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  3,  tota  Asia,  tot  in  civitatibus  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  49,  tota 
Sicilia  per  triennium  nemo  ulla  in  civitate  senator  factus  est  gratis  ;  in  Verr., 
iv.,  19,  conquiri  hominem  tota  provincia  jubet ;  sometimes,  however,  we  find 
in  tota  provincia,  and  in  toto  orbe  terrarum  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  6,  tota  Italia 
delectus  habentur  ;  Livy  frequently  uses  toto  campo  dispersi,  and  Curtius,  ig- 
nes  qui  totis  campis  collucere  coeperunt,  cadavera  totis  campis  jacentia. 

[§  483.]  15.  The  ablative  is  used  with  adjectives  in  the 
comparative  degree,  instead  of  quam  with  the  nominative, 
or  in  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
instead  of  quam  with  the  accusative  of  the  subject;  e.  g., 
Nemo  Romanorum  fuit  eloquentlor  Cicerone  ;  nemincm  Ro- 
manorum  eloqucntiorem  fuisse  veteres  judicarunt  Cicerone. 
The  ablative  instead  of  quam,  with  the  accusative  of  the 
object,  occurs  more  rarely,  but  when  the  object  is  a  rela- 
tive pronoun  the  ablative  is  generally  used. 


334  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Vilius  argentum  est  auro,  virtutibus  durum,  Horat.,  Epist. 

Sapiens  kumana  omnia  infcriora  virtute  ducit,  Cic.,  Tusc. 

Phidiae  simulacris,  quibus  nihil  in  illo  gcnere  perfectius  vi- 

demus,  cogitare  tamen  possumus  pulcliriora,  Cic.,  Orat.,  2. 

[(}  484.]  Note  1. — The  ablative,  instead  of  quam,  with  the  accusative  of 
the  object,  is  found  very  frequently  in  poetry ;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Carm.,  i.,  8,  9, 
Cur  olivum  sanguine  viperino  cautius  vitat  ?  i.,  12,  13,  Quid  prius  dicam  solitis 
parentis  laudibus  ?  i.,  18,  1,  Nullam,  Vare,  sacra  vite  prius  sevens  arborem,  &c. 
In  prose  it  is  much  more  uncommon,  though  well  established  ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
de  Re  Publ.,  i.,  10,  Quern  auctorem  de  Socrate  locupletiorem  Platone  laudare 
possumus  ?  p.  Rob.,  1,  Est  boni  consults  suam  salutcm  posteriorem  saluti  com- 
muni  ducere ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  vii.,  19,  nisi  eorum  vitam  sua  salute  habeat 
cariorem ;  Val.  Maxim.,  v.,  3,  ext.  2,  Neminem  Lycurgo  aut  majorem  aututil- 
iorem  virum  Lacedaemon  genuit.  This  construction  is  more  frequent  with 
pronouns  ;  and  Cicero  often  uses  such  phrases  as  hoc  mihi  gratius  nihil  fa- 
cere  potes  ;  but  it  is  necessary  in  the  connexion  of  a  comparative  with  a 
relative  pronoun;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxviii.,  53,  Scipio  Africanus  Punici  belli  per- 
petrati,  quo  nullum  neque  majus  neque  periculosius  Romani  gessere,  unus  prae- 
cipuam  gloriam  tulit  /  Curt.,  vi.,  34,  Hie  A-ttalo,  quo  graviorem  inimicum  non 
habui,  sororem  suam  in  matrimonium  dedit.  But  the  ablat.  instead  of  quam 
with  any  other  case  was  never  used  by  a  Roman.  Quam,  with  the  nomin. 
or  accusat..  on  the  other  hand,  frequently  occurs  where  the  ablative  might 
have  been  employed;  e.  g.,  Livy,  melior  tutiorque  est  certa pax,  quam.  sperata 
victoria,  which  in  the  infinitive  would  be  meliorcm  esse  certam  pacem  putabat 
quam  speratam  victoriam.  If  the  verb  cannot  be  supplied  from  the  prece- 
ding sentence,  as  in  the  passages  just  quoted  (where  est  and  esse  are  thus 
supplied),  quam— est  or  quam—fuit  must  be  expressly  added;  e.  g.,  Gellius, 
X.,  1,  Haec  verba  sunt  M.  Varronis,  quam  fuit  Claudius,  doctioris  ;  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  iv.,  20,  Argentum  reddidisti  L.  Curidio,  homini  non  gratiosiori,  quam 
Cn.  Calidius  est ;  Senec.,  Consol.  ad  Polyb.,  34,  Drusum  Germanicum  mino- 
rem  natu,  quam  ipse  erat,fratrem  amisit.  But  when  an  accusative  precedes, 
quam  may  follow  with  the  same  case,  just  as  if  esse  preceded ;  Terent., 
Phorm.,  iv.,  2,  1,  Ego  hominem  callidiorem  vidi  neminem  quam  Phormionem, 
instead  of  quam  Phormio  est.  Cicero  (ad  Fam.,  v.,  7)  combines  both  con- 
structions, Ut  tibi  multo  majori  quam  Africanus  fuit  (he  could  noJ  have  said 
quam  Africano)  me  non  multo  minorem  quam  Laelium  (he  might  have  said 
quam  fuit  Laelius)  et  in  republica  et  in  amicitia  adjunctum  esse  patiare.  Comp. 
p.  Plane.,  12,  30.  Hence,  instead  of  the  ablative  in  the  sentence  quoted 
above,  neminem  Lycurgo  majorem  Lacedaemon  genuit,  we  may  say  quam  Ly- 
curgum  or  quam  Lycurgus  fuit,  the  latter  of  which  constructions  is  more 
frequent. 

The  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  aequo,  justo,  solito,  dicto,  are  of  a  peculiar  kind, 
and  must  be  explained  by  quam  est  or  erat ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  init.,  opinione 
omnium  majorem  animo  cepi  dolorem,  greater  than  the  opinion  of  all  men  was 
that  it  would  be  ;  Virgil,  dicto  citius  tumida  aequora  placat,  quicker  than  the 
word  was  spoken.  Quam  pro,  joined  to  a  comparative,  signifies  "than  in 
proportion  to ;"  e.  g.,  .Liv.,  xxi.,  29,  proelium  atrocius  quam  pro  numero  pug- 
nantium  editur. 

In  poetry,  alius,  another,  is  sometimes  treated  like  a  comparative,  and 
construed  with  the  ablative,  instead  of  atque  with  the  nominative  or  ac- 
cusative. See  §  470.  The  poets,  farther,  sometimes  use  atque  instead  of 
quam.  See  $  340. 

[$  485.]  Note  2. — Minus,  plus,  and  amplius  (or  non  minus,  haud  minus,  &c.), 
when  joined  to  numerals  and  some  other  words  denoting  a  certain  meas- 
ure or  portion  of  a  thing,  are  used  with  and  without  qua?n,  generally  as 
indeclinable  words,  and  without  influence  upon  the  construction, tut  mere- 
ly to  modify  the  number ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxix.,  31,  nonplus  quam  quattuor  milia, 
effugerunt,  not  effugit ;  Nep.,  Thras.,  2,  non  plus  habuit  secum  quam  triginta 


ABLATIVE    CASE.  335 

de  suis  (plures  would  rarely  be  used  in  such  a  case) ;  Cic.«  Brut.,  18,  pic- 
tores  antiqui  non  sunt  usi  plus  quam  quattuor  coloribus,  not  pluribus  ;  Liv., 
xxvii.,  25,  negabant  unam  cetlam  amplius  quam  uni  deo  rite  dedicari.  Quam 
is  omitted  very  frequently,  and  with  all  cases ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiv.,  16,  minus 
duo  milia  hominum  ex  tanto  exercitu  effugerunt ;  xxxvi.,  40,  plus  pars  dimidia 
ex  quinquaginta  milibus  hominum  caesa  sunt ;  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  v.,  1,  quo  magis 
erit  tibi  videndum,uthoc  nostrum  desiderium  vie  plus  sitannuum;  Tusc.,  ii.,  16, 
milites  Romani  saepe  plus  dimidiati  mensis  cibaria  ferebant ;  Terent.,  Adelph., 
ii.,  1,  45,  plus  quingentos  colaphos  infregit  mihi ;  Liv.,  iii.,  64,  si  vos  minus 
hodie  decem  tribunos  plebis  fecerilis  ;  xl.,  2,  quum  plus  annum  aeger  fuisset  ; 
XXX.,  27,  sedecim  non  amplius  eo  anno  legionibus  defensum  imperium  est ;  Cic., 
in  Verr.,  ii.,  57,  minus  triginta  diebus  JMetellus  totam  triennii  praeturam  tuam 
rcscidit.  These  examples  prove  the  omission  of  quam  in  connexion  with 
the  other  cases.  Its  omission  with  the  dative  is  attested  by  Propertius, 
ii.,  19,  18,  (iii.,  19,  32),  et  se  plus  uni  si  qua  parare  potest ;  i.  e.,  for  more  than 
for  one  ;  and  why  shou  Id  we  not  say  mille  amplius  hominibus  quotidie  panem 
dedit  ?  It  must  be  observed  that  these  comparatives  are  sometimes  insert- 
ed between  the  words  which  they  modify  ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.  Hist.,  iv.,  52,  decem 
haud  amplius  dierum  frumentum  in  horreis  fuit;  Liv.,  i.,  18,  centum  amplius 
post  annos ;  and  sometimes,  when  joined  with  a  negative,  they  follow  the 
words  they  modify  as  a  sort  of  apposition  ;  Liv.,  xl.,  31,  quinque  milium.  ar- 
matorum,  non  amplius,  relictum  erat  praesidium,  a  garrison  of  5000  soldiers, 
not  more.  Sometimes,  however,  the  ablative  is  used  with  these  compar- 
atives as  with  others,  instead  of  quam  with  the  nomin.  or  accus.  ;  e.  g., 
Liv.,  xxiv.,  17,  eo  die  caesi  sunt  Romanis  minus  quadringentis ;  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
iii.,  48,  nemo  minus  tribus  medimnis  in  jugerum  dcdit ;  p.  Rose.  Com.,  3, 
quamobrem  hoc  nomen  triennio  amplius  in  adversariis  relinquebas,  instead  of 
the  more  common  amplius  triennium,  as  above.  Comp.,  also,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  43, 
hora  amplius  moliebantur.  Longius  is  used  in  the  same  way ;  see  Caes., 
Bell.  Gall.,  v.,  53,  Gallorum  copias  non  longius  milia  pas suum  octo  ab  hibernis 
suis  afuisse;  but,  vii.,  9,  ne  longius  triduo  ab  castris  absit ;  iv.,  1,  apud  Suevos 
non  longius  anno  remanere  uno  in  loco  incolendi  causa  licet. 

[§  486.]  Note  3. — The  English  word  "  still,"  joined  with  comparatives, 
is  expressed  by  adhuc  only  in  the  later  prose  writers  ;  as,  Senec.,  Epist.,  49, 
Punctum  est  quod  vivimus  et  adhuc  puncto  minus.  In  the  classical  language 
etiam,  and  sometimes  vel,  are  equivalent  to  the  English  "  still." 

[§  487.]  16.  The  ablative  is  used  to  express  the  meas- 
ure or  amount  by  which  one  thing  surpasses  another,  or  is 
surpassed  by  it.  Paulo,  multo,  quo,  eo,  quanta,  tanto,  tan- 
tulo,  aliquanto,  hoc,  are  to  be  considered  as  ablatives  of 
this  kind.  Altero  tanto  signifies  "  twice  as  much  ;"  multis 
partibus  is  the  same  as  multo. 

Hibernia  dimidio  minor  est  quam  Britannia,  Caes. 
Homines  quo  plura  Jiabent,  eo  cupiunt  ampliora,  Just. 
Diogenes  disputare  solebat,  quanto  regem  Persarum  vita 

foriunaque  superaret,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  32. 

[§  488.]  Note  1. — We  thus  perceive  that  these  ablatives  are  joined  not 
only  with  comparatives,  but  with  verbs  which  contain  the  idea  of  a  com- 
parison with  other  things  ;  as,  malle,  praestare,  superare,  excellere,  antecel- 
lere  antecedere,  and  others  compounded  with  ante.  Also,  with  ante  and  post, 
their  meaning  being  "earlier"  and  "later."  Hence  multo  ante,  much  ear- 
lier ;  non  multo  post,  not  much  later,  or  not  long  after.  As  to  midto  with  a 
superlative,  see  $  108.  In  the  case  of  plus  there  may  be  some  ambiguity. 
The  words  in  Cicero  (de  Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  35),  uno  digito  plus  habere,  might 
mean  "  to  have  more  than  one  finger.,"  and,  Liv.,  ii.,  7,  uno  plus  Etrvscorum 


336  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

cecidit,  more  than  one  man  fell  on  the  part  of  the  Etruscans.  But  this  is 
the  reason  why,  in  this  sense  (according  to  <J  485),  we  usually  say  plus 
unum  digitum  haberc,  plus  unus  Etruscnrum  ;  and  with  the  ablat.  the  mean- 
ing is.  "  to  have  one  finger  more,"  viz.,  than  we  have,  that  is,  six ;  and, 
"  on  the  part  of  the  Etruscans  one  man  more,"  viz.,  than  on  the  part  of 
their  enemies.  But  still  it  would  be  clearer  to  say  uno  plures  digitos  habcre, 
uno  plures  Etrusc.  ceciderunt,  as  in  Liv.,  v.,  30,  una  plures  tribus  antiquarunt. 
Respecting  the  difference  between  aliquanto  and  paulo,  see  $  108  ;  aliquanto 
has  an  affirmative  power,  "  considerably  more,"  nearly  the  same  as  "  much 
more  ;"  paulo,  like  pauci,  is  of  a  negative  nature,  "a  little  more,"  where  the 
"  little"  may  imply  a  great  deal,  and  the  word  paulo  may  have  been  chosen 
with  a  view  to  represent  it  as  little.  An  excellent  passage  to  prove  this 
isCic.,p.  Quint.,  12,  Si  debuisset,  Sexte,  petisses  statim  ',  si  non  statim,  paulo 
quidem  post ;  si  non  paulo,  at  aliquanto  ;  sex  quidem  illis  mensibus  profecto  ; 
anno  vero  vertente  sine  controversia. 

Note  2.—Multum,  tantum,  quantum,  and  aliquantum  are  sometimes  used 
adverbially  with  a  comparative,  instead  of  the  ablat.  multo,  tanto,  quanta, 
and  aliquanto  ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eunuch.,  i.,2,  51,  e jus  f rater  aliquantum.  adrem 
est  avidior ;  Val.  Maxim.,  iv.,  1,1,  quantum  domo  inferior,  tantum  gloria  su- 
perior evasit.  Sometimes  they  are  used  only  to  avoid  ambiguity  ;  Liv.,  iii., 
15,  quantum  juniores  patrum  plebi  se  magis  insinuabant,  eo  acrius  contra  tribuni 
tendebant ;  Juven.,  x.,  lQ7,multum  hie  robustior  illo.  Cicero  uses  tantum 
and  quantum  in  this  way  only  in  connexion  with  antecedere,  excellere,  and 
praestare  ;  e.  g.,  de  Off.,  i.,  30;  Oral.,  2,  §  6 ;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  13;  de  Re  Publ., 
li.,  2,  but  both  multum  and  multo  praestare.  The  adverb  tarn — quam  with  a 
comparative,  instead  of  tanto— quanta,  is  rare  and  poetical.  Longe  (far) 
alone  is  frequently  used  for  multo,  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry. 

[§  489.]  17.  The  ablative  is  governed  by  the  preposi- 
tions ab  (a,  abs),  absquc,  clam,  coram,  cum,  de,  ex  (e), 
prac,  pro,  sine,  tenus  (is  placed  after  its  case) ;  by  in  and 
sub  when  they  answer  to  the  question  where  ?  and  by  su- 
per in  the  sense  of  de,  "  concerning,"  or  "  with  regard  to." 
Suiter  is  joined  indifferently  either  with  the  ablative  or 
the  accusative,  though  more  frequently  with  the  latter. 

The  preposition  in  is  generally  joined  with  the  ablative, 
even  after  the  verbs  of  placing  (pono,  loco,  colloco,  statuo, 
constituo,  and  consldoj,  although,  strictly  speaking,  they  ex- 
press motion :  on  the  other  hand,  in  is  commonly  used 
with  the  accusative  after  the  verbs  advenire,  adventarc, 
convenire,  commeare,  although  we  say,  "to  arrive  at,"  or 
"  in  a  place,"  and  not  "  into."  When  the  place  at  which 
a  person  arrives  is  expressed  by  the  name  of  a  town,  the 
accusative  alone  is  used,  and  when  by  an  adverb,  we  must 
use  hue,  quo,  and  not  hie,  ubi,  &c.  ;  e.  g.,  advcnit  in  Ital- 
iam,  in  provinciam,  advcnit  Romam,  Delphos,  adventus 
hue  tuus. 

In  is  used  with  either  case  after  the  verbs  of  assembling 
(congregare,  cogere,  constipare,  and  others^,  concealing  (ab- 
dcrc,  condere,  abscondere,  abstrudere),  and  including  (in- 
•  clwdere,  concluderc).  It  must,  however,  be  observed,  that 


VOCATIVE    CASE.  337 

the  accusative  is  preferred  when  an  action  is  indicated, 
and  the  ablative  when  a  state  or  condition  (in  the  parti- 
ciple perfect  passive).  Sometimes  these  verbs  take  an  db- 
lativus  instrumenti,  e.  g.,  abdcre  se  litteris,  includere  car- 
cere,  verba  concluderc  verm,  which  is  the  case  most  fre- 
quently with  implicarc. 
Acgyptii  ac  Babylonii  omnem  curam  in  siderum  cognition? 

posuerunt,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  i.,  42. 
Hcrculem  Jwminum  fama,  beneficiorum  memor,  in  concilia 

coelestium  collocavit,  Cic.,  de  Off".,  iii.,  5. 

[$  490.]  Note. — The  compounds  of  pono  sometimes  have  in  with  the 
ablative  and  sometimes  with  the  accusative,  but  more  frequently  the  for- 
mer ;  e.g.,  aliquem  in  numero  deorum.  spern  in  felicitate  reponere.  Imponere 
takes  in  with  the  accusative  (unless  it  is  joined  with  the  dative,  according 
to  §  415) ;  e.  g.,  milites  in  naves,  corpus  in  plaustrum  ;  sometimes,  however, 
it  has,  like  pono,  in  with  the  ablative ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  20,  im- 
posuistis  in  cervicibus  nostris  sempiternum  dominum.  In  like  manner,  defi- 
gere,  insculpere,  inscribere,  and  inserere  (unless  they  are  joined  with  the 
dative)  are  usually  construed  with  in  with  the  ablative;  e.  g.,  natura  in- 
sculpsit  in  mentibus  nostris  ;  nomen  suum  inscribunt  in  basi ;  legati  in  vultu 
regis  defixerunt  oculos.  This  and  similar  things  arise  from  a  mixture  of 
two  ideas,  that  of  the  action  implied  in  the  verb,  and  that  of  the  result ; 
and  hence  in  with  the  ablative  is  preferable  after  the  preterites  of  doubt- 
ful verbs.  In  with  the  accusative,  after  esse  and  habere,  occurs  only  in  ob- 
solete formulae ;  as,  esse  (habere)  in  potestatem,  and  others.  See  §  316. 
In  custodiam  haberi  and  in  carcerem  asservari  in  Livy.  viii.,  20,  and  xxii., 
25,  are  irregularities. 

[§491.]  "To  do  anything  with  a  person,"  is  expressed  in  Latin  by 
facere  with  de,  and  more  frequently  with  the  simple  ablative  or  dative ; 
quid  facias  hoc  homine,  or  huic  homini?  and  in  the  passive  voice  quid  de  me 
fiet  ?  what  will  become  of  me  ?  quid pecuniae  fiet  ?  what  will  become  of  the 
money  ?  Cicero,  quid  illo  myoparone  factum  sit.  It  is  never  expressed  by 
cum,  for  facere  cum  aliquo  signifies  "  to  be  of  a  person's  party." 


CHAPTER  LXXV. 

VOCATIVE    CASE. 

[§  492.]  THE  vocative  is  not  in  immediate  connexion 
with  either  nouns  or  verbs,  but  is  inserted  to  express  the 
object  to  which  our  words  are  addressed. 

Note. — It  only  remains  to  observe  that  the  vocative  is  usually  placed/^  <w^ /?/ 
after  one  or  two  words  of  a  sentence  ;  at  least,  it  is  not  placed  at  the  be-  ' 
ginning  without  some  special  reason,  and  the  interjection  O  is  used  only 
when  we  are  speaking  with  great  animation  or  emotion.  The  poets  not 
uncommonly  adopt  the  Attic  practice  of  using  the  nominative  instead  of 
the  vocative  ;  e.  g.,  Terence,  o  vir  fortis  atque  amicus  !  Horat.,  de  Art. 
Poet.,  292,  Vos  o  Pompilius  sanguis  !  Jn  some  instances  the  same  practice 
occurs  in  prose  ;  as,  Liv.,  i.,  24,  audi  tu,populus  Rojnamis  !  viii.,  9,  agedum 
pontifex  publicus  populi  Romani,  praei  verba,  quibus  me  pro  legionibus  devoveam. 
The  nominative,  in  apposition  to  the  vocative,  occurs  in  Juvenal,  iv.,  24, 
tu,  succinctus  patria  quondam t  Crispinc,  papyro  •  Other  poets,  on  (he  COn* 
p  F 


338  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

trary,by  a  mixture  of  two  constructions,  use  the  vocative  of  words  which, 
belonging  to  the  verb,  ought  to  be  in  the  nominative  ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Aen.,  ii., 
283,  quibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  expectate  venis  ?  ix.,  485,  heu  !  canibus  date — 
jaces ;  Pers.,  i.,  123,  Quicunque  afflate  Cratino — aspice.  Compare  iii.,  28. 
The  passage  of  Pliny  (Hist.  Nat.,  vii.,  31),  in  which  Cicero  is  addressed, 
salve  primus  omnium  parens  patriae  appellate,  primus  in  toga  triumphum  lin- 
guaeque  lauream  merite  !  is  of  a  different  kind,  primus  signifying  "  being  the 
first." 


III.  USE  OF  THE  TENSES. 

CHAPTER  LXXVI. 

[§  493.]  1.  THE  tenses  of  the  Latin  verb  are  used,  on 
the  whole,  in  the  same  way  as  those  of  the  English  verb, 
with  the  exception  of  one  great  peculiarity,  which  is  ex- 
plained in  §  498.  (Compare  §  150.)  The  only  general 
rule  that  can  be  laid  down  is  this  :  we  must  first  deter- 
mine whether  the  action  or  condition  to  be  expressed 
falls  in  the  present,  the  past,  or  the  future,  and  in  what 
relation  it  stands  to  other  actions  or  conditions  with 
which  it  is  connected.  For  example,  I  was  writing,  and 
/  had  written,  are  both  actions  belonging  to  the  past ;  but 
in  regard  to  their  relation  they  differ,  for  in  the  sentence, 
"  I  was  writing  when  the  shot  was  heard"  the  act  of 
writing  was  not  completed  when  the  shot  was  heard ; 
whereas,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  had  written,  when  my  friend 
arrived,"  the  act  of  writing  was  completed  when  the 
other  (the  arrival  of  my  friend)  occurred.  The  same 
difference  exists  between  I  shall  write  to-morrow  and  I 
shall  have  written  to-morrow  ;  between  J  am  writing  to- 
day, i.  e.,  I  am  engaged  in  an  act  not  yet  terminated, 
and  I  have  written  to-day,  which  expresses  an  act  already 
terminated.  This  last  is  the  proper  signification  of  the 
Latin  perfect;  as,  advenit  pater,  the  father  has  arrived, 
that  is,  he  is  here  now.  Horace,  at  the  close  of  a  work, 
says,  cxegi  monumentmn  acre  percnnius  /  and  Ovid,jamque 
opus  cxegi.  An  orator,  at  the  conclusion  of  his  speech, 
says,  dixi,  that  is,  "  I  have  done,"  and  Virgil  (Aen.,  ii., 
325),  with  great  emphasis,  fuimus  Troes,fuit  Ilium,  i.  e., 
we  are  no  longer  Trojans,  Ilium  is  no  more. 

Note.— Other  grammarians  distinguish  three  relations  of  an  action  :  1. 
an  action  is  lasting,  that  is,  incomplete  ;  2.  it  is  completed  ;  and,  3.  not  yet 
commenced.  But  the  distinction  between  a  completed  and  a  not  completed 
action  excludes  everything  else,  for  an  action  either  is  taking  place  or  has 
taken  place  ;  a  third  is  impossible,  and  an  action  not  yet  commenced  does 
not  exist  as  an  action,  except  in  the  imagination.  The  tenses,  for  the 


USE    OF   THE    TENSES.  339 

sake  of  which  other  grammarians  have  recourse  to  a  third  relation  (scrip- 
turns  sum,  eram,  ero,fui,fueram,fuero),  form,  in  our  opinion,  a  distinct  con- 
jugation, in  which  the  action  is  described  as  intended  (I  am,  was,  have 
been,  &c.,  intending  to  write).  Compare  <J  169. 

[§  494.]  2.  The  Latin  language,  therefore,  has  two 
tenses  for  each  of  the  three  great  divisions  of  time — past, 
present,  and  future ;  one  expressing  a  complete  and  the 
other  an  incomplete  action.  And  the  six  tenses  of  the 
Latin  verb  are  thus  the  result  of  a  combination  of  time 
and  relation. 

(  scribo,  I  write,  or  am  writing — present  time,  and  action  going  on. 

I  scripsi,  1  have  written — present  time,  and  action  terminated. 

j  scribebam,  I  wrote,  or  was  writing — past  time,  and  action  going  on. 

\  scripseram,  I  had  written — past  time,  and  action  terminated. 

I  scribam,  I  shall  write,  or  be  writing — future  time,  and  action  not  com- 

<  pleted. 

(  scripsero,  I  shall  have  written — future  time,  and  action  completed. 

Note. — It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why,  in  the  conjugation  of  verbs,  we  pre- 
ferred that  order  of  the  tenses  which  is  based  upon  the  relation  which  they 
bear  to  one  another.  (Compare  t)  150.)  But  in  syntax,  the  above  ar- 
rangement and  division  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  of  presenting  a  clear 
view  of  the  kindred  nature  of  the  present  and  perfect  (for  both  are  presents, 
as  far  as  time  is  concerned),  and  of  the  use  of  the  two  futures. 

3.    The  passive  has  the   same  tenses   with  the   same 
meaning;    but  with  this  difference,  that  they  do  not  ex- 
press an  action,  but  a  condition  or  suffering,  as  we  may 
call  it. 
(  laudor,  I  am  praised — present  time,  and  condition  still  going  on. 

<  laudatus  sum,  I  have  been  praised — present  time,  and  condition  termi- 
(         nated. 

(  laudabar,  I  was  praised — past  time— and  condition  going  on. 

\  laudatus  eram,  I  had  been  praised— past  time,  and  condition  terminated. 

(  laudabor,  I  shall  be  praised — future  time,  and  condition  not  completed. 

<  laudatus  ero,  I  shall  have  been  praised — future  time,  and  condition  com- 
(         pleted. 

[§  495.]  Note. — The  participle  perfect  passive,  however,  is  also  used  in 
the  sense  of  an  adjective  to  express  a  lasting  condition ;  e.  g.,  scripta  epis- 
tola,  a  written  letter,  and  in  this  sense  the  participle  may  be  joined  with 
all  the  six  tenses  of  esse  ;  as,  epistola  scripta  est,  erat,  erit,fuit,fuerat,fuerit. 
All  this  may  be  said  in  Latin  ;  but  the  question  here  is  only  as  to  how  the 
tenses  of  the  passive  voice  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  the  participle 
perfect  passive  with  sum,  eram,  and  ero.  We  here  repeat  (see  §  168)  that 
laudatus  fueram  and  laudatus  fuero  are  sometimes  used  as  passive  tenses  for 
laudatus  eram  and  laudatus  ero,  which  arose  from  a  desire  to  express  by  the 
auxiliary  verb  esse  the  terminated  condition  already  implied  in  the  parti- 
ciple perfect  passive.  Thus,  Livy  (xxiv.,  30)  says,  ceterum  Leontinorum 
nemo — violatus fuerat ,  nobody  had  been  injured;  Pornpey,  in  Cic.,  ad  Att., 
viii.,  12  (C.),  si  copiae  in  unum  locum  fuerint  coactae,  when  they  shall  have 
been  collected.  In  like  manner,  the  subjunctive,  laudatus  fuissem,  is  equiva- 
lent to  laudatus  essem  ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Metam.,  vi.,  156,  si  non  sibi  visafuisset ; 
Heroid.,  vii.,  140,  si  Punica  non  Teucris  pressa  fuisset  humus  ;  and  laudatus 
fuerim  to  laudatus  sim.  In  the  infinitive,  laudatum  fuisse,  the  participle  is 
generally  to  be  considered  as  an  adjec-tive. 

[§  496.]  4.  The  tenses  of  the  present  and  past  time, 


340  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

that  is,  the  present,  perfect,  imperfect,  and  pluperfect,  have 
also  a  subjunctive  mood ;  as,  scribam,  scripserim,  scribe- 
bum,  scripsissem,  and  in  the  passive,  scribar,  scriptus  sim, 
icriberer,  scriptus  essem.  For  the  relations  in  which  the 
subjunctive  is  required,  see  Chapter  LXXVIII.  As 
tenses,  these  subjunctives  do  not  differ  from  the  significa- 
tion of  the  indicative. 

5.  Neither  the  active  nor  the  passive  voice  has  a  sub- 
junctive of  the  future,  and  the  deficiency  is  supplied  by  oth- 
er means.  When  the  idea  of  futurity  is  already  implied 
in  another  part  of  the  proposition,  the  other  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  supply  the  place  of  the  future,  viz.,  the  pres- 
ent and  imperfect  supply  the  place  of  the  future  subjunct- 
ive, and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  that  of  the  future  per- 
fect. The  choice  of  one  or  other  of  these  four  subjunct- 
ives is  to  be  determined  by  the  time  expressed  by  the 
leading  verb  of  the  proposition,  and  by  the  relation  of  the 
action  being  either  completed  or  not  completed  ;  e.  g., 
Affirmo  tibi,  si  hoc  benejicium  mihi  tribuas,  me  magnopere 
gavisurum,  and  affirmabam  tibi,  si  illud  benejicium  mihi 
tribueres,  magnopere  me  gavisurum.  It  is  clear  that  tribu- 
as  and  tribueres  here  supply  the  place  of  the  future  sub- 
junctive, for  in  the  indicative  we  say  si  mihi  tribucs — mag- 
nopere gaudebo.  Again,  Affirmo  tibi,  si  hoc  benejicium  mihi 
tribueris,  me  quamcunque  possim  gratiam  tibi  relaturum, 
and  affirmabat  mihi,  si  illud  benejicium  ipsi  tribuissem,  se 
quamcunque  posset  gratiam  mihi  relaturum,  where  tribue- 
ris  and  tribuissem  supply  the  place  of  the  future  perfect, 
for  in  the  indicative  we  should  say  si  hoc  benejicium  mihi 
tribueris  (from  tribuero),  quamcunque  potero  gratiam  tibi 
rcferam,  when  you  shall  have  shown  me  this  kindness. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  the  passive  voice  :  affirmo  tibi,  si 
hoc  benejicium  mihi  tribuatur,  me  magnopere  gavisurum  ; 
affirmabam  tibi,  si  illud  benejicium  mihi  tribucretur,  mag- 
nopere me  gavisurum ;  affirmo  tibi,  me,  si  hoc  benejicium 
mihi  tributum  sit  (or  fuerit),  quamcunque  possim  gratiam 
tibi  relaturum  ;  affirmabam  tibi,  si  illud  benejicium  mihi 
tributum  esset  (orfuissetj,  quamcunque  possem  gratiam,  me 
tibi  relaturum. 

Note.— This  rule  is  not  affected  by  the  supposition  (which  was  a  subject 
of  dispute  even  in  ancient  times  ;  see  Gellius,  xviii.,  2;  Perizon.  on  Sanct., 
Minerv.,  i.,  13,  note  6)  that  tribuerim,  which  we  called  above  a  perfect  sub- 
junctive, is  in  these  cases  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  this  form  is  used  wherever  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  per- 


USE    OF    THE    TENSES.  341 

feet  is  wanted  ;  e.  g.,  Plaut.,  Pseud.,  i.,  1,  89,  Quis  mi  igitur  drachmam  red- 
det,  si  dederim  tibi?  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7,  9,  Haec  profecto  vides,  quanta  ex- 
pressiora,  quantoque  illustriora  futura  sint,  quum  aliquantum  ex  provincia  atque 
ex  imperio  laudis  accesserit ;  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  20,  Putant,  si  quam  spem  ex- 
ercitus  habeat,  hanc  non  habiturum,  quum  viderit.  That  it  is  a  perfect  may  be 
inferred  even  from  the  manner  in  which  the  pluperfect  of  the  subjunctive 
is  used  instead  of  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  and  in  which  the 
passive  of  this  tense  is  expressed.  As  the  question  is  beyond  all  doubt, 
we  shall  quote,  in  confirmation,  only  classical  passages :  Cic.,  p.  Rose. 
Am.,  38,  ostendit,  si  sublata  sit  venditio  bonorum,  ilium  pecuniam  grandem  amis- 
surum  esse  ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  1,  32,  Hac  mente  laborem  seseferre,  series  ut  in 
otia  tuta  recedant,  aiunt,  quum  sibi  sint  congesta  cibaria  •  Tacit.,  Hist.,  iv.,  57, 
quum  spoliati  fuerint  quieturos.  But  Madvig  (in  the  dissertation  above  re- 
ferred to,  p.  174)  has  proved  that  the  form  tribuerim  is  at  the  same  time 
the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  and  other  applications  of  this  form 
thus  receive  their  correct  explanation.  We  retain  the  designation  of  per- 
fect subjunctive  merely  for  the  sake  of  convenience. 

[§  497.]  If  no  future  has  gone  before,  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  sentence  requires  the  subjunctive,  the  parti- 
ciple future  active  is  employed  for  this  purpose,  with  the 
appropriate  tense  of  the  verb  esse.  The  paraphrased  con- 
jugation (conjugatio  periphrastica),  as  it  is  called,  prop- 
erly expresses  an  intended  action  (see  §  498);  but  the  sub- 
junctives with  sim  and  esscm  are  used,  also,  as  regular  sub- 
junctives of  the  future,  the  idea  of  intention  passing  over 
into  that  of  futurity ;  e.  g.,  Non  dubito  quin  rcditurus  sit, 
I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will  return ;  non  dubitabam  quin 
rediturus  csset,  I  did  not  doubt  that  he  would  return.  The 
perfects  rediturus  fuerim  and  rediturus  fuissem  retain  their 
original  meaning,  implying  intention  ;  e.  g.,  non  dubito 
quin  rcditurus  fuerit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  has  had  the 
intention  to  return.  (It  is  only  in  hypothetical  sentences 
that  this  meaning  passes  over  into  that  of  the  pluperfect 
subjunctive,  of  which  we  shall  speak  hereafter.)  If  we 
want  simply  to  express  futurity,  we  must  use  the  circum- 
locution with  Juturum  sit  and  Juturum  essct;  e.  g.,  nescio 
numfuturum  sit,  ut  eras  hoc  ipso  tempore  jam  rcdierit,  and 
ncsciebam  num  Juturum  essct,  ut  postridie  co  ipso  tempore 
jam  rcdisset.  This  same  circumlocution  must  be  employ- 
ed in  the  passive  of  which  the  participle  future  implies 
necessity,  and  cannot  be  used  in  the  sense  of  a  simple  fu- 
ture ;  e.  g.,  non  dubito,  quin  futurum  sit,  ut  laudctur,  I 
do  not  doubt  that  he  will  be  praised  ;  multi  non  dubitabant, 
quin  Juturum  essct,  ut  Caesar  a  Po?npeio  vinccretur,  that 
Caesar  would  be  conquered  by  Pompey. 

[§  498.]  6.  The  conjugatio  periplirastica,  which  is  formed 
by  means  of  the  participle  future  active  and  the  auxilia- 


342  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ry  verb  esse,  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin  language,  and  is  used 
to  express  an  intended  action,  or,  in  the  case  of  intransitive 
verbs,  a  state  or  condition  which  is  to  come  to  pass  (the 
Greek  jiteA/letv).  It  has  its  six  tenses  like  the  ordinary 
conjugation.  The  realization  depends  either  on  the  will 
of  the  subject  or  on  that  of  others,  or  upon  circumstances. 
In  the  first  case,  we  say  in  English,  "  I  intend,"  or  "  am 
on  the  point  of,"  and  in  the  others,  "  I  am  to"  (be,  or  do  a 
thing),  i.  e.,  others'  wish  that  I  should  do  it;  e.  g.,  Sallust, 
Jug.,  5,  Bcllum  scripturus  sum,  quod  popvlus  Romanus 
cum  Jugurtha  gessit,  I  am  on  the  point  of  writing,  or  in- 
tend to  write ;  Varro,  DC  lie  Rust.,  iii.,  ]  6,  Quum  apes 
jam  cKoliturae  sunt,  consonant  vefiemcntcr,  when  they  are 
on  the  point  of  flying  out;  Cic.,  De  Fin.,  ii.,  26,  Me  ipsum 
igitur  amcs  oportet,  non  mea,  si  veri  amicifuturi  sumus,  if 
we  are  to  be  friends  ;  Cat.  Maj.,  22,  Quare  si  hacc  ita 
sunt,  sic  me  colitotc,  ut  deum  :  sin  una  est  intcritwus  ani- 
mus cum  corpora,  vos  tamen  memoriam  nostram  pie  serva- 
bitis,  which  is  not  equivalent  to  inter  ibit,  as  interiturus 
est  intimates  that  it  is  the  opinion  of  others  ;  Tacit.,  Agr., 
46,  Quidquid  ex  Agricola  amavimus,  manet  mansurumque 
est  in  animis  hominum,  i.  e.,  is  to  remain.  Imperfect : 
Liv.,  xxviii.,  28,  Illi  sicut  Mamcrtini,  in  Sicilia  Mcssanam, 
sic  Rhegium  habituri  pcrpctuam  sedem  crant,  they  intended 
to  keep  Rhegium.  Future:  Cic.,  DC  Invent.,  i.,  16,  At- 
tentos  faciemus  auditores,  si  demonstrabimus,  ea,  quae  dic- 
turi  erimus,  magna,  nova,  incredibdia  esse ;  De  Orat.,  ii., 
24,  hoc  ei  primum  praecipiemus,  quascunque  causas  erit 
acturus,  ut  cas  diligenter  pcnitusque  cognoscat ;  i.,  52, 
(orator)  corum,  apud  quos  aliquid  agct  aut  erit  acturus, 
mentes  sensusque  degustet  oportct.  The  future  perfect  oc- 
curs only  in  one  passage  of  Seneca,  Epist.,  ix.,  14,  Sapi- 
ens  tamen  non  vivet,  si  fuerit  sine  hom^ne  victurus,  if  he 
should  be  under  the  necessity  of  living. 

The  perfect  and  pluperfect  likewise  occur  in  their 
proper  signification;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Lig.,  8,  Quid  facturi 
Juistis  ?  I  ask«,  what  did  you  intend  doing  there  1  Liv., 
xxviii.,  28,  Vos  cum  Mandonio  consilia  communicastis  et 
arma  consociaturi  Juistis,  you  have  had  the  intention  of 
uniting  your  arms  with  theirs ;  Justin,  xiii.,  5,  Alexander 
excursurus  fuerat  cum  valida  manu  ad  Athenas  dclendas, 
had  had  the  intention  of  marching,  &c.  Scripturus  fai, 
however,  most  frequently  acquires  the  signification  of  a 


USB    OF    THE    TENSES.  343 

pluperfect  subjunctive  when  it  occurs  in  a  sentence  con- 
taining the  result  of,  or  inference  from  an  hypothetical 
sentence  (which  is  either  untrue  or  impossible),  according 
to  the  rule  explained  in  §  518,  that  the  Latins  commonly 
use  the  indicative  of  a  preterite  with  verbs  implying  pos- 
sibility, viz.,  that  in  the  time  past  something  might  have 
happened;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  1,  Quid  enim  futurum  fuit,  si 
HW,  plebs  agitari  coepta  esset  tribuniciis  procdlis  ?  Curt., 
iv.,  38,  Mazaeus,  si  transeuntibus  flumen  supcrvenisset, 
liaud  dubie  oppressurus  fuit  incompositos,  equivalent  to  ac- 
cidisset  and  oppressisset. 

The  subjunctives  of  these  tenses  are  used  in  the  same 
way  as  the  corresponding  tenses  of  the  indicative,  if  the 
construction  of  a  sentence  requires  the  subjunctive.  Hence 
scripturusfuerim,  in  hypothetical  sentences,  takes  the  place 
of  a  pluperfect  subjunctive,  and  that  not  only  after  a  pres- 
ent tense;  as,  Liv.,  xxxi.,  7,  Quis  enim  dubitat,  quin,  si 
Saguntinis  impigre  tulisscmus  opem,  totum  in  Hispaniam 
aversuri  bellum  fuerimus ;  but  also  after  preterites ;  as, 
Liv.,  iv.,  38,  ncc  dubium  crat,  quin,  si  tarn,  pauci  simul 
obire  omnia  j)ossent,  tcrga  daturi  Jwstes  fuerint ;  xxii.,  32, 
adeo  est  inopia  coactus  (Hannibal),  ut,  nisi  tumfugae  spe- 
ciem  abeundo  timuisset,  G-alliam  rcpetiturus  fuerit ;  Cic., 
Ad  Att.,  ii.,  16,  (Pompeius  ioofyi&ro)  quid  futurum  fuerit, 
si  Bibulus  turn  in  forum  descendisset,  se  divinare  non  potu- 
isse.  The  pluperfect  subjunctive  itself,  however,  occurs 
in  Livy,  xxviii.,  24,  2,  and  xxxviii.,  46,  6. 

[§  499.]  7.  The  participle  future  passive  in  ndus,  or 
the  participle  of  necessity  (participium  necessitatis ) ,  in 
combination  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb  esse,  forms  another 
distinct  conjugation  denotingy^wre  necessity,  and  not  future 
suffering ;  for  epistola  scribenda  est,  for  example,  does  not 
signify  "  the  letter  is  about  to  be  written,"  which  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  simple  future  epistola  scribetur,  but  "  the 
letter  must  be  written,"  there  being  either  an  internal  or 
external  necessity  for  its  being  written,  either  of  which  is 
expressed  in  English  by  "  the  letter  is  to  be  written." 
This  conjugation  may  accordingly  be  regarded  as  the 
passive  of  the  conjugatio  peripJirastica.  The  tenses  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  auxiliary  verb  esse,  and  in  so  far 
do  not  differ  from  the  general  rule  ;  e.  g.,  the  future, 
Tibull.,  iv.,  5,  init.,  Qui  mihi  tc,  Cerintke,  dies  dedit,  hie 
mihi  sanctus  atque  inter  festos  semper  habendus  erit;  future 


344  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

perfect,  in  Quintil.,  xi.,  2,  27,  Si  longior  complectenda  me- 
moriafucrit  oratio,  proderit  per  partes  ediscere.  But  it  is 
to  be  observed  with  regard  to  these  tenses  of  necessity, 
that,  as  in  the  active  conjugatio  periphrastica,  the  tenses 
of  the  past  (imperfect,  pluperfect,  and  the  historical  per- 
fect) are  used  at  the  same  time,  in  hypothetical  sentences, 
as  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  of  the  verb 
debeo,  I  must ;  e.  g.,  Sulpicius  in  Cic.,  Ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5, 
Quae  si  hoc  tempore  non  suum  diem  obisset,  paucis  post 
annis  tamen  ei  moriendumfuit,  i.  e.,  she  would  have  been 
obliged  to  die. 

[§  500.]  8.  The  perfect  indicative,  both  active  and  pass- 
ive, has  in  Latin,  besides  its  signification  of  an  action 
terminated  at  the  present  time,  that  of  an  aorist,  that  is, 
it  is  used  to  relate  events  of  the  past,  which  are  simply 
conceived  as  facts,  without  any  regard  to  their  being  ter- 
minated or  not  terminated,  in  respect  to  each  other;  e.  g., 
Itaque  Caesar  armis  rem  gerere  constitute^  exercitum  Jinibus 
Italiae  admovit ,  Rubiconem  trans  iit,  Romam  et  aerarium 
occupavit,  Pompeium  cedentem  persecutus  est,  eumque  in 
campis  Pharsalicis  devicit.  In  English  the  imperfect  is 
used  to  relate  events  of  the  past,  and  hence  we  translate 
the  above  passage:  Caesar  resolved  to  use  armed  force; 
he  advanced  with  his  army  to  the  frontiers  of  Italy,  passed 
the  Rubicon,  took  possession  of  Rome  and  the  treasury, 
pursued  Pompey,  and  defeated  him  in  the  plain  of  Phar- 
salus.  But  the  Latin  imperfect  is  never  used  in  this 
sense  ;  it  always  expresses  an  incomplete  or  continuing 
action  or  condition  of  the  past  time,  the  ancient  correct 
rule  being  perfecto  procedit,  imperfccto  insistit  oratio. 

Note  1. — But  even  in  historical  narrative  actions  or  conditions  may  be 
represented  as  continuing,  and  we  may  introduce,  e.  g.,  into  the  above 
narrative  things  which  are  conceived  as  continuing,  and  are  accordingly 
expressed  by  the  imperfect ;  Caesar  armis  rem  gerere  constituit :  videbat  enim 
inimicorum  in  dies  major  em  fieri  exercitum,  suorum  animos  debilitari,  reputabat- 
que  appropinquare  hiemem ;  itaque  exercitum  admovit,  &c.  Compare  the  ex- 
amples in  $  599.  The  Latin  language  observes  this  difference  between 
the  perfect  and  imperfect  indicative  so  strictly,  that  even  the  worst  writers 
do  not  violate  the  rule.  An  Englishman,  therefore,  must  be  very  cautious 
not  to  transfer  the  aoristic  meaning  of  the  English  imperfect  to  the  Latin 
language.  In  Latin  the  perfect  and  imperfect  are  sometimes  very  signifi- 
cantly put  in  juxtaposition  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,48,  Aequi  se  in  oppida  receperunt, 
murisque  se  tenebant  (recepcrunt  describing  the  momentary  act  or  simple 
fact,  and  tenebant  the  continued  action)  ;  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  30,  Ita  enim  cense- 
bat,  itaque  disseruit  (the  last  word  introducing  the  speech  delivered  upon  a 
particular  occasion).  The  following  passage  of  Cicero  (Orat.,  38)  is 
striking,  but  most  strictly  correct :  Dicebat  melius  quam  scripsit  Hortensiust 
for  the  imperfect  makes  us  think  of  the  time  during  which  he  spoke, 


USE    OP    THE   TENSES.  345 

whereas  the  perfect  expresses  simply  an  opinion  as  a  sort  of  resume. 
Compare  de  Divin.,  ii.,  37,  $  78.  It  only  remains  here  to  mention  the  use 
of  the  imperfect  in  historical  narrative,  among  perfects,  to  denote  actions 
which  remained  incomplete.  The  explanation  is  implied  in  the  foregoing 
remarks.  In  Tacitus,  e.  g.,  we  read,  Ann.,  ii.,  34,  Inter  qua  L.  Piso  am- 
bitum  fori,  corrupta  judicia — -increpans,  abire  se  et  cedere  tirbe  testabatur,  et 
simul  curiam  relinquebat.  Commotus  est  Tiberius,  et  quamquam  Pisonem 
mitibus  v erbis  permulsisset,  propinquos  quoque  ejus  impulit,  ut  abeuntem  auctori- 
tate  vel  precibus  tenerent.  The  imperfect  rtlinquebat  is  used  here  to  indicate 
that  his  intention  of  leaving  the  curia  was  not  carried  into  effect,  for  he 
was  repeatedly  stopped,  and  at  last  he  remained.  This  is  quite  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  signification  of  the  imperfect  (see  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat , 
Praef,  lib.  i.,  §  26,  where  he  speaks  of  the  signature  of  Greek  artists, 
eTroiei),  and  also  occurs  elsewhere,  even  in  Cicero  (compare  Div.  in  Caec., 
17,  §  55),  although  otherwise  he  expresses  the  same  meaning  by  a  circum- 
locution with  coepit. 

Conticuere  omnes,  intentique  ora  tenebant : 

Inde  toro  pater  Aeneas  sic  orsus  ab  alto  (est),  Virg.,  Aen.,  ii.,  init. 
[§501.]  Note.  2. — In  Latin,  as  in  many  modern  languages,  the  present 
tense  is  often  used  instead  of  the  aorist  of  the  past,  when  the  writer  or 
speaker  in  his  imagination  transfers  himself  to  the  past,  which  thus  be- 
comes to  him  present,  as  it  were.  Narrators  by  this  figure  frequently 
render  their  descriptions  very  animated  ;  but  in  regard  to  dependant 
sentences,  they  often  regard  such  a  present  as  a  regular  perfect,  and, 
accordingly,  use  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  in  the  dependant  sentence 
which  follows.  E.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  18,  Quod  ubi  Verves  audivit,  sic  cu- 
piditate  inflammatus  est  non  solum  inspiciendi,  verum  etiam  avferendi,  ut  Dio- 
dorum  ad  se  vocaret  ac  posceret  (pocula).  Ille,  qui  ilia  non  invitus  haberet, 
respondet  se  Lilybaei  non  habere :  Melitae  apud  quendam  propinquum  suum 
reliquisse.  Turn  iste  (Verres)  continuo  mittit  homines  certos  Melitam  ;  scribit 
ad  quosdam  Melitenses,  ut  ea  vasa  perquirant :  rogat  Diodorum,  ut  ad  ilium 
suum  propinquum  del  litteras  :  nihil  ei  longius  videbatur,  quam  dum  illud  vide- 
ret  argentum.  Diodorus,  homofrugi  ac  diligens,  qui  sua  servare  vellet,  ad  pro- 
pinquum suum  scribit,  ut  Us,  qui  a  Verre  venissent,  responderet,  illud  argentum 
se  paucis  illis  diebus  misisse  Lilybaeum.  We  here  see  how  the  historical 
present  is  followed  both  by  the  present  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and, 
on  the  whole,  the  imperfect  is  perhaps  the  more  frequent  of  the  two. 
Cic.,  in  Cat.,  iii.,  6,  Deinde  L.  Flaccus  et  C.  Pomptimis,  praetores,  quod  eorum 
opera  forti  usus  essem,  laudantur. 

[§  502.]  9.  The  peculiar  character  of  the  Latin  imper- 
fect, therefore,  is  to  express  a  repeated  action,  manners, 
customs,  and  institutions,  which  are  described  as  continu- 
ing at  some  given  period  of  the  past  time,  and  is  invari- 
ably used  where  in  English  the  compound  tense,  "  I  was 
writing,"  "he  was  waiting,"  is  employed. 
Socrates  diccre  solebat  (or  dicebat),  omnes  in  eo,  quod  sci- 

rent,  satis  esse  eloquentes,  Cic.,  DC  Orat.,  i.,  14. 
Anscrcs  Romac  publice  alebantur  in  Capitolio. 

Note  ] . — An  action  often  repeated,  however,  may  also  be  conceived  as  a 
simple  historical  fact,  and  accordingly  be  expressed  by  the  perfect.  Hence 
we  may  say,  Socrates  solitus  est  dicere,  just  as  well  as  solebat ;  but  the  idea 
is  different.  Solebat  reminds  us  of  the  whole  period  of  his  life  ;  whereas 
solitus  est  describes  the  habit  of  Socrates  simply  as  an  historical  fact. 

[§  503.]  Note  2.— It  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  epistolary  style  in  Latin  that 
the  writer  transfers  himself  to  the  time  at  which  the  letter  is  read  by  the 


346  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  ;  and  hence  the  writer  speaks  of  actions 
and  conditions  in  the  same  terms  as  he  would  use  if  he  were  present  at 
the  moment  the  letter  is  received.  In  consequence  of  this  he  frequently 
uses  the  imperfect  and  perfect,  where  in  English  we  should  use  the  pres- 
ent;  e.  g.,-Haec  scribebam  media  node,  I  write  this  at  midnight  (or  scripsi 
haec  media  nocte,  when  the  action  is  to  be  described  as  a  completed  one,  and 
not  as  going  on  at  the  time)  ;  Novi  nihil  nunc  erat  apud  nos,  siquidcm  certa 
tibi  afferri  vis,  there  are  no  news  here ;  Quae  ad  earn  diem,  quum  haec  scribe- 
bam,  audiveramus,  inanis  rumor  videbatur.  Diccbant  tamen,  &C.,  what  we 
have  heard  till  the  moment  I  write  this,  &c.  ;  but  people  say,  &c.  As 
these  preterites  are  only  formal,  they  may  be  joined  with  the  adverbs  nunc, 
ctiarnnunc ;  instead  of  which  real  preterites  would  require  tune  and  etiam- 
tum.  Comp.  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  v.,  16,  4  ;  xvi.,  3,  6;  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  iii.,  1,  2. 
But  this  peculiarity  is  very  frequently  not  observed. 

[§  504.]  10.  The  perfect  subjunctive  has  not  this  mean- 
ing of  an  aorist,  but  is  always  used  to  express  a  termina- 
ted action  with  reference  to  the  present  time,  and  thus 
completely  answers  to  the  perfect  in  English.  The  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  on  the  other  hand,  in  historical  narra- 
tives, has  the  aorist  sense  of  the  perfect  indicative,  when 
past  events  are  mentioned  (with  the  conjunction  utj,  with- 
out reference  to  the  action  or  condition  being  completed 
or  not. 

This  difference  is  easily  perceived ;  e.  g.,  puer  de  tecto 
decidit,  ut  crusfrcgcrit,  "the  boy  has  fallen  from  the  roof, 
?o  that  he  has  broken  his  leg,"  is  not  a  narrative,  but  the 
atement  of  an  event  completed  at  the  present  time ;  but 
puer  dc  tecto  decidit,  ut  crus  f ranger  ct,  "  the  boy  fell  from 
the  roof,  so  that  he  broke  his  leg,"  is  a  real  historical  nar- 
rative, for  the  perfect  decidit  is  here  used  in  its  aorist  sense, 
and  the  imperfect  subjunctive  supplies  its  place  in  the 
dependent  sentence. 

A  comparison  with  the  English  language  thus  leads  to 
this  conclusion,  that  the  perfect  and  imperfect  subjunctive 
are  used  in  Latin  in  the  same  sense  as  in  English ;  but 
the  perfect  indicative  in  Latin,  as  an  historical  tense,  an- 
swers to  the  English  imperfect,  and  the  Latin  imperfect 
indicative  to  the  English  paraphrased  tense  writh  "I  was" 
and  a  participle. 

Note. — The  principle  of  the  Latin  language  relative  to  the  use  of  the 
perfect  indicative  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive  in  historical  narratives  is 
attested  by  so  many  passages  that  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  mention  any 
in  confirmation  of  it.  But  we  must  observe  that  Latin  writers,  neverthe- 
less, sometimes  use  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  the  historical  sense,  which 
properly  belongs  only  to  the  indicative  of  this  tense.  This  may  have  arisen 
from  a  feeling  that  there  ought  to  be  a  tense  to  express  actions  in  their 
progress  in  a  dependent  sentence  (in  the  subjunctive),  since  the  imperfect 
originally  and  properly  expressed  a  continued  and  incomplete  action ;  and 
in  this  manner  we  account  for  the  perfect  subjunctive  which  now  and  then 


USE    OF    THE    TENSES.  347 

occurs  in  Cicero  after  the  historical  forms  inventus  est  or  fuit  •  e.  g.,  p. 
Muren.,  11,  inventus  est  scriba  quidam,  Gn.  Flavius,  qui  cornicum  oculos  con- 
fixerit  et  singulis  diebus  ediscendos  fastos  populo  proposucrit,  &c.  ;  in  Verr., 
iv.,  26,  Nulla  domus  in  Sicilia  locuples  fuit,  ubi  ille  non  textrinum  instituerit  ; 
for,  after  all,  if  the  construction  is  altered  so  as  to  make  the  dependent 
sentence  independent,  we  are  obliged  to  use  the  historical  tense  ;  i.  e.,  the 
perfect  indicative.  But  the  prevailing  custom  was  to  assign  to  the  imper- 
fect subjunctive  the  sense  of  an  aohst ;  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  in  an 


historical  narrative  can  only  be  regarded  as  an  exception  from  the  rule, 

ay  occur.    N< 
this  sense  more  frequently  than  other  writers ;  and  he  thereby"  shows  his 


however  frequently  it  may  occur.     Nepos  uses  the  perfect  subjunctive  in 


desire,  in  his  short  historical  sketches,  to  put  the  facts  one  by  the  side  of 
the  other,  rather  than  to  give  a  progressive  historical  narrative.  For  ex- 
ample, in  his  life  of  Hannibal,  where  he  says,  Hie  autem  velut  hereditate  re- 
lictum  odium  paternum  erga  Romanes  sic  conservavit,  ut  prius  animam,  quam. 
id,  deposuerit — Antiochum  tanta  cupiditatc  incendit  bclla?idi,  ut  usque  a  rubro 
mari  arma  conatu-s  sit  inferre  Italiae,  we  at  once  perceive  this  character  of 
his  style  ;  though  in  other  passages  he  uses  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  and 
gives  to  his  narrative  a  real  historical  character.  In  Livy,  too,  the  per- 
fect subjunctive  is  found  in  this  sense,  but  only  now  and  then,  and  more 
for  the  sake  of  variety  than  on  any  definite  principle  ;  hence,  when  in  i.,  3, 
he  says,  Tantum  tamen  opes  creverant,  ut  movcre  arma  ncc  Mezentius  nee  ulli 
alii  accolae  ausi  sint,  instead  of  the  more  usual  audcrent,  it  cannot  affect  the 
general  rule  concerning  the  consccutio  tcmporum. 

[§  505.]  11.  The  duration  and  completion  of  an  action 
in  reference  to  another  are  expressed  in  Latin  more  accu- 
rately than  in  English,  by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect. 
When  one  action  must  be  completed  before  another  can 
begin,  the  former  is  invariably  expressed  by  the  pluperf. ; 
e.  g.,  quum  domum  intr  asset,  qiium  in  forum  vcnisset,  ani- 
madvertit ;  quum  amicum  conspexisset,  dixit,  &c.,  "when 
he  had  entered  the  house,  he  perceived."  We  are  less 
accurate  in  saying  "  when  I  entered  the  house,  I  per- 
ceived," or  "  I  entered  the  house,  and  perceived."  But 
this  cannot  be  done  in  Latin,  and  the  pluperfect  is  used 
wherever  the  relation  of  the  actions  permits  it.  Exam- 
ples are  extremely  numerous. 

Lysander  quum  per  speculatorcs  compcr'tssct,  vulgum  AtJie- 
niensium  in  terrain  exisse  naucsqiic  paene  inanes  relictas, 
tempus  rei  gercndac  non  di?nisit,  Nep.,  Alcib.,  8. 
Note. — Considering  this  general  accuracy  of  the  Latin  language  in  ex- 
pressing the  natural  succession  of  actions,  which  is  evident,  also,  in  the 
application  of  the  participle  perfect  (see  §  635),  it  is  the  more  surprising 
that,  in  interrogative  expressions,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  so  fre- 
quently where  we  should  have  expected  the  pluperfect ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc., 
v.,  37,  Socrates  quam  rogaretur  (for  rogatus  esset)  cujatem  se   esse  dicerct, 
Mundanum,  inquit. 

[§  506.]  It  must  be  observed  here  (1)  that  the  conjunc- 
tion dum  (while,  as)  is  generally  joined  with  the  present 
indicative,  even  when  events  of  the  past  time  are  spoken 
of,  and  when  we  should  consequently  expect  either  the 


348  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

imperfect  or  perfect ;  e.  g.,  dum  paucas  res  retinere  nolo, 
omnes  fortunas  perdidi,  Cicero,  Dimn,,  17  ;  dum  expectat 
quidnam  .sibi  certi  afferatur,  ante  noctem  non  discessit ;  dum 
ego  in  Sicilia  sum,  nulla  statua  dejecta  est,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  66. 
(2)  That  in  historical  narratives  the  conjunctions postquam 
(or  posteaquam  J,  ubi,  ubi  primum,  ut,  ut  primum,  quum 
primum,  simul  ut,  simul  ac,  simul  atque  (or  simul  alone), 
all  of  which  are  equivalent  to  the  English  "as  soon  as," 
are  generally  joined  with  the  historical  perfect,  and  not 
with  the  pluperfect,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  suc- 
cession of  the  actions  indicated  by  these  conjunctions. 
Hence  we  say,  ubi  illud  audivit,  nuntium  ad  rcgcm  misit; 
ut  Lacedaemonem  venit,  adire  ad  magistratus  noluit ;  simul- 
atque  provincia  ei  obvcnit,  statim  quaerere  cocpit,  &c. 

Dum  ea  Romani  parant  consul  tantque,  jam  Saguntum 
summa  vi  oppugnabatur ,  Liv.,  xxi.,  7. 

Unus  ex  captivis  domum  abiit,  quod  Jallaci  reditu  in  castra 
jurejurando  se  cxsolvisset.  Quod  ubi  innotuit  relatumque 
ad  senatum  est,  omncs  censuerunt  comprehendendum  et 
custodibus  publice  datis  deducendum  ad  Hannibalem 
esse,  Liv.,  xxii.,  61. 

[<^  507.  a.]  Note  1.  —  Dum  (while),  with  the  present,  occurs  very  fre 
quently ;  but  it  is  very  surprising  to  find  it  sometimes  used  by  Livy  in 
transitions  from  one  event  to  another ;  for  example,  at  the  beginning  of 
the  38th  book,  Dum  in  Asia  bellum  geritur,  ne  in  Actolis  quidem  quietae  res 
fuerant.  Compare  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  i.,  40;  Heinrich  on  Cic.,  Part, 
ined.,  p.  75 ;  Heindorf  on  Horace,  Sat,,  i.,  5,  72.  However,  that  the  pres- 
ent is  not  absolutely  necessary,  is  proved  by  such  passages  as  Cic.,  j>. 
Rose.  Am.,  32,  Dum  Sulla  in  aliis  rebus  erat  occupatus,  erant  inter  ea,  qui  suis 
vulneribus  mederentur  ;  Liv.,  x.,  36,  dum  haec  in  Apulia  gerebantur,  Samnites 
— non  tenuerunt ;  Nep.,  Hann.,  2,  Quae  divina  res  dum  conficiebatur,^  quaesivit 
a  me.  The  perfect,  also,  is  sometimes  joined  with  d.um  ;  as,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  13, 
dum  voluerunt — sustulerunt.  Dum  in  the  sense  of  quamdiu  (as  long  as), 
however,  when  referring  to  the  past  time,  is  regularly  joined  with  the  im- 
perfect. 

[<$>  507.  b.~\  With  regard  to  our  rule  respecting  the  conjunctions  which 
signify  "as  soon  as,"  it  is  a  remarkable  point  that  the  Latins,  contrary  to 
their  usual  practice,  here  neglect  to  express  that  one  action  was  com- 
pleted before  the  second  began.  The  perfect  is  less  necessary,  for  its 
place  is  supplied  not  only  by  the  historical  present  (which  is  easily  ex- 
plained from  <)  501),  but  frequently  by  the  imperfect,  at  least  in  connexion 
with  the  principal  conjunction,  postquam;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  54,  Itaq-ue,postquam 
satis  virium  collectum  videbat,  e  suis  unum  Romam  ad  patrem  mittit ;  iii.,  4G, 
postquam — nemo  adibat,  domum  se  recepit ;  and  so  in  many  other  passages 
of  Livy.  But  the  surprising  point  is,  that  the  pluperfect  is  not  used,  even 
where  the  completion  of  the  action  introduced  by  those  conjunctions  is 
manifest;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  6,  posteaquam  victoria  (nobilitatis)  con- 
stituta  est  ab  armisque  recessimus — erat  ille  Romaefrequens.  There  are  only 
few  exceptions  in  which  the  pluperfect  is  used  ;  as  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  24, 
posteaquam  tantam  multitudinem  collegerat  emblematum — instituit  officinam 
Syracmis ;  and  hence  the  ordinary  mode  of  explaining  an  ablative  abso- 


UtiE    OF    THE    TBNtfErf.  349 

lute  by  postquam  with  the  pluperfect  cannot  be  approved  of.  It  is  only  in 
descriptions  of  repeated  conditions  in  the  past  time  that  the  pluperfect  is 
indispensable;  as,  Nep.,  Alcib.,  1,  Idem  simulac  se  remiserat  neque  causa 
suberat,  quare  animi  laborem  perferret,  luxuriosus  reperiebatur.  Postquam  13 
farther  joined  with  the  pluperfect  when  a  long  or  a  definite  space  of  time 
intervenes  between  a  preceding  and  a  subsequent  event,  so  that  there  is 
no  connexion  between  them ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Hann.,  8,  Hannibal  anno  tertio, 
postquam  domo  profugerat,  cum  quinque  navibus  Africam  accessit.  It  is  re- 
markable to  find,  also,  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  joined 
with  postquam  ;  as  in  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  4,  qui  posteaquam  maximas  aedi- 
faasset  ornassetque  classes — legatos  ac  litteras  misit  ;  and  p.  Cluent.,  64,  181  ; 
ad  Fam.,  ii.,  19.  They  may,  however,  be  explained  from  §  570.  The  pas- 
sage p.  Reg.  Deiot.,  13,  36,  is  doubtful. 

[<5>  508.]  Note  2. — The  pluperfect  is  sometimes  used  by  historians  instead 
of  the  historical  tense  merely  to  express  the  rapidity  with  which  actions 
succeed  one  another,  one  being  described  as  already  completed  before  any- 
thing else  could  begin  ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  x.,  17,  Nee  muris  urbis  luctus  contine- 
batur,  sed  proximam  regionem  ab  ea,  deinde  magnam  partem  Asiae  cis  Eu- 
phraten  tanti  mali  fama  pervaserat.  Here  the  pluperfect  is  used  without 
reference  to  a  subsequent  action,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  English,  "  the 
report  immediately  spread,"  &c. 

[§  509.]  12.  In  the  use  of  the  two  futures  the  Latin  lan- 
guage is  likewise  more  accurate  than  the  English.  For 
when  a  future  action  is  spoken  of,  either  in  the  future  or 
in  the  imperative  (or  in  the  subjunctive  used  impera- 
tively), and  another  is  joined  with  it,  which  has  not  yet 
come  to  pass,  the  latter,  also,  is  put  in  the  future,  if  the 
actions  are  conceived  as  continuing  together,  and  in  the 
future  perfect,  if  the  one  must  be  completed  before  the 
other  can  begin.  This  is  perfectly  in  accordance  with 
the  ideas  expressed  by  these  tenses  ;  but  it  must  be 
specially  mentioned,  because  in  English  we  often  use 
the  present  instead  of  the  future,  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  verbs  "I  can"  and  "I  will;"  e.  g.,faciam  si  potero, 
I  shall  do  it,  if  I  can ;  facito  hoc,  ubi  voles,  do  it  when  you 
will ;  because,  owing  to  the  awkwardness  of  the  future 
perfect,  we  frequently  supply  its  place  either  by  the  sim- 
ple future  or  by  the  present ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  De  Orat.,  ii.,  65, 
ut  sementcmfeceris,  ita  metes,  as  you  sow,  so  will  you  reap. 
We  must  here  draw  particular  attention  to  the  application 
of  the  future  perfect  in  hypothetical  sentences,  where  the 
conclusion  depends  upon  the  fulfilment  of  the  preceding 
condition ;  e.  g.,  si  invenero,  tecum  communicabo,  for  which 
we  very  inaccurately  say,  "  when  I  find  it,"  or  "  when  I 
have  found  it." 

Naturam  si  sequemur  ducem,  nwnquam  aberrcibimus,  Cic., 

De  Of.,  i.,  28. 

Adolescentes  quum  relaxare  animos  et  dare  se  jucunditati 
G  G 


350  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

volent,  caveant  intemperantiam,  meminerint  verecundiac, 

Cic.,  De  Off.,  i.,  34. 
De  Carthagine  vcren  non  ante  desinam,  quam  illam  cxci- 

sam  esse  cognovero,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  6. 
JMalevolentiae  hominum  in  me,  si  poteris,  occurres,  si  non 

potueris,  hoc  consolabe?'e,  quod  me  de  statu  mco  nullis  con- 

tumeliis  deterrcrc  possunt,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  11. 

[§  510.]  Note. — When  the  leading  sentence  contains  the  present  impera- 
tive, si  is  often  joined  with  the  present ;  as,  defende  si  poles  (Cic.,  Philip.,  ii., 
44) ;  perfice  si  potes  (Cic.,  7 We.,  i.,  8)  ;  expone  nisi  molestum  est  (ibid.,  i.,  12)  ; 
and  hardly  ever  with  the  future.  (See  Chap.  LXX1X.)  The  present 
with  si,  instead  of  the  future,  is  sometimes  found  also  in  other  connexions; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  2,  Si  reus  condemnatur,  dcsinent  homines  dicere,  his 
judiciis  pecuniam  plurimum  posse,  sin  absolvitur,  desinemus  nos  de  judiciis 
transfcrendis  recusare ;  and  very  frequently  in  the  comic  poets.  The  rule, 
however,  is  that  the  future  should  be  used.  Attention  was  above  directed 
to  the  practice  of  using  the  future  of  the  verbs  posse  and  velle  with  the  con- 
junction si,  and  with  the  same  accuracy  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  future 
perfect,  when  the  possibility  or  the  intention  of  doing  a  thing  must  be 
proved  before  the  action  relating  to  it  can  take  place.  Hence  we  say,  si 
voluero,  si  potuero,  si  licuerit,  si  placucrit,  si  otium  habucro,  instead  of  which 
we  should  use  either  the  present  or  future;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  43,  Ve- 
runtamcn,  Crito,  si  me  assequi  potueris,  sepelito  ;  de  Re  Publ.,  i.,  43,  Turn  Jit 
illud,  quod  apud  Platonem  est  luculente  dictum,  si  modo  id  exprimere  Latine 
potuero  ;  de  Leg.,  ii.,  18,  Plato,  si  modo  interpretari  potuero,  his  fere  verbis 
utitur,  for  he  must  have  made  the  attempt  to  translate  Plato  before  he  can 
make  him  speak.  See  Heinrich  on  Cic.,  de  Re  Publ.,  p.  48,  foil. 

[$  511.]  We  add  the  following  remarks  on  the  farther  use  of  the  future 
perfect.  As  this  tense  expresses  a  future  action  as  completed,  it  acquires 
the  meaning  of  the  simple  future,  implying,  however,  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  action  will  be  completed.  This  occurs,  in  the  first  place,  when 
another  future  perfect,  or  any  other  tense  supplying  its  place,  is  contained 
in  the  leading  sentence,  so  that  the  two  actions  are  contemporaneous ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  X.,  13,  Qui  M.  Antonium  oppresserit,  is  helium  confecerit ; 
in  Verr.,  ii.,  62,  Da  mihi  hoc  (i.  e.,  si  hoc  mihi  dederis),  jam  tibi  maximam  par- 
tem  defensionis  praecideris ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  54,  non  aggrediar  narrare,  quae  cdis- 
sertando  (i.  e.,  si  edissertavcro)  minora  vero  fecero  ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  v.,  1,  Tu 
invita  mulieres,  ego  accivcro  pueros.  But  the  future  perfect  has  the  meaning 
of  a  quickly  completed  future  action,  also,  without  any  such  express  rela- 
tion to  another  action;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  33,  sed  medius  fidius,  multo 
citius  meam  salutem  pro  te  abjecero,  quam  Cn.  Plancii  salutem  tradidero  ;  ad 
Ait.,  iii.,  19,  Nusquam  facilius  hanc  miserrimam  vitam  vel  sustentabo,  vel,  quod 
est  melius,  abjecero  ;  ix.,  7,  De  trhnnpho  tibi  assentior :  quem  quidem  totum  facile 
et  libenter  abjecero  ;  de  Re  Publ.,  i.,  13,  Nihil  est  adhuc  disputatum,  et  quoniam 
est  integrum,  libenter  tibi,  Laeli,  ut  de  eo  disseras,  equidem  concessero.  This  is 
particularly  frequent  with  the  future  perfect  videro,  because  the  act  of  see- 
ing is  most  easily  accomplished  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  viii.,  33,  Videro  cessurusne  pro- 
vocationi  sis,  cui  rex  Romanus  Tullus  Hostilius  cessit,  which  is  not  irrecon- 
cilable with  the  expressions  max,  post,  alias,  alio  loco  videro,  for  a  rapid 
completion  can  only  be  spoken  of  at  the  moment  when  the  action  is  be- 
ginning; e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  10,  35,  quaefuerit  causa,  max  videro ;  de  Re 
Publ.,  ii.,  9,  habuit  plebem  in  clientelas  principum  descriptam,  quod  quantae 
fuerit  utilitati,  post  videro  ;  Acad.,  ii.,  44,  recte  secusne,  alias  viderimus. 
Hence  this  mode  of  speaking  generally  implies,  that  for  the  moment  a 
thing  is  to  be  dismissed  from  our  thoughts,  and  can  scarcely  be  taken  into 
serious  consideration.  In  the  comic  writers  the  future  perfect  is  still 
more  frequently  used  instead  of  the  simple  future. 


USE    OF    THE    TENSES.  351 

[§  512.]  13.  The  tenses  of  the  indicative  may  be  con- 
nected in  any  way  which  the  intention  of  the  speaker 
may  require ;  e.  g.,  I  am  writing  now,  but  this  time  yes- 
terday I  took  a  walk ;  I  know  the  person  whom  you  will 
see  to-morrow.  But  in  dependent  sentences,  that  is,  in 
the  subjunctive,  similar  tenses  alone  can  be  connected 
with  one  another,  that  is,  the  tenses  of  the  present  (pres- 
ent and  perfect)  and  the  tenses  of  the  past  (imperfect  and 
pluperfect).  In  the  rules  respecting  what  is  usually  called 
the  succession  of  tenses,  lout,  more  correctly,  the  dependence 
of  sentences  upon  one  another,  everything  depends  upon 
the  time,  for  the  present  time  is  suited  only  to  the  present, 
and  the  past  to  the  past;  the  relation  of  an  action  depend- 
ing only  upon  itself  is  never  doubtful.  Hence  we  have 
only  to  remember  that  the  perfect  naturally,  and  in  the 
subjunctive  always,  expresses  the  present  time,  and  that, 
consequently, 

The  Present  and  Perfect  are  followed  by  a  Present 
and  Perfect,  and 

The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  by  an  Imperfect  and 

Pluperfect ; 

E.  g.,  scio  quid  agas  and  scio  quid  cgcris ;  audivi  quid 
agas  and  audivi  quid  egeris ;  but  sciebam  quid  ageres 
and  sciebam  quid  egisses ;  audiveram  quid  ageres  and 
audiveram  quid  egisses. 

Note. — The  Latin  language,  however,  .is  not  so  constrained  as  not  to 
be  able,  in  cases  where  the  sense  requires  it,  to  make  presents  dependent 
upon  preterites,  and  preterites  upon  presents.  It  is  sometimes  necessary 
that  a  preterite  should  be  followed  by  a  present,  viz.,  when  the  result  of  a 
past  action  extends  to  the  present  time  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  88,  Ardebat  autem 
Hortensius  cupiditate  dicendi  sic,  ut  in  nullo  unquam  flagrantius  studium  vidc- 
ri?n,  that  is,  that  up  to  this  time  I  have  never  seen ;  Nep.,  Aristid.,  1, 
Quamquam  adeo  exccllebat  Aristides  abstinentia,  ut  unus  post  hoininum  memo- 
riam  cognomine  Justus  sit  appellatus  :  tatnen  a  Thcmistocle  collabefactus  testwla 
ilia  exilio  decem  annorum  multatus  est.  Here,  too,  the  perfect  subjunctive 
makes  the  dependent  sentence  proceed  from  the  past,  or  the  time  to  which 
the  action  of  the  leading  verb  belongs  ;  and  the  result,  combined  with  the 
author's  opinion,  is  extended  to  the  present  time  :  "  he  was  the  only  one  in 
the  whole  range  of  history,  down  to  the  present  time,  that  was  surnamed 
the  Just."  Such  variations  must  be  admissible,  although  no  special  rule 
is  given  on  their  account,  for  they  do  not  often  occur.  (Comp.  iny  note  on 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  10,  in  fin.,  and  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  20,  init.)  A  preterite,  on 
the  other  hand,  might  follow  a  present,  when  the  dependent  sentence  is  to 
express  a  continuing  action  in  the  past,  as  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  11,  Scitote 
oppidum  esse  in  Sicilia  nullum  ex  Us  oppidis,  in  quibus  consistcre  praetores  et 
conventum  agere  soleant,  quo  in  oppido  non  isti  delecta  mulier  ad  libidinem  esset 
(esset  here  alludes  to  the  whole  period  of  the  praetorship),  but  such  sen- 
tences can  only  be  considered  as  exceptions,  andfucrit  would  be  more  reg- 
ular. There  are  also  passages  in  ancient  writers  which  cannot  be  ex- 
plained, and  must  be  considered  as  irregularities  :  see  my  note  on  Cic.,m 


352  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Verr.,  i.,  30,  75;  and  thus  we  sometimes  find,  especially  in  Caesar,  an  ir- 
regular transition  from  the  preterite  of  the  leading  verb  to  the  present  of 
the  dependent  one.  We  cannot  here  enter  upon  the  detail  of  such  mat- 
ters, and  we  shall  only  add  the  remark  that,  when  the  hypothetical  imper- 
fect subjunctive  is  followed  by  a  present  or  perfect  subjunctive,  the  above 
rule  is  not  violated,  because  the  imperfect  of  the  subjunctive  refers  to  the 
present  time  ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Cat.,  7,  Memorare  possem  (differs  from  memo- 
rare  possum  only  by  the  hypothetical  form  of  the  expression),  quibus  in  locis 
maximas  hostium  capias  populus  Romanus  parva  manu  fuderit,  quas  urbes,  na- 
tura  munitas,  pugnando  ceperit,  ni  ea  res  longius  nos  ab  incepto  traheret.  (Fu- 
disset  would  have  continued  the  hypothetical  expression,  but  actual  facts 
are  here  meant.)  But  even  in  cases  like  this  the  imperfect  is  generally 
used  in  the  dependent  sentence  for  the  sake  of  the  succession  of  tenses ; 
as,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  8,  Quid  enim  me  prohiberet  Epicureum  esse,  si  probarem 
quae  ille  diceret,  quum  praesertim  ilia  perdiscere  ludus  esset,  where  we  should 
have  expected  dicit  and  sit ;  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  66,  A.  Caecinam  non  commenda- 
rem  tibi,  quum  scirem,  qua  fide  in  tuos  soleres  esse,  nisi  me  patris  ejus  memoria 
moveret,  where  we  might  say  sciam  and  solcas.  Similar  expressions  occur 
frequently  ;  comp.  Cic.,  Philip.,  v.,  18,  in  fin. ;  de  Off.,  ii.,  14,  in  fin. ;  Tusc., 
i.,  21,  init. 

[§  513.]  The  simple  rule  respecting  the  succession  of 
r-  tenses  becomes  somewhat  difficult  through  the  double  sig- 
nification of  the  perfect  indicative.  In  the  above  rule  it 
was  treated  only  as  the  present  of  a  completed  action  (in 
which  sense  it  is  equivalent  to  the  English  perfect) ;  but 
as  it  is  at  the  same  time  an  aorist  of  the  past  (see  §  500), 
it  is  also  connected  with  the  tenses  of  the  past  time,  viz., 
with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect.  In  this  sense  the  Lat- 
in perfect  is  translated  by  the  English  imperfect.  The 
above  rule,  therefore,  will  be  completed  by  the  following 
addition  : 

The  historical  perfect  is  followed  by  the  imperfect  and 
pluperfect. 

E.  g.,  Audivi  quid  ageres  and  audivi  quid  egisses.  The 
two  meanings  of  the  perfect  and  their  influence  upon  the 
tense  of  the  dependent  verb  may  be  seen  in  the  following 
sentences : 

Verres  Siciliam  per  triennium  ita  vexavit  ac  perdidit,  ut  ea 
restitui  in  antiquum  statum  nullo  modo  possit,  says  Cic- 
ero (in  Verr.,  iv.,  init.)  with  reference  to  the  actual  state 
of  Sicily. 

Conon  quum  patriam  obsideri  audissct,  non  quaesivit,  ubi 
ipse  tuto  viveret,  sed  unde  praesidio  posset  esse  civibus 
suis,  says  Nepos  (Con.,  2),  in  speaking  of  past  events. 

[()  514.]  Note  1. — We  may  in  general  be  guided  by  the  English  language, 
as  we  translate  the  Latin  historical  perfect  by  our  imperfect.  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  Latins,  owing  to  the  very  frequent  use  of 
the  perfect  as  an  aorist  of  the  past  or  an  historical  tense,  became  so  ac- 
customed to  its  connexion  with  the  imperfect,  that  in  many  cases  they 
used  this  tense  even  where  the  Latin  perfect  is  equivalent  to  the  English 


USE    OF    THE    TENSES.  353 

perfect ;  but  this  occurs  only  when  there  is  a  possibility  of  conceiving  the 
action  in  its  progress,  and  not  merely  its  conclusion  or  result.  Thus  Cic- 
ero (in  Verr.,  i.,  1)  says,  adduxi  enim  hominem,  in  quo  satisfacere  exteris  na- 
tionibus  possetis,  in  whom  you  may  satisfy,  &c.  In  the  same  manner,  Q. 
Cicero  says  at  the  close  of  an  explanation  (de  Petit.  Cons.,  4),  quoniam  quae 
subsidia  novitatis  haberes,  et  habere  posses,  exposui,  nunc  de  magnitudine  peti- 
tionis  dicam.  In  these  sentences  we  should  require  adduxi  hominem,  in  quo 
satisfacere  possitis,  and  quoniam  exposui,  quae  subsidia  habeas  et  habere  possis, 
which  would  not  be  wrong  by  any  means,  but  it  would  be  against  the  usage 
of  the  Latin  language  ;  for  the  Latins  conceived  the  action  in  its  duration, 
while  we  describe  it,  together  with  its  result,  by  the  perfect,  and  this  is  the 
case  more  especially  when  the  acting  person  had  an  intention  accompany- 
ing him  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  action.  We  say,  for  exam- 
ple, "  I  have  done  this  that  you  may  see,"  and  the  Latin  fed  hoc,  ut  intelli- 
gas,  would  not  be  wrong ;  but  as  it  was  my  intention  from  the  beginning,  it 
is  preferable  to  say  fed  hoc,  ut  intelligcres,  although  I  am  not  relating  events, 
but  speaking  with  reference  to  the  present  time.  (Cornp.  Cic.,  Philip.,  ix., 
2,  §  5,  where  restaret  is  quite  correct.)  Hence  such  sentences  as,  diu  du- 
bitavi  num  melius  sit,  saepe  mecum  cogitavi  quidnam  causae  sit,  would  sound 
strange  to  a  Latin  ear  ;  and  the  more  correct  mode  of  speaking  is,  diu  du- 
bitavi  num  melius  esset  and  saepe  cogitavi  quidnam  causae  esset,  and  the  words 
diu  and  saepe  indicate  that  the  perfects  dubitavi  and  cogitavi  are  conceived, 
as  it  were,  as  an  aggregate  of  single  doubts  and  thoughts,  which  them- 
selves belong  to  the  past  time,  while  the  conclusion  extends  to  the  present. 
But  the  rule  is  not  upset  by  this  remark,  for  when  the  sentence  following 
does  not  refer  to  the  separate  parts  of  the  action,  but  exclusively  to  the  re- 
sult, the  perfect  is  followed  by  the  present ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  6,  Ego 
meis  rebus  gestis  hoc  sum  assecutus,  ut  bonum  nomen  existimer  ;  Eutrop.,  viii., 
2,  Trajanus  rempublicam  ita  administravit,  ut  omnibus  principibus  merito  prae- 
feratur.  These  are  the  results  of  completed  actions,  and  not  intentions' 
continuing  along  with  the  actions.  The  present  may  be  used  in  subordi- 
nate and  dependent  sentences-,  even  after  an  historical  perfect,  if  that 
which  is  to  be  expressed  is  universal,  and  not  valid  for  that  time  only 
which  is  indicated  by  the  leading  verb  ;  e.  g.,  Justin,  xxxi.,  8,  Antiocho  pa- 
cem  petenti  ad  priores  condiciones  nihil  additum,  Africano  praedicante,  neque 
Romanis,  si  vincantur,  animos  minui,  neque,  si  vincant,  secundis  rebus  insoles- 
cere.  Here  the  presents  express  the  fact  of  the  Romans  not  losing  their 
courage  in  misfortune,  and  of  their  not  being  insolent  in  prosperity,  as  pe- 
culiar characteristics  of  the  Romans,  and  as  true  at  all  times  ;  if  the  im- 
perfect had  been  used,  it  would  not,  indeed,  have  been  implied  that  at  any 
other  time  the  statement  was  not  true,  but  the  universality  would  not  have 
been  so  clearly  expressed. 

[$  515.]  Note  2. — The  remaining  question  now  is  this  :  when  the  lead- 
ing verb  is  a  present,  or  (according  to  §  516)  a  future,  and  the  infinitive  of 
a  completed  action  is  dependent  on  it,  is  it  necessary  to  put  the  verbs  de- 
pendent upon  this  infinitive  in  the  present  or  the  preterite,  that  is,  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  depends 
upon  another,  viz.,  as  to  whether,  on  changing  the  infinitive  into  the  per- 
fect indicative,  this  tense  is  the  real  perfect  or  the  aorist?  When  this  is 
ascertained,  the  decision  is  easy,  according  to  the  two  preceding  para- 
graphs, and  we  may  say,  e.  g  ,  satis  mihi  midtas  causas  attulisse  videor, 
quamobrem  tibi  in  Italiam profidscendum  sit,  I  think  I  have  mentioned  to  you 
sufficient  reasons  why  you  should  go  to  Italy  ;  and  in  this  manner  Cicero 
(p.  Cluent.,  24)  says,  nisi  docet,  ita  se  possedisse  (that  he  has  taken  posses- 
sion), ut  nee  vi  nee  clam  nee  precario  possederit.  But  the  usage  of  the  Latin 
language  is  nevertheless  different,  the  perfect  infinitive  being  like  the  per- 
fect indicative  (§  514),  usually  followed  either  by  the  imperf.  or  pluperf. 
subjunctive.  Hence  the  above  sentence  should  be  quamobrem  in  Italiam 
tibi  profidscendum  esset;  compare  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  10,  satis  mihi  multa 
verbafedsse  videor,  quare  esset  hoc  helium  genere  ipso  necessarium,  magnitudine 
G  G  2 


354  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

periculosum,  although  reference  is  here  made  to  the  present  time,  and 
although  we  should  say,  "  why  this  war  is  necessary  ;"  in  Verr.,  i.,  12,  hoc 
me  profiteor  suscepissc  magnum  fortasse  onus  et  mihi  periculosum,  verumtamen 
dignum,  in  quo  omnes  nervos  aetatis  industriaeque  meae  contenderem.  Both 
tenses  are  found  combined  in  Cic.,  p.  Caec.,  13,  Quid  proficies,  quum  illi  hoc 
respondebunt  tibi,  quod  tu  nunc  mihi :  armatos  tibi  obstitisse,  ne  in  aedes  acce- 
deres,  dejici  porro  nullo  modo  potuisse,  qui  non  accesserit. 

[§  516.]  The  futures  are  similar  to  the  tenses  of  the 
present,  for  only  that  which  is  past  stands  apart  and  by 
itself.  Hence,  a  future  is  followed  by  a  present  or  a  per- 
fect ;  e.  g.,  mox  intelligam,  quantum  me  amcs  or  amaveris, 
but  not  quantum  me  amares  or  amasses.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  the  future  perfect :  si  cognovcro,  quemadmodum 
te  geras  or  te  gesscris.  But  as  the  four  subjunctives  of  the 
conjugatio  periplirastica  (formed  by  the  future  participle 
and  esse)  are  regarded  as  subjunctives  of  the  futures,  we 
must  add  that  these  paraphrased  tenses  may  be  depend- 
ent upon  preterites  (see  the  examples  in  §  497),  and  that 
a  mutual  dependence  exists  between  the  presents  and 
futures,  but  only  a  partial  one  between  the  preterites  and 
futures,  since  the  futures  only  may  depend  upon  preter- 
ites, but  not  vice  versa  ;  e.  g.,  ignorabam  quid  dicturus 
csset,  but  not  discam  quid  licrifaccres,  for  discam  quid  hcri 
feceris. 

The  complete  rule  respecting  the  succession  offenses, 
therefore,  is  this  :  the  tenses  of  the  present  and  future, 
i.  e.,  the  present,  perfect  (in  its  proper  sense),  and  the 
two  futures  are  followed  by  the  tenses  of  the  present, 
i.  e.,  by  the  present  and  the  perfect  subjunctive ;  and  the 
tenses  of  the  past,  i.  e.,  the  imperfect,  pluperfect,  and  the 
historical  perfect,  are  followed  by  the  tenses  of  the  past, 
i.  e.,  by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive. 


IV.   OF  THE  MOODS. 

CHAPTER  LXXVI. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

[§517.]  1.  THE  indicative  is  used  in  every  proposition 
the  substance  of  which  is  expressed  absolutely  and  as  a 
fact ;  e.  g.,  I  go,  thou  wrotest,  he  believed. 

Hence  the  indicative  is  used  even  in  the  expression  of 
conditions  and  suppositions  with  the  particles  «",  nisi,  ctsi, 
and  etiamsi,  if  without  that  expression  an  event  is  sup- 
posed actually  to  take  place  or  (with  nisi)  not  to  take 
place. 


INDICATIVE    MOOD.  355 

Mors  aut  plane  negligenda  est,  si  omnino  extinguit  animum, 

aut  etiam  optanda,  si  aliquo  eum  deducit,  ubi  sitfuturus 

aeternus,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,,19. 
Si  feceris  id,  quod  ostendis,  magnam  habebo  gratiam,  si 

non  feceris,  ignoscam,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  19. 
Adlmc  certe,  nisi  ego  insanio,  stulte  omnia  et  incaute  fiunt, 

Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  10. 
Ista  veritas,  etiamsi  jucunda  7ion  est,  mihi  tamen  grata  est, 

Cic.,  ad  Att.,  iii.,  24,  in  fin. 

Note.— The  conjunctions  si  and  nisi  express  nothing  else  but  a  relation 
of  one  sentence  to  another  ;  that  is,  the  relation  of  condition  or  exception  : 
one  thing  is  on  condition  that  another  is  ;  and  one  thing  is,  except  in  the 
case  of  another  being,  &c.  Sentences  which  stand  in  this  relation  to  each 
other  are  expressed  by  the  indicative  ;  i.  e.,  objectively  or  in  the  form  of 
reality.  All  expression  of  our  own  opinion  is  avoided,  lor  this  would  be 
expressed  by  the  subjunctive.  In  using  the  indicative,  I  do  not  express 
any  opinion  as  to  the  possibility  or  impossibility  of  a  thing ;  but,  without 
any  comment,  I  suppose  a  thing  as  actual,  or  (with  nisi)  I  make  an  excep- 
tion, which  may  be  or  rnay  not  be,  but  which  I  take  as  actual  for  the  sake 
of  the  inference. 

[§518.]  2.  The  following  peculiarities  deserve  to  be 
noticed  as  differing  from  the  English  : 

The  verbs  oportet,  necesse  est,  debeo,  convenit,  possum, 
licet  and  par,  fas,  aequum,justum,  consentaneum  est,  or  ae- 
quius,  mclius,  utilius,  optabilius  est,  are  put  in  the  indica- 
tive of  a  preterite  (imperf.,  pluperf.,  and  the  historical  per- 
fect), where  we  should  have  expected  the  imperfect  or 
pluperfect  subjunctive.  The  imperfect  indicative  in  this 
case  expresses  things  which  are  not,  but  the  time  for  which 
is  not  yet  passed  ;  and  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  indica- 
tive things  which  have  not  been,  but  the  time  for  which  is 
passed ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  w  Cat.,  i.,  1,  Ad  mortem  te  duci  jam  pridcm 
oportebat,  i.  e.,  thy  execution  was  necessary  and  is  still  so; 
hence  it  ought  to  take  place.  In  going  back  to  the  begin- 
ning, however,  the  speaker  might  have  used  the  pluper- 
fect with  this  meaning :  u  thy  execution  ought  to  have  ta- 
ken place  long  ago."  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  iii.,  10,  perturbationes 
animorum  poteram  ego  morbos  appellare,  sed  non  convejiiret 
ad  omnia,  I  might  have  called  them,  and  might  do  so  still ; 
Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  si  mihi  omnes,  ut  erat  aequum,faverent, 
it  was  fair,  and  is  still  fair,  but  it  does  not  happen  to  be  the 
case.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect,  on  the  other  hand, 
clearly  express  that  all  is  over;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  16, 
Volumnia  debuit  in  te  officiosior  csse,  et  id  ipswn,  quod  fe- 
cit, potuitfacere  diligentius  ;  p.  Murcn.,  25,  Catilina  crupit 
e  senatu  triumphans  gaudio,  qucm  omnino  vivum  illinc  exire 


356  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

non  oportuerat ;  Curt.,  iii.,  9,  longe  utilms  fuit  angustias 
aditus  occupare,  it  would  have  been  much  better  to  occupy 
the  pass.  In  the  paraphrased  conjugation  with  the  parti- 
ciple future  active  and  passive,  too,  the  preterites  of  the 
indicative  very  frequently  have  the  meaning  of  a  subjunct- 
ive ;  e.  g.,  Ovid,  Her.,  xvi.,  152,  tarn  bona  constanter  pracda 
tenenda  fuit,  ought  to  have  been  kept.  This  is  the  case 
more  especially  in  hypothetical  sentences.  (§  519.)  The 
subjunctive  in  independent  sentences  is  much  less  frequent 
than  the  indicative;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Epam.,  4,  Plurima  quidem 
proferre  posscmus,  sed  modus  adhibcndus  est. 

Chaldaei  oculorum  fallacissimo  sensu  judicant  ca,  quac  ra- 
tione  atqiic  animo  videre  dcbcbant,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  43. 

Aut  non  suscipi  bellum  oportuit,  aut  geri  pro  dignitate  pop- 
uli  Romani,  Liv.,  v.,  4. 

Is  (Tib.  Gracchus)  fugiens  decurrcnsque  clivo  Capitolino, 
Jragminc  subscllii  ictus,  vitam,  quam  gloriosissime  degere 
potucrat,  immatura  morte  Jinivit,  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  3. 

[§  519.  a.]  Note  1. — This  indicative  supplying  the  place  of  the  subjunct- 
ive is  frequently  retained  even  when  an  hypothetical  sentence  with  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  added;  and  it  is  here  in  particular 
that  the  indicative  of  the  preterites  of  the  paraphrased  conjugation  is  em- 
ployed ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  38,  Omnibus  eum  contumeliis  oncrasti,  quern 
patris  loco,  si  ulla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colere  debebas  ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  85,  quae  si 
dubia  aut  procul  essent,  tamen  omnes  bonos  rei  publicae  consulere  decebat ;  Liv., 
xlii.,  34,  Quodsi  mihi  nee  omnia  stipendia  emerita  essent,  necdum  aetas  vacatio- 
nem  daret,  tamen  aequum  erat  me  dimitti  •  Cic..  p.  Leg.  Man.,  17,  Quodsi  Cn. 
Pompcius  privatus  esset  hoc  tempore,  tamen  erat  mittendus.  With  the  perfect, 
Liv.,  xxxii.,  12,  deleri  totus  exercitus  potuit,  si  fugientes  persecuti  victores  es- 
sent •  Cic.,  de  Re  Publ.,  i.,  6,  Consul  esse  qui  potui,  nisi  eum  vitae  cursum  ten- 
uissem  ;  in  Vatin.,  1,  Etenim  debuisti,  Vatini;  etiamsi  falso  venisses  in  suspi- 
cionem  P.  Sextio,  tamen  mihi  ignoscere  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  61,  Quern  homincm,  si 
qui  pudor  in  te,  atque  adeo  si  qui  metus  fuisset,  sine  supplicio  dimittere  non 


buisti,  hunc  abs  te  sine  praemio  discedere  noluisti ;  p.  Milan.,  11,  quodsi  ita  pu- 
tasset,  certe  optabilius  Miloni  fuit  dare  jugulum  ;  ibid.,  22,  quos  nisi  manumi- 
sisset,  tormentis  etiam  dedendi  fuerunt  ;  Petron.,  94,  Si  te-non  invenissem,  peri- 


turns  per  praecipitia  fui.  See,  also,  §  498  and  499.  But  the  subjunctive 
is  also  admissible,  as  in  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  iii.,  7,  in  fin.,  dedendi  fuissent ;  and 
£.  Lig.,  7,  in  fin.,  periturus  fuissem  (according  to  the  common  reading) ;  de 
Vivin.,  ii.,  8,  §  21. 

Res  publica  poterat  esse  perpetua,  si  patriis  viveretur  institutis  et  moribus,  Cic., 

de  Re  Publ.,  iii.,  29. 
Nisifelicitas  in  socordiam  vertisset,  exucre  jugum  potucrunt,  Tacit.,  Agr.,  31. 

[$  519.  6.]  Independent  of  this  use  of  the  indicative,  instead  of  the  sub- 
junctive, to  express  that  which  might  or  should  have  taken  place,  the  his- 
torians use  the  indicative  of  a  preterite  instead  of  the  pluperfect  subjunct- 
ive to  express  that  which  would  actually  have  taken  place,  in  sentences 
containing  the  inference  from  an  hypothetical  sentence,  although  the 

S  remises  are  not  true.     This  figure  (i.  e.,  a  mode  of  expression  differing 
:om  the  ordinary  one),  which  is  only  intended  to  render  a  description  more 
animated,  is  used  in  the  first  place  when  a  part  of  the  inference  has  al- 


INDICATIVE    MOOD.  357 

ready  come  to  pass,  and  would  have  been  completely  realized  if  some- 
thing else  had  occurred,  or,  more  frequently,  if  some  obstacle  had  not  been 
thrown  in  the  way,  whence  the  adverb  jam  is  frequently  added  ;  e.  g.,  Liv., 
iv.,  52,  jam  fames  quam  pestilentia  tristior  erat,  ni  annonae  foret  subventum  ; 
Tacit.,  Hist.,  iii.,  46,  jamque  castra  legionum  excindere  parabant,  ni  Mucianus 
sextam  legionem  opposuisset ;  the  same  is  also  expressed  by  coepisse,  in  such 
passages  as  Tacit.,  Agr.,  37,  Britanni  degredi  paulatim  et  circumire  terga 
vincentium  coeperant :  ni  id  ipsum  veritus  Agricola  quattuor  equitum  alas  veni- 
entibus  opposuisset.  Without  the  adverb  jam;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  35, 
Germanicus  ferrum  a  latere  deripuit,  elatumque  deferebat  in  pectus  (thus  much 
he  actually  did  do,  and  he  would  have  accomplished  his  design),  niproximi 
prensam  dextram  vi  attinuissent ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iii.,  14,  effigies  Pisonis  trax- 
erant  in  Gemonias  ac  divellebant  (and  would  have  entirely  destroyed  them), 
ni  jussu  principis  protectae  forent.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  are  likewise 
used  in  this  sense,  and  a  thing  which  was  never  accomplished  is  thus,  in 
a  lively  manner,  described  as  completed  :  Sueton.,  Caes.,  52,  et  eadem  nave 
paene  Aethiopia  tenus  Aegyptum  penetravit,  nisi  exercitus  sequi  recusasset  ; 
paene  or  prope  is  frequently  added  in  such  cases  (even  without  an  hypo- 
thetical sentence  ;  as,  prope  oblitus  sum,  I  had  nearly  forgotten) ;  Flor.,  iv., 
1,  et  peractum  erat  bellum  sine  sanguine,  si  Pompeium  opprimerc  Brundisii 
(Caesar)  potuisset ;  Plin.,  Paneg.,  8,  temere  fecerat  Nerva,  si  adoptassct  alium 
(non  Trajanum).  In  Cicero,  however,  this  use  of  the  indicative  occurs 
only  in  a  few  passages ;  as  in  Verr.,  v.,  49,  si  per  Metellum  licitum  esset, 
matres  illorum  miserorum  sororesque  veniebant ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  19,  labebar  longius, 
nisi  me  retinuissem  ;  ad  Fam.,  xii.,  10,  Praeclare  viceramus,  nisi  spoliatum,  iner- 
mem,  fugientem  Lepidus  recepisset  Antonium.  The  imperfect  indicative  is 
sometimes,  though  rarely,  used  also  for  the  imperfect  subjunctive  when 
the  hypothetical  part  of  the  sentence  does  not  contain  a  pluperfect,  but  an 
imperfect  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  19,  Admonebat  me  res,  ut  hoc 
quoque  loco  intermissionem  eloquentiae,  ne  dicam  interitum,  deplorarem,  ni 
vererer,  ne  de  me  ipso  aliquid  viderer  queri ;  Quintil.,  ii.,  8,  8,  nam  et  omnino 
supervacua  erat  doctrina,  si  natura  sufficeret ;  iv.,  1,11,  stultum  erat  monere, 
nisifieret. 
Pons  sublicius  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vir  fuisset,  Horatius  Codes, 

qui,  &c.,  Liv.,  ii.,  10. 
Actum  erat  de  pulcherrimo  imperio,  nisi  ilia  conjuratio  (Catilinae)  in  Ciceronem 

consulem  incidisset,  Flor.,  iv.,  1. 

[§  520.]  Note  2. — When  we  in  English  use  the  expressions  "  I  ought" 
or  "  I  should,"  without  implying  impossibility,,  the  Latins  express  the 
same  meaning  by  the  present  indicative ;  e.  g.,  debes  esse  diligentior  or  dili- 
gentiorem  te  esse  oportet,  you  ought  to  be  more  diligent.  The  subjunctive 
in  this  case  would  be  quite  foreign  to  the  Latin  idiom.  In  the  same  man- 
ner, the  present  indicative  possum  is  frequently  used  for  possem;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
in  Verr.,  i.,  47,  Possum  sexcenta  deer  eta  prof erre  ;  and  it  is  the  common  cus- 
tom to  say  difficile  est,  longum  est,  infinitum  est ;  e.  g.,  narrare,  for  which  we 
should  say  "  it  would  be  difficult,"  "it  would  lead  too  far,"  "  there  would 
be  no  end,"  &c.  See  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  42. 

[521.]  3.  The  Latins  commonly  use  the  indicative  after 
many  general  and  relative  expressions,  some  fact  being 
implied.  This  is  the  case  after  tho  pronouns  and  relative 
adverbs,  which  are  either  doubled  or  have  the  suffix  cunque: 
quisquis,  quotquot,  quicunque,  quantuscunquc,  quantulus- 
cunque,  utut,  utcunque,  and  the  others  mentioned  in  §  130 
and  288;  e.  g.,  Utcunque  sese  res  kabet,  tua  est  culpa,  how- 
ever this  may  be,  the  fault  is  thine ;  quicunque  is  est,  who- 
ever he  may  be. 


358  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Quidquid  id  est,  timeo  Danaos  et  donaferentes,  Virg.,  Aen., 

ii.,  49. 
Quern   sors  dierum   cunque  dabit,   lucro  appone,   Horat., 

Carm.,  i.,  9,  14. 

Note. — Other  examples  are,  Cic.,  p.  Lig.,  7,  sed  quoquo  modo  sese  illud 
habet ;  haec  querela  vestra,  Tubero,  quid  valet  ?  Par  ad. ,  2,  quocunque  adspexisti, 
utfuriae,  sic  tuae  tibi  occurrunt  injuriae,  and  in  the  same  manner  we  must 
read  in  p.  Milon.,  init.,  tamen  haec  novi  judicii  nova  forma  ferret  oculos,  qui, 
quocunque  inciderunt,  veterem  consuetudinem  fori  requirunt,  where  Ernesti, 
mistaking  the  usage  of  the  Latin  language,  edited  inciderint.  See  Heusin- 
ger,  Praef.  ad  Cic.,  de  Off.,  p.  lv.  (xl.).  In  de  Orat.,  iii.,  50,  also,  we  now 
read  versus  debilitatur,  in  quacunque  est  parte  titubatum,  where  formerly  sit 
was  read.  Later  writers,  however,  join  these  general  relatives,  and 
sive — sive  (of  which  we  shall  speak  presently)  with  the  subjunctive 

[§  522.]  4.  In  the  same  way,  sentences  connected  by 
sive — sive  commonly  have  the  verb  in  the  indicative 
(unless  there  is  a  special  reason  for  using  the  subjunct- 
ive) ;  e.  g.,  sive  taccbis,  sive  loquere,  mihi  perinde  est ;  sive 
vermn  est,  sivefalsum,  mihi  quidem  ita  renuntiatum  est. 
Nam  illo  loco  libcntissime  uti  soleo,  sive  quid  mecum  ipse 

cogito,  sive  quid  aut  scribo,  aut  lego,  Cic.,  De  Leg.,  ii.,  1. 


CHAPTER  LXXVIII. 

SUBJUNCTIVE     MOOD. 

[§  523.]  1.  THE  subjunctive  is  used  in  general,  when 
a  proposition  is  stated,  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  conception 
of  the  mind. 

Note. — The  subjunctive  is  only  a  form  which  is  given  to  a  proposition  ; 
its  substance  does  not  come  into  consideration.  Hence  "I  believe,"  "I 
suspect,"  are  expressed  by  the  indicative,  although  these  words  indicate 
only  certain  conceptions,  but  my  belief  and  suspicion  are  stated  as  real 
facts.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  I  say  "  I  should  believe,"  <;  I  should 
think,"  the  acts  of  believing  and  thinking  are  represented  as  mere  con- 
ceptions, which,  perhaps,  do  not  exist  at  all,  or  even  cannot  exist.  Hence 
the  Latins  always  use  the  subjunctive  when  a  sentence  is  to  express  an 
intention  either  that  something  is  to  be  effected  or  prevented,  for  the 
actions  here  e\ist  only  as  conceptions ;  e.  g.,  pecuniam  homini  do,  ut  me  de- 
fendat,  ne  me  accuset.  The  English  language,  which  has  no  subjunctive, 
avails  itself  of  a  variety  of  other  verbs  to  express  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
junctive ;  as,  may,  might,  could,  should,  would. 

[§  524.]  2.  We  must  here  first  notice  the  difference 
between  the  four  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  in  hypothetical 
or  .conditional  sentences,  both  in  that  part  of  the  sentence 
containing  the  condition  (beginning  with  the  conjunctions 

*  [For  some  excellent  remarks  explanatory  of  the  subjunctive  mood, 
consult  Crombie'e  Gymnasium,  vol.  i.,  p.  27;  vol.  ii.,  p.  307,  seqq.~\— Am.  Ed. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  359 

si)  nisi,  etsi,  etiamsi,  tametsi),  and  in  the  one  containing 
the  inference  or  conclusion.  The  present  and  perfect 
subjunctive  are  used  when  a  conception  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed together  with  the  suggestion  that  it  does  exist  or 
may  exist ;  but  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive 
are  used  when  a  conception  is  expressed  together  with 
the  suggestion  that  it  did  not  or  could  not  exist ;  and  the 
imperfect  in  this  case  implies  present  time,  as  in  English; 
e.  g.,  si  velit,  "  if  he  wishes,"  or  "  should  wish,"  implying 
that  he  either  actually  wishes,  or,  at  least,  may  wish  :  in 
the  consequent  member  of  the  proposition  (the  apodosis), 
the  present  or  perfect  subjunctive  or  indicative  may  stand  ; 
but  si  vellet,  "  if  he  wished,"  implies  that  he  does  not  or 
cannot  wish,  and  here  the  consequent  member  of  the 
proposition  requires  the  imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunct- 
ive. The  subjunctive  without  si  has  the  same  meaning  as 
facerem,  "  I  should  do,"  implying  that  I  do  not  or  cannot 
do;  vellem,  "  I  should  wish,"  implying  that  I  might  have 
a  wish,  but  that  in  fact  I  do  not  wish,  seeing  that  it  would 
be  of  no  avail.  Velim  and  cupiam  thus  do  not  much  dif- 
fer from  volo  and  cupio, 

The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  therefore, 
are  necessary  in  hypothetical  sentences  ;  but  the  present 
and  perfect  subjunctive  differ  only  slightly  from  the  indic- 
ative, and  their  use  cannot  be  fixed  by  grammatical  rules. 
The  indicative  gives  to  a  sentence  the  form  of  reality, 
whereas  the  subjunctive  represents  it  as  an  arbitrary  con- 
ception, which,  however,  may  at  the  same  time  be  a  real- 
ity; e.  g.,  etiamsi  te  non  laudo  or  laudabo,  tamcn,  &c.,  even 
if  I  do  not  or  shall  not  praise  thee — the  reality  is  admit- 
ted ;  etiamsi  te  non  laudcm  or  laudaverim,  if  (perhaps)  I 
should  not  praise  thee,  or  should  not  have  praised  thee — 
the  possibility  is  conceived.  The  use  of  the  present  and 
perfect  subjunctive  in  these  cases  arises,  in  some  measure, 
from  the  circumstance  that  an  indefinite  person  is  address- 
ed in  Latin  by  the  second  person  singular,  but  only  in  the 
subjunctive  ;  hence  the  subjunctive  is  used  in  such  cases 
even  where  the  indicative  would  be  used  if  a  definite  per- 
son were  addressed.  It  must  farther  be  observed  that 
these  two  subjunctives  supply  the  place  of  the  subjunctive 
of  the  two  futures.  Comp.  §  496. 

The  difference  between  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  in 
hypothetical  sentences  is  observed,  also,  in  indirect  speech 


360  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

(oratio  obliqua),  when  the  leading  verb  is  a  present  or  a 
future;  but  when  it  is  a  preterite  or  the  historical  perfect, 
the  rule  respecting  the  succession  of  tenses  must  be  ob- 
served (§  512),  and  the  difference  between  possibility  and 
impossibility  is  not  expressed ;  e.  g.,  we  may  say  Gains 
dicit  se  Latine  loqui  posse,  si  pater  jubeat  (or  jusserit), 
which  may  possibly  happen  ;  and  si  pater  juberet  (or  jus- 
sisset),  which,  however,  is  not  the  case.  But  we  can  say 
only  Gains  dicebat  se  Latine  loqui  posse,  si  pater  juberet  or 
jussisset. 

Si  Neptunus,  quod  T/ieseo  promiserat,  nonfecisset,  Theseus 

filio  Hippolyto  non  esset  orbatus,  Cic.,  De  Of.,  i.,  10. 
Dies  dcjiciat,  si  velim  numerare,  quibus  bonis  male  evcnerit, 

nee  minus  si  commemorem,  quibus  improbis  optime,  Cic., 

De  Nat.  Deor.,  iii.,  32. 
Si  gladium  quis  apud  te  sana  mente  deposuerit,  repctat  in- 

sanicns :  reddere  peccatum  sit,  officium  non  reddere,  Cic., 

DC  Off.,  iii.,  25. 
Aequabilitatem  vitae  servare  non  possis,  si  aliorum  virtutem 

imitans  omittas  tuam,  Cic.,  DC  Off.,  i.,  31. 
Memoria  minuitur,  nisi  cam  exerceas,  aut  si  sis  natura  tar- 

dior,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  7. 

Note  1. — It  cannot  be  sufficiently  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  begin- 
ner, that  in  hypothetical  sentences,  and  when  used  alone,  the  imperfect 
and  pluperfect  subjunctive  are  of  a  totally  different  nature  from  the  pres- 
ent and  perfect,  and  that  the  two  latter,  which  express  a  conceived  reality, 
approach  very  near  the  actual  reality  expressed  by  the  indicative.  (See  § 
523,  note.)  Hence  the  future  indicative  is  often  used  in  the  apodosis, 
when  in  the  conditional  member  or  the  protasis  of  a  sentence  si  is  joined 
xvith  the  present  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic..  Tusc.,v.,  35,  Dies  deficiet,  si  ve- 
lim paupertatis  causam  defendere ;  comp.  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  32,  quoted 
above.  Possible  cases  which  are  devised  to  serve  as  examples,  either  for 
the  purpose  of  judging  of  other  analogous  cases  or  of  drawing  conclusions 
from  them,  are  expressed  by  si  with  the  subjunctive,  as  in  the  passage  of 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  25,  which  was  quoted  above.  Compare  de  Off.,  i.,  10,  Ut 
si  constitueris  (supposing  you  had  agreed)  te  cuipiam  advocatum  in  rem  prae- 
sentem  esse  venturum,  atque  interim  graviter  aegrotare  filius  coeperit :  non  sit 
contra  officium,  non  facere  quod  dixcris.  The  perfect  subjunctive  is  at  the 
same  time  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect,  for  in  speaking  of  an  ac- 
tual case  we  may  use  the  perfect  indicative  as  well  as  the  future  perfect ; 
e.  g.,  si  tibi  promisi  me  affuturum  nee  veni,  contra  officium  me  fecisse  fateor,  and 
si  tibi  promisero  nee  venero,  contra  officium  me  fecisse  fatebor.  In  the  subjunct- 
ive both  tenses  are  alike,  and  as,  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  we  recognise 
the  perfect  subjunctive,  so  we  look  upon  rogaverit,  scripserit,  and  dixerit,  in 
the  following  passage,  as  future  perfects  :  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  18,  si  te  amicus 
tuus  moriens  rogaverit,  ut  hereditatem  reddas  suae  jiliae,  nee  usquam  id  scripse- 
rit, nee  cuiquam  dixerit :  quid  fades?  For  practical  purposes,  the  distinction 
is  not  necessary;  but  the  subjunctive  is  essential,  since  the  case  was  to  be 
expressed  merely  as  a  conception.  This  signification  of  the  Latin  sub- 
junctive is  clear,  especially  in  its  frequent  occurrence  when  the  subject  is 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  361 

an  indefinite  person  (si  quis\  and  in  the  second  person  singular,  which  im- 
plies an  indefinite  person  (equivalent  to  the  French  on  and  the  German 


With  regard  to  the  expression  of  possibility  (by  the  present  subjunct- 
ive) or  impossibility  (by  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive),  it  must 
not  be  overlooked  that  it  depends  upon  the  speaker  as  to  how  he  intends  to 
represent  a  thing.  For  we  are  not  speaking  here  of  objective  truth,  but 
of  subjective  conceptions.  Cicero  (Divin.  in  Caec.,  5)  says,  Si  universa 
provincia  loqui  posset,  hac  voce  uteretur,  implying  that  it  cannot  speak.  But 
in  another  passage  (in  Cat.,l,  8)  he  says,  Haec  si  tecumpatria  loquatur,  nonne 
impetrare  debeat?  personifying  his  country,  and  endowing  it  with  speech. 
This  may  serve  to  explain  several  other  passages  of  the  same  kind.  Comp. 
Cic.,  p.  Milan.,  29,  Ejus  igitur  mortis  sedetis  ultores,  cujus  vitam  si putetis  per 
vos  restitui  posse,  nolitis,  where,  without  his  rhetorical  object,  he  would 
have  said,  si  put aretis — nolletis. 

[§  525.]  Note  2. — We  must  notice  a  peculiarity  of  the  Latin  language  in 
hypothetical  sentences,  which  appears  strange  to  us  (though  not  to  the 
Greeks),  for  completed  actions  of  the  past  time  are  often  transferred,  at 
least  partly,  to  the  present,  by  using  the  imperfect  instead  of  the  pluper- 
fect, either  in  the  protasis  or  in  the  apodosis  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  67,  Hujus 
si  vita,  si  mores,  si  vidtus  denique  non  omnem  commendationem  ingenii  everteret, 
majus  nomen  in  patronis  fuissct ;  in  Verr.,  v.,  51,  quod  certe  non  fecisset,  si 
suum  numerum  (nautarum)  naves  habcrent  •  Lad.,  4,  Mortuis  tarn  religiosa 
jura  (majores  nostri)  tribuenmt,  quod  nonfecissent  profecto,  si  nihil  ad  eos  per- 
tinere  arbitrarentur ;  Liv.,  xxxix.,  42,  Longe  gravissima  (M.  Catonis)  in  L. 
Quinctium  oratio  est,  qua  si  accusator  ante  notam  usus  esset,  retinere  Quinctium 
in  senatu  ne  frater  quidem  T.  Quinctius,  si  turn  censor  esset,  potuisset.  Nu- 
merous other  examples  from  Cicero,  Sallust,  and  Livy  are  quoted  by  Gar- 
atoni  on  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  1,  in  fin.  ;  p.  Milan.,  17,  init. ;  p.  Scxt.,  67,  in  fin. 
In  the  following  passages,  on  the  other  hand,  the  imperfect  is  used  for  the 
pluperfect  in  the  apodosis.  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  31,  Nam  si  quam  Rubrius  in- 
juriam  suo  nomine  ac  non  impulsu  tuo  et  tua  cupiditate  fecisset :  de  tui  comitis 
injuria  questum  ad  tc  potius,  quam  te  oppugnatum  venircnt,  instead  of  venissent ; 
Philip.,  iii.,  5,  esset  enim  ipsi  (Antonio)  certe  statim  serviendum,  si  Caesar  ab 
eo  regni  insigne  accipere  voluisset,  where  Ernesti  remarks  that  the  ordinary 
usage  of  the  Latin  language  requires  fuisset  for  esset;  Flor.,  iii.,  3,  13, 
Cimbri  si  statim  infosto  agmine  urbcm  jietisscnt,  grande  discrim.cn  esset ;  sed  in 
Venetia,  quo  fere  tractu  Italia  mollissima  est,  ipsa  solis  coelique  dementia  robur 
elanguit.  For  other  passages,  see  Bentley  on  Horace,  Serm.,  ii.,  3,  94. 
Sometimes  the  imperfect  subjunctive,  ins'tead  of  the  pluperfect,  appears 
both  in  the  protasis  and  apodosis,  although  the  actions  spoken  of  are  com- 
pleted and  do  not  belong  to  the  present  time  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  viii.,  4, 
Num  tu  igitur  eum,  si  turn  esses,  temcrarium  civem  aut  crudclem  putares  ?  in- 
stead of  fuisses  and  putasses.  See  Goerenz.  on  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  13,  30, 
and  de  Fin.,  v.,  3,  8.  It  is  true  that  all  this  arises  from  a  lively  and  rhetor- 
ical mode  of  speaking,  the  past  time  being  represented  as  present ;  but  it 
must  be  observed  that  it  is  more  frequent  in  Latin,  and  especially  in  Greek, 
than  in  modern  languages.  Those  hypothetical  sentences,  in  which  either 
a  case  or  a  conclusion  from  it  is  represented  as  continuing  to  the  present 
time,  afford  no  matter  for  special  remark,' for  there  the  imperfect  is  in  its 
proper  place.  Compare  the  learned  and  profound  dissertation  of  Fred. 
Ellendt,  De  formis  enunciatorum  conditionalium  linguae  Latinac,  Regirn. 
Pruss.,  1827. 

[<S>  526.]  Note  3. — Nisi,  nisi  vero,  and  nisi  forte  are  joined  with  the  indic- 
ative when  they  introduce  a  correction  of  the  sentence  preceding.  Nisi, 
in  this  case,  signifies  "except;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  35,  nescio :  nisi 
hoc  video.  Nisi  vero,  nisi  forte  (unless  perhaps),  introduce  a  case  as  an  ex- 
ception, and  describe  it  at  the  same  time  as  improbable  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p. 
Sull.,  9,  Plenum  forum  est  eorum  hominum — nisi  vero  paucos  fuisse  arbitrami- 
ni ;  p.  Muren.,  G,  Nemo  fere  saltat  sobrius,  nisi  forte  insanit ;  ad  Att.,  ii  ,  14, 

H  ii 


362  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


erat  autem  niKil  novi,  quod  out  scriberem,  aut  ex  te  quaererem,  nisi  forte  hoc  ad 

'-,  putas  pertincre,  &c.     Nisi  forte  is  thus  chiefly  used  in  an  ironical  sense, 

unless  you  suppose,"  introducing  a  case  which  is  in  fact  inadmissible,  but 


te  putas  pertincre,  &c.  Nisi  forte  is  thus  chiefly  used  in  an  ironical  sense, 
"  unless  you  suppose,"  introducing  a  case  which  is  in  fact  inadmissible,  but 
is  intended  to  suggest  to  another  person  that  he  cannot  differ  from  our 


opinion  without  admitting  as  true  a  thing  which  is  improbable  and  ab- 
surd. 

[§527.]  3.  Hence  the  present  subjunctive  is  used,  also, 
in  independent  propositions  to  soften  an  assertion  or  state- 
ment, and  without  any  essential  difference  from  the  pres- 
ent indicative  or  the  future.  We  generally  express  the 
same  by  "I  may"  or  "I  might"  (the  subjunctive  as  a  po- 
tential mood)  ;  e.  g.,  Forsitan  quaeratis  ;  nemo  istud  tibi 
concedat;  quis  dulitct?  vclim  (nolim,  malim)  sic  existimes. 
The  perfect  subjunctive  may  likewise  be  used  in  the  sense 
of  a  softened  perfect  indicative;  e.  g.,  forsitan  temere  fe- 
ccrim,  I  may  perhaps  have  acted  inconsiderately \.fortasse 
error c  ejfectum  sit,  it  may  perhaps  have  been  done  by  mis- 
take ;  but  this  occurs  very  rarely,  and  the  perfect  sub- 
junctive, when  used  independently,  usually  has  the  mean- 
ing of  a  softened  future,  and  in  so  far  is  equivalent  to  the 
present,  without  regard  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 
Hence  Quintilian  (x.,  1,  101)  combines  the  two  tenses: 
At  non  historia  cesserim  Grace  is,  nee  opponere  Thucydidi 
Sallustium  vcrcar. 
Quid  videatur  ci  magnum  in  rebus  humanis,  cui  aeternitas 

omnis  totiusquc  mundi  nota  sit  magnitude  ?  Cic.,  Tusc^ 

iv.,  17. 
Hoc  sine  ulla  dulntationc  conjirmavcrim,  eloguentiam  rcm 

esse  omnium  difficillimam,  Cic.,  Brut.,  6. 
Tu  vcro  Platoncm  nee  nimis  valde  unquam,  nee  nimis  saepe 

laudavcris,  Cic.,  DC  Leg.,  iii.,  1. 
Nil  ego  contulerim  jucundo  sanus  amico,  Horat.,  Scrm. 

[§  528.]  Note  1. — If  the  form  which  we  usually  call  the  perfect  sub- 
junctive is  only  the  perfect  subjunctive,  it  is  difficult  to  derive  this  potential 
signification,  which  belongs  to  the  future,  from  the  idea  of  an  action  com- 
pleted at  the  present  time.  And  it  can  only  be  done  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed above,  §  511,  where  we  have  seen  that  the  future  perfect  acquires 
the  meaning  of  a  simple  future,  and  by  a  certain  liveliness  of  expression 
represents  an  incomplete  action  as  completed.  But  it  is  preferable  to  sup- 
pose (see  ()  496  and  524,  note)  that  the  form  which,  from  its  most  usual 
meaning  in  dependant  sentences,  is  called  the  perfect  subjunctive  active, 
is,  at  the  same  time,  the  subjunctive  of  the  future  perfect  (scripserim,  the 
subjunct.  of  scripsi  and  scripsero),  which  future  perfect  frequently  acquires 
the  meaning  of  a  simple  future.  Hence  the  perfect  subjunctive,  in  a  po- 
tential sense,  is  generally  used  only  in  the  active  voice,  and  very  rarely  in 
the  passive  ;  as  in  Veil.  Pat.,  i.,  18,  non  ego  hoc  magis  miratus  si?n;  and  Livy, 
xxii.,  59,  ne  illi  quidcm  se  nobis  merito  praetulerint  gloriatique  sint ;  xxx.,  14, 
nulla  virtus  est,  qua  ego  aeque  atque  temperantia  gloriatus  fuerim.  After  it  had 
once  become  customary  to  use  the  perfect,  subjunctive  in  the  potential 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  363 

sense  of  the  present  subjunctive,  the  former  was  sometimes  also  employ- 
ed in  dependent  sentences  (after  ut  and  ne)  instead  of  the  present.  Ut  sic 
dixerim  occurs  in  Quintilian,  Tacitus  (de  Orat.,  34,  40),  and  the  classical 
jurists ;  ne  longius  abierim  (for  abeam)  is  used  by  Tacitus  (Ann.,  vi.,  22),  and 
ne  quis  sit  admiratus,  for  nequis  admiretur,  by  Cicero  (de  Off.,  ii.,  10). 

It  must,  however,  be  observed  that,  on  the  whole,  the  subjunctive  is 
sparingly  used  by  the  earlier  writers  in  the  sense  of  a  potential  mood ;  but 
later  writers,  such  as  Quintilian,  do  not  keep  within  the  same  limits. 

Note  2. — The  first  person  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  more 
rarely  without  implying  the  falsity  or  impossibility  of  a  condition ;  but 
vellem,  nollem,  and  mallem  are  used  to  express  a  wish,  the  non-reality  and 
impossibility  of  which  we  know,  whence  vellem  becomes  equivalent  to  "  I 
should  have  wished."  But  in  the  second  person,  when  it  implies  an  in- 
definite person,  and  in  the  third,  when  the  subject  is  an  indefinite  person, 
the  imperfect  subjunctive  is  used  in  independent  propositions  to  express 
things  which  might  have  happened,  that  is,  in  the  sense  of  the  pluperfect, 
and  we  can  easily  supply  the  supposed  condition,  "if  you  had  been  pres- 
ent." This  is  the  case  especially  with  the  verbs  dicere,  putare,  credere  ; 
e.  g.,  Liv.,  ii.,  43,  maestique  (crederes  victos)  redeunt  in  castra,  one  might 
have  believed  that  they  were  defeated ;  ii.,  35,  quidquid  erat  Patrum,  reos 
diceres  ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,'13,  quo  postquam'venerunt,  mirandum  in  modum 
(canes  venaticos  diceres)  ita  odorabantur  omnia  et  pervest igaban t,  ut,  ubi  quidque 
esset,  aliqua  ratione  invenirent  •  Curt.,  vi.,  6,  discurrunt  milites  et  itineri  sar- 
cinas  aptant :  signum  datum  crederes,  ut  vasa  colligerent.  Videre,  cernerc,  and 
discernere  are  used  in  the  same  way ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  40,  Vix  hoc 
erat  plane  imperatum,  quum  ilium  spoliatum  stipatumque  lictoribus  cerneres,  one 
might  have  seen  him,  scil.  if  one  had  been  present;  Sallust,  Cat.,  25,  pe- 
cuniae  anfamae  minus  par  ceret,  hand  facile  discerneres.  The  third  person  is 
more  rarely  used  in  this  way,  although  it  occurs  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  23, 
qui  videret  equum  Trojanum  introductum,  urbem  captam  diceret ;  but  frequently 
with  the  interrogative  quis  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  41,  quis  unquam  crederet? 
p.  Leg.  Man.,  11,  quis  unquam  arbitraretur  ?  p.  Flacc.,  40,  quis  putaret  ? 
Juven.,  vii.,  212,  Cut  non  tune  eliceretrisum  citharoedi  cauda  magistri? 

[§  529. J  4.  The  subjunctive  is  farther  used  in  inde- 
pendent sentences  to  express  a  wish  or  desire  (optative). 
In  the  second  and  third  persons  of  the  present  (to  some 
extent,  also,  of  the  perfect)  it  supplies  the  place  of  the  im- 
perative ;  e.  g.,  dicas  equivalent  to  die,  loquare  to  loquere, 
especially  when  the  person  is  indefinite;  farther,  dicat, 
faciat,  loquatur.  The  present  subjunctive  is  used  in  the 
first  person  to  express  an  assurance  ;  e.  g.,  mortar,  inters- 
am,  -per earn  ;  and  in  the  plural  a  request,  which  may  be 
addressed  to  ourselves  as  well  as  others  ;  e.  g.,  camus, 
moriamur,  nunc  revertamur  ad  propositum  !  let  us  go  i  let 
us  die  !  let  us  return  !  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  are 
used  to  express  wishes  belonging  to  the  past  time,  when 
a  thing  ought  to  have  been,  or  to  have  been  done ;  e.  g., 
diceret,  dixisset,  he  should  have  said. 

Connected  with  this  is  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  (called 
in  this  case  concessivus ) ,  to  express  a  concession  or  admis- 
sion, both  with  and  without  the  conjunctions  ut  and  licet; 
e.  g.,  dicat,  he  may  say  ;  dircret,  he  might  say  ;  dixerit,  he 


364  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

may  have  said,  and  so  on  through  all  the  tenses.  The 
negative  with  these  subjunctives  (optative  and  concessive) 
is  usually  not  non,  but  ne  ;  e.  g.,  ne  dicas,  ne  dicat,  ne  dix- 
eris  (this  negative  way  is  the  most  common  case  of  the 
perfect  subjunctive,  being  used  in  the  sense  of  the  pres- 
ent) ;  farther,  ne  vivam,  nc  desperemus,  ne  fuerit,  equiva- 
lent to  licet  non  fuerit. 

Mcminerimus,  etiam  adversus  infimos  justitiam  esse  ser van- 
dam,  Cic.,  DC  Of.,  i.,  13. 
Nihil  incommodo  valetudinis   tuae  jcceris,  Cic.,  ad  Att., 

vii.,  8. 

Emas,  non  quod  opus  est,  sed  quod  nccesse  est,  Seneca. 
Donis  impii  ne  placare  audeant  deos  ;  Platonem  audiant, 
qui  vetat  dubitare,  qua  sit  mentefuturus  deus,  cum  vir 
nemo  bonus  ab  improbo  se  donari  velit,  Cic.,  de  Leg. 
Naturam    expellas  Jurca,   tamen   usque   rccurret,   Horat., 

Epist.i  i.,  10,  24. 
Ne  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  cst,  Cicero. 

Note. — We  are  of  opinion  that  the  subjunctive  which  expresses  a  wish, 
and  is  apparently  not  dependent  upon  any  other  sentence,  may  be  gram- 
matically explained  by  supplying  the  verb  volo,  according  to  §  624.  With 
regard  to  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  instead  of  the  imperative,  we  may 
observe,  that  it  occurs  principally  in  the  third  person  (this  person  of  the 
imperative  being  usually  avoided  in  ordinary  language)  and  in  the  second 
with  a  negation,  and  in  the  latter  case  the  perfect  regularly  takes  the 
place  of  the  present  (in  deponent  as  well  as  active  verbs  ;  e.  g.,  ne  sis  as- 
pcrnatus,  Cicero,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  12);  hence  we  usually  say,  ne  dixeris 
and  dicat  or  ne  dicat,  but  rarely  ne  dixerit ;  e.  g.,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iv.,  32,  nemo 
contenderit.  Beginners  must  be  especially  cautioned  not  to  prefer  the 
present  subjunctive  (dicas)  to  the  imperative  (die)  on  the  ground  of  its 
being  more  polite.  The  imperative  die  expresses  a  wish  as  well  as  a 
command,  and  it  may  be  still  more  softened  by  adding  such  a  word  as 
oro,  quaeso,  dum,  sis.  Dicas,  for  die,  occurs  in  Cicero,  when  it  is  addressed 
to  an  indefinite  person  ;  e.  g.,  Tusc.,  v.,  41,  sic  injurias  fortunae,  quasferre 
nequeas,  defugiendo  relinquas  ;  Cat.  Maj.,  10,  Denique  isto  bono  (corporis 
robore)  utare  dum  adsit,  quum  absit  ne  requiras.  But  when  addressing  a 
definite  person  he  very  rarely  uses  dicas  and  ne  dicas  for  die  and  noli  dicer  e 
(ad  Att.,  x.,  15,  in  fin. ;  xiv.,  1,  2).  But  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers 
(even  Livy)  frequently  employ  the  second  person  of  the  present  subjunct- 
ive in  addressing  definite  persons  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  12,  Tu,  Quinti,  equitem 
intentus — teneas,  &c. ;  xxii.,  53,  Si  sciens  folio,  turn,  me  Juppiter  Opt.  Max. 
pessimo  leto  afficias ;  xxvi.,  50,  amicus  populo  Romano  sis,  et  si  me  virum 
bonum  credis  esse,  scias  multos  nostri  similes  in  civitate  Romana  esse,  are 
words  addressed  by  Scipio  to  Masinissa.  The  third  person  of  the  present 
subjunctive,  however,  is  used  quite  commonly  to  express  a  precept ;  as  in 
Cicero  (de  Of.,  i.,  37),  where  the  following  precepts  are  given  respecting 
conversational  style  :  Sit  igitur  sermo  lenis  minimeque  pertinax  ;  insit  in  eo 
lepos  ;  nee  vero,  tamquam  in  possessionem  venerit,  excludat  olios,  sed  quum  in 
reliquis  rebus,  turn  in  sermone  communi,  vicissitudinem  non  iniquam  putet,  ac 
videat  imprimis,  quibus  de  rebus  loquatur,  si  seriis,  severitatem  adhibeat,  si  jo- 
cosis,  leporem ;  imprimisque  provideat,  &c.  In  this  manner  the  present  and 
perfect  subjunctive  are  used  for  the  imperative ;  but  the  imperfect  and 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  365 

pluperfect,  also,  are  employed  to  express  a  precept,  referring  to  the  past 
time,  when  a  thing  should  have  been  done  ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Heaut.,  i.,  2,28, 
pater  ejus  fortasse  aliquanto  iniquior  erat :  pateretur,  he  should  have  borne  it 
Cic.,  p.  Sext.,  20,forsitan  non  nemo  vir  fortis  dixerit,  restitisses,  mortem  pug 
nans  oppetisses,  you  should  have  resisted  ;  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  3,  Mittam  tibi  ora- 
tiones  ineas,  ex  quibus  perspicies  et  quae  gesserim  et  quae  dixerim :  aut  ne  po- 
poscisscs,  ego  enim  me  tibi  non  offerebam,  or  you  should  not  have  asked  for 
them. 

The  concessive  mood  must  be  supposed  to  exist  wherever  we  may  para- 
phrase the  subjunctive  by  licet.  In  English,  its  place  is  usually  supplied 
.  by  the  expressions  "  suppose,"  or  "  supposing,"  and  the  like,  which  are 
equivalent  to  the  Latin  esto  ut.  Comp.  Cic.,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  23,  62,  parta 
sit  pecunia,  &c.  The  perfect  retains  the  signification  which  it  has  in  the 
indicative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  41,  Mains  civis  Cn.  Carbo  fuit.  Fuerit 
aliis :  tibi  quando  esse  coepit?  he  may  have  been  so  to  others.  The  imper- 
fect in  this  sense  is  based  only  on  the  authority  of  the  MS.  reading  in 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  Hi.,  11,  ac  premeret  is,  where  Walther's  note  should  be  con- 
sulted. There  is  another  independent  subjunctive  which  expresses  sup- 
positions as  merely  conceived,  and  which  may  be  called  the  hypothetical 
subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  roges  me,  if  you  ask  me,  or  supposing  you  ask  me  ;  dares 
illi  aliquid,  if  you  gave,  or  supposing  you  gave  him  anything  ;  but  we  pre- 
fer classing  this  subjunctive  with  that  of  hypothetical  sentences,  and  ex- 
plain it  by  supplying  the  conjunction  si,  for  the  indicative,  too,  is  thus  used. 
See  §  780. 

Non  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  subjunctive  expressing  a  prohibition 
or  request ;  as,  Hprat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  5,  91 ;  Epist.,  i.,  18,  72;  Quintil.,  vii.,  1,  5G, 
non  dcspercmus  ;  i.,  1,  15,  non  assuescat  vitiose  loqui ;  ii.,  16,  6,  non  fabricetur 
militi  gladius.  In  the  same  manner,  ncque  is  used  for  neve  in  connexion 
with  such  subjunctives,  and  that  not  only  by  the  poets  and  Quintilian  (ii., 
1,  5,  rhetorice  officia  sua  non  detractet  nee  occupari  gaudeat),  but  even  by  Cic- 
ero (de  Re  Publ,  i.,  2 ;  p.  Plane.,  6,  $  15). 

[§  530.]  5.  Lastly,  the  subjunctive  is  used,  in  all  its 
tenses,  in  independent  sentences  to  express  a  doubtful 
question  containing  a  negative  sense  (  conjunctivus  dubi- 
tativus)  ;  e.  g.,  quo  earn  ?  whither  shall  I  go  1  quo  irem  ? 
whither  should  I  go  1  quo  cas  ?  whither  wilt  thou  go  1  quo 
ires  ?  whither  wouldst  thou  go  1  quo  iverim  ?  whither  was 
I  to  have  gone  1  quo  ivissem  ?  whither  should  I  have  gone  1 
The  answer  implied  in  all  these  cases  is  "  nowhere,"  and 
this  is  the  negative  sense  of  such  questions  ;  for  in  ques- 
tions to  which  we  expect  an  affirmative  answer  the  indic- 
ative is  used. 
Cum  tempcstatc  pugncm  pericidose  potius,  quam  illi  obtcm- 

perem  et  par  earn  1  Cic.,  Pro  Plane.,  39. 
Valerius  quotidie  cantabat :  erat  enim  scenicus  :   quid  fa- 

ceret  aliud  ?  Cic.,  De  Orat.,  iii.,  23. 

exercitmn  milii  fucris,  inquit,  tot  annos  ?  forum  non 

attigeris  ?  abfueris   tanidiu  ?   ut,  quum  longo   inter  rallo 

veneris,  cum  m,  qui  in  foro  liabitarint,  de  digmtate  con- 

tcndas  ?  Cic.,  Pro  Muren.,  9. 

JS~ote. — For  the  purpose  of  a  grammatical  explanation  of  this  subjunct- 
H  H  2 


366  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ive,  we  supply  the  question  "should  you,  perhaps,  like  that,"  &c.,  which 
implies  the  contrary  of  what  the  question  asks,  and  is  equivalent  to 
''  surely  you  will  not,"  or  "  would  not  that,"  &c.  Hence  when  I  ask  quid 
doceam?  the  negative  answer  "  nothing"  is  presupposed  ;  and  when  I  put 
the  negative  question  quid  non  doceam  '?  I  suggest  the  affirmative  answer 
"anything;"  hoc  non  noceat?  do  you  mean  to  say  that  this  does  not  injure  ? 
(i.  e.,  it  certainly  does  injure).  There  is  nothing  to  be  said  against  this 
ellipsis  in  the  first  and  third  persons ;  with  regard  to  the  second,  we  can 
only  say  that  it  is  an  imitation  of  the  two  others.  But  that  there  actually 
is  an  ellipsis,  is  clear  from  the  indignant  interrogation  with  ut  (§  609).  As 
to  the  use  of  the  imperfect,  compare,  also,  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  72,  Caesar 
in  earn  spem  venerat,  se  sine  pugna  et  sine  vulnerc  suorum  rem  conficere  posse, 
quod  re  Jrumentaria  adversaries  interclusisset :  cur  etiam  secundo  proelio  aliquos 
ex  suis  amitteret  ?  cur  vulnerari  pateretur  optime  de  se  meritos  milites  ?  cur  de- 
nique  fortunam  periclitaretur  ?  i.  e.,  Why  should  he  lose  any  more?  Why 
should  he  allow  them  to  be  wounded  ?  Why  should  he  tempt  fortune  ? 
The  imperfect,  therefore,  can  occur  only  in  narratives. 

[§  531.]  6.  Dependent  sentences  in  which  an  intention 
or  purpose,  or  a  direction  towards  the  future  is  expressed, 
take  the  subjunctive.  The  conjunctions  ut,  ne,  quo,  qum, 
quommus  serve  to  connect  such  sentences  with  others,  and 
consequently  govern  the  subjunctive,  the  tenses  of  which 
must  be  chosen  as  required  by  that  of  the  leading  verb  of 
the  sentence.  (See  above,  §  512,  foil.) 

(a)  Ut  or  uti  (that,  or  in  order  that)  refers  either  to 
something  future  which  is  the  intention,  object,  result,  or 
effect  of  another  action  (which  is  often  expressed  in  Eng- 
lish by  "in  order  to,"  or  simply  "to"  with  the  infinitive), 
or,  when  used  after  the  words  sic,  ita,  tarn,  tails,  tantus, 
ejusmodi,  &c.,  it  expresses  a  quality  or  the  nature  of  a 
thing  in  the  form  of  a  result.  The  English  conjunction 
"  that,"  which  introduces  sentences  supplying  the  place 
either  of  a  nominative  or  accusative,  cannot  be  rendered 
by  ut,  as  "it  is  a  consolation  for  the  subjects  that  the  king 
is  a  just  man,"  equivalent  to  "the  king's  justice  is  a  con- 
solation," &c. ;  or  "  I  know  that  the  king  is  just,"  equiv- 
alent to  "  I  know  the  king's  justice." 
Esse  oportet  ut  vivas,  non  vivere  ut  edas,  Auct.  ad  Heren., 

iv.,  28. 
Pylades  Orestem  se  esse  dixit,  ut  pro  illo  necaretur,  Cic., 

LaeL,  7. 

Nemo  tarn  malus  est,  ut  videri  velit,  Q,uintil.,  iii.,  8,  44. 
Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  Cic.,  De  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  15. 

Note. —  Ut  is  originally  an  adverb  denoting  manner,  and  as  a  relative  ad- 
verb it  corresponds  with  the  demonstrative  ita.  As  an  adverb  it  properly 
governs  nothing,  and  is  joined,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sentence, 
either  with  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive.  As  a  particle  of  time  in  the 
sense  of  "  as"  or  "  as  soon  as"  it  is  likewise  joined  with  the  indicative  (if 
there  are  no  additional  reasons  requiring  the  subjunctive),  and  usually 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  367 

with  the  perfect  indicative.  See  above,  §  506.  It  requires  the  subjunct- 
ive only  when  it  expresses  a  relation  to  a  future  time  conceived  by  the 
mind,  and  a  purpose  or  a  result  which  is  yet  to  come.  It  has  already  been 
observed  (§  286),  that  ita  ut,  tantus  ut,  &c.,  only  indicate  more  definitely  a 
future  result,  and  may  have  both  an  increasing  and  a  limiting  power.  The 
adverbs  ita,  sic,  tarn,  however,  are  often  omitted  with  verbs  and  adjectives, 
and  ut  alone  is  equivalent  to  ita  (sic,  tarn) — ut,  e.  g.,  Nepos,  Epaminondas 
fuit  etiam  disertus,  ut  nemo  Thcbanus  ei  par  esset  eloquentia,  instead  of  tarn 
disertus.  Respecting  ut,  in  the  sense  of  "would  that"  and  "supposing 
that,"  with  the  subjunctive,  see  below,  f)§  571  and  573. 

[§  532.]  (l>)  Ne  (in  order  that  not,  or,  lest)  is  used  only 
to  express  a  negative  intention  or  intended  effect ;  e.  g., 
cur  a  ne  denuo  in  morbu/m  incidas,  or  liaec  vitae  ratio  effecit, 
ne  denuo  in  morljum  inciderem.  Ut  non  is  used,  on  the  oth- 
er hand,  when  an  effect  is  to  be  expressed  without  an  in- 
tention, that  is,  a  simple  result  or  consequence,  and  when 
a  quality  is  to  be  determined,  in  which  case  the  adverbs 
ita,  sic,  tarn  are  either  expressed  or  understood;  e.  g.,  turn 
forte  aegrotabam,  ut  ad  nuptias  tuas  venire  non  possem ; 
i.  e.,  in  consequence  of  my  illness,  but  no  intention  is  ex- 
pressed. Compare,  however,  §  347.  Ut  non  is  farther 
used  when  the  negation  does  not  refer  to  the  whole  sen- 
tence, but  only  to  a  part  of  it  or  to  a  particular  word,  just 
as  in  a  similar  case  si  non  must  be  used,  and  not  nisi. 
Confer  te  ad  Manlium,  ut  a  me  non  cjectus  ad  alienos,  sed 

invitatus  ad  tuos  isse  videaris,  Cic.  in  Cat.,  i.,  9. 
Nemo  prudens  punit,  ut  ait  Plato,  quia  peccatum  est,  sed  ne 

peccetur,  Seneca,  De  Ira,  if,  16,  21. 
Nihil  agitis,  inquit  Arria,  potestis  enim  efficere,  ut  male  mo- 

riar  ;  ne  moriar,  non  potestis,  Plin.,  Epist.,  iii.,  16. 

[§  533.]  We  have  here  to  notice  a  peculiarity  of  the 
Latin  language,  according  to  which  the  verbs  metuo,  timco, 
vereor  are  treated  as  implying  an  intention.  They  are, 
therefore,  followed  by  ne  when  anything  is  to  be  prevent- 
ed, or  when  it  is  wished  that  something  should  not  hap- 
pen ;  e.  g.,  metuo,  nefrustra  laborem  susccperis  ;  and  by  ut 
when  it  is  wished  that  something  should  take  place;  e.  g., 
vereor,  ut  mature  vcnias.  These  same  verbs  are  followed 
by  the  infinitive  when  they  express  only  a  state  of  mind, 
without  implying  any  wish  either  the  one  way  or  the  oth- 
er ;  e.  g.,  metuo  manus  admoverc,  vereor  diccrc;  but  vereor 
ut  apte-  dicam. 

Vereor,  nc,  dum  minuere  velim  laborem,  augeam,  Cicero. 
Adulator es,  si  quern  laudant,  vcrcri  sc  dicunt,  ut  illius  facta 

verbis  conscqui  possint,  Auct.  ad  Hcren.,  iii.,  6. 


368  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  534.]  Note  1. — To  the  verbs  denoting  fear  we  must  add  the  substan- 
tives expressing  fear,  apprehension,  or  danger,  as  well  as  the  verbs  terrere, 
conterrere,  deterrere,  and  also  caverc,  which  in  its  usual  sense  of  "  to  be  on 
one's  guard,"  is  rarely  joined  with  the  infinitive,  but  is  usually  followed  by 
ne  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de.  Off.,  i.,  26,  cavendum  est^ne  assentatoribus  patefaciamus  aures 
neu  adulari  nos  sinamus.  ( Cavere,  however,  sometimes  also  signifies  "to 

'/  ?  ////)-a^e  Care  °^  a  ^i11^"  m  wnich  case  ^  is  followed  by  ut ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
"""  Lyii.,  31,  Epicurus  testamento  cavit,  ut  dies  natalis  suus  ageretur.)  Farther,  videre 
and  observare  in  requests  (vide,  videte>  videndum  est),  in  the  sense  of  "to 
consider,"  are  followed  either  by  ut  or  ne,  just  as  the  verbs  denoting  fear  ; 
e.  g.,  vide  nc  hoc  tibi  obsit,  consider  whether  this  is  not  injurious  to  you, 
that  is,  I  am  afraid  it  will  injure  you.  See  Heusinger  on  Cicero,  de  Off., 
i.}  9.  For  videre,  in  the  sense  of  curare,  see  §  614. 

It  rarely  happens  that  timere  is  followed  by  the  accusative  with  the  in- 
finitive, instead  of  ne  with  the  subjunctive,  as  in  Cic.,  de  Leg.,ii.,22,  Quod 
(Sulla)  timens  suo  corpori  posse  accidere,  igni  voluit  crcmari ;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  72, 
quum  subest  Hie  timor,  ne  dignitatem  quidem  posse  retineri,  instead  of  ne  ipsa 
dignitas  retineri  non  possit.  Comp.  Liv.,  ii.,  7,  5  ;  iii.,  22,  2. 

[<$>  535.]  Note  2. — Neve  is  used  in  negative  sentences  to  continue  that 
which  is  introduced  by  ut  and  nc  (see  §  347).  It  is  properly  equivalent  to 
aut  ne,  and  therefore  only  intended  to  continue  a  preceding  ne,  but  it  is 
also  used  for  et  ne  after  a  preceding  ut,  as,  on  the  other  hand,  et  ne  is  used 
after  a  negation  instead  of  aut  ne.  Hence  we  find,  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiii.,  34, 
mandatum  ut  in  omncs  naves  legatos  scparatim  custodiendos  divideret,  darctque 
opcram,  ne  quod  Us  colloquium  inter  sc,  neve  quae  communicatio  consilii  esset ; 
IVep.,  Thras.,  3,  legcm  tidit,  nc  quis  ante  actarum  rerum  accusaretur,  neve  mul- 
tarctur  ;  Caes.,  Sell.  Gall.,  ii.,  21,  Caesar  milites  non  longiore  oratione  cohorta- 
tus,  quam  uti  suae  pristinae  virtutis  nicmoriam  retincrent,  neu  pcrturbarcntur  an- 
imo — proclii  committcndi  signum  dedit.  Neque  should  properly  not  come  into 
consideration  here,  as  it  is  equivalent  to  et  non,  but  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  even  Cicero  sometimes  uses  it  for  et  ne  after  ut ;  e.  g.,  in  Ferr.,  iii.,  48, 
ut  ea  praetermittam,  nequc  cos  appellcm  ;  de  Orat.,  i.,  5,  hortemurque  potius  libe- 
ros  nostros,  ut  animo  rci  magnitudinem  complectantur,  neque — confidant.  It 
occurs  very  rarely,  and  is  not  quite  certain  after  ne,  as  would  be  the  case 
in  Nepos,  Pans.,  4,  orarc  coepit,  ne  enunciaret  nee  se  meritum  de  illo  optime 
proderet,  if  we  ought  not  to  correct  nee  into  neu.  See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  iii.,  6,  14.  In  Livy,  however,  there  are  many  passages  in  which 
neque  (nee)  occurs  after  nc,  as  well  as  after  ut ;  e.  g.,  ii.,  32,  conspirasse 
(membra)  ne  manus  ad  os  cibum  ferrent,  ncc  os  acciperet  datum  nee  denies,  quae 
conficerent ;  iv.,  4,  cur  non  sancitis  ne  vicinus  patricio  sit  plebeius  nee  eodem 
itinere  eat  ;  v.,  3,  interdicitis  patribus  commercio  plebis,  ne  nos  comitate  provoce- 
mus  plebem,  nee  plebs  nobis  dicto  audiens  sit. 

Respecting  ut  nc,  for  ne,  see  above,  §  347;  but  it  does  not  occur  with  the 
verbs  denoting  fear.  They  are,  however,  sometimes  followed  by  ne  non, 
which  is  equivalent  to  ut,the  two  negations  neutralizing  each  other;  e.  g., 
timeo  ne  non  impetrem,  I  fear  I  shall  not  obtain  it  (i.  e.,  though  I  wish  it)  ; 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  il.,  5,  non  quo  verear,  ne  tua  virtus  opinioni  hominum  non  re- 
spondcat  ;  or  non  belongs  to  the  verb  alone  ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Alt.,  v.,  18,  Unum 
vereor,  ne  senatus  Pompeium  nolit  dimittere,  I  fear  the  senate  will  not  let 
Pompey  go  (viz.,  though  1  wish  it  may  do  so). 

[§  536.]  (c)  Quo  is  properly  the  ablative  of  the  rela- 
tive pronoun,  and  stands  for  ut  co  (§  5G7),  "in  order  that," 
or  "  that  by  this  means."  But  it  is  commonly  joined  only 
with  comparatives.  Non  quo  answers  to  the  English,  "not 
as  if"  (instead  of  which,  however,  we  may  also  say  non 
quodj,  and  non  quin,  "  not  as  if  not."  The  apodosis  fol- 
lowing after  such  a  sentence  begins  with  sed  qiiocl  or  sed 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  3G9 

quiet  with  the  indicative  (sometimes,  also,  with  sed  alone), 
or  with  ..ut. 

Ager  non  semcl  aratur,  sed  novatur  ct  iteratur,  quo  mcliores 
fetus  possit  et  grand/lores  edere,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  ii.,  30. 

Legem  brevem  esse  oportct,  quo  facilius  ab  imperitis  tenea- 
tur,  Senec.,  Epist.,  94. 

Ad  te  littcras  dedi,  non  quo  Tiaberem  magnopere,  quod  scri- 
berem,  sed  ut  loquerer  tecum  absens,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  15. 

Note  1. — Quo  is  also  used  for  et  eo.  and  when  joined  with  comparatives 
it  corresponds  with  a  subsequent  eo  or  hoc,  in  the  sense  of  the  more— the 
more.  In  both  cases  it  is  no  more  than  an  ordinary  relative,  and  is  joined 
with  the  indicative,  for  the  subjunctive  after  quo  is  used  only,  as  in  the 
above  examples,  when  it  expresses  an  intention  or  purpose. 

[§  537.]  Note  2. — The  above-mentioned  use  of  non  quo  was  formerly  very 
much  disputed,  and  critics  wanted  everywhere  to  substitute  for  it  non  quod, 
and  to  confine  non  quo  to  those  passages  in  which  a  presumed  intention  is 
denied.  But  this  would  require  an  alteration  in  too  many  passages.  See 
my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  35,  in  fin.  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied 
that,  on  the  whole,  it  is  more  safe  to  say  non  quod,  also  non  eo  quod  or  non 
ideo  quod  (and  in  later  prose  writers  non  quid),  all  of  which  are  joined  with 
the  subjunctive.  Examples  are  numerous:  non  quin  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att., 
vii.,  26,  Ego  me  (Lucent  in  civili  bello  negavi  esse,  non  quin  rectum  esset,  sed 
quia,  quod  multo  rectius  fuit,  id  mihi  fraudem  tulit  •  in  like  manner,  non  quin 
confiderem  diligentiae  tuae,  not  as  if  I  had  not  confidence  in  your  diligence  ; 
non  quin  breviter  responsum  reddi  potuerit,  not  as  if  a  short  answer  could  not 
have  been  given.  But  in  the  same  sense  we  may  also  separate  the  nega- 
tion, and  say  non  quo  non,  non  quod  non  or  non  quia  non;  as,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i., 
1 ,  non  quia  philosophia  Graecis  et  litteris  et  doctoribus  percipi  non  posset,  and 
p.  Milan.,  22,  Majores  nostri  in  dominum  de  servo  quaeri  noluerunt,  non  quia 
non  posset  verum  inveniri,  sed  quia  videbatur  indignum  esse.  Hence  Ernesti 
should  not  have  been  surprised  at  finding  this  expression  in  Tacitus, ,Hist., 
i.,  15.  But  non  quia  in  the  protasis,  with  the  indicative  (in  Liv.,  xxxiii.,  27, 
non  quia  satis  dignos  cos  credebat,  and  Tacit.,  Hist.,  iii.,  4,  non  quia  industria 
Flaviani  egebant,  sed  ut,  &c.) — and  sed  quod  in  the  apodosis  with  the  sub- 
junctive— (in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  7,  consilium  tuum  reprehendere  non  audeo, 
non  quin  ab  eo  ipse  dissentiam,  sed  quod  ea  te  sapientia  esse  judicem,  ut  meum 
consilium  non  anteponam  tuo) — seem  both  to  be  contrary  to  usage. 

[§  538.]  (d)  Quin  is  used  after  negative  sentences  and 
doubtful  questions  with  quis  and  quid,  which  differ  only  in 
the  form  of  expression  from  affirmative  propositions  with 
nemo  and  niJiil,  first,  for  qui  non,  quae  non,  quod  non,  and, 
secondly,  for  ut  non  ("  that  not"  or  "  without"  when  fol- 
lowed by  a  participle).  Quin,  equivalent  to  a  relative 
pronoun  with  non,  is  used  especially  after  the  expressions 
nemo,  nullus,  nihil,  vix,  aegre — cst,  rcpcritur,  invcnitur  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  36,  repertus  est  nemo  quin  mori  di- 
ceret  satius  esse  ;  the  use  of  quin  for  ut  non  cannot  be  lim- 
ited to  particular  expressions,  but  we  must  especially  ob- 
serve the  phrase  faccre  non  possum  quin,  and  in  the  passive 
voice,  fieri  non  potest  quin,  where  the  double  negation  ren- 


370  LATIN"    GRAMMAR. 

clers  the  affirmative  meaning  more  emphatic.     So,  also, 

nulla  causa  est,  quid  causae  cst  ?  niliil  causac  est — quin  hoc 

faciam. 

Quis  est  quin  cernat,  quanta  vis  sit  in  sensibus  ?  Cicero. 

Nihil  tarn  difficile  est,  quin  quaerendo  investigari  possit, 
Terent.,  Heaut.,  iv.,  2,  8. 

Nunquam  tarn  male  est  Siculis,  quin  aliquid  facete  et  com- 
mode dicant,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  43. 

Facer c  non  potui,  quin  tibi  et  sentcntiam  et  voluntatem  dc- 
clararem  meam,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vi.,  13. 

[<$>  539.]  Note  1. — We  said  above  that  quin  was  used  only  for  the  nomina- 
tive qui,  quae,  quod  with  non,  and  this  must,  indeed,  be  considered  as  the 
general  rule,  although  quin  is  sometimes  found  in  prose  instead  of  the  ac- 
cusative quod  non,  which  may  be  partly  owing  to  the  identity  of  the  nom. 
and  ace.  in  the  neuter  gender,  and  instead  of  the  ablat.  quo  non  (after  dies] ; 
e.  g. ,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  1,  ncgo  in  Sicilia  quidquam  fuisse,  quin  conquisierit ; 
Sueton.,  Nero,  45,  nihil  contumcliarum  defuit  quin  subiret  ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  i.,  1, 
dies  fere  nullus  est  quin  hie  tiatrius  domum  meam  ventitet ;  Brut.,  88,  nullwn 
paticbatur  esse  diem  (Hortensius)  quin  aut  inforo  diceret  aut  mcditaretur  extra 
forum.  Here,  too,  the  fact  of  qui  being  equivalent  to  quo  may  have  had 
some  influence.  Other  passages  may  be  explained  by  ut  non.  It  has  al- 
ready been  remarked  that  qui  non,  &c.,  may  be  used  for  quin,  and  this  oc- 
curs very  frequently  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Place.,  25,  quis  cnim  erat  qui  non  sciret, 
&c.  It  must  be  observed  that  when  quin  stands  for  qui  non  or  quod  non, 
the  pronoun  is,  id,  although  superfluous,  is  sometimes  added  for  the  sake 
of  greater  emphasis  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  59,  Quis  in  circum  maximum  venit, 
quin  is  unoquoque  gradu  de  avaritia  tua  commoner etur  ?  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  9, 
Cleanthcs  negat  ultum  cibum  esse  tarn  gravem,  quin  is  die  et  nocte  concoquatur  ; 
ibid,  iii.,  13,  nihil  est  quod  sensum  habcat,  quin  id  inter  eat ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  63, 
novus  nemo  tarn  clarus  erat  quin  is  indignus  eo  honore  haberetur. 

The  place  of  quin  is,  farther,  not  unfrequently  supplied  by  ut  non.  Thus 
we  read,  on  the  one  hand,  quin  in  Terence,  Eun.,  iv.,  7,  21,  Nunquam  ac- 
ccdo,  quin  abs  te  abeam  doctior,  I  never  visit  you  without  leaving  wiser  (than 
when  I  came) ;  and  in  Nepos,  Timol.,  1,  Mater  vero  post  id  factum  (necem 
fratris)  neque  domum  filium  ad  se  admisit  neque  adspexit,  quin  eum  fratricidam 
impiumque  detestans  compellaret,  without  calling  him  a  fratricide ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  ut  non  in  precisely  the  same  sense,  as  in  Cicero,  p.  Leg. 
Man.,  7,  ruere  ilia  non  possunt,  ut  haec  non  eodem  labefacta  motu  concidant ; 
Sueton.,  Octav.,  56,  Augustus  nunquam  Jilios  suos  populo  commendavit,  ut  non 
adjiceret  (without  adding)  si  merebuntur.  It  also  occurs  after  facere  non  pos- 
sum, and  fieri  non  potcst ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xi.,  21,  Tu  etsi  non  potuisti  ullo 
modo  facere,  ut  mini  illam  cpistolam  non  mitteres :  tamen  mallem  non  esse  mis- 
sam ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  77,  fieri  non  potest,  ut  eum  tu  in  tua  provincia  non  cognoris. 

It  is  obvious  that  both  qui  non  and  ut  non  must  be  used,  and  not  quin, 
when  no  negation  precedes,  or  when  non  belongs  to  a  particular  word  of 
a  sentence,  and  not  to  the  leading  verb.  Accordingly,  we  cannot  say  non 
adeo  imperitus  sum  quin  sciam,  but  ut  nesciam,  since  non  negatives  only  the 
word  adeo. 

[§  540.]  From  this  we  must  distinguish  the  use  of  quin 
after  non  dubito,  non  cst  dubium,  non  ambigo  (I  doubt  not), 
and  many  other  expressions  containing  a  negation ;  as, 
non  abest ;  nihil,  paulum,  non  procul,  haud  multum  abest  ; 
non,  vix,  aegre  abstineo  ;  tcnere  me,  or  temperari  milii  non 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  371 

possum  ;  non  impedio,  non  rccuso,  nihil  praetermitto,  and 
the  like.  For  in  these  cases  the  negation  contained  in 
quin  is  superfluous,  and  is  only  a  sort  of  continuation  of 
the  preceding  non  (as  the  Greek  firj  ov  before  an  infini- 
tive); hence  it  is  generally  not  expressed  in  English,  quin 
being  rendered  by  "that,"  or  by  "to"  with  an  infinitive. 
E.  g.,  non  dubito  quin  domi  sit,  I  have  no  doubt  (that)  he 
is  at  home  ;  non  multum  abest  quin  miser  rimus  sim,  not 
much  is  wanting  to  make  me  the  most  wretched  of  men  ; 
nulla  mora  fuit,  quin  decernerent  bellum,  they  did  not  hes- 
itate to  decree  war.  Hence,  as  quin  in  this  case  is  only  a 
form  of  expression,  non  is  superadded,  if  the  dependent 
sentence  is  to  have  a  really  negative  meaning.  Thus  we 
find  not  unfrequently,  at  least,  non  dubito  quin  non,  which 
is  easily  explained  by  translating  non  dubito  quin  by  "  I 
believe,"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  40,  in  quibus  non  dubito 
quin  offensionem  negligentiae  vitare  atque  cjfugerc  non  pos- 
sim,  I  believe  that  I  cannot  escape  the  charge  of  negli- 

fence  ;  comp.  ad  Att.,  v.,  11,  in  fin.  ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  3,  Du- 
itandum  non  cst,  quin  nunquam  possit  utilitas  cum  liones- 
tate  contendcre,  we  must  believe,  or  be  convinced  that  util- 
ity can  never  be  opposed  to  virtue.  It  should,  however, 
be  observed  that  expressions  implying  an  obstacle  are 
properly  followed,  according  to  §  543,  by  quo  minus  in- 
stead of  quin. 

Dux  ille  Graeciae  nusquam  optat,  ut  Ajacis  similes  habcat 

decem,  sed  ut  Nestoris  ;  quod  si  accident,  non  dubitat  quin 

brevi  Troja  sit  peritura,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  10. 
Num  dubitas  quin  specimen  naturae  capi  deceat  ex  optima 

quaque  natura  ?  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  14. 

Quis  igitur  dubitet,  quin  in  virtute  divitiae  sint  ?  Cicero. 
Ego  nihil  praetermisi,  quantum  faccre  potui,  quin  Pompe- 

ium  a  Caesaris  conjunctione  avocarcm,  Cic.,  Philip. 
Infesta  contio  vix  inhiberi  spotuit,  quin  protinus  suo  more 

saxa  in  Polemoncmjaceret,  Curt.,  vii.,  6  (2). 
Tiberium  non  fortuna,  non  solitudincs  protegcbant,  quin 

tormenta  pectoris  suasque  ipse  pocnas  fatcretur,  Tacit., 

Ann.,  vi.,  6. 

[§  541.]  Note2. — If  we  are  to  take  the  language  of  Cicero  as  our  guide, 
it  is  less  correct  to  use  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  after  non  dubito, 
in  the  sense  of  "  I  do  not  doubt,"  instead  of  quin ;  but  it  often  occurs  in 
Curtius  and  Livy  (see  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxii.;  55,  and  xxxvi.,  41),  and 
in  Nepos  exclusively,  which  may  be  considered  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  au- 
thor ;  in  later  writers  it  is  found  frequently.  But  the  only  passage  in  Cic- 


372  LAT1X    GRAMMAR. 

ero  which  is  alleged  as  an  example  of  non  dubito,  followed  by  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  viz.,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  1,  has  hitherto  had  a  wrong 
punctuation,  and,  according  to  Bremi  (on  Nep.,  Praefat.),  we  must  read,  Me 
autem  uterque  numeral  swum,  nisi  forte  simulat  alter  :  nam  Pompeius  non  dubi- 
tat.  Vere  enim  judicat,  ea,  quae  de  republica  nunc  sentiat,  mihi  valde  probari. 
The  partiality  for  the  construction  with  quin  is  attested  by  some  passages, 
in  which  this  conjunction  is  used  instead  of  the  accusat.  with  the  infini- 
tive, because  the  leading  sentence  may  be  conceived  to  contain  the  same 
idea  as  non  dubito  ;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Place.,  27,  Quis  ignorat  quin  tria  Graecorum 
genera  sint ;  comp.  Quintil.,  xii.,  7,  8,  quis  ignorat  quin  id  longe  sit  honestis- 
simum ;  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  7,  atqui  alterum  did  (i.  e.,  in  dubium  vocari)  non  po- 
test  quin  ii,  qui  niliil  metuant,  bead  sint. 

But  when  dubito  and  non  dubito  signify  "  I  scruple"  or  "  hesitate,"  and 
the  sentence  following  contains  the  same  subject,  they  are  generally  fol- 
lowed by  the  infinitive;  e.  g.,  non  dubito  respondere  ;  Cicero  non  dubitabat 
conjuratos  supplicio  afficere  ;  though  Cicero  often  uses  quin  even  in  these 
cases,  as  in  Verr.,  ii.,  13,  nemo  dubitavit,  quin  voluntatcm  spectaret  cjus,  quern 
statim  de  capite  suo  putaret  judicaturum  ;  p.  Place.,  17,  dubitatis,  judices,  quin 
ab  hoc  ignotissimo  Phri/ge  nobilissimum  civctn  vindicetis  ?  (a  negative  ques- 
tion, the  meaning  of  which  is,  "you  must  not  hesitate.")  Comp.  p.  Leg. 
Man.,  1C,  in  fin.,  and  23  ;  p.  Milon.,  23,  §  63  ;  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  26,  $  69. 
Schneider  on  Caesar,  Bell.  Gall.,  ii.,  2. 

We  here  add  the  remark  that  "  1  doubt  whether"  is  expressed  in  Latin 
by  dubito  sitnc,  dubito  utrum — an,  dubito  sitne — an,  or  dubito  num,  numquid  ; 
for  dubito  an  and  dubium  est  an  are  used,  like  nescio  an,  by  the  best  writers, 
with  an  affirmative  meaning.  See  §  354. 

[<S>  542.]  Note  3.— Quin  is  used  in  another  sense  with  the  indicative,  im- 
plying a  question  or  an  exhortation  ;  this  is  in  accordance  with  its  origi- 
nal elements,  being  compounded  of  nc  (i.  e.,  non)  and  the  ancient  ablative 
qui  of  the  interrogative  pronoun  quid ;  c.  g.,  Liv.,  quin  conscendimus  equos? 
Why  do  we  not  mount  our  horses  ?  Cic.,  p.  Rabir.,  6,  Quin  continetis  vocem 
indicem  stultitiae  vcstrae  ?  Curt.,  v.,  22,  Quin  igitur  ulciscimur  Graeciam,  et 
urbi  faces  subdimus  ?  and  so  in  many  other  passages.  As  such  questions 
are  equivalent  to  exhortations  (and  different  from  questions  with  cur  non, 
which  always  require  an  answer),  quin  in  this  sense  is  also  joined  with  the 
imperative  ;  e.  g.,  quin  die  statim,  well,  tell  me  !  quin  sic  attendite  judices, 
pray,  pay  attention  !  or  with  the  first  person  plural  of  the  subjunctive  ;  as, 
quin  experiamur,  why  do  we  not  try,  or  let  us  try !  Hence  quin,  without 
being  connected  with  any  verb,  signifies  "  even"  or  "  rather,"  just  as  quin 
etiam,  quin  potius,  quin  immo  ;  as  in  Cicero,  credibile  non  est,  quantum  scri- 
bam  die,  quin  etiam  noctibus. 

[§  543.]  (e)  Quominus  (for  ut  eo  minus,  in  order  that  not) 
is  mostly  used  after  verbs  expressing  ahinderance,  where 
also  ne,  and  if  a  negative  precedes,  quin  may  be  used. 
The  principal  verbs  of  this  kind  are  :  deterrere,  impedire, 
interccdere,  obsistere,  obstare,  officerc,  prohibere,  rccusare, 
repugnare  ;  but  there  are  several  other  expressions  which 
convey  the  same  meaning ;  e.  g.,  stat  or  Jit  per  me,  I  am 
the  cause  ;  non  pugno,  nihil  moror,  non  contineo  me,  &c. 
Cimon  nunquatn  in  liortis  custodem  imposuit,  ne  quis  impe- 

diretur,  quominus  ejus  rebus,  quibus  quisque  vellct,frucre- 

tur,  Nep.,  dm.,  4. 
Parmenio,  quum  audissct,  vcncnum  a  PJiilippo  medico  regi 

parari,  deterrere  cum  voluit  epistola  scripta,  quominus 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

medicamentum  biberet,  quod  mcdicus  dare  constituent, 
Curt.,  vi.,  40  (10.) 

[§  544.]  Note. — Impedire,  deterrerc,  and  recusare,  however,  are  sometimes, 
and  prohibere  frequently  (§  607)  followed  by  the  infinitive;  e.  g.,  Caes., 
Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  22,  neque  adhuc  repertus  est  quisquam,  qui  mori  recusaret ; 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  2,  quid  est  igitur,  quod  me  impediat,  ea,  quae  mihi  probabilia 
videantur,  sequi  ?  in  Verr.,  i.,  5,  nef arias  ejus  libidines  commemorare  pudore  de- 
tcrreor  ;  in  Verr.,  v.,  45,  prohibentur  parentes  adire  ad  filios,  prohibentur  liberis 
suis  cibum  vestitumque  ferre  ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  11,  male,  qui  peregrinos  urbibus  uti 
prohibent.  In  one  passage  of  Cicero  (p.  Rose.  Am.,  52)  prohibere  is  follow- 
ed by  ut :  Di  prohibeant,  judices,  ut  hoc,  quod  majores  consilium  publicum  vo- 
cari  voluerunt,  praesidium  sectorum  existimetur.  This,  however,  should  not 
be  imitated.  Instead  of  quo-minus  we  sometimes  find  quo  secius  (see  $  283), 
especially  in  the  work  ad  Herennium. 

[§  545.]  7.  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  propositions 
which  are  introduced  into  others,  after  relative  pronouns 
and  conjunctions,  when  those  propositions  express  the 
thoughts  or  words  of  another  person.  (In  many  cases 
they  are  the  thoughts  or  words  of  the  speaker  himself,  but 
he  then  speaks  of  himself  as  of  a  third  person.)  To  make 
this  general  rule  more  clear,  we  shall  distinguish  the  va- 
rious cases  in  which  such  clauses  are  inserted. 

(a)  Clauses  inserted  in  the  construction  of  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  when  they  are  to  express  the 
thoughts  or  words  of  the  person  spoken  of,  or  when  they 
form  an  essential  part  of  the  statement  implied  in  the  ac- 
cusative with  the  infinitive. 

Socrates  dicere  solel>at,omnes.in  co,  quod  scij'ent,  satis  esse 

eloquentes,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  i.,  14. 
Mos  est  Atkenis  laudari  in  contione  cos,  qui  sint  in  proeliis 

interfecti,  Cic.,  Orat.,  44. 
Quid  potest  esse  tarn  apertum,  tamque  perspicuum,  quum 

coelum  suspeximus,  coelestiaque  contemplati  sumus,  quam 

esse  aliquod  numcn  praestantissimae  mentis,  quo  Jiaec  re- 

gantur,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  2. 

Note. — If  we  take  the  first  of  these  examples,  the  words  which  Socrates 
said  are,  omnes  in  eo,  quod  sciunt,  satis  sunt  eloquentes,  and  the  clause  in  co 
quod  sciurtt  is  a  part  of  his  statement ;  hence  it  is  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive if  the  leading  verb  is  changed  into  the  infinitive.  In  the  last  ex- 
ample, the  belief  is,  est  deus  ab  eoquc  hie  mundns  regitur,  and  not  merely  deus 
est ;  hence  regitur,  which  is  an  essential  part  of  it,  is  expressed  by  the 
subjunctive.  The  tense  of  such  an  inserted  clause  depends  upon  that  of 
the  leading  verb,  on  which,  in  fact,  the  whole  sentence  is  dependent.  The 
inserted  clause  has  the  indicative  when  it  contains  a  remark  of  the  speak- 
er (or  writer)  himself,  and  not  a  thought  or  words  of  the  person  spoken  of 
(the  subject  of  the  leading  proposition).  Let  us  examine  the  sentence 
quos  viceris  amicos  tibi  esse  cave  credas.  do  not  believe  that  those  whom  you 
have  conquered  are  your  friends.  Here  the  other  person  whose  opinion 
is  refuted  thinks  that  those  whom  he  has  conquered  are  his  friends.  If 

I   i 


374  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

we  use  the  indicative  cave  tibi  amicos  (hos)  csse  crcdas,  quos  vicisti,  the  last 
two  words  are  merely  an  addition  of  the  speaker,  by  which  he  describes 
those  people,  the  person  to  whom  the  advice  is  given  not  being  supposed 
to  have  expressed  that  thought.  Hence  the  subjunctive  has  its  peculiar 
place  in  general  sentences,  in  which  a  class  of  things  is  mentioned,  which 
exists  only  as  a  conception  or  idea,  while  the  individual  thing  has  a  real 
existence  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  11,  Est  enim  ulciscendi  et  puniendi  modus, 
atque  hand  scio  an  satis  sit  cum  qui  lacessierit  injuriae  suae  poenitere  ;  i.  e.,  each 
individual  offender.  This  is  commonly  called  an  indefinite  expression  ;  but 
we  should  rather  call  it  a  general  or  universal  one. 

[§  546.]  Explanatory  clauses,  especially  circumlocutions,  introduced  by 
a  relative  pronoun,  are  sometimes  found  with  the  indicative,  because  such 
an  explanation  may  be  regarded  as  standing  by  itself,  and  therefore  need 
not  share  in  the  relation  of  dependence  in  which  the  other  sentence  stands ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Arch.,  9,  Itaque  ille  Marius  item  eximic  L.Plotium  dilexit,  cujus 
ingenio  putabat  ca,  quac  gcsserat,  posse  celebrari.  Ea,  quae  gessisset  would 
not  be  incorrect ;  but  ea  quae  gesserat  is  a  circumlocution  for  res  a  se  gestas, 
his  deeds.  Comp.  Goerenz  on  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  5,  nam  sic  habetote,  magis- 
tratibus  usque  qui  pracsunt  rempublicam  contineri,  where  the  common  read- 
ing is  pracsint.  Liv.,  iii.,  71,  Ibi  infit ;  annum  se  tertium  ct  octogesimum 
agcre,  et  in  eo  agro,  de  quo  agitur,  militasse ;  that  is,  the  field  in  question,  de 
quo  agitur  standing  by  itself  and  independent.  But  the  use  of  the  indica- 
tive in  such  cases  must  not  be  extended  too  far ;  the  subjunctive  is  so  uni- 
versally employed  in  clauses  inserted  in  the  construction  of  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  when  they  really  contain  the  thoughts  or  words  of  an- 
other person,  that  exceptions  even  in  classical  prose  writers,  as  Caesar  and 
Livy,  are  only  isolated  peculiarities,  and  ought  not  to  tempt  us  to  neglect 
the  rule.  The  following  passages  of  Livy,  for  example,  can  only  be  re- 
garded as  careless  expressions,  iii.,  13,  se  haud  multo  post,  quam  pestilentia 
in  urbe  fuerat,  in  juventutcm  grassantcm  in  Subura  incidisse  ;  and  in.,  2,  lega- 
tos  nuntiare  jussit,  Q.  Fabium  consulem  A.equis  bellwn  afferre  eadcm  dextra  ar- 
mata,  quam  pacatam  illis  antea  dederat — instead  of  fuisset  and  dedisset.  But 
in  Caesar,  Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  2,  per  exploratores  certior  factus  est,  ex  eapartevici, 

Suam  Gallis  concesserat,  omnes  noctu  disccssisse,  we  are  reminded  by  the  in- 
icative  that  the  addition  quam  Gallis  concesserat  is  to  be  regarded  as  an 
explanatory  remark  of  Caesar,  and  not  as  words  of  the  exploratores,  who 
would  probably  have  expressed  themselves  otherwise. 

[§  547.]  (b)  Clauses  introduced  into  a  proposition  which 
is  expressed  by  the  subjunctive  are  likewise  in  the  sub- 
junctive when  they  are  to  be  considered  as  an  essential 
part  of  the  leading  proposition,  being  included  in  the  pur- 
pose, request,  precept,  or  command  of  another  person,  or 
(with  si)  in  the  supposed  circumstances ;  e.  g.,  Rex  im- 
peravit,  ut,  quae  bello  opus  essent,  pararentur. 

Eo  simus  animo,  ut  nikil  in  mails  ducamus,  quod  sit  vel  a 
deo  immortali^  vcl  a  natura  constitutum,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i., 
in  fin. 

Memoria  erat  tanta  (Hortensius)  qttantam  in  nullo  cogno- 
visse  me  arbitror,  nt,  quae  secum  commentates  esset,  ca 
sine  scripto  verbis  eisdem  redder  et,  quibus  cogitavissct, 
Cic.,  Brut.,  88. 

Note. — In  the  first  of  these  examples  the  conviction  required  is  this : 
nihil  in  malia  duco,  quod  a  deo  est  constitutum,  and  not  merely  nihil  in  mails 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  375 

duco.  The  clause  beginning  with  quod,  therefore,  is  a  part  of  the  convic- 
tion, and  is,  therefore,  expressed  by  the  subjunctive,  like  the  other.  But 
here  we  must  observe,  1 ,  that  not  all  propositions  with  a  subjunctive  express 
a  purpose  or  object,  but  some  of  them  merely  a  quality  (when  ita,  tam,  talis, 
&c.,  precede),  in  which  case  the  inserted  clause  has  the  indicative  ;  as, 
Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  6,  Asia  vero  tarn  opima  est  et  fertilis,  ut — multitudine  ea- 
rum  rerum,  quae  exportantur,  facile  omnibus  terris  antccellat ;  2,  that  the  indic- 
ative is  used  in  circumlocutions,  just  as  in  similar  clauses  inserted  in  the 
construction  of  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit. ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  deNat.  Deor.,ii., 
59,  Eloquendi  vis  efficit,  ut  ea,  quae  ignoramus,  discere,  ct  ca,  quae  scimus,  olios 
docere  possimus  ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  7,  verumtamen  a  vobis  ita  arbitror  spectari  opor- 
tere,  quanti  haec  eorum  judicio,  qui  studiosi  sunt  harum  rerum,  aestimentur ; 
Brut.,  49,  efficiatur  autem  ab  oratore,  necne,  ut  ii  qui  audiunt  ita  efficiantur,  ut 
oratorvelit,vulgi  assensu  et  populari  approbatione  judicari  solet,  where  Ernest! 
made  the  arbitrary  emendation  audiant.  The  same  is  the  case  in  defini- 
tions; as,  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  ii.,  12,  Videre  igitur  oportet,  quae  sint  convenientia 
cum  ipso  negotio,  hoc  est,  quae  ab  re  separari  non  possunt. 

[§  548.]  There  are  other  cases,  also,  in  which  clauses  thus  inserted  are 
treated  as  remarks  of  the  speaker  (or  writer),  and  expressed  by  the  indic- 
ative, although  they  ought  to  have  been  treated  as  parts  of  the  dependent 
proposition,  and  accordingly  expressed  by  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Nep., 
Milt.,  3,  Miltiades  hortatus  est  pontis  custodes,  ne  a  fortuna  datam  occasionem 
liberandae  Graeciae  dimitterent.  Nam  si  cum  his  copiis,  quas  secum  transpor- 
taverat,  intcrisset  Darius,  non  solum  Europamfore  tutarn,  &c.  ;  Them.,  5,  nam 
Themistocles  verens,  ne  (rex)  bcllare  perseveraret,  certiorem  eum  fecit,  id  agi,  ut 
pans,  quern  ille  in  Hellesponto  fecerat,  dissolveretur.  Here  the  writer  is  speak- 
ing to  his  reader,  as  is  shown  in  the  last  passage  by  the  pronoun  ille ;  but 
this  is  not  common,  and  in  the  first  passage  the  indicative  is  very  singu- 
lar, and  at  least  contrary  to  the  practice  of  Cicero.  So,  also,  in  Curtius, 
X.,  26,  ubi  ille  esset,  cujus  imperium,  cujus  auspjcium  secuti  erant,  requirebant, 
where  secuti  cssent  should  have  been  used,  as  the  clause  is  part  of  the 
words  of  the  Macedonians  ;  and  it  is  strange  to  see  the  writer  add  it  as 
his  own  remark. 

[§  549.]  (c)  Lastly,  when  a  proposition,  containing  the 
statement  of  a  fact,  and  therefore  expressed  by  the  indic- 
ative, has  another  dependent  upon  it  or  added  to  it  (by 
a  conjunction  or  a  relative  pronoun),  the  dependent  clause 
is  expressed  by  the  subjunctive,  provided  the  substance  of 
it  is  alleged  as  the  sentiment  or  the  words  of  the  person 
spoken  of,  and  not  of  the  speaker  himself.  Thus  the  prop- 
osition, Noctu  ambulabat  in  publico  Themistocles,  quod 
somnum  capere  non  posset  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  iv.,  19),  suggests 
that  Themistocles  himself  gave  this  reason  for  his  walk- 
ing at  night.  But  I,  the  writer  of  the  proposition,  may 
express  the  reason  as  my  own  remark,  and  in  this  case 
the  indicative  poterat  is  required  as  well  as  ambulabat. 

Bern  majores  nostri  accuHtionem  epularem  amicorum,  quia 
vitae  conjunctionem  Jiabcrct,  convivium  nominarunt,  Cic., 
Cat.  Maj.,  13. 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumpcrct  jurentutcm  et  novas 
superstitiones  induccrct,  Quintil.,  iv.,  4. 


376  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Aristides  nonne  ob  earn  causam  expulsus  cst  patria,  quod 
praeter  modum  Justus  csset?  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  36. 

The  clause  beginning  with  quod  in  the  second  of  these 
examples  contains  the  reasons  alleged  by  the  accusers  of 
Socrates ;  and  the  subjunctive  in  the  last  example  indi- 
cates that  the  reason  there  stated  was  alleged  by  the 
Athenians  themselves,  according  to  the  well-known  story, 
and  it  remains  uncertain  whether  Aristides  was  really  so 
just;  but  this  uncertainty  would  not  exist  if  the  indica- 
tive had  been  used. 

[$550.]  Note  1. — When  a  clause  thus  appended  or  inserted  contains  the 
sentiment  of  the  subject  of  the  leading  sentence,  or  his  own  words,  all 
references  to  him  are  expressed  by  the  reflective  pronoun  sui,  sibi,  se,  and 
by  the  possessive  suus  (see  above,  $  125) ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  15,  nam 
mihi  scito  jam  a  regibus  ultimis  allatas  esse  littcras,  quibus  mihi  gratias  agant, 
quod  se  7nea  sentcntia  rcges  appellaverim  •  and  we  might  add,  quod  se  suosque 
liberos  ob  sua  merita  in  populum  Romanum  regcs  appellaverirn,  &c.  ;  Nep., 
Them.,  8,  hac  necessitate  coactus  domino  navis  qui  sit  aperit,  multa  pollicens,  si 
se  conservasset.  It  is  most  frequently  the  case,  when  the  conjunctions  ex- 
press an  intention,  for  an  intention  most  commonly  originates  in  the  sub- 
ject;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  i.,  27,  turn  ei  dormienti  idem  ilJe  visits  est  rogare, 
lit,  quoniam  sibi  vivo  non  subvenisset,  mortem  suam  ne  inultam  esse  pateretur. 
It  is  of  no  consequence  whether  the  person  to  whom  the  pronoun  refers 
is  expressed  (in  the  nominal. )  as  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  proposi- 
tion or  not ;  and  it  is  sufficient  if  it  can  be  conceived  as  such,  that  is,  if 
it  is  the  logical  subject  ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Pans.,  4,  quum  ei  in  suspicionem  venisset, 
aliquid  in  epistola  de  se  esse  scriptum,  for  the  words  quum  ei  in  suspicionem 
venisset  are  equivalent  to  quum  suspicaretur  ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  18,  A  Caesare 
valde  liberaliter  invitor  (i.  e.,  Caesar  me  invitat},  sibi  ut  sim  legatus,  whereas, 
in  another  place  (ad  Att.,  x.,  4,  7),  Cicero  writes,  a  Curione  mihi  nuntiatum 
est,  eum  ad  me  venire,  because  this  is  not  equivalent  to  Curio  mihi  nuntiat, 
but  to  nuntius  e  domo  Curionis  venit. 

But  it  not  unfrequently  occurs  that  a  sentiment  which  should  have  been 
expressed  in  the  form  of  dependence,  being  the  sentiment  of  the  subject, 
is  expressed  by  the  writer  as  if  it  were  a  remark  of  his  own ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
in  Verr.,  ii.,  34,  ferebat  Sthenius,  ut  poterat ;  tangebatur  tamen  animi  dolore 
necessario,  quod  domum  ejus  exornatam  atque  instructam  fere  jam  iste  reddiderat 
nudam  atque  inancm :  the  more  usual  mode  of  speaking  would  have  been 
quod  domum  suam  iste  reddidisset.  Such  sentences  should  be  our  guide  in 
recognising  and  explaining  the  irregularity  of  those  in  which  the  pronoun 
is  is  added,  notwithstanding  the  subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  45,  Sex.  Tar- 
quinius  e  suis  unum  sciscitatum  Romam  ad  patrem  mittit,  quidnam  se  facere 
vellet,  quandoquidem,  ut  omnia  unus  Gabiis  posset,  ei  dei  dedissent.  The  or- 
dinary practice  requires  sibi;  but  other  examples  of  a  similar  kind  in  which 
the  reflective  pronoun  is  neglected  are  found  here  and  there,  in  clauses 
expressing  an  intention  after  ut  and  nc,  and  in  clauses  dependent  upon  the 
construction  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  i.,  54, 
<5»  232  ;  and  rather  frequently  in  Caesar.  (Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  5,  4  ;  i.,  11,  3  ;  i., 
14,  4.)  It  occurs  more  especially  when  the  dependent  clause  has  its  own 
subject,  for  then  the  pronoun  se  or  sibi  might  be  referred  to  the  subject  of 
the  dependent  clause  :  hence  the  cases  of  is  or  ille  are  used  instead  ;  as, 
Cic.,  p.  Arch.,  10,  Sulla  malo  poetae,  quod  epigramma  in  eum  fecisset  tantum- 
modo  alternis  versibus  longiusculis,  statim  praemium  tribui  jussit — for  in  se 
might  be  referred  to  the  poet  himself;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  6,  Helvetii  scse 
Allobroges  vi  coacturos  existimabant,  ut  per  suos  fines  eos  ire  paterentur  ;  Sal- 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  377 

lust,  Jug.,  96,  (Sulla)  magis  id  laborare,  ut  illi  (Sullae)  quam  plurimi  debe- 
rent ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  39,  Audistis  nuper  dicere  legates  Tyndaritanos ,  Mer- 
curium,  qui  sacris  anniversariis  apud  eos  coleretur,  Verris  imperio  esse  sublatum. 
Sometimes,  however,  such  ambiguity  is  less  carefully  avoided,  and  Nepos 
(Hann.,  12),  in  one  dependent  clause,  even  uses  two  reflective  pronouns 
referring  to  different  persons,  Patres  conscripti  legates  in  Bithyniam  miserunt, 
qui  ab  rege  peterent,  ne  inimicissimum  suum  secum  haberet  sibique  dederet ; 
Curt.,  viii.,  1,  Scythae  petebant,  lit  regis  sui  'filiam  matrimonio  sibi  jungeret, 
for  which  rcgis  ipsorum  filiam  might  have  been  used,  if  it  had  been  neces- 
sary. See  §  702.  The  case  is  also  reversed,  and  good  writers  sometimes 
use  sibi  instead  of  ei  or  ipsi ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  49,  Dexo  hie  non  quae 
privatim  sibi  eripuisti,  sed  unicum  abs  te  filiumflagitat  ;  comp,  p.  Rose.  Am., 
2,  §  6 ;  De  Divin.,  L,  54,  init.  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  vi.,  9.  Sometimes  suus 
seems  to  stand  for  ejus  or  ipsius,  as  it  refers  only  to  a  subject  mentioned 
in  the  proposition,  without  the  clause  itself  being  the  sentiment  of  the 
leading  subject;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  iv.,  2,  Quod  erat  praesidium  libertatis 
vestrae,  nisi  C.  Caesarisfortissimorum  sui  patris  militum  exercitus  nonfuisset  ? 
Nep.  Cim.,  3,  inciditin  eandem  invidiam,  quam  pater  suus  ceterique  Atheniensi- 
um  principes,  &c. ;  but  it  has  been  observed  before  (§  125)  that  suus  also 
signifies  "  his  own,"  as  opposed  to  alienus,  whence  the  plur.  sui  signifies 
"  his  people,"  or  "  those  belonging  to  him." 

[§  551.]  Note  2. — We  may  here  notice  a  peculiarity  which  is  in  itself 
faulty,  but  of  which  many  examples  occur  in  Cicero,  viz.,  clauses  like 
"because  he  said,"  or  "because  he  believed,"  are  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive, although,  properly  speaking,  not  these  verbs  themselves,  but  the 
clauses  dependent  on  them  should  be  in  the  subjunctive.  See  Cic.,  d« 
Off.,  i.,  13,  Qiium  enim  Hannibalis  pcrmissu  exissct  de  castris,  rediit  paulo post, 
quod  se  oblitum  ncscio  quid  dicerct :  according  to  grammatical  rules  it  should 
be  quod  nescio  quid  oblitus  esset,  or  quod  se  oblitum  esse  nescio  quid  dicebat. 
These  two  constructions  are  combined  in  such  a  manner,  that  dicebat  as- 
sumes the  form  of  dependence  expressed  by  the  subjunctive.  The  same 
occurs  in  de  Off.,  iii.,  31,  cui  (Pomponio  trib.  pleb.)  quum  esset  nuntiatum, 
quod  ilium  iratum  allaturum  ad  se  aliquid  contra  patrem  arbitraretur,  surrexit  e 
lectulo  ;  Sulpicius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  12,  Ab  Athenicnsibus,  locum  sepul- 
turae  intra  urbem  ut  darent,  impetrare  non  potui,  quod  religione  se  impediri  dice- 
rent.  Comp.  in  Pison.,  36,  in  fin. ;  in  Verr.,  i.,  38,  in  fin. ;  ii.,  14,  in  fin., 
and  ii.,  46,  §  113,  with  my  note  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall,  vii.,  75,  Bellovaci  suum 
numerum  non  contulerunt,  quod  se  suo  nomine  atque  arbitrio  cum  Romanis  ges- 
turos  helium  dicer ent.  In  like  manner,  the  subjunctive  dicer -ent  occurs  in 
Sallust  (Cat.,  49)  with  the  relative  pronoun,  Sed  ubi  consulem  ad  tantumfa- 
cinus  impellere  nequeunt,  ipsi  singillatim  circumeundo  atque  ementiundo,  quae  se 
ex  Volturcio  aut  Allobrogibus  audisse  dicerent,  magnam  illi  invidiam  conflaver- 
ant ;  and  in  Cicero,  in  Verr.,  v.,  7,  §  17  ;  Philip.,  ii.,  4,  init. 

[§  552.]  8.  All  sentences  which  contain  an  indirect  ques- 
tion, that  is,  which  state  the  subject  of  a  direct  question 
in  a  manner  which  makes  them  dependent  upon  some 
other  verb,  have  the  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood.  An 
indirect  question,  not  to  mention  the  verb  "to  ask"  itself, 
generally  depends  upon  those  verbs  and  expressions  which 
usually  govern  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 

All  the  words  which  are  used  in  direct  questions  are 
also  used  in  introducing  indirect  or  dependent  questions, 
viz.,  quis,  quid;  qui,  quae,  quod;  quot,  qualis,  quantus, 
quam,  ubi,  unde,  quare,  cur,  utcr,  quo  (whither  1),  quomo- 
do,  utrum,  an,  ne  (the  suffix),  num. 
I  i  2 


378  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Saepe  ne  utile  quidem  est  scire,  quidfuturum  sit,  Cicero. 
Qualis  sit  animus,  ipse  animus  nescit,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  22. 
Incertum  est,  quo  te  loco  mors  expcctet,  Senec.,  Epist.,  26. 
Permultmn  interest,  utrum  pcrturbatione  aliqua  animi,  an 

consultofiat  injuria,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  8. 
Tarquinius  Superbus  Prisci  Tarquinii  regis  films  neposne 
fuerit,  parum  liquet,  Liv.,  i.,  46. 

[§  553.]  Note  1. — The  indicative  in  dependent  questions  is  often  found 
in  Plautus  and  Terence ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  v.,  9,  39,  Tibi  pater  per- 
mittimus  :  phis  scis  quid  opus  facto  est ;  Hecyr.,  iii.,  5,  21,  si  nunc  mcmorare 
hie  velim,  quam  fideli  animo  et  benigno  in  illam  et  dementi  fui,  vere  possum  • 
and  in  the  later  poets,  too,  it  occurs  now  and  then ;  but  in  the  best  prose 
the  subjunctive  is  used  so  universally,  that  the  few  cases  in  which  the 
common  practice  is  abandoned  cannot  affect  the  rule  ;  for  these  few  ca- 
ses derive  their  explanation  from  the  fact  that  sometimes  a  direct  ques- 
tion is  used  where  an  indirect  one  might  stand.  After  the  imperative  die 
and  vide,  in  particular,  a  question  is  sometimes  put  in  a  direct  and  some- 
times in  an  indirect  form;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  5,  die,  quaeso,  num.  te  ilia 
terrent  ?  ad  Att.,  viii.,  13,  vide,  quam  conversa  res  est!  Liv.,  ix.,  33,  die,  agc- 
dum,  quidnam  acturus  fucris.  So  in  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  12,  sin  discedit :  quo, 
aut  qua,  aut  quid  nobis  agendum  est,  nescio,  the  question  does  not  depend 
upon  nescio,  but  must  be  conceived  as  independent :  "  whither,  how,  or 
what  shall  I  do?  I  do  not  know."  In  the  passage  (Lael.,25),  mcministis — 
quam  popularis  lex  de  sacerdotiis  C.  Licinii  Crassi  videbatur,  the  indicative 
shows  that  the  sentence  quam — videbatur  is  to  be  taken  by  itself :  "how 
popular  did  that  law  appear  ?  you  surely  remember  it."  In  other  cases,  a 
careful  examination  shows  that  the  sentence  is  not  a  question,  but  a  clause 
commencing  with  a  relative  pronoun,  and  the  beginner  must  pay  the  great- 
er attention  to  the  meaning,  as  the  interrogative  adverbs  and  pronouns  are 
in  form  the  same  as  the  relatives.  There  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this 
kind  in  Quintilian,  iv.,  5,  26,  Non  enim  quid  dicamus,  sed  de  quo  dicturi  su- 
mus,  ostendimus,  which  Spalding  has  correctly  explained :  in  the  division 
of  the  speech  we  do  not  indicate,  quale  id  sit  de  quo  cummaxime  dicimus, 
but  we  indicate  beforehand  that  of  which  we  are  going  to  speak.  In  like 
manner,  in  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  30,  quaeramus  ubi  malcjicium  est,  the  est  is  not 
used  for  sit,  but  the  sentence  is  to  be  translated,  "let  us  seek  there,  where 
the  crime  actually  is,"  and  ubi,  therefore,  is  a  relative  adverb.  Cic.,  Cat. 
Maj.,  4,  multa  in  eo  viro  (Q.  Maximo)  praeclara  cognovi,  sed  nihil  est  admira- 
bilius,  quam  qiiomodo  ille  mortem  filii  tulit ;  i.  e.,  than  the  manner  in  which 
he  bore  it.  Lastly-,  there  are,  even  at  the  present  time,  some  faults  in  the 
editions,  as  the  difference  between  the  subjunctive  and  indicative  often 
consists  only  in  a  single  letter  or  an  abridged  final  syllable.  See  my  note 
on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  53.  It  must  farther  be  observed,  that  nescio  quis  and 
nescio  quid  have  by  practice  become  one  word,  equivalent  to  aliquis,  qui- 
dam,  and  that,  consequently,  the  indefinite  pronoun  in  this  case  does  not 
govern  any  particular  mood  of  the  verb ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  15,  Sed 
casu  nescio  quo  in  ea  tempora  aetas  nostra  incidit  •  if  nescio  here  were  the 
leading  verb,  he  would  have  said,  nescio  quo  casu  inciderit.  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii., 
14,  Nescio  quid  turbatus  mihi  esse  videris ;  i.  e.,  you  seem  to  me  to  be  some- 
what perplexed.  In  like  manner,  nescio  quomodo  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
"  somehow"  or  "in  some  way;"  as,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  15,  Sed,  nescio  quomo- 
do, inhaeret  in  mentibus  quasi  augurium.  Mirum  quam,  mirum  quantum,  nimi- 
um  quantum,  and  some  similar  expressions,  when  united  to  express  only 
one  idea,  do  not  affect  the  mood  of  the  verb  ;  e.  g.,  Cfc.,  Oral.,  20,  Sales  in 
dicendo  nimium  quantum  valent  •  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  40,  mirum  quam  inimicus  ibat ; 
Liv.,  ii.,  1,  id  mirum  quantum  profuit  ad  concordiam  civitatis  ;  but  the  same 
writer  (i.,  16)  says,  mirum  quantum  illi  viro  nuntianti  haec  fidei  fuerit. 


•  p 

indin 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  379 

554.]  Note  2. — With  regard  to  disjunctive  questions,  both  direct  and 
lirect,  expressed  by  "  whether— or,"  it  must  be  observed  that  the  Eng- 
lish "  or"  is  never  translated  by  aut,  but  by  an,  or  by  the  suffix  ne.  The 
first  question  is  introduced  by  utrum,  or  likewise  by  ne,  or  has  no  interrog- 
ative particle  at  all.  Hence  there  are  four  forms  of  such  double  questions . 

1.  utrum  (utrumne),  — an. 

2.  ,  • —  an  (anne}. 

3.  the  suffix  ne,  —  an. 

4.  ,  —  the  suffix  ne. 

Utrum  (whether)  is  not  used  in  a  simple  question ;  hence  we  cannot  say 
quaerebam  utrum  pecuniam  haberet,  unless  another  question  is  added.  The 
interrogative  particle  utrum,  however,  must  be  distinguished  from  the  neu- 
ter of  the  pronoun  uter,  as  in  quaerebam,  utrum  vellet,  I  asked  which  of  the 
two  he  wished.  Respecting  utrumne  (commonly  separated)  in  the  first 
part  of  a  disjunctive  question,  and  anne  in  the  second,  as  in  Cicero  ( Acad., 
ii.,  29),  quum  interrogetur  tria  paucd  sint,  anne  multa,  see  above,  ^  351.  Num. 
— an  (always  in  direct  questions)  denotes  a  double  question  only  in  form, 
for  the  first  part  already  implies  the  negative  answer  (see  §  351),  so  that 
only  the  second  part  remains  as  a  question;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  5,  48, 
Num  furis,  an  prudens  ludis  me?  Comp.  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  i.,  58,  §  249,  and 
de  Leg.,  ii.,  2,  numquid—an,  above,  $  351.  The  English  "  or  not,"  in  the 
second  part,  which  is  used  without  a  verb,  unless  the  one  preceding  is  un- 
derstood, is  expressed  in  Latin  by  annon  or  necne,  and  likewise  either  with 
or  without  a  verb  ;  but  necne  occurs  only  in  indirect  questions  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  rjf . 
de  Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  7,  Dii  utrum  sint  necne  sint  quacritur  ;  p.  Muren.,  11,  pos- 
set lege  agi  necne  pauci  quondam  sciebant  ;  ibid.,  32,factu?n  sit  necne  vehemen- 
ter  quaeritur.  (The  only  instance  in  which  it  occurs  in  Cicero  in  a  direct 
question  is,  Tusc.,  iii.,  18,  Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne  ?)  Ne — ne,  an — an,  or 
num — num.,  are  exceptions  which  occur  only  in  poetical  or  unclassical  lan- 
guage. (But  Caesar,  Bell.  Gall.,  vii.,  14,  says,  neque  interesse  ipsosne  inter- 
ficiant  impedimentisne  exuant,  quibus  ajnissis  bellum  geri  non  possit.)  Of  a 
different  kind  are  repeated  questions ;  i.  e.,  those  which  go  parallel  with 
one  another;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  11,  Quod  auxilium  petam?  Deorumne 
unmortalium  ?  populine  Romani  ?  vestra?nne,  qui  summam  potestatem  habetis, 
fidem  ?  or  of  which  the  first  is  corrected  by  the  second ;  as,  Cic.,  Philip., 
li.,  37,  Num  me  igitur  fefellit,  aut  num  diutius  sui  potuit  esse  dissirnilis  ? 

[§  555.]  9.  Relative  pronouns  and  relative  adverbs  re- 
quire the  subjunctive  (besides  the  cases  already  mention- 
ed in  §  549)  when  the  connexion  of  the  propositions  is 
based  upon  a  conception ;  that  is,  when  the  sentence  in- 
troduced by  the  relative  does  not  merely  contain  some 
additional  characteristic,  but  is  connected  with  the  prece- 
ding sentence  in  such  a  manner  that  it  expresses  either  a 
consequence,  an  innate  quality,  or  a  cause,  a  motive  and 
purpose. 

E.  g.,  Miles,  quern  metus  mortis  non  perturbaret,  a  soldier  whom  fear  of 
death  could  not  disturb.  Here  the  sentence  introduced  by  the  relative 
pronoun  contains  an  innate  quality  of  the  miles,  which  may,  at  the  same 
time,  be  expressed  as  a  consequence  :  of  such  a  character  that  death  could 
not  frighten  him.  Let  us  take  another  case  :  O  miserum  senem,  qui  mortem 
contemnendam  esse  in  tarn  longa  aetate  non  viderit :  here  the  sentence  qui — 
viderit  does  not  contain  a  mere  additional  characteristic  or  quality,  but 
rather  the  cause,  why  I  called  him  wretched. 

Subjunctives  of  this  kind  are  expressed  in  English  by 


380  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

means  of  some  other  part  of  speech  ;  as,  u  a  soldier  not  to 
be  disturbed  by  the  fear  of  death,"  "O  wretched  old  man, 
not  to  have  learned,"  &c.  The  particular  cases  in  which 
a  relative  introduces  sentences  with  the  subjunctive  are: 
[§  556.]  (a)  When  one  of  the  demonstratives,  is,  hie,  ille, 
tails,  tantus,  cjusmodi,  hujusmodi,  or  tarn,  with  an  adjective, 
precedes,  and  is  modified  or  qualified  by  a  sentence  which 
follows.  Here  the  relative  pronoun  may  be  resolved  by 
ut,  so  that  cujus  is  equivalent  to  ut  mei,  tui,  sui,  illius,  ejus  ; 
cui  to  ut  miki,  till,  ei,  sibi,  and  so  on  through  all  the  cases 
of  the  singular  and  plural. 

Qui  potest  temperantiam  laudare  is  (Epicurus),  qui  sum- 
mum  bonum  in  voluptate  ponat !  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  33. 
Non  sumus  it,  quibus  niliil  vcrum  csse  videatur,  sed  ii,  qui 
omnibus  veris  falsa  quaedam  adjuncta  esse  dicamus,  Cic., 
de  Nat.  Deor,  i.,  5. 

Nulla  gens  tamfera,  nemo  omnium  tarn  immanis  est,  cujus 
mcntem  non  imbuerit  dcorum  opinio,  Cic.,  Tusc. 

[$  557.]  Note. — The  person  of  the  verb  to  be  used  with  qui  is  always 
clear  from  the  preceding  sentence  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  5,  Non  sum  ego 
is  Consul,  qui,  ut  plerique,  ncfas  esse  arbitrer  Gracchos  laudare  ;  Ser.  Sulpi- 
cius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5,  Denique  te  noli  oblivisci  Ciceronem  esse,  et  eum, 
qui  aliis  consueris  praecipere,  where  the  second  person  is  determined  by  the 
preceding  pronoun  tc. 

[§  558.]   The  relative  pronoun  is  sometimes  used  with 
the   subjunctive,  without   a  demonstrative  preceding  it, 
provided,  however,  the  latter  is  understood. 
Nunc  dicis  aliquid,  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  Cic.,  p.  Rose. 

Am.,  IS. 
Nonne  satius  est  mutum  esse,  quam  quod  nemo  intelligent  di- 

cere  ?  Cic.,  Philip.,  iii.,  9. 
Homines  non  inerant  in  urbc,  qui  malis  contionibus,  turbu- 

lentis  senatus  consultis,  iniquis  imperiis  rempublicam  mis- 

cerent  et  rerum  novarum  causam  aliquam   quaererent, 

Cic.,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  33. 
J\lea  quidem  sententia  pad,  quae  nihil  habitura  sit  insidia- 

rum,  semper  est  consulendum,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  11. 

Note.— The  following  sentences,  also,  may  be  compared  :  Liv.,  xxxiv., 
1 ,  Inter  bcllorum  magnorum  curas  intercessit  res  parva  dictu,  sed  quae  studiis 
in  magnum  certamen  excesserit ;  i.  e.,  but  still  of  such  a  kind,  that  through 
the  spirit  of  the  parties  it  ended  in  a  great  contest ;  xxv.,  14,  multi  vulne- 
rati,  etiam  quos  vires  sanguisque  desererent,  ut  intra  vallum  hostium  caderent, 
nitebantur ;  i.  e.,  even  such  as  had  already  lost  their  strength  ;  xxiv.,  5,  Sy- 
racusani,  qui  per  tot  annos  Hieronem  filiumque  ejus  Gelonem  nee  vestis  habitu 
nee  alio  ullo  insigni  differentes  a  ceteris  civibus  vidissent,  conspexere  purpuram 
(Hieronymi)  ac  satellites  armatos ;  i.  e.,  the  Syracusans,  who  up  to  that 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  381 

time  had  not  seen — is  a  connexion  or  combination  of  facts  in  the  narra- 
tive, which,  at  the  same  time,  implies  the  internal  reason  for  the  state  of 
mind  of  the  Syracusans. 

[§  559.]  We  must  here  mention  those  expressions  in  which  the  relative 

Eronoun,  joined  with  the  subjunctive,  implies  a  restriction  :  quod  sciam,  as 
ir  as  I  know  ;  quod  meminerim,  as  far  as  I  recollect ;  quod  ego  intelligam, 
quod  (facile)  intelligi  possit,  quod  conjectura  provideri  possit,  quod  salva  fide 
passim,  quod  commodo  tuo  fiat,  quod  sine  alterius  injuria  fiat  or  fierct,  &c.  ;  e. 
g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  16,  omne  argentum  ablatum  ex  Sicilia  est,  nihil  cuiquam, 
quod  suum  did  vellet,  relictum,  nobody  had  anything  left,  which  he  would 
have  liked  to  call  his  own.  Attention  must,  also,  be  paid  to  quidem,  which 
is  added  in  such  restrictive  sentences  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  17,  Refertae  sunt 
Catonis  orationes  amplius  centum  quinquaginta,  quas  quidem  aut  invenerim  aut 
legerim,  et  verbis  et  rebus  illuslribus  ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  7,  neque  quidquam  est  dehac 
re  post  Panaetium  explicatum,  quod  quidem  mihi  probaretur,  de  Us,  quae  in  ma- 
nus  meas  venerint.  In  the  phrases  quantum  possum,  quantum  ego  perspicio,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  indicative  is  used. 

[§  560.]  In  like  manner,  the  subjunctive  is  used  with 
comparatives  after  quam  qui  (through  all  its  cases),  for 
here,  too,  the  degree  is  defined  and  modified  by  a  sen- 
tence implying  an  innate  quality  and  a  consequence,  so 
that  quam  qui  is  equivalent  to  quam  ut,  which,  in  fact, 
sometimes  occurs. 
Major  sum  quam  cui  possit  fortuna  nocere,  says  Niobe  in 

her  folly,  Ovid,  Met.,  vi.,  195. 

Famae  ac  Jidei  damna  majora  sunt,  quam  quae  aestimari 
possint,  Liv.,  iii.,  72. 

Note. — This  accounts  for  the  subjunctive  being  sometimes  used  after 
quam,  even  without  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  34,  postea  quid- 
quid  er at  oneris  in  nautis  remigibusque  exigendis,  infrumento  imperando,  Seges- 
tanis  praeter  ceteros  imponebat,  aliquanto  amplius  quam  f err  e  possent  ;  ad  Quint., 
Frat.,  i.,  1,  §  12,  in  hrs  litteris  longior  fui,  quam  aut  vellem,  aut  quam  me  pu- 
tavifore.  And,  in  like  manner,  frequently  in  the  case  of  the  verbs  velle  and 
posse. 

[§  561.]  (b)  With  indefinite  and  general  expressions 
(both  affirmative  and  negative)  the  relative  with  the  sub- 
junctive introduces  the  sentence  containing  the  circum- 
stances which  characterize  the  class  indefinitely  referred 
to.  Such  expressions  are  est,  sunt,  reperiuntur,  inveniun- 
tur,  exislunt,  exoriuntur  (scil.  homines ) ;  the  general  nega- 
tives, nemo,  nullus,  nihil  est ;  the  negative  indefinite  ques- 
tions, quis  est  ?  quid  est  ?  qui,  quae,  quod  (as  interrogative 
adjectives),  quotus  quisque,  quantum  est  ?  &c.  In  all  these 
cases  a  demonstrative  may  be  understood  before  the  rela- 
tive. 
Sunt  qui  censeant,  una  animum  et  corpus  occidere,  animum- 

que  in  coi'pore  extingui,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  9. 
il  est,  quod  tarn  miscros  faciat,  quam  impietas  et  scelus, 

Cic.,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  24. 


382  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Quotus  enim  quisquc  est,  cui  sapientia  omnibus  omnium  di- 

vitiis  praeponenda  videatur  ? 

Quae  latcbra  est,  in  quam  non  intret  metus  mortis  ?  Senec. 
Quid  dulcius  quam  kabere,  quicum  omnia  audeas  sic  loqui 

ut  tecum  ?  Cic.,  LaeL,  6. 

Observe  that  Cicero  here  uses  quicum  of  an  indefinite  person,  whereas 
quocum  would  refer  to  some  definite  person  mentioned  before.  (See  §  133, 
note.) 

[§  562.]  Note  1. — This  is  the  case,  also,  with  the  phrases  est  quod,  or  non 
est  quod,  nihil  est  quod  (or  quare,  cur),  there  is  no  reason  for  doing  a  thing, 
or  why  a  thing  should  happen  or  be  done  ;  e.  g.,  in  viam  quod  te  des  hoc  tern- 
pore,  nihil  est,  there  is  no  reason  for  setting  out,  &c. ;  and  with  quid  est  quod, 
cur,  quamobrem,  what  reason  is  there  for?  &c.  ;  e.  g.,  quid  tandem  est,  cur 
festines  ?  Quid  est  quamobrem  hacc  cuiquam  vita  videatur  ?  Causa  or  causae 
(with  quid  and  nihil)  is  sometimes  added,  as  in  Cicero,  non  fuit  causa  cur 
postulares  •  quid  erat  causae  cur  metueret  ?  We  must  here  notice,  also,  estut 
(for  ut  is  originally  a  relative  adverb,  see  §  531),  when  used  in  the  sense 
of  est  cur;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Coel.,  6,  magis  est  ut  ipsc  moleste  ferat  errasse  se,  quam 
ut  istius  amicitiae  crimen  reformidct ;  p.  Milan.,  13,  ille  erat  ut  odisset  dcfenso- 
rem  salutis  meae ;  i.  e.,  he  had  reason  to  hate  ;  de  Divin.,  i.,  56,  non  est  igi- 
tur  ut  mirandum  sit,  there  is  no  occasion  for  wondering.  We  must  farther 
notice  habeo,  or  non  habeo,  quod;  e.  g.,  non  habeo  quod  dicam,  I  have  nothing 
to  say  (sometimes  they  have  the  infinitive,  as  habeo  dicere} ;  non  habeo  qui 
(ablat.)wtar,  1  have  nothing  to  live  upon  ;  non  habebam  quod  scriberem,  I  had 
nothing  to  write  (we  less  frequently  find  nihil  habebam  scribere ;  as  in  Cic- 
ero, ad  Att.,  ii.,  22).  Of  a  different  kind  are  the  expressions  non  habeo  quid 
dicam,  I  do  not  know  what  to  say;  quid  facer  et  non  habebat,}\e  did  not  know 
what  to  do— for  these  are  dependent  or  indirect  questions.  See  <$>  530. 
Non  est  quod  invideas  istis,  quos  magnos  felicesque  populus  vocat,  Senec., 

Epist.,  94,  59. 
Quid  est,  quod  tanto  opere  te  cammoveat  tuus  dolor  intestinus  ?     Sulpicius  in 

Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  5. 

[§  563.]  Note  2. — But  the  case  is  different  when  the  subject  is  expressly 
added  to  sunt  qui.  The  subjunctive  may  even  then,  indeed,  be  used,  if  the 
subject  is  a  general  and  indefinite  one,  which  requires  a  qualification ;  but 
when  a  distinct  individual  or  thing  is  mentioned,  the  indicative  is  employ- 
ed ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  dc  Off.,  i.,  2,  sed  sunt  nonnullae  disciplinae  (philosophical 
schools),  quae  propositis  bonorum  et  malorum  Jinibus  officium  omne  pervertunt ; 
de  Fin.,  v.,  14,  sunt  autem  bestiae  quacdam,  in  quibus  inest  aliquid  simile  virtu- 
tis.  In  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  14,  and  ad  Att.,  xiv.,  17,  we  meet  in  the  same 
letter  first,  sunt  enim  permulti  optimi  viri  qui  valetudinis  causa  in  haec  loca 
veniant ;  and  afterward,  sunt  enim  permulti  optimi  viri,  qui  valetudinis  causa 
in  his  locis  conveniunt,  and  it  cannot  be  decided  which  of  the  two  is  the  cor- 
rect mode  of  speaking.  But  when  the  subject  is  not  expressly  mention- 
ed with  est  and  sunt  qui,  the  subjunctive  is  far  more  frequent,  and  the  in- 
dicative is  justly  looked  upon  as  aGrecisrn,  which  often  occurs  in  poetry; 
in  Horace,  for  example,  almost  constantly,  though  it  is  found,  also,  in  Sal- 
lust  (e.  g.,  Cat.,  19, 4),  and  in  later  prose  writers.  In  Cicero,  dc  Of.,  i.,  24, 
Sunt  enim,  qui,  quod  sentiunt,  etsi  optimum  sit,  tamen  invidiae  metu  non  audent 
dicere,  the  indicative  has  without  cause  given  offence  to  critics. 

[§  564.]  (c)  When  the  sentence  introduced  by  the  rela- 
tive contains  the  reason  of  what  precedes,  the  verb  is  put 
in  the  subjunctive.  The  connexion  between  such  sen- 
tences may  also  be  expressed  by  "because,"  or  "since," 
instead  of  the  relative  : 


SUBJUNCTIVE    RJOOD.  383 

Alexander,  quum  in  Sigco  ad  AcJiillis  tumulum  adstitisset, 
O  fortunate,  inquit,  adolescens,  qui  tuae  virtutis  Homer- 
um  praeconem  invencris  !  Cic.,  p.  Arch.,  10. 

Caninius  fuit  mirifica  vigilantia,  qui  suo  toto  consulatu 
somnum  non  viderit,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  30. 

Quern  ardorem  studii  censetis  fuisse  in  Arcliimede,  qui,  dum 
in  pidvere  quacdam  describit  attentius,  ne  patriam  qui- 
dem  captam  csse  senserit!  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  v.,  19. 

[§  565.]  Note  1. — What  is  expressed  in  these  and  similar  cases  by  qui 
alone  is  expressed  in  others  more  emphatically  by  quippe  qui,  utpote  qui  and 
ut  qui  (which  is  not  used  by  Cicero,  though  frequently  by  Livy  and  later 
writers)  through  all  the  cases  of  qui;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  18,  convivia 
cum  patre  non  inibat,  quippe  qui  ne  in  oppidum  quidem  nisi  perraro  veniret ; 
Nep.,  Dion,  2,  (Plato)  quum  a  Dionysio  tyranno  crudeliter  violatus  esset,  quippe 
quem  venundari  jussisset.  The  indicative  in  these  expressions  occurs  in 
Sallust  and  Livy,  but  Cicero  has  only  in  one  passage  (ad  Att.,  ii.,  24), 
utpote  qui  with  the  indicative,  ea  nos,  utpote  qui  nihil  contemnere  solemus,  non 
pertimescebamus. 

[<J>  566.]  Note  2. — Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  person  of  the  verb  with 
the  relative,  as  it  depends  upon  the  noun  to  which  the  relative  refers. 
Hence,  in  the  first  of  the  above  passages,  the  second  is  used,  because 
Achilles  is  addressed  ;  but  the  first  is  used  in  sentences  like  the  follow- 
ing :  Me  infelicem,  qui  per  tot  annos  te  videre  non  potuerim  ! 

[§  567.]  (d)  When  the  sentence  introduced  by  the  rela- 
tive expresses  the  intention  and  object  of  the  action  of  the 
preceding  sentence,  the  relative  is  followed  by  the  sub- 
junctive.    The  relative  in  this  case  is  equivalent  to  ut. 
Sunt  autem  multi,  qui  cripiunt  aliis,  quod  aliis  largiantur, 

Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  14. 
Populus  Romanus  sibi  tribunes  crcavit,  per  quos  contra  se- 

natum  et  consulcs  tutus  csse  posset,  Eutrop. 
Super  tabernaculum  regis,  unde  ab  omnibus  conspici  posset, 

imago  solis  crystallo  inclusa  fulgebat,  Curt.,  iii.,  7. 

[§568.]  (e)  After  the  adjectives  dignus,  indignus,aptus, 
and  idoneus,  the  relatives   are  commonly  used  with  the 
subjunctive  ;    as,  dignus  est,  indignus  est,  qui  laudetur. 
Voluptas  non  est  digna,  ad  quam  sapiens  respiciat,  Senec. 
Rustici  nostri  quum  jidem  alicujus  bonitatemque  laudant, 

dignum  csse  dicunt,  quicum  in  tenebris  miccs,  Cic.,  de 

Off.,  iii.,  19. 

Note. — The  infinitive  with  these  adjectives  is- rare  in  prose,  but  frequent 
in  poetry  ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  x.,  1,  96,  Lyricorum  Horatiusfere  solus  legi dignus  ; 
Plin.,  Paneg.,  7,  uterque  (pririceps)  optimus  erat,  dignusque  alter  eligi,  alter 
eligere.  Ut,  also,  may  be  used  ;  as,  Liv.,  xxii.,  59,  quum  indigni,  ut  a  vobis 
redimcremur,  visi  simus  ;  in  xxiii.,  42,  both  constructions  are  combined,  si 
modo,  quos  ut  socios  habcres  dignos  duxisti,  hand  indignos  judicas,  quos  in  iidem 
rcceptos  tuearis,  because  it  was  necessary  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the 
same  pronoun. 


384  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  569.]  (f)  Lastly,  we  must  here  notice  the  circum- 
stance that  in  a  narrative  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect 
subjunctive  are  sometimes  used  after  relative  pronouns 
and  adverbs  when  actions  of  repeated  occurrence  are 
spoken  of  (in  which  case  the  Greek  language  requires 
the  relative  with  the  optative  mood :  see  Buttmann's  Greek 
Gram.,  §  139,  note  6) ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  iii.,  11,  quemcunque  lie- 
tor  jussu  consulis  prehendisset,  tribunus  mitti  jubebat ;  iii., 
19,  consilium  et  modum  adliibendo,  ubi  res  posceret,  priores 
crant ;  xxxiv.,  38,  ut  quisque  maxime  laboraret  locus,  aut 
ipse  occurrcbat,  aut  aliquos  mittebat ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  vi.,  21, 
quotiens  super  tali  negotio  consultaret,  cdita  domus  parte  ac 
liberti  unius  conscientia  utebatur  ;  Nep.,  Eum.,  3,  Mace- 
doncs  vcro  militcs  ea  tune  erant  fama,  qua  nunc  Romani 
feruntur :  etenim  semper  habiti  sunt  fortissimi,  qui  sum- 
mam  imperil  potircntur ;  Justin,  xxv.,  4,  nee  quisquam 
Pyrrhum,  qua  tulisset  impetum,  sustinere  valuit.  In  the 
same  manner,  Cicero  (de  Orat.,  iii.,  16),  Socrates,  quam  se 
cunque  in  partcm  dedisset,  omnium  facile  fuit  prmceps,  is 
to  be  explained.  As  in  this  way  the  action  is  not  referred 
to  a  distinct  individual  case,  the  subjunctive  is  generally 
called  the  indefinite,  but  it  should  more  properly  be  called 
the  subjunctive  of  generality.  The  indicative,  however, 
is  likewise  used  in  these  cases,  and  even  more  frequently 
than  the  subjunctive. 

.[<$>  570.]  Note. — As  in  the  above  quoted  passages  the  subjunctive  is  used 
after  relatives,  so  it  is  sometimes,  also,  found  after  those  conjunctions 
which  are  originally  relative  adverbs  (see  §  331,  note  2) ;  e.  g.,  after  quum ; 
as,  Liv.,  ii.,  27,  desperato  enim  consulum  senatusque  auxilio,  quum  in  jus  dud 
debitorem  vidissent,  undique  convolabant  (cornp.,  also,  Cic.,.m  Verr.,  iv.,  20, 
44)  ;  after  ubi  and  ut ;  as,  Liv.,  i.,  32,  id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  in  fines  eorum 
emittebat ;  even  after  si  (but  only  when  used  in  the  sense  of  quum),  in  Sal- 
lust,  Jug.,  58,  Sin  Numidae  propius  accessissent,  ibi  vero  virtutem  ostendere  et 
eos  maxima  vi  caedere.  To  the  same  practice  we  refer  the  circumstance 
that  such  relatives  are  also  followed  by  the  present  subjunctive,  when  used 
in  an  aorist  sense,  to  express  things  which  have  happened  repeatedly,  and 
still  happen  ;  as  in  Sallust.  Cat.,  3,  ubi  dc  magna  virtute  et  gloria  bonorum 
memores,  quae  sibi  quisque  facilia  factu  putat,  aequo  animo  accipit,  supra  ea, 
veluti  ficta  pro  falsis  ducit. 

[§  571.]  10.  It  has  already  been  remarked  that  all  con- 
junctions, and  more  especially  the  causal  conjunctions, 
require  the  subjunctive  when  they  introduce  sentences 
containing  the  thoughts  or  words  of  another  person.  Re- 
specting the  subjunctive  with  si  and  its  compounds,  see  § 
524.  It  now  remains  to  speak  of  those  conjunctions  which 
require  the  subjunctive  on  account  of  their  peculiar  nature 
and  signification. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  385 

The  particles  expressing  a  wish,  utinam,  or,  more  rare- 
ly, ut,  and  the  poetical  o  si,  govern  the  subjunctive,  be- 
cause the  wish  exists  only  as  a  conception  of  the  mind ; 
but  there  is  this  difference  in  regard  to  the  tenses,  that 
the  present  and  perfect  are  used  of  wishes  which  are  con- 
ceived as  possible,  and  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  of 
those  which  are  to  be  described  as  not  in  accordance  with 
reality.  (See  above,  §  524.)  The  English,  "  Oh,  would 
that  not,"  should  properly  be  expressed  in  Latin  only  by 
utinam  we,  but  utinam  non  is  frequently  used  instead  of  it; 
see  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v.,  17,  illud  utinam  ne  vere  scribcrcm  ! 
ad  Aft.,  xi.,  9,  in  fin.,  Hacc  ad  te  die  natali  meo  scripsi,  quo 
utinam  susceptus  non  essem,  aut  ne  quid  ex  eadem  matre 
postea  natum  esset!  plura  scribere  jletu  prohibeor .  Some- 
times the  particle  utinam  is  omitted;  e.  g.,  Catull.,  ii.,  9, 
tecum  ludere  sicut  ipsa  possem. 

[§  572.]  Quasi  (aeque,  perinde,  non  secusj,  ac  si,  tarn-  . 
quam  si,  vclut  si,  or  tamquam  and  velut  alone  (sometimes 
also  sicut  and  the  poetical  ecu),  all  of  which  signify  "  as 
if,"  "  as  though,"  always  introduce  a  sentence  which  con- 
tains only  a  conception  of  the  mind,  and  are,  consequent- 
ly, used  with  the  subjunctive.  (Compare  §  282.)  The 
tense  of  the  subjunctive  with  these  conjunctions  depends 
upon  that  of  the  leading  verb ;  e.  g.,  Senec.,  Epist.,  S3  : 
Sic  cogitandum  cst,  tamquam  aliquis  in  pectus  intimum  in- 
spicere  possit ;  Cic.,  Divin.,  4,  Sccl  quid  ego  his  testibus 
utor,  quasi  res  dubia  aut  obscura  sit  ?  Brut.,  1,  angimur, 
tamquam  illi  ipsi  acerbitatis  aliquid  accident.  We  must 
notice,  especially,  the  ironical  quasi  and  quasi  vero,  which 
are  joined  with  the  present  subjunctive  to  denote  a  continu- 
ing action,  and  with  the  perfect  subjunctive  to  express  a 
completed  one,  when  the  speaker  himself  belongs  to  the 
time  present ;  e.  g.,  quasi  me  pudeat,  as  if  I  were  ashamed  ! 
quasi  paulum  dijferat !  quasi  vero  ego  ad  ilium  venire  dc- 
buerim  !  as  if  I  had  been  obliged  to  go  to  him  !  Cic.,  p. 
Muren.,  17,  populus  nonnunquam  aliquid  factum  csse  (in 
comitiis)  admiratur,  quasi  vero  non  ipsc  feccrit.  The  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  however,  is  also  used  after  a  pres- 
ent when  we  mean  to  express  that  in  reality  the  thing  is 
not  so,  in  which  case~we  must  always  supply  a  hypotheti- 
cal imperfect ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  42,  Egnatii  rem 
ut  tueare  aeque  a  te  peto,  ac  si  mea  negotia  essent,  i.  e.,  ac 
peterem,  si  mea  negotia  essent,  as  T  would  pray,  if,  &c. ;  ad 
K  K 


386  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Att.,  iii.,  13,  Qua  dc  re  quoniam  nihil  ad  me  sc?~ibis,  proinde 
liabcbo  ac  si  scripsisses  nihil  csse,  i.  e.,  atque  liaberem  si 
scripsisses. 

The  subjunctive,  with  non  quo,  non  quod,  non  eo  quod, 
non  idco  quod,  non  quia,  arises  from  the  same  cause,  and 
is  of  the  same  kind.  These  expressions,  which  have  al- 
ready been  discussed  in  §  537,  are  usually  followed  by 
sed  quod  or  sed  quia  with  the  indicative,  because  the  sen- 
tence introduced  by  them  states  the  real  reason.  Cic., 
Tusc.,  ii.,  23,  Pugilcs  vcro,  etiam  qimm  feriunt  adversari- 
um,  in  jactandis  cacstibus  ingemiscunt,  non  quod  doleant 
animove  succumbant,  sed  quia  2?rofundenda  voce  omne  cor- 
pus intcnditur,  venitque  plaga  vchcmentior. 

Dummodo  (if  only,  if  but),  for  which  dum  and  modo  are 
also  used  alone,  governs  the  subjunctive  because  it  ex- 
presses an  intention  or  a  purpose  conceived  by  the  mind. 
Therefore,  when  joined  with  a  negation,  it  becomes  dum- 
modo ne,  dum  ne,  modo  nc;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  dc  Off.,  iii.,  21, 
(multi)  omnia  recta  ct  honcsta  negligunt,  dummodo  potcn- 
tiam  conscquantur  ;  ad  Quint.  Fratr.,  i.,  1,  Quare  sit 
summa  in  jure  dicundo  severitas,  dummodo  ca  ne  varietur 
gratia,  sed  conservetur  aequabilis. 

[§  573.]    Ut,  in  the  sense  of  "  even  if,"  or  "  although" 
(see  §  341),  expresses  a  supposition  merely  as  a  concep- 
tion, and  accordingly  governs  the  subjunctive.     It  takes 
the  negative  non  ;   e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  xii.,  3,  Exercitus  si 
pads,  id  est,  timoris  nostri,  nomen  audicrit,  ut  non  rcferat 
pedcm  (even  if  it  does  not  withdraw),  insistct  ccrte.     The 
same,  however,  may  be  expressed  by  nc  with  the  conces- 
sive subjunctive.     (See  §  529.)  ' 
Ut  dcsint  vires,  tamen  est  laudan  la  voluntas,  Ovid. 
Ut  rationem  Plato  nullam  ajferret,  vide  quid  homini  tribu- 

ain,  ipsa  auctoritatc  mcfrangcret,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  21. 

The  conjunction  nedum,  i.  e.,  "not  to  mention  that,"  re- 
ceives its  meaning  from  the  negative  ne,  and  accordingly 
governs  the  subjunctive.  Ne  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
sense  of  nedum;  e.  g.,  Sallust.,  Cat.,  11,  Igitur  hi  milites, 
postquam  victoriam  adepti  sunt,  nihil  reliqui  victis  fecere. 
Quippe  secundae  res  sapientium  animos  fatigant ;  ne  illi  cor- 
ruptis  moribus  victoriae  temperarent,  i.  e.,  not  to  mention 
that  they  were  moderate,  &c. ;  Liv.,  iii.,  52,  Novam  earn 
potestatem  (tribunorum  plebis)  eripuere  patribus  nostris,  nc 
c  dulcedine  scmel  rapfi  ferant  desi-derium,  where  Gro- 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  387 

novius  gives  a  full  explanation  of  this  use  of  ne  ;  Cic.,  p. 
Cluent.,  35,  Optimis  temporibus  clarissimi  atque  amplissi- 
mi  viri  vim  tribuniciam  sustinere  non  potuerunt:  nedum  his 
temporibus  sine  judiciorum  remediis  salvi  esse possimus.  If 
nedum  has  no  verb,  it  acquires,  like  ne  dicam,  the  mean- 
ing of  an  adverb,  and  is  commonly  preceded  by  a  nega- 
tive ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  vi.,  7,  Aegre  inermis  tanta  multitude,  ne- 
dum armata,  sustineri  potest.  (Even  ne  is  thus  used  once 
in  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  26,  Me  vero  nikil  istorum,  ne  ju- 
venem  quidem  movit  unquam,  ne  nunc  senem.J  Hence  we 
find  nedum  ut  in  Livy  (iii.,  14)  and  later  writers  in  the 
sense  of  a  conjunction  "  not  to  mention  that." 

[§  574.].  Quamvis,  as  distinct  from  quamquam,  is  often 
used  in  the  sense  of  quantumvis  and  quamlibet,  i.  e.,  "how- 
ever much,"  with  the  subjunctive ;  for  this  is  its  real 
meaning,  and  hence  the  subjunctive  is  also  used  when  its 
parts  are  separated ;  as,  quam  volent  in  conviviis  faccti 
sint;  quam  volent  impudenter  mentiantur.  Licet  (although), 
properly  a  verb  which  has  become  a  conjunction,  has  the 
same  meaning  and  construction  as  quamvis. 
Licet  strenuum  metum  putes  esse,  velocior  tamen  spes  est, 

Curt.,  vii.,  16  (4). 

Note. — In  later  prose  writers  quamvis  and  quamquam  have  changed  their 
signification,  quamquam.  being  joined  with  the  subjunctive,  and  quamvis 
with  the  indicative.  Tacitus  uses  both  conjunctions  mostly  with  the  sub- 
junctive. Quamquam  with  the  subjunctive  occurs  even  in  some  passages 
of  Cicero,  though  they  are  comparatively  very  few  :  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  4,  quam- 
quam videam  ;  p.  Muren.,9,  quamquam  praesente  Lucullo  loquar  ;  de  Fin.,  iii., 
21,  quamquam  in  amicitia  alii  dicant,  aeque  car  am  esse  sapienti  rationem  amid 
ac  suam,  tamen,  &c.  ;  Tusc.,  v.,  30,  quamquam  enim  sint  in  quibusdam  malis, 
tamen  hoc  nomen  beati  longe  et  late  patct ;  de  Off.,  i.,  2,  quae  quamquam  ita  sint 
inpromptu ;  and  with  the  subjunctive  videatur  in  Orat.,  55, 183;  Top.,  8,34. 
Quamvis  with  the  indicative  occurs,  p.  Rab.  Post.,  2,  quamvis  patrem  suum 
nunquam  viderat.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  quamvis  is  used  also  as  an 
adverb  in  the  sense  of  "  however  much,"  and  as  such  governs  no  particu- 
lar mood  ;  as  in  Cicero,  quamvis  multos  proferre  possum  ;  quamvis  parvis  late- 
bris  contentus  essem,  I  should  be  satisfied  with  ever  so  small  a  corner.  In 
this  sense  it  is  joined  with  licet  to  enhance  the  meaning  of  this  conjunc- 
tion ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  10,  quamvis  enumeres  multos  licet,  you  may 
enumerate  as  many  as  ever  you  can  ;  de  Nat.  Deor.,  iii.,  36,  quamvis  licet 
Menti  delubra  consecremus  ;  Tusc.,  iv.,  24,  quamvis  licet  insectemur  istos. 

[§  575.]  The  particles  of  time,  dum,^  donee,  and  quoad, 
have  the  indicative  when  they  are  used  in  the  sense  of 
quamdiu,  or  "  as  long  as;"  in  the  sense  of  "until,"  they 
may  have  either  mood  ;  the  indicative,  if  a  thing  is  ex- 
pressed as  a  fact,  and  the  subjunctive,  if  it  is  merely  con- 
ceived as  a  thing  which  may  possibly  be  realized,  or  if,  at 
the  same  time,  a  purpose  is  expressed  in  the  sentence, 


388  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Respecting  the  present  indicative  with  dum,  see  §  506, 
foil. ;  and  it  must  be  observed  that  the  indicative  with  this 
conjunction  is  often  retained  even  in  the  oratio  obliqua, 
which  otherwise  requires  the  subjunctive,  as  in  Tacit., 
Ann.,  ii.,  Si.  But  such  cases  are  only  exceptions. 
Lacedacmoniorum  gens  fortisfuit,  dum  Lycurgi  leges  vige- 

bant,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  42. 

Epaminondas  quum  animadverteret,  mortiferum  se  vulnus 
accepisse,  simulque,  si  ferrum,  quod  ex  liastili  in  corpore 
remanserat,  extraxisset,  animam  statim  emissurum  : 
usque  co  rctinuit,  quoad  renuntiatum  est,  vicisse  Boeo- 
tios,  Nep.,  Up  am.,  9. 
Quoad  perventum  sit  eo,  quo  sumpta  navis  cst,  non  domini 

cst  navis,  sed  navigantium,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  23. 
Iratis  aut  subtrahendi  sunt  ii,  in  quos  impetum  conantur 
facere,  dum  se  ipsi  colligant,  aut  rogandi  orandique  sunt, 
ut,  si  quamhabent  ulciscendi  vim,  differ  ant  in  tempus  all- 
ud,  dum  defervescat  ira,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iv.,  35. 

Note. — Tacitus  neglects  this  distinction,  and  uses  the  subjunctive  with 
donee,  though  a  simple  fact  is  expressed;  e.  g.,  Hist.,  iv.,  35,  Pugnatum 
longo  agmine  ct  incerto  Marte,  donee  proelium  nox  dirimeret ;  and  he  is  so  par- 
tial to  this  construction,  that  the  perfect  indicative  must  be  noticed  as  of 
rare  occurrence  with  him.  Respecting  the  few  passages  in  which  donee  is 
used  by  Cicero  and  Caesar,  see  $  350. 

[§  576.]  Antequam  smd.  priusquam  are  commonly  used 
in  a  narrative  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunct- 
ive, if  there  is  some  connexion  between  the  preceding 
and  the  subsequent  action  ;  but  if  the  simple  priority  of 
one  action  to  another  is  expressed,  the  indicative  is  used; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  66,  Jiacc  omnia  antefacta  sunt,  quam 
Verres  Italiam  attigit.  The  present  indicative  is  used 
when  the  action  is  described  as  certain  and  near  at  hand, 
or  as  being  already  begun;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  14, 
dabo  operam,  ut  istuc  vcniam,  antequam  plane  ex  animo  tuo 
effluo  ;  ad  Att.,  x.,  15,  si  quemquam  nactuseris  qui  perferat 
litteras,des  antequam  disced imus  ;  p.  Muren.,  1,  Antequam 
pro  L.  Murena  dicer  e  instituo,  pauca  pro  me  ipso  dicam ; 
Philip.,  ii.,  2,  Cui  priusquam  de  ccteris  rebus  respondeo,  de 
amicitia,  quam  a  me  violatam  esse  criminatus  est,  pauca 
dicam.  The  subjunctive  must  be  used  when  the  thing  is 
still  doubtful;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  27,  Hac  lege 
ante  omnia  veneunt,  quam  gleba  una  ematur ;  farad.,  6,1, 
nu?iquam  eris  dives  antequam  tibi  ex  tuis  possessionibus  tan- 
turn  reficiatur,  ut  eo  tueri  legionem  possis  ;  and  in  general 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MuoD.  389 


propositions  ;  as,  Senec.,  JETpwtf.,  103,  tempestas  minatur  an- 
tequam  surgat  ;  Quaest.  Nat.,  ii.,  12,  Ante  videmus  fulgu- 
rationem,  quam  sonum  audiamus.  But  the  subjunctive  is 
used  also  in  other  cases  to  denote  actions  about  to  take 
place,  and  without  any  difference  in  meaning  from  the  in- 
dicative ;  as,  Cic.,  Philip.,  i.,  1,  Antequam  de  republica  di- 
cam  ea,  quae  diccnda  hoc  tempore  arbitror,  exponam  brevi- 
ter  cons  ilium  profectionis  meae. 

[§  577.]  11.  With  regard  to  quum,  there  is  this  differ- 
ence, that  quum  causale  governs  the  subjunctive,  and  quum 
temporale  by  itself  requires  the  indicative,  and  in  narra- 
tives only  it  is  joined  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect 
subjunctive. 

The  following  remarks,  however,  may  serve  to  explain 
and  modify  this  general  rule.  Quum  is  properly  a  rela- 
tive adverb  of  time,  corresponding  to  the  demonstrative 
adverb  turn,  as  in  turn  —  quum,  then  —  when.  If,  therefore, 
nothing  farther  is  to  be  expressed,  it  is  joined  with  the  in- 
dicative. But  quum  is  also  employed  to  express  the  re- 
lation of  cause  and  effect,  and  in  this  sense  it  governs  the 
subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  quum  sciam,  quum  scirem,  quum  intel- 
lexerim,  quum  intcttexissem  ;  i.  e.,  as  I  know,  as  I  knew, 
as  I  have  learned,  as  I  had  learned  —  I  will  do  this  or  that. 
When  it  has  the  meaning  of  "though"  or  "although,"  the 
sentence  introduced  by  it  does  not,  indeed,  express  the 
cause  of  what  is  contained  in  the  preceding  sentence,  but 
still  indicates  some  internal  or  logical  connexion  between 
the  two  sentences,  and  it  is,  therefore,  joined  only  with  the 
subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  i.,  4,  homines,  quum 
multis  rebus  infirmiores  sint,  hac  re  maxime  bestiis  prae- 
stant,  quod  loqui  possunt;  Nep.,  Phoc.,  1,  Phocio?ifuit  per- 
petuo  pauper,  quum  ditissimus  esse  %)osset. 

[§  578.]  In  a  narrative,  however,  quum  temporale  is 
joined  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive,  be- 
cause, in  a  continuous  narrative,  a  preceding  event  is  al- 
ways conceived  and  represented  as  the  cause  of  a  subse- 
quent one  ;  e.  g.,  Caesar,  quum  Pompeium  apud  PJiarsa-* 
lum  vicisset,  in  Asiam  trajecit  :  here  we  perceive  a  com- 
bination of  time  and  cause,  which  is  expressed  by  the  sub- 
junctive. It  only  remains  to  be  observed  that  this  is  al- 
ways the  case  in  an  historical  narrative,  although,  if  we 
consider  only  the  relation  of  time  or  priority,  we  might 
KK2 


390  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

believe  the  indicative  also  to  be  correct.     Examples  are 
extremely  numerous.     See  §  505. 

[§  579.]  But  when  quum  is  a  pure  particle  of  time,  that 
is,  when  it  does  not  occur  in  a  narrative,  and  when  no  re- 
lation of  cause  and  effect  is  to  be  expressed,  it  may  be 
joined  with  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative,  even  with  the 
imperfect  and  pluperfect,  in  the  sense  of  eo  tcmpore  quum, 
or  turn  quu?7i,  which  expressions,  in  fact,  often  occur. 
Qm  non  defendit  injuriam,  neque  propulsat  a  suis,  quum 

potcst,  injustefacit,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  18. 
Sed  da  operam,  ut  valcas,  et,  si  valebis,  quum  recte  navi- 

gari  poterit,  turn  navigcs,  Cic.,  ad  Tir.  Ep.,  12. 
Credo  turn,  quum  Sicilia  florebat  opibus  et  copiis,  ?nagna 

artificia  (studios  of  artists)  fuisse  in  ea  insula,  Cic.,  in 

Verr.,  iv.,  21. 
O  acerbam  mihi  memoriam  temporis  illius  et  loci,  quum  liic 

in  me  incidit,  quum  complcxus  est,  conspersitque  lacrimis, 

nee  loqui  prae  maerore  potuit  !  Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  41. 

In  like  manner,  quum  is  joined  with  the  pluperfect  in- 
dicative, when  it  expresses  an  action  frequently  repeated ; 
in  this  case  the  apodosis  contains  the  imperfect.     (See  § 
569,  foil.) 
Quum  autem  ver  esse  coeperat,  cujus  initium  istc  non  a  Fa- 

vonio,  neque  ab  aliquo  astro  notabat,  sed  quum  rosam 

viderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur  :  dabat  se  labori 

atque  itineribus,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  10. 
Sic  (Verres)  confecto  itinere,  quum  ad  aliquod  oppidum 

vencrat,  eadem  lectica  usque  in  cubiculum  deferebatur, 

Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  11. 

Note.--The  following  passage  of  Cicero  (p.  Plane.,  26)  is  particularly 
instructive  :  At  ego,  quum  casu  diebus  iis,  itineris  faciendi  causa,  decedens  e 
provincia  Puteolos  forte  venissem,  quum  plurimi  et  lautissimi  solent  esse  in  iis 
locis,  concidi  paene,  quum  ex  me  quidam  quaesisset,  &c.  In  this  passage  quum 
— venissem  is  the  historical  protasis  to  concidi ;  but  quum — solent  merely 
explains  the  time  implied  in  ii*  diebus  ;  the  former  quum  may  be  translated 
by  "as,"  but  the  latter  is  "when."  Among  the  numerous  passages  in 
which  quum  is  used,  there  are,  it  is  true,  some  which  seem  to  contradict, 
or  actually  do  contradict  the  rule  given  above,  for  the  Latin  language  has 
a  sort  of  partiality  for  quum  with  the  subjunctive,  especially  with  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive.  Thus  we  find  in  Cicero,  Philip.,  iii.,  2,  C.  Caesar 
adolescens  turn,  quum  maxime  furor  arderet  Antonii,  quumque  cjus  a  Brundisio 
reditus  timeretur,  firmissimum  exercitum  ex  invicto  genere  veteranorum  militum 
comparavit :  here  the  idea  of  time  is  combined  with  that  implied  in  "  al- 
though ;"  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  13,  An  turn  eratis  consules,  quum  cunctus  ordo  reclama- 
bat,  quum  —  cupere  vos  diceretis :  here  quum  at  first  simply  indicates  time, 
but  then  the  passage  assumes  the  character  of  an  historical  narrative. 
The  present  subjunctive  is  used  more  rarely  in  cases  which  properly  re- 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD.  391 

quire  the  indicative  ;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  3,  nunc  quum  omnes  me  causac  ad 
misericordiam  vocent,  where  nunc  quum  is  equivalent  to  "  now  as  ;"  in  the 
same  chapter  we  find,  Neque  enirn  si  tibi  turn  quum  consulatum  peteres,  favi, 
idcirco  nunc  quum  Murenam  ipsum  petas,  adjutor  eodem  pacto  esse  debeo — where 
peteres  is  excusable,  but  petas  must  be  corrected  from  MSS.  into  pet  is.  In 
other  passages  there  are  other  reasons  for  using  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  p. 
Muren.,  38,  qui  locus  est,  quod  tempus,  qui  dies,  quae  nox,  quum  ego  non  ex  is- 
torum  insidiis  divino  auxilio  eripiar — here  the  subjunctive  arises  from  the  in- 
definite or  general  question  ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  10,  Haec  neque  quum  ego  dice- 
rent,  neque  quum  tu  negares,  magni  momenti  nostra  esset  oratio.  Quo  tempore 
igitur  aures  judex  erigeret  animumque  attenderet  ?  Quum  Dio  ipse  prodiret, 
quum  ceteri,  qui  turn  in  Sicilia  negotiis  Dionis  interfuissent :  quum  tabulae  viro- 
rum  bonorum  proferrentur,  &c.,  &c.  Opinor,  quum  haec  fierent,  turn  vos  audi- 
retis,  turn  causa  vere  agi  videretur :  here  the  subjunctive  with  quum  arises 
from  the  hypothetical  construction  of  the  whole  sentence.  In  the  peculiar 
passage,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  ii.,  24,  64,  unum  hoc  certe  videor  mihi  verissime  posse 
dicere,  turn  quum  haberet  respublica  Luscinos — et  turn  quum  erant  Catones — ta- 
men  hujuscemodi  res  commissa  nemini  est — commentators  justly  explain  as 
an  anacoluthon,  for  the  sentence  begins  in  a  direct  way,  and  afterward 
becomes  an  indirect  speech.  Whatever,  therefore,  may  be  the  explanation 
in  each  particular  passage,  the  statement  of  some  critics  that  quum  tem- 
porale  is  used  indiscriminately  with  the  indicative  or  subjunctive,  must  be 
rejected  from  grammar.  If  we  take  into  consideration  the  deviations  from 
the  rule  mentioned  in  this  note  and  what  was  said  in  <$»  570,  the  beginner 
may,  perhaps,  take  the  following  as  his  general  guide  :  quum  may  always 
be  joined  with  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  ;  the  other  tenses  are 
in  the  indicative  with  quum  temporale,  and  in  the  subjunctive  with  quum 
causale. 

[§  580.]  12.  The  following  must  be  observed  as  pecu- 
liarities in  the  use  of  quum  temporale:  1.  Quum  is  joined 
with  the  perfect  or  imperfect  indicative  to  express  simul- 
taneous occurrences  which  are  indicated  in  English  by 
"  while."  This  simultaneousness  is  marked  more  em- 
phatically by  adding  interea  or  interim.  The  perfect,  in 
this  case,  is  used  in  historical  narratives,  and  the  imper- 
fect in  descriptions.  2.  Quum  is  joined  with  all  tenses  of 
the  indicative,  and  more  especially  with  the  present  to  ex- 
press the  decided  beginning  of  an  action,  in  which  case 
it  does  not  introduce  a  protasis,  but  rather  an  apodosis. 
It  is  commonly  preceded  by  adverbs ;  as,  jam,  nondum, 
vix,  aegre,  or  quum  itself  is  joined  with  repente  and  subito. 

Catulus,  quum  ex  vobis  quaereret,  si  in  uno  On.  ^Pompcio 
omnia  poneretis,  si  quid  eo  factum  esset,  in  quo  spem  cs- 
setis  habituri :  cepit  magnum  suae  virtutis  fructum  ac 
dignitatis,  quum  omnes  prop  e  una  voce,  in  eo  ipso  vos  spem  , 
liabituros  esse,  dixistis,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  20. 

Caedebatur  virgis  in  mediojbro  Mcssanae  civis  Romanus, 
judiccs,  quum  interea  nullus  gemitus,  nulla  vox  alia  istius 
miseri  inter  dolorcm  crepitumq^ic  plagarum  audicbatur, 
nisi  haec  :  civis  Romanus  sum,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  62. 


392  LATIN    GAAMMAR. 

Evolarat  jam  e  conspectu  fere  fugiens  quadriremis,  quum 
etiamtum  ceterae  naves  uno  in  loco  moliebantur,  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  v.,  34. 

Jam  in  conspectu,  scd  extra  teli  jactum  utraque  acies  erat, 
quum  priores  Persae  inconditum  et  trucem  sustulere  cla- 
morem,  Curt.,  iii.,  25  (10). 

Jamque,  qui  Dareum  vehebant  equi,  confossi  Jiastis  ct  dolore 
cjjferati,  jugum  quatere  et  regem  curru  excutere  coeperant^ 
quum  ille,  veritus  ne  vivus  veniret  in  hostium  potcstatem, 
desilit  et  in  equum,  qui  ad  hoc  scquebatur,  imponitur, 
Curt.,  iii.,  27  (11),  and  in  innumerable  other  passages 
of  this  writer. 

Non  dubitabat  Minucius,  qui  Sopatrum  dcfcndebat,  quin 
iste  (Verres),  quoniam  consilium  dimisisset,  illo  die  rem 
illam  quacsiturus  non  cssct,  quum  repente  jubctur  diccre, 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  29. 

[§  581.]  Note  1. — In  farther  confirmation  of  our  first  remark,  that  quum, 
in  the  sense  of  "  while,"  is  construed  with  the  perfect  indicative,  we  add, 
Cic.,  p.  Ligar.,  1,  Bcllum  (inter  Caes.  et  Pomp.)  subito  exarsit,  quod,  quierant 
in  Africa,  ante  audierunt  geri,  quam  parari.  Quo  audito,  partim  cupiditate  in- 
confiiderata,  partim  caeco  quodam  timore,  primo  salutis,  jjost  etiam  studii  sui 
quaercbant  aliquem  ducem :  quum  Ligarius  domum  spcctans  et  ad  suos  redire 
cupiens  nullo  sc  implicari  negotio  passus  cst :  quum  here  properly  introduces 
the  principal  action,  "  while  Ligarius  would  not  allow  himself  to  be  impli- 
cated," although,  at  the  same  time,  it  expresses  simultaneousness.  Comp., 
also,  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  34,  quum  quidcm  tibi  etiam  accessio  fuit ;  Philip.,  ix.,  4,9, 
quum  quidem  ille  pollicitus  est ;  for  these  passages  must  be  read  in  their  con- 
nexion, in  order  to  see  the  difference  between  the  indicative  which  ex- 
presses the  actual  beginning  of  the  actions,  and  the  imperfect  subjunctive. 
The  addition  of  quidcm,  too,  must  be  observed,  as  well  as  interim  in  Floras, 
iii.,  17,  in  fin.,  Sed  pretium  rogationis  statim  socii  flagitare  (Perfect)  :  quum 
interim  imparem  Drusum  acgrumque  rerum  temere  motarum  matura  (ut  in  tali 
discrimine)  mors  abstulit. 

13  582.]  Note  2. — Quum,  in  both  cases,  is  used  by  historians  (Livy,  Taci- 
tus) also  with  what  is  called  the  historical  infinitive  (infinitivus  historicus). 
Instances  of  quum,  in  the  sense  of  "  while,"  are  Tacit.,  Ann.,  ii.,  31 ,  Cingeba- 
tur  interim  milite  domus.  strepebant  etiam  in  vestibulo,  ut  audiri,  at  aspici  pos- 
sent :  quum  Libo,  ipsis,  quas  in  novissimam  voluptatem  adhibuerat,  epulis  ex- 
cruciatus,  vocare  percussorem,  prendere  servorum  dextras,  inserere  gladium ; 
Liv.,  ii.,  27,  victor  tot  intra  paucos  dies  bellis  Romanus  promissa  consulis  fidem- 
que  senatus  expectabat :  quum  Appius  quam  asperrime  potcrat  jus  de  creditis 
pecuniis  dicere.  The  following  is  an  instance  of  quum  expressing  the  actu- 
al beginning  of  an  action  :  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiv.,  5,  nee  multum  erat  progressa 
navis,  quum  dato  signo  ruere  tectum  loci.  Cicero  does  not  use  such  expres- 
sions, but  as  the  infinitive  is  a  real  substitute  for  the  present  in  lively  de- 
»  scriptions,  there  is  nothing  to  be  said  against  it. 


IMPERATIVE    MOOD.  393 

CHAPTER  LXXIX. 

IMPERATIVE     MOOD. 

[§  583.]  1.  THE  imperative,  both  in  the  active  and  pass- 
ive, has  two  forms  :  the  imperative  present  and  the  im- 
perative future.  (See  §  151.)  Both  express  a  command, 
but  also  a  wish,  an  advice  or  exhortation.  The  difference 
in  the  meaning  of  the  two  imperatives  is  this  :  the  imper- 
ative present  expresses  that  something  is  to  be  done  di- 
rectly or  at  once  ;  as,  lege,  read  !  morere,  die  !  or  that  a 
thing  which  exists  at  present  is  to  continue  to  exist;  as, 
vive  felix.  The  imperative  future  puts  the  command  in 
connexion  with  some  other  action,  and  expresses  that 
something  is  to  be  done  in  future,  when,  or  as  soon  as, 
something  else  has  taken  place.  It  is,  however,  not  ne- 
cessary that  the  other  action  should  be  expressed  in 
words,  but  in  many  cases  it  is  supplied  by  the  mind  ;  e. 
g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.y  iv.,  1,  Rem  vobis  proponam  ;  vos  cam 
suo,  non  no-minis  pondere  penditotc,  i.  e.,  weigh  it,  viz., 
quum  proposuero. 
'  Quum  valetudini  tuae  consulueris,  turn  consullto  naviga- 

tioni,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xvi.,  4. 

Quodquum  Tiujus  vobis  adolescentiam  proposueritis^  consti- 
tuitote  vobis  ante  oculos  etiam  Jiujus  miseri  sencctutem, 
Cic.,  p.  CoeL,  in  fin. 

Prius  audits  paucis  ;  quod  cum  dixero,  si  placuerit,  fad- 
tote,  Terent.,  Eun.,  v.,  11,  19. 

Note. — This  is  the  view  of  the  ancient  grammarians  respecting  the  dif- 
ference between  the  two  tenses  of  the  imperative.  Vossius  and  Perizoni- 
\is  (on  Sanct.,  Minerv.,  i.,  13,  no.  8),  and  after  them  the  modern  gramma- 
rians, have,  without  cause,  abandoned  that  view,  and  substituted  a  ground- 
less theory  about  a  milder  and  a  stronger  expression  of  a  command. 
Comp.  Nic.  Bygom  Krarup's  dissertation  de  natura  et  iisu  imperative,  Hav- 
niae,  1825  (reprinted  in  Friedemann  and  Seebode's  Miscellanea  Critica,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  728,  foil.).  There  are  some  exceptions  in  which  the  imperative  pres- 
ent is  used  for  the  imperative  future  ;  but  a  poet  has  a  right  to  represent 
tilings  as  taking  place  at  once,  which  in  reality  can  occur  only  at  a 
subsequent  time.  (So,  also,  in  Livy,  vi.,  12,  Tu,  T.  Quinti,  equitem  inten- 
tus  ad  primurn  initium  moti  certaminis  teneas :  ubi  haerere  jam  aciem  collato 
pede  videris,  turn  terrorem  equestrem  occupatis  olio  pavore  infer,  invectusque  or- 
dines  pugnantium  dissipa.)  Respecting  scito  and  scitote,  instead  of  the  im- 
perative present,  which  is  wanting,  see  $  164.  Otherwise  our  rule  is  only 
confirmed  by  passages  in  which  the  two  imperatives  occur,  as  that  of 
Terence  quoted  above,  or  Cic.,  Philip.,  vi.,  6,  17;  ad  Fam.,  xvi.,  6;  and 
also  by  those  in  which  the  preceding  action  is  not  expressed,  but  may  be 
understood ;  e.  g.,  in  the  Rhet.,  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  51,  where  the  conduct  of 
a  boaster  is  described,  Itane  ?  inqitit :  eamus  hospites,  frater  venit  ex  Faler- 


394  LATIN    GRAiMMAU. 

no;  ego  illi  obviam  pergam ;  vos  hue  decuma  venitote ;  \.  e.,  return  towards 
the  evening,  after  you  have  gone  away,  and  attended  to  your  other  busi- 
ness. It  should  also  be  observed  that  the  imperative  present  has  no  third 
person-,  because  a  person  not  present  cannot  obey  at  the  moment. 

[§  584.]  2.  Hence  the  imperative  future  is  properly 
used  in  contracts  (comp.  Liv.,  xxxviii.,  38),  laws,  and  wills, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  stipulated  in  them  that  things  are  to  be 
done  after  a  certain  time ;  farther,  in  precepts  and  rules 
of  conduct,  that  is,  to  express  actions  which  are  to  be  re- 
peated as  often  as  the  occasion  occurs. 
Regio  imperio  duo  sunto,  iique  consules  appellantor^  mili- 

tiac  summum  jus  kabcnto,  ncmini  parcnto,  illis  solus  pop- 

uli  suprema  lex  csto,  Cic.,  dc  Leg.,  iii.,  3. 
Causam  igitur  investigate)  in  re  nova  atque  admirabili,  si 

poteris.     Si  nullam  reperics,  illud  tamen  cxploratum  lia- 

beto,  nihil  fieri  potuisse  sine   causa,  eumque  terrorem, 

quern  tibi  rei  novitas  attulerit,  naturae  ratione  depellito, 

Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  28. 

Non  satis  est  pulclira  esse  pocmata,  dulcia  sunto, 
Et  quocunque  volent,  animum  auditoris  agunto. 

Horat.,  de  Art.  Poet.,  99. 
Ignoscito  saepe  alteri,  nunquam  tibi,  Syrus,  Sent.,  143. 

[§  585.]  3.  With  the  imperative  the  English  "  not" 
must  be  rendered  by  ne,  and  "  nor"  by  neve,  but  not  by 
non  or  neque.  The  imperative  with  ne,  however,  is  pecu- 
liar only  to  the  early  language,  and  at  all  times  in  legal 
phraseology. 
Hominem  mortuum  (inquit  lex  in  duodeci?n  tabulis)  in  urbe 

ne  sepelito  neve  urito,  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  ii.,  23. 

Note. — Non  and  neque  with  the  imperative  are  rare.  Ovid,  Met.,  iii.,  117, 
ne  cape — nee  te  civilibus  insere  bellis  ;  viii.,  433,  Pone,  age,  nectitulos  intercipe 
femina  nostros  ;  de  Art.  Am.,  iii.,  129,  Vos  quoque  non  caris  awes  onerate  la- 
pillis,  nee  prodite  graves  insuto  vestibus  auro.  But  when  the  subjunctive  is 
used  for  the  imperative,  non,  and  especially  neque,  are  found  more  fre- 
quently. See  §  529. 

The  imperative  with  ne  is  of  quite  common  occurrence  in  conversation- 
al language  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  along  with  it  we  find  ne  with  the 
present  subjunctive  without  any  difference,  ne  clama,  ne  crucia  te,  ne  obse- 
cra  ;  ne  credas,  ne  erres,  ne  metuas.  Later  poets  chiefly  use  ne  with  the 
present  subjunct.,  and  ne  with  the  imperative  only  when  they  speak  em- 
phatically. Servius,  on  Virg.,  Aen.,  vi.,  544,  expressly  remarks,  ne  saevi 
antique  dictum  est.  Nam  nunc  ne  saevias  dicimus,  nee  imperativum  jungimus 
adverbio  imperantis.  In  saying  that  ne  saevias  was  used  in  his  time,  he  was 
probably  thinking  more  especially  of  poets.  It  is  not  used  in  the  classi- 
cal prose  writers,  who  always  prefer  the  paraphrased  imperative  noli  sae- 
vire  (§  586). 

[§  586.]  4.  The  following  forms  are  used  instead  of 
both  tenses  of  the  imperative  : 


IMPEKAT1VE    MOOD.  395 

(a)  The  future,  which,  however,  takes  the  negative  non 
if  anything  is  forbidden;   e.  g.,  fades,  or,  non  fades  Iwc  ; 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  20,  Scd  vale/bis,  meaquc  ncgotia  vide- 
bis,  meque  diis  juvantibus  ante  brumam  cxpectabis,  instead 
of  vale,  vide,  expecta  ;   Liv.,vii.,  35,  Ubi  sententiam  meam 
vobis  peregero,  turn  quibus  eadem  placebunt,  in  dextram 
partem  tadti  transibitis%  instead  of  transitote. 

(b)  The  third  person  of  the  present  subjunctive,  both 
in  an  affirmative  and  negative  command,  is  even  more  fre- 
quently used  than  the  imperative,  unless  a  writer  inten- 
tionally uses  the  legal  phraseology. 

(c)  The  second  person  of  the  perfect  subjunctive,  with 
the  negative  ne ;  as,  Cic.,  Acad.,  ji.,  40,  Tu  vero  ista  ne 
asdveris  nevefueris  commentidis  rebus  assensus  ;  ad  Fam., 
vii.,  25,  Secreto  hoc  audi,  tecum  habcto,  ne  Apcllae  quidem, 
liberto  tuo,  dixeris.     Respecting  the  subjunctive  used  for 
the  imperative,  see  §  529. 

The  affirmative  imperative  is  paraphrased  by  cura  (or 
curato)  ut,fac  ut,  or  fac  alone  with  the  subjunctive;  e.  g., 
cura  ut  quam  primum  venias,  facite  ut  recordemim,  fac 
animo  forti  tnagnoque  sis.  The  negative  imperative  is 
paraphrased  by  fac  ne,  cave  ne,  or  commonly  by  cave 
alone  (without  ne),  with  the  present  or  perfect  subjunct- 
ive, cave  putes,  cave  dixeris ;  but  especially  by  noli  with 
the  infinitive,  noli  putare,  nolite  (nolitote)  existimare. 
Tu  nihil  invita  dices  facicsve  Minerva,  Horat.,  Ars  Poet.^ 

385. 
Qui  adipisci  veram  gloriam  volet,  justitiae  fungatur  offidis, 

Cic.,  de  Of.,  ii.,  13. 

Quod  dubitas  nefeceris,  Plin.,  Epist.,  i.,  18. 
Nihil  ignoveris,  nihil  omnino  gratiae  concesseris,  misericor- 

dia  commotus  ne  sis  !  Cic.,^?.  Murcn.,  31. 
Magnmn  fac  animum  habeas  et  spem  bonam,  Cic.,  ad 

Quint.  Frat.,  2,  in  fin. 
Nolite  id  velle  quod  Jicri  non  potest,  et  cavete  ne  spc  prae- 

sentis  pads  perpetuam  pacem  omittatis,  Cic.,  Philip., 

vii.,  8. 

[§  587.]  Note. — We  also  find  an  imperative  of  the  perfect  passive,  but 
very  rarely  ;  Ovid,  Trist.,  iv.,  8,  51,  At  vos  admoniti  nostris  quoque  casibus 
este ;  and  the  famous  exclamation  of  Caesar  before  passing  the  Rubicon, 
in  Sueton.,  Caes.,  32,  Jacta  alea  esto!  aVE^l^Qu  Kvfto^.  The  subjunctive 
is  more  commonly  used  instead  of  it ;  as,  jacta  sit  alea  ! 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  LXXX. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

[§•  588.]  1.  THE  infinitive  expresses  the  action  or  con- 
dition implied  in  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  abstract  gen- 
erality, without  specifying  either  person,  number,  or  time ; 
it  merely  indicates  the  relations  of  an  action,  that  is,  wheth- 
er it  is  in  progress  or  completed.  Scribere,  to  write,  ex- 
presses the  action  as  in  progress ;  scripsisse,  to  have  writ- 
ten, as  completed.  To  what  time  the  action  thus  descri- 
bed belongs  is  determined  by  the  verb  on  which  the  in- 
finitive depends. 

Note  ] . — The  one  of  these  infinitives  is  called  the  present  and  the  other 
the  perfect  infinitive.  The  former  name  is  incorrect,  for  it  is  not  the  pres- 
ent time  that  is  expressed  by  scribere,  since,  besides  volo  scribere,  we  may 
say  (fieri)  volebam  scribere,  volueram  scribere,  and  (eras)  volam  scribere ;  but 
the  action  is  described  only  as  in  progress.  The  infinitives  should,  there- 
fore, rather  be  called  infinitivus  rei  infectae  and  infinitivus  rei  perfcctae.  If, 
however,  we  compare  the  two  infinitives  with  the  tenses  of  the  verb,  we 
are  naturally  struck  by  the  resemblance  between  scribere  and  scribo,  and 
between  scripsisse  and  scripsi ;  although,  with  regard  to  the  relation  of  the 
action,  the  imperfect  scribcbam  and  the  pluperfect  scripseram  have  the  same 
claim  as  scribo  and  scripsi.  Hence  the  first  infinitive  is  also  called  infini- 
tivus praescntis  et  imperfecti,  and  the  other  infinitivus  perfecti  et  plusquamper- 
fecti ;  but  neither  of  these  designations  comprises  the  whole  of  their  sig- 
nification. 

[§  589.]  Note  2. — Memini,  in  a  narrative  of  events  at  which  the  speaker 
himself  has  been  present,  is  joined  with  the  present  infinitive,  although 
the  action  may  be  completed  ;  and  the  speaker  thus  transfers  himself  to 
the  past,  and  describes  the  action  as  if  it  was  in  progress  before  his  eyes  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,4,  memini  Pamphylum  mihi  narrare ;  Lael.,  3,  memini 
Catonem  mecum  et  cum  Scipione  dissercre  ;  p.  Sext.,  35,  meministis  turn,  judi- 
ces,  corporibus  civium  Tiberim  compleri,  cloacas  referciri,  c  foro  spongiis  effingi 
sanguincm.  So,  also,  memoria  teneo,  Q.  Scaevolam  hello  Marsico,  quum  esset 
surnma  senectute,  quotidie  facere  omnibus  conveniendi  sui potestatem,  in  Cicero, 
Philip.,  viii.,  10;  and  even  scribit  is  construed  like  meminit ;  as,  Cic.,  de 
Off.,  iii.,  2,  in  fin.  And  after  the  analogy  of  memini,  Cicero  (de  Off.,  i.,  30), 
without  speaking  of  things  he  has  witnessed  himself,  and  merely  for  the 
sake  of  vivid  expression,  says,  M.  Maximum  accepimus  facile  celare,  tacere, 
dissimulare,  insidiari,  praecipere  hostium  consilia.  But  when  the  sentence  is 
not  a  narrative,  but  only  a  statement  of  a  result,  memini  is  also  joined 
with  the  infinitive  of  the  completed  action ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  42,  me- 
ministis me  ita  distribuisse  initio  causam,  where  the  judges  are  requested  to 
remember  the  division  he  had  made  ;  Cic.,  p.  Milan.,  35,  meminit  etiam,  sibi 
vocem  praeconis  modo  defuisse,  quum  minime  desiderarit,  populi  vero  cunctis 
suffragiis,  quod  unum  cupierit,  se  consulem  declaratum  ;  Liv.,  xxxvi.,  34,  quam- 
quam  merito  iratus  erat  Aetolis,  quod  solos  obtrectasse  gloriae  suae  meminerat. 

[§  590.]  Note  3. — The  infinitive  perfect  is  sometimes  used  in  Latin  in- 
stead of  the  infinitive  present,  to  express  the  result  of  an  action  rather 
than  its  progress  ;  e.  g.,  juvat  me,  pudet  me  hoc  fecisse.  This  is  the  case 
chiefly  after  the  expressions  satis  mihi  est,  satis  habeo,  contentus  sum,  which 
are  usually  joined  with  the  infinitive  perfect  in  the  prose  of  the  silver  age ; 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  397 

€.  g.,  Quintil.,  ii.,  1,  2,  Grammatici  non  satis  credunt  excepisse,  quae  a  rhetori- 
bus  rclicta  erant ;  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  103,  contend  simus  id  unum  dixisse ;  and 
many  other  instances.  In  like  manner,  the  infinitive  perfect  is  joined  with 
melius  erit ;  as,  Terent.,  Adelph.,  ii.,  1,  26,  ante  aedes  non  fecisse  convicium  ; 
Liv.,  iii.,  48,  quiesseerit  melius ;  iii.,  41,  vocem  non  misisse.  In  ancient  laws 
forbidding  anything,  velle  is  joined,  in  like  manner,  with  the  infinitive  per- 
fect;  e.  g.,  in  the  senatusconsultum  de  Bacchanalibus,  Ne  Bacchanal  ha- 
buisse  velit,  Bacchas  ne  quis  adisse  velit ;  and  this  mode  of  speaking  is  often 
imitated  by  later  writers  ;  as,  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  3,  187,  ne  quis  humasse  velit 
Ajacem,  Atrida,  vetas  cur?  Ovid.  Am.,  i.,  4,  38,  Oscula  praecipue  nulla  de- 
disse  velis ;  and  is  farther  extended  to  mere  negative  sentences;  e.  g., 
Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  2,  28,  sunt  qui  nolint  tetigisse ;  Liv.,  xxii,,  59,  haud  equidem 
premendo  alium  me  extulisse  velim  ;  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  x.,  30,  quum  illam  (ci- 
coniam)  nemo  velit  attigisse.  Also,  with  a  verb  equivalent  in.  meaning  to  ne 
velit ;  as,  Horat.,  de  Art.  Poet.,  168,  commisisse  cavet,  quod  mox  mutare  labo- 
ret ;  or  with  the  positive  velim  and  similar  verbs;  as,  Liv.,  xxx.,  14,  Hanc 
te  quoque  ad  ceteras  tuas  eximias  virtutes,  Masinissa,  adjecisse  velim  ;  Horat., 
Carrn.,  iii.,  4,  52,  tendentes  Pelion  imposuisse  Olympo.  The  poets  go  still 
farther,  and  use  the  infinitive  perfect,  without  any  reference  to  a  comple- 
ted action,  in  the  sense  of  the  Greek  aorist  infinitive,  where  in  ordinary 
language  we  should  expect  the  infinitive  present ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Aen.,  vi.,  78, 
Bacchatur  vates,  magnum  si  pcctore  possit  excussisse  deum  ;  Ovid,  Ars  Am., 
ii.,  583,  non  vultus  texisse  suos  possunt. 

[§  591.]  2.  In  the  passive  voice  there  are,  also,  two  in- 
finitives, the  one  to  express  the  progress  of  a  state  of  suf- 
fering, and  the  other  the  completed  state  of  suffering. 
The  one  is  called  the  infinitive  present,  and  the  other  the 
infinitive  perfect;  the  former  is  simple,  laudari,  to  be 
praised ;  the  second  is  formed  by  a  combination  of  the 
participle  perfect  with  the  verb  es.se  ;  as,  lauddtus  esse,  or, 
in  the  accusative,  laudatum  esse,  to  have  been  praised ;  the 
participle,  of  course,  takes  the  number  and  gender  of  the 
object  to  which  it  refers. 

[<$>  592.]  Note. — In  the  absence  of  a  special  infinitive  to  express  the  com- 
pleted state  of  suffering,  custom  has  assigned  to  the  combination  of  the 
participle  perfect  with  esse  the  signification  of  such  an  infinitive;  and  esse 
thus  loses  its  own  signification  of  a  continued  state;  if,  however,  the  latter 
must  be  expressed,  another  infinitive  must  be  chosen ;  e.  g.,  scio  urbem  ob- 
sessam  teneri,  I  know  that  the  town  is  besieged,  for  scio  urbem  obsessam  esse 
would  not  express  the  continuance  of  the  state,  but  its  completion.  Thus 
we  read  in  Cicero,  in  Cat.,  i.,1.  constrictam  jam  horum  conscientia  teneri  con- 
jurationem  tuam  non  vides  ?  Where,  however,  the  context  is  so  clear  that 
no  ambiguity  can  arise,  the  participle  with  esse  (e.  g.,  obsessam  esse)  may 
be  used,  and  esse  retain  its  original  meaning.  Thus,  Cic.  (de  Off.,  i.,  19) 
says,  Apud  Platonem  est,  omnem  morem  Lacedaemoniorum  inflammatum  esse 
cupiditate  vincendi.  But/wz'sse  is  used  with  the  participle  perfect  in  its  pe- 
culiar sense  of  a  doubly  completed  state  ;  i.  e.,  a  state  completed  previous 
to  a  certain  past  time,  and  there  can  be  no  ambiguity;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
iv.,  36,  certiorem  te  faciunt,  simulacrum  Dianae  apud  Segestanos  P.  Africani 
nomine  positum  ac  dedicatum  fuisse  ;  Liv.,  i.,  4l,jubet  bono  animo  esse  ;  sopi- 
tumfuisse  regem  subito  ictu ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iv.,  23,  tradidere  quidam,  Macroni 
praescriptum  fuis<te,  si  arma  ab  Sejano  moverentur,  juvenem  ducem  populo  im- 
ponere. 

[§  593.]  3.  Besides  these  infinitives  expressing  an  ac- 
L  i. 


398  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

tion  or  a  state  in  progress  and  completed,  there  is,  both  in 
the  active  and  passive,  an  infinitive  of  future  time  (infin- 
itivusfuturi),  which  denotes  an  action  or  condition  as  con- 
tinued. It  is  formed  in  the  active  by  a  combination  of 
the  participle  future  active  with  esse  ;  as,  laudaturum  esse; 
and  in  the  passive  by  a  combination  of  the  supine  with  iri; 
as,  laudatum  iri.  The  former,  owing  to  its  participle,  may 
take  different  genders  and  numbers ;  the  latter  admits  of 
no  such  change ;  e.  g.,  Quintil.,  ix.,  2,  88,  Reus  videbatur 
damnatum  Iri ;  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  v.,  29,  Sciebat  sibi  crimini 
datum  iri  pccuniam  accepisse  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  14,  arbitrantur 
se  bcneficos  visum  iri. 

Note. — The  future  participle  in  urus  properly  expresses  an  intention  or 
desire  ;  and  in  this  sense  it  takes  the  infinitives  esse  and  fuisse  ;  as,  lauda- 
turum esse,  to  intend  praising;  laudaturum  fuisse,  to  have  intended  praising; 
scio  te  scripturum  fuisse,  I  know  that  you  have  had  the  intention  to  write. 
Nay,  even  fore  is  found  with  the  part.  fut.  in  two  passages  pointed  out  by 
Vossius  (de  Analog.,  iii.,  16),  viz.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  v.,  21,  deinde  addis,  si  quis 
secus,  te'  ad  me  fore  venturum,  where  Ernesti  thinks/ore  corrupt ;  and  Liv., 
vi.,  in  fin.,  quum  senatus  censeret  deorum  immortalium  causa  libenter  facturos 
fore.  But  this  is  a  pleonasm  ;  for,  according  to  common  usage,  venturum 
esse  and  facturos  esse  would  be  sufficient.  The  infinitive  of  an  action  that 
had  once  been  intended  (scripturum  fuisse)  is  farther  used,  especially  in  the 
apodosis  of  hypothetical  sentences  belonging  to  the  past,  where  in  direct 
speech  the  pluperfect  subjunctive  would  be  used;  as,  Cic.,  deDivin.,  ii.,8, 
etiamsi  obtcmperassct  auspiciis,  idem  eventurum  fuisse  puto ;  Tusc.,  i.,  2,  An 
censemus,  si  Fabio  laudi  datum  essct  quod  pingeret,  non  multos  etiam  apud  nos 
futures  Polyditos  fuisse  ?  and  in  like  manner,  the  infinitive  future  with 
esse  is  used  in  the  apodosis  of  hypothetical  sentences,  instead  of  the  im- 
perfect subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  47,  libertus,  nisi  jurasset,  scelus 
sc  facturum  (esse)  arbitrabatur.  The  infinit.  perfect  potuisse  occurs  in  Cic., 
de  Off.,  i.,  1,  Equidem  Platoncm  existimo,  si  genus  forense  dicendi  tractare  vo- 
luisset,  gravissime  et  copiosissime  potuisse  dicere,  in  the  sense  of  "  that  he 
would  have  been  able  to  speak,"  and  is  to  be  explained  by  what  has  been 
said  in  §  518. 

[§  594.]  4.  Besides  this,  a  circumlocution  may  be  em- 
ployed for  the  infinitive  of  future  time,  by  means  offutu- 
rum  esse  or  fore,  followed  by  ut  and  the  subjunctive. 
Here,  too,  the  difference  between  an  action  continued 
and  an  action  completed  in  future  time  rnay  be  express- 
ed, the  former  by  the  present  and  imperfect,  and  the  lat- 
ter by  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the  subjunctive.  The 
choice  of  one  of  these  four  subjunctive  tenses  depends 
upon  that  of  the  leading  verb;  e.  g.,  credo  fore  ut  cpisto- 
lam  scribas,  and  crcdebam  fore  ut  cjristolam  scriberes,  both 
expressing  a  continued  action  in  future  time;  but  credo 
fore  ut  epistolam  scripseris,  and  crcdebam  fore  ut  epistolam 
scripsisses,  expressing  a  completed  action  in  future  time. 
And  so,  also,  in  the  passive,  credo  fore  ut  epistola  scriba- 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  399 

tur,  and  credebamfore  ut  epistola  scriberetur,  both  express- 
ing a  continued  state  of  future  suffering;  but  in  order  to 
express  a  completed  state  in  future  time,  we  avail  our- 
selves in  the  passive  of  the  participle  perfect  scriptus, 
which  was  wanting  in  the  active ;  hence  credo  and  crcde- 
bam  epistolam  scriptam  fore,  for  thus  we  read  j  e.  g.,  in 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.j  xi.,  7,  a  te  jam  expectare  litteras  debemus, 
quid  ipse  agas,  quid  noster  Hirtius,  quid  Caesar  mcus,  quos 
spero  brevi  tempore  societate  victoriae  tecum-  copulatos  fore  ; 
and  in  Liv.,  xxiii.,  13,  rebantur  debellatum  moxfore,  si  an- 
niti  paululum  voluissent.  The  circumlocution,  by  means 
of  futurum  esse  or  fore  ut,  is  necessary  when  the  verb  has 
no  supine  or  participle  future  active,  which  is  the  case 
with  many  intransitives.  Hence  we  cannot  say  otherwise, 
for  example,  than  spero  futurum  esse  (fore)  ut  sapias,  ut 
te  liujus  rei  poeniteat,  ut  brevi  omnibus  his  incommodis  me- 
deare.  But  it  is  also  used  in  many  other  cases,  and  in  the 
passive  this  form  occurs  almost  more  frequently  than  the 
infinitive,  formed  by  the  supine  with  iri. 

Video  te  vclle  in  coelum  migrare,  et  spero  fore  ut  contingat 

id  nobis,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  34. 
Non  eram  nescius,fore  ut  hie  noster  labor  in  varias  repre- 

hensiones  incurreret,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  init. 
Ptolcm^aeus  mathematicus  Othoni  persuascrat,fore  ut  in  im- 

perium  ascisceretur,  Tacit.,  Hist.,  i.,  22. 

[§  595.]  Note  1. — The  passive  form  corresponding  to  the  active  infinitive 
fuisse,  with  the  participle  future  act.,  in  a  hypothetical  sense,  is  the  cir- 
cumlocution by  means  of  futurum  fuisse  ut  with  the  imperfect  subjunctive  ; 
e.  g.,  rex  ignorabat,  futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  ipsi  dederetur,  si  unum  diem  ex- 
pectasset,  the  king  did  not  know  that  the  town  would  have  been  surrender- 
ed to  him,  if  he  had  waited  one  day  longer.  Comp.  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  hi., 
101,  nisi  eo  ipso  tempore  nuntii  de  Caesaris  victoria  essent  allati,  existimabant 
plerique  futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur ;  and  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii.,  28,  Theo- 
phrastus  autem  moriens  accusasse  naturam  dicitur,  quod  cervis  et  cornicibus 
vitam  diuturnam,  quorum  id  nihil  inter esset  ;  hominibus,  quorum  maxime  inter- 
fuisset,  tarn  exiguam  vitam  dedisset :  quorum  si  aetas  potuisset  esse  longinquior, 
futurum  fuisse  ut,  omnibus  perfectis  artibus,  omni  doctrina  hominum  vita  eru- 
diretur. 

[$  596.]  Note  2. — What  is  called  the  participle  future  passive  can  never 
be  used  to  form  a  paraphrased  infinitive  future  passive,  for  this  participle 
has  the  exclusive  meaning  of  necessity,  and  as  such  it  has  its  three  regu- 
lar infinitives  :  laudandum  esse,  laudandum  fuisse  (equivalent  to  necesse  fuisse 
ut  laudaretur),  and  laudandum  fore  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxxvii.,  39,  Instare  hiemem, 
aut  sub  pellibus  habendos  milites  fore,  aut  differendum  esse  in  aestatem  bellum  ; 
and  the  correct  reading  in  Curtius,  iii.,  21,  probably  is,  lactus,  quod  onmiex- 
petierat  voto,  in  illis  potissimum  angustiis  dccernendum  fore. 

1  [§  597.]  5.  The  infinitive  may  be  regarded  as  a  verbal 
substantive  of  the  neuter  gender,  with  two  cases,  the  nom- 


400  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

inative  and  accusative ;  differing  from  other  substantives 
of  the  same  kind  in  this  respect,  that  it  governs  the  case 
which  it  requires  as  a  real  verb,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
expresses  the  complete  or  incomplete  state  of  an  action. 
The  infinitive  must  be  considered  as  the  nominative  when 
it  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  that  is,  when  anything  is 
declared  of  it ;  e.  g.,  invidere  non  cadit  in  sapientem,  where 
invidere  is  equivalent  to  invidia  ;  virtus  est  vitium  fugerc, 
i.  Q.,fuga  v ith  ;  est  ars  difficilis  recte  rcmpublicam  regere, 
i.  e.,  recta  gubernatio  reipublicae;  ignoscere  amico  liuman- 
um  est ;  laudari  jucundum  est,juvat,  delcctat ;  peccare  ne- 
mini  licet.  The  infinitive  must  be  considered  as  the  ac- 
cusative when  it  is  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  ;  e.  g., 
rolo,  cupio,  audeo,  conor  faccre,  or  dicer c  aliquid,  just  as 
we  say  cupio  aliquam  rem,  nescio  mentiri,  didici  vera  di- 
cerc.  The  infinitive  is  very  rarely  dependent  upon  prepo- 
sitions which  govern  the  accusative ;  as  in  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
ii.,  13,  Arista  ct  Pyrrlio  inter  optime  voter  e  et  gravissime 
aegrotare  nihil  prorsus  dicebant  interesse ;  Ovid,  Heroid., 
vii.,  164,  Quod  crimcn  dids  praeter  amasse  meum  ? 

Majus  dcdicus  est  parta  amittere  quam  omnino  non  para- 

vissc,  Sallust,  Jug.,  31. 
Didicisse  fideliter  artes  emollit  mores  ncc  sinit  esse  feros, 

Ovid,  ex  Pont.,  ii.,  9,  48. 
Vinccre  scis,  Hannibal,  victoria  uti  nescis,  Liv.,  xxii.,  51. 

[$  598.]  Note. — As  the  infinitive  expresses  the  action,  state,  or  suffering 
implied  in  the  verb,  in  the  form  of  abstract  generality,  it  approaches  to  the 
nature  of  a  substantive  (comp.  $  237  and  681),  which  is  indicated  most 
clearly  in  Greek,  where  the  infinitive  may  be  preceded  by  the  article.  But 
it  retains  its  character  of  a  verb  by  its  objective  case,  and  still  more  by  the 
expressed  or  understood  accusative  of  the  subject.  The  substantive  na- 
ture of  the  infinitive  is  also  visibly  indicated  by  its  being  joined  with  the 
adjective  pronoun  ipsum  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  29,  cum  vivere  ipsum  turpe 
sit  nobis  ;  Parad.,  3,  init.,  ipsum  quidem  peccare,  quoquo  te  verteris,  unum  est ; 
de  Oral.,  ii.,  6,  me  hoc  ipsum  nihil  agere  delectat.  Other  adjective  pronouns 
are  rarely  joined  with  it ;  as,  Petron.,  52,  meum  intelligere  nulla  pecunia 
vendo. 

But  we  cannot  assign  to  the  infinitive  more  than  two  cases,  although 
there  are  some  passages  in  which  the  infinitive  appears  in  such  connex- 
ions that,  if  a  substantive  were  substituted  for  it,  we  should  be  obliged  to 
use  the  genitive,  dative,  or  ablative.  But  some  of  these  passages  admit 
of  ample  explanation,  for  a  certain  phrase  may  have  the  meaning  and  con- 
struction of  a  simple  verb  ;  e.  g.,  when  Cicero  says,  paratus  sumfrumentum 
dare,  in  the  sense  of  volo  dare ;  and  when  consilium  mihi  est,  consilium  capio 
are  used  in  the  sense  of  constituo  with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  praeterire,  in 
Sallust,  Cat.,  53,  and  hominis  propinqui  forlunas  evertere,  in  Cic.,  p.  Quint., 
16.  On  the  same  principle  we  may  explain  Nepos,  Lys.,  3,  iniit  consilia 
reges  Lacedaemoniorum  tollere ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  17,  quibus  in  otto  vivere  copia 
erat  •  i.  e.,  quibus  licebat  vivere  ;  Cat.,  30,  quibus  omnia  vendere  mos  erat',  i.  e., 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  401 

qui  solebant  vendere  ;  Curt.,  iv.,  33,  cupido  incesserat  non  interiora  modo  Ac- 
gypti  sed  etiarn  Aethiopiam  invisere  ;  i.  e.,  cupivcrat.  See  Drakenborch  on 
Liv.,  iii.,  4, 9.  Some,  however,  are  real  exceptions  from  the  ordinary  prac- 
tice ;  e.  g.,  the  relative  adjectives  which  are  joined  by  the  poets  with  the 
infinitive,  instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  gerund ;  as,  cedere  nescius,  avidus 
committere  pugnam,  cupidus  attingere,  cantare  peritus.  The  infinitive,  instead 
of  the  dative,  is  sometimes  joined  with  the  adjectives  utilis,  aptus,  idoneus, 
natus  ;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  2,  27,  Nos  numerus  swnus  et  fruges  consumere 
nati ;  Ovid,  Heroid.,  i.,  109,  nee  mihi  sunt  vires  inimicos  pellere  tectis,  instead 
of  pellendis  inimicis  or  ad  pellendos  inimicos.  But  this,  too,  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  an  imitation  of  the  Greek.  The  place  of  the  ablative  is  sup- 
plied by  the  infinitive,  if  we  may  say  so,  with  the  adjectives  digtvus  and 
contentiis,  which  we  have  already  explained  in  <^  568  and  590.  In  classical 
prose,  therefore,  we  cannot  consider  the  infinitive  in  any  other  light  than 
as  a  verbal  substantive  with  two  equal  cases. 

[§   599.]    6.  When  the  infinitive  has  its  own   subject 
joined  to  it,  it  is  put  in  the  accusative. 

Note. — An  exception  here  presents  itself  at  once  in  the  historical  infin- 
itive (infinitivus  historicus),  to  which  the  subject  is  joined  in  the  nominative. 
The  historical  infinitive  is  a  peculiar  mode  of  using  the  present  infinitive 
(or  the  infinit.  rei  infectae,  according  to  §  588)  in  a  narrative,  instead  of  the 
imperfect  indicative,  when  actions  or  conditions  are  to  be  described  in  a 
lively  and  animated  manner  as  continuing  :  in  this  case  the  infinitive  rep- 
resents the  idea  implied  in  the  verb  as  a  noun,  and  independent  of  all  the 
additional  meanings  conveyed  by  the  tenses.  The  imperfect,  therefore, 
maintains  its  place  along  with  the  historical  infinitive,  arid  re-enters  when 
an  explanatory  clause  is  inserted  in  the  description ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
iv.,  18,  Quod  ubi  iste  audivit,  usque  eo  est  commotus,  ut  sine  ulla  dubitatione  in- 
sanire  omnibus  acfurere  videretur.  Quia  non  potuerat  argentum  eripere,  ipse  a 
Diodoro  erepta  sibi  vasa  optime  facta  dicebat :  minitari  absenti  Diodoro,  vocife- 
rari  palam,  lacrimas  inttrdum  vix  tenere  ;  Liv.,  xxxi.,  4I,Philippus  inopinanti- 
bus  advenit.  Quern  quum  adesse  refugientes  ex  agris  quidam  pavidi  nuntiassent, 
trepidare  Damocritus  ceterique  duces  :  et  erat  forte  meridianum  tempus,  quo  ple- 
rique  graves  cibo  sopiti  jacebant :  excitare  igitur  alii  alias,  jubere  arma  capere, 
alias  dimittere  ad  revocandos,  qui  palati  per  agros  praedabantur.  Such  histori- 
cal infinitives  thus  have  their  subject  joined  to  them  in  the  nominative, 
whether  it  be  a  substantive  or  a  pronoun;  as,Terent,  Andr.,i.,  1,120,  Egoillud 
sedulo  negarefactum  :  ille  instat  factum  (esse).  We  shall  add  only  one  more 
instance  from  the  writer,  who  is  particularly  fond  of  describing  things  by 
the  historical  infinitive,  Sallust,  Cat.,  6,  Igitur  reges  populique  faiitimi  bello 
temptare,  pauci  ex  amicis  auxilio  esse :  nam  ceteri  metu  perculsi  a  periculis  abe- 
rant :  at  Romani,  domi  militiaeque  intenti,  festinarc,  parare,  alius  alium  hortari, 
hostibus  obviam  ire,  libertatem,  patriam  parentesque  armis  tegere.  Post,  ubi  per i- 
cula  virtute  propulerant,  sociis  atque  amicis  auxilia  portabant.  Respecting  the 
mode  of  introducing  such  infinitives  by  means  of  quum,  see  $  582.  Their 
introduction  by  ut,  ubi,  postquam,  in  the  protasis  occurs  only  in  Tacitus  ; 
e.  g.,  Ann.,  xii.,  51,  ubi  quati  uterus,  et  viscera  vibrantur  ;  ii.,  6,  postquam  exui 
aequalitas,  et  ambitio  incedebat ;  comp.  i.,  20. 

[§  600.]  This  is  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  which,  like  the  infinitive  alone,  is  used  in 
two  ways,  either  as  the  subject  or  as  the  object  of  a  prop- 
osition. The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  subject, 
wherever,  if  we  would  or  could  use  a  substantive  in  its 
place,  it  would  be  in  the  nominative.  So  it  is  especially 
when  a  substantive  or  adjective  is  added  as  predicate  by 
L  L  2 


402  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

means  of  est,  erat,  fuit,  &c. ;  as,  justum,  aequum,  verisim- 
ile,  consentaneum,  apertum  est,  necesse  est  and  opus  est,  or 
an  impersonal  verb ;  as,  apparct,  constat,  convenit,  decet^ 
licet,  oportet,  or  the  third  person  singular  of  the  passive  ; 
as,  intelligitur,  perspicitur,  and  the  like  ;  e.  g.,  Victorem 
parcere  victis  aequum  est,  it  is  fair  that  the  conqueror  should 
spare  the  conquered,  i.  e.,  the  clemency  of  the  conqueror 
towards  the  conquered  is  fair. 

Accusatores  multos  esse  in  civitate  utile  est,  ut  metu  contine- 

atur,  audacia,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  20. 
Roc  quidem  apparct,  nos  ad  agendum  esse  natos,  Cic.,  de 

Fin.,  v.,  21. 
Constat  pr  fecto  ad  salutem  civium  inventas  esse  leges,  Cic., 

de  Leg.,  ii.,  5. 
Leg  em  brevem  esse  oportet,  quo  facilius  ab  imperitis  tenea- 

tur,  Senec.,  Epist.,  94. 
Non  sine  causa  dictum  est,  nihil  facilius  quam  lac^imas  in- 

arescerC)  Quintil.,  vi.,  1,  27. 

Note  1. — Sometimes  a  circumlocution,  by  means  of  quod,  properly  id  quod 
(the  fact  that),  is  used  for  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  ;  farther,  after 
several  adjective  expressions,  even  after  some  of  those  mentioned  above, 
ut  with  the  subjunctive  is  used  for  the  infinitive  ;  in  which  case,  however, 
the  meaning  is  somewhat  altered.  We  shall  return  to  these  points  here- 
after, §  626  and  623,  in  order  not  to  interrupt  our  present  discussion  by 
exceptions.  We  shall  add  only  the  remark,  which  is  of  importance  to  the 
beginner,  that  it  is,  properly  speaking,  inaccurate  to  say  that  the  accusat. 
with  the  infinit.  is  governed  by  utile  est,  constat,  or  oportet,  for  the  infinitive 
is  here  the  nominative  ;  and  we  might  say,  e.  g.,  accusatorum  multitudo  utilis 
est,  or  legum  brevitas  necessaria  est.  We  have  not  noticed  above  the  fact  that 
the  infinit.  and  the  accus.,  with  the  infinit.,  may  also  be  the  nominative  of 
the  predicate  ;  for  as  two  substantives  may  be  placed  in  such  a  relation  to 
each  other  that  the  one  is  the  subject  and  the  other  the  predicate,  so,  also, 
may  two  infinitive  sentences  stand  to  each  other  in  the  relation  of  subject 
and  predicate  ;  e.  g.,  Sallust.,  Jug.,  Impune  quaelibet  facere  id  est  regem  esse. 
Id  might  here  be  omitted,  and  only  represents  the  infinitive  expression  as 
a  substantive :  facere  (see  §  608)  is  the  subject,  and  regem  esse  the  predi- 
cate. 

[§  601.]  Note  2. — Licet  may  be  joined  with  the  accus.  with  the  infinit., 
pr  we  may  say  licet  mihi  with  the  infinit  alone  ;  e.  g.,  scribere.  The  latter 
is  more  frequent ;  and  when  the  infinitive  esse  (or  others  of  a  similar  mean- 
ing ;  as,  fieri,  vivere,  vitam  degere,  abire)  is  accompanied  by  a  noun  as  a  pred- 
icate, the  latter,  too,  is  put  in  the  dative ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  15,  licuit 
enim  esse  otioso  Themistocli ;  ad  Alt.,  i.,  17,  quo  in  genere  mihi  negligenti  esse 
non  licet ;  p.  Place.,  29,  cur  his  esse  liberis  non  licet  ?  Liv.,  iii.,  50,  sibi  vitam 
filiae  sua  carioremfuisse,  si  liberae  ac  pudicae  vivere  licitum  fuisset  (ei)  ;  xxvi., 
41,  Hannibal  precatur  deos,  ut  incolumi  cedere  atque  abire  ex  hostium  terra  liceat. 
But  the  accusat.,  too,  is  frequent  enough ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  32,  Sy- 
racusanum  in  insula  habitare  non  licet ;  ibid.,  59,  non  licet  me  isto  tanto  bono  uti. 
See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  18,  45.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the 
infinitive  of  the  passive  ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  10,  ne  cooptari  quidem  sacer- 
dotem  licebat.  See  Heusinger  on  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  7.  It  is  surprising  to  find 
both  cases  in  the  same  sentence,  as  in  Cic.,  p.  Balb.,  12,  si  civi  Romano  licet 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  403 

esse  Gaditanum,  sive  exilio,  sive  postliminio,  sive  rejections  hujus  civitatis  ;  and 
in  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  1,  is  enim  erat  annus,  quo  per  leges  ei  consulem  fieri 
liceret.  We  also  find  mihi  necesse  est  dicer e  ;  and,  in  connexion  with  licet,  we 
find  mihi  necesse  est  esse  with  the  predicate  in  the  dative,  Liv.,  xxi.,  44,  Illis 
timidis  et  ignavis  licet  esse,  vobis  necesse  estfortibus  viris  esse.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  observed  that  licet,  oportet,  and  necesse  est  are  also  joined  with  the 
subjunctive  ;  e.  g.,  fremant  omncs  licet,  sequantur  Hermagoram  licebit,  which 
accounts  for  the  construction  of  licet,  when  it  is  used  as  a  conjunction  in 
the  sense  of  quamvis.  See  above,  <J>  574  and  <J  625. 

[§  602.]  7.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  the  ob- 
ject after  verbs  which  have  a  sentence  for  their  direct  ob- 
ject, i.  e.,  after  those  which  denote  an  action  of  our  ex- 
ternal or  internal  faculties,  or  a  declaration  (verba  scntien- 
di  et  declarandij.  The  principal  verbs  of  this  kind  are, 
audio,  video,  sentio,  animadverto,  cognosco,  intelligo,  per- 
cipio,  disco,  scio,  credo,  arbitror,  puto,  opinor,  duco,  statuo, 
memini,  recordor,  obliviscor  ;  dico,  trado,  prodo,  scribo,  re- 
fero,  nuntio,  confirmo,  nego,  ostendo,  demonstro,  perhibeo, 
promitto,  polliceor,  spondeo,  and  several  others,  denoting 
feeling,  knowing,  thinking,  or  saying.  These  and  other 
verbs  of  the  same  kind,  instead  of  being  followed  by  a 
dependent  sentence  with  a  conjunction  (that,  quod),  re- 
quire the  infinitive,  and  the  subject  of  the  dependent  sen- 
tence is  put  in  the  accusative.  (In  English,  the  two  sen- 
tences are  sometimes  put  in  juxtaposition  without  any 
sign  of  dependence  or  connexion ;  e.  g.,  he  feels  that  he 
is  unhappy,  or,  he  feels  he  is  unhappy.) 

Sentit  animus,  se  sua  vi,  non  aliena,  moveri,  Cicero. 

Ego  ne  utilem  quidem  arbitror  esse  nobis  futurarum  rerum 
scientiam,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  9. 

Pompeios,  celebre?n  Campaniae  urbem,  dcsedisse  terrae  motu 
audivimus,  Senec.,  Nat.  Quacst.,  vi.,  init. 

Clodius  adJiuc  mihi  denuntiat  periculum  :  Pompeius  ajjir- 
mat  non  esse  periculum,  adjurat,  addit  etiam  se  prius  oc- 
cisum  iri  ab  co,  quam  me  violatum  iri,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii., 
20.  (He  might  have  said  priusfuturum  esse,  Qicforc,  ut 
ab  co  occidatur,  quam  ego  violer.) 

[$  603.]  Note  1.— The  propositions  which  are  in  direct  dependence  upon 
the  above-mentioned  verbs  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive ; 
the  clauses  inserted  in  such  a  proposition  are,  according  to  circumstances, 
either  in  the  indicative  or  the  subjunctive,  and  in  the  latter  more  especial- 
ly when  they  are  inseparably  connected  with  the  proposition  expressed  by 
the  accus.  with  the  infinitive,  containing  either  the  words  or  sentiments 
of  the  person  spoken  of.  (See  $  545.)  Respecting  such  inserted  clauses 
we  must  add  the  following  remarks: 

(a)  When  a  relative  clause  has  the  same  verb  as  the  proposition  with 
the  infinitive,  but  without  its  being  repeated,  the  noun  which  is  the  sub- 


404  LATIN    GRAiMMAR. 

ject  of  the  relative  clause  is  put  in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i., 
17,  Platonem  ferunt  primum  de  animorum  aeternitate  sensisse  idem,  quod  Pyth- 
agoram  ;  Cat.  Maj.,  i.,  Te  suspicor  eisdem  rebus,  quibus  me  ipsum,  cDminoveri  • 
if,  however,  the  verb  of  the  relative  clause  is  expressed,  we  must  say  idem 
quod  Pythagoras  sensit,  and  iisdcm  quibus  (ego)  ipse  commoveor.  For  more 
examples,  see  §  774. 

(6)  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  particle  quam  after  a  comparative. 
We  say,  e.  g.,  Terentium  censeo  elegantiorem  fuisse  poetam,  quam  Plautum, 
instead  of  quam  Plautus  fuit;  as  in  Cicero,  de  Fin.,  hi.,  19,  decet  cariorcm 
esse  patriam  nobis,  quam  nosmet  ipsos  ;  i.  e.,  quam  nosmet  ipsi  nobis  sumus. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  happens  that  the  clause  with  quam,  even  when  it 
has  a  verb  of  its  own,  attaches  itself  so  closely  to  the  preceding  construc- 
tion, as  to  accompany  it  in  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit. ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Fam., 
ii.,  16,  Nonne  tibi  affirmavi,  quidvis  me  potius  perpessurwn,  quam  ex  Italia  ad 
helium  civile  me  cxiturum,  instead  of  the  more  regular  quam  exirem,  or  quam 
ut  exirem ;  as  in  Livy,  xl.,  4,  Mulier  ausa  est  dicere,  se  sua  manu  potius  omnes 
(liberos  suos)  interfecturam,  quam  in  potestatem  Philippi  venirent ;  and  x-xxv., 
31,  (testatus  est)  Magnetas  in  corpora  sua  citius  saevituros,  quam  ut  liomanam 
amicitiam  violarent. 

(c)  "When  long  speeches  of  other  persons  are  given  in  the  historical  form 
(which  is  called  oratio  obliqua  in  a  narrower  sense),  even  complete  relative 
clauses  (i.  e.,  such  as  have  a  verb  of  their  own),  which  properly  should  be 
in  the  subjunctive,  are  put  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  if  the  rel- 
ative clause  is  not  subordinate  to  or  dependent  upon  the  one  with  the  in- 
finitive, governed  by  a  verbum  sentiendiet  declarandi,  but  rather  co-ordinate 
or  running  parallel  with  it,  in  which  case  the  relative  pronoun  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  demonstrative  with  et,  and  only  a  grammatical  form  to  connect 
two  sentences.  Thus,  for  example,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  G2,  Res  ad  eum  de- 
fertur  :  esse  civem  Romanum,  qui  se  Syracusis  in  lautumiis  fuisse  quereretur  • 
quern  jam  ingredientem  navem  et  Verri  nimis  atrociter  minitantem,  a  se  retrac- 
tum  esse  et  asscrvatum,  ut  ipse  in  eum  statuerct,  quod  videretur,  for  eumque  a 
se  retractum  esse ;  Nep.,  Them.,  7,  nam  illorum  urbem  (Athenas)  ut  propugna- 
culum  oppositum  esse  barbaris,  apud  quam  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufra- 
gium,  for  et  apud  earn  jam  bis  classes  regias  fecisse  naufragium.  (See  the  note 
of  J.  M.  Heusinger  on  this  passage.)  In  Livy  and  Tacitus  there  are  some 
passages  in  which  the  accus.  with  the  infin.  is  used  in  the  oratio  obliqua 
instead  of  the  subjunctive,  even  after  conjunctions,  as  after  quum  in  Liv., 
iv.,  51,  (plebs  aegre  ferebat)  jacere  tam  diu  irritas  actiones,  quae  de  suis  com- 
modis  ferrentur,  quum  interim  de  sanguine  ac  supplicio  suo  latam  legem  confes- 
tim  exerceri,  where  et  would  have  been  sufficient,  and  quum  is  used  to  ex- 
press simultaneity  (§  580) ;  but  the  infinitive  is  rather  an  anomaly ;  after 
quamquam,  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xii.,  65,  quamquam  ne  impudicitiam  quidem  nunc 
abesse,  is  justified  by  the  absolute  signification  of  quamquam  (<J>  341) ;  after 
quia,  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  27,  Flaccus  idea  se  moenibus  inclusos  tenere  eos  (dicebat): 
quia,  si  qui  evasissent  aliquo,  velut  feras  bestias  vagari,  is  much  more  surpri- 
sing, and  too  great  a  license. 

The  leading  propositions  in  the  oratio  obliqua  (which  in  the  oratio  recta 
would  be  in  the  indicative)  are  thus  put  in  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive  ; 
and  all  other  clauses,  the  tenses  of  which  depend  upon  that  of  the  leading 
verbum  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  are  put  in  the  subjunctive.  We  add  the 
remark,  that  the  imperatives  of  the  direct  speech  become  subjunctives  in 
the  oratio  obliqua ;  e.  g.,  hoc  mihi  dicite,  but  in  the  oratio  obliqua,  hoc  sibi 
dicant,  or  hoc  sibi  dicerent,  according  as  the  leading  verb  expresses  either 
present  or  past  time.  Direct  questions,  which  in  direct  speech  are  in  the 
indicative,  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua  by  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive,  except  questions  addressed  to  the  second  person,  which,  like  the 
imperatives,  become  subjunctives ;  e.  g.,  when  in  direct  speech  we  say 
etiamsi  veteris  contumeliae  oblivisci  velim,  num.  possum  etiam  recentium  injuria- 
rum  memoriam  deponere  ?  the  oratio  obliqua  will  be  (Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i., 
14),  Caesar  respondit  (histor.  perf.) — si  veteris  contumeliae  oblivisci  vellet,  num 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  405 

etiam  recentium  injuriarum,  quod  eo  invito  (should  be  se  invito,  but  see  $  550) 
iter  per  provinciam  per  vim  temptassent,  memoriam  deponere  posse  ?  Again,  in 
direct  speech,  we  say,  Hocine  patiendum  fuit,  si  ad  nutum  dictatoris  non  re- 
spondit  ?  Fingite  mentitum  esse  :  cui  servo  unquam  mendacii  poena  vinculafue- 
runt?  but  in  the  oratio  obliqua  (Liv.,  vi.,  17),  (Indignabantur)  Hocine  patien- 
dum fuisse,  si  ad  nutum  dictatoris  non  respondent  vir  consularis  ?  Fingerent 
mentitum  ante,  atque  idea  non  habuisse  quod  turn  responderet :  cui  servo  unquam 
mendacii  poenam  vincula  fuisse  ?  But  questions  addressed  to  the  second 
person  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua  by  the  subjunctive ;  e.  g.,  Liv., 
vi.,  37,  (affirmabant)  An  jam  memoria  exisse  (direct  an  exiit?}  XLIV  annis 
neminem  ex  plebe  tribunum  militum  creatum  esse  ?  Qui  crederent  (direct  Qui 
creditis  ?  how  do  you  think  ?)  duobus  nunc  in  locis  impartituros  plebi  honorem, 
qui  octona  loca  tribunis  militum  creandis  occupare  soliti  sint.  For  other  exam- 
ples of  questions  which  are  expressed  in  the  oratio  obliqua,  either  by  the 
accus.  with  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  subjunctive,  see  Liv.,  iii.,  72  ;  vii.,  4  ; 
viii.,  33.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  is  rarely  found  in  a  question 
of  the  second  person;  as  in  Liv.,  vi.,  17,  where,  however,  it  is  combined 
with  one  of  the  third  person,  selibrisne  farris  gratiam  servatori  patriae  rela- 
tam  ?  et,  quern  cognomine  Capitolino  prope  Jovi  parem  fecerint,  pati  (for  pater- 
cntur)  vinctum  in  carcere  ?  The  subjunctive  in  questions  of  the  third  person 
is  less  uncommon  in  Caesar;  e.  g.,  Bell.  Gall,  i.,  43,  Quis  pati  posset  ?  for 
quern  pati  possi  ?  v.,  29,  quis  hoc  sibi  persuaderet  ?  for  quern  sibi  persuasurum  ? 
Cottae  consilium  quern  haberet  exitum  ?  for  qucm  habiturum  esse  exitum  ? 

[<$>  604.]  Note  2. — It  must  be  particularly  observed  that  the  personal  pro- 
nouns, which  are  expressed  in  the  other  moods  only  in  case  of  their  hav- 
ing the  emphasis,  are  always  expressed  with  the  infinitive.  The  beginner 
must  here  pay  especial  attention  to  the  use  of  the  reflective  pronoun  se, 
which,  as  well  as  the  possessive  suus,  is  employed  with  other  oblique  ca- 
ses, when  reference  is  made  in  the  dependent  sentence  to  the  subject  of 
the  leading  one  ;  and  in  explanatory  clauses,  when  anything  is  stated  as 
the  sentiment  of  the  subject;  see  above,  ^  125  and  550.  We  say,  e.  g., 
Caesar  se  non  sui  commodi  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebat,  but  an  explanatory 
clause  cannot  always  take  these  pronouns ;  as,  Caesar,  quum  eum  nonnulli 
injustitiae  accusarent,  or,  Caesar,  quod  ejus  causa  a  plerisque  damnabatur,  se 
non  sui  commodi  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebat ;  but  when  the  explanatory  clause 
contains  the  sentiment  of  the  subject,  we  use  se  and  suits  ;  e.  g.,  Caesar, 
quod  suum  jus  a  senatu  laesum  esset,  or  postquam  nihil  sibi  ac  suis  postulatis 
tributum  esset,  se  non  sua  sed  ipsius  ret  publicae  causa  arma  cepisse  dicebat. 

[§  605.J  This  rule  that  the  personal  pronouns  must  be  expressed  (in  the 
accus.)  with  the  infinitive  must  be  particularly  attended  to  with  regard  to 
the  verbs  "  to  promise"  and  "  to  hope,"  since  in  English  they  are  usually 
joined  with  the  infinitive  present  without  any  pronoun.  In  Latin  the  pro- 
nouns are  not  only  expressed,  but  the  infinitive  which  follows  is  that  of 
the  future  ;  e.  g.,  promisit  se  venturum,  daturum  esse,  spero  hoc  meassecutu- 
rum  (with  the  omission  of  esse,  as  is  very  frequently  the  case  with  this  in- 
finitive and  that  of  the  perfect  passive).  There  are,  it  is  true,  many  in- 
stances, both  of  the  infinitive  present  instead  of  that  of  the  future  (for 
which  see  the  commentators  on  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iv.,  21,  pollicentur  ob- 
sides  dare,  and  Oudendorp  on  ii.,32),  and  of  the  accusative  of  the  pronoun 
being  omitted ;  but  such  exceptions  can  never  affect  a  rule  which  is  so 
frequently  followed,  and  they  occur  much  more  .rarely  in  Cicero  than  in 
Curtius  and  Livy.  In  the  following  passages  of  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  i., 
39,  puderet  me  dicere  non  intellexisse ;  in  Q.  Caec.,  18,  quod  dictururn  te  esse 
audio  quaestorem  illius  fuisse  ;  in  Rull.,  ii.,  36,  haec  ego  vos  spcrasse  me  con- 
side  assequi  posse  demiror—the  omission  oime,  te,  and  vos,  is  excused  by  the 
fact  of  there  being  two  constructions  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  with 
the  same  subject.  The  following  passages  are  less  excusable;  Cic.,  p. 
Rose.  Am.,  22,  confitere  hue  ea  spe  venisse  ;  p.  Sitll.,  23,  agrariae  legi  interces- 
sor em  fore  prof  essus  est ;  p.  Hfurcn.,  3,  qui gravissime  et  acerbissime  ferre  dixit. 
But  such  passages,  as  was  said  above,  are  comparatively  rare;  and  the 


406  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

omission  of  se  as  the  accusat.  of  the  subject  (which  would  be  ego  indirect 
speech)  is  frequent  only  in  a  long  oratio  obliqua  in  historians. 

[§  606.]  Note  3. — When  the  use  of  an  infinitive  active  would  bring  two 
accusatives  together,  one  of  the  subject  and  the  other  of  the  object,  and 
an  ambiguity  would  be  likely  to  arise,  it  is  the  rule  to  prefer  the  passive 
construction,  by  which  the  accusative  of  the  object  becomes  the  subject, 
and  the  other  is  avoided  or  explained  by  the  preposition  ab  or  per. 
At  vcro  ne  fando  quidem  auditum  est,  crocodilum  aut  ibim  aut  felem  violatwn 

(esse)  ab  Aegyptio,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  29. 

If  we  were  to  say  crocodilum  violasse  Aegyptium,  there  would  certainly  be 
a  great  ambiguity ;  but  where  no  such  ambiguity  is  to  be  apprehended, 
even  the  best  authors  use  two  accusatives  by  the  side  of  each  other. 

[§  607.]  8.  The  accusative  of  the  subject  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive  after  the 
verbs  denoting  saying,  showing,  and  believing  (dicere,  ne- 
gare,  traderc  ,ferrc ,  memorare,  narrare,  nuntiarc,  perhibcre, 
pi'odcrc,  scribcre  ;  dcmonstrarc,  ostendcrc,  arguere,  credere, 
putare,  existimare,  and  some  others  of  the  same  meaning), 
is  regarded,  also,  as  an  accusative  of  the  object,  governed 
by  those  verbs,  and  hence  the  passive  construction,  also,  is 
admissible  (according  to  §  382),  by  which  the  accusative 
becomes  the  nominative.  This  is  the  case,  especially, 
when  the  subject  of  those  verbs  is  indefinite ;  as,  dicunt 
(they,  or  people  say)  me  virum  probum  esse,  or  dicor  vir 
probus  csse,  and  so  through  all  persons  and  tenses,  diceris, 
dicitur  vir  probus  csse;  dicimur,  dicimini,  dicuntur  viri  pro- 
bi  csse  or  fecisse.  The  same  is  frequently  the  case  with 
the  verbs  jubere,  vetare,  and  prohibere  (comp.  §  617),  so 
that  the  passives  of  these  verbs  are  used  personally ;  as, 
vctamur,  prohibemur  hoc  facere,  abire  jussus  sum,  consules 
jubcntur  exercitum  scribere,  and  sometimes  even  an  infinit. 
passive  is  added;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  32, jussus  cs  re- 
nuntiari  consul.  Farther,  instead  of  the  impersonal  vide- 
tur  (it  appears)  with  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.,  it  is 
quite  common  to  say  personally,  videor,  vidcris,  videtur, 
videmur,  videmini,  videntur  with  the  infinitive  ;  as,  videor 
errasse,  it  appears  that  I  have  erred ;  videor  deceptus  esse, 
it  appears  that  I  have  been  deceived.  See  above,  §  380. 
Xanthippe,  Socratis  philosophi  uxor,  morosa  admodumfu- 

issefertur  et  jurgiosa,  Gellius,  i.,  17. 

Regnante  Tarquinio  Superbo  Sybarim  et   Crotonem  Py- 
thagoras venisse  reperitur,  Cic.,  de  Re  Publ.,  ii.,  15. 
Athenis  actor  movere  ajfectus  vetabatur,  Quintil.,  ii.,  16. 

Note. — The  accus.  with  the  infinit.  after  the  passives  dicitur,  traditur,fer- 
tur,  narratur,  ezistimatur,  &c.,  that  is,  the  impersonal  use  of  these  passives, 
is,  indeed,  admissible,  but  occurs  more  rarely  than  the  personal  construc- 
tion. (See  Duker  on  Floras,  ii.,  6,  §  45;  Drakenborch  on  Livy,  i.,  31.) 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  407 

Hence  we  must  regard  it  as  an  exception  when  we  read  in  Nepos,  Pans., 
5,  dicitur  eo  tempore  matrem  Pausaniae  vixisse  ;  Liv.,  v.,  3 
turfama,  dulcedine  frugum  maximeque  vini  captam  Alpes  t 


5,  dicitur  eo  tempore  matrem  Pausaniae  vixisse  ;  Liv.,  v.,  33,  earn  gentem  tradi- 
turfama,  dulcedine  frugum  maximeque  vini  captam  Alpes  transisse  •  xl.,  29,  cre- 
ditur  Pythagorae  auditorem  fuisse  Numam.  It  is  more  frequently  the  case 


with  nuntiatur,  nuntiabatur  ;  as  in  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  51  ;  Cic.,  p.  Milan.,  18  ; 
but  it  is  very  common  with  the  compound  tenses  (traditum  est,  proditum  est, 
creditum  est)  and  with  the  participle  future  passive  (credendum  est,  intelli- 
gendum  est,  existimandum  est}  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  63,  Fides  et  tibi- 
as  eorum  causa  factas  dicendum  est,  qui  illis  uti  possunt  ;  and  ibid.,  66,  quorum 
neminem  nisi  juv  ante  deo  talem  (tamfortem  ac  reip.  utilem)  fuisse  credendum  est. 

[§  608.]  9.  The  subject  cannot  be  expressed  with  the 
infinitive  when  it  is  an  indefinite  person,  for  the  Romans 
had  no  word  to  express  the  English  "  one"  (French  on), 
and  hence  we  say  ignoscere  amico  humanum  est,  to  forgive 
a  friend  is  humane,  or,  it  is  humane  that  one  (or  we)  should 
forgive  a  friend  ;  facinus  est  vincire  civem  Romanum. 

But  even  in  this  case  the  verb  esse,  and  those  denoting 
"  to  appear,"  "  to  be  considered,"  or  "  called"  (§  394),  re- 
quire the  predicate,  if  it  be  declinable,  to  agree  with  the 
non-expressed  subject  in  the  accusative  ;  e.  g.,  ignoscere 
amico  liumanum  est,  recordantem  bcneficiorum  ab  eo  accep- 
torum,  it  is  humane  that  one  should  forgive  a  friend,  re- 
membering the  benefit  received  of  him. 

Contcntum  suis  rebus  csse  maximae  sunt  certissimaeaiie  di- 

vitiae,  Cic.,  Parad.,  6. 
Licet  opera  prodesse  multis,  beneficia  pctcntem,  commcndan- 

tem  magistratibus,  vigilantem  pro  re  alterius,  Cic.,  de 

Off.,  ii.,  19. 
Atticus   maximum   existimavit   quaestum,  memorem  gra- 

tumque  cognosci,  Nep.,  Att.,  9. 
Magnis  in  laudibus  tota  fere  fuit  Graecid  victorem  Olym- 

piae  citari,  Nep.,  Praef. 

Note.  —  The  indefinite  pronoun,  which  may  be  supplied  in  these  cases,  is 
aliquem,  and  when  the  accus.  plur.  is  used,  aliquos.  The  same  indefinite- 
ness,  however,  may  be  expressed  by  te  or  nos,  or  what  is  to  be  especially 
observed,  by  the  infinitive  passive.  Hence  the  sentences  ignoscere  amico 
humanum  est  and  facinus  est  vincire  civem  Romanum,  may  also  be  expressed 
by  ignosci  amico  humanum  est,  facinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum  ;  e.  g.,  Nep. 
Milt.,  4,  quum  viderent  de  eorum  virtute  non  desperari,  et  hostes  eadem  re  fore 
tardiores,  si  animadverterent  auderi  adversus  se  tarn  exiguis  copiis  dimicare. 
This  is  to  be  observed  especially  on  account  of  the  impersonal  verbs  licet, 
decet,  oportet,  opus  est,  necesse  est,  which,  if  there  is  no  definite  subject,  are 
joined  with  the  infinitive  active  alone  ;  e.  g.,  licet  hocfacere,  dccet  specimen 
capere  ex  hoc  re,  ex  malis  eligere  minima  oportet,  or  with  a  complete  accusat. 
with  the  irifinit.  in  the  passive  construction  ;  as,  licet  hoc  fieri,  decet  speci- 
men capi,  ex  malis  eligi  minima  oportet. 

[§  609.]  10.  The  accusative  with  the  infinitive  some- 
times stands  apparently  quite  independent,  but  is  to  be 
explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  crcdilnlc  cst  ?  verwnne  est  ? 


408  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

This  is  the  case  in  exclamations,  and,  when  the  interroga- 
tive particle  is  annexed,  in  interrogations  expressive  of 
indignation ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  44,  lllam  clementiam 
mansuetudinemque  nostri  imperil  in  tantam  crudelitatem  in- 
humanitatemque  esse  conversam  !  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  2,  H.cm, 
mea  lux,  te  nunc,  mea  Terentia,  sic  vexari,  sic  jacere  in  la- 
crimis  ct  sordibus !  idque  fieri  mea  culpa,  &c.;  Virg.,  Aen., 
i.,  37,  Mene  incepto  desistere  victam,  Nee  posse  Italia  Teu- 
crorum  avcrtere  regem  !  Terent.,  And?:,  i.,  5,  10,  Adconc 
esse  hominem  infelicem  quemquam,  ut  ego  sum !  Cic.,  p. 
Rose.  Am.,  34,  Tene,  quum  ccteri  socii  tui  fugerent  ac  se 
occultarent,  tibi  potissimum  istas  partes  dcpoposcissc,  ut  in 
judicio  versarcre  ct  seder es  cum  accusatorc!  in  Verr.,  v.,  6, 
O  praeclarum  imperatorem  !  tantumne  vidisse  (eum)  in 
mctu  pcriculoque  provinciac  !  But  it  must  be  observed 
that  a  sentence  Avith  ut  may  also  be  used,  both  with  and 
without  an  interrogative  particle,  to  express  a  question 
with  indignation ;  e.  g.,  Tererit.,  Andr.,  i.,  5,  28,  Eine  (pa- 
tri)  ego  ut  adverser  ?  Liv.,  iv.,  2,  llline  ut  impune  bella 
concitcnt  ?  v.,  24,  victamnc  ut  quisquam  victrici  patriae 
praeferret?  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  9,  Tu  ut  unquam  te  corrigas? 
in  Verr.,  iii.,  10,  judicio  ut  arator  decumanum  persequatur  ? 
where  we  may  supply  Jieri  potest  ? 

[§  610.]  11.  The  verbs,  I  can,  shall,  liasten,  venture,  am 
accustomed,  and  others  of  the  same  kind,  are  followed  in 
Latin,  as  in  English,  by  the  mere  infinitive,  and  not  by  a 
proposition.  When  they  are  joined  with  esse,  haberi,  ju- 
dicari,  vidcri,  &c.,  the  predicate  is  put  in  the  nominative; 
e.  g.,  solet  tristis  videri,  aude  sapiens  esse,  propcrat  aliirc, 
cocpit  miJii  molestus  esse,  dcbes  esse  diligens,  potest  liber  esse, 
and  so,  also,  meretur,  scit,  didicit  liber  esse.  But  the  verbs 
volo,  nolo,  malo ;  cupio,  opto,  studeo,  admit  of  a  twofold 
construction :  the  mere  infinitive  is  used  after  them^when 
the  subject  remains  the  same,  and  when  they  are  followed 
by  esse,  or  any  of  the  above-mentioned  verbs,  the  predi- 
cate is  in  the  nominative ;  but  the  accus.  with  the  infinit. 
is  used  when  the  subject  is  changed,  or  when  the  pro- 
noun of  the  same  person  is  repeated.  On  the  one  hand, 
therefore,  we  say  volo  eruditus  Jieri,  and  on  the  other  volo 
te  eruditum  Jieri,  and  volo  me  eruditum  Jieri.  Hence  it  is 
indifferent  whether  I  say  discipulum  me  liaberi  volo,  non 
doctorem,  or  discipulus  haberi  volo,  non  doctor ;  principem 
se  esse  maluit  quam  I'ideri,  or  princepft  esse  maluit  qiiam 
videri. 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  409 

Volo  is  esse,  quern  tu  me  esse  voluisti,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7. 
Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  cupio  in  tantis  rei  publicae  peri- 

culls  me  non  dissolutum  videri  (or  cupio  esse  clemens  nee 

dissolutus  videri),  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  2. 
Omnis  homines,  qui  sese  student  praestare  ceteris  animali- 

bus,  summa  ope  niti  decet,  ne  vitam  silentio  transeant, 

Sallust,  Cat.,  init. 

[§  GIL]  Note  1. — Particular  attention  is  to  be  paid  to  the  infinitive  pass- 
ive with  velle ;  e.  g.,  me  amari  volo,  I  wish  to  be  beloved  ;  hoc  velim  intelligi, 
I  wish  this  to  be  understood.  The  infinitive  perfect  passive  is  joined  with 
it,  originally  to  express  the  zeal  and  rapidity  with  which  a  thing  was  done ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  5,  Legati-quod  erant  appellati  superbius,  Corinthum 
patres  vestri,  totius  Graeciae  lumen,  extinctum  esse  voluerunt  ;  in  Q.  Caec.,  6, 
quibus  maxime  lex  consultum  esse  vult ;  p.  Lig.,  5,  saluti  civis  calamitosi  con- 
sultum  esse  volumus  ;  but  it  occurs  still  more  frequently  with  the  omission 
of  esse  (or,  as  it  may  be  expressed,  with  the  participle  perf.  pass.);  e.  g., 
Cicero,  hoc  natura  praescribit,  ut  homo  homini  consultum  velit ;  his  omnibus  me 
vehementer  excusatum  volo  ;  hocfactum  volo  ;  nunc  illos  commonitos  velim;  pa- 
•  tres  ordinem  publicanorum  offensum  nolebant;  aliis  hanc  laudem  praereptam  nolo  ; 
patriam  extinctam  cupit,  &c. 

[§  612.]  Note  2. — But  the  nominative  with  the  infinitive  after  the  other 
above-mentioned  verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi  occurs  very  rarely  even  in  poe- 
try, and  is  to  be  explained  only  as  an  imitation  of  the  Greek,  in  which  lan- 
guage it  is  the  rule  to  use  the  nominat.  with  the  infinitive,  when  the  same 
subject  remains.  Thus  we  find  in  Catullus,  iv.,  Phaselus  ille,  quern  vidctis 
hospites,  ait  fuisse  navium  celerrimus  ;  in  Horace,  Epist.,  i.,  7,  22,  vir  bonus 
et  sapiens,  dignis  ait  esse  paratus  ;  Ovid,  Met.,  xiii.,  141,  quia  rettulit  Ajax  esse 
Jovis  pronepos,  instead  of  se  esse  Jovis  pronepot em  ;  Trist.,  ii.,  10,  acceptum 
refero  versibus  esse  nocens,  and  Propert.,  iii.,  6  (4),  40,  combines  both  con- 
structions :  me  quoque  consimili  impositum  torquerier  igni  jurabo,  et  bis  sex  in- 
teger esse  dies.  But  there  are  no  other  instances  of  this  kind  in  these  classi- 
cal poets  ;  for  in  Horace,  Carm.,  iii.,  27,  73,  uxor  invicti  Jovis  esse  nescis  is 
used  for  non  vales,  or  non  audes  esse  uxor,  rather  than  for  te  esse  uxor  em. 
And  in  like  manner,  we  may,  in  other  passages,  explain  the  nominat.  with 
the  infinit.  as  a  mere  poetical  license  in  the  choice  of  the  expression ;  as 
in  Ovid,  Ars  Am.,  i.,  345,  gaudent  tamen  esse  rogatae,  where  gaudent  is  equiv- 
alent to  volunt.  There  is  only  one  more  passage  (Virg.,  Aen.,  ii.,  377)  in 
"which  the  poet  uses  the  participle  in  this  way,  sensit  medios  delapsus  in 
hastes,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  rjadsTO  efiTteauv,  instead  of  the  Latin  se 
delapsum  esse. 

[§  613.]  12.  There  are  many  Latin  verbs  which,  accord- 
ing to  our  notions,  seem  to  require  a  proposition  for  their 
direct  object,  that  is,  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  are  followed  in  Latm  by  ut  with  the 
subjunctive,  either  exclusively,  or  admit  the  construction 
of  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  besides.  This  arises  from 
the  circumstance  that  such  propositions  may  be,  or,  more 
properly,  must  be  conceived  as  expressing  a  design,  pur- 
pose, effect,  or  result  of  the  leading  proposition,  which  is 
indicated  by  ut  (or  ne). 

(a)  The  verbs  patior  and  sino  are  generally  followed 
by  the  infinitive,  and  more  rarely  by  ut ;  the  verbs  opto, 

M  M 

ff.  tt£  x:  Ji 


410  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

concedo,  permitto,  which  have  a  more  forcible  meaning, 
may  have  either  the  infinitive  or  ut;  posco,  postulo,  Jlagi- 
to,  and  cogo  have  more  frequently  ut  than  the  infinitive. 

Consuetudo  laborum  perpessionem  dolorum  ejficitfaciliorem. 

Itaque  illi,  qui  Gracciae  formam  rerum  publicarum  dc- 

derunt,  corpora  juvenum  Jirmari  Idbore  voluerunt,  Cic., 

Tusc.,  ii.,  15. 
Phaethon  optavit  ut  in  currum  patris  tolleretur  (instead  of 

tolli  or  se  tolli),  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  25. 
IHud  natura  non  patitur,  ut  aliorum  spoliis  nostras  facul- 

tatcs,  copias,  opes  augeamus,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  5. 
Augustus  dominum  se  appcllari  ne  a  liberis  quidcm  aut  nc- 

2)0tilus  suis  passus  est,  Sueton.,  Aug.,  53. 

Note. — Volo  ut  is  more  rare,  but  is  used  to  express  a  strong  emphasis  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  m  Vatin.,  7,  has  several  times  volo  uti  mihi  respondeas.  Nolo  ut 
does  not  occur.  Matte  is  used  by  Cicero,  ad  Att.,  viii.,  9,  in  both  construc- 
tions :  Balbus  minor  aiebat,  nihil  malle  Caesarem,  quam  ut  Pompeium  assequc- 
retur.  Balbus  quidem  major  ad  me  scribit,  nihil  malle  Caesarem  quam  principe 
Pompeio  sine  metu  vivere.  Postulare,  too,  is  found  with  different  construc- 
tions ;  Curt.,  vi.,  43,  Non  homines  solum,  sed  etiam  deos  despicit  qui  postulat 
dms  credi ;  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  iii.,  60,  Hie  postulat  se  Romae  absolvi,  qui  in  sua 
provincia  judicarit  se  absolvi  nullo  modo  posse.  Ut  is  of  quite  common  occur- 
rence with  postulo  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  iii.,  19,  Tribuni  plcbis  postulant,  ut  sacrosancti 
habeantar.  Cicero  uses  optare  ut  exclusively ;  but  in  other  good  authors 
the  infinitive  is  found  frequently.  Recusare  is  used  indiscriminately  ei- 
ther with  the  infinitive  or  with  ne. 

[§  614.]  (I)  The  verbs  of  resolving  and  endeavouring 
to  do  or  prevent  a  thing  are  followed  by  ut  and  ne,  when 
the  dependent  clause  has  a  subject  of  its  own ;  but  when 
the  same  subject  remains  they  are  generally  followed  by 
the  infinitive  (i.  e.,  the  nominat.  with  the  infinit.),  though 
ut  is  found  in  this  case  also.  Verbs  of  this  kind  are,  sta- 
tuo,  constituo,  deccrno,  tcmpto  (also  spelled  tento),  paro, 
meditor,  euro,  nitor,  contcndo,  and  the  phrases  consilium 
capio,  in  animum  induco,  or  animum  induco.  Hence  we 
may  say  constitui  domi  mancre,  as  well  as  constituo  ut  domi 
manerem;  but  we  can  say  only  constitui  ut  Jilius  meus  te- 
cum  Tiabitarct.  Ut  is  used  almost  exclusively  after  the  ex- 
pressions operam  do,  I  exert  myself;  id  (hoc,  illud)  ago, 
I  endeavour  or  exert  myself  (see  §  748) ;  nihil  antiquius 
habco,  or  duco,  quam,  nothing  is  of  more  importance  to 
me  ;  and  videre  in  the  sense  of  curare. 
Qui  sapientes  appellari  volunt,  inducant  animum  divitias, 

honores,  opes  contemnere,  eaque,  quae  his  contraria  sunt, 

pro  nihilo  ducere,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  10. 
Erat  certi  accusatoris  qfficium,  qui  tanti  sceleris  arguerct, 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  411 

cxplicare  omnia  vitia  jilii,  quibus  incensus  parens  potue- 
rit  animum  inducere,  ut  naturam  ipsam  vinceret,  ut  amo- 
rem  ilium  penitus  insitum  cjiceret  ex  animo,  ut  denique 
patrem  esse  sese  oblivisceretur,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  19. 

Omne  animal  se  ipsum  diligit,  ac  simul  ut  ortum  est  id 
agit,  ut  se  conservet,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  v.,  9. 

Vidcndum  est  igitur,  ut  ea  liberalitate  utamur,  quae  prosit 
amicis,  noceat  ncmini,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  14. 

[§  615.]  (c)  The  verbs  rogo,  oro,  precor,  peto,  moneo, 
ad?nonco,  commoneo,  Tiortor,  adhortor,  cohortor,  exhortor, 
suadeo,  persuadeo,  instituo  (I  instruct),  impello,  perpello, 
excito,  incito,  impero,  and  some  others,  are  followed  by  ut 
and  ne  in  both  cases,  when  the  subject  remains  the  same, 
and  when  it  is  changed,  and  by  the  infinitive  only  by  way 
of  exception,  and  by  a  license  in  speaking.  The  com- 
plete accusat.  with  the  infinit.  occurs  with  some  of  them 
only  when  their  meaning  is  different,  as  with  moneo  and 
admonco  in  the  sense  of  "I  remind"  a  person  that  a  thing 
is,  not  is  to  be;  with  per  suadeo  in  the  sense  of  "  I  con- 
vince." But,  on  the  other  hand,  even  such  verbs  as  nun- 
tio,  dico,  scribo,  are  followed  by  ut,  when  the  meaning  is 
"  I  announce,  say,  or  write,  with  the  intention  that,"  &c. 

lllud  te  oro  et  liortor^  ut  in  extrema  parte  muneris  tui  dili- 

gentissimus  sis,  Cic.,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  i.,  1. 
Moneo  obtcstorque,  ut  hos,  qui  tibi  genere  propinqui  sunt, 

caros  habeas,  neu  malis  alienos  adjungere,  quam  sanguine 

conjunctos  retinere,  Sallust,  Jug.,  10. 
Themistocles  persuasit  populo,  ut  pecunia  publicd,  quae  ex 

metallis  rediret,  classis  centum  navium  aedijicaretur ,  Nep., 

Them.,  2. 
Tibi  persuade,  praeter  culpam  et  peccatum  homini  accidere 

nihil  posse,  quod  sit  horribile  aut  pertimescendum ,  Cic., 

ad  Fam.,  v.,  21. 
Parmenio  litter  as  aperit,  in  quis  erat  scriptum,  ut  mature 

Alexander  aliquem  ex  ducibus  suis  mitteret   Curt.,  iii., 

33  (13). 

[§  616.]  Note  1. — We  have  above  described  the  infinitive  as  of  rare  oc- 
currence, that  is,  in  comparison  with  the  much  more  frequent  use  of  ut  in 
the  prose  of  the  best  period  of  Roman  literature,  ft  must,  however,  be 
observed  that  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks, 
are  partial  to  the  infinitive  with  these  verbs,  and  use  it,  instead  of  ut  with 
the  subjunctive,  without  any  difference  ;  Tacitus/ in  particular,  almost  in- 
variably  prefers  the  infinitive,  being  more  concise  than  the  construction 
with  ut.  Some  few  instances  of  the  same  kind  occur  even  in  Cicero ;  e.  jr., 


412  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

p.  Sext.,  3,  Mihiante  oculos  obversatur  rei  publicae  dignitas,  quae  me  dd  sese  ra- 
pit,  haec  minor  a  relinquere  hortatur  ;  de  Fin.,  i.,  20,  Cum  vita  sine  amicis  in- 
sidiarum  et  metus  plena  sit,  ratio  ipsa  monet  amicitias  comparare  ;  and  in  Ne- 
pos,  Dion,  3,  Plato  autem  tantum  apud  Dionysium  auctoritate  potuit  valuitque 
eloquentia,  ut  ei  persuaserit  tyrannidis  facere  iinem  libertatemque  redder e  Syra- 
cusanis  ;  comp.  Nep.,  Phoc.,  1.  But  this  should  not  be  imitated,  and  must 
be  remembered  only  because  it  often  occurs  in  the  poets  and  later  prose 
writers.  The  poets  go  even  farther,  and  use  the  infinitive  to  express  a  de- 
sign or  purpose,  for  which  ut  ought  to  be  employed ;  e.  g.,  Herat.,  Carm., 
i.,  2,  7,  Proteus  pecus  egit  altos  visere  monies. 

[$  617.]  Note  2. — The  verbs  of  commanding ;  as,  imperare,  mandare,  prae- 
scribere,  edicere  (to  issue  a  command),  legem  dare,  decernere,  are  followed  by 
ut,  according  to  the  above  rule.  Jvbere  and  vetare  alone  form  an  excep- 
tion, being  construed  with  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  but  attention 
must  be  paid  as  to  whether  the  infinitive  active  or  passive  is  to  be  used  ; 
e.  g.,  militem  occidi  jussit,  he  ordered  the  soldier  to  be  put  to  death;  eum 
abire  jussit,  he  ordered  him  to  depart ;  vetuit  castra  vallo  muniri,  and  vetuit 
legatos  ab  opere  discedcre.  Exceptions  from  this  regular  construction  are 
rare,  but  sometimes  the  subject  is  omitted,  when  it  is  indefinite  or  one 
which  is  always  understood  with  certain  actions ;  as  in  Cicero,  lex  recte 
facere  jubet,  vetat  delinquere,  viz.,  homines  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  v.,  34,  duces 
eorum  tola  acie  pronuntiare  jusserunt,  viz.,  praecones  •  \\.,  5,  castra  munire  ju- 
bet, viz.,  militcs;  Liv.,  iii.,  22,  signum  observare  jussit ;  xliii.,  3,  tribuni  mili- 
tum  pabulum  lignaque  projicere  jubent ;  xxix.,  7,  receptui  canere  cum  jussisset, 
viz.,  tubicines  ;  xxv.,  10,  Hannibal  Tarentinos  sine  armis  convocare  jubet,  viz., 
eum,  qui  convocandi  potestatem  habebat.  Nor  is  there  any  objection  to  the 
subject  being  omitted,  if  it  is  mentioned  shortly  before.  The  poets,  how- 
ever, sometimes  go  too  far,  and  the  infinitive  active  then  seems  to  be 
used  for  the  passive ;  their  example  is  followed  by  some  prose  writers. 
See  Hprat.,  Carm.,ii.,3, 14;  ii.,15,  in  fin.;  iii.,  21,7;  and  Ernesti  on  Tacit., 
Hist.,  i,,  38,  Jubeo  tibi  ut  hoc  facias,  or  with  the  omission  of  ut:  jubeo  tibi 
hoc  facias  is  likewise  rare,  but  is  found  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii.,  15  and  40. 
But  the  expression  jubeo  tibi  facere  must  be  rejected,  for  it  is  only  based 
upon  two  doubtful  passages  in  Cicero,  ad  Alt.,  ix.,  13,  2,  and  Curt.,  v.,  20 
(G,  8).  Compare  the  commentators  on  Liv.,  xxvii.,  24.  But  jubeo  ut  hoc 
facias,  without  a  dative  of  the  person,  may  be  used,  just  as  veto  ne  hoc  fa- 
cias, and  is  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv., 
12,  hie  tibi  in  mentem  non  venit  jubere,  ut  haec  quoque  referret?  Jussi  venires, 
for  ut  venires,  occurs  in  Ovid,  Met.,  iv.,  111.  Imperare,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  sometimes  used,  like  jubere,  with  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  (pass.) ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  27,  codem  ceteros  piratas  condi  imperarat ;  ibid.,  56, 
ipsos  in  lautumias  abduci  imperabat ;  but  it  is  more  frequently  construed  with 
ut.  Censeo,  too,  in  the  sense  of  "  I  give  my  opinion  to  the  effect  that,"  is 
construed  like  jubeo,  and  takes  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  pass,  instead 
of  ut ;  as,  Liv.,  ii.,  5,  de  bonis  regis,  quae  reddi  ante  censuerant,  res  Integra  re- 
fertur  ad  patres,  where  Drakenborch  adduces  several  other  passages.  It  is 
construed  very  frequently  with  esse  and  the  participle  of  necessity,  or  with 
this  participle  alone,  esse  being  understood  ;  e.  g.,  Carthaginem  delendam 
censeo.  Censeo  does  not  occur  in  prose  with  the  infinitive  active,  instead 
of  which  ut  or  the  subjunctive  without  ut  is  used,  according  to  §  624. 

[§  618.]  (d)  The  verbs  of  effecting,  viz.,  facio,  efficio, 
perficio,  evinco,  pervinco,  impetro,  assequor,  and  consequor, 
are  never  construed  with  the  infinitive,  or  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive,  but  with  ut  and  ne,  since  the  relation 
of  dependence  upon  these  verbs  is  regarded  in  Latin  as 
that  of  an  intended  result.  Hence  arises  a  frequent  cir- 
cumlocution by  means  of  facere  tit  to  express  a  real  fact ; 


INFINITIVE    M()UL>.  413 

and  instead  of  dimisit  milites,  we  accordingly  $a\&  fecit  ut 

dimitteret  milites. 

Epaminondas  perfecit,  ut  auxilio  sociorum  Lacedac?no?iii 

privarentur,  Nep.,  Epam.,  6. 
Tu  quidquid  indagaris  dere  publica,facito  ut  sciam,  Cic., 

ad  Att.,  ii.,  4. 

Note  1. — Fac  frequently  has  the  sense  of  "  suppose"  or  "  granting,"  and 
is  then  construed  as  a  verbum  sentiendi  with  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive ; 
as  in  Cicero,  fac  animos  interire  ut  corpus,  fac  animos  non  remanere  post  mor- 
tem, fac  qui  ego  sum  esse  te.  In  like  manner,  efficere  in  the  sense  of  "to  in- 
fer by  logical  reasoning,"  is  treated  as  a  verbum  declarandi,  and  takes  the 
accus.  with  the  infinit.  ;  as,  Cic., 'Tusc.,  i.,  31,  Dicaearchus  tres  libros  scrip- 
sit,  in  quibiis  vult  efficere  animos  esse  mortales.  But  efficitur,  in  the  sense  of 
"it  is  inferred,"  or  "it  follows,"  is  also  followed  by  ut ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Off., 
ii.,  3,  ex  quo  efficitur,  ut,  quidquid  honestum  sit,  idem  sit  utile,  whereas  in  ill., 
5,  we  read,  ex  quo  efficitur  hominem  naturae  obedicntem  homini  nocere  non  posse. 
Conficitur  in  this  sense  is  found  only  with  ut,  but  occurs,  on  the  whole,  rare- 
ly; Cic.,  de  Invent.,  ii.,  49  and  56. 

Facerc,  used  of  writers  in  the  sense  of  "  to  introduce,"  or  "  represent" 
(like  fingere,  inducere),  is  joined  with  the  present  or  perfect  participle  ;  as 
in  Cicero,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  12,  Xenophon  facit  in  Us,  quae  a  Socrate  dicta 
rettidit  (i.e.,  in  Memorabilibus),  Socratem  disputantem,  formam  del  quaerinon 
oportere  ;  Tusc.,  i.,  40,  oratio,qua  Plato  Socratem  usum  facit ;  in  the  passive, 
however,  we  also  find  the  accus.  with  the  infinitive,  there  being  no  parti- 
ciple present ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Opt.  Gen.,  6,  Isocratem  Plato  admirabiliter  lau- 
dari  facit  a  Socrate  ;  de  J\at.  Deor.,  i.,  8,  quibus  enim  oculis  animi  intueri  po- 
tuit  vester  Plato  fabricam  illam  tanti  operis,  qua  construi  a  deo  atque  aedificari 
mundum  facit. 

[$  619.]  Note  2.— The  fact  of  facer  e,  in  the  sense  of  "to  effect,"  being 
joined  with  ut  cannot  be  surprising  (it  is  much  more  surprising  to  find  in 
Cicero,  Brut.,  38,  (actio)  tales  oratores  videri  facit,  quales  ipsi  se  videri  volunt) ; 
but  especial  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  periphrasis  facio  ut  to  express  a 
thing  which  really  takes  place,  as  some  other  peculiarities  of  the  Latin 
syntax  are  connected  with  it,  of  which  we  shall  speak  in  <$>  623.  Thus 
we  read  in  Cicero,  Cat.  Maj.,  12,  invitus  crnidem  fed,  ut  L.  Flamininum  e 
senatu  ejicerem,  instead  of  invitus  eject  ;  in  Vatin.,  9,  invitus  facio,  ut  recorder 
ruinas  rei  publicae  ;  p.  Plane.,  30,  At  etiam  gregarii  milites  faciunt  inviti,  ut 
coronam  dent  civicam.,  et  se  ab  aliquo  servatos  esse  fateantur  ;  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7, 
Facio  libenter  ut  per  litteras  tecum  colloquar  ~}  in  Verr.,  v.,  63,  et  Glabrionem, 
id  quod  sapientissime  fecit,  facere  laetatus  sum,  ut  repente  testem  dimitteret,  in- 
stead of  laetatus  sum,  quod — dimisit ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  4,  fecerunt  etiam,  ut  me 
prope  dc  vitae  meae  statu  dolore  ac  lacrimis  suis  deducerent,  instead  of  deduxe- 
runt ;  p.  Cluent.,  40,  facile  enim,  ut  non  solum  mores  ejus  et  arrogantiam,  sed 
etiam  vultum  atque  amictum,  atque  illam  usque  ad  talos  demissam  purpuram  re- 
cordcmini,  instead  of  recordamini ;  ad  Fam.,  iii.,  8,  faciendum  mihi  putavi,  ut 
tuis  litteris  breviter  responderem,  instead  of  respondcndum  mihi  cssc  putavi ; 
in  Cat.,  iii.,  3,  negavi  me  esse  facturum,  ut  de  periculo  publico  non  ad  consilium 
publicum  rem  integram  deferrem  •  i.  e.,  negavi  me  rem  non  integram  dclaturmn, 
or  dixi  me  rem  integram  delaturum. 

[§  620.]  13.  Hence  it  not  unfrequently  happens  in  nar- 
ratives that  the  verbs  of  begging,  co?n?nanding,  admonish- 
ing, &c.,  are  first  followed  by  ut  or  ne  and  the  subjunct- 
ive, and  afterward  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
only  the  words  or  sentiments  of  the  subject  of  the  narra- 
tive beingr  recorded.  For  the  purpose  of  explanation,  we 
M  M  2 


414  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

supply  from  the  preceding  verb  the  general  idea  of  think- 
ing or  saying,  which  is  always  implied  in  the  leading  verb  ; 
e.  g.,  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  89,  Simul  tertiae  aciei  totique 
exercitui  imperavit,  ne  injussu  suo  concurreret:  se,  quum  id, 
fieri  vellct,  vexillo  signum  daturum. 

His  (colonis  Athen.)  consulentibus  nominatim  Pythia  prae- 
cepit,  ut  Miltiadem  sibi  imperatorem  sumerent :  id  sife- 
cissent,  incepta  prospcra  futura,  Nep.,  Milt.,  1. 
[§  621.]   14.  Lastly,  ut  is  used,  and  not  the  accusative 
with  the  infinitive  (which  would  here  be  the  accusative  of 
the  subject)  : 

(a)  After  the  expressions  denoting  "  it  happens,"  fit 
(fieri  non  potest),  accidit,  incidit,  contingit  (chiefly  of  desi- 
rable things),  evenit,  usu  venit,  occurrit,  and  est  (it  is  tho 
case,  or  happens,  and  hence,  also,  after  esto,  be  it  that). 

(b)  After  the  words  denoting  "  it  remains,"  or  "it  fol- 
lows, "  futurum,  extremum,  prope,  proximum,  and  reliquum 
est,  relinquitur,  sequitur,  restat,  and  superest ;  sometimes, 
also,  accedit  ut  ("  to  this  must  be  added  that,"  where,  how- 
ever, quod  is  more  common). 

Fieri  autem  potest,  ut  recte  quis  scntiat,  ct  id,  quod  sentit, 

polite  eloqui  non  ^>ossit,  Cic.,  Tasc.,  i.,  3. 
Persaepe  evenit,  ut  utilitas  cum  lionestate  certet,  Cicero. 
Amicis  quoniam  satisfied,  reliquum  est,  ut  egotnet  milii  con- 

sulam^  Nep.,  Att.,  21. 

[$  622.]  Note  1. — Contingit  mihi  is  not  unfrequently  joined  with  the  in- 
finitive ;  e.  g.,  antecellere  omnibus,  in  Cic.,  p.  Arch.,  3,  and  non  cuivis  homini 
contingit  adire  Corinthum,  in  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  17,  36.  The  predicate  is 
also  found  in  the  dative  (as  in  the  case  of  licet),  with  esse  and  other  verbs 
Of  similar  meaning;  e.  g.,  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  124,  mihi  fratrique  meo  destinari 
praetoribus  contigit.  Sequitur,  which,  in  the  sense  of  "it  follows,"  should 
take  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.,  is  frequently  followed  by  ut ;  e.  g.  Cic., 
si  hoc  verum  non  est,  sequitur  utfalsum  sit.  The  same  is  the  case  with  nas- 
citur,  "  the  result  is,"  and  sometimes  with  efficitur  (which  has  the  same 
meaning),  though  it  appears  more  frequently  to  take  the  accusat.  with  the 
infinit.  Respecting  accedit  ut,  see  the  passages  of  Cicero,  p.  Rose.  Am , 
31,  $  86  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  12,  §  31  ;  Cat.  Maj.,  6;  ad  Ap.  Claudii  senectutem  ac- 
cedebat  etiam,  ut  caecus  esset  ;  p.  Reg.  Deiot. ,  1 ,  accedit  ut  accusatorum  alterius 
crudelitate,  alterius  indignitate  conturber  ;  Tusc.,  i.,  19,  accedit,  ut  eo  facilius 
animus  evadat  ex  hoc  aere,  quod  (because)  nihil  est  animo  velocius.  The  same 
principle  appears  to  be  followed  in  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  17,  nunc  quum  haec 
quoque  opportunitas  adjungatur,  ut  in  his  ipsis  locis  adsit,  ut  habeat  exercitum, 
&c.,  quid  expectamus?  and  Liv.,  ii.,  27,  qui  ad  id,  quod  de  credita  pecunia  jus 
non  dixisset,  adjiceret,  ut  ne  delectum  quidem  ex  SCto  haberet. 

After  consuetudo  and  mos  or  moris  est,  ut  is  frequently  used  instead  of  the 
infinitive,  the  fundamental  idea  being  "  it  usually  happens  that ;"  e.  g., 
Cic.,  Brut.,  21,  sed  est  mos  hominum,  ut  nolint  eundem pluribus  rebus  excellcre ; 
in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  negavit  moris  esse  Graecorum,  ut  in  convivio  virorum  accumbc- 
rent  mulieres.  For  the  same  reason  the  expressions  natura  or  consuetudo 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  415 

fert  are  followed  by  ut ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  2,  naturafert,  ut  nsfaveamus, 
qui  eadem  pericula,  quibus  nos  perfuncti  surmis,  ingrediantur. 

[§  623.]  Note  2. — What  has  become  the  ordinary  practice  with  the  ex- 
pressions "  it  happens"  and  "  it  remains,"  may  at  least  serve  to  explain 
why  ut  is  used,  by  way  of  exception,  after  several  other  expressions  with 
an  adjective  conveying  the  idea  of  happening,  instead  of  the  accusat.  (of 
the  subject)  with  the  infinitive  j  for  the  Latin  language  expresses  hap- 
pening, as  a  result  or  effect,  by  ut,  and  is  fond  of  paraphrasing  even  the 
expression  of  a  simple  act  by  means  of  facio  ut :  see  §  619.  Hence  many 
such  phrases  as  novum  est,  rarum,  naturale,  necesse,  usitatum,  mirum,  singu- 
lare  est,  &c.,  are  construed  with  ut,  because  all  of  them  imply  the  idea  of 
happening,  and,  accordingly,  novum  est  ut,  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  6,  is  equiva- 
lent to  nova  ratione  fit ;  and  rarum  est  in  Quintil.,  vi.,  3,  38,  and  x.,  7,  24, 
equivalent  to  rarofit,  &c.  Ernesti,  therefore,  ought  not  to  have  doubted  the 
correctness  of  the  expression  in  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  21,  Atque  ei  (Dionysio)  ne 
intcgrum  quidem  erat,  ut  ad  justitiam  remigraret,  civibus  libertatem  et  jura  red- 
der-et ;  and  the  same  expression  occurs,  p.  Muren.,  4,  neque  est  integrum,  ut. 
meum  laborem  hominum  periculis  sublevandis  non  impertiam,  for  we  may  easily 
complete  the  expression  integrum  ei  erat  ut  by  that  common  periphrasis  in- 
tegrum ei  eratfactu  ut.  Non  verisimile  est  ut  occurs  in  Cicero  four  times,  p. 
Rose.  Am.,  41,  $  121 ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  6,  §  11 ;  p.  Sull.,  20,  §  57 ;  p.  Sext.,  36, 
()  78,  and  in  all  of  them  it  has  the  meaning  of  the  periphrasis  non  videtur 
re  verafactum  esse  ut.  In  the  same  manner,  we  must  explain  verum  est  ut, 
in  Nepos  (Hann.,  i.),  which  is  otherwise  very  singular  :  si  verum  est,  quod 
nemo  dubitat,  ut  populus  Romanus  omnes  gentes  virtute  superarit.  Comp.  Cic., 
Lael,  4,  $  14,  and  in  the  same  manner,  falsum  esse  ut  is  used  by  Cicero,  de 
Divin.,  ii.,  31. 

The  transition  being  thus  formed,  we  may  add,  lastly,  that  ut  is  some- 
times used  after  adjectives  implying  an  abstract  relation  ;  as,  aequum,  rec- 
tum, utile  est,  although  the  infinitive  is  commonly  employed  after  them,  as 
after  similar  expressions  with  verbs  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  22,  quam  autem 
habet  aequitatem,  ut  agrum  multis  annis  aut  etiam  saeculis  ante  possessum,  qui 
nullum  habuit,  habeat,  qui  autem  habuit,  amittat ;  i.  e.,  quam  aequefit  ut  ;  and 
in  Cicero  (deFin.,  ii.,  33,  and  Tusc.,  iii.,  3)  we  twice  meet  with  qui  probari 
potest  ut  in  the  sense  of  qui  potest  cuiquam  verisimile  factu  esse.  But  the  be- 
ginner should  not  forget  that  we  are  here  speaking  only  of  peculiarities, 
which  are,  indeed,  based  upon  the  analogy  of  other  grammatical  rules,  and 
supported  by  the  authority  of  classical  writers,  but  which  we  are  not  bound 
to  imitate. 

[§  624.]  15.  The  verbs  denoting  willingness  and  permis- 
sion, which  may  take  ut  instead  of  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive  (volo,  nolo)  malo,  sino,  permitto,  and  licet},  those 
which  denote  asking,  advising,  reminding  (especially  pos- 
tulo,peto,  rogOj  oro,  quaeso,precor,  korfor,  suadco,  censeo,mo- 
nco,  admoneoj,  which  are  generally  construed  only  with  uf, 
and  some  others  of  a  similar  kind ;  as,  euro,  decerno,  mando, 
jubeo,  may  also  be  followed  by  the  subjunctive  alone  with- 
out ut.  To  these  we  must  add  the  two  imperatives,  fac 
(in  its  periphrastic  sense  "  take  care  that"),  which  usually 
takes  ut,  and  cave,  which  usually  takes  ne;  for  they,  too, 
are  frequently  joined  with  the  subjunctive  alone. 
Velleme quidem  autipse  (Epicurus)  doctrinis  fuisset  instruc- 

tior,  aut  ne  deterruisset  olios  a  studiis,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  7. 
Mdlo  te  sapiens  7wstis  metuat,  quam  stulti  cives  laudent^ 

Liv.,  xxii.,  39. 


416  LATIN    GRAMMAR; 

Su?nma  militum  alacritate,  jiibentium  quocunque  vellet  du- 

ceret,  oratio  excepta  est,  Curt.,  vi.,  10  (4). 
Itaque,  quod  plerumque  in  atroci  negotio  solet,  senatus  de- 

crevit,  darent  operam  consules,  ne  quid  respublica  detri- 

menti  caperet,  Sallust,  Cat.,  29. 

[<J>  625.]  Note. — 'Oportet  and  necesse  est  may  likewise  be  followed  either 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  by  the  subjunctive  alone  ;  e.  g., 
leges  oportet  breves  sint  ;  Seneca,  philosophiac  servias  oportet,  ut  tibi  contingat 
vera  libertas  j  Cicero,  virtus  necesse  est  vitium  aspernetur  atque  oderit.  Opus 
est  generally  takes  the  infinitive  ;  ul,  however,  occurs,  though  rarely,  with 
opus  est,  as  well  as  with  necesse  est,  but  never  with  oportet. 

The  subjunctive  alone  alter  the  verbs  of  entreating  is  rare  in  Cicero,  but 
it  occurs  ad  Fam.,  v.,  18,  tamen  tc  magno  opcre  non  hortor  solum,  sed  etiam 
pro  amore  nostro  rogo  atquc  oro  te  colligas  virumque  praebeas. 

[§  626.]  16.  The  infinitive  and  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive,  according  to  §§  588  and  597,  serve  to  express  a 
proposition  as  a  thought,  so  that  it  resembles  an  abstract 
noun.  Quod,  with  a  tense  of  the  indicative  or  subjunct- 
ive, on  the  other  hand,  represents  a  proposition  simply  as 
a  fact.  This  is  obviously  the  case  ;  e.  g.,  when,  in  reply- 
ing to  a  person,  we  take  up  and  repeat  a  previous  remark 
of  his.  It  is  frequently  indifferent  whether  we  express  a 
proposition  by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  or  by 
quod;  as,  for  example,  in  those  cases  where  the  predicate 
"  it  is  agreeable,"  or  "  disagreeable,"  "  it  is  pleasant,"  or 
"unpleasant,"  follows  the  proposition.  But  the  infinitive 
is  always  more  properly  made  the  subject  when  the  pred- 
icate expresses  an  abstract  idea;  but  when  it  implies  a 
fact,  the  proposition  is  more  properly  introduced  by  quod, 
to  which  is  frequently  joined  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
7ioc,  id,  illud,  in  order  to  mark  its  character  as  a  fact  still 
more  emphatically. 

Quod  autem  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris. 
Namque  ille  vix  deceni  annis  imam  cepit  urbem  :  ego 
contra  ea,  una  urbe  nostra,  dieque  uno,  totam  Graeciam 
Lace daemoniis  fugatis  liberavi,  Nep.,  Epam.,  5,  where 
Epaminondas  makes  this  answer  to  an  opponent. 
Inter  causas  malorum  nostrorum  est,  quod  vivimus  ad  cxem- 

pla,  Senec.,  Epist.,  123. 

Supra  belli  Latini  metum  id  quoque  accesserat,  quod  tri- 

ginta  jam  conj urasse  populos  satis  constabat,  Liv.,  ii.,  18. 

Ex  tota  laude  Reguli  illud  est  admiratione  dignum,  quod 

captivos  (Poenorum)  retinendos  censuit,  Cic.,  de   Off., 

iii.,  31. 

Note  1.— It  is  unquestionably  a  great  nicety  of  the  Latin  language  to  be 
able,  by  means  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  to  metamorphose,  as 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  417 

it  were,  a  proposition  into  a  single  abstract  thought,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  express  it  in  its  natural  relation  by  means  of  the  conjunction  quod.  In 
English  these  two  constructions  likewise  exist,  as,  "  I  know  him  to  be  a 
good  man,"  and  "  I  know  that  he  is  a  good  man ;"  but  the  former  is  not 
used  as  extensively  as  in  Latin,  and  the  distinction  between  them  is  not 
observed  with  the  same  accuracy  as  in  Latin  :  in  Greek,  too,  the  distinc- 
tion is  not  adhered  to  with  the  same  accuracy.  Let  us  explain  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Latin  language  by  an  example.  Take  the  proposition  victor 
pepercit  victis ;  if  we  make  it  the  subject  or  object  of  another  proposition, 
we  may  say  either  quod  victor  pepercit  viclis,  or  victorem  pepercisse  victis. 
The  first  is  used  when  the  proposition  is  to  be  left  in  its  natural  relation  ; 
e.  g.,  quod  victor  victis  pepercit,  magnum  est,  sed  majus  etiam,  quod  eos  in  nu- 
merum  suorum  recepit ;  i.  e.,  the  fact  that  he  spared  them  and,  &c. ;  quod 
rex  victis  pepercit,  ipsi  causa  multorum  malorum  fuit.  The  infinitive,  on  the 
other  hand,  changes  the  proposition  into  an  abstract  noun,  victorem  victis 
pepercisse ;  and  this  mode  of  speaking  is  generally  adopted  when  the  pred- 
icate also  contains  some  abstract  notion  ;  e.  g.,  regem  victis  pepercisse  jus- 
turn  est,  magnum  est,  or  -magnum  videbatur ;  and  especially  when,  by  the  use 
of  the  infinitive  present,  the  sentence  acquires  the  character  of  generality, 
and  is  no  longer  limited  to  a  particular  case  ;  e.  g.,  victorem  victis  parcere 
justum,  magnum  est,  magnum  videtur,  &c.  See  §  599. 

It  is  clear  that  in  a  great  many  cases,  and  with  many  predicates,  the 
choice  between  the  two  constructions  must  be  left  to  discretion.  We  find 
in  Cic.,  ad  A.tt.,  xv.,  1,  Sed  ad  hacc  omnia  una  consolatio  est,  quod  ea  condici- 
one  nati  sumus,  ut  nihil,  quod  homini  accidere  possit,  recusare  debeamus,  where, 
with  the  same  justice,  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit.  might  have  been  used, 
ea  condicione  nos  esse  natos.  Cicero,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  13,  says,  Te  hilari 
animo  esse  valde  me  juvat ;  and  Pliny,  Epist.,  i.,  13,  juvat  me  quod  vigent  stu- 
dia  ;  Liv.,  iii.,  9,  Invidiosum  vobis  est,  desertam  rem  publicam  invadi ;  Cic.,  in 
Cat.,  ii.,  7,  Timeo  ne  mihi  sit  invidiosum,  quod  ilium  emiserim  potius,  quam 
quod  ejecerim.  Compare  the  examples  in  the  treatise  of  Fickenscher,  Com- 
mentat.  de  conjunctione  quod,  Norimberg,  1826.  But  the  great  difference 
pointed  out  above  must  be  observed,  and  we  must  add  that  quod  generally 
refers  to  past  time ;  for  which  reason  it  is  preferable  to  say,  e.  g.,  gratissi- 
mum  mihi  est,  quod  ad  me  tua  manu  scripsisti,  and  gratissimum  mihi  est  te  bene 
valere.  Wherever  a  Roman  thought  it  necessary  to  express  the  individual 
fact  more  emphatically,  he  added  to  quod  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  which 
has  no  influence  whatever  upon  the  construction  ;  and  hence  (to  take  up 
again  the  above  sentence)  we  might  say,  illud  ipsum,  quod  rex  victis  peper- 
cit, causa  ei  multorum  malorum  fuit ;  magnum  est  hoc,  quod  victor  victis  peper- 
cit, &c.  Comp.  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  20,  Videndumque  illud  est,  quod,  si  opulentum 
fortunatumque  defenderis,  in  uno  illo  manet  gratia  ;  sin  autem  inopem,  probum 
tamen  et  modestum,  omnes  non  improbi  humiles  praesidium  sibi  paratum  vident. 

[§  627.]  Note  2. — The  use  of  quod  in  repeating  a  previous  expression  or 
proposition  of  a  person  for  the  purpose  of  answering  it  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  letters ;  and  quod,  in  this  case,  may  be  rendered  in  English  by 
'•with  regard  to,"  or  "as  regards;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  i.,  7,  Quod  mihi 
de  nostro  statu  gratularis,  minime  miramur  te  tuo  opere  laetari.  Quod  scribis  te 
velle  scire,  qui  sit  rei  publicae  status :  summa  dissensio  est.  Quod  mihi  de  filia 
et  de  Crassipede  (to  whom  she  was  betrothed)  gratularis  :  agnosco  humanita- 
tem  tuam.  Farther,  Cicero  writes  to  Terentia,  Quod  scribis,  te,  si  velim,  ad 
me  vcnturam :  ego  vero  te  istic  esse  volo.  Quod  ad  me,  mea  Terentia,  scribis, 
te  vicum  vendituram :  quid,  obsecro  te,  quid  futurum  est  ?  Such  sentences, 
therefore,  are  not  in  any  grammatical  connexion  with  the  verb  that  fol- 
lows after  them. 

Nisi  quod  and  praeterquam  quod,  except  the  fact  that,  or  except  that,  are 
of  a  different  kind  (see.<$>  735) ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  1,  Cum  Patrone 
Epicureo  mihi  omnia  communia  sunt :  nisi  quod  in  philosophia  vehementer  ab  eo 
dissentio ;  but  this,  too,  is  simply  an  external  addition  of  a  proposition  sta- 
ting a  fact. 


418  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  62 8. J  17.  A  purely  objective  proposition  is  express- 
ed by  quod  only  when  it  depends  upon  the  very  general 
transitive  verbs  addere  (mostly  in  the  imperative  adde  or 
adjice,  adde  hue  quod)  andfacerc,  joined  with  an  adverb  ; 
as,  bene  fads  quod  me  mones.  Otherwise  the  infinitive  is 
employed  exclusively  in  propositions  of  this  kind,  for  a 
proposition,  when  represented  as  the  object  of  a  verb,  is 
already  converted  into  a  single  thought. 
Fecit  humaniter  Licinius,  quod  ad  me,  misso  scnatu,  vesperi 

venit,  Cic.,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  1. 
Hippocrates,  clarus   arte   medicinae,  videtur   honcstissime 

fccisse,  quod  quosdam  errores  suos,  ne  posteri  errarent, 

confessus  cst,  Quintil.,  iii.,  6,  64.     (He  might  also  have 

said  ut — confiterctur,  according  to  §  619.) 

[§  629.]  But  it  must  be  observed  that  after  the  verbs 
denoting  a  feeling  of  pain  or  joy,  and  the  outward  ex- 
pression of  those  feelings,  viz.,  gaudeo,  delector,  angor,  do- 
leo,  gravitcrfero,  succenseo,  poenitet,  miror,  admiror,  glori- 
or,  gratulor,  gratias  ago,  queror,  indignor,  and  others  of  a 
similar  meaning,  we  may  either  use  quod  in  the  sense  of 
"because,"  or  "of,"  or  "at  the  fact  that,"  or  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  in  the  same  way  that  we  say  either 
ilia  re  gaudeo  or  illud  gaudeo.  Whether  quod  is  to  be 
joined  with  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  must  be  deter- 
mined by  the  general  rules  concerning  these  moods :  the 
indicative  expresses  a  fact,  and  the  subjunctive  a  concep- 
tion. 

Gaudeo,  quod  te  interpellavi,  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  iii.,  1. 

J\Ieum  factum  probari  abs  te  triumpho  gaudio,  Caesar,  in 

Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ix.,  16. 
Quod  spiratis,  quod  vocem  mittitis,  quod  formas  Tiominum 

habetis,  indignantur,  Liv.,  iv.,  3. 
Vetus  illud  Catonis  admodum  scitum  est,  qui  mirari  se  aie- 

bat,  quod  non  rideret  karuspex,  karuspicem  cum  vidissct, 

Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  24. 
Scipio  saepe  querebatur,  quod  omnibus  in  rebus  homines  dil- 

igentiores  essent,  ut,  capras  et  ovcs  quot  quisque  kaberct, 

dicere  posset,  amicos  quot  haberet,  non  posset  dicere,  et  in 

illis  quidem  parandis  adhibere  curam,  in  amicis  eligendis 

negligentes  esse,  Cic.,  Lael.,  17. 

Note.— We  should  carefully  mark  the  distinction  between  real  objective 
propositions  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  (<J  602),  and  those  in  which  the 
accus.  with  the  infinit.  may  be  used  along  with  the  construction  of  quod. 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  419 

The  use  of  quod  to  express  a  purely  objective  proposition  would  be  con- 
trary to  the  pure  Latin  idiom  (the  instances  adduced  from  Cicero  belong  to 
§  626,  and  those  from  Livy,  iii.,  52,  2,  and  xlv.,  41,  have  been  corrected), 
and  is  found  only  in  the  earliest  Latin  (see  Forcellini,  Lexic.,  s.  v.  quod), 
and  in  the  unclassical  author  of  the  work  de  Bell.  Hispan.,  36,  legati  renun- 
tiarunt  quad  Pompeium  in  potestate  haberent.  In  the  silver  age,  beginning 
with  Celsus,  again,  some  few  instances  occur ;  e.  g.,  Celsus,  i.,  3.,  p.  25,  or 
p.  30,  ed.  Bip.,  illud  quoque  nosse  (scire)  oportet,  quod,  &c.  ;  Martial,  xi.,  65, 
hoc  scio  quod  scribit  nulla  puella  tibi,  where  the  pronoun  forms  the  transition  ; 
Sueton.,  Tit.,  8,  recordatus  quondam  super  coenam,  quod  nihil  cuiquam  toto  die 
praestitisset.  This  use  of  quod  afterward  increased,  and,  through  the  Vul- 
gate, it  became  with  Christian  writers  the  ordinary  mode  of  speaking. 
See  Madvig,  Opusc.  Acad.,  ii.,  p.  232,  foil.  But  after  the  verbs  enumera- 
ted above,  both  constructions  are,  on  the  whole,  equally  in  use,  because 
they  may  be  looked  at  from  two  points  of  view  :  the  dependent  clause  may 
be  regarded  either  as  a  kind  of  object  (such  as  we  frequently  find  with  in- 
transitive verbs),  or  as  an  explanatory  sentence  answering  to  the  ablative 
of  a  noun.  We  may,  indeed,  notice  this  farther  difference,  that  the  verbs 
expressing  a  feeling  (gaudeo,  doleo,  miror)  are  more  commonly  followed 
by  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  and  those  denoting  the  outward 
expression  of  feeling  (laudo,  reprehendo,  accuse,  consolor,  misereor,  gratias 
ago,  gratulor,  &c.)  are  more  commonly  construed  with  quod.  Put  there 
are  passages  in  which  this  distinction  is  reversed  ;  e.  g.,  gratias  agere  is 
joined  by  Cicero  with  quod,  and  by  Tacitus  with  the  accusat.  with  the  in- 
finitive ;  Hist.,  iv.,  64,  Redisse  vos  in  corpus  nomenque  Gernaniae  communibus 
deis  et  praecipuo  deorum  Marti  grates  agimus,  vobisque  gratidamur  quod  tandem 
liberi  inter  liberos  eritis.  Gratulor,  when  joined  to  a  noun,  takes  the  prepo- 
sition de  or  the  ablative  alone  ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  viii.,  13,  gratulor  tibi  affini- 
tate  viri  optimi ;  sometimes,  also,  the  accusative  ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  v.,  20, 
mihi  gratulatus  es  illius  diei  celebritatem,  qua  nihil  me  unquam  delectavit  magis, 
or  with  the  addition  of  a  participle  ;  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  21,  Brutus  Ciceroni 
recuperatam  victoriam  est  gratulatus  •  Liv.,  i.,  28,  mettus  Tullo  devictos  hostes 
gratulatur ;  but  when  a  proposition  is  dependent  upon  gratulor,  it  most 
commonly  takes  the  conjunction  quod  (answering  to  the  preposition  de), 
but  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  is  also  used. 

[§  630.]  18.  Quod  is  used  exclusively  in  explanatory  or 
periphrastic  propositions,  which  refer  to  a  preceding  de- 
monstrative pronoun  (hoc,  id,  illud,  istud),  unless  this  pro- 
noun be  added  in  the  nominative  or  accusative,  as  a  pleo- 
nasm to  verbs  governing  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive. 
Hence  this  rule  finds  its  certain  application  only  when 
the  demonstrative  pronoun  is  in  some  other  case,  or  de- 
pendent upon  a  preposition. 

Mihi  quidcm  videntur  homines  hac  re  maxime  bclluis  praes- 

tare,  quod  loqui  possunt,  Cic.,  de  Invent.,  i.,  4. 
Socrates  apud  Platonem  hoc  Pericle??i  ccteris  pracstitissc 

oratoribus  dicit,  quod  is  Anaxagorac  fucrit  auditor,  Cic., 

Orat.,  5. 
Tribunos  (militum)  omncs  patricios  creavit  populus,  content- 

us  eo,  quod  ratio  plebciorum  habita  esset,  Livy. 
Quam  te  vdim  cautum  cssc  in  scribendo,  ex  Iwc  (or  hinc) 

conjicito,  quod  ego  ad  te  ne  hacc  quidcm  scribo,  quae  pa,' 


420  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

lam  in  re  publica  turbantur,  ne  cujusquam  animum  meae 
litterae.  interceptae.  offendant,  Cic.,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  iii.,  9. 

Note. — The  pleonastic  use  of  the  accusative  of  demonstrative  pronouns 
with  the  verba  sentiendi  et  declarandi,  and  with  the  verbs  of  effecting,  ask- 
ing, and  others,  which  require  ut  for  the  purpose  of  directing  attention  to 
what  follows,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from  this  necessary  use  of 
those  pronouns.  The  pleonastic  use  of  this  pronoun,  of  which  we  shall 
speak  in  §  748,  has  no  influence  whatever  upon  the  construction.  We  re- 
marked above  that  the  nominat.  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun  is  likewise 
used  pleonastically,  and  serves,  in  conjunction  with  quod  following,  to  ex- 
press more  distinctly  that  the  proposition  contains  a  real  fact ;  but  we  are 
here  speaking  of  the  oblique  cases,  especially  the  ablative,  both  with  and 
without  a  preposition. 


CHAPTER  LXXXI. 

USE    OF    THE     PARTICIPLES. 

[§631.]  1.  THE  participle  expresses  the  action  or  condi- 
tion of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective,  governing  the 
case  of  the  verb,  and  at  the  same  time  marking  the  com- 
plete or  incomplete  state  of  the  action  or  condition.  In 
Latin,  as  in  English,  this  form  of  the  verb  is  very  defect- 
ive, for  it  has  in  the  active  one  participle  to  express  an 
action  still  going  on;  as,  scribcns,  writing;  and  in  the  pass- 
ive, one  to  express  the  completed  state  of  suffering ;  asr 
scriptus,  written ;  consequently  there  is  no  participle  of  a 
completed  action  (for  which  we  say  having  written),  nor 
of  a  state  of  suffering  still  going  on.  The  Greek  lan- 
guage has  participles  for  all  these  cases.  The  Latin  de- 
ponent is  the  only  kind  of  verb  which  has  the  partici- 
ples complete,  its  passive  form  having  an  active  meaning: 
imitans,  imitating,  and  imitatus\  one  who  has  imitated. 

To  these,  however,  we  must  add  two  participles,  one 
in  the  active  and  the  other  in  the  passive,  which  express 
the  action  or  suffering  as  not  yet  begun,  that  is,  as  some- 
thing which  is  to  take  place  in  future,  whence  they  are 
called  participles  of  the  future.  The  participle  future 
active  properly  expresses  the  intention  or  obligation  to 
perform  an  action ;  as,  scripturus,  one  who  intends  or  has 
to  write,  but  has  also  the  signification  of  simple  futurity, 
"one  who  is  about  to  write."  The  participle  future  pass- 
ive expresses  in  the  nominative  the  necessitv  that  some- 
thing should  be  clone  or  suffered  ;  as,  epistola  scribenda^ 
a  letter  which  must  be  written,  and  not  one  that  will  be 
written.  In  the  other  cases  it  serves  to  supply  the  very 


USE    OF    THE    PARTICIPLES.  421 

sensible  want  of  a  participle  present  passive,  expressing  a 
state  of  suffering  going  on.  But  of  this  hereafter,  §  652, 
following. 

Note  1. — The  participle  contains,  in  itself,  no  specification  of  time. 
When  we  say  written,  we  suppose,  indeed,  the  act  of  writing  to  have  taken 
place  at  some  period  of  the  past  time  ;  but  the  state  expressed  in  written 
may  exist  in  the  present  as  well  as  in  the  past  or  future  time;  for  we  may 
say,  a  thing  is  now  written,  was  written  three  years  ago,  and  will  be  writ- 
ten many  years  hence  :  the  participle  written  expressing  in  all  these  cases 
only  the  completion  of  a  passive  state. 

[§  632.]  Note  2. — The  want  of  the  participle  of  a  completed  action  in 
the  active  is  often  felt  very  sensibly,  for  neither  circumlocution  nor  the 
change  into  the  passive  form  (e.  g.,  victoria  partd,  after  he  had  gained  the 
victory)  always  conveys  exactly  what  is  meant.  But  the  perfect  partici- 
ples of  deponents  are  a  very  convenient  means  of  supplying  this  want,  as 
their  number  is  not  small,  and  it  is  always  easy  to  find  some  deponent 
which  is  synonymous  with  an  active ;  in  the  case  just  mentioned  we  may 
say  victoriam  adeptus,  assecutus,  or  consecutus. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Latin  writers  use  many  perfect  participles  of  de- 
ponents in  a  passive  sense,  along  with  the  proper  active  one  ;  but  the  fol- 
lowing only  are  attested  by  the  authority  of  correct  writers  :  adeptus,  com- 
itatus,  commentatus,  complexus,  confessus,  demensus  and  emensus,  effatus,  emen- 
titus,  emeritus,  expertus  (especially  inexpcrtus),  execratus,  interpretatus ,  medi- 
tatus,  metatus,  moderatus,  opinatus,  pactus,  partitus,  perfunctus,  periclitatus, 
populatus,  depopulatus,  stipulatus,  testatus,  and  its  compounds  contestatus  and 
detestatus.  A  pretty  complete  list  of  them  is  given  in  Job..  Conr.  Schwarz, 
Grammat.  Lat.,  p.  382,  foil.  The  perfect  tenses  of  these  deponents  thus 
sometimes  acquire  a  passive  signification,  and  some  participles  are  also 
used  in  a  passive  sense  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative  absolute;  parti- 
tus  is  frequently  used  so  by  Caesar,  partitis  copiis,  Bell.  Gall.,  vi.,  6 ;  partito 
exercitu,  ibid.,  vi.,  33,  and  Liv.,  xxviii.,  19;  partita  classe,  Liv.,  xxvii.,  8; 
and  depopulate  agro.  in  Liv.,  ix.,  3.6 ;  adepta  libertate,  in  Sallust,  Cat.,  7.  But 
such  things  must  be  looked"  upon  as  exceptions,  though  there  may  be  less 
objection  to  such  an  expression  as  adepta  libertate  uti  nescis. 

[§  633.]  There  are,  however,  some  active  verbs  which  have  a  participle 
perfect  with  a  passive  form.  (See  §  148.)  Such  participles  are,  juratus, 
pransus,  cocnatus  (which,  however,  has  also  a  passive  meaning),  potus ; 
ausus,  gavisus,  solitus,fisus,  confisus  ;  farther,  exosus,  perosus,  and  pertaesus, 
which  belong  to  odisse  and  the  impersonal  taedet.  The  participles  assuetus 
and  desuetus  have  a  reflective  meaning  besides  the  passive  one,  and  signify 
one  who  has  accustomed  or  disaccustomed  himself. 

[§  634.]  Note  3.— The  periphrasis  of  habere  with  a  participle  perfect  pass- 
ive, which  in  English  forms  the  perfect  passive,  occurs  also  in  Latin,  but 
almost  exclusively  in  those  expressions  which  denote  knowing  and  deter- 
mining. Hence  we  say,  cognitum,  perspcctum,  perceptum,  comprehensum,  ex- 
ploratum,  statutum,  constitutum,  deliberatum,  persuasum  mihi  habeo,  equivalent 
to  cognovi,  perspexi,  percepi,  &c.  ;  e.  g.,  hoc  cognitum  habeo  co?nprehensutnque 
animo  ;  qui  homines  amicitiam  nee  usu  nee  ratione  habent  cognitam  ;  o?nnes  ha- 
beo cognitos  sensus  adolescentis.  Persuasum  mihi  habeo  and  pcrsuasissimum 
habeo  can  only  be  used  in  the  neuter  gender,  and  with  an  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  in  the  sense  of  mihi  persuasi  or  persuasum  mihi  est.  In  other 
cases,  where  this  periphrasis  occurs,  it  differs  in  meaning  from  the  ordi- 
nary perfect  active ;  inchoatum  and  institution  habeo  opus  express  more  than 
inchoavi,  institui,  and  absolutum  habeo  is  more  than  absolvi.  Quint.  Cic.,  in 
Cic.,  ad  Farn.,  iii. ,  in  fin.,  quod  me  hortaris  ut  absolvam :  habeo  absolutum  suave 
epos  ad  Caesarem ;  i.  e.,  I  have  it  ready  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  14,  ut  decumas  ad 
aquas  deportatas  haberent.  It  has  a  strengthening  power  in  Cic.,  in  Rull.,  ii., 
6  non  enim  naturd  bellum  ncscio  quod  habct  susceptum  consulatus  cum  tribuna- 
N  N 


422  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

tu  ;  in  Verr.,  V.,  in  fin.,  Verres  deorum  templis  et  religionibus  bellum  semper 
habuit  indicium;  ibid.,  ii.,  32,Jidem  et  religionem  tuam  jam  alteri  addictam  pe- 
cunid  acceptd  habuisti ',  •  ad  Alt.,  xvi.,  16,  quod  si  feceris,  me  maxima  beneficio 
devinctum  habcbis,  which  is  stronger  than  devinxeris  ;  but  adAtt.,\L,  2,  Sen- 
atum  inclusum  in  curia  habuerunt,  must  be  understood  in  its  literal  sense  : 
they  kept  the  senate  imprisoned ;  i.  e.,  inclusum  tenuerunt,  an  expression 
which  frequently  occurs. 

[§  635.]  2.  Participles  are  employed  in  Latin  more  fre- 
quently than  in  English,  not  only  to  express  the  verb  in 
explanatory  clauses,  connected,  by  means  of  a  relative 
pronoun,  with  a  noun  of  the  leading  sentence,  but  clauses 
which  are  introduced  by  means  of  particles  of  time  (e.g., 
as,  when,  although,  since},  may  be  expressed  by  partici- 
ples, provided  their  subject  occurs  in  the  leading  sen- 
tence. 

Eat  cnim  lex  nihil  aliud,  nisi  recta  et  a  numine  deorum 

tracta  ratio,  imperans  honesta,  proJdbens  contraria,  Cic., 

Philip.,  xi.,  12. 
Curio,  ad  focum  sedenti,  magnum  auri  pondus  Samnitcs 

quum  attulissent,  repudiati  ab  eo  sunt,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj. 
Dionysius  tyrannus,  Syracusis  expulsus,  Corinthi  pucros  do- 

ccbat,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii.,  12. 
Dionysius,  cultros  metuens  tonsorios,  candenti  carbone  sibi 

adurebat  capillum,  Cic.,  de  Off'.,  ii.,  7. 
Risus  interdum  ita  repente  erumpit,  ut  eum  cupientes  tcnere 

nequeamus,  Cic.,  dc  Orat.,  ii.,  58. 

Note  1.— It  must  be  observed,  as  one  of  the  most  frequent  occurrences, 
that  clauses  denoting  time  are  connected,  by  means  of  a  participle,  with 
a  noun  of  the  leading  proposition ;  e.  g.,  regem  forte  inambulantem  homo 
adiit ;  i.  e.,  while  he  was  taking  a  walk  ;  domum  reversus  litteras  tuas  in- 
veni,  when  I  returned  home.  One  of  two  verbs  connected  in  English  by 
"  and"  may  be  expressed  by  the  present  participle,  in  Latin,  when  the  ac- 
tions expressed  by  them  are  regarded  as  simultaneous ;  e.  g.,  he  came  to 
me  and  cried  out  (or  crying  o\\i),venit  ad  me  clamitans.  The  perfect  parti- 
ciple, both  of  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  however,  must  be  used  when- 
ever one  of  the  actions  precedes  the  other,  although  in  English  they  are 
sometimes  connected  by  "  and,"  and  described  as  simultaneous ;  e.  g., 
Caesar  hostes  aggressus  fugavit,  Caesar  attacked  the  enemy  and  defeated 
them  ;  Caesar  hostes  infugam  conjectos  persecutus  est,  Caesar  put  the  enemy 
to  flight  and  pursued  them.  Examples  of  this  kind  occur  in  great  num- 
bers. Sentences  which  we  connect  by  "  although"  must  be  more  especial- 
ly attended  to,  as  the  Latin  language  here  differs  more  widely  from  ours ; 
e.  g.,  in  the  last  passage  above  quoted  (Cic.,  de  Orat.,  ii.,  58),  and  in  oth- 
er passages  of  Cicero ;  as,  Misericordia  occurrere  solet  supplicibvs  et  calami- 
tosis,  nullius  oratione  evocata.  Such  a  participle  is  often  followed  by  tamen ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Scripta  tua  jam  diu  expectans  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare  •  quis 
hoc  non  intelligit,  istum  absolutum  tamen  e  manibus  populi  Romani  eripi  nullo 
modo  posse  ?  Later  writers  join  the  particles  quamquam,  quamvis,  etiam, 
and  vel,  with  the  participle  itself;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Caesarem  milites  quamvis 
recusantem  ultro  inAfricam  sunt  secuti.  Conditional  clauses,  also,  implying 
an  unreal  hypothesis,  which  should  be  expressed  by  the  subjunctive,  are 


UriE    OF    THE    PARTICIPLES.  423 

not  unfrequently  put  in  the  participle.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be 
observed,  that  a  general  protasis  describing  an  object  only  as  conceived  to 
be  endowed  with  certain  qualities  ;  e.  g.,  he  who  does  or  thinks  this,  are 
generally  not  expressed  by  a  participle,  but  as  in  English,  by  is  qui,  or,  with 
the  omission  of  is,  by  qui  alone,  or  by  si  quis,  since  a  participle  cannot  ap- 
pear in  the  independent  character  of  a  substantive  any  more  than  an  ad- 
jective. (See  $  363.)  It  is  only  in  later  Latin  that  participles  are  used 
more  frequently  in  this  sense  ;  e.  g.,  adstantes,  audientes,  instead  of  ii  qui 
adstabant,  audiebant.  (Comp.  $  714.) 

[§  G36.J  Note 2.— A  participle  is  used  with  the  verbs  denoting  "to  repre- 
sent" and  "  perceive,"  especially  with  those  denoting  "  to  see"  or  "  hear," 
when  a  thing  is  described  or  perceived  in  a  particular  state ;  as  in  Pliny, 
Apelles  pinxit  Alexandrum  Magnum  fulmen  tenentem.  In  English  we  fre- 
quently join  the  infinitive  with  such  verbs  ;  e.  g.,  audivi  te  canentem,  I  heard 
you  sing  ;  vidi  te  ambulantem,  I  saw  you  take  a  walk  ;  but  audivi  te  canere, 
in  Latin,  either  means,  "  I  heard  (from  somebody)  that  you  sang,"  or,  I 
heard  that  you  sang  a  song  (e.  g.,  carmen  Catulli,  Trojae  excidium),  so  that 
the  object  of  my  perception  was  not  the  person  in  the  act  of  singing,  but 
the  action  of  the  person.  Audivi  te  quum  caneres  (see  §  749)  would  refer 
to  a  portion  of  his  song. 

Timoleon,  quum  aetate  jam  provectus  esset,  lumina  oculo- 
rum  amisit,  quam  calamitatem  ita  moderate  tulit,  ut 
nequc  cum  qucrentem  quisquam  audierit,  ncque  co  minus 
privatis  publicisque  rebus  interfuerit,  Nep.,  TimoL,  4. 
[§  637.]  3.  Substantives  expressing  the  action  of  the 
verb ;  e.  g.,  the  building,  instituting,  writing,  hearing,  are 
expressed  by  the  participles  perfect  and  future  passive, 
the  Latin  language  not  always  having  substantives  of  this 
kind  (at  least  they  are  not  in  common  use).  There  is,  of 
course,  this  difference,  that  the  perfect  participle  is  em- 
ployed when  the  action  is  to  be  represented  as  comple- 
ted, and  the  future  participle  when  it  is  conceived  as  still 
incomplete.  (The  participle  future  passive,  however,  only 
in  its  oblique  cases,  as  the  nominative  has  the  signification 
of  necessity,  see  §  649.)  This  is  done  in  all  the  cases  of 
such  participles,  and  even  when  they  are  governed  by  the 
prepositions  ad,  ante,  ob,  post,  propter,  ab,  and  ex  ;  e.  g., 
Liv.,  xxvii.,  29,  hae  litterae  recitatae  magnum  luctumfece- 
runt,  the  reading  of  this  letter ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  8,  Occisus 
Caesar  aliis  pessimum,  aliis  pulcherrimum  f acinus  vidcba- 
tur,  the  murder  of  Caesar,  &c. ;  Tarcntum  captum,  the 
taking  of  Tarentum ;  receptus  Hannibal,  the  reception  of 
Hannibal ;  ob  receptum  Hannibalc?n,  on  account  of  the  re- 
ception of  Hannibal;  Curt.,  iv.,  58,  sibi  quisque  caesi  regis 
cxpetebat  decus,  the  glory  of  having  killed,  or  of  killing  the 
king  (for  both  expressions  are  here  equivalent).  It  must, 
however,  be  observed  that  the  nominative  is  not  thus  used 
by  Cicero,  but  is  peculiar  to  the  silver  age  of  the  lan- 
guage. 


424  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

P.  Scipio  propter  Africam  domitam  Africanus  appellatus 
est,  Eutrop.,  iv.,  4. 

Thebae  et  ante  Epaminondam  natum  et  post  ejus  interitum 
pcrpetuo  alicno  parueruntimperio,  Nep.,  Epam.,  10.  (So, 
also,  post  Christum  natum,  ab  urbe  condita,  &c.) 

Note  1. — It  deserves  to  be  especially  noticed,  that  Livy  uses  the  neuter 
of  the  participle  perfect  passive,  without  a  noun,  as  a  verbal  subject  of  a 
proposition  ;  e.  g.,  vii.,  22,  Tentatum  domi  per  dictatorem,  ut  ambo  patricii 
consules  crearentur,  rem  ad  interregnum  per duxit ;  i.  e.,  the  attempt,  or,  prop.- 
erly,  the  fact  of  the  attempt  being  made  by  the  dictator  ;  xxviii.,  26,  Hand 
procul  ab  urbe  aberant,  quum  ex  obviis  auditum,  postero  die  omnem  exercitum 
proficisci,  omni  metu  eos  liberavit,  the  news  freed  them  from  all  fear.  Comp. 
i.,  53,  iriit.  ;  iv.,  16 ;  iv.,  59  ;  and  in  many  other  passages.  With  this  we 
must  compare  the  use  of  the  neuter  of  the  same  participle  in  the  ablative. 
See  §  647. 

[$  638.]  Note  2. — The  English  "  without"  with  a  verbal  substantive  is 
not  expressed  in  Latin  by  sine,  but  a  negative  particle  is  used  instead ; 
e.  g.,  Caesar  exercitum  nunquam  per  insidiosa  itinera  duxit,  nisi  perspcculatus 
locorum  situs,  without  having  examined  the  localities  :  especially  with  the 
ablative  absolute ;  as,  Athenienses  non  expectato  auxilio  adversus  ingentem 
Persarum  exercitum  in  proelium  egrediuntur,  without  expecting  assistance  ; 
natura  dedit  usuram  vitae,  tamquam  pecuniae,  nulla  praestituta  die,  without 
fixing  any  time  ;  nulla  valetudinis  habita  ratione  celeriter  profectus  sum,  with- 
out paying  any  regard  to  my  health  ;  Virgilii  Aeneidem  noli  legere,  nisi  lectis 
Homeri  carminibas,  without  having  read  the  Homeric  poems. 

[§  639.]  4.  The  participle  future  active  is  used,  espe- 
cially with  verbs  of  motion  (such  as  go,  send,  &c.),  to  ex- 
press a  purpose,  which  we  indicate  in  English  by  the  par- 
ticle "  to  ;"  the  conjunction  tit,  or  a  relative  pronoun  with 
the  subjunctive,  however,  is  very  commonly  used  in  Latin 
instead  of  the  participle. 
Hannibal  in  Etruriam  ducit,  earn  quoque  gentem  aut  vi  aut 

Toluntate  adjuncturus,  Liv.,  xxi.,  58. 

Note. — This  participle  is  also  used  to  supply  the  place  of  the  conjunc- 
tions "since,"  "when,"  "although"  (§635);  e.  g.,  plura  locuturos  abirenos 
jus  sit ;  i.  e.,  when  or  although  we  intended  to  say  more;  Sueton.,  Tib., 
18,  Tiberius  trajecturus  Rhenum  commeatum  omnem  non  ante  transmisit,quam, 
&c.,  when  he  wanted  to  cross;  Tacit.,  Germ.,  3,  Herculem  Germani,  ituri 
in  proelium  canunt,  when  they  intend  to  go  to  battle  ;  Phaedr.,  iii.,  2,  Alii 
onerant  saxis,  quidam  contra  miseriti  picturae  quippe,  quamvis  nemo  laederet, 
misere  panem,  since  the  animal  was  to  die  after  all.  (Notice  here  the  ad- 
dition of  quippe  and  utpote  in  this  sense.)  Hence  this  participle  is  also  used 
as  apodosis  to  express  the  inference  from  an  hypothetical  proposition ; 
Liv.,  iii.,  30,  egreditur  castris  Romanus,  vallum  invasurus,  ni  copia  pugnae 
fieret  •  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  36,  augebat  metum  gnarus  Romanae  seditionis  et,  si 
omitteretur  ripa,  invasurus  hostis ;  and  with  the  repetition  of  the  preceding 
verb,  Plin.,  Epist.,  iii.,  13,  librum  misi  exigenti  tibi  ;  missurus,  etsi  non  exegis- 
ses  ;  iii.,  21,  dedit  mifii  quantum  maxime  potuit,  daturus  amplius,  si  potuissct ; 
i.  e.,  ac  dedisset  amplius.  Comp.  Nep.,  Them.,  2,  aliter  illos  nunquam  in  pa- 
triam  recepturi,  for  aliter  here  is  equivalent  to  nisi  idfecissent.  But  it  must 
be  observed  that  this  concise  mode  of  using  the  participle  future  active  is 
foreign  to  the  language  of  Cicero:  it  belongs  to  the  silver  age,  in  which, 
however,  the  language  was  still  in  its  progress  of  development. 


USE    OF    THE    PARTICIPLES.  425 

It  must  farther  be  remarked,  that  the  genitive  plural  of  this  participle, 
with  the  exception  of  futurorum  andfuturarum,  is  of  extremely  rare  occur- 
rence, probably  on  account  of  its  unpleasant  sound.  The  only  instances 
that  are  known  are  venturorum,  Ovid,  Met.,  xv.,  835  ;  exiturarum  and  transi- 
turarum,  Senec.,  Epist.,  98  and  95;  periturorum,  Senec.,  de  Tranquil.,  xiv., 
4,  and  Petron.,  123  ;  moriturorum  in  St.  Augustin. 

[§  640.]  5.  In  the  cases  hitherto  considered,  the  parti- 
ciple supplies  the  place  of  an  inserted  clause,  the  subject 
of  which  is  a  noun  contained  in  the  leading  proposition. 
If,  however,  a  new  subject  is  introduced,  it  is  put  with  the 
participle  in  the  ablative,  independent  of  the  leading  prop- 
osition. (Ablativus  absolutus  or  consequentiae.)  A  sim- 
ilar construction  is  sometimes  used  in  English ;  as,  "  he 
could  not  live  in  his  own  country  any  longer,  his  influence 
being  too  great  for  the  republic;"  but  it  is  more  common 
to  express  such  sentences  by  the  conjunctions  "as," 
"when,"  or  by  a  verbal  substantive  with  a  preposition; 
e.  g.,  Gyro  regnante,  in  the  reign  of  Cyrus;  Gyro  mortuo  or 
occiso,  after  the  death  or  fall  of  Cyrus,  or  after  Cyrus  had 
been  killed.  In  the  passive  construction,  a  special  refer- 
ence to  the  subject  of  the  leading  sentence  is  generally 
not  needed,  but  is  understood ;  e.  g.,  Ms  dictis  abiit,  or 
Ms  ille  dictis  abiit,  and  not  Ms  db  eo  dictis  abiit.  See  § 
766. 

Pythagoras  quum  Tarquinio  Superbo  regnante  in  Italiam 
venisset,  magnam  illam  Graeciam  quum  honore  discipli- 
nae,  turn  etiam  auctoritate  tenuit,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  16. 

L.  Valerii  virtute,  regibus  exterminatis,  libertas  in  re  pub- 
lica  constituta  est,  Cic.,  p.  L.  Flacc.,  11. 

[§  641.]  Note. — Beginners  must  be  particularly  attentive  to  the  various 
modes  in  which  we  render  the  Latin  ablative  absolute  ;  e.  g.,  te  adjuvante, 
with  thy  assistance  ;  non — nisi  te  adjuvante,  only  with  thy  assistance  ;  te 
non  adjuvante,  without  thy  assistance.  (See  §  638.)  They  must  also  be 
cautioned  not  to  put  together  two  participles  in  the  ablative,  one  of  which 
stands  in  apposition  to  the  other ;  e.  g.,  it  is  correct  to  say,  quum  Cn.  Pom- 
peius  Strabo,  de  coelo  tactus,  mortuus  esset ;  but  if  mortuus  csset  is  changed 
into  a  participle,  we  cannot  say,  Pompeio  de  coelo  tacto  mortuo.  Again,  we 
may  say,  Portia  saepe  maritum  cogitantem  invenerat,  but  not  marito  cogitante 
invento.  (Comp.  §  394,  note  2.) 

The  ablative  absolute  is  rarely  used,  when  its  subject  is  contained  in 
the  leading  proposition,  still  instances  sometimes  do  occur;  as,  Cic., 
Philip.,  xi.,  10,  nemo  erit  qui  credat,  te  invito,  provinciam  tibi  esse  decretam, 
instead  of  tibi  invito;  ad  Att.,  x.,  4,  me  libente,  eripies  mihi  hunc  err  or  em  ; 
Liv.,  xxxviii.,  54,  M.  Porcius  Cato,  vivo  quoquc  Scipione,  allatrare  ejus  mag- 
nitudinem  solitus  erat. 

[§  642.]  6.  An  ablative  absolute  may  also  be  used  in- 
stead of  the  other  particles  "when,"  "since,"  "while," 
"although,"  which  were  mentioned  in  §  635.  And  the 

N  N  2 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

writers  after  Cicero  even  retain  the  conjunctions  quam- 
quam  and  quamvis  with  the  ablative  absolute. 
Reluctante  natura,  irritus  labor  est,  Senec.,  de  Tranquil.,  6. 
Eclipses  non  ubique  cernuntur,  aliquando  propter  nubila, 

saepius  globo  terrae  obstante,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  ii.,  13. 
Hand  scio  an,  pietate  adversus  deos  sublata,  fides  etiam  et 

societas  generis  Jiumani  et  una  excellentissima  virtus  jus- 

titia  tollatur,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  2. 
Mucius  solus  in  castra  Porsenae  venit,  eumque  interjiccre, 

proposita  sibi  morte,  conatus  est,  Cic.,  p.  Sext.,  21. 

[§  643.]  Note. — The  ablative  absolute  with  the  participles  future  active 
arid  passive  occurs  less  frequently,  especially  with  the  latter,  though  it  is 
attested  by  sufficient  authority  ;  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  xi.,  16,  rex  apum  nisi  mi- 
graturo  agmine  foras  non  procedit ;  Tacit.,  Hist.,  ii.,  32,  quoniam  (Vitelliani) 
deserere  Rheni  ripam,  irrupturis  tarn  infestis  nationibus,  non  audeant ;  Liv., 
xxxvi.,  41,  Antiochus  securus  admodum  de  bello  Romano  erat,  tamquam  non 
transituris  in  Asiam  Romanis ;  Curt.,  iv.,  15,  Tyrii  aurea  catena  devinxere 
simulacrum  (Apollinis),  araeque  Herculis,  cujus  numini  urbem  dicaverant,  in- 
seruere  vinculum,  quasi  illo  deo  Apollinem  retenturo  ;  v.,  28,  ceterum  propalam 
comprchendi  Dareus  non  poterat,  tot  Persarum  milibus  laturis  opem ;  Cic.,  ad 
Att.,  iv.,  1,  quum  contio  plausum,  meo  nomine  recitando,  dedisset,  when  my 
name  was  pronounced  (respecting  this  meaning  of  the  part.  fut.  pass,  in 
its  oblique  cases,  we  shall  speak  hereafter) ;  Orat.,  22,  quum  immolanda 
Inhigenia  tristis  Calchas  esset,  maestior  Ulixes,  maereret  Menelaus,  &c. ;  in 
Cat.,  iii.,  6,  tardissime  autem  Lentulus  venit,  credo  quod  litteris  dandis  praeter 
consuetudincm  proxima  nocte  vigilarat ;  de  Off.,  i.,p,  quis  est  enim,  qui,  nullis 
officii  praeceptis  tradendis,  philosophum  se  audeat  dicere  ?  Comp.  Cic.,  p. 
Muren.,  8,  init.,  which  is  correctly  explained  by  Ernesti,  and  Wunder  on 
Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  6,  $  15.  It  occurs,  also,  in  Livy,  v.,  43,  quum  diis  homini- 
busque  accusandis  senesceret ;  xxi.,  2,  ita  se  Africa  bello,  ita  in  Hispania,  au- 
gendo  Punico  impcrio,  gessit ;  xxxiii.,  3,  exercendo  cotidie  milite  hostem  oppe- 
riebatur.  J**  fifty.  ^U~^^-rS, 

[§  644. J  7.  Instead  of  a  participle,  certain  substantives, 
also,  may  be  used,  which  express  the  action  of  a  verb;  as, 
dux,  comes,  adjutor  and  adjutrix,  auctor,  testis,  judex,  in- 
terpres,  magistcr,  praeceptor,  and  magistra,  praeceptrix  ; 
e.  g.,  duce  natura  in  the  sense  of  ducente  natura,  under  the 
guidance  of  nature  ;  comite  fortuna,  i.  e.,  comitante  fortu- 
na;  judice  Polybio,  according  to  the  judgment  of  Polyb- 
ius.  So,  also,  official  titles ;  as,  consul,  praetor,  impera- 
tor,  rex,  generally  only  to  denote  time ;  as,  Cicerone  con- 
sule,  in  the  consulship  of  Cicero. 

Magis  auctoribus  (on  the  advice  of  the  Magi)  Xerxes  in- 
flammasse  templa  Graeciae  dicitur,  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  ii.,  10, 

Sapientia  enim  est  una,  quae  maestitiam  pellat  ex  animis, 
quae  nos  cxJwrrescere  metu  non  sinat:  qua  praeceptrice  in 
tranquillitate  vivi  potest,  omni  cupiditatum  ardore  res- 
tincto,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  13. 


USE    OF    THE    PARTICIPLES.  427 

O  quam  facile  erat  orbis  imperium  occupare,  aut  mihi,  Ro- 

manis  militibus,  aut,  me  rege,  Romanis  !  Flor.,  i.,  18. 

[§  645.]  As  the  Latins  have  no  participle  of  esse  in  cur- 
rent use,  an  adjective  alone  must  sometimes  supply  the 
place  of  a  participle;  e.  g.,  deo  propitio,  when  God  is  gra- 
cious ;  invita  Minerva,  sereno  coelo,  aspera  Meme,  me  igna- 
ro,  illis  consciis. 
Romani,  Hannibale  vivo,  nunquam  se  sine  insidiis  futures 

arbitrabantur,  Nep.,  Hann.,  12. 
Obvius  Jit  Miloni  Clodius  cxpeditus,  nulla  rTieda,  nullis  im- 

pcdimentis,  nullis  Graecis  comitibus,  Cic.,  p.  Milon.,  10. 

[§  646.]  Note. — Owing  to  the  want  of  a  participle  of  esse,  an  adjective  is 
used  alone  in  descriptions  of  the  weather,  the  substantive  being  under- 
stood ;  thus  we  frequently  find  sereno,  scil.  coelo,  the  heaven  being  bright ; 
tranquillo,  scil.  mari,  the  sea  being  tranquil ;  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  xi.,  28,iidem 
sereno  texunt,  nubilo  texunt.  Substantives  when  used  thus  absolutely  must 
be  considered  as  ablatives  of  time  ;  as,  comitiis,  ludis,  circensibus ;  but  it  is 
surprising  to  find,  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Cues.,  1 1 ,  qui  proscriptione  pecunias  ex  aera- 
rio  acceperant,  where  we  have  to  supply  durante,  during  the  proscription  ; 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  in.,  28,  dedit  jura,  quis  pace  et  Principe  uteremur  ;  i.  e.,  under 
a  Princeps,  or  there  being  a  Princeps ;  xvi.,  1,  multis  palam  et  pluribus  oc- 
cultis,  many  being  present,  openly  and  still  more  secretly.  Sometimes  it 
is  difficult  to  distinguish  such  an  ablative  absolute  from  an  ablativusmodi; 
as  in  Liv.,  xxxiv.,  47,  aequis  viribus,  pari  spe  pugnatum  est,  where  we  prefer 
regarding  the  ablat.  as  ablativi  modi;  but  in  Cic.,  Acad.,  ii.,  21,  Siquis  ex 
hoc  loco  proficiscatur  Putcolos,  stadia  triginta,  probo  navigio,  bono  gubernatore, 
hac  tranquillitate,  probabile  videatur  se  illuc  venturum  esse  salvum,  we  regard 
them  as  real  ablatives  absolute.  Cornp.  §  472. 

[§  647.]  8.  The  simple  ablative  of  the  participle  perfect 
passive  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  the  whole  construc- 
tion of  the  ablative  absolute,  the  proposition  following  be- 
ing considered  as  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender,  and  as  the 
subject  of  the  participle  ;  e.  g.,  Hannibal,  cognito  insidias 
sibi  parari,  fuga  salutem  quaesivit,  equivalent  to  cognitis 
insidiis  sibi  paratis.  This  use,  however,  is  confined  to  a 
few  participles  ;  as,  audito,  cognito,  comperto  (in  a  passive 
sense),  explorato,  dcspcrato,  nuntiato,  edicto. 
Alexander,  audito  Daremn  appropinquare  cum  exercitu,  ob- 

viam  ire  constituit,  Curt.,  v.,  35,  (13). 
Exccpto  quod  non  simul  esses,  cetera  laetus,  Horat.,  Ep. 

[()  648.]  Note. — The  place  of  such  an  ablative  is  sometimes  supplied  by 
an  adjective  ;  as,  Liv.,  xxviii.,  35,  multi  adnantes  navibus,  incerto  prae  tent 
bris  quid  peter ent  aut  vitarent,  focde  interierunt ;  i.  e.,  quum  incertum  esset, 
which  would  be  much  more  in  accordance  with  the  ordinary  practice , 
Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  6,  juxta  periculoso,  ficta  seu  vera  promeret ;  iii.,  60,  ipsorumque 
numinum  religiones  introspexit,  libcro,  ut  quondam,  quid  firmaret  mutarttve. 
Sometimes,  though  very  rarely,  a  participle  is  found  in  the  ablative  abso- 
lute so  independently,  that  the  proposition  following  cannot  even  be  con- 
ceived as  its  subject ;  as  in  Liv.,  xxii.,  55,  quum,  nondum  palam  facto,  vivi 


428  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

mortuiquc  promiscue  complorarentur ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xi.,  10,  in  cujus  amnis  trans- 
gressu  multwn  certato,  pervicit  Bardanes  ;  and  Terent.,  Hccyr.,  v.,  1,  10,  Nam 
jam  aetate  ea  sum,  ut  non  siet,  peccato,  mi  ignosci  aequum ;  i.  e.,  si  peccatum 
fuerit.  In  a  similar  passage  in  Cicero,  de  Leg,  Agr.,  ii.,  2,  in  fin.,  we  must 
read,  according  to  the  majority  of  MSS.,  cujus  errato,  instead  of  cui,  errata. 
Some  of  these  ablatives  absolute,  as  auspicato,  have  by  long  usage  be- 
come adverbs  :  see  $'266.  JV.oC  /^/  /^/ 

[§  649.]  9.  The  participle  future  passive  has  in  the 
nominative  (and  in  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with 
the  infinitive,  in  the  accusative  also)  the  signification  of 
necessity,  and  less  frequently  that  of  possibility :  laudan- 
dus,  one  who  must  be  praised,  or  ought  to  be  praised. 
The  person  by  whom  a  thing  must  be  done  is  expressed 
with  this  participle  by  the  dative,  and  not  by  the  preposi- 
tion ab. 

The  neuter  of  this  participle,  joined  with  a  tense  of 
essc,  retains  the  signification  of  necessity ;  as,  audendum 
est,  moriendum  cst,  omnibus  hominibus  moricndum  est,  we 
must  venture,  we  must  die,  &c.  An  accusative  of  the  ob- 
ject, if  the  verb  is  transitive,  is  joined  with  this  neuter  only 
in  the  early  and  unclassical  writers,  as  Plautus,  Lucretius, 
and  Varro,  and  sometimes  also  by  the  poets  who  are  fond 
of  ancient  expressions  (as  Silius  Ital.,  viii.,  36 ;  xi.,  562 ; 
and  xv.,  105,  on  which  passages  see  the  notes  of  Draken- 
borch).  Such  an  accusative  is  generally  changed  into  the 
nominative,  and  the  participle  is  made  to  agree  with  it  in 
gender  and  number;  e.  g.,  virtus  laudanda  est,  virtue  must 
be  praised,  or,  we  must  praise  virtue ;  omnes  captivi  occi- 
dendi  sunt,  all  the  prisoners  must  be  put  to  death,  or,  we 
must  put  to  death,  &c. ;  Jiaec  via  tibi  ineunda  (ingrcdien- 
da)  cst,  you  must  take  this  road,  or,  this  road  must  be  ta- 
ken by  you. 

Hence  it  is  better  to  say,  quoniam  aeternae  poenae  in 
?norte  timendae  sunt,  than  aeternas  quoniam  poenas  in  morte 
timendum  est,  as  we  read  in  Lucretius,  i.,  112.  The  only 
passages  in  which  Cicero  joins  an  accusative  of  the  object 
with  such  a  participle,  are  the  following :  Cat.  Maj.,  2, 
Volumus  sane,  nisi  molcstum  cst,  Cato,  tamquam  longam 
aliquam  viam  confeceris,  quam  nobis  quoquc  ingrediendum 
sit,  istuc,  quo  pervenisti,  videre  quale  sit ;  and  Fragm.,  p. 
Scaur.,  13,  Obliviscendum  nobis  putatis  matrum  in  liber os, 
virorumin  uxores  scelera?  Comp.  Quintil.,  iv.,  5, 17,  Quod 
tamen  nemo  sic  accipiet,  ut  omnia  credat  audendum. 

Quum  suo  cuique  judicio  sit  utcndum,  difficile  Jactu  cst,  me 


USE   OP   THE    PARTICIPLES.  429 

id  sentire  semper,   quod   tu  velis,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor., 
iii.,  1. 

DUigentia  in  omnibus  rebus  plurimum  valet :  liaec  praeci- 
pue  colenda  est  nobis,  liaec  semper  adhibenda,  Cic.,  de 
Orat.,  ii.,  35. 

[$  650.]  Note  1. — The  participle  in  dus  never  has  the  signification  of  pos- 
sibility in  classical  prose,  for  although  we  frequently  read  in  Cicero's  work 
de  Omciis,  intdligendum  est,  in  the  sense  of  intelligitur  or  facile  potest  intel- 
ligi,  still  it  implies,  at  the  same  time,  that  it  is  proper  or  becoming  to  see 
or  understand.  In  like  manner,  a  kind  of  moral  obligation  is  expressed  ; 
in  Verr.,  iv.,  59,  hi  qui  hospites  ad  ea  quae  visenda  sunt  ducere  solent,  the  things 
to  be  seen,  the  curiosities  of  towns ;  and  iv.,  60,  longum  est  commemorare, 
quae  apud  quosque  visenda  sunt  tota  Asia  et  Graecia.  A  similar  obligation  is 
expressed  in  the  following  passages ;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  31,  si  Circe  et  Calyp- 
so mulieres  appellandae  sunt ;  de  Fin.,  iii.,  2,  quasi  heluari  libris,  si  hoc  verbo 
in  tarn  praeclara  re  utendum  est  ;  Tusc.,  i.,  1 ,  jam  ilia,  quae  natura,  non  litteris 
assecuti  sunt  (Romani),  neque  cum  Graecia,  neque  ulla  cum  gente  sunt  confe- 
renda ;  i.  e.,  conferri  debent.  In  classical  prose  it  signifies  possibility  only 
when  joined  with  the  particle  vix  (compare  Bremi  on  Nep.,  Att.,  18) ;  e. 
g.,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  i.,  21,  vix  optandum  nobis  videbatur  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,v., 
28,  vix  erat  credendum,  equivalent  to  vix  credi  poterat.  Writers  of  the  sub- 
sequent period  use  it  in  this  sense  with  negative  particles,  and  this  use 
was  extended  by  still  later  writers,  who  employ  the  participle  fut.  pass,  in 
the  sense  of  possibility  as  well  as  in  that  of  necessity. 

[§  651 .]  Note  2. — Ab  with  the  ablative  is  sometimes  found  in  Cicero  with 
the  participle  future  pass,  instead  of  the  dative.  In  some  cases  he  adopts 
this  construction  for  particular  reasons  ;  as,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  2,  aguntur  bona 
midtorum  civium,  quibus  €st  a  vobis  et  ipsorum  et  ret  publicae  causa  consulen- 
dum,  for  the  two  datives  quibus  vobis  might,  for  a  moment,  prevent  our  un- 
derstanding the  passage,  p.  Muren.,  26,  §  54;  and^.  Plane.,  3,  §  8,  on  ac- 
count of  the  parallel  ab  which  precedes;  and  p.  Milon.,  in  f\n.,fortem  et  a 
vobis  conservandum  virum,  since  the  dative  vobis  might  be  taken  as  a  dati- 
vus  commodi  (comp.,  also,  p.  Sext.,  18,  §  41).  Sometimes,  however,  ab  is 
used  without  any  special  reason  ;  as,  adFam.,  xiii.,  16,  eos  a  se  observandos 
et  colendos  putabat ;  ad  Att.,  X.,  4,  patris  lenitas  amanda  potius  ab  illo  quam 
tarn  crudeliter  negligenda  ;  p.  Rob.,  2,  sic  enim  existimare  debetis,  rem  nullam 
majorem,  magis  periculosam,  magis  ab  omnibus  vobis  providendam,  ad  popidum 
Romanum  esse  delatam  ;  in  Rull.,  ii.,  35,  non  eos  in  deorum  immortalium  nu- 
mero  venerandos  a  vobis  et  colendos  putatis  ?  p.  Leg.  Man.,  12,  atque  haec  a  me 
in  dicendo  praetereunda  non  sunt.  Hence  we  are  inclined  to  think  that  no 
alteration  is  needed  in  the  passage  of  the  same  -oration  :  ne  forte  a  vobis, 
quae  Hiligentissime  providenda  sunt,  contemnenda  esse  videantur.  But  these 
are  all  the  passages  of  Cicero,  and  their  number  is  very  small  in  compar- 
ison with  the  very  numerous  instances  in  which  the  rule  is  observed.  We 
mention  this  to  prevent  beginners  from  believing  that  these  exceptions  are 
frequent,  because  three  happen  to  occur  in  one  oration. 

[§  652.]  10.  In  the  remaining  cases  this  participle  has, 
likewise,  occasionally  the  signification  of  necessity  (e.  g., 
Cic.,  Philip.,  iii.,  4,  a  L.  Bruto,principe  Jiujus  maxime  con- 
servandi  generis  et  nominis);  but  it  much  more  frequently 
supplies  the  place  of  the  participle  present  passive,  that 
is,  it  has  the  meaning  of  a  continued  passive  state ;  e.  g., 
occupatus  sum  in  litteris  scribendis,  in  letters  which  are  be- 
ing written;  peritus  rei  publicae  regcndae.  A  reference 


430  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

to  future  time,  also,  may  be  implied,  but  this  arises  from 
the  connexion,  and  not  from  the  participle  itself;  e.  g., 
consilium  libertatis  recuperandae ;  missus  erat  ad  naves 
comparandas.  For  the  rest,  see  the  chapter  on  the  ge- 
rund. 

[§  653.]  Note. — With  the  verbs  dare  and  tradere,  mittere,  concedere,  and 
permittere,  accipere,  and  stiscipere,  locare  and  conducere,  and  others  of  a  simi- 
lar meaning,  the  purpose  for  which  anything  is  given,  sent,  &c.,  is  express- 
ed passively  by  the  future  participle  ;  e.  g.,  rex  Harpago  Cyrum  infantem 
occidendum  tradidit,  to  be  killed  ;  Cicero,  Clodius  uberrimas  provincias  vex- 
andas  diripiendasque  consulibus  permisit ;  demus  nos  philosophiae  excolendos  ; 
Lentulus  attribuit  nos  trucidandos  Cethego,  ceteros  cives  interficiendos  Gabinio, 
urbem  inflammandam  Cassio,  totam  Italiam  vastandam  diripiendamque  Catili- 
nae  •  quattuor  columnas  locavit  dealbandas,  ceteras  aedificandas ;  conduxerat 
columnas  faciendas  ;  Horace,  haec  porcis  comedenda  relinqucs.  But  the  same 
may  be  expressed  actively  by  means  of  ad  with  the  gerund  ;  e.  g.,  Scaevola 
nemini  se  ad  docendum  dabat ;  Caesar  oppidum  ad  diripiendum  militibus  con- 
cessit ;  auctores  nobis  propositi  sunt  ad  imitandum.  (The  poets  use  the  infin- 
itive active  ;  as,  Horat.,  Carm.,  i.,  26,  Tristitiam  et  metus  tradam  protervis  in 
mare  Caspium  portare  ventis  ;  in  prose  it  is  a  rare  exception,  and  occurs  only 
in  the  phrase  bibere  dare,  in  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  26 ;  or,  ministrare,  in  Terent., 
Andr.,  hi.,  2,  4.)  The  construction  of  curare  with  the  same  participle  also 
deserves  to  be  noticed  ;  e.  g.,  Conon  muros  dirutos  a  Lysandro  reficiendos  cu- 
ravit,  he  ordered  them  to  be  restored,  or  had  them  restored ;  Fabricius  per- 
fugam  reducendum  curavit  ad  Pyrrhum,  he  ordered  him  to  be  taken  back  ; 
funus  ei  satis  amplum  faciendum  curavi,  I  had  him  honourably  buried.  In 
the  silver  age  we  also  find  the  expression  habeo  faciendum,  I  have  to  do,  or 
must  do  ;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  JPraef.,  huic  epistolae  subjunxi,  quid  singulis 
contineatur  libris,  ne  perlegendos  eos  haberes ;  Tacit^  Ann.,  xiv.,  44,  si  nunc 
primum  statuendum  haberemus.  Habeo  facere,  I  can)  do,  occurs  in  Cicero. 
See  $  562.  '^^£  ^  &r.  3/.  36.  ??, 

[§  654.]  11.  This  participle  should  properly  be  formed 
only  from  active  transitive  verbs,  but  it  is  formed  also  from 
deponents  which  have  a  transitive  meaning ;  e.  g.,  in  imi- 
tando  hoc  scriptore,  i.  e.,  if  this  writer  is  imitated.  Of  in- 
transitive verbs,  however,  only  the  neuter  of  this  participle 
is  used  with  est,  erat,  &c. ;  e.  g.,  quiescendum  csf,  dormi- 
i,  eundum  est. 


CHAPTER  LXXXII. 

USE     OF     THE    GERUND. 

[§  655.]  1.  THE  gerund  is  in  form  nothing  else  than  the 
four  oblique  cases  of  the  neuter  of  the  participle  future 
passive.  It  governs  the  case  of  its  verb,  and  with  regard 
to  its  signification  it  supplies  the  place  of  a  declinable  in- 
finitive present  active,  and  is  a  verbal  substantive,  just  as 
in  English  the  present  participle  is  used  as  a  verbal  sub- 
stantive. Thus  we  find  the  dative  in  Quintilian,  xi.,  2,  35. 


USE    OF    THE    GERUND.  431 

illud  ediscendo  scribendoque  commune  est,  this  is  common 
to  learning  by  heart  and  writing;  the  ablative  in  Cicero, 
Tusc.,  iii.,  7,  discrepat  a  timendo  confidere  ;  LacL,  27,  am- 
icitia  dicta  est  ab  amando.  Examples  of  the  genitive  are 
given  above,  §  425.  The  accusative  presents  a  difference 
from  the  infinitive,  for  the  latter,  which  is  also  used  as  an 
accusative  (§  597),  has  the  power  of  an  abstract  noun, 
whereas  the  gerund  expresses  a  real  action  ;  e.  g.,  Senec., 
de  Benef.,v.,  10,  multum  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  Cic.,  de.  Fin.,  iii.,  20,  Non  solum  ad  dis- 
cendum  propcnsi  stnnus,  sed  etiam  ad  docendum. 

[§  656.]  2.  The  relation  of  the  gerund  to  the  real  par- 
ticiple future  passive  is  this  :  as  the  gerund  has  an  active 
meaning,  e.  g.,  consilium  scribendi,  the  design  of  writing 
or  to  write,  it  may  have  an  accusative  as  its  object;  as, 
consilium  scribendi  epistolam,  and  this  construction  may, 
without  any  change  of  meaning,  be  changed  into  the  pass- 
ive :  consilium  scribendae  epistolae,  the  design  of  a  letter 
to  be  written,  or,  that  a  letter  should  be  written.  The  ac- 
cusative is  thus  always  changed  into  the  case  in  which 
the  gerund  stood.  This  change  into  the  passive  may  take 
place  wherever  no  ambiguity  is  likely  to  arise;  i.  e.,  wher- 
ever the  gender  is  distinguishable;  hence  it  generally  does 
not  take  place  when  the  accusative,  dependent  upon  the 
gerund,  is  the  neuter  of  a  pronoun  or  adjective ;  e.  g., 
studium  illud  efficiendi,  cupido  plura  cognoscendi,  not  illius 
efficiendi,  or  plurium  cognoscendorum,  because  it  would  be 
impossible  to  see  whether  the  genitives  illius  and  plurium 
are  masculine  or  neuter.  Hence  it  is  better  to  say  lex  ap- 
pellata  est  a  suum  cuique  tribuendo,  than  a  suo  cuique  tri- 
buendo.  But,  independently  of  this  reason,  the  change  of 
the  active  construction  into  the  passive,  with  the  participle 
future  (which  modern  grammarians  call  gerundwum,  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  gerund),  is  less  frequent  in  some 
writers,  Livy  and  Curtius  for  example,  than  in  others. 

[$657,]  Note  1, — The  passive  construction  is  also  found  with  utor,fruor, 
fungor,  and  potior,  because  these  verbs  were  originally  joined  with  an  ac- 
cusative, ana  sometimes  are  still  so  used  in  our  writers.  (See  §  465.) 
Hence  we  read  in  Cicero,  de  Fin,,  i,,  3,  sapientia  non  paranda  nobis  solum, 
sed  etiam  fruenda  est;  de  Off.,  ii.,  12,  justitiae  fruendae  causa  videntur  olim 
bene  morati  reges  constituti ;  de  Off.,  i.,  8,  expetuntur  autem  divitiae  quum  ad 
iisus  vitae  necessarios,  turn  ad  perfruendas  voluptates ;  Tusc.,  iii.,  7,  oculus 
probe  affectus  ad  suum  munus  fungendum  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  18,  omnia  bona  ei  uten- 
da  ac  possidenda  tradiderat  •  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  iii.,  6,  hostes  in  spent  potiun- 
dorum  castrorum  venerant ;  and  thus  we  very  frequently  find  in  Livy  and 
Curtius,  spes  potiundae  urbis,  petrae.  As  an  exception,  the  same  occurs 


432  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

with  the  verb  mederi,  which,  in  the  early  language,  was  likewise-,  some- 
times joined  with  the  accusative,  whence  we  find  in  Livy,  viii.,  36,  and 
Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  25,  rnedendis  corporibus.  Invidendus,  poenitendus,  and  puden- 
dus  have  become  adjectives. 

[<$>  658.]  Note  2. — There  are  a  few  passages  in  good  authors,  in  which 
the  gerund  is  used  in  a  passive  sense ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  18,  censendi  causa 
haec  frequentia  convenit,  for  the  purpose  of  undergoing  the  census  ;  p.  Flacc., 
32,  si  aliena  censendo  Decianus  sua  facere  posset ;  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  15,  ad  cen- 
sendum  ex  provinciis  in  Italiam  revocare  ;  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  3,  ades  ad  im- 
perandum  ;  i.  e.,  ut  imperetur  tibi ;  Tusc.,  i.,  23,  cetcris,  quae  moventur,  hie 
fans,  hoc  principium  est  movendi ;  Nep.,  Att.,  9,  spes  restituendi,  the  hope  of 
being  restored.  See  Bremi's  note  on  this  passage. 

[§  659.]  3.  The  particular  cases  in  which  the  gerund, 
and,  under  the  limitations  above  mentioned,  the  participle 
future  passive  are  used,  are  the  following : 

(a)  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  is  used  after  substan- 
tives and  after  relative  adjectives.  (See  §  436.)  In  Eng- 
lish, substantives  and  relative  adjectives  are  followed  ei- 
ther by  "of,"  with  the  participle  present,  or  by  "to," 
with  the  infinitive ;  e.  g.,  ars  dicendi,  the  art  of  speaking; 
discendi  cupidus,  desirous  to  learn.  Such  substantives, 
among  many  others,  are,  ars,  causa,  consilium,  consuetudo, 
cupiditas,  Jacultas,  occasio,  potcstas,  spcs,  studimn,  volunt- 
as.  The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia  are  also  joined  with 
the  genitive  of  the  gerund ;  e.  g.,  discendi  causa,  for  the 
sake  or  purpose  of  learning ;  quidam  canes  venandi  gra- 
tia cojnparantur. 

Note. — It  must,  however,  be  observed  that  with  these  and  other  sub- 
stantives the  infinitive  may  also  be  used  (see  ()  598),  when  with  a  tense  of 
esse  they  form  a  periphrasis  for  a  verb  which  is  joined  with  the  infinitive, 
or  when  they  supply  the  place  of  an  adjective  expression,  of  which  the  in- 
finitive is  the  subject ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Cat.,  30,  quibus  omnia  honesta  atque 
inhonesta  vcndere  mos  erat,  with  whom  it  was  a  custom,  or  who  were  ac- 
customed; Cic.,  Tusc. ,i.,  41,  tempus  est  abire,  it  is  time,  that  is,  tempestivum 
est,  it  is  proper  to  go  ;  but  we  may  also  say  est  (i.  e.,  adest)  tempus  abeundi ; 
as  in  Quintil.,  xi.,  3,  61,  jam  tempus  est  dicendi,  quae  sit  apta  pronuntiatio  ; 
Liv.,  ii.,  53,  Mos,  credo,  non  placebat,  sine  Romano  duce  exercituque  socios  pro- 
priis  viribus  consiliisque  bella  gerere :  here  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive 
depends  upon  the  whole  construction,  and  more  especially  upon  placebat, 
for  else  it  would  have  been  necessary  to  say  sociorum  mos  bella  gerendi.  All 
other  constructions,  especially  the  infinitive  after  relative  adjectives,  are 
poetical. 

Bcate  vivendi  cupiditate  inccnsi  omnes  sumus,  Cicero. 
Parsimonia  est  scientia  vitandi  sumptus  supervacuos,  aut 

ars   re  familiari   moderate   utendi,   Senec.,   de  Bencf., 

ii.,  34. 
Postremo  Catilina  dissimulandi  causa  aut  sui  cxpurgandi, 

sicuti  jurgio  lacessitus  foret,  in  scnatum  venit,  Sallust, 

Cat.,  31. 
Epaminondas  studiosus  erat  audiendi,  Nep.,  Epam.,  3. 


USE    OF    THE    GERUND.  433 

(bj   If  the  verb  governs  the  accusative,  the  passive 
construction  with  the  participle  future  is  commonly  pre- 
ferred. 
Quis  ignorat  Gallos  usque  ad  Jianc  diem  retinere  illam  im- 

mancm  ac  barbaram  consuctudincm  liominum  immolan- 

dorum  ?  Cic.,  p.  Font.,  10. 
Inita  sunt  (a  Catilina  ejusque  sociis)  consilia  urbis  delcn- 

dae,  civium  trucidandorum,  nominis  Romani  extingucn- 

di,  Cic.,^>.  Muren.,  37. 
TimotJieus  rei  militaris  (belli  gerendi)  fuit  peritus,  neque 

minus  civitatis  regendae,  Nep.,  Timoth.,  1. 

[§  660.]  Note  1. — The  rule  respecting  the  agreement  of  the  participle 
with  the  noun  in  gender  and  number  is  apparently  violated  in  the  genitive 
of  the  personal  pronouns,  since  tui,  even  when  feminine,  is  joined  with  the 
masculine  or  neuter  form  of  the  participle  ;  Plaut.,  Trucul.,  ii.,  4,  19,  quo- 
niam  tui  videndi  est  copia ;  Ovid,  Heroid.,  XX.,  74,  copia  placandi  sit  modo 
parva  tui,  and  vestri  and  sui,  even  when  they  are  plural,  are  joined  with 
the  singular  of  the  participle.  Thus  we  read,  in  Liv.,  xxi.,  41,  non  vereor 
ne  quis  hoc  me  vestri  adhortandi  causa  magnifice  loqui  existimet ;  Cic.,  de 
Divin.,  ii.,  17,  doleo  tantum  Stoicos  vestros  Epicureis  irridendi  sui  facultatem 
dedisse  ;  in  Cat.,  i.,  3,  quum  multi  principes  civitatis  Roma  non  tarn  sui  conser- 
vandi,  quam  tuorum  consiliorum  reprimendorum  causa  profugerunt ;  and  fre- 
quently in  Caesar  ;  e.  g.,  Bell.  Gall.,  Hi.,  6,  neque  sui  colligendi  hostibus  fa- 
cultatem relinquunt ;  iv.,  13,  in  castra  venerunt,  sui  purgandi  causa.  No  in- 
stance has  yet  been  found  of  a  feminine  mei  or  nostri  being  joined  with  the 
mascul.  (or  neuter)  of  the  participle,  but  there  is  no  reason  for  doubting  it. 
It  must  be  supposed  that  this  peculiarity  arises  from  the  singular  form  of 
these  genitives,  which  are  properly  derived  from  the  neuters  meum,  tuum, 
suum,  nostrum,  vestrum  (analogous  to  the  Greek  TO  Eftbv,  TO  i) prepay). 
But  with  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  ejus,  hujus,  ilttus,  the  rule  respecting 
the  agreement  between  the  noun  and  participle  is  observed,  although 
ejus,  referring  to  a  woman,  is  found  with  the  genit.  rnasc.  of  the  participle, 
in  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i.,  3,  24,  and  Hec.,  in.,  3,  12  (for  in  Phorm.,  v.,  6,  40, 
this  is  only  a  correction  of  Bentley). 

[§  661.]  A  similar  irregularity,  but  more  difficult  to  explain,  occurs  in 
the  combination  of  the  genitive  of  the  gerund  with  the  genitive  plural  of 
substantives,  instead  of  the  accusative.  It  is  found  not  only  in  some  pas- 
sages of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  frequently  in  Gellius,  who  was  fond  of 
reviving  obsolete  forms,  but  also  in  the  following  passages  of  Cicero,  de 
Invent.,  ii.,  2,  ex  major  e  enim  copia  nobis,  quam  illi,  fuit  exemplorum  eligendi 
potestas  ;  de  Univ.,  $  9,  reliquorum  siderum  quae  causa  collocandi  fucrit,  quae- 
que  eorum  sit  collocafio,  in  alium  sermonem  differendum  est ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  31, 
homines  quibus  ne  rejiciundi  quidem  amplius  quam  trium  judicum  praeclarae 
leges  Corneliae  faciunt  potestatem  ;  in  Verr.,  iv.,  47,  earum  autem  rcrum  mdlam 
sibi  iste  neque  infttiandi  rationem,  neque  defendendi  factdtatem  reliquit ;  Philip., 
v.,  3,  Agitur,  utrum  M.  Antonio  facultas  detur  opprimendae  rei  publicae,  caedis 
faciendae  bonorum,  diripiendae  urbis,  agrorum  suis  latronibus  condonandi,  pop- 
ulum  Romanum  servitute  opprimendi :  an  horum  nihil  facere  ei  liccat.  It  once 
occurs  in  Cicero  with  the  genit.  plur.  of  a  pronoun  ;  de  Fin.,  v.,  7,  eorum 
(for  ea)  adipiscendi  causa.  Comp.  Sueton.,  Aug.,  98,  permissa  licentia  diripi- 
endi  pomorum,  with  the  remarks  of  the  commentators.  We  are  of  opinion 
that  the  noun,  which  properly  depends  upon  the  gerund,  is  by  some  con- 
fusion, of  which  instances  occur  in  every  language,  connected  and  made 
to  depend  upon  the  substantive.  Suetonius,  e.  g.,  might  have  said  licentia 
diripiendi  poma,  or  licentia  pomorum  diripicndorum ;  but  what  he  does  say  is 

O  o 


434  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

a  combination  of  both.  Another  method  of  explaining  this  peculiarity  is 
adopted  by  Kritz  (on  Sallust,  Cat.,  31),  who  thinks  that  the  gerund  and 
the  leading  substantive  are  so  closely  united  as  to  constitute  only  one  idea, 
and  form,  as  it  were,  only  one  compound  word  ;  as,  eligendi  potestas  (elec- 
tive power),  exemplorum  (of  examples).  But  see  Madvig  on  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
I,  18,  §  60. 

[§662.]  Note  2. — The  genitive  in  general  serves  to  express  quality  in  the 
case  of  a  substantive  joined  to  an  adjective  ;  and  hence  the  genitive,  not 
only  of  a  gerund,  but  of  a  substantive  joined  with  the  participle  future 
passive  and  esse,  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "  having  a  tendency  to  a  thing," 
or,  "  serving  a  certain  purpose ;"  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Cat.,  6,  Regium  imperium 
initio  conservandae  libertatis  atque  augendae  rei  publicae  fuerat ;  Caes.,  Bell. 
Alex.,  65,  quum  multa  contra  morem  consuetudinemque  militarem  fierent,  quae 
dissolvendae  disciplinae  severitatisque  essent  •  Liv.,  xxvii.,  9,  haec  prodendi  im- 
perii  Romani,  tradcndae  Hanniball  victoriae  sunt ;  xl.,  29,  lectis  rerun,  summis 
quum  animadvcrtisset  plcraquc  dissolvendarum  religionum  esse,  L.  Petillio  dixit, 
sese  eoslibros  inignem  conjecturum  esse.  The  same  construction  occurs  fre- 
quently in  this  author;  comp.  iii.,  39,  and  xxxviii.,  50,  nihil  tarn  aequandae 
libertatis  esse,  and  v.,  3,  with  the  notes  of  Gronovius  and  Drakenborch. 
Esse  must  be  understood  in  Sallust,  Jug.,  88,  quae  postquam  gloriosa  modo 
nequc  belli  patrandi  cognovit ;  and  in  direct  connexion  with  a  substantive  in 
Sallust's  speech  of  Lepidus,  in  the  Fragm.  Hist.,  lib.  i.,  Sulla  eo  processit, 
lit  nihil  gloriosum  nisi  tutum  et  omnia  retinendae  dominationis  honesta  aestu- 
met ;  i.  e.,  omnia  quae  sunt  dominationis  retinendae.  In  Cicero  this  use  of 
the  genitive  with  esse  occurs  only  de  Leg.,  ii.,  23,  Cetera  in  duodecim 
(tabulis)  minuendi  sunt  sumptus  lamentationisque  funeris  ;  and  in  Verr.,  ii., 
53,  ut  studia  cupiditatcsquc  honorum  atque  ambitiones  ex  omnibus  civitatibus  tol- 
lerct,  quae  res  evertendae  rei  publicae  solent  esse,  which,  according  to  the  above 
examples,  it  is  better  to  consider  as  a  genitive  than  as  a  dative,  for  which 
Garatoni  takes  it. 
(Carthagine)  pro  se  quisquc  quae  diutlnae  obsidionis  tolerandae  sunt,  ex  agris 

convchit,  Liv.,  xxx.,  9. 

[()  663.]  Note  3. — It  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  principles  of  the 
Latin  Syntax,  and  a  decided  imitation  of  the  Greek  idiom,  to  use  the  gen- 
itive of  the  gerund  to  express  a  purpose  or  intention  (it  does  not  occur  in 
Cicero),  for  this  is  generally  expressed  by  the  addition  of  causa,  or  by  the 
dative  of  the  gerund.  (See  <$>  764.)  Another  irregular  use  of  the  genitive 
of  the  gerund,  instead  of  the  infinitive,  occurs  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  ii.,  43,  Plan- 
cinam  haud  dubie  Augusta  monuit  muliebri  aemulatione  Agrippinam  insectandi, 
though  the  genitive  may,  perhaps,  be  explained  as  dependent  upon  monerc ; 
but  in  Ann.,  xiii.,  26,  nee  grave  manumissis,  per  idem,  obsequium  retinendi  lib- 
ertatem,  per  quod  assecuti  sunt  ;  xv.,  21 ,  maneat  provincialibus  potentiam  suam 
tali  modo  ostentandi ;  and  xv.,  5,  Vologesi  vetus  et  penitus  injixum  erat  arma 
Romana  vitandi — the  genitive  of  the  gerund  is  used  quite  in  the  sense  of 
the  infinitive,  and  can  scarcely  be  explained  otherwise  than  by  the  ellipsis 
of  negotium,  TO  TOV  (jtevyeiv,  Compare  the  observations  of  Gronovius  on 
Livy,  xxxv.,  49. 

[§  664,]  4.  The  dative  of  the  gerund  is  used  after  ad- 
jectives which  govern  this  case  (§  409),  especially  after 
utilis,  inutilis,  noxius,  par,  aptus,  idoneus,  and  after  verbs 
and  other  expressions  denoting  a  purpose  or  design.  In 
this  sense,  however,  it  is  much  more  common,  at  least  in 
Cicero,  to  use  ad  with  the  accusative  of  the  gerund,  or  a 
clause  with  ut.  (The  expressions  which,  from  their  mean- 
ing, are  most  frequently  joined  with  the  dative  of  the  ge- 
rund, nre.  studer?,  inter/turn  CMC,  trmpns  impendere,  fcmpiis 


USE    OF    THE    GERUND.  435 

consumer e  or  insumere,  operam  dare,  sufficere,  satis  esse, 
deesse  and  esse,  in  the  sense  "serving  for,"  "being  ade- 
quate to."  In  the  language  of  the  silver  age,  however, 
the  dative  is  not  limited  to  particular  expressions,  but  is 
used  very  extensively,  chiefly  after  verbs  of  motion,  to 
express  the  purpose.)  The  participle  future  passive,  as 
was  remarked  above,  is  used  much  more  frequently  than 
the  dative  of  the  gerund  with  ad  and  the  accusative. 
Aqua  nitrosa  utilis  est  bibendo,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxxvi.,  6. 
Nonfuit  consilium  socordia  atque  desidia  bonum  otium  con- 

terere,  neque  vero  agrum  colendo  aut  venando  intentum 

aetatem  agerc,  Sallust,  Cat.,  4. 
Brutus  quum  studere  revocandis  in  urbem  regibus  liberos 

suos  comperisset,  securi  eos  percussit,  Flor.,  i.,  9. 
Tiberius  quasi  Jirmandae  valetudini  in  Campaniam  conces- 

sit,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iii.,  31. 

Note  1. — Esse  with  the  dative  of  the  gerund  is  usually  explained  by  the 
ellipsis  of  idoneus,  but  it  is  better  not  to  have  recourse  to  an  ellipsis,  and 
to  consider  it  analogous  to  the  expression  auxilio  alicui  esse.  Thus  we  read 
in  Cicero,  non  solvendo  esse,  to  be  insolvent ;  in  Livy,  ii.,  8,  divites,  quioncri 
ferendo  essent,  able  to  bear  the  burden;  xxvii.,  25,  rem  publicam  esse  gratiae 
referendae,  able  to  show  its  gratitude  ;  and  in  Celsus,  viii.,  10,  7,  medica- 
menta,  quae  puri  movendo  sunt.  We  must  add  the  political  expression  scri- 
bendo  affuerunt ;  i.  e.,  at  the  drawing  up  of  a  senatus  consultum,  there  were 
present. 

[$  665.]  Note  2. — The  dative  of  the  gerund  is  generally,  also,  used  with 
the  names  of  dignities  and  offices  ;  e.  g.,  decemviri  legibus  scribendis,  the  ten 
commissioners  for  drawing  up  a  code  of  laws ;  duumvir,  or,  quindecimvir 
sacris  faciundis  ;  triumvir  agro  dando  •  triumvir  coloniis  deducendis,  juventuti 
conquirendae,  senatui  legendo  ;  tresviri  rei  publicae  constituendae,  and  also  with 
the  word  comitia;  as  in  Livy,  comitia  regi  creando,  creandis  decemviris,  though 
here  the  genitive  may  also  be  used. 

[§  666.]  5.  The  accusative  of  the  gerund  is  always  de- 
pendent upon  prepositions,  most  frequently  upon  ad  (to), 
or  inter  (during  or  amid),  but  sometimes,  also,  upon  ante, 
circa,  and  ob.  The  change  into  the  passive  construction, 
with  the  participle  future,  takes  place  almost  invariably 
when  the  gerund  governs  an  accusative. 
Mores  pucrorum  se  inter  ludendum  simplicius  dctegunt, 

Quintil.,  i.,  3. 

Musicen  natura  ipsa  nobis  vidctur  ad  tolerandos  facilius  la- 
bores  velut  muneri  dedisse,  Quintil.,  i.,  10,  16. 

Note. — The  beginner  must  particularly  attend  to  the  use  of  the  gerund 
(without  a  noun)  with  inter,  which  is  equivalent  to  our  "during,"  or 
"  amid  ;"  e.  g.,  inter  eundum,  inter  bibendum,  inter  ambulandum,  inter  vapu- 
landum. 

[§  667.]     6.  The  ablative  of  the  gerund  is  used :  (a) 


436  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Without  a  preposition,  as  an  ablativus  instrument,  (b) 
With  the  prepositions  ab,  de,  ex,  and  in.  In  the  first  case 
the  construction  is  commonly,  and  in  the  latter  always, 
changed  into  the  passive  when  the  gerund  governs  an  ac- 
cusative. The  accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adject- 
ive alone  is  generally  retained.  (See  §  656,  and  the  last 
of  the  following  passages.) 

Hominis  mens  discendo  alitur  et  cogitando,  Cic.,  de  Off. 
Caesar  dando,  sublevando,  ignoscendo,  Cato  nihil  largiun- 

do  gloriam  adeptus  est,  Sallust,  Cat.,  54. 
Superstitione  tollenda  non  tollitur  religio,  Cic.,  de  Divin., 

ii.,  in  fin. 
Fortitudo  in  laboribus  periculisque  subeundis  cernitur,  tem- 

pcrantia  in  praetermittendis  voluptatibus ,  prudentia  in 

delectu  bonorum  et  malorum,justitia  in  suo  cuique  tribu- 

cndo,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  v.,  23. 

Note. — The  ablative  of  the  gerund  is  very  rarely  employed  in  any  other 
way  ;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  15,  nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium 
est,  instead  of  relations  gratiae ;  Liv.,  vi.,  14,  nee  jam  possidendis  publicis 
agris  contentos  esse,  instead  of  possessione  agrorum.  To  the  prepositions 
found  with  the  ablative  of  the  gerund  we  must  add  pro,  which  occurs  in  a 
passage  of  Livy,  xxiii.,  28,  pro  opeferenda  sociis  pergit  ire  ipse  ad  urbem  dedi- 
tam  nuper  in  fidem  Romanorum  oppugnandam,  instead  of  giving  assistance  to 
his  allies.  An  irregular  use  of  the  ablat.  of  the  gerund  occurs  in  Tacit., 
Ann.,  xiv.,  4,  Nero  matrem  prosequitur  abeuntem,  artius  oculis  et  pectori  hae- 
rcns,  sive  explcnda  simulatione  seu  periturae  matris  supremus  aspectus  quamvis 
ferum  animum  retinebat,  wliere  the  ablat.  is  employed  for  the  dative;  Ann., 
iii.,  19,  is  finis  fuit  ulciscenda  Germanici  morte ;  here  the  ablative  implies 
time  :  "  in  avenging  the  death  of  Germanicus." 


CHAPTER  LXXXIII. 

USE      OF    THE      SUPINE.* 

[§  668.]  1.  THE  two  supines  are,  in  form,  cases  of  a  ver- 
bal substantive  of  the  fourth  declension.  The  first  supine, 
or  that  in  um,  is  the  accusative,  and  the  second,  or  that  in 
u,  may  be  either  the  dative  or  the  ablative,  according  to  § 
81.  But  with  regard  to  construction,  the  supine  in  um  re- 
mains a  true  part  of  a  verb,  for  it  does  not  govern  the  gen- 
itive, but  the  case  of  the  verb.  The  supine  in  u  does  not 
govern  any  case,  and  for  this  reason  we  assign  to  it  a  pass- 
ive meaning. 

2.  The  supine  in  um  is  used  with  verbs  which  express 
motion  to  a  place  ;  e.  g.,  ire,  proficisci,  contendere,  pergcre, 

*  [Consult  note  on  page  120.]— Am.  Ed. 


USE    OF    THE    SUPINE.  437 

fcstinare,  venire,  mittere,  trajiccre ;  and  it  indicates  the 
object ;  e.  g.,  cubitum  ire,  to  go  to  sleep  ;  exploratum, 
spcculatum,  aquatum,  frumentatum,  pabulatum  mitterc, 
oratum  obsecratumque  venire ;  or,  with  a  case  depending 
on  the  supine,  Cicero,  mittit  rogatum  ea  vasa  ;  Livy,  le- 
gati  venerunt  questum  injurias  et  res  repetitum  ;  Virgil,  non 
ego  Graiis  servitum  matribus  ibo.  The  same  meaning  is 
implied  in  the  expression,  alicui  nuptum  dare  (or  trader  e, 
coliocare),  to  give  a  woman  in  marriage.  But  the  Latin 
writers  in  general  prefer  using  the  gerund  in  the  accusa- 
tive with  ad,  or  in  the  genitive  with  causa,  or  the  partici- 
ple future  active  instead  of  the  supine. 
Philippus  Argis  a  Pausania,  quum  spectatum  ludos  irct, 

juxta  theatrum  occisus  est,  Nep.,  de  Reg.,  2. 

[§  669.]  Note. — Eo,  is,  it,  with  the  supine,  literally  signifies  "  I  go  to  do 
a  thing,"  and  hence  "  I  intend,"  or  "  am  going  to."  Instances  of  this 
meaning  occur  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  in  the  prose  of  the  period  af- 
ter the  time  of  Cicero,  who  himself  does  not  make  use  of  it  (comp.  Cic., 
ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  i.,  5),  for  the  periphrastic  conjugation  by  means  of  csse  and 
the  participle  future  active  expresses  the  same  meaning ;  e.  g.,  Terent., 
Andr.,  i.,  1,  107,  Mea  Glycerium,  quid  agis  ?  cur  te  is  perditum  ?  Heaut.,  ii., 
3,  74,  in  mea  vita  tu  tibi  laudem  is  quaesitum,  scelus  ?  villain,  do  you  intend 
to  acquire  fame  at  the  cost  of  my  life  ?  In  like  manner,  Sallust,  Jug.,  85, 
ubi  se  fldgitiis  dedecoravere  turpissimi  viri,  bonorum  praemia  ereptum  eunt ;  and 
in  the  infinitive,  Liv.,  xxviii.,  41,  qui  te  in  Italia  retinerei,  materiam  gloriae 
tuae  isse  ereptum  videri  posset ;  in  the  same  chapter,  Hoc  natura  prius  est, 
quum  tua  defenderis,  aliena  ire  oppugnatum.  In  dependent  clauses,  however, 
this  mode  of  speaking  is  used  as  a  mere  circumlocution  for  a  simple  verb, 
the  relation  to  the  future  being  implied  in  the  conjunction  or  (with  the  in- 
finitive) in  the  leading  verb  ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  52,  Sint  sane  misericordes  infuri- 
bus  aerarii,  ne  illi  sanguinem  nostrum  largiantur,  et,  dum,  paucis  scelcratis  par- 
cunt,  bonos  omnes  perditum  eant,  equivalent  to  perdant ;  Liv.,  xxxii.,  22,  ob- 
testatus  filium,  ut  consulere  Achaeos  communi  saluti  pateretur,  neu  pcrtinacia 
sua  gentem  universam  perditum  iret ;  i.  e.,  perdcret  ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  68,  ultum 
ire  injurias  festinat ;  i.  e.,  ulcisci ;  Liv.,  xxxix.,  10,  vitricus  ergo  tuus  pudici- 
tiam,fa?nam,  spem  vitamque  tuam  perditum  ire  hoc  facto  properat ;  Curt.,  x., 
25  (comp.  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xvi.,  1),  Meleagri  temeritatem  armis  ultum  ire  decreve- 
rant ;  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xiii.,  17,  illusum  esse,  instead  of  illusisse ;  xii.,  45  (belli 
causas  confingit,  se)  earn  injuriam  excidio  ipsius  ultum  iturum,  for  ulturum 
esse.  fo  WU*  v^fce^. 

But  it  must  be  observed  that  the  form  of  the  infinitive  future  passive, 
perditum  iri,  is  derived  from  the  proper  signification  of  perditum  ire,  to  go 
to  destroy,  the  notion  of  going  or  intending  easily  passing  over  into  that 
of  futurity. 

[§  670.]  3.  The  supine  in  u  has  a  passive  sense,  and  is 
used  after  the  substantives  fas,  nefas,  and  opus,  and  after 
the  adjectives  good  or  bad,  agreeable  or  disagreeable,  wor- 
thy or  unworthy,  easy  or  difficult,  and  some  others  of  sim- 
ilar meaning.  Of  the  adjectives  which  are  joined  with 
this  supine,  the  following  occur  most  frequently  :  honest- 
us,  turpis,jucundus,facilis,  incredibilis,  ?nemorabilis,  utilis, 
O  o  2  /<v< 


438  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

dignus  and  indignus.  But  the  number  of  these  supines 
actually  in  use  in  good  prose  is  very  small,  and  almost 
limited  to  the  following  :  dictu,  auditu,  cognitu,factu,  in- 
ventu,  memoratu,  to  which  we  may  add  natu  (by  birth,  ac- 
cording to  age),  which  occurs  in  the  expressions  grandis, 
major,  minor,  maximus,  and  minimus  natu.  But  we  also 
find  magno  natu,  of  an  advanced  age,  and  maximo  natu 
Jilius,  the  eldest  son,  where  natu  is  the  ablative  of  a  ver- 
bal substantive. 

Later  prose  writers,  however,  use  a  great  many  other 
supines  in  u,  and  it  cannot  be  denied  that  this  form  adds 
considerably  to  the  conciseness  of  the  Latin  language. 
Pleraque  dictu  quam  re  suntjaciliora,  Liv.,  xxxi.,  38. 
Quid  cst  tarn  jucundum  eognitu  atque  auditu,  quam  sapien- 

tibus  sententiis  gravibusque  verbis  ornata  oratio  ?  Cic., 

de  Oral.,  i.,  8. 

[§  671.]  Note. — The  best  writers,  however,  prefer  using  facilis,  difficilis, 
and  jucundus  with  ad-  and  the  gerund,  res  facilis  ad  judicandum,  ad  intelli- 
gendum;  or  the  neuter  (it  is  easy,  &c.)  with  the  infinitive  active,  facile  est 
invenire,  existimare,  cognoscere.  In  some  cases  there  exist  verbal  nouns ; 
as,  lectio,  cognitio,  potus,  which  are  used  in  the  dative  or  ablative  in  the 
same  sense  as  the  supines  lectu,  eognitu,  potu ;  e.  g.,  Plin.,  Hist.  Nat.,  xxiii., 
8,  arbutus  fructum  fert  difficilem  concoctioni  j  vi.,  8,  aqua  potui  jucunda  ;  and 
Cicero  frequently  says  res  cognitione  dignae.  Dignus  is  most  commonly 
followed  by  the  relative  pronoun  with  the  subjunctive  (see  §  568),  and  it 
is  only  the  poets  and  later  prose  writers  that  join  it  with  the  infinitive 
passive. 


SYNTAXIS  ORNATA. 


THE  preceding  portion  of  this  Grammar  contains  the 
rules  according  to  which  the  forms  of  the  declinable  parts 
of  speech  (cases,  tenses,  and  moods)  are  employed  in  the 
Latin  language  for  the  purpose  of  forming  sentences. 
Hence  that  section  is  called  syntaxis  regularis.  If  we 
observe  those  rules,  the  language  (whether  spoken  or 
written)  is  grammatically  correct  (cmendata,  grammati- 
caj.  It  now  remains  to  treat  of  certain  peculiarities  of 
the  Latin  idiom  which  we  meet  with  in  the  works  of  the 
best  authors,  and  the  use  of  which  gives  to  the  language 
its  peculiar  Latin  colouring  (color  ~Latinus,  Latine  scriberej. 
A  systematic  collection  of  remarks  of  this  kind  is  common- 
ly termed  syntaxis  ornata. 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          439 

These  remarks,  however,  cannot  be  reduced  to  fixed 
rules,  and  their  application  must  be  left  entirely  to  the 
discretion  of  the  individual  writer ;  for  when  used  too 
frequently  or  improperly,  they  render  the  Latin  style  af- 
fected and  unpleasant,  instead  of  embellishing  it.  The  be- 
ginner must  also  beware  of  supposing  that  the  following 
remarks  contain  the  whole  secret  of  a  good  Latin  style. 
A  good  style  depends  for  the  most  part  upon  the  applica- 
tion of  general  principles  in  expressing  correct  thoughts 
in  an  appropriate  manner.  These  principles  are  the  same 
for  all  languages,  and  are  explained  in  Rhetoric,  a  distinct 
and  highly  important  branch  of  mental  cultivation.  But 
we  are  here  offering  a  supplement  to  the  Latin  syntax, 
and  Tcan  accordingly  discuss  only  those  points  which  are 
either  peculiar  to  the  Latin  language  as  a  language,  or,  at 
least,  belong  to  it  more  peculiarly  than  to  the  English,  with 
which  alone  we  have  here  to  compare  it.  Many  peculiar- 
ities have  already  been  discussed  in  the  syntax,  especially 
in  the  notes,  and  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  find  them  by 
means  of  the  index. 

We  shall  comprise  all  we  have  to  say  under  four  heads: 
1.  Peculiarities  in  the  Use  of  the  Parts  of  Speech;  2.  Ple- 
onasm; 3.  Ellipsis;  4.  Arrangement  of  Words  and  Struc- 
ture of  Periods. 


CHAPTER  LXXXIV. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

A.  Substantives. 

[§  672.]  1.  THE  place  of  an  adjective,  in  case  of  a  par- 
ticular stress  being  laid  upon  it,  is  often  supplied  by  a  sub- 
stantive expressing  the  quality  in  the  abstract,  and  the  other 
substantive  is  accordingly  joined  to  it  in  the  genitive ;  e. 
g.,  in  hac  (tanta)  varietate  studiorum  consensus  esse  non 
potest,  i.  e.,  in  his  tarn  variis  studiis ;  Cic.,  dc  Orat.,  iii., 
35,  quum  Aristoteles  Jlorere  Isocratem  nobilitate  discipulo- 
rum  vidcret,  i.  e.,  nobilibus  or  claris  discipulis  ;  p.  Rose. 
Am.,  17,  in  hanc  calamitatem  venit  propter  praediorum  bo- 
nitatem  et  multiiudinem. 

[§  673.]  2.  In  stating  the  age  at  which  a  person  per- 
formed any  action,  it  is  not  customary  in  Latin  to  use  the 
abstract  nouns  pucritia,  adolcsccntia,  juvcntus,  scncctits, 


440  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

&c.,  with  the  preposition  in,  but  the  concrete  nouns  pucr, 
adolescensjuvenis,  senex,  &c.,  are  joined  to  the  verb  (§  304). 
The  same  frequently  takes  place  in  stating  the  number  of 
years  that  a  person  has  lived,  provided  there  are  adject- 
ives ending  in  enarius  with  this  meaning ;  as,  tricenarius, 
sexagenarius,  octogenarius,  perhaps  also  vicenarius,  septua- 
genarius,  nonagenarius  (see  §  119).  Those  in  ennis,from 
annus,  are  less  frequently  used  in  the  sense  of  substant- 
ives. 

[§  674.]  3.  When  official  titles  are  used  to  indicate 
time,  the  concrete  nouns  usually  take  their  place ;  e.  g., 
instead  of  ante  or  post  consulatum  Ciccronis,  it  is  prefera- 
ble to  say  ante  or  post  Ciccroncm  consulem ;  and  instead 
of  in  consulatu  Ciceronis,  it  is  better  to  use  the  ablat.  ab- 
solute, Cicerone  consule;  and,  in  like  manner,  with  the  sub- 
stantive pronouns,  ante  or  post  te  praetorem  is  more  com- 
mon than  ante  or  post  praeturam  tuam,  and  te  praetore  is 
better  than  in  praetura  tua. 

[§  675.]  4.  Sometimes  abstract  nouns  are  used  instead 
of  concrete  ones ;  thus  we  frequently  find  nobilitas  for  no- 
biles,  juvcntus  for  juvencs^  vicinia  for  vicini,  servitium  for 
servi,  levis  armatura  for  leviter  armati.  Other  words  of 
this  kind ;  as,  remigium  for  remigcs,  matrimonium  for  uxo- 
rcs,  ministcrium  for  ministri,  and  advocatio  for  advocati, 
are  less  common,  and  occur  only  here  and  there.  See 
Drakenborch  on  Livy,  iii.,  15,  and  on  Silius  Ital.,  xv., 
748.  Adolesccntia  is  not  used  in  this  way  j  it  only  signi- 
fies the  age  of  an  adolescens,  but  is  never  equivalent  to 
adolcscentcs ,  asjuventus  is  tojuvcnes. 

We  must  add  that  the  neuters  nihil  and  quidquam  are 
sometimes  used  instead  of  the  masculines  nemo  and  quis- 
quam,  as  in  the  expressions  hoc  victore  niJiil  moderatius 
est ;  non  potest  insipiente  fortunato  quidquam  .fieri  intoler- 
abilius,  Cic.,  Lad.,  15. 

[§  676.]  5.  Names  of  nations  are  used  as  adjectives, 
and  joined  to  other  substantives  which  denote  persons; 
as,  miles  Gallus,  Syrus  philosophus.  Comp.  §  257. 

The  use  of  substantives  in  toraudtrix  as  adjectives  has 
been  sufficiently  explained  above  (§  102).  They  are  most 
frequently  joined  as  predicates  to  the  substantive  animus , 
as  in  Sallust,  animus  Catilinae  cujuslibet  rei  simulator  ac 
dissimulator  ;  animus  rector  Jmmani  generis,  &c. 

The  substantive  nemo  (nobody)  is  frequently  joined  to 


PECULIARITIES    IN   THE   PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          441 

other  substantive  denoting  male  persons,  in  such  a  way 
that  it  becomes  equivalent  to  the  adjective  nullus  ;  Cic., 
de  Orat.,  i.,  28,  saepe  enim  soleo  audire  Roscium,  quum  ita 
dicat,  se  adhuc  reperire  discipulum,  quern  quidem  probaret, 
potuisse  neminem;  Tusc.,  v.,  22,  adhuc  nemincm  cog-no  vi 
poetam,  qui  sibi  non  optimus  videretur  ;  dc  Off.,  iii.,  2,  ut 
nemo  pictor  esset  invcntus,  qui  Coae  Veneris  earn  partcm, 
quam  Apelles  inclioatam  reliquisset,  absolveret',  de  Or  at., 
i.,  4,  nemo  fere  adolescens  non  sibi  ad  dicendum  studio  om- 
ni  enitcndum  putavit.  Sometimes  we  even  find  homo  nemo  ; 
as,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  55,  turn  vero,  posteaquam  mccum  in 
bello  atque  in  re  militari  fuit,  tantam  in  eo  virtutem,  'pru- 
dentiam,fidem  cognovi,  ut  hominem  nemincm  plur  is  faciam  ; 
de  Leg.,  ii.,  16,  quum  nemo  vir  bonus  ab  improbo  se  donari 
velit.  Quisquam,  which  has  likewise  the  value  of  a  sub- 
stantive, sometimes  follows  the  same  principle ;  hence  we 
find  quisquam  homo,  quisquam  civis  ;  and  homo  itself  is 
joined  pleonastically  to  nouns  expressing  ago;  as,  homo 
adolescens,  homo  juvenis  ;  this,  however,  may  be  explain- 
ed by  the  fact  of  adolescens  and  juvenis  being  properly  ad- 
jectives. -  Nullus  and  ullus,  on  the  other  hand,  are  used 
as  substantives,  instead  of  nemo  and  quisquam,  especially 
the  genitive  nullius  and  the  ablative  nullo,  neminis  not  be- 
ing used  at  all,  and  ncmine  very  rarely.  See  the  manner 
in  which  Cicero  varies  his  expression  in  p.  Muren.,  40,  si 
injuste  neminem  laesit,  si  nullius  aures  voluntatemve  viola- 
vit,  si  nemini,  ut  levissime  dicam,  odio  nee  domi,  nee  mill- 
tiae  fuit ;  de  Off".,  i.,  4,  honcstum  vere  dicimus,  etiamsi  a 
nullo  laudetur,  natura  esse  laudabile ;  Lael.,  9,  ut  quisquc 
sic  munitus  cst,  ut  nullo  egeat. 

[§  677.]  6.  Nihil,  properly  a  substantive,  is  used  adverb- 
ially as  an  emphatic  non  (like  the  Greek  ovdov  for  ov),  in 
the  sense  of  "  in  no  way,"  "in  no  respect;"  e.  g.,  nihil 
mefallis,  nihil  te  impedio,  nihil  te  moror,  Graeciae  nihil 
cedimus ;  Terent.,  Andr.,  init.,  nihil  istac  opus  est  arte  ; 
Cic.,  in  Rull.,  ii.,  23,  Pompeius  beneficio  isto  legis  nihil 
utitur ;  Liv.,  iv.,  33,  ea  species  nihil  terruit  equos ;  xxii., 
45,  nihil  consulto  collega ;  xxxviii.,  40,  Thraces  nihil  se 
moverunt.  Also  with  adjectives,  Liv.,  iv.,  9,  nihil  Ro- 
manae  plebis  similis  ;  Sallust.,  Cat.,  17,  Senatus  nihil  sane 
intentus.  Nonnihil  is  likewise  used  adverbially  in  the 
sense  of  "to  some  extent,"  "in  some  measure;"  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  14,  nonnihil  me  consolatur  quum  rccor- 


442  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

dor.  Quidquam,  like  nihil,  is  also  used  as  an  adverb ; 
as,  Cic.,  dc  Invent.,  ii.,  27,  nc  hoc  quidem  ipso  quidquam 
opus  fuit.  Respecting  aliquid,  e.  g.,  res  aliquid  differt, 
see  §  385,  and  compare  what  is  said  of  quid  in  §  711. 

[§  678.]  7.  Some  substantives  are  used  frequently  for 
the  purpose  of  forming  circumlocutions,  especially  res,  ge- 
nus, modus,  ratio,  animus,  and  corpus. 

Res  is  often  used  for  the  neuter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  (see  above, 
§  363),  in  such  a  manner  that  sometimes  even  references  to  the  preceding 
res  are  expressed  by  a  neuter  ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  i.,  52,  earum  rerum  utrum- 
quc  ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  102,  humanarum  rerum  pleraque  fortuna  regit  ;  Liv.,  xliii., 
17,  nequis  ullam  rcm  magistratibus  Romanis  conferrct,  praeterquam  quod  sena- 
tus  ccnsuisset ;  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  57,  mens  provida  rerum  futurarum,  ut  ea  non 
modo  ccrnat,  &c. 

Genus  is  used  in  circumlocutions  like  the  English  kind,  regard,  respect ; 
in  hoc  genere,  in  this  respect ;  quo  in  genere,  in  which  respect ;  in  omni  ge- 
nerc  te  quotidie  desidero,  in  every  respect :  in  like  manner,  omni  genere  virtu- 
tisflorcre,  "  to  be  possessed  of  every  virtue,"  instead  of  which  we  at  least 
should  be  inclined  to  say  virtute  omnis  generis. 

Modus  very  frequently  serves  as  a  circumlocution  for  adverbs  (like  the 
English  way  or  manner) ;  in  this  manner,  hoc  or  tali  modo,  or  with  the  prep- 
osition in :  in  hunc  modum  locutus  est,  majorem  in  modum  peto  (I  beg  more 
urgently),  mirum  (mirabilem,  incredibilem)  in  modum  gaudeo,  miser  andum  in 
modum  necatus  est,  servilem  in  modum  cruciari.  Ad  is  found  less  frequently ; 
e.  g.,  Cicero,  Est  igitur  ad  hunc  modum  sermo  nobis  institutus  ;  Caesar,  Ipso- 
rum  naves  ad  hunc  modum  factae  armataeque  erant.  The  genitive  modi  with 
a  pronoun  supplies  the  place  of  the  pronomina  qualitatis  (<J  130),  which  are 
either  wanting,  or  not  much  used.  Thus,  cujusmodi  is  used  for  qualis  ;  hu- 
jusmodi,  istiusmodi,  ejusmodi,  ejusdemmodi,  for  talis,  and  cujusdammodi  for 
the  indefinite  pronomen  qualitatis,  which  does  not  exist. 

Ratio  properly  signifies  "an  account,"  and  is  also  used  in  the  same  sense 
as  the  English  "  on  account  of;"  e.  g.,  Cicero,  propter  rationem  belli  Gallici, 
equivalent  to  propter  bellum  Gallicum  ;  in  Verr.,l.,  40,  multa  propter  rationem 
brevitatis  ac  temporis  praetermittenda  existimo,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  brevi- 
tatis  causa.  Sometimes,  however,  this  explanation  is  inapplicable,  and  we 
must  have  recourse  to  the  supposition  of  a  mere  circumlocution ;  e.  g.,  in 
Verr.,  iv.,  49,  oratio  mea,  aliena  ab  judiciorum  ratione,  instead  of  a  judiciis  • 
p.  Muren.,  17,  quod  enim  f return,  quern  Euripum  tot  motus,  tantas,  tarn  varias 
kabere  putatis  agitationes  Jluctuum,  quantas  perturbationes  et  quantos  aestus  ha- 
bet  ratio  comitiorum  ?  instead  of  comitia  ;  and  in  the  same  chapter,  Nihil  est 
incertius  vulgo,  nihil  obscurius  voluntate  hominum,  nihil  fallacius  ratione  tola 
comitiorum,  than  the  whole  character  of  the  comitia,  TO  rtiv  upxaipecttiv  ', 
comp.  the  same  speech,  chap.  2,  praecipere  tempestatum  rationem  et  praedo- 
num  ;  de  Off.,  ii.,  17,  tola  igitur  ratio  talium  largitionum  vitiosa  est,  sed  inter- 
dum  necessaria,  instead  of  tales  largitiones  omnes,  which,  however,  would  be 
less  idiomatic. 

Animus  (and  the  plural  animi,  when  several  persons  are  spoken  of)  is 
often  used  as  a  periphrasis  for  the  person  himself,  but  only  when  the  feel- 
ings of  a  person  are  spoken  of.  Thus  we  say,  e.  g.,  animus  (meus)  abhor- 
ret  ab  aliqua  re,  instead  of  ego  ;  and  in  like  manner,  animum  contineo  or  sub- 
mitto,  instead  of  me  j  cogitare  aliquid  cum  animo  suo,  statuere  apud  animum 
suurn,  pro  animi  mei  voluntate,  and  very  frequently  animum  alicujus  movere, 
commovere,  turbare,  offendere,  &C. 

Corpus  is  used  in  some  expressions  instead  of  the  personal  pronoun  ;  e. 
g.,  imponere  corpus  lecto,  to  go  to  bed  ;  levare  corpus  in  cubitum,  to  lean  upon 
the  elbow  ;  corpus  applicare  stipiti,  to  lean  against  a  tree ;  librare  corpus,  to 
swing  one's  self. 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    UF    SPEECH.         443 

[§  679.]  8.  The  periphrasis,  by  means  of  causa  and  ope- 
ra, is  common  in  ordinary  language ;  hence  it  has  been 
noticed  above,  §  454  and  455.  Gratia  is  used  in  the  same 
sense  as  causa,  but  less  frequently  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat. 
Deor.,  ii.,  63,  tantumgue  abest  ut  Jiaec  bestiarum  causa  pa- 
rata  sint,  ut  ipsas  bestias  kominum  gratia  generatas  esse  vi- 
deamus;  ergo  (originally  epyw),  which  has  the  same  mean- 
ing, occurs  still  more  rarely,  and  chiefly  in  early  juridical 
language ;  e.  g.,  in  the  formula  in  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  iii.,  23,  si 
quid  contra  alias  leges  liujus  legis  ergo  factum  est ;  de  Opt. 
Gen.  Or.,  7,  donari  virtutis  ergo  benivolentiaequc. 

Nomen,  also,  belongs  to  this  class  of  substantives,  inas- 
much as  the  ablative  nomine  (in  respect  of)  is  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  "  on  account  of,"  or,  "on  the  part  of;"  e.  g., 
Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  38,  neque  isti  me  meo  nomine  inter/id,  sed 
•vigilantem  Consulem  de  rei  publicae  praesidio  dcmovere  vo- 
lunt ;  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  2,  Quod  ad  me  Lentuli  nomine 
scripsisti,  locutus  sum  cum  Cincio. 

[§  680.]  9.  Names  of  nations  are  very  often  used  for 
those  of  countries,  and  many  names  of  countries  very  sel- 
dom occur  at  all.  (See  §  95.)  In  Nepos  we  read,  in  Per- 
sas  projicisci,  ex  Mcdis  ad  adversariorum  Jiibernacula  per- 
venit,  in  Lucanis  aliquid  fecit,  and  similar  expressions  are 
of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  other  writers  also,  in  Col- 
clws  abiit,  in  Bactrianis  Sogdianisque  u?'bes  condidit ;  and 
we  can  only  say  in  Volscis  res  bene  gestae  sunt,  in  Aequis 
niliil  memorabile  actum,  in  Sabinis  natus,  versatus,  for  there 
are  no  names  for  the  countries  inhabited  by  these  people ; 
in  like  manner,  there  is  no  name  (at  least  in  Latin  writers) 
for  the  town  of  the  Leontini,  who  are  mentioned  so  fre- 
quently. Hence  verbs  are  joined  with  names  of  nations, 
which  are  properly  applied  only  to  countries ;  thus  we 
commonly  read  in  the  historians  vast  are,  devastarc,  and 
also  ferro  atque  igni  vastare  ;  e.  g.,  Samnites,  instead  of 
agros  Samnitium.  Liv.,  xxiii,  43,  Nolani  in  media  siti ; 
and  names  of  nations,  on  the  other  hand,  are  construed  as 
names  of  towns ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiv.,  30,  Leontinos  ire,  and 
Cicero  often  has  Leontinis,  Centuripinis  instead  of  in  Lc- 
ontinis,  &c. 

[§  681.]  10.  Verbal  substantives  are  sometimes  joined 
with  the  case  governed  by  the  verb  from  which  they  are 
derived.  There  is  only  one  instance  of  the  accusative  in 
Plant.,  Asin.,  v.,  2,  70,  Quid  tibi  hue  rcccptio  ad  te  cst  vi- 


444  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

rum  meum  ?  but  the  dative  is  more  frequent,  Cic.,  de  Leg., 
i.,  15,  Justitia  cst  obtempcratio  scriptis  legibus  institutisque 
populorum;  Topic.,  5,  traditio  alteri ;  p.  Plane.,  1,  quum 
tarn  multos  et  bonos  viros  cjushonori  viderem  esse  fautores ; 
Liv.,  xxiii.,  35,  praeceperat,ne  qua  exprobratio  cuiquam  ve- 
teris  fortunae  discordiam  inter  ordines  sererct.  Hence  Cic- 
ero says,  rcditus  Roma?n,  Narbone  rcditus,  advcntus  in  Ital- 
iam,  domum  itio,  and  Caesar,  domum  reditio.  The  dative, 
which  is  often  joined  to  the  words  legatus,  praefectus,  and 
acccnsus,  instead  of  the  genitive,  is  of  a  different  kind, 
these  words  being  originally  participles,  and  therefore 
admitting  both  constructions,  legatus  Luculli  and  Laicullo, 
praefectus  castrorum  and  praefectus  urbi. 

B.  Adjectives. 

[§  682.]  1.  An  adjective  is  sometimes  used  in  Latin 
where  in  English  we  employ  an  adverb.  This  is  the  case 
when  the  state  or  condition  of -the  subject  during  an  action 
is  described,  and  when  the  action  remains  the  same,  in 
whatever  state  the  subject  may  be.  Hence  we  say,  So- 
crates vcnenum  laetus  hausit :  invitus  dedi  pecuniam  ;  im- 
prudcns  in  hoc  malum  inddi ;  si  pcccavi  insdens  Jed  ;  nemo 
saltat  sobrius  ;  pertcrritus,  trcpidus,  or,  intrcpidus  ad  me 
venit ;  but  we  may  say,  tardus  or  tardc  ad  me  vcnisti^  lae- 
tus or  lacte  vivit,  libcns  hoc  fed  or  libcnter  hoc  fed,  since 
here  the  action  itself  maybe  conceived  as  being  modified. 
In  such  cases  the  poets  are  always  more  inclined  to  use 
the  adjective,  either  because  it  has  more  of  a  descriptive 
power,  or  because  they  like  to  deviate  from  ordinary 
practice.  Horace,  e.  g.,  says,  domesticus  otior,  vcspcrtinus 
tectum  pclo ;  and  Persius,  te  juvat  nocturnis  impallesccre 
chart  is,  instead  of  which  the  adverbs  domi,  vesperi,  and 
noctu  would  be  used  in  prose.  But  it  must  be  remarked, 
in  general,  that  the  Latin  language  is  partial  to  express- 
ing adverbial  modifications  by  an  adjective  or  participle 
joined  to  the  substantive;  e.  g.,  mortuo  Socrati  magnus 
honos  habitus  est^  where  we  should  say,  "  great  honour  was 
paid  to  Socrates  after  (his)  death  ;'*  Nep.,  Att.,  3,  Qua?n- 
diu  ajfuit,  ne  qua  sibi  statua  poneretur  restitit,  absens  pro- 
hibere  non  potuit,  in  his  absence;  Liv.,  xxi.,  25,  praetor 
cjfusum  agmen  ad  Mutinam  dudt,  he  led  the  army,  without 
keeping  it  together,  to  Mutina. 

[§  683.]  2.  The  origin  from  a  place  or  country  is  gen- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          445 

erally  expressed  by  adjectives  formed  from  the  names  of 
the  places,  and  not  by  the  names  themselves,  unless  we 
prefer  the  circumlocution  by  means  of  the  participles  na- 
tus,  ortus,  profectus.  E.  g.,  "  Thrasybulus  of  Athens"  is 
in  Latin  Thrasybulus  Atheniensis  ;  and,  in  like  manner, 
Gorgias  Leontinus,  Protagoras  Abderites,  Prodicus  Ceus, 
&c.  Livy  often  uses  ab ;  as,  i.,  50,  Turnus  Herdonius  ab 
Aricia;  iv.,  3,  Turquinius  incola  ab  Tarquiniis  ;  Caesar 
prefers  the  ablative  alone ;  as,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  24,  Cn.  Ma- 
gius  Cremona,  comp.  iii.,  71.  The  tribe  to  which  a  per- 
son belongs  is  expressed  by  the  ablative  alone ;  e.  g.,  Ser. 
Sulpicius,  Lemonid,  Riifus  ;  Q.  Verres  Romilia;  C.  Clau- 
C.  F.  Palatina. 


Note. — Adjectives  of  this  kind  belong  to  the  name,  and  serve  to  distin- 
guish the  person  from  others  of  the  same  name.  There  are  some  adjec- 
tives which  the  Romans  did  not  like  to  join  to  a  proper  name  :  they  would 
not  have  said,  e.  g.,  Socrates  sapiens,  but  would  have  put  it  in  the  form  of 
apposition,  Socrates,  homo  sapiens,  or  sapientissimus.  See  §  796. 

[§  684.]  3.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  in  Latin  to  use 
adjectives  derived  from  proper  names  instead  of  the  gen- 
itive of  those  names.  Hence  we  say,  e.  g.,  Ciceroniana 
simplicitas,  the  simplicity  of  Cicero  ;  Hercules  Xcnopkon- 
tcus,  Hercules  in  Xenophon,  i.  e.,  according  to  the  de- 
scription of  Xenophon ;  proelium  Cannense,  the  battle  of 
Cannae;  bellum,  in  particular,  is  frequently  joined  with  an 
adjective  derived  from  the  nation  or  king  against  whom 
war  was  carried  on ;  e.  g.,  bellum  Mithridaticum^  Cimbri- 
cum,  Marsicum,  Punicum,  &c.  On  the  same  principle, 
the  possessive  pronouns  are  used  instead  of  the  personal 
ones  with  a  preposition,  especially  with  the  words  cpisto- 
la  and  litter  ae ;  multas  litter  as  tuas  uno  tempore  accept, 
tuas  litter  as  cxpecto,  nunquam  epistolam  meam  Icgisti  nisi 
manu  mea  scriptam. 

Note. — This  is  less  frequently  the  case  with  adjectives  derived  from  ap- 
pellative nouns,  as  the  derivation  is  not  so  easily  made.  But  wherever 
there  are  such  adjectives,  they  are  usually  employed  in  preference  to  the 
genitive  ;  hence  herilisjilius,  the  son  of  the  master  ;  fulgor  avitus,  the  fame 
of  the  grandfather ;  amorem  servilem  objicere,  a  love  affair  with  a  slave  ; 
with  bellum  ;  bellum  sociale,  bellum  servile,  instead  of  which,  however,  bellum 
sociorum,  servorum  is  more  frequent.  We  must  here,  also,  mention  the  ad- 
jectives in  arius  derived  from  substantives,  and  denoting  a  trade  or  profes- 
sion ;  as,  negotium  vinarium,  wine  business;  negotiator  vinarius,  a  wine-mer- 
chant ;  mercator  frumentarius,  a  corn-merchant ;  institor  unguentarius,  medi- 
cus  ocularius.  See  §  252. 

But  it  also  happens  very  frequently  that  the  English  use  an  adjective 
where  the  Latin  language  must  have  recourse  to  the  genitive  o^a  sub- 
stantive; as,  mental  contemplation,  contemplatio  mentis ;  literary  occupation, 
litterarum  studia,  &C. 

PP 


446  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  685.]  4.  The  adverbial  expressions  denoting  at,  in  or 
on  a  place  are  generally  expressed  in  Latin  by  adjectives; 
e.  g.,  in  summa  arbore,  on  the  top  of  a  tree ;  in  media 
urbe,  in  the  midst  of  the  city;  sol  in  media  mundo  situs  est; 
Terence,  quis  est  hie  senex,  quern  video  in  ultima  platea  ? 
whom  I  see  at  the  end  of  the  street;  Caesar,  prima  luce 
summus  mons  a  Labieno  tenebatur,  the  summit  of  the 
mountain.  The  use  of  the  neuter  of  these  adjectives  as 
substantives,  as  in  summo  arboris,  occurs  only  in  later 
writers,  whom  we  should  not  imitate.  See  above,  §  435. 
Adjectives  are  also  used  in  expressions  denoting  time, 
where  we  say  "at  the  beginning,"  "in  the  middle,"  "at 
the  end;"  e.g.,  prima,  media  nocte, prima  luce  (notprimo 
die),  extreme  anno;  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  12,  Maximum 
helium  Cn.  Pompcius  extrcma  liieme  apparamt,  ineunte  vcre 
suscepit,  media  aestate  confecit. 

[§  686.]  5.  In  like  manner,  the  corresponding  adjec- 
tives are  often  used  for  the  ordinal  adverbs  prius,  primum 
(or  primo),  2>ostcrius>  postremum,  when  they  belong  to  a 
noun  in  the  proposition  ;  e.  g.,  Livy,  Priori  Rcmo  auguri- 
iLm  venisse  fertur ;  Curt.,  iv.,  20,  Tyriorum  gens  littcras 
prima  aut  docuit  aut  did  wit ;  Liv.,  xxviii.,  12,  Hispania 
postrcma  omnium  provinciarum,  ductu  Augusti  Cacsaris, 
perdomita  est;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,\\.,  1,  Omnium  extcrarum  na- 
tionum  princeps  Sicilia  se  ad  amicitiam  jidemque  populi 
Rom.  applicuit :  prima  omnium,  id  quod  ornamentum  im- 
per'ii  est,  promncia  est  appellata  :  prima  docuit  majores 
nostros,  quam  praeclarum  csset,  exteris  gentibus  imperare ; 
sola  f nit  eajide  benivolentiaque  erga  populum  Rom.,  ut  civ- 
itates  ejus  insulae,  quae  semcl  in  amicitiam  nostram  vents- 
sent,  nunquam  postea  deficerent. 

[§  687.]  6.  In  the  same  manner,  the  adjectives  solus  and 
unus,  joined  with  a  noun,  are  very  frequently  used  for  the 
adverbs  modo,  solum,  tantum  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  v.,  17, 
Scaevola  solos  novem  menses  Asiae  praefuit,  only  nine 
months;  Terent.,  PJiorm.,  iii.,  3,  24,  Quantum  opus  est  tibi 
argenti  ?  Solae  triginta  minae;  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  14,  Homo 
non  sibi  se  soli  natum  memincrit,  scd  patriae,  sed  suis  (but, 
on  the  other  hand,  we  read,  de  Off.,  i.,  7,  non  nobis  solum 
nati  sumus  ;  comp.  de  Fin.,  i.,  13,  44) ;  ad  Quint.  Frat., 
i.,  1,  in  tuis  summis  laudibus  excipiunt  unam  iracundiam  ; 
ibid.,  me,  cui  semper  uni  magis,  quam  universis  placerc  VO' 
luisti.  So,  also,  unum  illud  cogitcnt,  unum  hoc  dico. 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    O*1    SPEECH.         447 

[§  688.]  7.  Nullus  is  used  for  the  adverb  non,  not  only 
with  esse  and  verbs  of  similar  meaning,  which  is  easily  ex- 
plained ;  as  in  Cicero,  nolite  existimare,  me,  quum  a  vobis 
discessero,  nusquam  aut  nullumfore;  i.  e.,  no  longer  exist: 
but  sometimes,  also,  with  verbs  expressing  a  distinct  ac- 
tion ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  44,  Jiaec  bona  in  tabulas 
publicas  nulla  redicrunt ;  ad  Att.,  xv.,  22,  Sextus  ab  armis 
nullus  discedit ;  xi.,  24,  Phdotimus  non  modo  nullus  venit, 
scd  nc  per  litteras  quidcm — certiorem  fecit  me,  quid  egerit. 
But  it  occurs  rarely  in  prose,  frequently  in  Terence ;  as, 
memini,  tametsi  nullus  moneas,  and  the  phrase  nullus  du- 
bito,  which  is  so  frequently,  though  improperly,  used  by 
moderns,  should  be  employed  only  in  conversation,  and 
never  without  a  comical  or  humorous  shade  of  meaning. 

[§  689.]  8.  The  place  of  the  adverb  quam,  joined  to  a 
tense  of  posse  to  strengthen  the  superlative  of  adjectives, 
is  often  supplied  by  the  adjective  quantus,  in  the  same 
case  as  the  superlative ;  hence,  instead  of  quam  maximis 
potuit  itincribus  ad  liostem  contendit,  we  may  say  quantis 
maximis  potuit  itmerilms.  Examples  are  numerous ;  those 
which  occur  in  Livy  are  collected  by  Drakenborch  on 
xlii.,  15.  Cicero  uses  this  mode  of  speaking  only  when 
tantus  precedes ;  e.  g.,  de  Fin.,  i.,  12,  statue  aliquem  con- 
fectum  tantis  animi  corporisquc  doloribus,  quanti  in  liomi- 
nem  maximi  cadcre  possunt ;  Lacl.,  20,  tanta  est  inter  eos, 
quanta  maxima  esse  potcst,  morum  studiorumque  distantia. 

[§  690.]  9.  When  two  adjectives  or  adverbs  are  com- 
pared with  each  other,  both  are  put  in  the  comparative  ; 
e.  g.,  longior  quam  latior,  calidior  quam  cautior  pericula 
adiit,  fortius  quam  felicius  helium  gcsserunt^  acrius  quam 
constantius  proelium  inicrunt ;  Cic.,  p.  Milon.,  29,  non  ti- 
meo  ne  libentius  liaec  in  ilium  evomere  videar  quam  verius  ; 
Liv.,  xxii.,  38,  Pauli  Aemilii  contio  fuit  vcrior  quam  gra- 
tior  populo.  The  same  is  the  case  when  the  comparative 
is  formed  by  means  ofmagis;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  72, 
neque  enim  vereor,  ne  quis  hoc  me  magis  accusatorie  quam 
libere  dixisse  arbitretur  ;  Brut.,  68,  magis  audactcr  quam 
parate  ad  dicendum  veniebat. 

Note. — Tacitus  has  his  peculiarities  in  this  respect  also  :  he  uses  the  posi- 
tive in  one  part  of  the  proposition  ;  e.  g.,  Agr.,  4,  spcciem  excelsae  gloriae 
vehementius  quam  caute  appe.te.bat ;  or  the  positive  in  both,  Ann.,  iv.,  61,  claris 
majoribus  quam  vetustis.  In  a  similar  manner,  he  and  others  modify  the 
construction  quo  magis — eo  magis ;  Liv.,  i.,  25,  Romani  Horatium  eo  majore 
cum  gaudio  accipiunt,  quo  prope  mctum  res  fuerat  ;  comp.  Tacit.,  Ann.,  i.,  57 
and  68  ;  Hist.,  ii.,  99  ;  Ann.,  i.,  71 ;  quantoque  incautius  effenierat,  poenitentia 


448  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

patiens  tulit,  instead  of  tanto  patientior  ;  but  in  Ann.,  iv.,  67,  we  find,  Ti- 
berius quanto  intentus  olim  publicas  ad  curas,  tanto  occultos  in  luxiis  et  malum 
otium  resolutus,  if  the  common  reading  be  correct. 

[§  691.]  10.  The  numeral  unus  is  added  to  superlatives 
for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  their  meaning;  as,  Cic., 
LacL,  1,  quo  mortuo  me  ad  pontificem  Scaevolam  contuli, 
quern  unum  nostrae  civitatis  et  ingenio  et  justitia  praestan- 
tissimum  audeo  dicer e ;  p.  Plane.,  41,  urbe?n  unam  mild 
amicissimam  dcclinavi ;  in  Verr.,  i.,  init.,  quod  unum  ad 
invidiam  vestri  ordinis  scdandam  maxime  pertinebat ;  ad 
Fam.,  xiii.,  43,  quo  ego  uno  equite  Romano  familiarissime 
utor.  The  genitive  omnium  may  be  added  to  unus ;  as, 
Cic.,  Brut.,  6,  cloqucntiam  rem  unam  esse  omnium  difficiUi- 
mam ;  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  16,  hoc  ego  uno  omnium  plurimum 
utor.  The  same  is  the  case  with  the  verb  excellere;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  18,  Virtutcs  appcllatae  sunt  ab  ca,  quae  una 
ceteris  excellebat. 

[§  692.]  11.  The  numeral  scxcenti  is  used  in  conver- 
sational language  to  express  any  large  number,  as  we 
say  a  thousand ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vi.,  4,  in  quo  multa 
molcsta,  discessus  nostcr,  belli  pcriculum,  militum  improbi- 
tas,  scxcenta  practcrca ;  Terent,  Phorm.,  iv.,  3,  63,  scx- 
centas  proinde  scribito  milii  dicas,  nihil  do,  bring  a  thou- 
sand actions  against  me,  I  will  not  pay.  Mille,  and  espe- 
cially millies,  however,  are  used  in  the  same  way  ;  as, 
Cic.,  p.  Milon.,  20,  villam  ut  perspiceret?  millies  in  ea  fu- 
crat ;  de  Off.,  i.,  31,  Ajax  millies  oppetere  mortem,  quam 
ilia  pcrpeti  maluisset. 

C.  Pronouns. 

[§  693.]  1.  The  personal  pronouns  are  expressed  in  the 
nominative  when  particular  stress  is  laid  on  the  subject 
of  a  proposition ;  in  other  cases  the  person  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  the  termination  of  the  verb.  See  above,  § 
379.  It  must  be  especially  observed  that  tu  is  used  in 
questions  and  addresses  expressive  of  indignation  ;  as, 
Auct.,  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  13,  Tu  in  forum  prodire,  tu  lucem 
conspicere,  tu  in  horum  conspectum  venire  conaris  ?  Cic.,  in 
Verr.,  v.,  52,  tu  a  civitatibus  pecunias  classis  nomine  coe- 
gisti  !  tu  pretio  remiges  dimisisti  !  tu,  navis  quum  esset  ab 
legato  et  quaestore  capta  praedonum,  archipiratam  ab  om- 
nium oculis  removisti  !  See  Heindorf  on  Horat.,  Sat.,  ii., 
2,  20.  It  occurs  also  with  the  subjunctive,  according  to  § 
529  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Philip. ,  vii.,  2,  Favea-s  tu  hosti  ?  litteras 


PECULIARITIES    IN   THE   PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          449 

tibi  ille  mittat  de  sua  spe  rerum  secundarum  ?  cas  tu  lactus 
prof  eras  ?  recites  ?  describendas  etiam  des  improbis  civibus  ? 
&c.,  et  te  consularem,  aut  senatorem,  aut  denique  civem 
putes  ? 

{§  694.]  2.  The  plural  of  the  first  person  is  often  used 
instead  of  the  singular,  nos  for  ego,  and  noster  for  meus, 
and  the  verb,  even  without  the  pronoun  being  expressed, 
is  put  in  the  first  person  plural  instead  of  the  first  person 
singular;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  J)ivin.,  ii.,  1,  sex  libros  de  re  pub- 
lics tune  scripsimus,  quum  gubernacula  rci  publicae  teneba- 
mus.  This  use  of  the  plural,  which  occurs  also  in  mod- 
ern languages,  must  not  be  considered  as  an  affectation, 
for  nos  gives  the  idea  of  communicating  something,  and 
makes  the  reader  go  along  with  the  writer,  whereas  ego 
expresses  a  distinct  individual,  and  therefore  produces 
the  impression  of  assumption  much  more  frequently  than 
the  plural.  It  must  be  observed  that  the  genitive  nostri 
is  used  for  mei,  but  not  nostrum,  this  genitive  always  ex- 
pressing a  plurality. 

[§  695.]  3.  Ipse  (self)  is  very  frequently  equivalent  to 
the  English  "just"  or  "very,"  when  it  denotes  the  agree- 
ment or  coincidence  of  two  things ;  when  joined  to  nu- 
merals, it  signifies  "  neither  more  nor  less,"  and  when  to 
other  nouns,  "only;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  iv.,  l,pridie  Non. 
Sext.  Dyrrliachio  sum  profcctus,  ipso  illo  die,  quo  lex  est 
lata  de  nobis :  Brundisium  veni  Non.  Sext.,  ibi  mihi  Tul- 
liola  meafuit  praesto,  natali  suo  ipso  die  ;  iii.,  21,  trigin- 
ta  dies  erant  ipsi,  quum  lias  dabam  litteras,  per  quos  nul- 
las  a  vobis  acceperam  ;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  15,  et  quisquam  du- 
bitabit — quam  facile  imperio  atque  exercitu  socios  et  vectiga- 
lia  conservaturus  sit,  qui  ipso  nomine  ac  rumore  defenderit. 

[§  696.]  4.  Ipse,  when  joined  to  personal  pronouns,  is 
put  in  the  case  of  the  subject,  i.  e.,  in  the  nominative,  or, 
in  the  construction  of  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive,  in 
the  accusative,  when  stress  is  to  be  laid  on  the  idea  im- 
plied in  the  subject ;  but  it  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the 
pronoun  when  the  object  is  to  be  distinguished  from  other 
objects,  as  is  the  case,  e.  g.,  in  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  13,  Non 
potest  exercitum  is  contincre  imperator,  qui  se  ipsum  non 
continet;  ad  Fain.,  ix.,  14,  Tu  quoniam  rem  publicam  nos- 
que  conservas,facut  diligentissime  te  ipsum  custodias  ;  iii., 
7,  Cn.  Pompeium  omnibus,  Lentulum  mihi  ipsi  antepono. 
In  the  following  passages  stress  is  laid  on  the  subject, 
P  p  2 


450  LATIN    GRAMMAR, 

Cic.,  Lael.,  3,  Non  cgeo  mcdicina  (i.  e.,  ut  alii  me  conso- 
lentur);  me  ipse  consoler;  ad  Fam.,  xiii?  13,  Maximus  con- 
sularis  maximum  consulem,  te  ipse  vicisti  ;  in  Verr.,  iii.,  1, 
Nbs,  nisi  facile  cupiditates  nostras  teneremus,  nunquam  ip- 
simet  nobis  praccideremus  istam  liccntiamlibertatemque  vi- 
vcndi  ;  Liv.,  iii.,  56,  accusando  cum,  a  cujus  crudclitate 
vosmet  ipsi  armis  vindicastis.  Hence  we  say,  me  ipsum 
diligo,  but  sibi  ipse  mortem  conscivit,  pro  se  ipse  dixit,  de  se 
ipse  pracdicat,  and  in  the  accusative  with  the  infinitive, 
deforme  cst  de  sc  ipsum  pracdicare  (Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  38).  It 
must  be  remarked  in  general,  that  Cicero  is  partial  to  con- 
struing i2Jse  as  the  subject,  even  where  the  emphasis  be- 
longs to  the  object;  e.  g.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  6,  ut  non  modo  pop- 
ulo  Romano,  sed  etiam  sibi  ipse  condcmnatus  videretur  ;  ad 
Fam.,  iv.,  8,  non  ita  abundo  i?igenio,  ut  te  consoler,  quum 
ipse  -me  non  possim  ;  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  i.,  1,  2,  Quid  est  nc- 
gotii  continere  cos,  quibus  praesis,  si  te  ipse  contineas? 

Note.  —  Ipse,  when  joined  to  a  possessive  pronoun  in  a  reflective  clause, 
usually  takes  the  case  of  the  subject  ;  e.  g.,  meam  ipse  legem  negligo,  tuam 
ipse  legem  negligis,  not  meam  ipsius,  tuam  ipsius,  &c.,  as  we  may  say,  ac- 
cording to  $  424,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  ii.,  2,  si  ex  scriptis  cognosci  ipsi  suis  potuis- 
sent  •  p.  Rose.  Am.,  29,  Conveniat  mild  tecum  necesse  est,  Roscium  out  ipsum 
sua  manu  fecisse,  aut  per  alias  ;  Liv.,  xxiv.,  38,  earn  fraudem  vestra  ipsi  vir- 
tute  vitastis  ;  ii.,  9,  ncc  hostes  modo  timebant,  sed  suosmet  ipsi  civcs  ;  viii.,  25, 
velut  capti  a  suismet  ipsi  praesidiis  ;  i.,  54,  alias  sua  ipsos  invidia  opportunos 
inter  emit  ;  i.  e.,  qui  sua  ipsi  invidia  opportuni  erant.  The  genitive  is  neces- 
sary only  in  those  cases  where  there  is  no  reference  to  the  subject  ;  as  in 


tua  ipsius  causa,  vestra  ipsorum  causa  hoc  fed  ;  Quintil.,  ii.,  6,  Aves  foetus 
suos  libero  coelo  suaeque  ipsorum  fiduciae  permittunt  ;  but  sometimes  we  find 
the  genitive  where  the  case  of  the  subject  should  be  used;  as,  Cic.,  p. 
Muren.,  4,  conjecturam  de  tuo  ipsius  studio  ceperis,  instead  of  ipse  ;  JLiv.,  x., 
16,  omnia  expertos  esse,  si  suismet  ipsorum  viribus  tolerare  tantam  molem  belli 
possent,  instead  of  ipsi  ;  xxx.,  20,  suum  ipsius  caput  execratum,  for  ipsum. 
But  it  does  not  occur  so  often  as  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  vii.,  40,  9,  thinks, 
for  he  does  not  accurately  distinguish  the  cases. 

[§  697.]  5.  Idem  is  used  (see  §  127)  when  two  predi- 
cates are  given  to  one  subject;  hence  it  supplies  the  place 
of  ctiam  when  the  predicates  are  of  a  similar  kind,  and 
of  tamen  when  they  are  of  a  different  kind  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de 
Off.,  ii.,  3,  ex  quo  efficitur,  ut,  quidquid  Jionestum  sit,  idem 
sit  utile  ;  i.  e.,  "  also,"  or,  "  at  the  same  time,"  for  which 
we  might  also  use  id  etiam  utile  sit  ;  beneficcntiam,  quam 
eandem  benignitatem  appellari  licet;  Libera,  quam  can- 
dem  Proserpinam  vocant  ;  viros  fortes  eosdem  bonos  esse 
volumus  ;  Cic.,  jp.  Wuren.,  9,  Asiam  istam  refertam  et  can- 
dem  delicatam  sic  obiit,  ut  in  ca  ncquc  avaritiae  neque  lux- 
uriae  vestigium  reliquerit;  de  Off.,  i.,  6,  alterum  cst  vitium, 
quod  quidam  nimis  magnum  studium  multamque  operam 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE   PARTS    OF  SPEECH.          451 

in  res  obscuras  atque  difficiles  conferunt,  casdemque  nan  ne- 
cessarias.  Especial  attention  must  be  paid  to  idem,  con- 
necting two  opposite  predicates,  where  tamen  might  be 
used  in  its  stead,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  43,  quum  (al- 
though) enim  optimum  et  praestantissimam  naturam  dei 
dicat  esse,  negat  idem  in  deo  csse  gratiam ;  Curt.,  v.,  2, 
Euphrates  et  Tigris  ex  Armeniae  montibus  profluunt,  ac 
magno  deinde  aquarum  divortio  iter,  quod  cepere,  percur- 
runt ;  iidem,  quum  Mediae  et  Gordiaeorum  terras  secare 
cocperunt,  paulatim  in  artius  coeunt,  et,  quo  longius  ma- 
nant,  hoc  angustius  inter  se  spatium  terrae  relinquunt. 

[§  698.]  6.  Et  ipse,  on  the  other  hand,  is  used  (like  the 
Greek  Kal  avrdc)  when  the  same  predicate  is  given  to  a 
second  subject.  It  is  rendered  in  English  by  "  also"  or 
"too;"  e.  g.,  Eutrop.,  viii.,  7  (15),  Antoninus  Commodus 
nihil  paternum  habuit,  nisi  quod  contra  Germanos  feliciter 
et  ipse  pugnavit,  for  item  or  ipse  quoque.  In  Cicero,  how- 
ever, this  use  of  et  ipse  occurs,  as  far  as  we  know,  only 
in  one  passage,  p.  Caec.,  20,  Etiamsi  tuus  servus  nullus 
fuerit,  sed  omnes  alieni  ac  mercenarii,  tamen  et  ipsi  tuae 
familiae  et  genere  et  nomine  continebuntur,  for  Cicero,  in 
general,  very  rarely  uses  et  for  etiam  ;  in  the  passage  p. 
Cluent.,  51,  §  141,  we  must  read  ipse,  and  not  et  ipse.  But 
et  ipse  frequently  occurs  in  Livy,  Curtius,  and  the  later 
writers ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxi..  17,  quia  L.  Manlius  et  ipse  cum 
haud  invalido  pruesidio  in  Galliam  mittebatur ;  ibid.,  c. 
21,  credo  ego  vos,  socii,  et  ipsos  cernere  ;  Quintil.,  ix.,  4, 
43,  Virtutes  et  ipsae  taedium  pariunt,  nisi  gratia  varietatis 
adjutae.  In  like  manner,  nee  ipse  is  used  in  the  sense  of 
"neither;"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiii.,  18,  Primis  repulsis  Makar- 
bal  cum  majore  robore  virorum  missus  nee  ipse  eruptionem 
cohortium  sustinuit. 

[§  699.]  7.  I*,  as  was  remarked  in  §  127,  refers  to 
something  preceding,  a  person  or  thing  spoken  of  before  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  23,  PolemarcJius  est  Murgentmus, 
vir  bonus  atque  honestus.  Is  quum  medimna  DCC  decu- 
?nae  impcrarcntury  quod  recusabat,  ad  istum  in  jus  eductus 
cst;  i.,  41,  C.  Annius  Asellus  mortuus  est  C.  Sacerdote  prae- 
tore.  Is  quum  haberct  unicam  filiam — cam  bo?iis  suis  he- 
redem  instituit.  If  the  noun  thus  referred  to  is  to  receive 
some  additional  predicate,  we  must  use  et  is,  atque  is,  is- 
que,  et  is  quidcm,  and  with  a  negative  nee  is  ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
in  Cat.,  iv.,  4,  Vincula  vero,  et  ea  sejnpiterna,  certe  ad  sin- 


452  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


irem  poenam  nefarii  sccleris  inventa  sunt ;  de  Fin.,  i., 
20,  At  vero  Epicurus  una  in  domo,  et  ea  quidem  angusta, 
quam  magnos  quantaque  amoris  conspiratione  consentientes 
tenuit  amicorum  grcges  !  Liv.,  ii.,  3,  Erant  in  Romana  ju- 
ventute  adolescentes  aliquot,  nee  ii  tenui  loco  orti,  quorum  in 
regno  libido  solutior fuerat ;  Cic.,Tusc.,  i.,  3,  at  contra  ora- 
torem  celeriter  complexi  sumus,  nee  eum  primo  eruditum, 
aptum  tamcn  ad  dicendum,  post  autem  eruditum.  Sed  idem 
is  used  when  the  additional  predicate  is  opposed  to  the 
one  preceding;  as,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  IS,  Severitatem  in  se- 
nectutc  probo,  sed  earn,  sicut  alia,  modicam :  acerbitatem 
nullo  modo.  The  neuter  (et  id,  idqucj  is  used  when  the 
proposition  itself  receives  an  addition,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii., 
16,  doctum  igitur  homincm  cognovi  et  studiis  optimis  dedi- 
tum,  idquc  a  puero ;  de  Off.,  i.,  1,  Quamquam  tc,  Marce 
jili,  annum  jam  audientem  Cratippum,  idque  Athenis, 
abundare  oportet,  &c. 

[§  700.]  8.  Hie — ille,  when  referring  to  persons  or 
things  mentioned  before,  generally  follow  the  previous 
order,'  hie  (the  former)  referring  to  the  person  mentioned 
first,  and  ille  (the  latter)  to  the  one  mentioned  last;  e.  g., 
Quintil.,  vi.,  1,  21,  Meritis  majorum  Cicero  atque  Asinius 
certatim  sunt  usi,  pro  Scauro  patre  hie  (Cicero),  ille  pro 
Jilio  ;  vi.,  1,  9,  Haec  pars  perorationis  accusatori  patron- 
isque  ex  aequo  communis  est.  Affectibus  quoque  iisdemjcre 
utuntur,  sed  rarius  hie  (accusator),  ille  saepius  ac  magis. 
Nam  huic  concitarejudices,  illijlectere  convenit;  Cic.,  LaeL, 
2,  Cave  Catoni  anteponas  ne  istum  quidem  ipsum,  quern 
Apollo  sapientissimum  judicavit  (Socratem) :  hujus  enim 
jacta,  illius  dicta  laudantur ;  Liv.,  xxx.,  30,  melior  tuti- 
orque  est  certa  pax,  quam  sperata  victoria  ;  haec  (pax)  in 
tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est.  But  the  case  is  often  re- 
versed, hie  referring  to  the  object  mentioned  last,  as  the 
nearer  one,  and  ille  to  that  mentioned  first,  as  the  remo- 
ter one ;  in  this  case,  however,  ille — hie  is  used,  and  the 
order  in  which  the  objects  were  mentioned  before  is  thus 
restored ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  LaeL,  24,  Scitum  est  illud  Catonis, 
ut  multa :  melius  de  quibusdam  acerbos  inimicos  mereri, 
quam  eos  amicos,  qui  dulces  videantur ;  illos  (inimicos) 
sacpe  verum  dicere,  hos  nunquam ;  Sallust,  Cat.,  54,  Cae- 
sar benejiciis  atque  munificentia  magnus  habcbatur,  integ- 
ritate  vitae  Cato.  Ille  (Caesar)  mansuetudine  et  misericor- 
dia  darusfactus,  huic  severitas  dignitatem  addiderat.  The 


PECULIARITIES   IN    THE    PARTS    OF  SPEECH.          453 

same  is  sometimes  found  in  Quintilian.  Both  pronouns, 
but  more  frequently  hie,  are  used  in  the  sense  of  the  Eng- 
lish "the  following,"  which  is  never  expressed  by  sequens. 
It  should,  however,  be  observed  that  hoc  dico  is  common- 
ly equivalent  to  hoc  tantum  dico,\  will  say  only  thus  much. 

Note. — When  alter — alter  (the  one — and  the  other)  refer  to  things  men- 
tioned before,  the  reference  may  likewise  be  made  in  two  ways :  either 
the  previous  order  is  observed,  or  it  is  reversed,  reference  being  first  made 
to  the  thing  mentioned  last.  The  former  occurs;  e.  g.,  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,i., 
26,  Philippum  Macedonum  regem,  rebus  gestis  et  gloria  superatum  a  filio,  fa- 
cilitate et  humanitate  video  superior  em  fuisse.  Itaque  alter  (Philippus)  semper 
magnus,  alter  (filius)  saepe  turpissimus ;  the  latter  in  Cic.,  p.  Quint.,  1 ,  Quae 
res  in  civitate  duae  plurimum  possunt ,  eae  contra  nos  ambae  faciunt,  summa  gra- 
tia et  eloquentia,  quarum  alteram  (eloquentiam)  vereor,  alteram  (gratiam)  me- 
tuo.  See  de  Off.,  iii.,  18,  init. ;  i.,  12.  Wherever  there  is  ambiguity,  the 
latter  order  must  be  observed.  Plin.,  Epist.,  ix.,  13,  Fuerat  cum  Arria  et 
Fanr\ia,  quarum  alter  a  (Fannia)  Helvidio  noverca,  alter  a  mater  novercae. 

[§  701.]  9.  Hie,  when  not  in  opposition  to  hie,  is  often 
used  to  refer  to  things  which  are  well  known  or  celebra- 
ted, and  although  distant  in  time  or  place,  are  yet  present 
to  the  minds  of  all ;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  9,  Primum  ex 
suo  regno  sic  Mithridates  profugit,  ut  ex  eodem  Ponto  Me- 
dea ilia  quondam  profugisse  dicitur ;  p.  Arch.,  10,  Quam 
inultos  scriptores  rerum  suarum  magnus  ille  Alexander  se- 
cum  habuisse  dicitur  ?  Nep.,  Thrasyb.,  4,  Bene  ergo  Pit- 
tacus  ille,  qui  septcm  sapientum  numero  est  habitus,  quum 
ei  Mitylenaei  multa  miliajugerum  agri  muneri  darent,  No- 
Lite,  oro  vos,  inquit,  id  mihi  dare,  quod  multi  invideant,  plu- 
res  etiam  concupiscant ;  Cic.,  Brut.,  4,  lllud  Hesiodium 
laudatur  a  doctis,  quod  eadem  mensura  reddere  jubet,  qua 
acccperis,  aut  etiam  cumulatiore,  si  possis.  Hence  ille  is 
sometimes  added  to  other  pronouns,  to  refer  to  something 
discussed  before;  as,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xi.,  7,  quem  ilium  tanta 
superbia  esse,  ut  aeternitate?n  famae  spe  praesumat  ?  xii., 
36,  avebant  visere,  quis  ille  tot  per  annos  opes  nostras  spre- 
vissct;  xiv.,  22,  hunc  ilium  numine  deum  destinari  crede- 
bant.  Iste,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is  properly  a  pro- 
noun of  the  second  person  (see  §  127),  sometimes  implies 
disapproval  or  contempt.  This  arises  from  its  frequent 
use  in  speeches  in  the  courts  of  justice  and  its  application 
to  the  opponent. 

Note. — The  pronouns  hie,  ille,  iste  are  joined  with  talis  and  tantus,  which 
we  cannot  well  render  in  English,  except  by  making  two  sentences;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xvi.,  21,  Da  operam  ut  hunc  talem — virum  videas  quam  pluri- 
mum, this  man,  who  is  of  such  a  character  ;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  20,  Ista  tanta  tam- 
que  multa  profitenda  non  censeo,  this,  which  is  so  great  and  manifold.  Hie 
et  hie,  hie  et  ille,  ille  et  ille  are  used  to  refer  to  several  indefinite  objects;  as 
in  English,  "  this  one  and  that  one  ;"  "  any  one,"  of  indefinite  persons  or 
things,  is  expressed  by  hie  aut  ille. 


454  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  702.]  10.  The  oblique  cases  of  the  personal  pronoun 
of  the  third  person  (English  him)  are  commonly  express- 
ed in  prose  by  the  cases  of  is,  ea,  id,  as  was  remarked  in 
§  125.  The  pronouns  hie  and  ille  are  more  emphatic  ; 
hence,  as  Bentley  (on  Horat.,  Carm.,  iii.,  11, 18)  has  acutely 
observed,  they  supply  in  lyric  poetry  throughout  the  place 
of  the  plain  ejus,  ei,  eum;  in  prose,  too,  they  are  frequently 
so  used,  ille  in  this  case  answering  to  the  emphatic  "he." 
The  cases  of  ipse,  ipsa,  ipsum  are  employed  when  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  person  is  to  be  expressed;  e.  g.,  Caesar 
respondit,  sicut  ipsius  dignitas  postulabat,  as  his  own  dig- 
nity demanded ;  sicut  ipsi  placuit,  sicut  ipsum  decebat ; 
Cic.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  26,  Hoc  etsi  reprehendi  potest,  tamen  ac- 
cipio  quod  dant :  mihi  cnim  satis  est,  ipsis  non  satis.  Hence 
ipse  is  joined  to  ego,  tu,  se,  hie,  ille,  iste,  and  idem.  In  re- 
flective sentences  this  pronoun  is  used  for  sui,  sibi,  se,  only 
when  the  person  of  the  leading  subject  is  to  be  referred 
to  with  particular  emphasis ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  iii.,  19,  In- 
humana  vox  ducitur  eorum  qui  negant  se  recusare,  quo  mi- 
nus, ipsis  mortuis,  terrarum  omnium  defiagratio  conscqua- 
tur  ;  Sallust,  Jug.,  46,  Igitur  (Jugurtha)  legates  ad  con- 
sulcm  mittit,  qui  tantummodo  ipsi  liberisque  vitam  peterent. 
Sibi,  however,  might  also  be  used.  Comp.  §  550. 

[§  703.]  11.  Hie  and  ille  bear  the  same  relation  to  time 
present  and  past  as  nunc  and  tune  (see  §  285  and  291), 
that  is,  every  thing  which  a  person,  when  speaking  of  time 
really  present,  expresses  by  hie  and  its  derivative  adverbs 
hie,  kinc,  hue  and  adJiuc,  is  expressed  by  ille  and  its  de- 
rivatives, when  it  is  spoken  of  as  belonging  to  time  past. 
The  Syracusans,  as  Cicero  (in  Verr.,'\v.,  62)  relates,  com- 
plained senatum  populumque  Sijracusanum  moleste  fcrre, 
quod  ego,  quum  in  ceteris  Siciliae  civitatibus  senatum  pop- 
ulumque docuissem,  quid  eis  utilitatis  off  err  em,  et  quum.  ab 
omnibus  mandata,  legatos,  litteras  testimoniaque  sumpsis- 
sem,  in  ilia  civitate  nihil  ejusmodi facer  em.  In  direct  speech 
they  themselves  would  say,  querimur  in  hac  civitate  te  ni- 
hil ejusmodi  facere.  In  the  same  manner,  c.  29,  Rex  cla- 
mare  coepit,  candelabrum  sibi  C.  Verrem  abstulisse:  id  etsi 
antea  jam  mente  et  cogitatione  sua  fratrisque  sui  consecra- 
tum  esset,  tamen  turn  se  in  illo  conventu  civium  Romanorum 
dare,  donure,  dicare,  consecrare  Jovi  Opt.  Max. ;  he  him- 
self would  say,  tamen  nunc  in  hoc  conventu  do,  &c. 

[§  704.]   12.  In  the  connexion  of  sentences  is,  idem,  ta- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.         455 

lif,  tantus,  tot  or  totidem,  are  followed  (sometimes  the  ar- 
rangement of  words  produces  the  reversed  order)  by  the 
relative  pronouns  qui,  qualis,  quantus,  quot.  This  must 
be  particularly  attended  to  by  the  beginner,  as  the  English 
language  usually  employs  "  as"  instead  of  the  relative ; 
e.  g.,  qualem  te  jam  antea  populo  Romano  praebuisti,  talem 
te  nobis  hoc  tempore  imperil ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vii.,  1,  videre 
mihi  video?'  tantam  dimicationem,  quanta  nunquamfuit,  as 
there  never  was.  Farther,  eodem  modo  me  decepit  quo  te; 
cadem  facilitate  Grraecos  scriptores  intelligere,  qua  Latinos  ; 
idem  quod  tu  passus  sum  ;  iidem  abeunt  qui  venerunt.  In- 
stead of  the  relative  after  ide?n,  talis,  and  totidem,  howev- 
er, we  may  also  use  ac,  atque,  or  ut.  See  §  340.  Cic., 
in  Vat.,  4,  honos.  talis  paucis  est  delatus  ac  mihi  ;  Tusc.,  ii., 
3,  eisdemfere  verbis  cxponimus,  ut  actum  disputatumque  est. 
Idem  cum  also  occurs  ;  as,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xv.,  2,  eodem  me- 
cum  patrc  genitus,  instead  of  quo  ego.  The  construction 
of  idem  with  the  dative  is  pure  Greek,  and  occurs  only 
in  poetry,  and  even  there  very. rarely ;  e.  g.,  Horat.,  Ars 
Poet.,  467,  Invitum  qui  servat  idem  facit  occidenti ;  i.  e., 
quod  occidens,  or  quasi  occidat ;  Ovid.,  Amor.,  i.,  4,  1,  Vir 
tuus  est  epulas  nobis  aditurus  easdem.  Similis  is  construed 
like  idem,  in  Horat.,  Serm.,  i.,  3,  122,  quum  magnis  parva 
mineris  falce  recisurum  simili  te,  to  cut  down  with  equal 
sickle  small  as  well  as  great  things. 

[§  705.]  13.  Qui  joined  to  esse  and  a  substantive,  either 
in  the  nominative  or  ablative  of  quality,  is  used  in  explan- 
atory clauses  instead  of  pro,  "in  accordance  with,"  or,  "  ac- 
cording to ;"  e.  g.,  instead  of  Tu,  pro  tua  prudentia,  quid 
optimum  factu  sit,  vidcbis,  in  Cicero  (ad  Fam.,  x.,  27),  we 
may  say,  Facile,  quae  tua  est  prudentia,  or  qua  prudentia 
es,  quid  optimum  factu  sit,  videbis.  Examples  are  nu- 
merous :  D.  Brut.,  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xi.,  13,  Attendere  te 
volo,  quae  in  manibus  sunt.  Qua  enim  prudentia  es,  nihil 
te  fugiet,  si  meas  littcras  diligcnter  legeris  ;  Cic.,  ad  Att., 
vi.,  9,  Quare  de  7ioc  satis :  spero  enim,  quae  tua  prudentia 
et  temperantia  est,  te  jam,  ut  volumus,  valere  ;  ad  Fam., 
xii.,  29,  Nee  dubito,  quin  sine  mea  commendatione,  quod 
tuum  est  judicium  de  hominibus,  ipsius  Lamiae  causa  stu- 
diose  omnia  facturus  sis. 

[§  706.]  14.  We  observed  above  (§  128)  that  the  rela- 
tiva  gcneralia,  which  are  formed  either  by  doubling  the 
simple  relative,  or  by  the  suffix  cunque;  as,  quisquis  and 


456  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

quicunque,  are  in  classical  prose  always  joined  with  a  verb, 
and  form  the  protasis.  When,  notwithstanding  this,  we 
sometimes  read  in  Cic.,  quacunque  ratione  and  quoquo  modo, 
in  the  sense  of  omni  ratione,  omni  modo,  we  must  explain 
such  expressions  by  means  of  an  ellipsis;  e.  g.,  quacunque 
ratione  Jieri  potcst.  But  in  later  writers  we  frequently 
find  quicunque  used  in  this  absolute  sense  for  quivis  or 
quilibet ;  e.  g.,  Sueton.,  Claud.,  34,  quocunque  gladiatorio 
munere  prolapsos  jugulari  jubebat ;  Quintil.,  x.,  1,  105, 
Ciceroncm  cuicunque  eorum  fortiter  opposuerim,  and  this 
author  and  Tacitus  use  it  quite  commonly  in  this  sense  ; 
but  the  fact  of  such  peculiarities,  which  are  founded  on 
the  whole  structure  of  a  language,  being  effaced,  is  a  sign 
of  the  decay  of  the  language.  Qualiscunque  and  quan- 
tuscunque  are  likewise  used  in  an  absolute  sense  (by  means 
of  an  ellipsis),  which,  however,  cannot  be  censured,  the 
force  of  the  expression  being  thus  enhanced;  e.  g.,  Senec., 
Epist.,  80,  Tu  non  concupisccs  quanticunque  ad  libertatcm 
pervenire,  at  any  price,  be  it  ever  so  high;  Cic.,  ad Fam., 
iv.,  8,  Si  libertatem  scquimur :  qui  locus  hoc  dominatu  va- 
cat  ?  sin  qualemcunque  locum  :  quae  est  domestica  sede  ju- 
cundior. 

[§  707.J  15.  Quidam,  some,  and  substantively,  "  some 
one,"  expresses  qualitative  indefiniteness,  and  it  is  strange 
to  find  that  certi  homines  is  used  in  the  same  sense  (e.  g., 
Cicero,  Tusc.,  iii.,  34),  just  as  we  say  "  certain  people." 
Quidam  expressing  quantitative  indefiniteness,  in  the 
sense  of  nonnulli,  aliquot,  occurs  more  rarely.  We  must 
here  observe  that  quidam,  when  joined  to  substantives  and 
adjectives,  is  very  often  used  merely  to  soften  the  expres- 
sion when  the  speaker  feels  that  he  has  made  use  of  too 
strong  an  expression,  especially  when  he  means  to  sug- 
gest that  the  word  he  has  used  should  not  be  taken  in  its 
literal,  but  in  a  figurative  sense.  The  best  Latin  writers, 
and  more  particularly  Cicero,  are  very  scrupulous  in  their 
application  of  words,  and  add  their  quidam  or  quasi  qui- 
dam, where  later  writers  and  modern  languages  do  not 
feel  any  necessity  for  such  a  modifying  or  softening  word. 
When  in  English  anything  of  the  kind  is  required,  it  is 
expressed  in  different  ways,  one  of  which  is  the  expres- 
sion, "so  to  speak,"  which  is  also  not  unfrequently  used 
in  Latin,  ut  ita  dicam.  In  the  following  passages  quidam 
softens  down  adjectives;  Cic., ad  Fam.,vui.,  8,  ex  tuislit- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          457 

teris  cognovi  praeposteram  q'uandam  festinationem  tuam ; 
yL\i.,25,fuit  enim  illud  quoddam  caecum  tempus  servitutis  ; 
de  Orat.,  ii.,  74,  ut  apud  Graecos  fertur  incredibili  quadam 
magnitudine  consilii  atque  ingenii  AtJieniensis  ille  fuisse 
Themistocles  ;  Lad.,  13,  non  sunt  isti  audiendi,  qui  virtu- 
tern  duram  et  quasi  ferream  quandam  volunt ;  and  in  the 
following  it  softens  down  substantives;  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  ii., 
46,  Saepe  enim  audivi,  poetam  bonum  neminem  sineinflam- 
matione  animorum  existere  posse,  et  sine  quodam  ajflatu 
quasi  furoris  ;  i.,  3,  Neque  enim  te  fugit,  artium  omnium 
laudatarum  procreatricem  quandam  et  quasi  parentem  phi- 
losophiam  ab  liominibus  doctissimis  judicari ;  2J-  Arch.,  1, 
Eteni7n  omnes  artes,  quae  ad  liumanitatem  pertinent,  liabent 
quoddam  commune  vinculum  et  quasi  cognatione  quadam 
inter  se  continentur.  Tamquam  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  iii.,  43,  Translatum  verbmn  max- 
ime  tamquam  stellis  quibusdam  notat  et  illuminat  ora- 
tionem. 

[§  708.]  16.  There  is  this  difference  between  the  sim- 
ple indefinite  pronoun,  quis,  qui,  and  the  compound  ali- 
quis,  that  the  latter  is  more  emphatic  than  the  former. 
Hence  aliquis  stands  by  itself  as  an  independent  word, 
while  the  unaccented  quis  is  joined  to  other  words,  more 
especially  to  the  conjunctions  si,  nisi,  ne,  num,  and  to  rel- 
atives, and  quum,  which  originally  was  a  relative  (§  136); 
sometimes  one  or  more  words  are  inserted  between  quis 
and  the  words  to-which  it  belongs;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i., 
10,  lllis  promissis  standum  non  est,  quae  coactus  quis  metu 
promiserit ;  Tusc.,  iv.,  19,  Ubi  enim  quid  csset,  quod  disci 
posset,  eo  veniendum  judicaverunt ;  v.,  27,  mulieres  in  In- 
dia, quum  est  cujus  earum  vir  mortuus ;  de  Fin.,  v.,  10, 
quotienscunque  dicetur  male  de  se  quis  mereri.  In  other 
connexions,  however,  quis  is  used  with  somewhat  more 
independence ;  as,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  vi.,  1,  credo  Scaptium 
iniquius  quid  de  me  scripsisse ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  6,  morbus  aut 
egestas  aut  quid  ejusmodi  ;  de  Fin.,  iii.,  21,  alienum  est  a 
justitia  detrahere  quid  de  all  quo,  and  immediately  after, 
injuriam  cuifacere  ;  de  Nat.  Dcor.,  i.,  2±,priusque  te  quis 
de  omni  vitae  statu,  quam  de  ista  auctoritatc  dejecerit,  and 
we  not  unfrequently  find  dixcrit  quis,  some  one  might  say. 
But  such  passages  are,  after  all,  of  very  rare  occurrence 
in  the  language  of  Cicero,  and  it  is  advisable  to  follow  his 


458  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

example  rather  than  that  of  later  writers,  who  used  the 
indefinite  quis  more  frequently  in  the  place  of  aliquis. 

It  must,  however,  be  observed,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
aliquis  is  used  after  those  conjunctions  which  usually  re- 
quire quis,  when  it  stands  in  an  antithetical  relation  to 
something  else,  and,  accordingly,  has  a  stronger  emphasis; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Milon,  24,  Timcbat  Pompeius  omnia,  ne  ali- 
quid vos  timer  ctis  ;  Philip.,  xiii.,  1,  Si  aliquid  de  summa 
gravitate  Pompeius •,  multum  de  cupiditate  Caesar  remisis- 
set ;  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  1,  cui  si  aliquid  erit  (if  he  has  but 
something)  nc  cgeat,  mediocri  virtute  opus  cst,  ut  cetera  con- 
scquatur;  Liv.,  xxiv.,  8,  Create  consulem  T.  Otacilium,  non 
dico  si  omnia  hacc,  scd  si  aliquid  corum  praestitit.  We 
are  sometimes  obliged,  in  English,  to  express  the  empha- 
sis of  aliquis  by  the  word  "really;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj., 
20,  Scnsus  moriendi,  si  aliquis  esse  potest,  is  ad  exiguum 
tempus  durat ;  ibid.,  13,  si  aliquid  dandum  est  voluptati, 
senectus  modicis  conviv Us  potest  dclectari.  Comp.  ad  Fam., 
xi.,  18,  3;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  31,  77. 

Quispiam,  which  is  used  more  rarely,  is  sometimes  em- 
ployed, like  quis,  after  conjunctions ;  as  in  Cicero,  pecu- 
niam  si  cuipiam  fortuna  ademit ;  si  grando  quippiam  no- 
cuit;  and  sometimes  it  stands  alone;  e.  g.,  quaeretfortasse 
quispiam,  where  quispiam  is  rather  more  indefinite  than 
aliquis  would  be. 

[§  709.]  17.  The  difference  between  quisquam  and  ul- 
lus  is  this,  that  quisquam  is  used  substantively  (we  must, 
however,  bear  in  mind  what  was  said  in  §  676),  while  ul- 
lus  is  an  adjective  ;  both,  however,  have  a  negative  sense, 
and  are  thus  opposed  to  the  affirmatives  quis,  quispiam, 
and  aliquis.  They  are  used,  like  the  adverbs  unquam 
and  usquam  (see  §  284),  only  in  such  sentences  as  are  neg- 
ative, either  through  the  negative  particles  non,  neque, 
nemo,  nunquam,  &c.,  or  through  a  negative  verb  ;  as,  nego, 
nescio,  veto,  ignoro,  or  through  their  whole  construction ; 
e.  g.,  nego  fore  quemquam,  or,  ncgo  fore  ullum  liominem, 
which  are  equivalent  to  nemincm,  or  nullum  hominemforc, 
puto,  so  that  quisquam  corresponds  to  the  substantive  ne- 
mo, and  ullus  to  the  adjective  nullus.  Cic.,  Philip.,  x.,  7, 
Ab  hoc  igitur  quisquambellum  timct?  which,  if  we  resolve 
the  interrogative  form,  will  be  nemo  ab  hoc  bcllu??i  timet. 
A  sentence  may  acquire  a  negative  character  from  a  com- 
parative ;  e.  g.,  when  I  say,  "he  stayed  in  this  place  lonsf- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          459 

er  than  in  any  other,"  the  meaning  is,  "he  did  not  stay 
so  long  in  any  other  place."  Hence  we  say  in  Latin, 
-diutius  in  hac  urbc  quam  in  alia  ulla  commoratus  est ;  Gic., 
in  Vcrr.,  iv.,  55,  Tctrior  hie  tyrannus  Syracusanus  Juit 
quam  quisquam  superiorum.  It  seems  surprising  that  quis, 
and  not  quisquam,  is  used  after  the  dependent  negative 
particles  ne,  neve,  and  after  the  negative  interrogative  par- 
ticle num  ;  and  this  is,  indeed,  an  exception  arising  from 
the  ordinary  use  of  quis  after  conjunctions.  The  preposi- 
tion sine  has  likewise  a  negative  power ;  hence  we  say, 
sine  ulla  sjie  ;  and  hence  non  sine  is  affirmative;  e.  g.,  non 
sine  aliqua  spe  hue  venerunt,  not  without  some  hope;  i.e., 
cum  aliqua  spe.  See  my  note  on  Cic.,  Divin.,  IS. 

[§  709.  b.]    Quisquam   and  ullus,  however,  are  some- 
times used  after  si,  instead  of  aliquis  or  quis,  not  in  a  neg- 
ative sense,  but  only  to  increase  the  indefiniteness  which 
would  be  implied  in  aliquis  or  quis  ;   e.  g.,  Cic.,  Lad.,  2, 
Aut  cnim  nemo,  quod  quidem  magis  credo,  aut,  si  quisquam, 
ille  sapiens  fuit ;   dc  Off.,  i.,  31,  Omnino,  si  quidquam  cst 
decorum,  nihil  est  profecto  magis,  quam  aequabilitas  uni- 
vcrsae  vitae ;  ad  Fam.,  ii.,  16,  Filio  meo,  si  erit  ulla  res 
publica,  satis  amplum  patrimonium  in  memoria  nominis 
mei :  sin  autcm  nulla  erit,  &c.,  here  the  former  part  with 
ulla  is  meant  in  the  affirmative.     In  Liv.,  v.,  33,  Camillo 
mancnte,  si  quidquam  Jiumanorum  certi  cst,  capi  Roma  non 
potuerat,  the  negative  sense  is  still  perceptible,  for,  in  fact, 
nothing  human  can  be  asserted  with  certainty ;   and  such 
passages  may  serve  to  explain  many  similar  ones.    In  this 
manner  it  gradually  came  to  pass  that  quisquam,  ullus, 
unquam,  usquam  were  also  used  without  si,  where  the  in- 
definiteness is  to  be  made  emphatic  (answering  to  the  em- 
phatic any)  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  2,  Quamdiu  quisquam  erit, 
qui   tc   dcfendcre  audeat,  vivcs  ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  43,  Dum 
pracsidia  ulla  fucrunt,  Roscius  in  Sidlae  praesidiis  Juit ; 
Nep.,  Att.,  19,  Tanta  prosperitas  Caesarcm  cst  consccuta, 
ut  nihil  ei  non  tribuerit  fortuna,  quod  cuiquam  ante  detu- 
lerit ;  Liv.,  i.,  18,  Curibus  Sabinis  halritabat  consultissimus 
vir,  ut  in  ilia  quisquam  esse  aetate  poterat  ;  xxi.,  1,  helium 
maxime  omnium   mcmorabile,   quac  unquam   gcsta  sunt, 
scripturus  sum  ;   Tacit.,  Ann.,  xi.,  24,  majores  mci  hortan- 
tur,  ut  paribus  consiliis  rcm  publicam  capessam  transferen- 
do  hue  quod  usquam  cgrcgium  fuent;  Q,uintil.,  x.,  1,  60, 
Archilochus  quod  quoqiiam  minor  cst,  matcriae  I'itium  est, 


460  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

non  ingenii ;  and  Seneca  (de  Tranquil.,  11)  uses  it,  in  a 
witty  antithesis,  in  a  decidedly  affirmative  sense,  cuivis 
2)otest  accidere,  quod  cuiquam  potest. 

[§710.]  18.  Quisque  is  every  one  distributively  or  rel- 
atively, but  unusquisque,  quivis,  quilibet,  every  one  abso- 
lutely ;  e.g.,  natura  unu?nquemque  trahit  ad  discendum  ; 
but  (Quintil.,  ii.,  8,  init.)  virtus  praeceptoru  haberi  solet, 
quo  quern  que  natura  maxime  ferat,  scire,  presupposes  a  di- 
vision or  distribution,  every  one  in  his  own  particular  way. 
Hence  quisque  has  its  peculiar  place  after  relative  and  in- 
terrogative pronouns  and  adverbs;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv., 
33,  Scijrio  pollicetur  sibi  magnae  cur ae  fore,  ut  omnia  civ- 
itatibus,  quae  cujusque  fuissent,  restituerentur  ;  de  Divin., 
i.,  1,  ut  praedici  posset,  quid  cuique  eventurum  et  quo  quis- 
que fato  natus  esset;  i.,  39,  Cur  fiat  quidque  quacris :  recte 
omnino  ;  p.  Rose.  Com.,  11,  Quo  quisque  est  sollertior  ct 
ingeniosior,  hoc  docet  iracundius  et  laboriosius ;  de  Orat., 
i.,  26,  Ut  quisque  optime  dicit,  ita  maxime  dicendi  difficul- 
tatcm  timet ;  Liv.,  iii.,  27,  vallum  sumpsere,  unde  cuique 
proximumfuit,  and  in  innumerable  other  passages.  Hence 
the  expression  quotusquisque  in  the  sense  of  "  how  few 
among  all']"  as,  Pliny,  Epistolae,  iii.,  20,  Quotocuique 
eadem  honestatis  cura  sccrcto,  quae  palam  ?  Quisque  is 
farther  used  distributively  after  numerals;  e.  g.,  decimus 
quisque  sorte  lectus,  every  tenth  man ;  quinto  quoque  anno 
ludi  celcbrabantur,  in  every  fifth  year ;  tertio  quoque  verbo 
peccat ;  and  after  suus,  a,  um;  as,  sui  cuique  liberi  caris- 
simi,  suum  cuique  placet,  suae  quemque  fortunae  maxime 
pocnitct,  where  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  words  (see  §  801),  and  also  to  the  fact  of  quisque 
remaining  in  the  nominat.  in  the  construction  of  the  ablat. 
absolute ;  e.  g.,  Sallust,  Jug.,  18,  multis  sibi  quisque  im- 
perium  petentibus  ;  Justin.,  xxix.,  1,  Ms  regibus  in  suorum 
quisque  majorum  vestigia  nitentibus  ;  Liv.,  xxi.,  45,  omnes, 
velut  diis  auctoribus  in  spem  suam  quisque  acceptis,  proeli- 
um  poscunt.  (See  Kritz  on  the  passage  of  Sallust.)  In 
the  same  manner,  we  find  quisque  in  the  accusat.  with  the 
infinitive  in  Liv.,  xxvi.,  29,  ajjirmantes,  se  non  modo  suam 
quisque  patriam,  sed  totam  Siciliam  relicturos. 

[§  710,  b.]  Quisque  with  a  superlative,  both  in  the  sin- 
gular and  plural ;  as,  optimus  quisque,  or  (adject.)  optimi 
quique,  is,  in  general,  equivalent  to  omnes  with  the  positive, 
but  in  connexion  with  the  verb  following  it  conveys  the 


PECULIARITIES    IN   THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          461 

idea  of  a  reciprocal  comparison  among  the  persons  im- 
plied in  the  statement ;  as,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii.,  28,  Quid  ?  ex 
•  ccteris  philosophis  nonne  optimus  quisque  ct  gravissimus 
conjitetur,  multa  se  ignorare  ?  Hence  this  superlative  is 
frequently  in  relation  to  another,  which  is  joined  with  the 
verb,  whereby  the  reciprocal  comparison  is  distinctly  ex- 
pressed ;  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  23,  Quod  quidem  ni  ita  sc  habe- 
ret,  ut  animi  immortales  essent,  hand  optimi  cujusque  ani- 
mus maxime  ad  immortalitatem  gloriae  niteretur.  Quid 
quod  sapientissimus  quisque  aequissimo  animo  moritur,  stul- 
tissimus  iniquissimo  ?  de  Fin.,  ii.,  25,  in  omni  enim  arte 
optimum  quidque  rarissimum ;  Curt.,  vii.,  16,  Altissima 
quaeque  flumina  minimo  sono  labuntur  ;  Liv.,  xxx.,  30, 
Maximae  cuique  fortunae  minime  credendum  est. 

[§  711.]  19.  The  interrogative  quid  is  often  used  in  the 
sense  of  "why]"  or,  "for  what  purposed"  (comp.  nikil, 
§  677);  e.g.,  quid  me  ostentem?  why  should  I  boast?  quid 
opus  est  plura  ?  why  should  I  say  more  "?  Also,  in  indi- 
rect questions ;  as,  Cicero,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  12,  A  Fimbria 
quaerebatur,  quid  tandem  accusaturus  esset  eum,  qucm  pro 
dignitate  ne  laudare  quidem  quisqua?n  satis  commode  pos- 
set;  p.  Muren.,  37,  Quaeris  a  me,  quid  ego  Catilinam  mc- 
tuam.  Nihil,  et  curavi  ne  quis  metueret. 

[§  712.]  20.  Alius  is  joined  in  a  peculiar  way  to  other 
cases  of  its  own,  or  to  adverbs  derived  from  alms,  for 
which  in  English  we  use  two  sentences  with  the  one,  the 
other  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  aliud  aliis  videtur  optimum,  one  thinks 
this  and  another  that  the  best ;  alius  olio  modo  interpreta- 
tur,  the  one  interprets  it  in  this,  and  the  other  in  another 
way,  or  every  one  interprets  it  differently ;  alia  olio  in  loco 
intuebantur  ;  aliter  cum  aliis  loquitur  ;  aliis  aliunde  peri- 
culum  est;  aliud  alias  mihi  videtur.  When  only  two  per- 
sons or  things  are  spoken  of,  alter  is  used  in  the  same 
way,  but  there  are  no  adverbs  derived  from  alter  ;  e.  g., 
alter  in  alterum  causam  conferunt,  they  accuse  each  other. 
We  may  here  add  the  remark  that  alius — alius  and  the 
other  derivatives  are  employed  in  two  sentences  for  alms, 
aliter,  alias,  &c.,  with  ac  or  atque  (than)  ;  e.  g.,  aliud  lo- 
quitur, aliud  sentit,  he  speaks  otherwise  than  he  thinks; 
aliter  loquitur,  aliter  scribit,  he  speaks  otherwise  than  he 
writes. 


462  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


D.    Verbs. 

[§  713.]  1.  The  English  verb  "to  order"  or  "have,"  in 
the  sense  of  "  to  order,"  is  frequently  not  expressed  in 
Latin,  but  is  implied  in  the  verb,  which,  in  English,  is  de- 
pendent upon  the  verb  "to  order;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,m  Fm\,iv., 
25,  Piso  annulum  sibi  fecit,  Piso  ordered  a  ring  to  be  made 
for  himself,  or,  had  a  ring  made  for  himself;  ibid.,  29, 
Verres  ad  palum  alligavit  piratas,  he  had  them  tied  to  a 
post ;  securi  percussit  arckipiratam,  he  had  the  archpirate 
put  to  death ;  multos  innocentes  virgis  cecidit;  Nep.,  dm., 
4,  Cimon  complures  j)auperes  mortuos  suo  sumptu  extulit, 
had  them  buried.  In  like  manner,  condemnare  is  used  of 
an  accuser  who  brings  about  a  person's  condemnation. 

[§  714.]  2.  It  has  already  been  observed  (§  637)  that 
the  Latins  generally  prefer  using  a  verb  in  the  form  ei- 
ther of  the  participle  perfect  or  future  passive,  instead  of 
a  substantive  expressing  the  action  of  the  verb.  The 
present  participle  is  likewise  often  used  in  Latin  to  ex- 
press a  state  or  condition  where  we  employ  a  substantive 
with  a  preposition ;  e.  g.,  ignorans,  from  ignorance  ;  me- 
tuens,  from  fear;  consulatum  pctens,  in  his  suit  for  the  con- 
sulship ;  omne  malum  nascens  facile  oppri?)iitur,  in  its  ori- 
gin. The  Latin  language  is  not  fond  of  abstract  nouns, 
and  prefers,  if  possible,  to  express  them  by  verbs. 

3.  In  like  manner,  circumlocutions,  by  means  of  a  verb 
and  a  relative  pronoun,  are  preferred  to  those  substan- 
tives which  denote  the  person  of  the  agent  in  a  definite, 
but  not  permanent  condition;  e.  g.,  ii  qui  audiunt,  qui  ad- 
sunt,  qui  cum  aliquo  sunt,  qui  tibi  has  litteras  reddent ;  i.  e., 
the  audience,  the  persons  present,  companions,  the  bearer 
of  the  letter ;  is  qui  potestatem  habet,  the  commander  or 
ruler ;  ea  quae  visenda  sunt,  things  to  be  seen,  or  curiosi- 
ties; thus  we  often  find  ii  qui  consuluntur,  for  juris  consul- 
ti ;  qui  res  judicant,  for  judiccs,  since  in  the  Roman  con- 
stitution they  did  not  form  a  distinct  class  of  citizens. 
The  English  expression  "  above  mentioned"  is  likewise 
paraphrased  by  a  verb  ;  e.  g.,  ex  libris,  quos  dixi,  quos 
ante  (supra)  laudavi  ;  Cic.,  de  Ojf.,  ii.,  9,  primum' de  illis 
tribus,quae  ante  dixi,  videamus;  the  English  "so-called," 
or,  "  what  is  called,"  is  expressed  by  quern,  quam,  quod 
vacant,  or  by  qui,  quae,  quod  vocatur,  dicitur,  &c. ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  de  Leg.,  ii.,  26,  ncquc  operc  tcctorio  exornari  sepul- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE   PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          463 

chra,  nee  Hernias  hos,quos  vocant,  imponi  (Athenis)  licebat ; 
Liv.,  xlv.,  33,  ad  Spelaeum,  quod  vocant,  biduo  moratus  ; 
Cic.,  de  Re  Publ.,  vi.,  14,  vestra,  quae  dicitur,  vita  mors 
cst ;  p.  Quint.,  6,  Cum  venissent  ad  Vada  Volaterrana, 
quae  nominantur,  vident  L.  Publicium. 

[§  715.]  4.  The  connexion  of  two  substantives  by  means 
of  a  preposition  is  frequently  paraphrased  in  Latin  by  a 
sentence  ;  e.  g.,  your  conduct  towards  this  or  that  person, 
agendi  ratio,  qua  uteris,  or  usus  es  adversus  hunc  velillum; 
Cicero's  works  on  Duties  may  be  expressed  by  Cic&ronis 
libri  de  Officiis,  but  more  generally  Ciceronis  libri  quos 
scripsit  de  Officiis,  or  libri  de  Officiis  scripti.  Certain  pro- 
nominal expressions  are  likewise  rendered  in  Latin  by 
special  sentences ;  e.  g.,  I  have  no  doubt  of  it,  non  dubito 
quin  hoc  ita  sit,  quin  hoc  ita  se  liabeat,  quin  hoc  verum  sit; 
many  things  have  prevented  me  from  it,  multa  me  impcdi- 
vermit,  quominus  lioc  facerem.  The  ablative  absolute  quo 
facto,  whereupon,  which  is  in  common  use,  belongs  to  the 
same  class  of  expressions. 

[§  716.]  5.  It  is  customary  in  an  answer  to  repeat  the 
verb  used  in  the  question ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  4,  nempe 
negas  ad  beate  vivendum  satis  posse  virtutem  ?  Prorsus 
nego  ;  Flor.,  i.,  5,  Tarquinius  Navium  rogavit,Jierine  pos- 
set, quod  ipse  mente  conceperat :  ille  posse  respondit ;  Cic., 
Tusc.,  iii.,  4,  haecine  igitur  cadere  in  sapientem  putas  ? 
Prorsus  existimo,  for  puto.  Comp.  the  ancient  formula  of 
deditio,  in  Liv.,  i.,  38.  The  same  is  the  case  when  a  neg- 
ative is  introduced,  Estne  f rater  tuus  intus  ?  Non  est. 
(Non  alone  is  used  more  rarely.)  The  adverb  vero,  cer- 
tainly, is  frequently  added  to  the  verb  in  an  affirmative 
answer;  as,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  11,  dasne  aut  mancre  animos 
2)ost  monem,  aut  morte  ipsa  interire  ?  Do  vero.  Hence, 
when  the  protasis  supplies  the  place  of  a  question,  vero  is 
introduced  in  the  apodosis  merely  to  show  that  it  contains 
the  answer ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Flacc.,  40,  Quod  si  provincia- 
rum  ratio  vos  magis  movet  quam  vestra :  ego  vero  non  mo- 
do  non  recuso,  sed  etiam  postulo,  ut  provinciarum  auctori- 
tate  moveamini ;  p.  Muren.,  4,  Quodsi  licet  desinere,  si  te 
auctore  possum — ego  vero  libcntcr  dcsino;  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  3, 
Quod  scribis,  te,  si  velim,  ad  me  venturam :  ego  vero,  quum 
sciam  magnam  partem  istius  oneris  abs  te  sustineri,  te  istic 
essc  volo.  Cicero  begins  his  answer  to  the  celebrated  con- 
solatory letter  of  S.  Sulpicius  in  the  following  manner  : 


464  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Ego  vero,  Servi,  vettem,  ut  scribis,  in  mco  gravissimo  casu 
ajf'uisscs.  For  Sulpicius  had  mentioned  in  his  letter  what 
he  would  have  done  if  he  had  been  at  Rome  at  the  time. 
Hence  we  so  frequently  find  quasi  vero  and  immo  vero  in 
the  same  connexion,  but  the  latter  only  when  that  which 
precedes  is  denied,  and  something  still  stronger  is  put  in 
its  place.  The  verb  may  also  be  omitted  in  the  answer, 
and  in  case  of  its  being  affirmative,  the  pronoun  of  the 
verb  alone  is  sometimes  repeated  with  vero;  e.  g.,  dicamne 
quod  scntio  ?  Tu  vero;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  13,-  quaero,  si 
hoc  cmptor'ibus  venditor  non  dixerit — num  id  injuste  aut  im- 
probcfecerit.  Illc  vero,  inquit  Antipater  ;  ad,  Att.,  xi.,  7, 
Quod  rogas,  ut  in  bonam  partcm  accipiam,  si  qua' sint  in 
tuis  littcris,  quae  me  mordeant :  ego  vero  in  optimam. 
Hence,  lastly,  the  use  of  vero  alone  in  the  sense  of  "yes," 
and  equivalent  to  sane,  ita,  ctiam  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Divin., 
i.,  46,  illam  autem  dixisse  :  Vero,  mea  puella,  tibi  concedo 
meas  scdes.  (See  §  357.)  Vero  occurs  very  rarely  in 
negative  answers,  but  is  found  in  the  expression  minime 
vero. 

[§  717. j  6.  When  a  circumstance  is  added,  supplement- 
ary, as  it  were,  to  a  preceding  verb,  the  verb  is  frequent- 
ly repeated ;  e.  g.,  Pompey  obtained  the  highest  dignities 
in  the  state,  and  that  at  an  earlier  age  than  any  one  before 
him,  Pompeius  summos  in  repiiblica  lionores  assecutus  est, 
et  assecutus  cst  maturius  quam  quisquam  ante  eum ;  Cic., 
de  Off.,  iii.,  14,  Emit  (hortos)  tanti,  qunnti  Pytidus  voluit, 
et  emit  instructos. 

[§  718.]  7.  A  similar  repetition  of  a  preceding  verb,  but 
in  the  participle  perfect  passive,  expresses  the  completion 
of  an  action,  which  in  English  is  commonly  indicated  by 
"then"  or  "afterward;"  e.  g.,mandavit  milii  ut  epistolam 
scriberem,  scriptam  sibi  darem  ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Civ.,  i.,  76, 
edicunt  ut  producantur :  2)r°ductos  palam  in  praetorio  in- 
terficiunt ;  Liv.,  i.,  10,  exercitum  fundit  fugatque,  Jusum 
pcrsequitur ;  comp.  ii.,  28;  xxii.,  20. 

[§  719.]  8.  Respecting  the  circumlocution  of  the  abla- 
tivus  causalis,  by  means  of  the  participles  ductus,  motus, 
commotus,  adductus,  captus,  incensus,  impulsus,  and  others 
of  similar  meaning,  see  §  454 ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Alcib.,  5, 
Lacedaemonii pertimuerunt,  ne  caritate patriae  ductus  (from 
love  of  his  country)  aliquando  ab  ipsis  descisceret  et  cum 
suis  in  gratiam  rediret ;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  10,  Jam  illis  pro- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.         465 

missis  standum  non  esse,  quis  non  videt,  quae  coactus  quis 
metu  promiserit  ?  de  Invent.,  ii.,  8,  dubia  spe  impulsus  cer- 
tum  in  periculum  se  commisit ;  ad  Fam.,ii\.,  8,  quum  hoc 
suscepissem  non  solum  justitia,  sed  etiam  misericordia  ad- 
ductus. 

[§  720.]  9.  Soleo  aliquid  facere  and  solet  aliquid  fieri  are 
very  frequently  nothing  but  forms  of  expression  for  saepe 
hoc  facio ,  saepe  or  plerumque  Jit ;  and  in  this  sense  it  must 
be  understood,  especially  in  the  infinitive;  e.  g.,  narrabat 
patrem  suum  solitum  esse  dicere,  he  related  that  his  father 
used  to  say,  or  often  said. 

[§  721.]  10.  The  expressions  ncscio  an  andkaud  sew  an 
(the  latter  is  frequent  in  Cicero,  but  occurs  only  once  in 
Livy,  iii.,  60,  and  in  ix.,  15,  haud  sciam  an)  have  been 
discussed  above,  §  354,  but  only  briefly.  This  expression, 
which  properly  signifies  "I  know  not,  whether  not,"  has 
acquired  the  meaning  of  the  adverbybr&me,  perhaps;  e. 
g.,  Cic.,  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  i.,  1,  Tanti  tibi  Jwnorcs  habiti 
sunt,  quanti  haud  scio  an  nemini ;  Brut.,  33,  eloquentid 
quidem  (C.  Gracchus,  si  diutius  vixisset)  nescio  an  habuis- 
set  parem  neminem,  he  would,  perhaps,  not  have  had  his 
equal ;  p.  Lig.,  9,  Quae  Juit  unquam  in  ullo  Jwmine  tanta 
constantia  ?  constantiam  dico  ?  nescio  an  mdius  patientiam 
possim  dicere;  de  Fin.,  v.,  3,  PeripateticorumJ'uit  princcps 
Aristoteles,  quern  exccpto  Platone  haud  scio  an  recte  dixerim 
principem  pliilosoplwrum.  This  adverbial  signification, 
perhaps,  accounts  for  the  indicative  which  occurs  in  Ter- 
ence, Adelph.,  iv.,  5,  33,  qui  infelix  haud  scio  an  illam  mi- 
sere  nunc  a?nat,  but  should  not  be  imitated.  Hence  it  ap- 
pears that  we  ought  always  to  say  nescio  an  nullus,  nun- 
quam,  as  in  the  above  passages,  ncscio  an  nemo,  and  also 
in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  2,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  14,  12,  and  Nepos, 
Timol.,  1.  And  this,  indeed,  is  the  reading  which  learn- 
ed critics  (Lambinus,  Ernesti,  Goerenz)  have  introduced 
in  Cicero;  e.  g.,  Cat.  Maj.,  16,  mea  quidem  sentcntia  haud 
scio  an  nulla  bcatior  esse  possit ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  21,  hoc  diju- 
dicari  nescio  an  nunquam,  sed  hoc  sermone  certe  non  poterit. 
See,  also,  ad  Fam.,  ix.,  9,  4;  ad  Alt.,  iv.,  3,  init. ;  de  Orat., 
ii.,  4,  18.  The  authority  of  MSS.  has  recently  been  ur- 
ged against  this  view,  but  wre  think  with  those  editors,  that 
the  authority  of  MSS.  is  of  no  weight  in  so  undisputed  an 
analogy ;  and  the  more  so,  as  in  all  cases  the  MSS.  con- 
tain evidence,  also,  in  favour  of  the  negative,  and  the  dif- 


466  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ferences  between  the  readings  are  insignificant.  There 
is  only  one  passage  in  which  the  difference  is  considera- 
ble, viz.,  Cic.,  Lad.,  6,  qua  quidcm  hand  scio  an  excepta 
sapientia  quidquam  (or  nihil)  melius  homini  sit  datum  ; 
but  even  here  the  reading  nihil  is  sufficiently  attested  by 
MSS.,  to  which  we  may  add  one  of  the  three  Berlin 
MSS.,  the  two  others  having  quicquam.  But  we  must  ob- 
serve, in  conclusion,  that  the  writers  of  the  silver  age  (es- 
pecially Quintilian,  see  Buttmann  on  xii.,  10,  2)  do  not, 
indeed,  give  up  the  use  of  nescio  an  in  the  sense  of  for- 
tasse,  but  along  with  it  they  employ  the  expression  also  in 
the  negative  sense  of  "  I  know  not  whether,"  and  with 
ullus  after  it,  the  ancient  and  limited  use  of  an  having,  in 
the  mean  time,  likewise  become  extended. 

E.  Adverbs. 

[§  722.]  1.  The  Latins  frequently  use  an  adverb  where 
the  English  use  a  substantive  with  a  preposition ;  e.  g., 
vere  hoc  dicere  possum,  I  can  say  this  in  truth,  or  truly. 
In  Latin  the  preposition  cum  is  sometimes  thus  employed 
with  a  substantive  (§  471),  but  the  adverb  occurs  far  more 
frequently,  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  cum  with  a  sub- 
stantive serves  rather  to  denote  some  accessory  circum- 
stance than  anything  inherent  in  the  action. 

2.  As  the  adverb  is  joined  to  a  verb  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  an  adjective  is  joined  to  a  substantive,  the  begin- 
ner must  be  reminded  that  participles,  being  parts  of  a 
verb,  are  qualified  by  adverbs,  and  not  by  adjectives  ;  and 
this  rule  is  observed  even  when  a  participle,  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  has  acquired  the  meaning  of  a  substantive ; 
e.  g.,  inventum,  invention  ;  factum,  fact,  which  are  fre- 
quently joined  with  adverbs.  We  find,  indeed,  illustria, 
fortia,  gloriosa  facta,  but,  at  the  same  time,  bene  facta, 
recte  facta,  good  deeds,  and  always  res  fortitcr,  praeclare, 
fcliciter  a  te  gestae. 

[§  723.]  3.  Respecting  the  special  Use  of  every  separ- 
ate adverb,  see  Chap.  LXII.  :  it  only  remains  here  to  add 
some  remarks  relative  to  the  connexion  of  sentences  by 
means  of  adverbs,  and  to  the  interchange  of  adverbs. 

Sentences  are  connected  by  the  doubled  adverbs  modo 
— modo,  and  nunc — nunc  (sometimes  —  sometimes) ;  as, 
modo  hoc,  modo  illud  dicit ;  modo  hue,  modo  illuc  (volat)  • 
modo  ait,  modo  ncgat.  Nunc — nunc  does  not  occur  in  Cic- 


PECUJLIAlUTlEti    IN    THE    PAUTri    OF   SPEECH.          4(37 

ero,  but  is  found  frequently  in  Livy  and  others ;  as,  nunc 
singulos  provocat,  nunc  omncs  increpat;  referre  egregiafa- 
cinora  nunc  in  expeditionibtts,  nunc  in  acie.  Instead  of  the 
second  modo  other  particles  of  time  are  sometimes  used, 
and  Tacitus,  in  particular,  is  fond  of  varying  his  expres- 
sion, by  substituting  aliquando,  nonnunquam,  inter  dum, 
saepius,  turn,  or  deindc,  for  the  second  modo. 

Partim — partim,  partly — partly,  is  sometimes  used  in 
quite  the  same  sense  as  alii — alii  (or  the  other  genders), 
that  is,  as  the  nominat.  of  a  noun.  See  §  271. 

Simul — simul,  as  well — as,  does  not  occur  in  Cicero, 
but  is  used  by  the  historians,  and  once  by  Caesar,  Bell. 
Gall.,  iv.,  13,  simul  sui  purgandi  causa,  simul  ut,  si  quid 
possent,  de  induciis  impetrarent. 

Qua — qua  does  not  occur  very  frequently,  and  is  equiv- 
alent to  et — et;  as,  Cic..,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  19,  Gladiatoribus  qua 
dominus,  qua  advocati  sibilis  conscissi. 

Turn — turn  is  used  like  modo — modo,  as  an  adverb  of 
time,  or  like  partim — partim,  denoting  divisions  of  equal 
value  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Lael.,  21,  Erumpunt  saepe  vitia  amico- 
rum  turn  in  ipsos  amicos,  turn  in  alienos,  quorum  tamen  ad 
amicos  redundat  infamia  ;  de  Fin.,i,,  14,  Plcrique  propter 
voluptatem  turn  in  morbos  graves,  turn  in  damna,  turn  in 
dedecora  incurrunt ;  de  Off'.,  ii.,  19,  Quae  autem  opera,  non 
largitione,  beneficia  dantur,  liaec  turn  in  universam  rem 
publicam,  turn  in  singulos  cives  conferuntur, 

Quum — turn  is  equivalent  to  ct^et,  except  that  it  as- 
signs a  greater  importance  to  the  second  part ;  it  must, 
therefore,  be  translated  by  "both — ^and  especially,"  "not 
only— but  also,"  or,  "but  more  particularly."  This  mean- 
ing is  often  expressed  more  strongly  by  adding  to  turn  the 
particles  vero,  certc,  etiam  (sometimes  quoquej,  praecipue, 
imprimis,  maxime.  The  construction  and  signification  of 
this  expression  must  be  traced  to  the  use  of  quum  with 
the  subjunctive  in  a  protasis  which  contains  the  introduc- 
tory premises,  and  is  followed  by  an  apodosis  with  turn, 
containing  the  application  of  the  premises  to  the  particu- 
lar case  in  question ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Scxt,,  1,  in  quo  quum 
multa  sint  indigna,  turn  nihil  minus  estfercndum;  in  Hull., 
iii.,  3,  Jam  totam  legcm  intelligitis,  quum  ad  paucorum 
dominationem  scripta  sit,  turn  ad  Sullanae  assignationis 
rationes  esse  accommodatam  ;  2}-  Arch.,  4,  idque,  quum  per 
se  dignus  putaretur,  turn  auctoritate  et  gratia  Luculll  im- 


408  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

petravit.  This  frequent  mode  of  connecting  sentences 
led  the  Romans  to  regard  quum  as  an  adverbial  correla- 
tive of  turn,  without  any  influence  upon  the  construction; 
and  hence  it  is  joined  with  the  indicative ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad 
Fam.,  iii.,  9,  Quum  ipsam  cog nitionem  juris  augurii  conse- 
qui  cupio,  turn  mcliercule  tuis  incredibiliter  studiis  detector ; 
vi.,  14,  nam  quum  tc  semper  maxime  dilexi,  turn  fratrum 
tuorum  singularis  pietas  nullum  me  patitur  officii  erga  te 
munus  practcnnitterc.  Qimm  then  becomes  a  complete 
adverb,  when,  being  followed  by  turn,  it  serves  to  express 
the  opposition  between  single  words  which  have  the  same 
verb ;  e.  g.,  Animi  magnitude  quum  in  utilitatibus  com- 
parandis,  turn  nmlto  magis  in  Ms  desjnciendis  clucct ;  for- 
tuna  quum  in  reliquis  rebus,  turn  praecipue  in  hello  pluri- 
mum  potest;-  Agesilaus  quum  a  ceteris  scriptoribus,  turn  ex- 
imie  a  Xcnophonte  collaudatus  est;  luxuria  quum  omni  ae- 
tate  turpis,  turn  scnectuti  foedissima  cst ;  quum  multa  indig- 
na,  tmn  vel  hoc  indigntssimum  cst.  Sometimes  the  verb 
stands  in  the  first  part  of  the  sentence;  Cic.,  Divin.,  11, 
quum  omnis  arrogantia  odiosa  est,  turn  ilia  in  genii  atque 
eloquentiae  multo  molcstissima  ;  in  Verr.,v.,  2, 1,  Nam  quum 
omnium  sociorum  provinciarumquc  rationem  diligcnter  lia- 
bere  debetis,  turn  praecipue  Siciliae,judices,  plurimis  justis- 
simisque  dc  causis.  Such  a  sentence,  however,  might  also 
be  expressed  in  the  manner  which  we  mentioned  first ; 
e.  g.,  Fortuna  quum  in  ceteris  rebus  multum,  turn  praecipue 
in  bello  dominatar.  Turn  is  sometimes  repeated  in  the 
second  part  of  a  sentence  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  in  Verr.^  i.,  58, 
quern  pater  moricns  quum  tutoribus  ct  propinquis,  turn  leg- 
ibus,  turn  aequitati  magistratuum,  turn  judiciis  vestris  com- 
mendatum  putavit ;  and  sometimes  we  find  the  gradation 
quum — turn — turn  vero  ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Leg.  Agr.,  i.,  3,  quo- 
rum quum  adventus  graves,  turn  fasces  formidolosi,  turn  vero 
judicium  ac  potestas  erit  non  ferenda  ;  p.  Rab.  perd.,  1, 
Nam  me  quum  amicitiae  vetustas,  turn  dignitas  hominis, 
turn  ratio  humanitatis,  turn  meae  vitae  perpetua  consuctudo 
ad  C.  Rabirium  defendendum  cst  adhortata,  turn  vero,  &c. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  same  is  allowable  with  quum. 
See  Cic.,  p.  Muren.,  18,  38  ;  Stiirenburg  on  Cic.,  p.  Arch., 
12,31.  L at.  edition. 

[§  724.]  4.  Non  modo — sed  etiam  (or  non  solum,  or  non 
tantum — verum  etiam)  generally  expresses  the  transition 
from  less  important  to  more  important  things,  like  the 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE   i'ARTri    OF   SPEECH.  409 

English  "not  only — but  (also);"  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  22,  Tidlus 
Hostilius  non  solum  proximo  regi  dissimilis,  sed  ferocior 
etiam  Romulo  fuit.  When  a  transition  from  greater  to 
lesser  things  is  to  be  expressed,  we  usually  find  non  modo 
(but  not  non  solum) — sed,  without  the  etiam  ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
p.  Leg.  Man.,  22,  Quae  civitas  est  in  Asia,  quae  non  modo 
imperatoris  aut  legati,  sed  unius  tribuni  militum  animos  ac 
spiritus  caper  e  possit  ?  Divin.,  8,  Qua  in  re  non  modo  cct- 
eris  specimen  aliquod  dedisti,  sed  tute  tui  periculum  fecisti  ? 
p.  Sext.,  20,  Jecissem  me  ipse  potius  in  profundum,  ut  cet- 
eros  conservarem,  quam  illos  mei  tarn  cupidos  non  modo  ad 
certam  mortem,,  sed  in  magnum  vitae  discrimen  adducerem. 
We  render  this  non  modo — sed  in  English  by  "  I  will  not 
say — but  only,"  and  in  Latin,  too,  we  may  say  non  dicam, 
or  non  dico — sed  ;  as  in  Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  33,  Niliil  tarn  in- 
humanum  est,  quam  committere  ut  benejicio  non  dicam  in- 
dignus,  sed  victus  esse  videare  ;  Philip.,  ii.,  4,  Quid  est 
enim  minus  non  dico  oratoris,  sed  Iwminis,  &c.  We  may 
farther,  without  altering  the  meaning,  invert  such  senten- 
ces by  means  of  ne  dicam  or  ncdutn  ;  thus,  instead  of  the 
above-quoted  passage  (p.  Leg.  Man.,  22),  we  may  say, 
Quae  civitas  est  in  Asia,  quae  unius  tribuni  militum  spiri- 
tus capere  possit,  ne  dicam  (nedum)  imperatoris  aut  legati. 
See  above,  §  573.  There  are,  indeed,  some  passages  in 
Cicero,  in  which  non  modo  (solum) — sed  expresses  an  as- 
cending transition,  and  non  modo — sed  etiam  a  descending 
one,  in  which  case  etiam  is  added  without  any  meaning ; 
but  the  majority  of  passages  of  this  author  justifies  us  in 
adhering  to  the  distinction  drawn  above. 

[§  724,  b.]  When  the  sentences  are  negative,  i.  e.,  when 
they  are  connected  by  means  of  "  not  only  not — but  not 
even,"  non  modo  (solum)  non — sed  ne  quidem,  the  second 
non  is  omitted  if  both  sentences  have  the  same  verb,  and 
if  the  verb  is  contained  in  the  second  sentence,  for  the 
negative  ne  is  then  considered  to  belong  conjointly  to  both 
sentences ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  19,  talis  vir  non  modo 
facere,  sed  ne  cogitare  quidem  qiddquam  au debit,  quod  non 
Iwnestum  sit,  which  is  equivalent  to  talis  vir  non  modo  fa- 
cere,  sed  etiam  cogitare  non  audcbit  ;  Lacl.,  24,  Assentatio, 
vitiorum  adjutrix,  procul  amovcatur  ;  quae  non  modo  ami- 
co,  sed  ne  libero  quidem  digna  est.  This  sentence  may  also 
be  inverted,  Assentatio  nc  libero  quidem  digna  est,  non 
modo  (not  to  mention)  amico  ;  as  in  Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  38,  ne 
K  R 


470  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

sues  quidem  id  velint,  non  modo  ipse.  The  case  remains 
the  same  when  scd  vix  follows  in  the  second  part  of  the 
sentence  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Cod.,  17,  vcrum  liacc  genera  vir- 
tutum  non  solum  in  moribus  nostris,  scd  vix  jam  in  libris 
rcperiuntur,  these  virtues  are  not  only  not  found  in  life, 
but  scarcely  in  books ;  Liv.,  iii.,  6,  non  modo  ad  expedi- 
tioncs,  scd  vix  ad  quictas  stationes  viribus  sujficiebant.  But 
if  each  part  of  the  sentence  has  its  own  verb,  or  if  the 
verb,  although  common  to  both,  is  expressed  in  the  first 
part,  non  modo  non  is  used  complete  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Sutt., 
18,  Ego  non  modo  tibi  non  irascor,  scd  ne  repreliendo  quidem 
factuin  tuum  ;  ad  Att.,  x.,  4,  liorum  ego  impcratorum  non 
modo  res  gcstas  non  antepono  meis,  scd  nefortunam  quidem 
ipsam.  The  negative  is  not  unfrequently  retained  in  the 
first  sentence,  even  when  both  negative  sentences  have 
the  same  predicate  ;  as,  Cic.,  ji.  IMuren.,  3,  Atque  hoc  non 
modo  non  laudari,  scd  ne  concedi  quidem  potest,  ut,  &c.  So, 
also,  Liv.,  iv.,  3,  Enunquam  fando  auditum  esse,  Numam 
Pomp  ilium,  non  modo  non  patricium,  scd  ne  civem  quidem 
Romanum,Romaercgnassc?  whereas  the  rule  is  observed 
in  i.,  4:Q,AnciJilii  semper  pro  indignissimo  Jiabucrant,  reg- 
nare  Romae  advcnam,  non  modo  civicae,  scd  ne  Italicae 
quidem  stirpis,  for  the  predicate  of  both  sentences  here  is 
the  participle  of  the  verb  cssc.  Lastly,  it  must  be  observ- 
ed, that  the  second  non,  when  its  place  is  supplied  by  a 
negative  word  ;  as,  nemo,  nullus,  nihil,  nunquam,  is  gen- 
erally not  omitted ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  4G,  quod  non 
modo  Siculus  nemo,  sed  ne  Sicilia  quidem  tota  potuissct ; 
iii.,  48,  quum  multis  non  modo  granum  nullum,  sed  ne  pa- 
Icae  quidem  ex  omni  fructu  relinqucrentur ;  although  quis- 
quam  or  ullus  would  not  be  wrong,  and  are  actually  used, 
e.  g.,  by  Livy. 

[§  725.]  5.  Tarn  —  quam  expresses  a  comparison;  as, 
Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xiii.,  20,  Vellcm  turn  domestica  ferre  posscm, 
quam  ista  contemnere  ;  Orat.,  30,  Nemo  orator  tarn  multa, 
ne  in  Gracoo  quidem  otio,  scripsit,  quam^multa  sunt  nostra. 
Hence  we  say  Cicero  tam  facile  Graece,  quam  facile  La- 
tine  dicebat ;  or,  in  the  inverted  order,  Sallust,  Jug.,  34, 
Quam  quisque  pessime  fecit,  tam  maxime  tutus  cst.  Tam — 
quam  quod  maxime  signifies  "as  much  as  possible."  See 
§  774,  note. 

Non  tam  —  quam,  "not  so  much — as;"  e.g.,  Cic.,  de 
Orat.,  ii.,  30,  De  co  non  tam  quia  longum  cst,  quam  quia 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          471 

perspicuum,  did  nihil  est  necesse  ;  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  34,  Quae 
studiose  compararat  non  tarn  suae  delectationis  causa,  quam 
ad  invitationes  suorum  amicorum  atque  hospitum  ;  p.  Mu- 
ren.,  8,  provincia  non  tarn  gratiosa  et  illustris,  quam  nego- 
tiosa  ac  molesta.  The  real  meaning  of  "  not  so  much — 
as"  thus  vanishes,  the  former  part  of  the  sentence  being 
negatived  altogether. 

Non  minus — quam  and  non  magis — quam  are,  on  the 
whole,  equivalent  to  aeque  ac,  as  much  as ;  but  it  must  be 
observed  that  in  non  magis — quam  the  greater  weight  is 
attached  to  the  affirmative  part  of  the  sentence  beginning 
with  quam  ;  e.  g.,  Alexander  non  duds  magis  quam  mili- 
tis  munia  exequebatur,  Alex,  performed  just  as  much  the 
service  of  a  soldier  as  that  of  a  commander;  Cic.,  ad 
Fam.,  xiv.,  3,  conftcior  enim  macrorc,  mca  Tcrentia,  nee 
meae  me  miseriae  magis  excrudant,  quam  tuae  v  estr  aeque  ; 
Curt.,  vii.,  38,  Moverat  eos  regis  non  virtus  magis,  quam 
dementia  in  denictos  Scythas.  The  place  of  the  adverb 
magis  is  frequently  supplied  by  plus ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Prov. 
Cons.,  10,  rei  publicae  plus  quam  ctio  meo  prospexi  ;  p. 
Flacc.,  31,  revera  non  plus  aurum  ttbi  quam  monedulae 
committebant ;  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  Catonem  non  tu  amas  plus 
quam  ego.  See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  7,  and  Heu- 
singer  on  de  Off.,  iii.,  23.  (Otherwise plus  is  rarely  used 
for  magis  ;  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  ii.,  1,  inest  nesdo  quid  in  animo 
ac  sensu  meo,  quo  me  plus  hie  locus  fortasse  delectet ;  Pliil- 
ip.,  ii.,  15,  Anille  quemquam  plus  dilcxit ;  for  Philip.,  ii., 
13,  plus  quam  sicarii,  plus  quam  homiddae  sunt,  is  per- 
fectly regular,  "they  are  something  more.") 

[§  726.]  6.  Sic  and  ita  are  demonstrative  adverbs  de- 
noting similarity,  and  corresponding  to  the  relative  ut  (see 
§  281,  foil.) ;  but  ita,  which  differs  from  sic,  also  serves  to 
indicate  a  more  special  relation  :  hence  it  very  often  has 
a  restrictive  meaning,  "only  in  so  far;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,^?.  Leg. 
Man.,  3,  vestri  impcratores  ita  triumpharunt,  ut  illc  (Mith- 
ridates)  pulsus  superatusque  regnarct ;  i.  e.,  your  generals 
triumphed,  indeed,  but  in  such  a  manner  that  Mithridates, 
nevertheless,  continued  to  rule;  this  is  sometimes  express- 
ed more  emphatically  by  the  addition  of  tamen  (e.  g.,  p. 
Scxt.,  5,  Verum  hacc  ita  practercamus,  ut  tamen  intuentcs 
ac  respectantes  relinquamus)  ;  p.  Cluent.,  32 ;  ita  multum 
agitata,  ita  diu  jactata  ista  res  est,  ut  hodicrno  die  primum 
causa  ilia  dcfcnsa  sit ;  in  Vcrr.,  iii.,  S2,itaqne  hoc  est,  quod 


472  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

multifortassefecerunt,  sed  ita  multi,  ut  ii,  quos  innocentis- 
simos  meminimus  aut  audimmus,  nonfecerint.  Tantus  (but 
not  tarn)  is  used  in  the  same  sense;  as,  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall., 
vi.,  35,  pracsidii  tantum  est,  ut  ne  murus  quidem  cingi  pos- 
sit ;  i.  e.,  only  so  much  ;  Nep.,  dc  Reg.,  1,  tantum  indul- 
sit  dolori,  ut  cum  pietas  vinceret,  and  in  like  manner,  we 
find  in  Cic.,  ad  Fain.,  i.,  7,  tantam  vim  habet,  in  the  sense 
of  "so  small  a  value." 

Ut — ita  (sic)  places  sentences  on  an  equality;  but  this 
equality  is  sometimes  limited  to  the  result,  to  which  both 
sentences  lead,  so  that  ut — ita  is  equivalent  to  "  although 
— still,"  or,  "indeed — but;"  Cic.,  ad  Fain.,  x.,  20,  Ut  er- 
rare,  mi  Plance,  potuisti,  sic  decipi  te  non  potuisse  quis  non 
videt  ?  Liv.,  xxi.,  35,  Plcraque  Alpium  ab  Italia  sicut  bre- 
viora,  ita  arrectiora  sunt,  are  indeed  shorter,  but  steeper. 

The  adverb  ut,  "as,"  sometimes  takes  the  signification 
of  the  conjunction  quod,  "because;"  e.  g.,  homo,  ut  erat 
furiosus,  respondit,  the  man,  furious  as  he  was  ;  i.  e.,  be- 
cause he  was  furious ;  Cic.,  p.  Murcn.,  25,  Atque  ille,  ut 
semper  fuit  apertissimus,  non  se  purgavit ;  in  Verr.,  i.,  26, 
magnifies  ct  ornate,  ut  erat  in  primis  inter  suos  copiosus, 
convivium  comparat,  rich  as  he  was,  or  because  he  was 
rich. 

[§  727.]  7.  Instead  of  the  adverbial  numerals  primum, 
secundo  (for  sccundum  is  not  often  used,  see  §  123),  terti- 
um,  quartum,  unless  the  strict  succession  of  the  numbers 
is  required,  the  ancients  preferred  using  the  ordinal  ad- 
verbs primum,  deinde,  turn,  denique,  and  generally  in  the 
order  here  adopted,  but  sometimes  turn  is  used  once  or 
twice  instead  of  deinde,  or  the  series  is  extended  by  such 
expressions  as  accedit,  hue  adde.  Sometimes  denique  is 
followed  by  2^ostremo  to  form  the  conclusion  of  a  series, 
which  is  otherwise  so  commonly  the  function  of  denique, 
that,  even  without  the  other  adverbs  preceding,  it  con- 
cludes a  series  by  introducing  the  greatest  or  most  im- 
portant, and  is  then  equivalent  to  the  English  "in short," 
or  "in  fine;"  e.  g., Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  5,  templa  deormn immor- 
talium,  tecta  urbis,  vitam  omnium  civium,  Italiam  denique 
totam  ad  exitium  ac  vastitatem  vocas. 

[§  728.]  8.  The  adverb  forte  differs  in  meaning  from 
fortasse  and  forsitan  (comp.  §  271),  the  former  signifying 
"  accidentally,"  and  the  two  latter  "perhaps."  Forsitan, 
according  to  its  derivation,  is  chiefly  joined  with  the  sub- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH.          473 

junctive;  i.  e.,it  is  used  in  those  constructions  the  nature 
of  which  admits  of  the  subjunctive  in  other  connexions 
also;  e.  g.,jbrsitan  aliquis  dixerit ;  quod  deb  earn  for  sitan 
obtincre.  But  forte  acquires  the  signification  of  "  per- 
haps" after  some  conjunctions,  especially  after  si,  nisi, 
ne,  num  ;  e.  g.,  siquis  forte  miratur,  if,  perhaps,  any  one 
should  be  surprised.  Hence  arises  the  frequent  confusion 
of  the  two  particles  in  modern  Latin. 

[§  729.]  9.  Modo  non  and  tantum  non  acquire,  like  the 
Greek  fiovov  OVK,  the  meaning  of  the  adverb  "nearly"  or 
"  almost,"  for  properly  they  signify  "  only  not  so  much ;" 
e.  g.,  Terent.,  Phorm.^  i.,  2,  18,  is  senem  per  epistolas  pel- 
lexit  modo  non  monies  auri  polliccns  ;  i.  e.,  paene  or  prope 
pollicens ;  Liv.,  iv.,  2,  hostes  tantum  non  arcessiverunt ; 
xxxiv.,  4:Q,nuntii  afferebant,  tantum  non  jam  captam  Lace- 
daemonem  essc.  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by 
tantum  quod  non,  which  brings  us  still  nearer  to  the  origin 
of  the  expression;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  45,  tantum  quod 
liominem  non  nominal,  only  (except)  that  he  does  not 
mention  him  by  name  ;  i.  e.,  he  almost  mentions  him  by 
name. 

[§  730.]  10.  Non  ita  is  used  like  the  English  "not  so," 
which  is  to  be  explained  by  an  ellipsis ;  as,  non  ita  longe 
aberat,  he  was  not  so  far  off,  viz.,  as  you  might  imagine  ; 
but  it  also  acquires  the  meaning  of  "  not  exactly,"  "  not 
very;"  i.  e.,  it  becomes  equivalent  to  non  sane,  non  admo- 
dum.  Cicero  uses  it  in  this  sense  only  before  adjectives 
and  adverbs,  and  before  verbs  non  ita  valde  is  employed ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  49,  simulacra  praeclara,  sed  non 
ita  antiqua  ;  JBrut.,  66,  Finibria  non  ita  diu  jactare  se  po- 
tuit ;  de  Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  31,  quibus  homines  non  ita  valde 
moventur,  and  in  many  other  passages. 

[730,  b.]  11.  Non  item  is  used  to  express  a  certain  op- 
position or  contrast,  and  properly  signifies  "  not  in  the 
same  manner  or  degree,"  but  it  is  usually  rendered  by 
the  simple  "not"  or  "but — not;"  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  32,  hoc 
Herculi  potuit  fortasse  contingcrc,  nobis  non  item  ;  ad  Att., 
ii.,  21,  O  spectaculum  uni  Crasso  jucundum,  cetcris  non 
item !  Orat.,  43,  nam  omnium  magnarum  artium,  sicut 
arborum,  altitude  nos  delectat,  radices  stirpcsque  non  item. 
Comp.  §  781. 

[§  731.]  12.  Minus  is  often  used  for  non ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  dc 
Divin.,  i.,  14,  Nonnumquam  ca,  quae  praedicta  sunt,  minus 
R  u2 


474  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

eveniunt.  We  must  especially  notice  si  minus — at,  if  not 
— yet;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,\.,  27,  si  minus  supplicio  affici, 
at  custodiri  oportebat — and  sin  minus,  "  but  if  not,"  with- 
out a  verb,  after  a  preceding  si;  but  with  si  non  the  verb 
is  repeated  ;  Cic.,  ad  Fain.,  vii.,  1,  Quod  si  assecutus  sum, 
gaudco  :  sin  minus,  hoc  me  tamen  consolor,  quod  posthac 
nos  vises  ;  ad,  Att.,  ix.,  15,  si  mihi  veniam  dederit,  utar  il- 
lius  condicione  :  sin  minus,  impetrabo  illiquid  a,  me  ipso. 
Comp.  §  343.  Parum  always  retains  its  proper  significa- 
tion of  "  not — enough,"  though  it  may  sometimes  seem  to 
be  used  for  non  ;  e.  g.,  parum  dm  vixit,  he  did  not  live 
long  enough ;  parum  multi  sunt  defcnsores  nobilitatis,  not 
numerous  enough.  The  English  "how  little"  is,  in  Lat- 
in, quam  non,  and  "so  little"  ita  non,  or  adco  non;  e.  g., 
adeo  non  curalat,  quid  homines  de  se  loquerentur. 

[§  732.]  13.  Nunc,  as  was  remarked  in  §  285,  always 
expresses  the  time  actually  present,  and  not  merely  rela- 
tively present,  or  the  time  to  which  a  narrator  transfers 
himself  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  description  livelier. 
In  a  narrative  we  may  say  in  English,  e.  g.,  Caesar  now 
thought  that  he  ought  not  to  hesitate  any  longer;  but  the 
now  in  this  sentence  must  be  rendered  in  Latin  by  tune, 
or  turn,  Caesar  non  diutius  sili  cunctandum  censclat.  (In 
the  connexion  of  sentences,  however,  jam  may  be  used 
instead;  see  §  286.)  In  speaking  of  the  time  actually 
present  we  say,  e.  g.,  mine  primum  somnia  me  eludunt,  or 
eluserunt,  this  is  the  first  time  that  a  dream  deceives  me, 
or  has  deceived  me.  In  a  narrative,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  must  sav,  somnia  tune  primum  se  diccbat  elusisse.  See 
the  passage  in  Tacit.,  Ann.,  xvi.,  3.  This  rule  is  observ- 
ed throughout,  llespecting  the  same  use  of  ille  in  con- 
tradistinction to  liic,  see  §  703. 

[§  733.]  14.  The  conjunction  dum  (while)  alters  its 
meaning  when  added  to  negatives,  and  becomes  an  ad- 
verb signifying  "  yet ;"  as,  nondum  or  Jiauddum,  not  yet ; 
nequedum  or  necdum,  and  not  yet;  nullusdum,  no  one  yet; 
niliildum,  nothing  yet ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  xiv.,  10,  Quid 
agatfrater  meus  si  scis,  nequedum  Roma  cst  profectus,  scri- 
bas  ad  me  velim ;  Sueton.,  Cacs.,  7,  Caesar  quum  Gadcs 
venisset,  animadversa  apud  Hcrculis  templum  JMagni  Alcx- 
andri  imagine,  ingcmuit  quasi  pcrtacsus  ignaviam  suam, 
quod  niliildum  a  se  mcmorabile  actum  essct  in  aetate,  qua 
jam  Alexander  orbem  terrae  siibegisset.  Hence,  when  at- 


PECULIARITIES    IN    THE    TARTS    OF    Si'EECH.          475 

tached  to  the  negative  adverb  vix — vixdum,  it  signifies 
"  scarcely  yet ;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ix.,  2,  Vixdum  cpis- 
tolam  tuam  legeram,  quum  ad  me  Curtius  venit. 

[§  734.]  15.  The  conjunction  vel  (or),  which  originally 
serves  to  correct  an  expression,  acquired  through  an  el- 
lipsis the  meaning  of  the  adverb  "  even,"  and  enhances 
the  sense  of  the  word  modified  by  it ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
i.,  2,  quum  Sophocles  vel  optime  scripserit  Elcctram,  tamen 
male  conversant  Attii  mihi  legendam  puto:  here  the  ex- 
pression is  to  be  explained  by  supplying  the  word  Tjene 
before  vel.  In  this  sense  vel  is  used  frequently  ;  as  in 
Cicero,  liac  re  vel  maxime  praestat ;  qicam  sint  morosi  qui 
amant,  vel  ex  hoc  intelligi  potest ;  isto  modo  vel  consulatus 
vitupcrabilis  est ;  per  me  vel  stertas  licet.  The  derivation 
of  this  particle  from  velle  (wilt  thoul)  accounts  for  its  sig- 
nifying "  for  example,"  or  "  to  mention  a  case  at  once  ;" 
e.  g.,  Cic.,adFam.,  ii.,  13,  Raras  tuas  quidem,  sed  suaves 
accipio  litteras  :  vel  quas  proximc  acceperam,  quam  pru- 
dentcs  !  p.  Flacc.,  33,  Ita  scitotc,judices,  esse  cetera.  Vel 
quod  ait  L.  Flaccum  sibi  dare  cupisse,  ut  a  fide  se  abducc- 
ret,  HS.  vicics.  Velut  is  more  frequently  used  in  this 
sense  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  35,  Non  clogia  monumento- 
rum  hoc  significant  ?  velut  hoc  ad  portam  ;  de  Nat.  Deor., 
ii.,  48,  Veluti  crocodili — simulac  niti  possunt,  aqiiam  per- 
sequuntur. 

[§  735.]  16.  The  conjunction  nisi,  by  omitting  its  verb 
or  uniting  it  with  the  leading  verb,  acquires  the  sense  of 
the  adverb  "  except,"  which  is  generally  expressed  by 
praeterquam  or  the  preposition  praeter.  (See  §  323.) 
This,  however,  is  the  case  only  after  negatives  and 
negative  questions ;  e.  g.,  Nepos,  Miltiadcs,  4,  Athenien- 
ses  auxilium  nusquam  nisi  a  Laccdaemoniis  petiverunt ; 
Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  33,  Quid  est  pietas,  nisi  voluntas  grata  in 
parentcs  ?  p.  Sext.,  60,  Quern  unquam  senatus  civem  nisi 
me  natiombus  exteris  commendavit  ?  instead  of  which  we 
might  say  in  the  first  passage,  praeterquam  a  Lacedaemo- 
niis,  and  in  the  second  praeter  me;  and  we  must  say  so 
when  no  negative  precedes;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xxiv.,  16,  praeda 
omnis  praeterquam  hominum  captorum  (or  27?'actcr  homines 
captos)  militi  concessa  est.  But  the  expression  "  except 
that,"  may  be  rendered  in  Latin  either  by  nisi  quod  or 
praeterquam  quod,  so  that  here  we  may  have  nisi  without 
a  preceding  negative ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  1,  Tuscula- 


476  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

num  et  Pompcianum  me  valde  delectant,  nisi  quod  me  aere 
alieno  obruermit.  (Nisi  ut  are  likewise  joined  together, 
but  in  a  different  sense,  ut  retaining  its  proper  significa- 
tion ;  e.  g.,  niliil  aliud  ex  hac  re  quaero,  nisi  ut  homines  in- 
telligant,  except  that  people  may  see.) 

As  the  Latin  nisi  after  negatives  is  rendered  in  English 
not  only  by  "  except,"  but  by  "  than,"  the  beginner  must 
beware  of  translating  this  "than"  by  quam.  It  is  only  af- 
ter niliil  aliud  that  we  may  use  either  nisi  or  quam,  nisi 
referring  to  nihil,  and  quam  to  aliud.  The  difference  is 
this,  that  niliil  aliud  nisi  signifies  "  nothing  farther,"  or 
"  nothing  more,"  and  niliil  aliud  quam,  "  nothing  else," 
or  "  no  other  thing  but  this  particular  one."  Hence,  Cic. 
(de  Orat.,  ii.,  12)  says,  Erat  historia  niliil  aliud  nisi  anna- 
lium  confectio  (but  it  should  be  more)  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  23,  Eel- 
lum  ita  suscipiatur,  ut  niliil  aliud  nisi  pax  quacsita  vidca- 
tur  (and  not  other  advantages  besides);  Tusc.,  i.,  34,  Nihil 
aliud  cst  discere,  nisi  rccordari.  Praeter  is  used  in  the 
same  sense  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  2,  nee  quidquam  aliud  est 
philosopliia  praeter  studium  sapicntiae  (nothing  more). 
But  in  de  Leg.,  i.,  8,  we  read,  Virtus  est  nihil  aliud  quam 
in  se  2^crfecta  ct  ad  summum  perducta  natura  (this  defini- 
tion comprising  everything);  Nep.,  Lys.,  1,  Nihil  aliud 
molitus  cst  quam  ut  omnes  civitatcs  in  sua  teneret  potestate. 
Quam  must,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  used,  when  it  refers 
to  a  comparative ;  as,  niliil  magis  timco  quam  ilium. 

F.  Prepositions. 

[§  736.]  The  use  of  every  separate  preposition  has  been 
fully  explained  in  Chap.  LXV.,  and  there  is  no  farther 
general  remark  to  be  made,  except  that  the  beginner  must 
be  cautioned  not  to  join  two  prepositions,  as  we  do  in  Eng- 
lish ;  e.  g.,  "to  speaker  and  against  a  law,"  or,  "I  have 
learned  this  with,  and,  to  some  extent,  from,  him."  The 
only  mode  of  rendering  these  sentences  in  Latin  is,  pro 
lege  et  contra  legem  dicere  ;  haec  cum  eo,  partim  etiam  ab 
eo  didici.  Those  dissyllabic  prepositions  only,  which  are 
also  used  without  a  noun  and  as  adverbs,  may  follow  an- 
other, without  being  joined  with  a  case ;  e.  g.,  Cicero, 
quod  aut  secundum  naturam  esset,  aut  contra ;  Livy,  cis 
Padum  ultraque.  Caesar  (Bell.  Civ.,  iii.,  72)  reverses  the 
order,  infra  extraque  munitiones.  Compare,  also,  §  794. 


PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.    477 

Gr.   Conjunctions. 

[§  737.]  1.  Respecting  the  signification  of  the  several 
conjunctions,  see  Chap.  LXVII.  Those  who  wish  to  ac- 
quire a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  Latin  language  can- 
not bestow  too  much  attention  on  this  part  of  speech. 
From  a  careful  observation  of  their  use  in  good  authors, 
we  learn  that  many  combinations  have,  in  fact,  quite  a 
different  meaning  from  what  lies  on  the  surface.  Atque 
adeo,  properly  "  and  even,"  acquires  the  power  of  cor- 
recting that  which  precedes,  and  also  enhances  the  sense; 
hence  it  becomes  equivalent  to  vel  potius,  or  rather.  (See 
§  336.  Compare  what  is  said  of  immo  in  §  277.)  E.  g., 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  8,  Tu  homo  minimi  consilii,  nullius  auc- 
toritatiS)  injussu  populi  ac  senatus,  tota  Sicilia  recusantc, 
cum  maximo  detrimento  atque  adeo  exitio  vectigalium,  to- 
tam  Hieronicam  legem  sustulisti.  At  quam  legem  corrigit, 
judiccs,  atque  adeo  totam  tollit  ?  and,  Verres  tot  annis  atque 
adeo  saeculis  inventus  est. 

[§  738.]  2.  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  following  pe- 
culiarity of  the  Latin  language  :  when  the  negative  pow- 
er of  a  proposition  is  not  expressed  by  non,  but  contained 
in  some  other  word,  the  negative  is  usually  combined 
with  the  copulative  conjunction ;  hence,  instead  of  et  and 
ut  with  the  negatives  nemo,  niliil,  nullus,  nunquam,  we  find 
much  more  frequently  neque  (nee)  and  ne  with  the  corre- 
sponding affirmative  words  quisquam,  ullus,  unquam,  us- 
quam.  It  must,  however,,  be  observed  (see  §  709),  that 
"  in  order  that  no  one"  is  rendered  in  Latin  by  ne  quis, 
and  never  by  ne  quisquam.  But  it  should  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  ne  cannot  be  used  everywhere,  and  that  ut  nemo, 
ut  nullus,  &c.,  are  required  in  all  cases  in  which  ut  non 
must  be  employed,  and  not  ne.  (See  §  532.)  E.  g.,  Cic., 
Cat.  Maj.,  12,  impedit  enim  consilium  voluptas  ac  mentis, 
ut  ita  dicam,  praestringit  oculos,  nee  habet  ullum  cum  vir- 
tute  commercium  ;  ibid.,  19,  Jiorae  quidem  cedunt,  et  dies  et 
menses  et  anm:  nee  praeteritum  tempus  unquam  revertitur ; 
Sallust,  Cat.,  29,  Senatus  decrevit,  darent  operam  consules, 
ne  quid  respublica  detrimenti  caper  et ;  Caes.,  Bell.  Gall., 
i.,  46,  Caesar  suis  impcravit,  ne  quod  oninino  telum  in  hos- 
tes  rejicerent. 

J\  739.]  3.  When  any  clause  inserted  in  another  has  im- 
ed  or  disturbed  the  construction,  the  return  to  the  con- 


478  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

struction  of  the  leading  sentence  is  indicated  by  one  of 
the  conjunctions  igitur,  verum,  verumtamen,  sed,  sed  tamen, 
which  we  commonly  render  by  "  I  say."  In  Latin,  too, 
inquam  is  sometimes  so  used  (as  in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  29, 
67  ;  p.  Muren.,  30,  63),  but  the  conjunctions  are  much 
more  common  ;  Cic.,  dc  Off.,  iii.,  16,  M.  Cato  scntentiam 
dixit,  hujus  nostri  Catonis  pater  (ut  enim  ceteri  ex  patribus, 
sic  hie,  qui  illud  lumen  prog enuit,  cxjilio  cst  nominandus) : 
is  igitur  judex  ita  prommtiavit,  cinptori  damnum  praestari 
oportcre  ;  Pliilip.,  ii.,  32,  Primum  quum  Caesar  ostendis- 
sct,  se,  priusquam  prqficiscerctur,  Dolabcllam  consulem  csse 
jussurum  :  quern  negant  rcgem,  qui  ct  faceret  semper  ejus- 
modi  aliquid  ct  diceret :  sed  quum  Caesar  ita  dixisset,  turn 
hie  bonus  augur  co  se  saccrdotio  pracditum  essc  dixit,  &c. 
See  Heusinger  on  this  passage,  and  compare  in  Cat.,  iii., 
2,  init. ;  p.  Plane.,  4  ;  de  Leg.,  ii.,  1,  Quare  ante  mirabar 
— sed  mirabar,  ut  dixi,  &c.  As  for  the  other  conjunctions 
used  in  this  manner,  see  in  Cat.,  iv.,  11  ;  Philip.,  ii.,  37; 
de  Fin.,  ii.,  22 ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  43,  in  Vcrr.,  iii.,  2,  init.;  ad 
Att.,  i.,  10,  init. ;  p.  Scxt.,  10,  init.  Nam  is  also  employ- 
ed in  this  way  ;  as,  p.  Plane.,  41.  Itaque  is  doubtful  in 
Cic.,  dc  Fin.,  i.,  6,  19,  but  occurs  in  Liv.,  ii.,  12,  init. 

[§  740.]  4.  Siquis  often  seems  to  stand  for  the  relative 
pronoun,  as  in  Greek  elng  for  ocric;  but  it  always  con- 
tains the  idea  of  "  perhaps,"  which  it  naturally  retains 
from  its  proper  signification  of  a  possible  condition;  e.g., 
Liv.,  xxi.,  37,  Nuda  fere  Alpium  cacumina  sunt,  ct  si  quid 
est  pabuli,  obruunt  nivcs  ;  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  v.,  25,  iste  quasi 
praeda  sibi  advecta,  non  pracdonibus  caj>tis,  si  qui  sencs 
aut  dcformes  erant,  eos  in  hostium  numero  ducit,  qui  aliquid 
formae,  aetatis,  artificiique  habebant,  abducit  omnes ;  J>rut., 
69,  C.  Cosconius  nullo  acumine,  cam  tamen  rerborum  copi- 
am,  si  quam  habebat,  populo  praebebat,  Ernesti  proposed 
to  strike  out  si,  but  it  may  be  explained  in  the  manner 
stated  above,  for  Cicero  does  not  even  like  to  admit  that 
Cosconius  possessed  copia  verborum ;  and  in  a  similar 
manner  he  speaks  with  some  doubt  of  his  own  eloquence, 
c.  87,  ctsi  tu  melius  existimare  videris  de  ca,  si  quam  nunc 
habemus,facultate;  and,  also,  Divin.,  15,  ipse  Allienus  ex 
ca  facilitate,  si  quam  habet,  aliquantum  detracturus  est. 

[§  741.]  5.  The  conjunction  ct  (que  and  atque)  not  un- 
frequently  connects  two  substantives,  and  places  them  on 
an  equality  with  each  other,  although  properly  one  bears  to 


PLEONASM.  479 

the  other  the  relation  of  a  genitive  or  an  adjective.  This 
kind  of  connexion  is  called  ev  did  dvolv,  that  is,  one  idea  is 
expressed  by  two  words  independent  of  each  other,  for  a 
genitive  and  an  adjective,  when  joined  to  a  substantive, 
constitute  only  one  idea.  When,  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Georg.,  1, 
192,  says,  pateris  libamus  et  auro,  it  is  equivalent  to  pa- 
tcris  aureis  ;  and,  Acn.,  i.,  Gl,  molcm  ct  monies  insuper  al- 
tos imposuit,  equivalent  to  molcm  altorum  montium.  But 
similar  expressions  occur  also  in  prose,  and  oratorical  dic- 
tion thereby  gains  in  fulness  and  power;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat., 
i.,  13,  ut  saepe  homines  aegri  morbo  gravi,  quum  acstufeb- 
rique  jactantur,  i.  e.,  aestu  febris  ;  p.  Flacc.,  2,  quern  plu- 
rimi  civcs  devincti  neccssitudine  ac  vctustate,  i.  e.,  vetus- 
tate  nccessitudinis  ;  p.  ArcJi.,  6,  ex  liis  studiis  Jiaec  quoque 
crescit  oratio  et  facultas,  i.  e.,  facultas  dicendi ;  in  Verr., 
v.,  14,  jus  imaginis  ad  memoriam  posteritatcmque  prodere, 
i.  e.,  ad  mcmoriam  posteritatis  ;  ibid.,  iv.,  35,  complesse 
coronis  etfloribus;  and,  in  Curt.,  iv.,  17,  navigia  redimita 
floribus  coronisque,  with  garlands  of  flowers.  It  is  par- 
ticularly frequent  in  Tacitus  ;  as,  Ann.,  ii.,  69,  carmina  et 
devotiones  rcperiebantur,  for  carmina  devotionum  ;  ii.,  83, 
tempore  ac  spatio,  for  temporis  spatio ;  xii.,  27,  veteranos 
coloniamque  deducere,  for  coloniam  vcteranorum.  Of  a 
somewhat  different,  though  similar  kind,  are  those  combi- 
nations of  substantives,  where  the  second  contains  a  more 
accurate  definition  of  the  general  meaning  of  the  first. 
The  substantive  which  occurs  most  frequently  in  such 
combinations  is  vis  ;  as,  vi  et  armis,  vi  ac  minis,  vi  et  con- 
tentionc,  vi  ac  necessitate. 


CHAPTER  LXXXV. 

PLEONASM. 

[§  742.]  1.  PLEONASM  is  that  mode  of  expression  in 
which  several  words  of  the  same  or  similar  meaning  are 
accumulated,  or  in  which  a  thought  is  conveyed  in  more 
words  than  are  necessary  to  express  the  meaning. 

2.  The  first  kind  of  pleonasm  does  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, belong  to  Latin  grammar.  Good  authors  accumulate 
words  of  similar  meaning  only  when  they  intend  to  set 
forth  a  particular  thing  forcibly  and  emphatically,  and  they 
take  care  that  thrre  is  a  roitain  orndation  i11  the  words 


480  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

they  put  together ;  as  in  rclinquere  ac  deserere,  deserere  ac 
derelinquere  ;  aver  sari  et  cxecrari  ;  rogo  te  oroque,  oro  te 
atque  obsecro  ;  gaudeo  vehementcrque  laetor,  lactor  et  trium- 
plw;  hoc  animis  eorum  insitum  atque  innatum  videtur  esse; 
agitatur  et  perterretur  Furiarum  taedis  ardentibus  ;  hoc 
maxime  vestros  animos  excitare  atque  inflammare  debet. 
Innumerable  instances  of  this  kind  are  found  in  the  ora- 
tors, and  they  constitute  a  great  part  of  the  copia  verbo- 
rum  which  is  required  of  orators.  But  they  go  even  far- 
ther, and  when  their  endeavour  to  accumulate  words  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis  becomes  still  more  striking,  it  is  call- 
ed a  rhetorical  figure ;  e.  g.,  when  Cicero  (in  Cat.,  i.,  5) 
calls  on  Catiline  to  quit  Rome,  Quae  quum  ita  sint,  Cati- 
lina,  perge  quo  cocpisti :  cgredere  aliquando  ex  urbe  :  pat- 
ent portae:  projiciscere;  and  where  he  describes  Catiline's 
flight  (in  Cat.,  ii.,  1),  Abiit,  cxcessit,  evasit,  erupit.  But 
in  grammar  we  have  to  notice  only  certain  combinations, 
which  by  usage  have  become  so  familiar,  that  they  do  not 
appear  to  contain  any  particular  emphasis ;  as,  casu  et 
fortuito,  forte  fortuna,  forte  temcre,  prudens  scicns,  vivus 
vidcnsquc,  rolens  propitius,  fundere  ct  fugare  ;  and  some 
legal  and  political  expressions,  where  it  was  originally  in- 
tended, by  an  accurate  phraseology,  to  prevent  a  wrong 
or  ambiguous  application.  Expressions  of  this  kind  are, 
pecunia  capta  conciliata,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iii.,  94 :  ager  datus 
assignatus,  Philip.,  v.,  in  fin.:  nihil  aequi  boni  impctravit, 
Philip.,  ii.,  37  :  quum  Brutus  excrcitum  conscripserit  com- 
pararit,  in  a  decree  of  the  senate,  Philip.,  v.,  13,  and 
others. 

[§  743.]  3.  The  second  kind  of  pleonasm  belongs  to 
grammar,  inasmuch  as  certain  redundant  expressions  are 
sanctioned  by  usage,  and  can  no  longer  be  considered 
faulty.  But  we  must  not  suppose  that  a  thing  expressed 
by  a  redundancy  of  words  is  quite  equivalent  to  a  shorter 
expression  which  we  may  meet  with  elsewhere.  The  lan- 
guage of  good  authors  is  not  arbitrary  in  this  respect,  and 
two  modes  of  expression  never  have  quite  the  same  mean- 
ing. It  is  not,  however,  our  object  here  to  trace  such  dif- 
ferences in  their  minutest  details,  but  only  in  general  to 
mention  those  cases  in  which  the  Latin  usage  employs 
more  words  than  appear  necessary  to  a  person  who  judg- 
es of  it  by  the  standard  of  a  modern  language. 

4.  A  preceding  substantive  is  often  repeated  after  the 


PLEONASM.  481 

relative  pronoun;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Place.,  33,  Jiabctis  causam 
inimicitiarum,  qua  causa  injlammatus  Declaims  ad  Laeli- 
um  detulerit  lianc  accusationem  ;  de  Orat.,  i.,  38,  quum  ob- 
signes  tabellas  clientis  tui,  quibus  in  tabellis  id  sit  scriptum; 
in  Verr.,  iii.,  79,  quum  in  eo  ordine  videamus  csse  7mdtos 
non  idoneos,  qui  or  do  industriac  proj^ositus  est  ct  dignitati; 
Divin.,  1,  si  quod  tempus  accidisset,  quo  tempore  aliquid  a 
me  requirerent.  It  is  especially  frequent  in  Caesar;  as, 
Sell.  Gall.,  i.,  6,  erant  omnino  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus 
domo  exire  possent ;  but  it  is  most  frequent,  and  appears, 
indeed,  to  have  been  customary,  with  the  word  dies;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ii.,  11,  dies  enim  nullus  erat,  Antii  quum  es- 
sem,  quo  die  non  7nelius  scirem  Romae  quid  ageretur,  quam 
ii  qid  erant  Romae  ;  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  3,  fore  in  armis  certo 
die,  qui  dies  futurus  erat  a.  d.  VI.  Cal.  Novembres.  A 
great  many  passages  of  this  kind  are  found  in  Cicero  and 
Caesar,  and  it  was  the  regular  practice  to  say  pridie  and 
postridie  ejus  diei.  The  repetition  of  the  substantive  is 
necessary  when  there  are  two  preceding  the  relative,  and 
when  it  becomes  doubtful  to  which  of  them  the  relative 
refers  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Sext.,  45,  Duo  genera  semper  in  hac 
civitate  faerunt  eorum,  qui  versari  in  republica  atquc  in  ea 
se  excellentius  gerere  studuerunt,  quibus  ex  generibus  alteri 
se  populares,  alteri  optimates  ct  haberi  et  esse  voluerunt ; 
p.  Flacc.,  35,  litteras  misit  de  villico  P.  Septimii,  hominis 
ornati,  qui  villicus  caedem  fee  erat. 

[§  744.]  5.  The  pronouns  is  and  ille  are  superfluously 
added  to  quidem,  and  the  personal  pronouns  ego,  tu,  nos, 
vos,  though  already  implied  in  the  verb,  are  sometimes  ex- 
pressed separately,  see  §§  278  and  801.  Respecting  is,  see 
above,  §  699,  and  Cic.,  Tusc.,  iv.,  3,  Sapientiae  studium 
vctus  id  quidem  in  Jtostris  ;  sed  tamen  ante  Laelii  aetatcm 
ct  Scipionis  non  reperio  quos  appellare  possim  nominatim. 
Ille  is  thus  found  frequently ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  29,  Ludo 
autem  et  joco  uti  illo  quidem  licet,  sed  sicut  somno  ct  quieti- 
bus  ceteris  turn,  quum  gravibus  seriisque  rebus  satisfcceri- 
mus ;  Tusc.,  i.,  3,  Multi  jam  esse  Latini  libri  dicuntur 
scripti  inconsiderate  ab  optimis  illis  quidem  viris,  sed  non 
satis  eruditis :  ad  Fam.,  xii.,  30,  O  homincm  semper  ilium 
quidem  milii  aptum,  nunc  vcro  etiam  suavem  !  Ille  is  far- 
ther superfluous  after  at ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  iii.,  19,  Hi  magno- 
pere  suadebant,  ut  retro  abiret  spatiososque  Mesopotamiae 
campos  repeteret ;  .<??'  id  cnnsilium  damnaret,  at  ille  divide- 


482  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ret  saltern  copias  innumcr allies.  Is  (sometimes,  also,  hie), 
when  referring  to  something  mentioned  before,  seems  to 
us  to  be  superfluous,  but  is  used  for  the  sake  of  emphasis; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  dc  Off.,  i.,  38,  Quae  cum  aliqua  perturbations 
fiunt,  ca  non  possunt  Us,  qui  adsunt,  probari ;  i.,  35,  (Na- 
tura)  formam  nostram  reliquainque  Jiguram,  in  qua  esset 
species  hojiesta,  earn  posuit  in  promptu  :  quae  partes  autem 
corporis  ad  naturae  ncccssitatem  datae  aspcctum  cssent  de- 
formem  habiturac,  cas  contcxit  atquc  abdidit ;  ii.,  6,  Male 
se  res  /tabct,  quum,  quod  virtutc  cffici  dcbct,  id  temptatur 
pecunia.  In  Livy,  xxii.,  30,  in  fin.,  ut  vix  cum  eadcm  gente 
bclliim  csse  crcdcrcnt,  cujus  terribilcm  earn  fainam  a  patri- 
bus  acccpissent,  the  cam  refers  to  something  implied,  which 
we  may  express  by  "  so  frightful." 

Jj  745.]  6.  The  monosyllabic  prepositions  ab,  ad,  dc,  ex, 
in  are  often  pleonastically  repeated,  but,  according 
to  the  observation  of  some  critics,  only  when  two  sub- 
stantives, although  united  by  ct,  are  yet  to  be  considered 
as  distinct.  Hence  we  should  not  say  ad  ludiim  ct  adjo- 
cum  facti,  but  we  may  say  deinceps  de  benejicentia  ac  de 
liberalitatc  dtcamus,  if  the  two  qualities  are  not  to  be 
mixed  together,  but  considered  separately.  This  theory 
seems  plausible  ;  but  the  texts  of  the  Latin  authors,  espe- 
cially of  Cicero,  such  as  they  are  at  present,  do  not  ena- 
ble us  to  come  to  any  definite  conclusion,  since  a  preposi- 
tion is  very  often  repeated  when  the  substantives  really 
belong  together  and  arc  of  a  kindred  nature,  while  it  is 
omitted  in  cases  of  the  opposite  kind.  Comp.  Heusinger 
on  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  14,  init. ;  and  my  note  on  the  Divinat. 
in  Cacc.,  13.  But  it  may  be  considered  as  an  invariable 
rule,  that  wherever  the  substantives  are  separated  by  ct — 
ct,  the  preposition  must  be  repeated ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off., 
i.,  34,  ut  corum  ct  in  bellicis  ct  in  civilibus  officiis  vigcat 
industria. 

The  preposition  inter  is  frequently  repeated  by  Cicero 
after  the  verb  inter  esse  ;  e.  g.,  LacL,  25,  quid  inter  sit  inter 
popidarem,  id  est,  assentatorcm  ct  levem  civem,  et  inter  con- 
stantcm,  severum  et  gravem  ;  de  Fin.,  i.,  9,  intercsse  enim 
inter  argumentum  et  inter  medwcrem  animadversionem. 
Other  writers  repeat  it  after  other  verbs  also;  as,  Liv.,  x., 
7,  certatum  inter  Ap.  Claudium  maxime  fcrunt  et  inter  P. 
Dccium. 

[§  746.]  7.    The   dative   of  the  personal  pronouns  fre- 


PLEONASM.  483 

quently  seems  to  be  used  pleonastically,  as  it  expresses  a 
relation  of  an  action  to  a  person  which  is  often  almost  im- 
perceptible. See  above,  §  408,  and  Drakenborch  on  Sil. 
Ital.,  i.,  46  ;  Burmami  on  Phaedr.,  i.,  22,  3.  But  the  ad- 
dition of  sibi  to  suus,  or  rather  to  suo,  for  so  we  find  it  in 
the  few  passages  (especially  of  the  comic  writers)  where 
this  peculiarity  occurs,  is  .a  real  pleonasm.  Something  an- 
alogous to  it  in  English  is  the  addition  of  the  word  "own" 
to  possessive  pronouns.  Plaut.,  Capt.,  Prol.  50,  ignorans 
suo  sibi  servit  patri  ;  ibid.,  i.,  1,  12,  suo  sibi  suco  vivunt ; 
Terent.,  Adelpli.,  v.,  8,  in  fin.,  suo  sibi  liunc  gladio  jugulo. 

[§  747. ]  8.  Potius  and  magis  are  sometimes  used  pleo- 
nastically with  malle  and  praestare  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Divin.,  6, 
ab  omnibus  se  desertos  potius  quam  abs  te  defenses  esse  ??ia- 
lunt ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  34,  qui  magis  vere  vincere  quam  diu  im- 
perare  malit ;  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  7,  ut  emori  potius  quam  servire 
praestaret.  Comp.  p.  Balb.,  8,  in  fin.,  with  the  notes  of 
Ernesti  and  Garatoni.  Hence  we  sometimes  find  it  also 
with  comparatives  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  14,  milii  in  tanto  om- 
nium mortalium  odio,  justo  praesertim  et  debito,  quaevis 
fuga  potius  quam  ulla  provincia  esset  optatior.  Comp.  p. 
Lig.,  2;  de  Orat.,  ii.,  74;  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii.,  13.  The  ple- 
onasm of  prius,  ante,  and  rursus,  with  verbs  compounded 
with  prae,  ante,  and  re,  is  of  a  similar  kind.  See  Draken- 
borch on  Liv.,  i.,  3,  §  4. 

9.  Respecting  the  superfluous  genitives  loci,  locorum, 
terrarum,  gentium,  and  ejus,  in  the  phrase  quoad  ejus  fieri 
potcst,  see  §  434 ;  and  for  id  quod,  instead  of  quod  alone, 
see  §  371. 

[§  748.]  10.  SiCj  ita,  id,  hoc,  illud,  are  very  often  super- 
fluously used,  as  a  preliminary  announcement  of  a  propo- 
sition, and  added  to  the  verb  on  which  this  proposition 
depends ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  3,  Sic  a  majoribus  suis 
acccperant,  tanta  populi  Ro?nani  esse  bcneflcia,  ut  ctiam  in- 
jurias  nostrorumliominum perferendas putarent ;  ad  Fam., 
xiii.,  10,  quum  sibi  ita  persuasisset  ipse,meas  de  se  accurate 
scriptas  litteras  maximum  apud  te  pondus  habituras,  &c. ; 
ad  Att.,  i.,  10,  Tioc  te  intelligere  volo,  pcrgraviter  ilium  esse 
offensum  ;  ad  Quint.  Frat.,  i.,  l,te  illud  admonco,ut  quoti- 
die  meditere,  rcsistendum  esse  iracundiae ;  and  afterward, 
illud  te  et  oro  et  Jwrtor,  ut  in  extrcma  parte  muneris  tui  dil- 
igentissimus  sis.  These  pleonastic  additions,  as  we  re- 
marked above,  have  no  influence  on  the  construction  of 

C^Lc^.lfo 


484  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

propositions,  and  we  find  only  in  a  few  instances  that  a 
pronoun  or  sic  is  followed  by  ut,  which  would  not  other- 
wise be  used  ;  as,  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  iii.,  34,  de  cujus  dicendi 
copia  sic  accepimus,  ut,  &c.;  Tusc.,  iv.,  21,  ita  enim  definit, 
ut  perturbatio  sit;  ibid.,  6,  Est  Zenonis  haec  definitio,  ut 
perturbatio  sit  aversa  a  recta  ratione  animi  commotio.  This 
must  be  considered  as  a  contraction  of  sentences,  as  ut 
should  properly  be  followed  by  a  verb  denoting  "  to  say" 
or  "to  think,"  with  an  accusat.  with  the  infinitive  ;  e.  g., 
in  the  last-mentioned  passage,  ut  dicat  (putetj  perturba- 
tionem  csse.  In  the  phrase  hoc,  illud,  id  agere  ut,  howev- 
er, the  pronoun  is  established  by  custom  and  necessary. 
See  §  614. 

[§  749.]  11.  A  kind  of  pleonastical  expression  is  ob- 
served in  quoting  indirectly  the  words  of  another ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Fa?n.,  iii.,  7,  A  Pausania,  Lentuli  liberto,  accenso 
meo,  audivi  quum  diceret,  te  sccum  cssc  questum,  quod  tibi 
obviam  non  prodissem  ;  Brut.,  56,  fysius  Sulpicii  nulla  ora- 
tio  est ;  saepe  ex  co  audiebam,  quum  se  scribcre  neque  con- 
sucssc  neque  posse  dicerct,  and  in  many  other  passages ; 
compare  in  Verr.,  i.,  61,  init. ;  de  Fin.,  v.,  19,  in  fin.;  de 
Orat.,  i.,  28  ;  Philip.,  ix.,  4,  atque  ita  locutus  est  ut  aucto- 
ritatem  vcstram  vitae  suae  se  dicerct  antcferre;  in  Verr.,  v., 
18,  cjusmodi  de  te  voluisti  sermonem  esse  omnium,  palam 
ut  loquercntur  ;  Liv.,  xxii.,  32,  atquc  ita  verba  Jacta,  ut 
dicerent. 

[§  750.]  12.  A  similar  pleonasm  is  often  found  with  the 
verbs  of  thinking,  believing,  &c.,  inasmuch  as  putare  and 
existimarc  are  expressly  added  in  the  dependent  sentence, 
although  a  word  of  similar  meaning  has  preceded  ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  75,  Cogitate  mine,  quum  ilia  (Sicilia)  sit 
insula,  quae  undique  cxitus  maritimos  habeat,  quid  ex  cete- 
ris  locis  exportatum  putctis,  instead  of  cogitate  quid  expor- 
tatum  sit ;  ibid.,  iv.,  1,  genus  ipsum  prius  cognoscite,  judi- 
ces  ;  deinde  fortasse  non  magnopere  quaeretis,  quo  id  nomi- 
ne appellandum  putetis,  where  quo  nomine  appelletis  would 
be  quite  sufficient;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  13,  tumfacilius  statue- 
tis,  quid  apud  exteras  nationes  fieri  existimctis,  and  in  sev- 
eral other  passages  of  this  oration,  especially  chap.  9,  sed 
ca  vos  conjectura  perspicite,  quantum  illud  bellum  factum 
putetis,  where  Ernesti  found  difficulties ;  Quintil.,  i.,  10, 
in  hacfuerc  sententia  ut  cxistimarent. 

Such  a  redundancy  occurs,  also,  with  licet,  when  de- 


PLEONASM.  485 

pending  on  permittitur  and  conceditur ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL, 
ii.,  13,  totam  Italiam  suis  coloniis  ut  complere  liceat  per- 
mittitur,  and  afterward,  quacunque  velint  summo  cum  im- 
perio  vagari  ut  liceat  conceditur ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  18,  nequc 
enim  permissum  cst,  ut  impune  nobis  liceat ;  de  Off.,  iii.,  4, 
nobis  autem  nostra  Academia  magnam  licentlam  dat,  ut 
quodcunque  maxi?ne  probabile  occurrat,  id  nostro  jure  liceat 
defendere.  For  other  peculiarities  of  this  kind,  see  Heu- 
singer  on  Nep.,  Milt.,  1,  Delplws  deliberatum  missi  sunt, 
qui  consulerent  Apollinem. 

[§  751.]  13.  Videri  independent  sentences  is  often  used 
in  a  singularly  tautological  manner;  as,  Cic.,  p.  Leg.  Man., 
10,  Restat,  ut  de  imperatore  ad  id  helium  deligendo  ac  tan- 
tis  rebus  praejiciendo  dicendum  esse  videatur;  ibid.,  20,  Re- 
liquum  est,  ut  de  Q.  Catuli  auctoritate  et  sententia  dicendum 
csse  videatur.  In  other  cases,  too,  it  is  a  favourite  prac- 
tice of  Cicero  to  make  a  circumlocution  of  a  simple  verb 
by  means  of  vidcri,  which,  however,  is  not  to  be  consid- 
ered as  a  pleonasm,  but  as  a  peculiarity  of  this  writer, 
who  likes  to  soften  his  expression  by  representing  facts 
as  matters  of  opinion,  and,  consequently,  as  subject  to 
doubt ;  e.  g.,  p.  Leg.  Man.,  14,  Et  quisquam  dubitabit, 
quin  hoc  tantum  bcllum  Jiuic  transmittendum  sit,  qui  ad  om- 
nia  nostrae  memoriae  bella  conficicjida  divino  quodam  con- 
silio  natus  esse  videatur  ?  another  writer  would,  perhaps, 
have  said  simply  qui  divino  consilio  natus  est.  Cicero 
softens  the  strong  and  somewhat  offensive  expression  by 
videri,  and  the  "  divine  decree"  by  his  peculiar  qiiidam. 
We  know  from  the  author  of  the  dialogue  de  Oratoribus 
(c.  1  and  23),  that  Cicero's  own  contemporaries  remark- 
ed upon  the  frequent  use  of  his  favourite  conclusion  csse 
videatur;  but  it  was  certainly  not  the  subjunctive  at  which 
they  took  offence,  for  it  is  the  necessary  result  of  the  con- 
struction, but  the  use  of  videri  in  cases  where  there  was 
no  occasion  for  representing  a  fact  as  a  mere  matter  of 
opinion.  But  we  prefer,  without  hesitation,  Cicero's  views 
as  to  the  propriety  of  expression,  to  the  judgment  of  later 
writers,  who  lived  at  a  time  when  the  language  began  to 
lose  its  natural  elasticity  of  expression. 

[§  752.]   14.  Respecting  the  circumlocution  offacerc  ut, 

see  §  619.     A  similar  circumlocution  by  means  of  estut  is 

especially  frequent  in  Terence  ;  e.  g.,  Phorm.,  ii.,  1,  40, 

Si  cst  culpam  ut  AntipJio  in  se  admiserit,  if  it  is  the  case 

S  s  2 


486  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

that  Antipho  is  in  fault,  equivalent  to  si  Antipho  culpam 
admisit ;  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  12,  2,  non  cst  ut  copia  major 
a  Jove  donari  possit  tibi.  The  same  occurs  in  the  follow- 
ing passages  of  Cicero  :  Oral.,  59,  est  autem  ut  id  max- 
ime  deceat,  non  id  solum  ;  p.  Coel.,  20,  quando  enim  hoc 
factum  non  est  ?  quando  reprehensum  ?  quando  non  permis- 
sum  ?  quando  dcnique  Juit  ut,  quod  licet,  non  liceret  ?  i.  e., 
quando  non  licidt,  quod  licet  ?  dc  Off.,  ii.,  8,  liacc  cst  una 
res  prorsus  ut  non  multum  diffcrat  inter  summos  et  mcdio- 
cres  viros  ;  i.  e.,  haec  una  res  non  multum  differt.  But  cst 
ut,  instead  of  est  cur,  is  of  a  different  kind.  See  §  562. 

The  same  circumlocution  is  also  made,  though  very  sel- 
dom, by  means  of  cst  with  the  infinitive  ;  e.  g.,  Propert., 
i.,  10,  13,  Ne  sit  tibi,  Gallc,  montes  scmjicr  adire,  equiva- 
lent to  nc  adeas ;  Tibull.,  i.,  6,  24,  At  mild  si  crcdas — non 
sit  mild  oculis  timuisse  meis,  that  is,  non  timeam  or  ?wn 
ti?nebo.  Also,  in  Sallust,  Jug.,  110,  3,  Fuerit  mild  cgidsse 
aliquando  amicitiac  tuae  ;  i.  e.,  egucrim,  may  I  have  been 
in  want  of  your  friendship. 

[§  753.]  15.  Coepi  with  the  infinitive  is  very  often  no- 
thing else  than  a  descriptive  circumlocution  of  the  verl>um 
finitum,  though  always  implying  temporary  duration ;  e. 
g.,  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  iv.,  29,  Rex  maximo  conventu  Syracusis, 
in  foro,  /lens  atquc  dcos  Jwmincsque  obtestans,  clamare  coe- 
pit,  candelabrum  faction  e  gemmis — id  sibi  C.  Verrem  ab- 
stulissc  ;  in  Verr.,  ii.,  22,  Prime  negligcrc  et  contemnere 
coepit,  quod  causa  2^rorsus,  quod  dubitari  posset,  nihil  habe- 
bat,  that  is,  ncgligcbat  et  contemncbat  aliquamdiu.  Simi- 
lar passages  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  Incipere  is  more 
rarely  used  in  this  way ;  as  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  17,  cogere  incipit 
eos,  ut  abscntem  Heraclium  condcmnarcnt,  it  took  place,  but 
not  till  after  some  delay;  iv.,  66,  retinere  incipit,  he  did 
his  part  in  retaining.  Compare  §  500,  note  1. 

[§  754.]  16.  Another  kind  of  pleonasm  in  Latin  is  the 
use  of  two  negatives  instead  of  an  affirmative  ;  in  Eng- 
lish this  does  not  occur,  except  where  a  negative  adjec- 
tive ;  as,  unlearned,  unskilful,  unfrequcnt,  acquires  an  af- 
firmative meaning  by  the  addition  of  the  negative  "not;" 
as,  not  unlearned,  &c.  In  Latin  this  use  extends  much  far- 
ther, for  not  only  does  non  before  a  negative  word ;  as,  nemo, 
nullus,  nihil,  nunquam,  nusquam,  ncscio,  ignoro,  render  this 
word  affirmative,  but  also  the  negative  conjunction  neque 
obtains  the  affirmative  sense  of  ct,  by  means  of  a  negative 


487 

word  following  in  the  same  proposition ;  e.  g.,  neque  Jiaec 
non  evenerunt,  and  this  took  place  indeed ;  neque  tamen  ea 
non  pia  ct  probanda  fuerunt,  and  yet  this  was  right  and 
laudable ;  Cic.,  de  Fin.,  iv.,  22,  Ncc  Jwc  ille  non  vidit,  sed 
verborum  magnificentia  cst  et  gloria  delectatus ;  de.  Nat. 
Deor.,  ii.,  33,  Nee  vero  non  omni  supplicio  digni  P.  Clau- 
dius^ L.  Junius  consulcs,  qui  contra  auspicia  navigarunt. 
The  sentence  preceding  is,  auspicia  ad  opinioncm  vulgi 
retinentur  ;  Nep.,  Att.,  13,  Nemo  Attico  minus  fait  aediji- 
cator :  neque  tamen  non  imprimis  bene  liabitavit.  As  to  ne 
non,  for  ut,  see  §  535,  in  fin. 

Note. — Two  negatives,  however,  do  not  mutually  destroy  each  other  in 
the  case  of  non  being  followed  by  ne — quidem  ;  e.g.,  non  fugio  ne  hos  qui- 
dem  mores  ;  non  praeter?nittendum  videtur  ne  illud  quidem  genus  pecuniae  con- 
ciliatae,  in  Cicero,  in  Verr. ;  farther,  when  the  negative  leading  proposi- 
tion has  subordinate  subdivisions  with  neque — neque,  neve — neve,  in  which 
case  these  negative  particles  are  equivalent  to  out — aut.  Thus  we  very 
frequently  find,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,xiv.,  20,  nemo  unquam,  neque  poeta,  neque 
orator  fuit,  qui  quemquam  meliorem  quam  se  arbitraretur  ;  ad  A.tt.,  ix.,  12,  non 
medius  fidius  prae  lacrimis  possum  reliqua  nee  cogitare,  nee  scribcre  ;  de  Leg., 
ii.,  27,  earn  ne  quis  nobis  mi/mat  neve  vivus  neve  mortuus.  Respecting  ne  non, 
we  may  add  that  after  vide  (see  §  534),  it  must  be  rendered  in  English  by 
"whether;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii.,  13,  multa  istiusmodi  dicuntur  in  scholis, 
sed  credere  omnia  vide  ne  non  sit  necesse,  but  consider  whether  it  is  neces- 
sary to  believe  it  all ;  ii.,  4,  vide  igitur  ne  nulla  sit  divinatio,  therefore  con- 
sider whether  divinatio  exists  at  all. 

There  are  some  few  passages  where  two  negatives  in  the  same  propo- 
sition do  not  destroy  each  other,  but  strengthen  the  negation.  In  Greek 
this  is  a  common  practice ;  but  in  Latin  it  can  be  regarded  only  as  a  rare 
exception,  apparently  derived  from  the  language  of  common  life.  See  my 
remark  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  24,  in  fin. 

It  must  be  observed,  however,  that  the  use  of  non  be- 
fore a  negative  word  does  not  merely  restore  the  affirma- 
tive sense,  but  generally  heightens  it.  The  meaning  de- 
pends upon  the  whole  tenor  of  the  speech,  but  usually  it 
is  merely  a  formal  softening  of  the  expression;  e.  g.,  homo 
non  indoctus,  instead  of  Jiomo  sane  doctus ;  especially  with 
superlatives,  non  imperitissimus,  not  the  most  inexperi- 
enced, that  is,  a  very  experienced  man.  In  like  manner, 
non  semel  is  equivalent  to  saepius,  non  ignoro,  non  nescio, 
non  sum  nescius,  to  "I  know  very  well;"  non  possum  non, 
to  necesse  est ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  viii.,  2,  non  potui  non 
dare  litteras  ad  Caesarem,  quum  ille  prior  ad  me  scripsis- 
set ;  de  Fin.,  iii.,  8,  Qui  mortem  in  malis  ponit,  non  potest 
earn  non  timere ;  ad  Fam.,  iv.,  7,  Nemo  potest  non  eum 
maxime  laudarc,  qui  cum  spevincendi  simul  abjicit  certan- 
di  etiam  cupiditatem. 

[§  755.]  17.  The  words  nemo,  nullus,  niliil,  nunquam, 


488  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

have  a  different  sense,  according  as  the  non  is  placed  be- 
fore or  after  them. 

7io?i  nemo,  some  one ;  nemo  non,  every  one  (subst.). 
non  nulli,  some;  nullus  non,  every  (adject.).  ' 

non  niliil,        something ;  niliil  non,          everything. 
nonnunqiiam,  sometimes  ;  nunquam  non,  at  all  times. 

So,  nuscjuam  non,  everywhere ;  but  nonnusquam  is  not  in 
use,  alicubi  being  used  instead  of  it.  Non — nisi  acquires 
the  meaning  of  "  only"  (see  the  examples  in  §  801),  and 
modo  non  and  tantum  non,  that  of  "  almost."  See  above, 
§  729. 

[§  756.]  18.  Et  seems  to  be  pleonastic  ally  used  after 
multi  when  another  adjective  follows,  for  in  English  the 
adjective  many  is  put,  like  numerals,  before  other  adjec- 
tives without  the  copulative  "  and."  In  Latin,  however, 
we  frequently  find,  e.  g.,  multae  et  magnae  res,  multa  et 
varia  ncgotia,  multi  being  used  like  other  adjectives,  and 
et,  also,  supplying  the  place  of  ct  is,  introducing  a  more 
accurate  description  (see  §  699);  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  2, 
versantur  cnim  in  animo  meo  multae  et  graves  cogitationes, 
quac  mild  nullam  partem  ncqiic  diurnae  ncque  nocturnae 
quictis  impcrtiunt. 

The  conjunction  vcro  is  used  pleonastically  in  the  apod- 
osis  to  indicate  that  it  contains  an  answer;  see  above,  § 
716.  At  is  similarly  used  to  express  opposition,  especial- 
ly after  si  and  its  compounds;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eimuch.,  v., 

2,  25,  Si  ego  digna  liac  contumelia  sum  maximc,  at  tu  in- 
dignus  qui  facer es  tamen  ;   Liv.,  x.,  19,  Bcttona,  si  liodie 
nobis  victor  iam   duis,  ast  ego  templum  tibi  voveo.     Also, 
after  quoniam ;   as,  Liv.,  i.,  28,  Quoniam  tuum  insanabile 
ingenium  est,  at  tuo  suppticio  doce,  Jmmanum  genus  ea  sanc- 
ta  credere,  quae  a  te  violata  stint. 

[§  757.]  19.  A  kind  of  pleonasm,  which,  however,  par- 
takes of  the  nature  of  an  anacoluthon,  and  is,  therefore, 
beyond  our  limits,  consists  in  the  repetition  of  a  conjunc- 
tion, when  a  sentence  has  grown  too  long,  or  has  been 
interrupted  by  parenthetical  clauses.  This  is  the  case 
most  frequently  with  si  and  ut;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i., 

3,  init.,  Adeori*  rem  redisse,  ut,  qui  mihi  optime  consultum 
velit,  patrem  ut  extimescam,  where  Ruhnken's  note  is  to  be 
compared  ;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  11,  ut  quivis,  quum  aspexis- 
sef,  non  se  praetoris  convivium,  sed  ut  Canncnscm  pugnarn 


ELLIPSIS.  489 

ncquitiae  videre  arbitraretur  ;  Liv.,  iii.,  19,  si  quis  vobis  hu- 
millimus  homo  de  plebe — si  quis  ex  his ;  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  i., 
57,  Quid  cst  igitur,  cur  quum  domus  sit  omnium  una,  caque 
communis,  quumque  animi  hominum  semper  fuerint  futu- 
rique  sint,  cur  ii,  quid  ex  quoque  eveniat,  et  quid  quamque 
rem  signijicet,  pcrspicere  non  possint  ?  An  interrupted 
construction  here  may  be  taken  up  again  by  the  particles 
mentioned  above,  §  739. 


CHAPTER  LXXXVI. 

ELLIPSIS. 

[§  758.]  1.  ELLIPSIS  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more 
words  which  are  necessary  for  the  completeness  of  a  con- 
struction, or,  at  least,  appear  necessary  to  us  who  are  not 
Romans,  inasmuch  as  we  are  inclined  to  consider  the  com- 
plete expression  of  a  thought,  where  no  word  is  wanting, 
as  the  regular  and  original  one.  But  it  is  manifest  that 
grammar  cannot  notice  all  kinds  of  ellipsis,  as  a  speaker 
or  writer  very  often  begins  to  express  a  thought,  and  after 
having  used  some  words,  drops  it,  being  satisfied  with 
having  merely  suggested  it ;  as  in  Virgil,  Acn.,  i.,  139, 
Quos  ego  !  where  we  see  from  the  connexion  what  is  to 
be  supplied,  "I  will  teach  you  how  to  conduct  yourselves," 
or  something  of  a  similar  kind.  To  explain  the  reasons 
of  such  arbitrary  omissions  made  by  the  speaker  for  the 
sake  of  emphasis,  and  to  illustrate  the  practice  by  exam- 
ples, is  the  province  of  rhetoric,  which  considers  it  as  a 
rhetorical  figure,  called  aposiopesis.  Grammar  has  to  treat 
only  of  things  which  often  recur,  and  are  customary  un- 
der particular  circumstances,  and  grammatical  omissions 
of  this  kind  alone  will  be  the  subject  of  the  following  re- 
marks. 

[§  759.]  Note. — The  ellipsis  occurring  in  proverbs  cannot  be  taken  into 
consideration  here,  for  it  is  the  custom  of  all  languages  to  indicate  well- 
known  sentences  only  by  a  few  words,  and  to  leave  it  to  the  hearer  to 
supply  the  rest;  e.  g.,  fortes  fortuna  ;  scil.  adjuvat ;  nee  sibi,  nee  alteri,  scil. 
prodest,  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  10.  Of  a  similar  kind  is  the  expression  in 
drinking  the  health  of  a  person,  bene  te,  scil.  valere  jubeo.  Tibull.,  ii.,  1, 
31 ;  Ovid,  Fast.,  ii.,  637. 

[§  760.]  2.  Respecting  the  omission  and  addition  of  the 
personal  pronouns  when  forming  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
tence, see  §  693.  The  indefinite  homines  (people)  is  also 


490  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

omitted,  whence  the  expressions  dicunt,  tradunt,  ferunt, 
putant,  vocant,  &c.  (see  §  381),  frequently  with  the  addi- 
tion of  vulgo  (commonly).  The  expression  "  so-called" 
is,  by  means  of  the  same  ellipsis,  rendered  by  quern, 
quam,  quod  or  quos,  quas,  quae  vacant  or  vocabant.  (See 
§  714.) 

[§  7G1.]  3.  Proper  names  of  persons  are  sometimes 
joined  with  the  genitive  of  the  father's  name,  the  words 
Jilius  orjilia  being  omitted;  e.  g.,  Faustus  Sullae,  in  Cic., 
p.  Clucnt.,  34,  Caecilia  Metclli,  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  i.,  46 ;  but 
more  especially  in  the  case  of  foreign  names,  it  being 
customary  in  Greek ;  e.  g.,  Hannibal  Gisgonis,  Scleucus 
Antioclii,  see  Ruhnken  on  Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  5.  An  omission 
more  common  in  Latin  than  that  of  Jilia  is  that  of  uxor 
with  the  name  of  the  husband;  hence  we  not  unffequent- 
ly  find  Tercntia  Ciceronis,  Metella  Crassi,  Marcia  Catonis, 
and  Fabia  Dolabellae,  Domitia  Passieni,  in  Q,uintiL,  vi., 
3,  73;  Apicata  Sejani,  Tacit.,  Ann.,  iv.,  11;  Hector  is  An- 
dromache,  Virg.,  Acn.,  iii.,  319 ;  Elissa  Sickaei,  Ovid, 
Hcroid.,  vii.,  193. 

[§  762.]  4.  Aedcs  or  templuni  is  frequently  omitted,  the 
name  of  the  divinity  alone  being  expressed  in  the  geni- 
tive, but  a  preposition  is  always  added;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  41, 
lialntabat  rex  ad  Jovis  Statoris  ;  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  2, 
Valerius  mihi  scripsit  quemadmodum  a  Vestae  ad  tabulam 
Valcriam  ducta  esses ;  Philip.,  i.,  7,  pccunia  utinam  ad 
Opis  maneret ! 

[§  763.]  5.  Other  particular  ellipses  are  those  of  the 
words  tempus,  in  the  expressions  ex  quo,  ex  eo,  and  ex  illo 
(since  that  time),  and  brevi  (shortly) ;  pars,  with  adjectives, 
as  in  English;  tertia  (a  third),  decuma  (a  tenth),  quinqua- 
gesima  (the  fiftieth  part),  and  in  the  plural,  partcs  (parts 
performed  by  an  actor),  with  the  adjectives  primae  and  se- 
cundae;  febris,  with  the  adjectives  tertiana  and  quartana; 
aqua,  with  Jrigida  and  calida  ;  caro,  with  the  adjectives 
ferina,  agnina,  bubula,  canina,  porcina,  &c.,  is  very  com- 
mon ;  marc,  with  altum ;  castra,  with  Jiiberna,  aestiva ; 
praedium  (an  estate),  with  adjectives  derived  from  the 
names  of  neighbouring  towns ;  as  in  Pompeianum  propcr- 
dbam,  in  Tusculano  eram,  ex  Formiano  scripsit ;  ordo,  in 
the  expression  in  quattuordecim  seder  e ;  i.  e.,  to  sit  on  one 
of  the  fourteen  rows  of  benches  set  apart  for  the  equites ; 
pecuniae,  in  the  name  of  the  action  of  repctundae  ;  i.  e., 


ELLIPSIS.  41)1 


ey  reclaimed — and  other  expressions,  which 
;d  from  the  dictionary. 


of  sums  of  mone^ 
must  be  learnec 

[§  764.]  6.  The  ellipsis  of  causa  with  the  genitive  of 
the  gerund  (or  fut.  part,  pass.)  is  a  decided  imitation  of 
a  Greek  idiom  (viz.,  the  use  of  the  genitive  of  the  declined 
infinitive,  rov  fyzvyeLv,  to  express  a  purpose  or  object,  the 
preposition  evsna  or  vnep  being  omitted),  which,  especial- 
ly in  later  times,  was  looked  upon  and  sought  for  as  an 
elegance,  vide  §  663. 

But  it  is  wrong  to  apply  this  ellipsis  also  to  the  immediate  connexion 
of  a  noun  with  the  genitive  of  the  gerund  ;  for  such  expressions  as,  Cic., 
de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  22,  deliberandi  sibi  unum  diem postulavit,  "one  day  of  (i.  e., 
for)  deliberation;"  or,  Quintil.,  iv.,  1,  in  fin.,  paulo  longius  exordium  rei  de- 
monstrandae  repetam  ;  or,  Livy,  ix.,  45,  ut  Marrucini,  Peligni,  &c.,  mitterent 
Romam  oratores  pacis  petendae  amicitiacque,  do  not  require  the  ellipsis  of 
causa  for  their  explanation.  Nor  must  the  dative  (as  is  often  done)  be  con- 
founded with  the  genitive  ;  for  since  the  use  of  the  dative,  as  expressive  of 
purpose,  is  as  agreeable  to  Latin  Syntax  as  that  of  the  genitive  is  foreign 
to  it,  it  would  be  wrong  to  suppose  the  genitive  where  the  text  allows  us 
to  consider  it  as  the  dative.  In  conformity  to  this,  there  occurs  no  deci- 
sive passage  of  the  ellipsis  of  causa  (or  that  Greek  use  of  the  genitive  of 
the  gerund)  in  Cicero,  Nepos,  or  Livy,  and  it  is  not  certain  in  Caesar,  since 
in  the  passage,  Bell.  Gall.,  iv.,  17,  si  naves  dejiciendi  operis  essent  a  barbaris 
missae,  and  still  more  in  others,  the  reading  varies,  and  even  here  the  gen- 
itive may,  perhaps,  depend  on  naves.  But  the  ellipsis  in  question  certain^ 
ly  occurs  in  Terence  in  one  passage,  probably  a  close  imitation  of  the 
Greek  original,  Ad.,  ii.,  4,  6,  vereor  coram  in  os  te  laudarc  amplius,  ne  id  as- 
sentandi  magis  quam  quo  habeam  gratum  facere  existumes.  Farther,  in  Sal- 
lust,  designedly,  and  with  some  affectation,  in  the  speech  of  L.  Philippus 
(Fragm.  Hist.,  lib.  i.),  §  2,  4,  and  7,  arma  ille  adversum  divina  -et  humana  om- 
nia  cepit,  non  pro  sua  aut  quorum  simulat  injuria,  sed  legum  ac  libertatis  subver- 
tendae ;  but  nowhere  else  in  this  author.  In  Velleius,  in  one  passage,  ii., 
20,  opus  erat  partibus  auctoritate,  gratia  :  cujus  augendae  C.  Marium  cum  filio 
ab  exilio  revocavit,  unless  we  ought  to  read  cui,  which  is  more  genuine  Latin. 
But  it  occurs  more  frequently  in  Tacitus,  Ann.,  iii.,  9,  ab  Narnia  vitandae 
suspicionis,  an  quia  pavidis  consilia  in  incerto  sunt,  Nare  ac  mox  Tiberi  devec- 
tus  ;  ibid.,  27,  Secutae  leges  dissensione  ordinum,  et  apiscendi  illicitos  honor es, 
aut  pellendi  claros  viros,  aliaque  ob  prava  per  vim  latac  sunt ;  Ann.,  vi.,  30,  quia 
pecuniam  omittendae  delationis  ceperant ;  Ann.,  xiii.,  11,  quas  (orationes)  Sen- 
eca testificando  quam  honesta  praeciperet,  vel  jactandi  ingenii,  voce  principis  vul- 
gabat ;  Hist.,  iv.,  25,  turn  c  seditiosis  unum  vinciri  jubet,  magis  usurpandi  juris, 
quam  quia  unius  culpa  forct ;  ibid.,  42,  accusationem  subisse  juvcnis  admodum 
nee  depellendi  periculi,  sed  in  spem  potentiae  videbatur.  But  even  in  Tacitus, 
the  dative  of  the  gerund  occurs  more  frequently  in  this  sense,  and  in  the 
passages, 'Ann.,  ii.,  59,  init.,  and  iii.,  41,  in  tin.,  this  case  might  easily  be 
restored.  It  is,  at  all  events,  clear  that  this  use  of  the  genitive,  generally 
speaking,  remained  foreign  to  the  Latin  language. 

J§  765.]  7.  The  pronoun  is,  ea,  id,  is  frequently  omit- 
when  it  stands  in  the  same  case  as  the  corresp ending 
relative  ;  less  frequently,  though  not  very  rarely,  when 
the  cases  are  different.  It  may  also  be  observed  that  the 
relative  part  often  precedes  the  leading  part  of  the  prop- 
osition, in  which  case  is,  in  the  same  case,  is  put  only 


492  LATIN    GKAMMAK. 

when  a  certain  emphasis  is  intended.  Hence  we  often 
meet  with  such  passages  as,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  LaeL,  22,  maxi- 
mum ornamentum  amicitiae  tollit  (is),  qui  ex  ca  tollit  vere- 
cundiam  ;  i.  e.,  "he  bereaves  friendship  of  its  brightest  or- 
nament, who  takes  away  from  it  mutual  respect;"  and 
very  frequently  with  such  as  terra  quod  accepit,  (id)  nun- 
quam  sine  usura  redd  it;  for  the  demonstrative  pronoun 
is  expressly  added  only  when  it  is  to  be  pronounced  with 
emphasis  :  see  above,  §  744. 

Note. — Upon  the  whole,  however,  it  is  a  favourite  practice  in  Latin  to 
omit  the  demonstratives,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  relatives.  We 
should,  therefore,  say  discipulum  maxime  probo,  qualcm  te  fore  promisisti,  for 
talem — qualcm  ;  quanta  potuit  celcritate  cucurrit ;  and  so  very  frequently  with 
the  same  case  of  maximus ;  as,  e.  g.,  Consul  quantis  maximis  poterat  itineri- 
bus  ad  collegam  ducebat ;  dcdit  mihi  quantum  maximum  potuit ;  i.  e.,  "  as  much 
as  he  possibly  could  give."  (See  §  C89.)  Qualis  is  used  by  Livy  with  a 
still  greater  ellipsis,  hi.,  62,  proelium  fuit,  quale  inter  fidentes  sibi  ambo  exer- 
citus  ;  i.  e.,  tale  quale  esse  debuit ;  xxii.,  49,  equitum  pedestre  proelium,  quale 
jam  hand  dubid  hostium  victoria  fuit.  With  relative  adverbs  the  correspond- 
ing demonstrative  adverb  is  omitted  ;  as,  unde  semel  pecuniam  sumpsisti,  ite- 
rum  same,  for  inde  iterum  sume. 

[§  766.]  8.  The  pronoun  is,  ea,  id,  is  likewise  not  ex- 
pressed, if  it  would  be  required  to  be  put  in  the  same  ob- 
lique case  as  the  preceding  noun  to  which  it  refers.  Thus, 
e.  g.,  pater  amat  libcros  et  tamen  castigat;  i.e.,  "and nev- 
ertheless he  chastises  them."  Sen.,  Epist.,  79,  multos  il- 
lust  rat  for  tuna,  dum  vcxat.  The  student  may  also  remem- 
ber that,  in  the  construction  of  the  ablative  absolute,  those 
references  to  the  subject  of  the  proposition  which  we  in 
English  express  by  means  of  a  preposition  and  an  unem- 
phatical  pronoun  are  not  expressed  in  Latin;  e.  g.,  Cae- 
sar, Pompeio  victo,  in  Asiam  profcctus  est ;  i.  e.,  "  after 
Pompey  had  been  vanquished  by  him,"  where,  in  Latin, 
ab  eo  is  never  added.  Hence  we  usually  render  such  ab- 
latives absolute  actively;  thus,  "after  having  vanquished 
Pompey." 

[§  767.]  9.  In  those  cases  where  we  use  '•'•that,'"  "those" 
instead  of  a  repetition  of  the  preceding  substantive,  the 
pronoun  is  is  never  used  in  Latin,  and  only  later  authors 
express  this  relation  by  ille.  It  is  the  rule,  that  the  pre- 
ceding substantive,  if  it  can  be  conveniently  omitted,  is 
left  to  be  supplied,,  and  the  pronoun,  which  would  refer 
to  it,  is  not  expressed  ;  thus,  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Ale.,  5,  quum 
Athcniensium  opes  senesccre,  contra  Lacedac??ioniorum  cres- 
cere  videret,  forillas  Laccdacmoniorum,  "those  of  the  Lace- 
daemonians ;"  Curt.,  ix.,  26  (6),  Philippus  in  acie  tutior, 


ELLIPSIS.  493 

guam  in  tlieatrofuit :  hostium  manus  saepe  vitavit,  suorum 
effugcre  non  valuit.  And  thus  we  should  say,  not  only  in 
the  nominative,  fratris  filius  mihi  placet,  sororis  displicet, 
but  also  in  the  dative,  fratris  filio  magnam  pecuniam,  so- 
roris  nil  ill  prorsus  testamento  legavit,  and  in  the  ablative, 
fratris  filio  multum,  sororis  longe  minus  utor.  So,  also, 
with  prepositions  ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  i.,  30,  Flebat 
uterque,  non  de  suo  supplicio,  scd  pater  de  Jilii  morte,  de 
patris  jilius ;  iii.,  38,  ut  aratores  in  servorum  numcro  cs- 
scnt,  scrvi  in  publicanorum  ;  iv.,  20,  ut  non  conferam  vitam 
neque  existimationem  tuam  cum  illius  ;  i.  e.,  "with  those  of 
that  man."  There  are  also  instances  where  another  sub- 
stantive of  a  similar  meaning  is  used,  or  the  same  is  re- 
peated, even  with  some  harshness  (e.  g.,  Veil.  Pat.,  ii., 
128,  In  hujus  virtutum  acstimationc  jam  pridem  judicia  civ- 
itatis  cum  judiciis  p?'incipis  certantj,  or  a  derivative  adjec- 
tive is  made  use  of;  as,  e.  g.,  Tercntii fabulas  studiose  lego, 
Plautinis  minus  delcctor.  We  also  meet  with  passages 
where,  instead  of  the  derivative  adjective,  or  of  the  geni- 
tive of  the  person  depending  on  the  omission  of  a  sub- 
stantive, the  name  of  the  person  itself  is  put  in  the  case 
which  the  verb  governs;  as,  e.  g.,  Terentiifabulis  magno- 
pere  detector,  Plauto  longe  minus,  or  libros  Platonis  lego, 
non  multum  ab  Aristotele  dissidentes,  instead  of  ab  Aristo- 
telis  (libris)  or  ab  Aristotcleis.  Comp.  Cic.,  de  Orat.,  i., 
4,  §  15  ;  and  44,  §  197,  si  cum  Lycurgo  et  Dracone  et  So- 
lone  nostras  leges  conferre  volueritis,  and  Heusinger  on 
Cic.,  de  Of.,  i.,  22. 

Note. — Hie  and  Hie,  when  the  preceding  substantive  is  understood,  re- 
tain, in  Cicero,  their  demonstrative  signification,  and  therefore  do  not 
merely  supply  the  place  of  the  substantive  which  is  omitted  ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
p.  Arch.j  11,  Nullam  enim  virtutem  aliam  mercedem  laborum  periculorumque 
desiderat,  praeter  hanc  (the  one  of  which  I  am  speaking)  laudis  et  gloriae  ; 
Divin.,  11,  Quum  omnis  arrogantia  odiosa  est,  turn  ilia  (into  which  1  should 
fall)  ingenii  atque  eloquentiae  multo  molcstissima.  But  such  cases  form  the 
precedent  on  which  later  writers  actually  use  ille  in  the  place  of  the  pre- 
ceding substantive. 

[§  768.]  10.  The  possessive  pronouns  are  usually  omit- 
ted when  they  can  be  easily  supplied  from  the  subject, 
which  is  either  a  noun,  or  implied  in  the  person  of  the 
verb.  Thus,  patrem  video,  fratrem  certe  diligis,  roga  pa- 
rentes,  Cicero  in  libro  de  senectute  Catonem  loquentem  in- 
duxit,  without  the  pronouns  meum,  tuum,  tuos,  suo  ;  they 
are  added  only  when  emphasis  or  contrast  is  intended, 
where  in  English  we  might  add  "own"  to  the  pronoun. 
T  T 


494  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Hence  the  Latins  did  not  say  animum  suum  adjecit,  adver- 
tit,  appulit  ad  aliquam  rem,  animos  vestros  attcndite  ad  ea 
quae  consequuntur,  but  animum  advertit,  animos  attcndite 
alone,  since,  in  the  absence  of  a  genitive  or  of  the  pronoun 
of  another  person,  the  reader  or  hearer  would  naturally 
understand  no  other  person  than  that  of  the  verb.  The 
contrast,  however,  requires  its  addition  in  (Cic.,  in  Rull., 
ii.,  24)  ego  non  dicam,  tamcn  id  poteritis  cum  animis  vcs- 
tris  cogitarc,  and  the  precision  injuro  ex  animi  mci  scntcn- 
tia,  jura  ex  animi  tui  scntcntia.  But  if,  besides  the  per- 
son of  the  subject,  that  of  a  remote  object  also  occurs  in 
the  proposition,  the  possessive  pronoun  will  be  supplied 
from  this  latter;  e.  g.,  patris  animum  milii  rcconcdiasti ; 
i.  e.,  patris  mci  animum,  rather  than  tui. 

The  possessive  pronoun,  as  in  English,  is  generally  ex- 
pressed only  once,  when  it  belongs  to  two  substantives, 
even  if  they  are  of  different  genders  ;  as,  amor  tuus  ac 
judicium  de  me, ;  ingcnium  tuum  ac  doctrina. 

[§  769.]  11.  The  interrogative  interjection  Quid?  which 
is  of  such  frequent  occurrence,  may  easily  be  explained 
by  an  ellipsis  of  ais,  censes.  It  deserves  to  be  noticed, 
that  this  quid  attracts,  or  draws  near  to  itself,  the  case  of 
the  succeeding  verb;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  dc  Off.,  ii.,  7,  Quid?  Al- 
exandrum  Phcraeum  quo  animo  vixisse  arbitramur  ?  p. 
Murcn.,  15,  Quid?  illam  pugnam  navalem  ad  Tenedum 
mcdiocri  certamine  commissam  arbitraris  ?  in  Pis.,  36, 
Quid  ?  illam  armorum  officinam  ccquid  rccordaris  ?  and, 
farther,  that  in  the  phrase  quid  censes  (censemus,  censetis)  ? 
when  another  clause  depends  on  it,  quid  often  serves  mere- 
ly to  introduce  the  interrogation  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am., 
17,  Quid  censes  Jiunc  ipsum  Roscium,  quo  studio  csse  in  rus- 
ticis  rebus  ?  equivalent  to  Quo  studio  censes  Roscium  csse  ? 
de  Off.,  ii.,  7,  Quid  censemus  superiorem  Dionysium,  quo 
cruciatu  timoris  angi  solitum,  the  same  as  Quo  cruciatu 
censcmus  Dionysium  angi  solitum  csse  ? 

Quid  vero  ?  Quid  igitur  ?  Quid  ergo  ?  Quid  cnim  ?  are 
likewise  easily  explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  censes  or  cense- 
tis. They  are  always  followed  by  another  question  which 
may  be  united  with  that  elliptical  interrogation  into  one 
proposition.  But  of  a  different  kind  are  Quid  postea  ? 
Quid  turn  ?  Supply  sequitur,  i.  e.,  "  what  follows  then  (or 
from  this)?"  and  Quid  ita?  "How  so?"  "Why]"  which 
may  be  explained  by  an  ellipsis  of  the  preceding  verb ; 


ELLIPSIS.  495 

thus,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Accusatis  Sex.  Roscium.  Quid  ita?  Quia 
de  manibus  vestris  ejfugit. 

In  the  interrogative  transition  Quid  quod,  which  is  so 
frequent  in  the  Latin  writers,  dicam  de  co  is  omitted, 
hence  properly  "  what  shall  I  say  about  this,  that,"  &c.  ; 
but  it  may  be  rendered  in  various  ways ;  as,  e.  g.,  by  "  nay," 
"nay  even,"  '•'•but  now"  "moreover"  Thus,  e.  g.,  Cic., 
Quid  quod  solus  sociorum  summum  in  periculum  vocatur  ? 
Quid  quod  sapicntissimus  quisque  animo  aequissimo  mori- 
tur  ? 

Quid  multa  ?  quidplura?  ne  multa  ;  ne  multis ;  ne  plu- 
ra,  are  used  with  the  ellipsis  of  dicam;  we  may,  perhaps, 
also  supply  verba  and  verbis,  unless  we  consider  the  neu- 
ter to  be  used  substantively.  Similar  expressions  are  quid 
quaeris  ?  quid  vultis  amplius  ?  We  also  find  the  infinitive 
dicere  omitted  ;  Cic.,  Brut.,  92,  Nimis  multa  videor  de  me ; 
ad  Fam.,  v.,  21,  JMulta  alia  coram  brevi  tcmpore  licebit. 

[§  770.]  12.  Pertinere,  "  to  concern,"  "  to  have  refer- 
ence to,"  is  omitted  in  such  expressions  as  nihil  ad  me ; 
recte  an  secus,  nihil  ad  nos ;  aut  si  ad  nos,  nihil  ad  hoc 
tempus  ;  in  Cic.,  in  Pis.,  28,  nihil  ad  rem  ;  or,  interroga- 
tively, quid  hoc  ad  Epicurum  ?  "  what  does  this  concern 
Epicurus  1"  what  does  he  care  about  it]  Quorsus  haec? 
for  quorsus  haec  pertinent?  "what  is  that  for1?"  "what 
does  this  refer  to  ?" 

In  the  elliptical  expression  quo  mihi  hanc  rein  1-  "  what 
use  is  this  to  me  1"  and,  unde  mihialiquam  rem?  "whence 
am  I  to  get  anything  ?"  parabo  may  be  supplied  ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  vii.,  23,  Martis  vero  signum  quo  mihi,  pads 
auctori  ?  Horat.,  Epist.,  i.,  5, 12,  quo  mihifortunam,  si  non 
conceditur  uti  ?  Sen.,  de  Tranq.,  9,  quo  mihi  bibliothecas  ? 
Horat.,  Scr?n.,  ii.,  5,  102,  TJnde  mihi  tarn  fortcm  atque  ji- 
dcleml  ii.,  7,  116,  unde  mihi  lapidem?  In  the  indignant 
question,  in  Cic.,  Philip.,  i.,  10,  Quas  tu  mihi  interccssio- 
nes,  quas  religioncs  ?  supply  profers  or  dicis. 

A  similar  expression  is  quid  mihi  cum  hac  re  ?  "  what 
have  I  to  do  with  this]"  "what  does  this  concern  me?" 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  pro  Quint.,  17,  Quid  mihi,  inquit,  cum  ista  sum- 
ma  sanctimonia  ac  diligcntia  ?  vidcrint  ista  qfficia  viri  boni, 
de  me  autem  sic  considerent,  &c. 

[§  771.]  13.  A  tense  offaccrc  is  omitted  in  short  prop- 
ositions containing  an  opinion  on  a  person's  actions;  e.  g., 
Cicero,  Rccte  ille,  melius  hi;  Bene  Ghrysippus,  qui  docet ; 


496  LATIN    GKAMiMAil. 

de  Off.,  iii.,  27,  At  stulte  (Regulus)  qui  non  modo  non  cen- 
sucrit  captivos  rcmittcndos,  verum  etiam  dissuaserit.  Quo- 
modo  stulte?  p.  J\filon.,  14,  Niliil  per  vim  unquam  Clodius, 
omnia  2?er  vim  Milo  ;  de  Off.,  i.,  11,  ne  quid  tale  post  liac 
(&ci\.faciat)t  Also,  in  the  phrase  jfinem  facere  ;  Cic.,  de 
Nat.  Dear.,  iii.,  40,  Quae  quum  dixisset.  Gotta  Jinem  ;  de 
Fin.,  iv.,  1,  Quac  quum  dixissct,  Jinem  illc.  This  ellipsis 
deserves  especially  to  be  noticed  in  the  phrases  niliil  ali- 
ud  quam,  quid  aliud  qua??i,  nihil  praeterquam,  which  in 
sense  are  equivalent  to  "merely  ;"  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Ages.,  2, 
Tissaphernes  niliil  aliud  quam  helium  comparavit ;  Liv., 
xxxiv.,  46,  Per  biduum  niliil  aliud  quam  stcterunt  parati 
ad  pugnandum ;  Sueton.,  Caes.,  20,  ut  quoad  potcstate  obi- 
ret,  domo  abditus  niliil  aliud  quam  per  cdicta  obnuntiaret; 
Aug.,  S3,  mox  niliil  aliud  quam  vectabatur  ct  deambula- 
bat ;  Flor.,  iii.,  23,  Nam  quum  jure  belli  Sulla  dictator 
proscripsisset  inimicos,  qui  supercrant,  rcvocante  Lcpido, 
quid  aliud  quam  ad  bellum  vocabantur ;  Liv.,  iv.,  3,  roga- 
tioncs  quibus  quid  aliud  quam  admoncmus,  cives  nos  corum 
esse  ?  Liv.,  iii.,  26,  ct  ilia  quidcm  nocte  niliil  praeterquam 
vigilatum  cst  in  urbe.  In  like  manner,  the  verb  is  omit- 
ted with  nildl  amplius  quam,  niliil  minus  quam,  and  its 
place  is  supplied  by  the  one  following;  as,  Sueton.,  Do- 
mit.,  3,  quotidie  sibi  sccrctum  liorarium  sumere  solebat,  nee 
quidquam  amplius  quam  muscas  captare  ;  Liv.,  xxvi.,  20, 
nihil  minus  quam  vcrebatur,  ne  obstaret  gloriae  suae,  he 
was  far  from  fearing,  &c.  We  observe  a  similar  ellipsis 
in  the  phrase  si  nihil  aliud  ;  e.  g.,  Curt.,  iv.,  28,  vincam 
tamcn  silentium,  ct,  si  niliil  aliud,  certe  gemitu  intcrpellabo, 
"  if  nothing  else;"  i.  e.,  "if  I  cannot  do  anything  else." 
See  Drakenborch  on  Liv.,  xxx.,  35. 

Note. — The  elliptical  use  of  nihil  aliud  quam  does  not  occur  in  Cicero. 
(See  §  735.)  But  nihil  aliud  nisi,  nothing  else  than,  occurs  in  Cicero ;  as, 
p.  Arch.,  4,  si  nihil  aliud  nisi  de  civitate  ac  lege  dicimus,  nihil  dico  amplius  ; 
out  a  real  ellipsis  of  facere  cannot  be  supposed  to  exist  here,  since  there  is 
a  direct  connexion  with  the  verb  following;  p.  Leg.  Man. ,22,  ut  nihil  aliud 
nisi  de  hoste  ac  de  laude  cogitet. 

[§  772.]  14.  Ait  or  inquit,  which  serves  to  introduce  the 
direct  words  of  another  person,  is  sometimes  omitted ;  e. 
g.,  Phaedr.,  v.,  5,  37,  turpemque  aperto  pignore  errorem 
2)robans  :  En,  liic  declarat,  quales  sitis  judices  ;  but  more 
frequently  in  relating  a  connected  conversation,  in  this 
manner,  Tarn  ille ;  hie  ego  ;  liuic  ego. 

Respecting  the  omission  of  the  verb  "  to  say,"  in  indi- 


ELLIPSIS).  497 

rectly  quoting  some  one's  words,  and  the  supplying  it 
from  some  preceding  verb,  see  above,  §  620.  Even  with- 
out another  verb  preceding,  elicit  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
quoting  a  person's  words  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  ii., 
14,  Scite  enim  Chrysippus :  ut  gladii  causa  vaginam,  sic 
praetcr  mundum  cetera  omnia  aliorum  causa  esse  generata. 

The  omission  of  the  idea  implied  in  "  I  will  tell  you," 
or,  "let  me  tell  you"  in  the  apodosis,  and  commonly  after 
a  protasis  with  ne,  is  of  a  different  nature ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p. 
Arch.,  1,  Ac  ne  quis  a  nobis  hoc  ita  did  forte  miretur — (let 
me  tell  you)  ne  nos  quidem  huic  uni  studio  penitus  unquam 
dediti  fuimus  ;  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  73,  Acne  forte  omnia  ita  condita 
fuisse  videantur :  quae  consilso  aliquo  aut  ratione  inveniri 
potucrunt,  inventa  sunt,  judices. 

[§  773. j  15.  In  adjurations  the  verb  oro  (orrogo,  precor, 
&c.)  is  frequently  omitted  after  the  preposition  per  (by), 
which  makes  the  accusative  of  the  person  adjured  appear 
to  depend  on  the  preposition.  Curt.,  iv.,  55  (14),  Per  ego 
TOS  deos  patrios,  vindicate  ab  ultimo  dedccore  no-men  gen- 
temque  Persarum.  The  construction  is  this,  per  deos  pa- 
trios  vos  oro,  vindicate.  Gronov.,  in  the  7th  vol.  of  Dra- 
kenborch's  Livy,  p.  187  (on  Liv.,  xxix.,  18,  9)  has  collect- 
ed numerous  examples  of  this  kind.  Comp.  §  794. 

In  the  wish  Di  meliora  !  either  the  verb  dent  is  omit- 
ted, or  velint,  as  we  find  at  full  length  in  Ovid,  Mctam., 
vii.,  37,  Di  meliora  velint ;  Juven.,  vii.,  207,  Di,  majorum 
umbris  tenuem  ct  sine  pondcre  terrain  !  supply  date. 

[§  774.]  16.  As  occasionally  in  English,  so  often  in  Lat- 
in, a  verb  is  put  once  only  instead  of  twice,  being  left  to 
be  supplied  the  second  time ;  e.  g.,  in  Cic.,  de  Leg.,  iii., 
13,  ut  enim  cupiditatibus  principum  et  vitiis  infici  solet  tota 
civitas,sic  cmcndari  et  corrigi  contincntia;  and  even  when 
the  persons  are  different;  as,  e.  g.,  magis  ego  te  amo  quam 
tu  me,  supply  amas.  From  a  preceding  negative  verb  the 
corresponding  positive  verb  is  sometimes  left  to  be  sup- 
plied;  as,  e.  g.,  from  ncgo,  dico ;  fromveto,jubeo;  in  which 
case  the  copulative  et  obtains  the  signification  of  the  ad- 
versative sed  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Att.,\i\.,  15,  plerique  ncgant, 
Caesarein  in  condicione  mansurum,  postulataquc  haec  ab  eo 
interposita  esse,  quo  minus  quod  opus  cssct  ad  bellum  a  nobis 
pararetur,  which  we  should  in  English  express  either  by 
"  most  people  say  that — not — and  that,"  &c.,  or  by  using 
two  verbs.  Comp.  de  Leg.,  ii.,  27,  §  67.  Farther,  in  a 
t  T  2 


498  LATIN    GItAMMAU. 

relative  clause  an  infinitive  is  left  to  be  supplied  from  the 
tempus  finitum  of  the  main  proposition;  as,  e.  g.,  quos  vo- 
luit  omnes  interfccit,  "  he  caused  all  whom  he  wished  to 
be  killed ;"  rogat  Rubrium,  ut,  quos  commodum  ei  sit,  in- 
vitet ;  nqn  facile  irascctur  judcx  cui  tu  veils,  viz.,  cum  iras- 
ci  ;  and  even  in  cases  where  an  infinitive  future  is  to  be 
supplied  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  22,  ne  illam  quidem  con- 
sequuntur,  quam  putant,  gratiam;  i.  e.,  quam  se  consccutu- 
ros  putant.  ATI  ellipsis  of  the  infinitive  takes  place,  also, 
in  indirect  discourse  after  relatives,  where  the  verb,  if  it 
were  repeated,  would  have  to  be  put  in  the  subjunctive ; 
and  it  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  subject  of  the  omit- 
ted infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusative;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Vcrr., 
iii.,  92,  (Verres)  aiebat  sc  tantidcm  acstimassc,  quanti  Sa- 
cerdotem,  for  quanti  Sacerdos  aestimasset ;  p.  Lig.,  1,  con- 
jitetur  se  in  ca  partc  Juisse,  qua  te,  qua  virum  omni  laude 
digtium  patrem  tuum  ;  de  Fin.,  iv.,  20,  Zeno  negat,  Plato- 
nem,  si  sapiens  non  sit,  eadcm  csse  in  causa,  qua  tyrannum 
Dioni/sium  ;  Liv.,  viii.,  14,  Cttmanos  Sucssulanosque  ejus- 
dem juris  condicionisquc,  cujus  Capuam,  csseplacuit;  i.e., 
cujus  Capua  essct.  See  §  603.  The  same  attraction  to 
the  case  of  the  leading  proposition,  which  is  general  in 
the  construction  of  the  accus.  with  the  infinit.,  sometimes, 
also,  occurs  with  the  participle;  as,  Nep.,  Hann.,  5,  Han- 
nibal Minuciu7)i,  magistrum  cquitum,  pari  ac  dictatorem 
dolo  productum  in  proelium,  fugavit;  Liv.,  xxxiv.,  32,  na?n 
et  Mcssenen  uno  ct  codem  jure  foederis,  quo  ct  Laccdaemo- 
nem,  in  amicitiam  nostram  reccptam,  sociam  noibis  url>em,  vi 
atque  armis  cepisti  ;  and  in  the  construction  of  the  ablat. 
absol.,  Liv.,  iv.,  39,  Quibus  2>oterat  sauciis  ductis  secum ; 
i.,  29,  raptim  quibus  quisque  poterat  elatis.  Other  kinds 
of  attraction  of  the  relative  pronoun  are  of  Greek  origin, 
and  very  rarely  used ;  as,  Lucceius  in  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  v., 
14,  quum  aliquid  agas  eorum,  quorum  consucsti ;  Horat., 
Serm.,  i.,  6,  15,  judicc,  quo  nosti,  populo,  where  Bentley 
has  collected  some  similar  passages  from  Gellius  ;  but 
Terent.,  Heaut.,  i.,  1,  35,  7wc  quidem  causa,  qua  dixi  tibi, 
is  of  a  different  kind,  as  the  ellipsis  me  scire  velle  is  to  be 
supplied  from  the  preceding  scire  hoc  vis  ? 

Note. — A  peculiar  construction  of  quam  qui  with  the  superlative  is  ex- 
plained by  the  omission  of  the  verb  ;  Cicero,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  3,  tammihi gra- 
tum  id  erit,  quam  quod  gratissimum ;  ibid.,  v.,  2,  tarn  enim  sum  amicus  reipub- 
licae,  quam  qui  maxime  ;  pro  Bull.,  31,  tarn  sum  misericors,  judices,  quam  vos, 
tarn  mitis,  quam  qui  lenissimus.  So,  also,  ut  qui,  without  a  preceding  tarn ; 


499 

e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiii.,  62,  Te  semper  sic  colam  et  tuebor,  ut  quern  diligen- 
tissime;  Quintil.,  iii.,  8,  12,  deliberatio  affcctus,  ut  quae  maxime,  postulat. 

[§  775.]  17.  Zeugma  (%evy[ia,  called  by  some  syllepsis ) 
is  that  form  of  expression  in  which  a  verb  which  gram- 
matically belongs  to  two  or  more  nouns  is,  as  to  its  mean- 
ing, applicable  only  to  one  ;  so  that  to  the  other  noun  or 
nouns  another  verb,  sometimes  of  a  quite  different  mean- 
ing, must  be  supplied.  This  mode  of  expression  is  not 
unfrequent  in  the  poets,  and  in  those  prose  writers  who 
are  fond  of  deviating  from  the  common  mode  of  speaking ; 
e.  g.,  Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.,  20,  Germanicus,  quod  arduum,  sibi,  cete- 
ra legatis  permisit,  where  from  permisit,  another  verb,  per- 
haps sumpsit)  must  be  supplied  with  sibi;  ibid.,  iii.,  12,  si 
legatus  officii  terminos,  obscquium  erga  Imperatorem  exult, 
where  to  terminos  we  may  supply  excessit.  Sallust,  Jug., 
46,  In  Jugurtha  tantus  dolus  tantaque  pcritia  locorum  el 
militiae  erat,  uti,  pacem  an  bellum  gerens  perniciosior  essct, 
in  incerto  Jiaberetur.  Paccm  gerere  is  not  said,  but  pacem 
agere  ;  on  the  other  hand,  bellum  gerere  is  common.  But 
even  in  Cicero  we  find  similar  expressions;  p.  MIL,  1,  ilia 
arma,  centuriones,  coJwrtcs  non  periculum  nobis,  sed  praesi- 
dium  denuntiant,  where  the  verb  denuntiarc,  "to  threaten," 
is  applicable  only  to  periculum,  and  for  praesidium  we 
must  supply  2^'omittunt. 

{§  776.]  18.  The  auxiliary  verb  esse  is  frequently  omit- 
with  the  infinitives  formed  by  means  of  it.  This  is  so 
common  with  the  infin.  perf.  pass.,  depending  on  oportet, 
that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  ordinary  usage ;  as  in  Ter- 
ence, adolescenti  morem  gcstum  oportuit;  ancillasnon  opor- 
tuit  relictas  ;  Cicero,  quod  jam  pridem  factum  oportuit ; 
totam  rem  Lucullo  intcgram  scrvatam  oportuit;  signum  ab- 
latum  non  oportuit,  &c.  Comp.  §  611.  As  regards  the 
other  forms,  it  is  only  the  third  persons  of  the  present,  cst 
and  sunt,  which,  in  the  tenses  of  the  passive,  are  omitted; 
though  not  so  frequently  in  Cicero  as  in  later  prose  wri- 
ters. Cicero,  however,  especially  in  his  philosophical  wri- 
tings, often  omits  est  and  sunt,  as  the  predicate  verb  with 
adjectives ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  12,  Poeni  foedifragi, 
crudclis  Hannibal :  reliqui  justiorcs ;  and  in  proverbial 
phrases  this  is  almost  the  general  practice  ;  summum  jus 
summa  injuria,  in  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  10;  omnia  pracclara 
rara,  Lacl.,  21;  jucundi  acti  labor cs,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  32;  quot 
homines  tot  sententiae,  suus  cuique  mos,  in  Terence,  Phorm., 
ii.,  4,  14. 


500  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Note. — In  speaking  of  the  passive  forms,  it  deserves  to  be  noticed  that 
est  is  most  frequently  omitted  with  the  fut.  part,  passive;  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj., 
11,  Habenda  ratio  valetudinis,  utendum  modicis  exercitationibus  ;  but  it  is  done 
only  in  short  sentences,  and  when  rhetorical  emphasis  is  aimed  at. 

[§  777.]  19.  Ut  (as)  in  interposed  clauses,  such  as  ut  oj)i- 
nor,  ut  puto,  ut  censeo,  ut  credo,  is  not  unfrequently  omit- 
ted, as  is  the  case,  also,  in  English.  It  must  be  observed 
that  credo,  used  in  this  manner,  very  often  takes  an  ironi- 
cal meaning,  like  our  "I  should  think;"  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de 
Fin.,  i.,  3,  male,  credo,  mcrcrcr  de  meis  civibus,  si  ad  eorum 
cognitioncm  divina  ilia  ingcnia  transferrem.  The  other 
verbs,  however,  are  much  more  frequently  used  as  lead- 
ing verbs  followed  by  the  accus.  with  the  infin. ;  hence  it 
is  not  advisable  to  say,  e.  g.,  nondum  domi  crat,  ut  scie- 
bam  ;  nondum  Jilomam  vcnisti,  ut  puto,  but  rather  nondum 
cum  domi  cssc  scicbam;  nondum  Homam  te  advenisse  %>uto : 
this  construction  is  especially  common  with  relatives ;  e. 
g.,  libri,  quos  j>utabam  mihi  surreptos  esse,  reperti  sunt. 

[§  778.]  20.  A  preposition  is  sometimes  pleonastically 
put  with  two  nouns  joined  by  ct  or  aut ;  respecting  this, 
see  §  744,  foil.  On  the  other  hand,  an  ellipsis  of  a  prepo- 
sition takes  place  when  it  is  omitted  with  the  first  of  two 
nouns,  and  put  with  the  second  only.  This  is,  however, 
not  often  the  case,  and  only  in  the  poets  ;  e.  g.,  Horat., 
Carm.,  iii.,  25,  Quae  nemora,  aut  quos  agor  in  specus,  for 
in  quae  nemora  aut  in  quos  specus  agor :  comp.  Bentley's 
note  to  this  passage;  Epist.,  ii.,  1,  25,  foedera  regum  vel 
Gabiis  vel  cum  rigidis  aeqiiata  Sabinis.  Another  ellipsis 
of  a  preposition  with  the  relative  pronoun,  together  with 
the  ellipsis  of  the  verb  which  preceded  with  the  demon- 
strative, is  of  more  frequent  occurrence ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad 
Att.,  viii.,  15,  in  cadem  opinione  fui,  qua  reliqui  omncs, 
properly  in  qua  reliqui  omnes  fuerunt ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  44, 
In  quern  hoc  dicam,  quacris,  Eruci?  Non  in  eum,  quern  vis 
et  putas,  for  in  quern  vis  et  putas  me  dicer  e  ;  Tusc.,  i.,  46, 
si  opinamur  eos,  quibus  orbati  sumus,  esse  cum  aliquo  scnsu 
in  Us  malis,  quibus  vulgo  opinantur ;  i.  e.,  in  quibus  eos 
esse  vulgo  homines  opinantur.  Quintil.,  vi.,  1,  16,  si  per- 
cussus  sit  ab  eo,  quo  minime  oportuit.  See  §  774,  and  comp. 
Heindorf  on  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  12. 

[§  779.]  21.  In  the  phrase  tantum  abest  ut,  followed  by 
another  clause  with  ut,  an  adverb,  such  as  potius  (rather), 
contra  (on  the  contrary),  seems  to  be  omitted  with  the  sec- 
ond ut.  This  potius,  however,  is  never  added,  and  contra 


ELLIPSIS.  501 

but  rarely;  for  the  second  clause  with  ut,  another  con- 
struction with  vix  or  etiam  is  sometimes  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
Orat.,  29,  in  quo  tantum  abest,  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  usque 
co  difficiles  ac  morosi  simus,  ut  nobis  non  satisfaciat  ipse 
Demosthenes;  Tusc.,  v.,  2,  ac  pliilosopliia  quidem  tantum 
abest,  utproinde  ac  dc  hominum  vita  est  merita  laudetur,  ut 
a  plerisque  neglecta  a  multis  etiam  vituperetur  ;  Brut.,  SO, 
tantum  abfuit,  ut  inflammares  nostros  animos :  somnum  vix 
tenebamus. 

[§  780.]  22.  The  conjunction  si  in  the  protasis  is  often 
omitted  in  Latin,  as  is  sometimes  done  in  English  with 
"if;"  in  this  case  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  clause  should 
not  be  considered  as  a  question,  it  being  pronounced  with 
the  tone  of  a  question ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  25,  Libet 
agros  emi.  Primum  quaero  quos  agros  ?  et  quibus  in  locis  ? 
you  will  buy  lands,  or,  will  you  buy  lands  1  i.  e.,  if  you 
will  buy  lands,  I  will  first  ask,  &c. ;  Juven.,  iii.,  100,  Rides, 
majorc  cacliinno  concutitur :  flet,  si  lacrimas  conspexit  am- 
id, nee  dolet ;  Horat.,  Serm.,  ii.,  6,  50,  Frigidus  a  rostris 
manat  per  compita  rumor :  quicunque  obvius  est  me  consu- 
lit ;  Cic.,  in  Rull.,  ii.,  15,  Commodum  erit  Pergamum — 
totam  denique  Asiam  populi  Romani  factam  esse  dicere : 
utrum  oratio  ad  ejus  rei  disputationem  deer  it,  an  impelli 
non  poterit  ut  Jalsum  judicet  ?  The  future  perfect  is  par- 
ticularly frequent  in  these  sentences  ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Verr., 
iii.,  2,  Furem  aliquem  aut  rapaccm  accusaris ;  vitanda  tibi 
semper  erit  omnis  avaritiae  suspicio.  Maleficum  quempiam 
adduxeris  aut  crudelem :  cavendum  erit  semper,  ne  qua  in 
re  asperior  aut  inJiumanior  fuisse  videare  ;  Horat.,  Serm., 
ii.,  3,  292,  casus  medicusve  levarit  aegrum  ex  praecipiti,  ma- 
ter delira  necabit,  "  should  chance  or  the  physician  have 
saved  him ;"  i.  e.,  "  if  chance,  &c.,  has  saved  him,  the 
mother  will  destroy  him;"  Terent.,  Phorm.,  i.,  2,  35,  Unum 
c.ognoris,  omnes  noris,  "  if  you  know  one,  you  know  all." 
Also,  with  the  imperf.  and  pluperf.  subjunctive,  in  suppo- 
sing a  case  which  is  known  not  to  be  a  real  one ;  in  Verr., 
iii.,  97,  negaret  liac  aestimatione  sc  usum :  vos  id  homini 
credidisse  videremini,  for  si  negaret ;  dc  Off.,  iii.,  19,  Dares 
Tianc  vim  M.  Crasso,  ut  digitorum  pcrcussionc  liercs  posset 
scriptus  esse,  qui  re  vera  non  esset  lieres:  inforo,  mihi  crcde, 
saltaret ;  Plin.,  Epist.,  i.,  \2,Dedisses  huic  animo  par  cor- 
pus, fecisset  quod  optabat,  for  si  dedisscs. 

[§  781 .]   23.  The  conjunctions  rc.ro f  autem,  are  frequent' 


502  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ly  omitted  in  adversative  clauses,  especially  in  short  ones, 
the  opposition  being  indicated  by  the  position  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  proposition;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  8,  Non  dc- 
fuit  consilium  :  fides  erga  plebem  Rom.  dcfuit;  Liv.,  xxii., 
51,  vincere  scit  Hannibal,  victoria  uti  ncscit;  Senec.,  Epist., 
88,  ego,  quid  futurum  sit,  nescio,  quid  fieri  possit  scio  ; 
Plin.,  Epist.,  iii.,  20,  multi  famam,  conscicntiam  pauci  ve- 
rcntur ;  Cic.,  ad  Att.,  ix.,  10,  Sidla  potuit,  ego  non  poterol 
de  Fin.,  v.,  32,  An  Scythes  Anacharsis  potuit  pro  nihilo  pe- 
cuniam  ducerc,  nostrates  philosophi  non  facere  poterunt  ? 
"  and  should  our  philosophers  not  do  it V'  in  Cat.,  i.,  1,  An 
vcro  vir  amjtlissimus  P.  Scijrio  TV.  Gracchum  mcdiocriter 
labefactantcm  statum  rei  publicae  privatus  interfecit :  Cati- 
linam,  orbcm  terrae  cacdc  atquc  inccndiis  vastarc  cupientem, 
nos  consules  perfcrc?7ius  ?  And  it  occurs  in  this  manner 
frequently,  in  describing  a  progress  from  smaller  to  greater 
things.  We  must  add  the  remark  that  non  in  a  second 
negative  member  of  a  proposition,  e.  g.,  aliena  vitia  videt, 
sua  non  videt,  is  thus  used  without  the  conjunction  et  or 
vcro;  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  11,  Tantum  ciln  ct  potianis  adhiben- 
dum,  tit  reficiantur  vires,  ?wn  opprimantur  ;  Tusc.,  iii.,  18, 
A  gravibus  et  ajitiquis  philosopJiis  mcdicma  petenda  cst,  non 
ab  his  voluptariis.  J3ut  et  (ac)  non  must  be  used  in  unreal 
suppositions,  or  ironical  sentences,  where  the  second  mem- 
ber contains  the  truth.  Here  we  may  supply  "rather,"  or 
"as  is  really  the  case"  (see  above,  §  334) ;  Cic.,  de  Off.,  i., 
2,  si  sibi  conscntiat,  ct  non  inter dum  naturae  bonitate  vinca- 
tur ;  in  RulL,  ii.,  26,  usus  est  hoc  vcrbo,  cxhauriendam  esse 
plcbcm,  quasi  de  aliqua  scntina,  ac  non  de  optimorum  civium 
gencre  loqucrctur  ;  p.  Rose.  Am.,  33,  Quasi  nunc  id  agatur 
— ac  non  hoc  quaeratur.  Potius  is  actually  used  in  Cic.,  de 
Or  at.,  i.,  22,  Quando  cni?)i  me  ista  curasse  aut  cogitasse  ar- 
bitramini,  et  non  semper  irrisisse  potius  eorum  hominum 
impudentiam  ;  in  Cat.,  ii.,  6,  quis  dcnique  ita  adspexit  ut 
perditum  civem  ac  non  potius  ut  importunissimum  kostem, 
which  is  equivalent  to  quasi  perditus  esset  civis,  ac  non  i?n- 
portunissimus  hostis. 

[§  782.]  24.  The  conjunction  is  likewise  omitted  when 
two  single  words  as  comprehending  the  whole  idea  are 
opposed  to  each  other  ;  e.  g.,  velim  nolim,  "  whether  1 
would  or  not;"  maxima  minima,  "the  greatest  as  well  as 
the  least;"  prima postrema,  "from  the  first  to  the  last;" 
dignos  indignos  adirc,  "both  those  who  do  and  those 

?t'c.:/444e.  jr.  3./f#. 


ELLIPSIS.  503 

who  do  not  deserve  it ;"  ire  redire,  "  to  go  to  and  fro." 
Thus,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  54,  Aedificiis  omnibus  publicis 
privatis,  sacris  profanis  sic  pcpercit ;  Sail.,  Cat.,  11,  Nam 
gloriam,  lionorem,  imperium  /bonus  ignavus  aeque  sibi  cxop- 
tant,  at  which  passage  Corte  quotes  several  similar  ones. 
[§  783.]  25.  Et  is  very  frequently  omitted  in  mention- 
ing the  names  of  two  colleagues ;  e.  g.,  Consules  declaratl 
sunt  Cn.  Pompcius,  M.  Crassus  ;  quo  anno  Cn.  Pompeius, 
J\I.  Crassus  consules  fucrunt ;  Cn.  Pompeio,  M.  Crasso  con- 
sulibus  ;  and  so,  also,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  41,  ab  A.  Postumio, 
Q.  Fulvio  censorious ;  ibid.,  14,  P.  Lentulo,  L.  Triario 
quaestoribus  urbanis.  But  sometimes  also  \vhen  the  names 
of  two  persons  stand  in  another  relation  to  each  other ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  74,  Mitto  L.  Laelium,  P.  Scipioncm  ;  de 
Ojf\,  ii.,  17,  dicebat  idem  Cotta,  Curio  ;  ibid.,  ii.,  19,  com- 
mendare  judicibus,  magistratibus.  Respecting  another 
customary  omission  of  the  conjunction  in  certain  formu- 
lae, see  §  740.  In  other  combinations  ct  is  seldom  omit- 
ted with  two  words,  in  the  oratorical  style  ;  e.g.,  Cic.,  in 
Vcrr.,  i.,  48,  aderant  amid,  propinqui  ;  ii.,  24,  inimicus, 
Iwstis  esses ;  iii.,  55,  dcjectos  fortunis  omnibus,  expulsos. 
See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  78,  §  192.  Also,  with 
verbs  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Divin.,  4,  Adsunt,  queruntur  Siculi  uni- 
versi  ;  p.  Lig.  4,  Italia  proliibetur,  exulat.  If  three,  or  more 
substantives  are  joined,  it  is  usual,  in  good  prose,  either 
to  omit  the  conjunction  in  all  cases,  or  to  insert  it  between 
each;  thus  either  amicitiam  summajide,  constantia,  justi- 
tia  servavit,  or  summa  Jide  ct  constantia  et  justitia  ;  Cic., 
p.  ]\'luren.,  8,  may  serve  as  an  example  for  both  cases,  qiii 
non  modo  Curiis,  Catonibus,  Pompeiis,  antiquis  illis,  sed 
Jiis  recentibus  Mariis  ct  Didtis  ct  Cocliis  commcmorandis 
jacebant.  This  is  also  the  more  common  practice  with 
adjectives  and  verbs.  Hence  it  is  not  proper  to  conclude 
an  enumeration  of  several  persons  or  things  with  et  alii, 
et  ceteri,  ct  cetera,  but  rather  without  et ;  thus,  alii,  ceteri, 
reliqui,  reliqua.  We  must,  however,  observe,  that  though 
et,  ac,  and  atque  are  not  used  alone  in  the  third  or  fourth 
place,  yet  the  enclitic  qiie  very  frequently  occurs  in  this 
position  ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Murcn.,  1,  precor — ut  ea  res  vo- 
bis  populoqiie  Romano  paccm,.  tranquillitatem,  otium  con- 
cordiamque  afferat ;  and  afterward  idem  ego  sum  preca- 
tus,  ut  ca  resfaustc,  fclidter  prospereque  eveniret,  and  ut  ab 
hujus  Ttonorr,  fama  fortunisque  omnibus  inimicorum  im- 


504  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

petus  propulsare  possim,  and  in  a  great  many  other  pas- 


[§  784.]  26.  We  may  likewise  suppose  an  ellipsis  of 
the  conjunction  et,  when  two  protases,  introduced  by  si, 
are  joined  together;  where  we  say  "if- — and  if  "  or  "if- — 
and"  omitting  the  second  "  if."  Examples  of  this  kind 
are  common.  Comp.  Cic.,  de  Off".,  iii.,  9,  Haec  est  vis  Jiu- 
jus  anuli  ct  liujus  exempli :  Si  nemo  sciturus,  nemo  ne  sus- 
picatunis  quidem  sit,  cum  aliquid  injuste  feceris,  si  id  diis 
hominibusque  futurum  sit  sender  igtiotum,  sisne  facturus. 
An  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  ut  is  supposed  when  ne  pre- 
cedes, and  the  mere  et  is  used  to  continue  the  sentence  ; 
e.  g.,  Curt.,  viii.,  50,  monere  coepit  Porum,  ne  ultima  expe- 
riri  perseveraret,  dederetque  se  victori ;  Nep.,  Eu?n.,  6, 
Olympias  ad  Em?ie?ie  petiit,  ne  patcretur  Philippi  domus  et 
familiac  inimicissimos  stirpem  quoque  inter  imer  e,f err  etqy,e 
opem  liberis  Alcxandri,  and,  a  little  before,  liuic  ille  pri- 
mum  suasit  ne  se  moveret  et  cxpectarct,  where  the  copula- 
tive conjunctions  ct,  atque,  que  obtain  the  meaning  of  the 
adversative  sed.  Comp.  §  774. 

[§  785.]  27.  We  may  here  mention,  in  conclusion,  that 
a  praehomen  which  belongs  to  two  persons  in  common  is 
only  put  once  in  the  plural,  before  the  other  names;  e.g., 
Cic.,inRulL,  ii.,  5,  Tib.  et  Gains  Gracchi;  Gat.  Maj.,  9, 
mihi  Gnaeus  et  Publius  Scipiones — -fortunati  videbantur  ; 
Liv.,  i.,  42,  Servius  duas  filias  juvenibus  regiis,  Lucio  atque 
Arunti  Tarquiniis,  jungit.  Also,  when  two  names  belong 
to  two  persons  in  common ;  as,  Cic.,  in  Vcw.,  i.,  39,  cum 
Q.  et  Cn.  Postumis  Curtiis  ;  Brut.,  25,  orationes  L.  ct  C. 
Aureliorum  Orestarum.  Such  persons  are  usually  broth- 
ers, and  the  wordfratres  is  added ;  Cic.,  Brut.,  69,  Eodem 
tempore  C.  et  L.  Caepasii  fratres  fuerunt.  The  singular 
is  not  so  frequent,  but  still  occurs  in  Cic.,  p.  Rab.  perd., 
7,  On.  ct.  L.  Domiti.us  ;  Liv.,  vi.,  22,  Sp.  et  L.  Papirius  ; 
Sueton.,  Caes.,  80,  IMLarcoque  ct  D.  Bi'uto,  which  is  attested 
by  MSS.  The  same  is  done  with  other  substantives; 
Veil.  Pat.,  ii.,  67,legio  Martia  ct  quarta  ;  Brutus  in  Cic., 
ad  Fam.,  xi.,  19,  quum  putarem  quartam  et  Martiam  le- 
giones  mecum  futuras ;  Liv.,  x.,  18,  cum  legionibus  secunda 
et  tertia  ;  xxvi.,  10,  circa  portas  Collinam  Esquilinamquc, 
and  inter  Esquilinam  Gollinamque  portam. 

Note. — A  praenomen  belonging  to  two  persons  should,  according  to  Gro- 
novius  (on  Liv.,  iv.,  48),  precede  the  other  names,  and  be  put  in  the  plu- 
nil,  as  is  there  edited  hy  Drakenborch,  Turbnforcs  vulgi  erant  fSpurii  Mae- 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  505 

cilius  quartum  et  Metilius  tertium  tribuni  plebis  ;  SO,  also,  X.,  1,  Marcis  Livio 
Dentre  et  Aemilio  consulibus  ;  X.,  40,  equitibus  Gaios  Caediciumet  Trebonium 
praefecit.  Others  have  doubted  this,  because  the  same  praenomen  is  very 
frequently  repeated,  and  the  question  cannot  be  decided  by  means  of  MSS. 
But  the  plural  of  the  praenomen,  joined  with  duo,  is  well  attested  ;  Sue- 
ton.,  Aug.,  100,  Obiit  in  cubiculo  eodem,  quo  pater  Octavius,  duobus  Sextis 
Pompeio  et  Appuleio  consulibus  ;  Liv.,  v.,  24,  duos  Publics  Cornelias,  Cossum 
et  Scipionem. 


CHAPTER  LXXXVIL 

ARRANGEMENT   OF  WORDS,   AND   STRUCTURE   OF  PERIODS. 

[§  786.]  1.  WHEN  we  arrange  the  words  according  to 
the  logical  connexion  of  ideas,  the  first  place  next  to  the 
conjunction  or  connecting  relative  is  taken  by  the  subject; 
next  comes  the  verb  with  its  adverb ;  then  the  cases  of 
the  nearer  or  remoter  object;  and  last,  the  remaining  ad- 
ditions of  prepositions  with  their  cases.  The  adjective 
closely  adheres  to  the  substantive  which  it  qualifies.  This 
is  commonly  called  the  grammatical  order  of  construction, 
which  is  strictly  followed  in  most  modern  languages.  But 
the  Latin  language  may  place  any  one  of  the  four  princi- 
pal parts  first,  and  has,  besides,  great  freedom  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  rest :  the  adverb  may  be  separated  from 
the  verb,  and  the  adjective  from  the  substantive,  being 
placed  either  before  or  after,  or  even  removed  to  some 
distance.  Hence  oratorical  effect  may  be  produced,  inde- 
pendent of  accent,  by  the  position  of  words,  and  the  lan- 
guage affords  great  facility  for  the  poetical  numerus.  In 
prose,  however,  the  following  general  principle  is  obser- 
ved :  words  which  are  necessary  for  the  complete  expres- 
sion of  a  thought  are  put  together,  and  should  not  be  sep- 
arated by  the  introduction  of  ideas  not  connected  with  the 
main  thought. 

[§  787.]  2.  But  as  we  do  not  always  speak  emphatically, 
and  as  in  ordinary  discourse  we  naturally  choose  the  sim- 
plest expression  for  our  thoughts,  a  certain  arrangement 
has  become  established  in  good  Latin  prose,  especially  in 
historical  narrative ;  and  this  arrangement  (which  is  not 
departed  from  without  a  special  reason)  is  this  :  the  sub- 
ject is  placed  first;  then  follow  the  oblique  cases,  with  all 
other  unemphatic  additions,  and  last  of  all,  the  verb.  For 
in  the  construction  of  a  Latin  sentence  we  should  avoid, 
what  is  so  common  in  modern  languages,  the  introduction 
IT  u 


506  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

of  a  train  of  subordinate  and  additional  matter  after  the 
expression  of  the  principal  ideas :  a  Latin  sentence  is  com- 
pact, being  enclosed  by  the  subject  on  the  one  hand,  and 
by  the  principal  verb  of  the  predicate  on  the  other;  e.g., 
Caes.,  Bell.  Gall.,  i.,  9,  Dumnorix  gratia  et  largitione  apud 
Sequanos  plurimum  poterat. 

[§  788.]  Note. — The  verb,  however,  is  often  not  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence,  when  either  this  is  too  long  for  the  hearer  to  be  kept  in  expec- 
tation of  it,  or  when  too  many  verbs  would  come  together  at  the  end.  We 
should,  therefore,  not  say,  e.  g.,  se  incolwnem  esse  non  posse  demonstrat,  but 
rather  se  demonstrat  incolumem  esse  non  posse.  But  without  either  of  these 
reasons  the  verb  is  placed  earlier  in  the  sentence  in  easy  and  familiar  style ; 
for  the  verb  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  for  the  purpose  of  closing  it,  is  more 
suited  to  the  oratorical  and  historical  style,  and,  in  general,  shows  medita- 
tion and  design.  Comp.  a  passage  in  a  letter  of  Cicero  to  Lucceius  (v., 
12),  which  is  written  with  great  care,  but  purposely  with  the  ease  and 
frankness  of  a  man  of  the  world  :  genus  enim  scriptorum  tuorum,  etsi  erat 
semper  a  me  vehementcr  expectatum,  tamen  vicit  opinionem  meam,  meque  ita  vel 
cepit  vel  incendit,  ut  cuperem  quam  celerrime  res  nostras  monumentis  commen- 
dari  tuis.  In  a  narrative  it  would  be  expressed  thus  :  genus  enim  scripto- 
rum Lucceii,  etsi  semper  ab  eo  vehementer  expectatum  erat,  tamen  opinionem  ejus 
ita  vicit,  ut  quam  celerrime  res  suas  illius  monumentis  illustrari  cuperet.  The 
verb  is  placed  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  proposition,  even  where  no  ora- 
torical emphasis  is  aimed  at  in  explanatory  clauses,  in  which  case  a  con- 
junction is  generally  added  ;  e.  g.,  amicum  aegrotantem  visere  volebam :  habi- 
tat autem  tile  in  parte  urbis  rcmotissima. 

[§  789.]  3.  With  this  rule  respecting  the  arrangement 
of  words  in  ordinary  statements  of  facts,  we  must  con- 
nect another,  that  in  sentences  containing  the  expres- 
sion of  emotion  or  an  independent  judgment,  the  pathetic 
word  is  put  at  the  beginning,  or  the  most  significant  at 
the  end.  The  pathetic  word  is  that  whose  emphasis  char- 
acterizes it  as  especially  affecting  the  feelings  or  as  form- 
ing a  contrast.  Innumerable  instances  show  that  it  is 
placed  first;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  Cito  arescit  lacrima,  pracsertim 
in  alienis  malis  ;  Sua  vitia  insipientes  et  suam  culpam  in 
senectutem  conferunt ;  A  malis  mors  abducit,  non  a  bonis, 
ve?'um  si  quaerimus  ;  Insignia  virtutis  multi  etiam  sinevir- 
tute  assecuti  sunt.  The  other  words  of  the  proposition 
then  follow  in  the  usual  order.  If  there  be  no  pathetic 
word  requiring  prominence,  or  if  the  sentence  with  the 
verb  being  placed  first  is  explanatory  of  the  preceding 
one,  the  place  at  the  end  of  the  proposition  is  reserved  for 
the  significant  word,  that  is,  the  word  which  is  most  strong- 
ly to  be  impressed  upon  our  understanding  or  memory. 
This  is  especially  frequent  in  Caesar;  e.g.,  Gallia  est  om- 
nis  divisa  in  partes  tres  ;  i.,  6,  quod  ante  id  tempus  accide- 
rat  nunquam  ;  i.,  7,  quod  aliud  iter  haberent  nullum  ;  but 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  507 

also  in  other  authors,  and  especially  in  the  didatic  style  of 
Cicero;  as,  de  Off".,  i.,  2,  Sequemur  igitur  hoc  quidem  tern- 
pore  et  in  hac  quaestione  potissimum  Stoicos  ;  i.,  8,  Expe- 
tuntur  autem  divitiae  quum  ad  usus  vitae  necessarios,  turn 
ad  perfruendas  voluptates  ;  de  Leg.,  i.,  32,  quae  virtus  ex 
providendo  est  appellata  prudentia. 

Note. — We  have  adopted  the  terms  pathetic  and  significant  from  the  work 
of  Gehlius,  Ratio  ordinationis  verborum,  Hamburg,  1746,  4to.  Compare  es- 
pecially the  rules  laid  down  by  Quintilian,  ix.,  4,  26,  foil.,  Verbo  sensum 
claudere  multo,  si  compositio  patiatur,  optimum  est.  In  verbis  enim  sermonis 
vis.  Saepe  tamen  est  vehemens  aliquis  sensus  in  verbo,  quod,  si  in  media  parts 
sententiae  latet,  transire  intentionem  et  obscurari  circumjacentibus  solet,  in  clau- 
sula  positum  assignatur  auditori  et  infigitur  ;  quale  illud  est  Ciceronis  (Philip., 
ii.,  25),  Ut  tibi  necesse  esset  in  conspectu  populi  Romani  vomere  postridie. 
Transfer  hoc  ultimum,  minus  valebit.  Nam  totius  ductus  hie  est  quasi  mucro, 
ut  per  se  foeda  vomendi  necessitas,  jam.  nihil  ultra  expectantibus,  hanc  quoque 
adjiceret  deformitatem,  ut  cibus  teneri  non  posset  postridie.  But  we  should  not 
deviate  from  the  common  form  of  a  proposition  without  a  special  reason : 
he  who  aims  at  too  much  emphasis  falls  into  affectation,  the  most  unpleas- 
ant fault  in  composition. 

[§  790.]  4.  What  is  common  to  several  objects  either 
precedes  or  follows  them,  but  is  not  put  with  one  exclu- 
sively ;  hence  we  say,  e.  g.,  in  scriptoribus  legendis  et  im- 
itandis,  or  in  legendis  imitandisque  scriptoribus,  not  in  le- 
gendis scriptoribus  et  imitandis ;  farther,  Tiostes  victoriae 
non  omen  modo,  sed  etiam  gratulationem  praeccperant ; 
quum  respondere  neque  vellet  neque  posset ;  habentur  et  di- 
cuntur  tyranni;  amicitiam  nee  usu  nee  ratione  Jiabent  cog- 
nitam  ;  pTiilosophia  Graecis  et  litteris  et  doctoribus  percipi 
potest,  and  the  like. 

Note. — In  this  point,  too,  the  familiar  style  differs  from  the  oratorical. 
In  the  former,  words  are  very  often  subjoined,  with  a  certain  appearance 
of  negligence,  which,  in  a  more  strict  arrangement,  would  have  been  in- 
troduced earlier,  and  more  closely  united  with  the  rest;  e.  g.,  the  last  sen- 
tence might  have  stood  thus,  philosophia  et  litteris  Graecis  percipi  potest  et 
doctoribus. 

[§  791.]  5.  It  is  commonly  laid  down  as  a  general  rule 
that  the  dependent  cases,  and  therefore  especially  the  gen- 
itive, precede  the  governing  nouns.  This  rule,  however, 
may  easily  lead  to  mistakes,  for  it  is  arbitrary,  and  all  de- 
pends on  the  idea  which  is  to  be  expressed.  Fratris  tui 
mors  acerbissima  miki  fuit  and  mors  fratris  tui  are  both 
equally  correct,  according  as  the  idea  of  the  person  or  his 
death  is  to  be  more  strongly  impressed  on  the  mind :  mors 
fratris  tui  contrasts  the  death  with  the  preceding  life  ; 
and  fratris  tui  mors  describes  this  case  of  death  as  dis- 
tinct from  others  that  may  occur.  Hence  we  say,  e.  g., 
animi  motus,  animi  morbus,  corporis  paries,  terrae  motus. 


508  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

in  this  order,  since  the  general  term  receives  its  specific 
meaning  only  from  the  genitive.  A  genitive,  however, 
which  expresses  an  objective  relation  (see  §  423),  usually 
follows  the  noun  on  which  it  depends.  Thus  we  read  in 
Cicero,  pro  Leg.  Man.,  3,  quod  is,  qui  uno  die,  tota  Asia, 
tot  in  civitatibus,  uno  nuntio  atque  una  significations  litter- 
arum  elves  Romanos  nccandos  tmcidandosque  denotavit,  a 
notice  "by  letters,"  not  una  litterarum  signification ;  so, 
in  Verr.,  i.,  40,  ojfensionem  negligentiae  vitare,  an  "offence 
by  my  negligence."  When  several  genitives  are  depend- 
ent on  one  noun  (compare  §  423),  the  subjective  genitive 
commonly  precedes,  and  the  objective  genitive  may  either 
precede  or  follow  the  governing  noun;  e.  g.,  Cic.,in  Caec., 
6,  cur  eorum  spem  exiguam  reliquarum  fbrtunarum  vi  ex- 
torque?^  conaris  ?  in  Verr.,  i.,  13,  cognoscite  hominis  prin- 
cipium  magistratuum  gerendorum;  p.  Mur.,  4,  hominis  am- 
plissimi  causam  tanti  periculi  repudiare  ;  de  Re  Publ.,  i., 
28,  Atheniensium  populi  potestatem  omnium  rerum,  &c. ; 
Cic.,  Brut.,  44,  Scaevolae  dicendi  clegantiam  satis  cogni- 
tam  habemus;  de  Fin.,  i.,  5,  quod  ista  Platonis,  Aristotelis, 
Theoplirasti  orationis  ornamenta  neglexit  Epicurus ;  be- 
cause dicendi  elegantia,  orationis  ornamenta,  in  this  order, 
express  the  idea  which  is  to  be  set  forth. 

[<$>  792.]  Note. — The  genitive  dependent  on  causa  or  gratia,  "  on  account 
of,"  always  precedes  these  ablatives;  gloriae  causa  mortem obire, emolumenti 
sni  gratia  aliquid  hominibus  detrahere.  Exceptions  are  very  rare  in  Cicero 
(Lael.,  16,  jnulta  facimus  causa  amicorum) ;  more  common  in  Livy. 

[§  793.]  6.  The  Adjective,  likewise,  may  be  placed  be- 
fore or  after  its  substantive ;  it  is  before  its  substantive 
when  it  is  declarative  of  an  essential  difference  of  that 
substantive  from  others ;  it  is  placed  after  when  it  merely 
expresses  an  accessory  or  incidental  quality.  The  natural 
accent  will,  in  most  cases,  be  a  sufficient  guide.  Pliny 
calls  his  work  Libri  Naturalis  Historiae,  the  idea  of  na- 
ture appearing  to  him  of  greater  importance  in  charac- 
terizing the  work  than  that  of  history ;  Theodosianus  Co- 
dex is  in  the  same  way  distinguished  from  other  codices. 
It  must  be  observed  that  a  monosyllabic  substantive  al- 
most invariably  precedes  a  longer  adjective;  e.  g.,Di  im- 
mortales,  rex  potentissimus  et  nobilissimus ;  especially  with 
res:  res  innumerabiles,res  incertissimae,  res  dissimillimae ; 
if  the  position  were  inverted,  the  impression  would  be  un- 
pleasant, and  the  shorter  word  would  be  lost.  Other  qual- 
ifying words  (besides  adjectives)  which  belong  to  the  idea 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  509 

of  the  noun,  especially  genitives  and  prepositions  with 
their  cases,  are  usually  placed  between  the  substantive 
and  the  adjective  ;  e.  g.,  amicitia  usque  ad  cxtremum  vitae 
diem  permansit ;  tuorum  erga  me  meritorum  memoria. 
Such  words  as  respublica,  jusjurandmn,  which  are  combi- 
nations of  a  substantive  and  an  adjective  rather  than  com- 
pound words,  are  separated  only  by  particles.  Other 
words  which  do  not  belong  to  the  substantive  and  adjec- 
tive may  be  placed  between  them  only  for  the  sake  of 
a  special  emphasis,  which  lies  either  on  the  substantive 
or  on  the  adjective;  e.  g.,  magnum  animo  cepi  dolor  em  ; 
ut  cuperem  quam  celerrime  res  nostras  monumentis  com- 
mendari  tuis. 

[§794.]  Note  1. — Other  words  may  be  introduced  between  a  preposition 
and  the  case  governed  by  it :  this,  however,  is  usually  the  case  only  with 
genitives  or  adverbs  which  are  closely  connected  with  the  following  noun 
or  participle  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  inter  hostium  tela ;  propter  Hispanorum,  apud 
quos  consul  fuerat,  injurias  ;  ad  bene  beatcque  vivendum.  Conjunctions,  also, 
in  the  connexion  of  clauses,  are  so  interposed  ;  e.  g.,  post  vero  Sullae  victo- 
riam ;  praeter  enim  tres  disciplinas.  Other  words  very  rarely  and  only  in 
certain  combinations ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Brut.,  12,  in  bella  gerentibus,  which  ex- 
pression has,  in  a  certain  measure,  become  one  word  ;  ibid.,  22,  in  suum 
cuiquc  tribuendo.  We  mention  this  in  order  to  caution  the  student  against 
saying,  e.  g.,  ad  pracsidiis  firmanda  moenia ;  in  mihi  invisum  locum,  or  even 
ex  a  te  laudato  loco,  the  proper  order  being  this,  ad  moenia  praesidiis  firman- 
da,  in  locum  mihi  invisum,  ex  loco  a  te  laudato  ;  or,  ad  firmanda  praesidiis  moe- 
nia, in  invisum  mihi  locum,  ex  laudato  a  te  loco. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  that  the  preposition  per,  "by,"  in  adjurations,  is 
usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  accusative  of  the  person  adjured  ; 
e.  g.,  Terent.,  Andr.,  v.,  1,  5,  per  ego  te  deos  oro,  and  with  the  omission  of 
oro,  Cic.,  p.  Plane.,  42,  Nolite,  judices,  per  vos  fortunas  vestras,  inimicis  meis 
dare  laetitiam  ;  Sail.,  Jug.,  14,  Patres  conscripti,  per  vos  liberos  atque  parent es, 
subvenite  misero  mihi.  Comp.  $  773. 

[§  795.]  Note  2. — The  variation  in  the  arrangement  of  words  by  the  po- 
ets properly  consists  in  too  great  and  ungrammatical  a  separation  of  the 
adjective  from  the  substantive  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  in  putting  togeth- 
er words  from  different  parts  of  a  proposition.  We  may  illustrate  this  by 
an  example  ;  Cicero  (Philip.,  v.,  10)  says  belta  civilia  opinions  plerumque  et 
fama  gubernantur.  He  intended  to  conclude  thus,  opinione  plerumque  gu- 
bernantur, but  added  (according  to  our  remark  in  $  790)  et  fama.  This  is 
very  natural,  and  plerumque  is  an  unemphatical  word,  which  must  be  some- 
where inserted.  The  arrangement  still  remains  prosaic,  if  we  say  bella 
gubernantur  civilia  fama  plerumque  et  opinione,  for  civilia  follows  soon  enough 
after  bella.  But  if  we  insert  one  word  more,  we  have  an  entirely  poetical 
diction,  and  by  substituting  another  word  for  civilia,  a  complete  verse, 
Bella  gubernantur  plerumque  domestica  fama.  And  it  would  likewise  be  po- 
etical to  say,  bella  fama  et  opinione  civilia  gubernantur,  still  more  so,  civilia 
fama  et  opinione  bella  gubernantur,  and  entirely  lyric,  civilia  fama  et  plerum- 
que bella  opinione  gubernantur,  but  all  these  and  similar  arrangements  of 
words  occur  in  the  poets ,  and  we  might  easily  prove  this  by  quotations, 
and  analyze  the  different  forms,  were  it  not  our  object  here  only  to  show 
the  point  at  which  poetical  license  commences. 

[§  796.]  7.  Names  of  honours  or  dignities,  and  every- 

U  u  2 


510  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

thing  of  the  nature  of  a  title,  are  commonly  placed  after 
the  proper  name,  as  merely  serving  as  explanatory  addi- 
tions. Thus  especially  the  names  of  changeable  Roman 
dignities ;  e.  g.,  Cicero  Consul,  Proconsul,  Imperator,  C. 
Curioni  Tribuno  plebis,  and  the  like.  But  also  perma- 
nent appellations  ;  e.  g.,  Ennius  poeta,  Plato  philosophus, 
Zeno  Stoicus,  Dionysius  tyrannus,  and  such  epithets  as  vir 
honestissimus,  vir  fortissimus,  vir  clarissimus,  homo  doctis- 
simus.  Cic.,  LaeL,  1,  Q.  Mucius  Augur,  multa  narrare  de 
C.  Laelio,  socero  suo,  memoriter  et  jucunde  solebat;  Tusc., 
i.,  43,  Cyrenacum  Thcodorum,  philosophum  non  ignobilem, 
nonne  miramur  ?  cui  quum  Lysimachus  rex  crucem  minare- 
tur,  Istis,  quaeso,  inquit,  ista  horribilia  minitare,  purpuratis 
tuis :  Tkeodori  quidem  nihil  interest,  humine  an  sublime 
putrescat.  But  it  must  be  observed  that  the  hereditary 
title  rex  is  frequently  placed  before  the  name ;  e.  g.,  rex 
Deiotarus ;  and  this  also  applies  to  the  Roman  title  Im- 
perator,  from  the  time  that  it  became  permanent,  in  con- 
tra-distinction  to  the  ancient  usage. 

[§  797.]  Note. — In  the  use  of  the  Roman  proper  names,  the  name  of  the 
gens  commonly  precedes  the  name  of  thefamilia  (i.  e.,  the  nomen  precedes 
the  cognomen),  which  may  here  be  considered  as  an  apposition ;  e.  g.,  Q. 
Fabius  Maximus  Cunctator,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  Africans,  M.  Tullius  Cice- 
ro. In  the  imperial  times,  however,  when  the  ancient  gentes  had  become 
extinct,  and  lost  their  importance,  we  usually  find  the  name  of  ihefamilia, 
or  even  the  agnomen  of  the  individual,  placed  first,  and  the  name  of  the 
gens,  if  mentioned  at  all,  following  as  something  subordinate. 

[§  798.]  8.  Words  expressing  contrasted  ideas  are  com- 
monly placed  by  the  side  of  each  other;  e.g.,alius  alium 
vitupcrat,  alius  aliunde  vcnit,  manus  manum  lav  at,  cuneus 
cuneum  trudit,  vir  virum  legit;  so,  also,  the  possessive  and 
personal  pronouns ;  e.  g.,  mea  mihi  conscientia  pluris  est 
quam  omnium  sermo  ;  sequere  quo  tua  te  natura  ducit;  suum 
se  negotium  agcre  dicunt. 

[§  799.]  9.  Non,  when  it  belongs  to  a  single  word  of 
the  proposition,  always  stands  immediately  before  it;  e.g., 
non  te  reprehendo,  sedfortunam;  i.  e.,  "I  blame  not  thee, 
but  fortune."  But  if  the  negative  belongs  to  the  propo- 
sition generally,  and  not  to  any  specific  word,  non  stands 
before  the  verb,  and  more  particularly  before  the  verbum 
Jinitum,  if  an  infinitive  depends  on  it ;  e.  g.,  cur  tantopcre 
te  angas,  intelligere  sane  non  possum.  Instead  of  non  dico, 
nego  is  generally  used ;  negavit  eum  adesse,  "  he  said  he 
was  not  there,"  not  "he  denied,"  &c.  Respecting  vetare, 
see  5  774. 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDti,   ETC.  511 

Note. — We  may  farther  observe  that  the  negatives  non,  neque,  nemo,  nul- 
lus,  joined  to  general  negative  pronouns  or  adverbs ;  such  as  quisquam, 
ullus,  unquam,  always  precede  them,  though  not  always  immediately; 
thus  we  must  say,  e.  g.,  nemini  quidquam  negavit,  not  quidquam  nemini  neg- 
avit ;  non  memini  me  unquam  te  vidisse,  not  unquam  me  vidisse  te  non  memini. 
See  §  709. 

[§  800.]  10.  In  many  phrases  custom  has  established  a 
certain  order,  which  must  therefore  be  attended  to  in 
reading  the  authors.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
many  judicial  and  political  expressions ;  e.  g.,  civis  Ro- 
manus,  populus  Romanus,  jus  civile,  aes  alienum,  terrae 
marique,  Pontifex  maximus,  magister  equitum,  tribunis  mil- 
itum,  tribuni  militum  consulari  potestate,  Juppitcr  optimus 
'maximus,  via  Appia,  via  Flaminia,  &c. 

It  more  properly  belongs  to  grammar  to  observe  that 
the  ablatives  opinione,  spe,  justo,  solito  (see  §  484,  extr.) 
generally  precede  the  comparative;  quisque,  if  joined  with 
sui,  sibi,  se  or  suus,  always  follows  these  pronouns  ;  e.  g., 
sibi  quisque  maximefavet;  pro  se  quisque  labor abat;  suum 
cuique  pulchrum  vidctur  ;  sua  cuique  dextra  ultionem  tot 
malorum  pariet  ;  vigiles  relicta  sua  quisque  statione  fugi- 
unt.  But  in  relative  clauses  quisque  joins  itself  closely  to 
the  relative  (see  §  710),  in  which  case  se  or  suus  follows ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Of.,  i.,  31,  maxime  decet,  quod  est  cujusque 
maxime  suum  ;  expendere  debet  quid  quisque  Jiabeat  sui. 

[§  801.]  Quidem  is  attracted  by  the  pronoun  (see  §  278), 
and  is  therefore  often  separated  from  the  word  to  which 
it  properly  belongs,  in  order  to  be  joined  to  a  neighbour- 
ing pronoun ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  in  fin.,  tibique  per- 
suade, esse  te  quidem  mihi  carissimum,  sed  multo  fore  cari- 
orem,  si,  &c.,  instead  of  te  carissimum  quidem  mihi  esse. 
And  as  the  custom  of  joining  qiuidem  to  a  pronoun  had 
become  established,  the  personal  pronoun,  although  con- 
tained in  the  verb,  is  expressly  added  (see  §  801),  Cic., 
ad  Fam.,  ix.,  13,  Quod  dicturus  sum,  puto  equidem  non 
valde  ad  rem  pertinere,  sed  tamen  nikil  obest  dicere ;  ad 
Quint.  Frat.,  ii.,  16,  Timebam  Oceanum,  timebam  litus  in- 
sulae  (Britanniae).  Reliqua  non  equidem  contemno,  sed 
plus  tamen  Jiabent  spei  quam  timoris;  de  Fat.,  2,  Oratorias 
exercitationes  non  tu  quidem,  ut  spero,  reliquisti,  sed  certc 
philosopkiam  illis  anteposuisti,  instead  of  the  simple  reli- 
quisti quidem. 

JVe — quidem  are  always  separated,  the  word  on  which 
the  emphasis  rests  being  placed  between  them ;  e.  g.,  ne 
patrem  quidem  vcnerabatur,  "  he  did  not  reverence  even 


5J2 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


his  father."  Prepositions  and  conjunctions  which  belong 
to  the  word  on  which  the  emphasis  rests  are  placed  with 
it  between  ne  and  quidem  ;  e.  g.,  Cicero,  ne  in  fanis  qui- 
dem ;  ne  si  dubitetur  quidem  ;  ne  quum  in  Sicilia  quidem 
fuit;  ne  si  extra  judicium  quidem  esset  ;  even  ne  cujus  rei 
argueretur  quidem,  in  Cict,  p.  Caec.,  25,  ne  quum  esset  fac- 
tum  quidem,  p.  Mur.,  17.  Hence  compound  expressions 
which  form  one  idea,  such  as  res  publica,  go  together;  as, 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  i.,  24,  ne  re  publica  quidem  postulante.  In 
like  manner,  non  nisi  (only)  are  separated  (not,  indeed,  in 
all  authors,  but  in  Cicero  almost  without  exception)  by 
some  intervening  word  or  words,  in  such  a  way,  however, 
that  either  non  or  nisi  may  precede  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  LaeL,  5, 
sed  hoc  primum  sentio,  nisi  in  bonis  amicitiam  esse  non 
posse;  ibid.,  8,  quae  (caritas  inter  natos  et  parentes)  diri- 
mi  nisi  dctestabili  scelere  nonpotcst;  the  negative  may  also 
be  contained  in  a  verb ;  e.  g.,  ibid.,  c.,  5,  negant  enim 
qucmquam  virum  bonum  esse  nisi  sapientem. 

Mihi  crede  (mihi  credite)  and  crede  mihi,  in  the  sense 
of  profecto,  are  both  used  detached  from  the  rest  of  the 
construction ;  the  former  especially  if  the  emphasis  rests 
on  the  pronoun ;  i.  e.,  "  believe  me,"  implying  "  who  know 
it  better." 

[§  802.]  11.  Inquit  (says  he,  or  said  he)  is  used  only  af- 
ter one  or  more  of  the  words  quoted,  or,  still  better,  after 
a  short  clause ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  58,  Sex.  Tarquinius — stricto 
gladio  ad  dormientem  Lucrctiam  venit,  sinistraque  manu 
mulieris  pectore  oppresso,  Tace,  Lucretia,  inquit,  Sex.  Tar- 
quinius sum;  ii.,  10,  Turn  Codes,  Tiberinc  pater,  inquit  > 
te  sancte  prccor,  haec  arma  et  hunc  militem  propitio  jluminc 
accipias.  Ita  sic  armatus  in  Tiberim  desiluit.  When  a 
nominative  is  added  to  inquit,  it  usually  follows  this  verb; 
as,  Cic.,  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i.,  7,  Mihi  vero,  inquit  Gotta,  vide- 
tur.  (For  exceptions,  see  Heindorf  on  this  passage.)  Ait 
is  either  placed  before  the  words  quoted,  or,  like  inquit, 
between  them  (see  §.  219);  dicit  and  dixit  are  used  in  this 
way  only  by  the  poets. 

[§  803.]  12.  Thus  much  respecting  the  arrangement  of 
words  in  single  propositions.  We  now  add  some  remarks 
on  the  connexion  of  sentences.  It  may  be  laid  down  as 
a  general  rule  for  good  Latin  style,  that  no  proposition 
should  be  unconnected  with  another,  and  that  the  propo- 
sitions and  periods  should,  as  it  were,  form  links  of  a  chain, 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,   ETC.  513 

which  breaks  off  only  at  last  when  the  series  of  the  thoughts 
themselves  comes  to  its  close.  At  least,  no  proposition 
should  stand  detached  without  a  special  reason. 

Relative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  are  particu- 
larly useful  for  effecting  this  connexion  of  propositions, 
and  are  therefore  very  frequently  employed  to  avoid  the 
monotonous  connexion  by  means  of  et  or  autcm,  and 
sometimes,  also,  of  certain  other  conjunctions,  such  as 
nam  (for).  Every  relative  may  be  used  for  the  demon- 
strative with  et ;  qui  for  et  is,  qualis  for  et  tails,  quo  for  et 
eo,  &c.  They  are,  therefore,  also  found  before  those  con- 
junctions which  admit  of  a  connexion  by  means  of  ct  or 
autcm;  e.  g.+  quod  quum  audivissem,  quod  sifccissem,  quod 
quamvis  non  ignorassem,  for  ct  quum  hoc,  ct  si  hoc,  et  quam- 
vis  hoc,  or  quum  autem  hoc,  &c. ;  often,  also,  where  in 
English  no  conjunction  is  used ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  6, 
Quam  palmam  utinam  di  immortales  tibi  reservent !  Far- 
ther, even  before  other  relatives,  quod  qui  facit,  cum  ego 
impium  judico  ;  i.  e.,  et  qui  hoc  facit,  or  qui  autem  hoc  fa- 
cit;  contra  quern  qui  exercitus  duxcrunt,  iis  senatus  singu- 
lares  honores  decrevit ;  p.  Leg.  Man.,  15,  a  Cn.  Pompeio 
omnium  rerum  egregiarum  exempla  sumuntur,  qui  quo  die 
a  vobis  maritime  bello  praepositus  est,  tanta  repente  vilitas 
annonae  consccuta  est,  for  nam  quo  die  is.  The  connexion 
by  means  of  the  relative  pronoun  in  the  ablative,  with 
comparatives,  deserves  especial  attention ;  e.  g.,  Cato  quo 
nemo  turn  erat  prudentior  ;  libcri  quibus  nihil  mihi  potest 
esse  jucundius  ;  i.  e.,  "  Cato,  who  was  more  prudent  than 
all  others;"  "my  children,  who  delight  me  more  than  any- 
thing else." 

[§  804.]  In  propositions  consisting  of  two  members,  the 
relative  pronoun  is  grammatically  joined  sometimes  to  the 
leading  proposition  or  the  apodosis,  and  sometimes  to  the 
secondary  clause  or  the  protasis ;  the  former  is  the  case, 
e.  g.,  in  Cic.,  Cat.  May.,  5,  qui  (Grorgias)  quum  ex  co  quae- 
rcretur,  cur  tarn  diu  vellet  esse  in  vita,  Nihil  habco,  inquit, 
quod  accusem  sencctutem;  Philip.,  ii.,  7,  Hoc  ne  P.  quidem 
Clodius  dixit  unquam,  quern,  quia  jure  eifui  inimicus,  do- 
leo  a  te  omnibus  vitiis  esse  superatum ;  but  the  latter  is 
much  more  frequent ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  ii.,  25,  a  quo 
quum  quaereretur,  quid  maxime  cxpediret,  respondit.  In 
this  case  the  nominative  of  the  demonstrative  is  supplied 
with  the  apodosis  from  another  case  of  the  relative  in  the 


514  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

protasis,  as  in  the  passage  just  quoted,  and  in  p.  Plane., 
7,  In  hortos  me  M.  Flacci  contuli,  cui  quum  omnis  metus, 
publicatio  bonorum,  exilium,  mors  proponeretur,  liaec  per- 
peti  maluit,  quam  custodiam  mei  capitis  dimittere.  But  a 
demonstrative  may  also  be  used  with  emphasis ;  as,  Cic., 
ad  Fam.,  v.,  16,  Saepissime  legi,  nihil  mail  esse  in  morte,  in 
qua  si  resideat  sensus,  immortalitas  ilia  potius  quam  mors 
dicenda  sit.  In  the  other  cases  the  demonstrative,  for  the 
sake  of  clearness,  is  not  merely  understood,  but  express- 
ed ;  e.  g.,  de  Fin.,  ii.,  1,  qui  mos  quum  a  posterioribus  non 
esset  retentus,  Arcesilas  eum  revocavit ;  de  Nat.  Deor.,  i., 
5,  Multa  sunt  probabilia,  quae  quamquam  non  pcrcipian- 
tur,  tamen — Us  sapientis  vita  rcgitur.  Without  a  demon- 
strative the  sentence  becomes  harsh ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Nat. 
Deor.,  iii.,  14,  Heraclitum  non  omncs  interpretantur  uno 
modo,  qui  quoniam  intelligi  noluit,  omittamus,  instead  of 
eum  omittamus  ;  Liv.,  xxx.,  30,  Agimus  ii,  qui  quodcunque 
egcrimus,  ratum  (id)  civitates  nostrae  habiturac  sint.  These 
examples,  however,  show  that  the  accusative  is  sometimes 
left  to  be  supplied  by  the  mind.  When  the  demonstra- 
tive precedes,  and  is  followed  by  a  proposition  consisting 
of  two  members,  the  relative  attaches  itself  to  the  second- 
ary clause,  which  is  placed  first,  and  not  to  the  leading 
proposition  or  the  apodosis ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Vcrr.,  v.,  38, 
Eone  pirata  pcnctravit,  quo  simulatque  adisset,  magnam 
partem  urbis  a  tergo  relinqucrct  ?  ad  Fam.,  vi.,  6,  Ea  suasi 
Pompeio,  quibus  ille  si  paruisset,  Caesar  tantas  opes,  quan- 
tas  nunc  habet,  non  haberet;  in  Verr.,  i.,  14,  Mihi  venit  in 
mcntem  illud  dicere,  quod  apud  Glabrionem  quum  commem- 
orassem,  intellexi  vekementer  populum  Rom.  commoveri ; 
Nep.,  Att.,  4,  noli,  oro  te,  inquit  Pomponius,  adversus  eos  me 
velle  ducere,  cum  quibus  ne  contra  te  arma  ferrem,  Italiam 
reliqui.  (See  Bremi's  note  on  this  passage.) 

[<$>  805.]  Note  1. — The  English  practice  of  connecting  a  clause,  which  is 
introduced  by  a  relative,  to  the  preceding  clause  by  the  additional  con- 
junction "  however"  (e.  g.,  who,  however),  is  not  admissible  in  Latin. 
Thus,  e.  g.,  "  he  promised  me  many  things,  which,  however,  he  did  not 
perform"  (the  latter  part  being  equivalent  to  "  but  he  did  not  perform 
them")  cannot  be  expressed  in  Latin  by  multa  mihi  promisit,  quae  autem 
(vero)  non  praestitit,  but  by  sed  (verurn)  ea  non  praestitit,  or  the  relative  im- 
plying the  adversative  conjunction,  quae  non  praestitit.  Qui  autem  and  qui 
vero,  however,  may  be  used  in  protases  where  the  relative  retains  its  rela- 
tive meaning,  and  a  demonstrative  in  the  apodosis  corresponds  to  the  rel- 
ative preceding ;  e.g.,  Talium  juvenum  consuetudine  utere  ;  qui  vero  petulan- 
tcs  sint,  eos  procul  «  te  remove  ;  Cic.,  Cat.  Maj.,  2,  Qui  autem  omnia  bona  a 
se  ipsis  petunt,  Us  nihil  malum  videri  potest,  quod  naturae  necessitas  afferat. 

[§  806.]  Note  2— In  double  relative  clauses,  Cicero  not  unfrequently 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  515 

abandons  the  relative  construction  in  the  second  member,  and  makes  use 
of  the  demonstrative  ;  e.  g.,  Orat.,  2,  Sed  ipsius  in  mente  insidebat  species 
pulchritudinis  eximia  quaedam,  quam  intuens  in  eaque  (for  et  in  qua}  defixus  ad 
illius  similitudinem  manus  et  artem  dirigebat ;  Brut.,  74,  Omnes  turn  fere,  qui 
nee  extra  hanc  urbem  vixerant  nee  eos  (for  nee  quos)  aliqua  barbaries  domestica 
infuscaverat,  recte  loquebantur.  Comp.  de  Fin.,  ii.,2,Finem  dejiniebas  idesse, 
quo  omnia  referrentur,  neque  id  ipsum  usquam  referretur,  for  et  quod  ipsum  nus- 
quam,  &c. ;  comp.  de  Off.,  ii.,  5,  in  fin. :  de  Orat.,  ii.,  74,  <J  299.  And  some- 
times even  where  the  cases  are  the  same ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  3,  quem 
Phliuntem  venisse  ferunt,  eumque  cum  Leonte  disseruisse  quaedam,  where  ct 
alone  would  have  been  sufficient. 

[§  807.]  From  this  tendency  to  connect  sentences  by 
relatives  arose  the  use  of  quod  before  certain  conjunc- 
tions, merely  as  a  copulative.  We  may  express  this  quod 
by  "nay,"  "now,"  or  "and."  It  is  most  frequent  before 
the  conditional  particle  si,  and  its  compounds  nisi  and 
etsi  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  i.,  14,  Quodsi  illinc  inanis  pro- 
jugisses,  tamen  ista  tua  Juga  nefaria,  proditio  consulis  tui 
conscclcrata  judicarctur  ;  i.  e.,  "  and  even  if  you  had  fled 
without  taking  anything  with  you,"  &c. ;  de  Nat.  Deor., 
i.,  18,  Quodsi  omnium  animantium  for  mam  vincit  hominis 
figura,  ea  figura  profocto  est,  quae  pulchcrrima  sit  omnium, 
"  If  then,"  &c. ;  and  this  use  of  quodsi  is  especially  in- 
tended to  introduce  something  assumed  as  true  from  which 
farther  inferences  may  be  drawn.  It  is,  moreover,  also 
equivalent  to  "although;"  comp.  Cic.,^?.  Mur.,  2,  which 
passage  is  too  long  to  be  inserted  here.  Quodnisi;  e.  g., 
in  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  66,  Quodnisi  Metellus  hoc  tarn  graviter 
egisset  atque  illam  rem  imperio  edictoque  prohibuisset,  ves- 
tigium statuarum  istius  in  Sicilia  non  esset  r dictum  ;  i.  e., 
"  if  then — not ;"  ib.,  ii.,  26,  Quodnisi  ego  meo  adventu  il- 
lius conatus  aliquantulum  repressissem — tarn  multos  tcstes 
hue  evocare  non  potuissem.  Quodetsi;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Fin., 
iv.,  4,  Quodetsi  ingeniis  magnis  praediti  quida?n  dicendi 
copiam  sine  ratione  consequuntur ,  ars  tamen  est  dux  certior, 
nay,  even  if,  &c.  But  quod  is  found  also,  though  more 
rarely,  before  other  conjunctions;  as,  quodquum,  quodubi, 
quodquia,  quodquoniam,  quodne,  quodutinam,  where  the 
conjunction  alone  would  have  been  sufficient,  though  quod 
is  intended  to  effect  a  closer  connexion  of  the  sentences; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  31,  Criminabatur  ctiam  (L.  Manli- 
us),  quod  Titum  jilium,  qui  postca  est  Torquatus  appel- 
latuS)  ab  hominibus  rclcgasset  et  ruri  habitare  jussisset. 
Quodquum  audivissct  adolesccns  films,  ncgotium  cxhiberi 
patri,  dccurrisse  Romam  ct  cum  prima  luce  Pomponii  do- 
mum  venisse  dicitur.  So,  also,  de  Off.,  ii.,  8,  quodquum 


516  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

perspicuum  sit,  benivolentiae  vim  esse  magnam,  metus  im- 
becillam,  sequitur  ut  disseramus,  &c. ;  in  Verr.,  i.,  26,  Quod- 
ubi  ille  intellexit,  id  agi  atque  id  parari,  ut  filiae  suae  vis 
afferretur,  servos  suos  ad  se  vocat.  Comp.  in  Verr.,  iv.,  66; 
de  Orat.,  ii.,  49 ;  de  Fin.,  i.,  20,  Quodquia  nullo  modo  sine 
amicitia  jirmam  et  perpetuam  jucunditatem  vitae  tenere  pos- 
sumus,  neque  vero  ipsam  amicitiam  tueri,  nisi  aeque  amicos 
et  nos?net  ipsos  diligamus :  idcirco  et  hoc  ipsum  efficitur  in 
amicitia,  ct  amicitia  cum  voluptate  connectitur ;  iii.,  18, 
quodquoniam  (sapiens)  nunquam  fallitur  injudicando,  erit 
in  mediis  rebus  officium  ;  Acad.,  ii.,  25,  Quodne  id  facere 
posses,  idcirco  hcri  non  necessario  loco  contra  scnsus  tarn 
multa  dixcram.  Comp.  Hottinger  on  Cic.,  de  Divin.,  ii., 
62  ;  Cic.,  ad  Fam.,  xiv.,  4,  Quodutinam  minus  vitae  cupi- 
difuisscmus,  certe  nihil  in  vita  mali  vidissemus,  where  the 
note  of  Manutius  may  be  compared.  Even  before  the 
relative  pronoun  we  find  quod  thus  used  in  Cic.,  Philip., 
x.,  4,  in  fin.,  Quodqui  ab  illo  abducit  exercitum,  et  respcc- 
tum  pulcherrimum  et  praesidium  Jirmissimum  adimit  rei- 
publicae. 

[§  808.]  13.  Another  peculiarity,  which  at  the  same 
time  facilitates  in  Latin  the  connexion  of  propositions,  is 
the  use  of  the  conjunctions  neque  and  nee.  They  stand 
for  et,  and  at  the  same  time  contain  the  negation,  in  what- 
ever form  it  occurs  in  the  proposition  (except  when  it  be- 
longs to  one  particular  word  ;  as,  e.  g.,  in  an  antithesis). 
For  examples,  see  §  738.  The  Latin  language  is  so  par- 
tial to  this  kind  of  connexion,  that,  for  the  sake  of  it,  neque 
or  nee  is  added  to  enim  and  vero  where  in  English  we 
could  not  use  "and,"  and  we  therefore  explain  it  by  say- 
ing that  neque  is  used  for  non.  In  neque  tamen,  too,  the 
copulative  is  to  us  superfluous,  although  the  Latins  ap- 
pear to  have  considered  it  as  essential  to  the  connexion 
of  the  propositions.  Examples  are  very  numerous.  Non 
vero,  non  tamen,  are  very  rarely  used  for  this  purpose,  and 
are  therefore  not  deserving  of  imitation ;  non  enim,  how- 
ever, is  common.  To  these  negative  expressions  the  Lat- 
ins often  join  (comp.  §  754)  a  second  negative,  in  which 
case  neque  enim  non  is  equivalent  to  nam ;  non  vero  non 
to  atque  ctiam,  a  stronger  et ;  nee  tamen  non  to  attamen  ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Mil.,  32,  Neque  vero  non  eadem  ira  deorum 
hanc  ejus  satellitibus  injecit  amentiam,  ut  sine  imaginibus, 
sine  cantu  atque  ludis,  sine  exeqnih — amburerc.tur  abjectus ; 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  517 

i.  e.,  "  and,  in  truth,  the  same  anger,"  &c. ;  ad  Ftim.,  vi., 
1,  nee  enim  is,  qui  in  te  ad/iuc  injustior  fuit,  non  magna 
signa  dedit  animi  crga  te  mitigati ;  i.  e.,  "for  he  gave 
signs;"  v.,  12,  neque  tamcn,  quum  liaec  scrihcbam,  eram 
nescius ;  i.  e.,  "and  yet  I  knew;"  de  Orat.,  ii.,  85,  neque 
tamen  ilia  non  ornant,  kabiti  konorcs,  decreta  virtutis  prae- 
mia,  &c. ;  i.  e.,  "and  yet  these  things  also,"  &c.  Comp. 
§  334. 

Note. — The  use  of  namque  for  nam  (see  §  345)  may  likewise  be  consid- 
ered as  an  instance  of  this  redundance  of  the  copulative. 

[§  809.]  14.  Upon  the  signification,  the  use,  and  the  po- 
sition of  the  several  conjunctions,  we  have  treated  at  large 
in  Chap.  LXVII.  It  may  here  be  observed  in  addition, 
that  it  is  a  favourite  practice  in  Latin  to  make  antitheses, 
and  to  indicate  them  by  placing  conjunctions  in  opposition 
to  each  other;  as,  ct — et,  aut — aut,  neque — neque,  neque — 
et,  et — neque,  see  §  338;  farther,  etsi — tamen,  quum — turn, 
non  magis — quam,  non  modo — sed  etiam,  and  the  like. 
But  compare,  also,  §  781,  foil.,  respecting  the  omission  of 
copulative  and  adversative  conjunctions. 

[§  810.]  15.  In  a  rhetorical  point  of  view  there  are  three 
kinds  of  propositions,  viz.,  commata,  cola,  and  periodi. 
Compare,  on  this  point, Cic.,  Orat.,  66,  and  Quintil.,  ix.,  4, 
122,  foil.  A  comma  (K,()\I\ICL,  incisum)  is  an  absolute  or  in- 
dependent simple  proposition ;  e.  g.,  Bene  res  se  Tiabet. 
Aliud  videamus.  A  colon  (/cwAov,  membrum)  is  likewise 
a  simple  proposition,  but  which  by  its  form  shows  its  re- 
lation to  another  proposition ;  e.  g.,  quum  bene  res  se  Jiabe- 
at.  A  period  is  a  proposition  which  is  enlarged  by  a  com- 
bination of  commata  and  cola,  and  is,  at  the  same  time, 
absolute  or  complete  in  itself  (i.  e.,  it  begins  and  ends  in 
itself).  It,  therefore,  requires  at  least  two  propositions, 
which  are  united  into  a  whole,  either  as  precedent  and 
consequent  clauses  (protasis  and  apodosis),  or  by  the  in- 
sertion of  the  one  into  the  other ;  e.  g.,  quum  bene  res  se 
habeat,  aliud  videamus  (but  not  in  an  inverted  order),  or 
Nunc  igitur,  quoniam  res  bene  se  Tiabet,  aliud  videamus. 
But,  according  to  the  views  of  the  ancients,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary that  a  complete  proposition  should  be  inserted.  The 
enlargement  of  a  proposition,  which  is  required  to  form  a 
period,  may  be  effected  by  the  insertion  of  parts  of  prop- 
ositions, which  contain  only  the  elements  of  entire  prop- 
ositions, as  in  the  passage  of  Cicero,  Homincm  foedum, 
X  x 


518  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

verditum,  desperatum  pluris  quam  te  et  quam  fortunas  tuas 
aestimasti.  And  such  a  period  is  called  a  simple  one 
(fiovoKuhog).  The  following  period,  on  the  other  hand, 
consists  of  two  parts  :  Quern,  quaeso,  nostrum  jefettit,  ita 
vos  essefacturos  ?  The  period  is  the  blossom  of  a  finished 
style;  it  is  generally  employed  in  even  and  progressive 
descriptions,  and  the  highest  perfection  of  style  is  dis- 
played in  its  variety  and  easy  development.  But  as  not 
all  thoughts  are  so  complex  as  to  admit  of  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  principal  by  subordinate  propositions,  or  by 
a  combination  of  protasis  and  apodosis,  periods  should  be 
intermixed  with  commata  and  cola.  In  Latin  style,  inter- 
rogative and  exclamatory  forms  of  expression  are,  among 
others,  particularly  calculated  to  produce  the  desirable 
variety. 

Note.  —  We  have  been  obliged  above  to  abandon  the  common  definitions 
given  by  the  ancients  of  commata  and  cola,  for  they  do  not  explain  the  real 
nature  of  the  propositions.  The  correct  definition  of  a  colon  is  given  by 
the  rhetorician  Alexander  in  Ernesti's  Technolog.  Graec.  Rhet.,  p.  258, 


iarl  Trepiodov  /uepof  o  /leyerai  /u^v  Kud'  avro,  UVTIKEI/LLEVOV 
irfypol  Trepiodov.  The  term  period  should  not  be  confined  exclusively  to 
such  propositions  as  are  enlarged  by  the  insertion  of  another  proposition. 
Schcller,  for  instance,  in  his  Praecepta  stili,  considers  such  a  proposition  as 
Quemadmodum  concordia  res  parvae  crcscunt,  ita  discordia  etiam  maximae  dila- 
buntur  not  to  be  a  period  :  we,  however,  do  consider  it  a  period,  since,  by  the 
very  beginning,  quemadmodum,  we  are  made  to  expect  the  subsequent  ita, 
and  the  course  of  the  proposition  is  fixed  ;  not,  however,  in  an  inverted 
position  of  the  two  members.  In  like  manner,  the  above-mentioned  peri- 
od, Quum  bene  res  se  habeat,  aliud  videamus,  would  lose  its  periodic  charac- 
ter, if  the  two  members  were  inverted  ;  for  it  would  merely  represent  two 
propositions  in  juxtaposition,  not  united  either  by  their  form  or  otherwise 
into  a  coherent  whole. 

[§811.]  16.  Where,  however,  we  have  subordinate 
propositions  introduced  by  conjunctions  (excepting  the 
copulative  conjunctions),  it  is  certainly  preferable  to  form 
a  period  by  inserting  them  ;  for,  as  has  already  been  ob- 
served above,  the  placing  of  circumstances  after  the 
thought  or  idea,  which  they  are  intended  to  introduce,  is 
contrary  to  the  common  practice  of  the  Latin  language. 
As  in  the  construction  of  a  simple  proposition  minor  ad- 
ditions or  circumstances  are  put  between  the  subject  and 
the  verb,  and  especially  as  the  verb  closes  the  whole,  so 
propositions  which  contain  secondary  circumstances  are, 
in  Latin,  thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  period.  A  prop- 
osition, such  as  Scipio  exercitum  in  Africam  trajecit  ut 
Hannibalcm  ex  Italia  dcduceret,  is  not  periodic  in  its  struc- 
ture, but  it  becomes  so  when  we  say  Scipio,  ut  Hanni- 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  519 

balem  ex  Italia  deduceret,  exercitum  in  Africam  trajecit. 
Thus  propositions  like  the  following,  where  the  subordi- 
nate member  precedes  with  two  conjunctions,  Quum  igi- 
tur  Romam  venisset,  statim  imperatorem  adiit,  are  made 
still  more  strictly  periodic  by  placing  the  conjunction 
which  belongs  to  the  whole  first,  and  then  inserting  the 
subordinate  proposition,  Itaque,  quum  Romam  venisset, 
statim  imperatorem  adiit.  And  this  must  especially  be 
recommended  in  shorter  propositions,  though  we  do  not 
mean  to  say  that  quum  igitur,  quum  autem,  quum  vero, 
quum  enim  are  incorrect,  or  that  nam  quum,  sed  quum, 
&c.,  are  of  themselves  preferable. 

[§  812.]  It  is,  therefore,  particularly  necessary  to  see 
whether,  in  two  propositions  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
the  subject  is  the  same ;  for,  in  this  case,  it  is  the  almost 
invariable  practice  in  Latin  to  form  them  into  one  period- 
ic proposition ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  de  Reg.,  3,  Antigonus,  quum 
adversus  Seleucum  LysimacJiumque  dimicaret,  in  proelio 
occisus  est;  Cic.,  in  Verr.,i.,  10,  Verres,  simulac  tetigit  pro- 
vinciam,  statim  Messana  litter  as  dedit;  Tusc.,  v.,  18,  Stul- 
titia,  etsi  adepta  est,  quod  concupivit,  nunquam  se  tamen 
satis  consecutam  putat.  Hence  the  Latins  are  rather  fond 
of  expressing  a  complex  thought  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  subject  remains  the  same ;  for  a  period  with  two  sub- 
jects, the  one  in  the  principal,  the  other  in  the  subordi- 
nate proposition,  is  less  easily  to  be  surveyed  or  followed 
by  the  mind.  Instead  of  AntimacJius,  quum  eum  omnes 
praeter  Platonem  deseruissent,  NiJiilominus,  inquit,  legam, 
it  would,  accordingly,  be  better  to  say  AntimacJius,  quum 
ab  omnibus  desertus  esset,  Nihilominus,  inquit,  legam.  The 
same  practice  is  observed  when  the  object  is  the  same  in 
both  propositions  ;  e.  g.,  Nep.,  Alcib.,  10,  quern,  ut  barbari 
incendium  effugisse  eminus  viderunt,  telis  missis  interfece- 
runt.  In  such  constructions,  it  cannot  be  said  whether 
the  nominative  or  the  oblique  case,  which  stands  first,  be- 
longs to  the  leading  or  the  dependent  proposition. 

When  the  object  of  the  leading  proposition  is  the  sub- 
ject of  the  dependent  proposition,  it  is  likewise  placed 
first,  and  the  nominative  supplied  in  the  dependent  prop- 
osition from  the  oblique  case  which  has  preceded ;  e.  g., 
Cic.,  de  Off.,  iii.,  31,  L.  Manlio,  quum  dictator  fmsset,  M. 
Pomponius,  tribunus  plebis,  diem  dixit,  quod  is  paucos  sibi 
dies  ad  dictaturam  gcrendam  addidissct  ;  and  both  united, 


520  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

p.  Leg.  Man.,  12,  Idem  Cretensibus,  quum  ad  eum  usque 
in  Pamphyliam  legates  deprecatoresque  misissent,  spem  de- 
ditionis  non  ademit. 

[§  813.]  17.  Relative  propositions  of  every  kind  are 
very  frequently  employed  in  constructing  a  period,  being 
especially  adapted  to  form  inserted  clauses.  If  emphasis 
is  required,  the  relative  proposition  is  generally  placed  be- 
fore the  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  de 
Nat.  Dear.,  i.,  42,  Quid  ?  ii  qui  dixerunt,  totam  de  diis  im- 
mortalibus  opinionem  fictam  esse  ab  hominibus  sapientibus 
reip.  causa,  ut,  quos  ratio  non  posset,  cos  ad  officium  religio 
duceret,  nonne  omnem  religioncm  funditus  sustulerunt  ?  de 
Off.,  ii.,  12,  Socrates  hanc  viam  ad  gloriam  proximam 
dicebat  esse,  si  quis  id  agcrct,  ut,  qualis  habcri  vellet,  talis 
cssct ;  in  Vcrr.,  ii.,  2,  Itaque  ad  omncs  res  Sicilia  semper 
usi  sumus,  ut,  quidquid  ex  sese  posset  effcrre,  id  apud  cos 
non  nasci,  sed  domi  nostrac  conditum  putaremus  ;  in  Verr., 
i.,  2,  Quodsi,  quam  audax  est  ad  conandum,  tarn  esset  ob- 
scurus  in  agenda,  fortassc  aliqua  in  re  nos  aliquan do  fefel- 
lisset  ;  p.  Rose.  Com.,  11,  Nam,  quo  quisque  est  sollertior 
et  ingeniosior,  hoc  docet  iracundius  et  laboriosius.  It  is, 
however,  equally  common,  even  in  the  elaborate  and  ora- 
torical style,  to  place  the  demonstrative  in  its  natural  or- 
der before  the  relative  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.,  24,  No- 
lite  enim  putare,  qucmadmodum  injabulis  saepenumero  vi- 
detis,  cos,  qui  aliquid  impie  scelerateque  commiserint,  agi- 
tari  et  perterreri  Furiarum  taedis  ardentibus.  The  inver- 
sion, therefore,  should  be  adopted  only  occasionally  for 
the  sake  of  ornament,  but  should  not  be  used  immoder- 
ately. Respecting  the  omission  of  the  demonstrative  af- 
ter the  relative,  see  §  765,  note. 

[§  814.]  Note. — The  poets  not  unfrequently  take  away  the  substantive 
from  the  leading  proposition,  and  join  it  to  the  relative  pronoun  in  the  de. 
pendent  clause,  and  in  the  same  case  as  the  pronoun,  the  substantive  ei- 
ther preceding  or  following  the  pronoun  ;  e.  g.,  Terent.,  Eun.,  iv.,  3,  11, 
Eunuchum  quern  dedisti  nobis,  quas  turbas  dedit !  for  Eunuchus  ;  Virg.,  Aen., 
i.,  573,  urbem  quam  statuo,  vestra  est ;  Terent.,  Andr.,  prol.,  3,  poeta  id  sibi 
negotii  credidit  solum  dari,  populo  ut  placerent  quas  fecisset  fabulas  ;  Horat., 
Serm.,  i.,  4,  2,  atque  alii,  quorum  comoedia  prisca  virorum  est,  for  atque  ali'i 
viri,  quorum  est  ;  Serm.,  i.,  10,  16,  illi,  Scripta  quibus  comoedia  prisca  viris  est, 
for  illi  viri,  quibus.  Comp.,  also,  Epod.,  2,  37;  6,  7 ;  Carm.,  iv.,  13,  18- 
22  ;  Serm.,  ii.,  2,  59.  Ovid,  Art.  Am.,  ii.,  342,  sub  qua  nunc  recubas  arbore, 
virgafuit;  fleroid.,  iv.,  173,  Sic  tibi  dent  Nymphac  quae  levet  unda  sitim,  for 
dent  undam,  quae  levet.  And  also,  in  Cicero,  p.  Sulla,  33,  Quae  prima  inno- 
centis  mihi  defensio  est  oblata,  suscepi ;  ad  Att.,  vi.,  1,  quos  pueros  miseram, 
epistolam  mihi  attulerunt ;  de  Leg.,  iii.,  5,haec  est,  quam  Scipio  laudat  etquam 
maxime  probat  temperationem  reipublicae,  comp.  p.  Clu.,  42,  in  fin. ;  and,  on 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,    ETC.  521 

the  other  hand,  de  Leg.,  i.,  17,  vel  ab  ea,  quaepenitus  in  omni  sensu  implicata 
insidet  imitatrix  boni  voluptas.  The  regular  form,  however,  always  is  this, 
that  the  substantive  has  its  place  in  the  leading  proposition,  or,  if  it  has 
preceded  in  the  relative  proposition,  that  the  retrospective  pronoun  is  is 
put  in  the  case  which  the  leading  proposition  requires  ;  hence  either  puc- 
ri,  quos  miseram,  attulerunt,  or  quos  pueros  miser  am,  ii  attulerunt. 

[§  815.]  18.  A  period  becomes  more  complex  and  ar- 
tificial if  the  dependent  proposition  has  neither  the  same 
subject  nor  the  same  object  as  the  leading  proposition; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Rose.  Am.)  init.,  Credo  ego  vos,  judices,  mi- 
rari,  quid  sit  quod,  quum  tot  summi  oratpres  kominesque 
nobilissimi  sedeant,  ego  potissimum  surrexerim^  qui,  &c. 
Here  care  must  be  taken  that,  by  the  insertion  and  en- 
largement of  a  new  proposition,  the  construction  of  the 
main  proposition  be  not  suspended  or  embarrassed,  which 
would  produce  an  Anacoluthon ;  as,  e.  g.,  if  we  were  to 
enlarge  the  inserted  proposition  in  the  preceding  period 
thus,  quid  sit  quod,  quum  tot  summi  oratores  Jiominesque 
nobilissimi  sedeant,  neque  in  Jiac  causa,  quod  in  aliis  facer  e 
consueverunt,  vocem  pro  salute  Tiominis  innocentissimi  mittere 
audeant — the  beginning,  quid  sit  quod,  would  have  been 
forgotten  in  the  length  of  the  inserted  propositions  ;  and 
an  orator,  following  the  train  of  his  feelings,  would  scarce- 
ly have  proceeded  by  ego  potissimum  surrexerim,  but  would 
probably  have  found  it  necessary  to  take  up  the  suspend- 
ed construction  with  cur  igitur  ego  potissimum  surrexerim. 
See  §  739  and  §  756. 

[§816.]  19.  In  constructing  a  period,  we  must  take 
care  that  the  apodosis  be  not  too  short  in  proportion  to 
the  protasis,  which  would  produce  a  disagreeable  effect 
upon  the  ear.  If,  for  example,  we  had  the  protasis  Qui 
putat  magnam  doctrinam  sine  ingenio  praeclaro,  sine  in- 
dustria  indefessa,  sine  libris  optimis  posse  comparari,  and 
were  to  close  with  errat,  the  disproportionately  short 
apodosis  would  seem  ridiculous;  we  ought  either  to  have 
written  unperiodically  (though  sufficiently  well)  errat  qui 
putat ;  or  we  ought  to  produce  the  necessary  counter- 
poise by  an  enlargement  of  the  idea  errat ;  e.  g.,  by  say- 
ing magno  vehementique  crrore  ducitur.  This  requires  a 
knowledge  and  command  of  words  and  phrases  which  is 
acquired  from  an  accurate  and  attentive  study  of  the  au- 
thors. The  Auct.  ad  Herenn.,  iv.,  1,  commences  a  peri- 
odic proposition  thus  :  Quoniam  in  hoc  libro  de  elocutione 
scripsimus,  et,  quibus  in  rebus  exemplis  opusjuit,  usi  sumus 
Xx  2 


522  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

nostris,  idque  fccimus  praetcr  consuetudinem  eorum,  qui  de 
hac  re  scripserunt — and  had  in  mind,  then,  to  conclude 
with  the  apodosis  ratio  nostri  consilii  danda  est.  But  in 
comparison  with  that  protasis,  his  apodosis  would  have 
been  too  short ;  he  therefore  enlarges  it  thus,  nccessario 
faciendum  putavimus  ut  paucis  rationem  nostri  consilii  de- 
mus.  (Comp.  §  619.)  The  following  passages  from  Cic- 
ero may  serve  as  examples  of  a  pleasing  and  symmetri- 
cal structure  of  periods  :  de  Leg.  Agr.^  Quemadmodum, 
quum  petebam,  nulli  me  vobis  auctores  generis  mei  commen- 
darunt :  sic,  si  quid  deliqucro,  nullae  sunt  imagines,  quae 
me  a  vobis  deprecentur ;  in  Cat.,  i.,  13,  Ut  saepe  homines 
acgri  morbo  gravi,  quum  acstu  febrique  jactantur ;  si  aquam 
gelidam  bibcrint,  primo  relevari  videntur,  deinde  multo 
gravius  vehementiusque  afflictantur :  sic  hie  morbus,  qui  est 
in  re  publica,  relevatus  istius  poend,  vehementius,  vivis  reli- 
quis,  ingravescet ;  p.  Caec.,  init.,  Si,  quantum  in  agro  lo- 
cisque  desertis  audacia  potest,  tantum  inforo  atque  injudi- 
ciis  impudentia  valeret :  non  minus  nunc  in  causa  cederet 
A.  Caccina  Sex.  Acbutii  impudentiae,  quam  turn  in  vi  fa- 
cienda  cessit  audaciae.  It  is  easy,  in  these  periods,  to  see 
the  accurate  propriety  with  which  the  several  propositions 
are  separated  and  again  connected  by  the  adequate  use  of 
corresponding  particles. 

[§  817.]  20.  We  may  here  draw  attention  to  the  differ- 
ence of  periods  in  the  historical  and  the  oratorical  style. 
Historical  narrative  requires,  above  all  things,  variety  of 
the  propositions  containing  statements  of  time :  to  form 
propositions  possessing  this  quality,  historians  have  re- 
course to  three  methods ;  the  use  of  the  participle  in  the 
case  of  the  preceding  noun ;  of  the  ablative  absolute;  and 
thirdly,  of  the  conjunctions  of  time,  quum,  ubi,  postquam. 
By  these  means  Livy  can  unite,  without  injury  to  perspi- 
cuity, in  one  period  what  in  English  we  must  express  by 
three  or  more  propositions ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  i.,  6,  Numitor,  in- 
ter primum  tumultum  hostes  invasisse  urbcm  atque  adortos 
regiam  dictitans,  quum  pubem  Albanam  in  arcem  praesidio 
armisque  obtinendam  avocasset,  postquam  juvencs,  perpc- 
trata  caede,  pergere  ad  se  gratulantes  vidit,  extemplo  advo- 
cato  consilio,  scclera  in  se  fratris,  originem  nepotum,  ut  ge- 
niti,  ut  educati,  ut  cogniti  essent,  caedem  dcinceps  tyranni, 
seque  ejus  auctorem  ostendit.  Such  a  period  is,  perhaps, 
not  to  be  found  in  all  the  writings  of  Cicero  ;  but  it  is 


ARRANGEMENT    Otf    WORDS,    ETC.  523 

well  adapted  to  express  all  collateral  circumstances  in 
their  subordinate  relation.  In  this  way,  therefore,  most 
of  the  periods  in  Livy  are  constructed,  though,  of  course, 
with  many  variations  in  the  detail ;  Liv.,  ii.,  6,  His,  sicut 
acta  erant,  nuntiatis,  incensus  Tarquinius  non  dolor e  solum 
tantae  ad  irritum  cadentis  spei,  sed  etiam  odio  iraque,  post- 
quam  dolo  viam  obseptam  vidit,  helium  aperte  moliendum 
ratus,  circumire  supplex  Etruriae  urbes,  &c. 

[§  818.]  21.  A  correct  and  ingenious  arrangement  of 
words,  and  an  artistic  construction  of  propositions,  natu- 
rally produce  in  the  delivery  a  symmetrical  variety  in  the 
raising  and  sinking  of  the  voice,  which  the  ancients  called 
oratorical  numerus  (pvOpog).  The  rhetoricians  reduced 
the  effect  thus  produced  to  metrical  feet,  though  we  must 
not  thereby  be  led  to  suppose  that  the  orator  set  out  with 
a  premeditated  view  to  use  and  apply  certain  metrical 
feet.  The  Greek  and  Latin  languages  possess  the  pecu- 
liarity of  marking  in  their  pronounciation  the  natural 
quantity  of  the  syllables,  along  with  and  distinct  from  the 
accent  of  the  words  :  another  peculiarity  is  their  freedom 
in  the  arrangement  of  words,  and  it  is  the  admirable  re- 
sult of  a  thorough  rhetorical  cultivation,  especially  of  the 
Latin  language,  that  a  well-constructed  proposition  in 
prose,  such  as  we  have  considered  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs, calls  forth  a  natural  variety  in  the  raising  and  sink- 
ing of  the  voice,  which  otherwise  is  not  to  be  met  with 
but  in  poetical  composition.  There  is,  it  is  true,  no  strict- 
ly uniform  return  of  any  change  ;  but  the  application  of 
the  principle,  that  an  important  word  which  by  its  prom- 
inent position  draws  the  accent  upon  itself,  is  fdllowed  by 
a  number  of  less  important  words  expressive  of  seconda- 
ry qualities  or  circumstances,  which,  again,  are  succeeded 
by  an  important  word  which  forms  the  close  of  the  prop- 
osition or  period,  produces  the  same  effect :  the  period 
has  a  beginning,  a  middle,  and  an  end,  and  the  words 
form  a  compact  whole,  as  well  as  the  thoughts  they  ex- 
press. Thus,  the  orator  need  but  follow  the  general  law, 
and  his  prose  will  naturally  be  rhythmical  and  melodious. 

[<$>  819.]  Note. — A  regular  verse  in  prose  is  considered  by  all  rhetoricians 
as  a  fault,  though  a  verse  is  occasionally  found  in  good  prose  writers. 
Nay,  it  seems  as  if  at  the  commencement  of  a  book  or  writing;  as,  e.  g., 
in  Livy,  Facturusne  operae  pretium  sim,  a  poetically  measured  start  were 
aimed  at.  But  an  hexametrical  close  should  certainly  be  avoided,  espe- 
cially in  the  combination  of  esse  videtur  (£  w  w  £  w).  This  caution  is 


524  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  more  necessary,  as  in  the  passive  construction  we  readily  fall  into  such 
a  cadence.  See  my  note  on  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  9. 

Hiatus,  that  is,  the  concurrence  of  long  vowels  at  the  end  of  one  word 
and  the  beginning  of  another,  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible  ;  for 
a  concurrence  of  short  vowels,  or  of  a  long  vowel  followed  by  a  short  one, 
is  not  objectionable.  Comp.  $  8. 

[§  820.]  22.  The  language  of  the  orator  differs  from 
common  prose  chiefly  in  the  use  of  tropes  and  figures,  for 
these  terms  denote  modes  of  expression  varying  from  the 
common  form.  These  modes  of  expression,  when  they 
consist  in  single  words,  are  called  tropes ;  and  when  in 
propositions,  figures.  There  are  several  tropes,  i.  e.,  modes 
by  which  one  word  is  used  for  another  for  the  sake  of 
rhetorical  variety  and  ornament : 
MetajjJwra  or  translatio,  a  contracted  simile ;  e.  g.,  sege- 

tes  sitiunt,  homo  aspcr ,  fulmina  cloquentiae  ; 
Synecdoche,  when  a  part  is  mentioned  instead  of  the  whole ; 

e.  g.,  tectum  for  domus  ; 

Metonymia,  when  a  thing  is  expressed  by  means  of  cir- 
cumstances connected  with  it;  e.  g.,  scgne  otium ;    Vul- 

canus  for  ignis,  Ceres  for  panis  ; 
Antonomasia,  substituting  other  nouns  for  a  proper  name ; 

e.  g.,  Romanae  eloqucntiae  princeps,  for  Cicero  ; 
Kard%p7/aic,  the  use  of  a  word  in  an  improper  sense,  when 

the  language  is  in  want  of  a  proper  or  specific  term ; 

e.  g.,  aedificare  naves  ; 

and  other  tropes  less  applicable  to  the  Latin  language. 
The  store  of  words  and  expressions  which  have  come 
down  to  us  and  are  collected  in  dictionaries,  must  decide 
upon  the  degree  of  propriety  arid  applicability  of  these 
tropes. 

[§  821.]  23.  The  figures  admit  a  greater  freedom  in  their 
use.  They  are  divided  iutofigurae  sententiarum  andfig- 
urae  verborum  ;  the  former  are  modes  of  conceiving  and 
shaping  an  idea  or  thought,  which  differ  from  the  common 
or  vulgar  mode ;  the  latter  have  reference  merely  to  a 
different  expression  of  the  same  idea,  and  are  therefore, 
as  it  were,  transformations  of  the  same  body.  A  knowl- 
edge and  practice  in  the  use  of  figures  is  interesting  and 
important  even  for  the  beginner,  since  in  them  lies  the 
secret  of  the  most  admired  portion  of  the  rhetoric  art ; 
and,  in  fact,  they  are  indispensable  for  the  orator,  although 
the  essential  part  of  his  art  consists  in  far  different  things, 
viz.,  the  invention  and  adequate  arrangement  and  dispo- 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,   ETC.  525 

sition  of  his  thoughts.  The  figurae  verborum  arise  from 
addition,  from  resemblance  of  sound  and  form,  and  sup- 
pression. 

The  following  arise  from  addition :  geminatio,  a  doub- 
ling of  words ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  62,  crux,  crux  in- 
quam,  misero  et  aerumnoso  comparabatur  ;  enavatyopd, 
repetitio,  repetition;  i.  e.,  when  the  several  members  of  a 
proposition  begin  with  the  same  word;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat., 
i.,  1,  Nihilne  te  nocturnum  praesidium  Palatii,  nihil  urbis 
vigiliae,  nihil  timor  populi,  nihil  consensus  bonorum  omni- 
um, nihil  hie  munitissimus  habendi  senatus  locus,  nihil  ho- 
rum  or  a  vultusque  moverunt?  Comp.  p.  Arch.,  9,  21 ;  in 
RulL,  ii.,  6.  The  reverse  (i.  e.,  when  the  same  word  is 
used  at  the  end  of  several  members)  is  called  avTiarpo^rj, 
conversio.  Complexio  arises  from  a  combination  of  rep- 
etitio and  conversio  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  RulL,  ii.,  9,  Quis  legem 
tulit  ?  Rullus.  Quis  majorem  partcm  populi  suffragiis 
prohibuit  ?  Rullus.  Quis  comitiis  praefuit  ?  Rullus. 
Quis  decemviros  quos  voluit  renuntiavit  ?  Idem  Rullus. 
Traductio,  when  a  word  from  a  preceding  clause  is  re- 
peated in  the  following,  as  in  the  Auct.  ad  Her.,  iv.,  14, 
Eum  tu  hominem  appellas,  qui  si  fuisset  homo,  nunquam 
tarn  crudeliter  vitam  hominis  petisset.  TLoXvovvderov,  i.  e, 
the  repetition  of  the  same  conjunction  ;  e.  g.,  ad  Her.,  iv., 
19,  Et  inimico  proderas,  et  amicum  laedebas,  et  tibi  ipsi 
non  consulebas. 

[§  822.]  From  resemblance  of  sound  and  form,  or  sym- 
metry, arise,  irapovo/jiaOLa,  annominatio,  when  words,  with 
some  resemblance  of  sound,  are  placed  together,  or,  rath- 
er, in  opposition  ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  v.,  10,  ut  eum  non 
facile  non  modo  extra  tectum,  sed  ne  extra  lectum  quidem 
quisquam  videret ;  in  Cat.,  i.,  12,  hanc  rcip  pestem  non 
paulisper  reprimi,  sed  in  perpetuum  comprimi  volo ;  de 
Off.,  i.,  23,  expetenda  magis  est  decernendi  ratio,  quam  de- 
certandi  fortitudo.  For  more  examples,  see  my  note  on 
Cic.,  in  Verr.,  iv.,  5,  10.  'O/zotOTrrwrov,  when  the  same 
cases  are  in  several  members  of  the  proposition  ;  and  6p,oi- 
orehevrov,  when  the  members  end  similarly;  e.  g.,  both 
united  occur  in  Cic.,  p.  Clu.,  6,  Vicit  pudorem  libido,  timo- 
rem  audacia,  rationem  amentia.  To  these  may  be  added 
IOOKW^OV  ;  i.  e.,  when  the  members  are  of  (about)  equal 
length  ;  e.  g.,  Auct.  ad  Her.,  iv.,  20,  Alii  for  tuna  felicita- 
tem  dcdit,  huic  industria  rirfutcm  comparavit.  Compare 


526  LATIN    GEAMMAR. 

the  quotation  from  Cic.,  p.  Caecina,  at  the  end  of  §  816. 
'Avridsrov,  opposition,  requires  this  symmetry;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
p.  MIL,  4,  Est  igitur  haec,  judices,  non  scripta,  sed  nata  lex, 
quam  non  didicimus,  accepimus,  legimus,  verum  ex  natura 
ipsa  arripuimus,  hausimus,  expressimus,  ad  quam  non  docti, 
sedjacti,  non  instituti,  sed  imbuti  sumus,  ut,  &c.  Of  a  similar 
nature  is  aTm|LteTa6oA,77,  commutatio,  where  the  opposition 
is  expressed  by  an  inverted  order  of  the  proposition;  e.  g., 
ad  Her.,  iv.,  28,  Quia  stultus  est  ea  re  faces,  non  tamen  quia 
faces,  ca  re  stultus  es;  si  poema  loquens  pictura  est,  pictura 
taciturn  poema  debet  esse.  If  not  the  whole  clause  is  in- 
verted, this  figure  is  called  endvoSos,  regressio;  e.  g.,  Cic., 
Brut.,  39,  ut  cloquentium  juris  peritissimus  Crassus,  juris 
peritorum  eloquentissimus  Scaevola  haberetur.  Lastly, 
K/Uj[/a£  gradatio ;  i.  e.,  gradation,  at  the  same  time  re- 
peating the  preceding  word  ;  e.  g.,  ad  Her.,  iv.,  25,  Impe- 
rium  Graeciae  Juit  penes  Athienienses,  Atheniensium  potiti 
sunt  Spartiatae,  Spartiatas  superavcre  Thebani,  Thebanos 
Macedones  vicerunt,  qui  ad  imperium  Graeciae  brevi  tern- 
pore  adjunxcrunt  Asiam  bello  subactam. 

[§  823.]  The  following  arise  from  suppression  :  airoai&- 
7Trjai$,  an  intentional  breaking  off  in  the  middle  of  a  speech; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  p.  Mil.,  12,  De  nostro  enim  omnium — non  audeo 
totum  dicere.  Videte  quid  ea  vitii  lex  habiturafuerit,  cujus 
periculosa  etiam  reprehensio  cst,  and  the  well-known  pas- 
sage of  Virgil  (Aen.,  i.,  135),  Quos  ego — sed  motos  praes- 
tat  componerefluctus.  'Kovvderov,  dissolutio,  the  omission 
of  the  copulative  conjunctions ;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Quintilian, 
ix.,  3,  50,  Qui  indicabantur,  cos  vocari,  custodiri,  ad  sena- 
tum  adduci  jussi.  Corrcctio,  enav6p6b)Oi£,  the  correction 
of  an  expression  just  made  use  of;  e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  1, 
hie  tamen  vivit.  Vivit  ?  immo  vero  etiam  in  senatum  venit, 
comp.  atque  adeo,  §  734.  Dubitatio,  intentional  doubt;  to 
which  the  figure  of  an  intentional  forgetting  and  recalling 
to  mind  may  also  be  added;  e.  g.,  ad  Her.,iv.,  29,  Tu  is- 
tud  ausus  es  dicere,  homo  omnium  mortalium — nam  quo  te 
digno  moribus  tuis  appellem  nomine  ? 

[§  824.]  We  must  leave  it  to  rhetoric  to  explain  thejig- 
urae  sententiarum :  some  of  them,  however,  are,  at  the 
same  time,  figurae  verborum  ;  as,  e.  g.,  the  question  and 
the  exclamation,  which  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence 
in  Latin.  We  may  also  mention  the  addressing  of  absent 
persons  or  things  without  life  (ano^rpo^)  ;  e.  g.,  in  Cic., 


ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS,   ETC.  527 

p.  Mil.,  31,  Vos  enim  jam  ego,  Albani  tumuli  atque  luci, 
&c. ;  farther,  personification  ;  as,  e.  g.,  Cicero  in  Cat.,  i., 
7,  introduces  his  native  country  as  speaking ;  hyperbole, 
irony,  simile,  sentence,  &c.,  whose  manifold  use  must  be 
learned  from  the  writings  of  the  best  authors,  with  which 
we  strongly  advise  the  student  to  combine  the  study  of 
the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian's  Institutio  Ora- 
toria,  and  the  excellent  fourth  book  of  the  Author  ad  Hc- 
rennium  among  Cicero's  rhetorical  writings. 

[§  825.]  We  add,  in  conclusion,  as  an  example  for  imi- 
tation, a  very  simple  proposition,  transformed  according  to 
the  several  figures  mentioned  above.  The  theme  or  sub- 
ject is  this,  litteris  detector. 

Geminatio.     Litterae,  litterae,  inquam,  solae  me  delectant. 
Repetitio.     Litterae  me  puerum  aluerunt,  litterae  me  juve- 

nem  ab  infamia  libidinum  servarunt,  litterae  virum  in 

rep.  administranda  adjuverunt,  litterae  senectutis  imbe- 

cillitatem  consolabuntur. 

Conversio.     Litterae  honestissima  voluptate  oblectant,  re- 
rum  novarum  inventione  oblectant,  immortalitatis  spe  cer- 

tissima  oblectant. 

Complexio.     Qui  litteris  delectatur,  qui  vero  inveniendo  de- 
lectatur ^  qui  doctrina  propaganda  delectatur ,  eum  vos 

malum  esse  civem  putatis  ? 
Traductio.     Quid  vis  ?      Tune  litteris  delectaris,  qui  litter- 

aram  fundamenta  odisti  ? 
Polysyndeton.     Litterae  et  crudiunt  et  ornant  et  ollcctant 

et  consolantur. 
Paronomasia.     Qui  possim  ego  litteris  carcre,  sine  quibus 

vitam  ipsam  agerem  invitus  ? 
'O^oiOTTTwrov,  6fj,oiore^evrov.     Num  putas  fieri  posse,  ut, 

qui  litterarum  studiis  teneatur,  libidinum  vinculis  obstrin- 

gatur  ? 
'Avriderov.     Qui  litteris  delectari  te  dicis,  voluptatibus  im- 

plicari  te  pateris  ? 
'AvTineradohf].     Non  quia   delector,  studeo  litteris :   scd 

quia  studeo,  detector. 
Gradatio.     Studia  milii  litterarum  doctrinam,  doctrina glo- 

riam,  gloria  invidiam  et  obtrectationem  comparavit. 
Aposiopesis.     Quid  ?      Tu  audes  hoc  ?nihi  objicere,  qui  ni- 

hil  unquam  invita  expctierim  nisi  virtutem  et  doctrinam: 

tu  quid  expetieris — scd  tacco,  ne  convicium  tibi  fecisse 

videar. 


528  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

Aovvderov.      Quid  dicam  de  utilitatc  litterarum  ?    Erudi- 

unt,  ornant,  oblectant,  consolantur. 
Correctio.     Litterae  me  delectant :    quid  dico   delectant  ? 

Immo  consolantur^  ut  unicum  mihi  perfugium  praebent 

inter  has  vitae  laboriosae  molestias. 
Dubitatio.     Litterae  me  sive  erudiunt,  sine  oblectant,  sive 

consolantur :  nam  quid  potissimum  dicam  nescio. 


APPENDIX  I. 


OF  METRE  ;  ESPECIALLY  WITH  REGARD  TO  THE 
LATIN  POETS. 

[§  826.]  1.  THE  words  of  a  language  consist  of  long  and 
short  syllables.  In  measuring  syllables,  the  time  consu- 
med in  pronouncing  a  short  syllable  is  taken  as  a  standard, 
and  this  portion  of  time  is  called  mora.  A  long  syllable 
takes  two  morae,  and  is  therefore,  in  this  respect,  equal 
to  two  short  syllables.  Which  syllables,  in  the  Latin 
language,  are  considered  short,  and  which  long,  has  been 
shown  in  Chap.  III.  From  the  combination  of  syllables 
of  a  certain  quantity  arise  what  are  called  Feet  (pedes), 
of  which  there  are  four  of  two  syllables,  eight  of  three 
syllables,  sixteen  of  four  syllables,  thirty-two  of  five  syl- 
lables, &c.,  since  the  respective  number  of  syllables  ad- 
mits of  so  many  variations.  For  the  sake  of  brevity, 
specific  names  have  been  given  to  those  feet  which  con- 
sist of  two,  three,  and  four  syllables,  as  well  as  to  some 
of  five  : 

(a)  of  two  syllables  : 

w  w  Pyrrhichius  ;  bone,  pater,  lege. 

Spondeus  ;  audax,  constans,  virtus. 

w  _  Iambus ;  potens,  patres,  legunt. 

_  w  Trochaeus,  or  Choreus  ;  laetus,  fortis,  gaudet. 

(b)  Of  three  syllables: 

^  ^  ^  Tribrachys ;  doming  dubius,  legere. 

Molossus  ;  mirari^  libertas,  hgerunt. 

_  ^  w  Dactylus ;  improbus,  omnia,  legerat. 
w  _  w  Amphibrachys  ;  amare,  peritus,  legebat. 
^  ^  _  Anapaestus ;  bonitas,  meditans,  legerent. 

w Bacchms ;  dolores,  amavi,  legebant. 

_  w  _  Amphimacer,  Creticus  ;  fecerant,  legerant,  cogitans. 
w  PalimbacchTus,  AntibacchTus  ;  praeclarus,  peccata, 


(c)  Of  four  syllables  : 
^  w  w  w  Proceleusmaticus ;  cel&riter,  memoria,  relegere. 

Dispondeus ;  praeceptores,  interrumpunt,  perlege- 

runt. 

YY 


530  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

w  w lonicus  a  minor! ;  adolescens,  generosi,  adamari. 

w  w  loriicus  amajori;  sententia,mutabilis,perlegerat. 

—  w  —  w  Ditrochaeus,  Dichoreus  ;  educator,  infidelis,  eru- 

ditus. 

w  _  w  _  Dii'ambus ;  amoenitas,  renuntians^  supervenis. 
w w  Antispastus ;  verecundus,  abundabit,  perillustris. 

—  w  w  —  Choriambus ;  impatiens,  credulitas^  eximios. 
_www  Paeon  primus  ;  credibilis,  historia,  attonitus. 

w  _  w  w secundus  ;  modestia,  amabilis,  idoneus. 

w  w  _  w tertius ;  puerilis,  opulentus,  medicamen. 

w  w  w  _ quartus  ;  celeritas,  misericors,  refugiens 

w Epitritus  primus ;  laborando,  reformidant,  salu- 

tantes. 
_  w  _  _ secundus  ;     administransy    imperatrix, 

comprobavi. 
_  _  w  _ tertius  ;   auctoritas,  intelligens,  dissen- 

tiens. 

w quartus;  assentator,injinitus,naturalis. 

[§  827.]  2.  These  feet  are,  as  it  were,  the  material  of 
which  prose  and  verse  are  equally  composed  :  but  while 
in  prose  the  sequence  and  alternation  of  long  and  short 
syllables  is  not  particularly  attended  to,  and  only  on  cer- 
tain occasions,  ancient  poetry,  so  far  as  the  outward  form 
is  concerned,  consists  entirely  in  the  adaptation  of  words, 
by  the  arrangement  of  long  and  short  syllables,  to  the 
reception  of  the  Rhythm.  Rhythm,  in  this  respect,  is 
the  uniformity  of  the  duration  of  time,  in  the  raising  and 
sinking  of  the  voice,  or  Jlrsis  and  Thesis.  We  raise  and 
sink  the  voice  also  in  common  discourse,  but  not  at  defi- 
nite intervals,  nor  with  a  regular  return.  In  these  inter- 
vals, or  in  the  proportion  of  the  duration  of  the  Arsis  to 
the  duration  of  the  Thesis,  consists  the  difference  of  the 
Rhythm.  The  Arsis  is  either  equal  to  the  Thesis,  or 
twice  as  long,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  difference  of  the  two 
feet,  the  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee,  ^  v  v  and  ^  ^,  the  Arsis 
(marked  thus  ')  being  combined  with  the  long  syllable. 
The  same  proportion  takes  place  when  the  Thesis  pre- 
cedes the  Arsis  in  the  Anapaest  and  Iambus  w  w  ^  and 
w  ^.  The  first  species,  in  which  the  Arsis  forms  the  be- 
ginning, is  called  the  descending  Rhythm ;  the  other,  in 
which  the  Thesis  forms  the  beginning,  the  ascending. 
From  these  simple  rhythms,  the  artificial  are  composed, 
by  the  combination  of  two  simple  series  and  the  suppres- 


OF    METRE.  531 

sion  of  a  Thesis,  viz.,  the  Paeonic,  Choriambic,  and  Ionic 
rhythms.  The  three  Paeonic  feet  are,  the  Creticus  ^  w  ^, 
the  Bacchius  w  ^  ^!,  and  the  Antibacchius  ^  ^  w ;  the  Cho- 
riambus  ^  w  w  ^ ;  the  two  Ionics  w  w  ^  ^  and  ^  ^  ^  w.  In 
verses  of  simple  rhythm  Arsis  and  Thesis  are  joined  in 
alternate  succession  ;  while  in  verses  of  a  complicate 
rhythm,  partly  from  the  nature  of  the  foot  itself,  and  partly 
from  the  combination  of  two  feet,  one  Arsis  may  meet 
another  Arsis,  which  imparts  to  the  verse  an  animated 
and  impetuous  character. 

[§  828.]  Note. — The  metrical  intonation,  or  Ictus,  which  falls  on  the 
syllable  that,  according  to  the  rhythm,  receives  the  Arsis,  is,  in  Greek  and 
Latin,  entirely  independent  of  the  accent  of  words.  The  old  Latin  comic 
writers,  indeed,  have  endeavoured  to  bring  the  accent  of  words  into  con- 
formity with  the  rhythmical  intonation,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  they 
allowed  themselves  many  shortenings  of  syllables  which  are  long  by  posi- 
tion ;  but,  far  from  making  the  accent  guide  the  rhythm,  they  only  endeav- 
oured to  produce  this  coincidence  in  the  middle  dipodia,  and  even  there  by 
no  means  uniformly.  In  the  other  parts  of  Latin  poetry,  which  more 
closely  follow  the  regularity  of  the  Greek,  no  regard  at  all  is  paid  to  the 
accent  of  words,  any  more  than  by  the  Greeks  ;  nay,  it  should  seem  that 
the  ancients  derived  a  pleasure  from  the  discordance  between  the  metrical 
intonation  and  the  ordinary  accent.  In 

A'rma  virumque  cano  Trojae  qui  primus  ab  OTIS 

I'talidm  fato  profugus  Lavinaque  venit, 

it  is  only  in  the  end  of  the  verses  that  the  prose  accent  and  the  metrical 
intonation  coincide.  In  the  recitation  of  verse  the  latter  should  predomi- 
nate, but  not  so  as  entirely  to  suppress  the  ordinary  accent  of  words.  The 
metrical  accent,  or  ictus,  has  the  power  of  giving  short  syllables  the  value 
of  long  ones.  This,  however,  is  not  frequent,  except  in  the  short  final 
syllable  of  polysyllabic  words  ending  in  a  consonant,  and  especially  where 
the  force  of  the  arsis  is  aided  by  the  principal  caesura  of  the  verse ;  e.  g., 
Virg.,-EcZ.,  x.,  69,  Omnia  vincit  amor,  \  ct  nos  cedamus  amori ;  Horat.,  Serm., 
i.,  5,  90,  callidus  ut  soledt  \  humeris  portare  viator  ;  Ovid,  Art.  Am.,  hi.,  63, 


idonea,  credo.  Final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  much  less  frequently 
lengthened  by  the  arsis.  It  has,  however,  been  remarked  (see  Schneider's 
Elementarlehre,  p.  752),  that  this  occurs  surprisingly  often  with  the  enclitic 
que  in  the  second  foot  of  the  hexameter,  commonly  supported  by  the 
caesura,  of  which  we  shall  speak  under  No.  8 ;  e.  g.,  Virg.,  Aen.,  hi.,  91, 
Liminaque  laurusque  dei ;  Ovid,  Met.,  v.,  484,  Sideraque  ventique  nocent. 
Short  monosyllabic  words  are  never  lengthened  by  the  arsis. 

[§  829.]  3.  Several  feet,  united  in  one  simple  rhythm, 
constitute  a  series  fordo J.  The  dissyllable  feet,  i.  e.,  tro- 
chees and  iambi  (when  they  do  not  pass  into  another 
rhythm,  in  which  case  a  simple  foot  may  be  reckoned  as 
a  series),  are  united  into  such  series,  of  twro  feet  each,  or 
dipodiae :  a  dipodia  is  also  called  a  metre ;  hence,  e.  g., 
an  iambic  verse  of  six  feet  is  called  an  iambic  trimeter 
(trimeter  iambicus).  Of  the  feet  of  three  syllables,  the 


532  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

dactyl,  according  to  the  metrical  writers,  makes  a  metre 
by  itself,  though  not  the  anapaest;  but  two  anapaests, 
according  to  the  analogy  of  two  iambi,  make  an  anapaestic 
metre  (metrum  anapaesticum).  In  some  cases,  especially 
in  the  trochaic  verse,  the  end  of  a  series  is  marked  by  a 
syllaba  anceps  ;  i.  e.,  a  syllable  whose  natural  quantity  is 
not  attended  to,  but  which  reckons  long  or  short,  as  the 
rhythm  requires  ;  consequently,  in  the  trochaic  rhythm 
(-  w)  short.  A  verse  consists  of  one  or  more  series  of  the 
same  or  different  rhythms.  It  is,  however,  distinguished 
from  the  series  itself  by  the  circumstance,  that  the  syllaba 
anceps,  which  is  only  allowed  sometimes  at  the  end  of 
the  series,  always  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  that 
hiatus  is  allowed,  and  that  a  pause  of  the  voice  takes 
place.  A  verse  is  called  by  the  Greek  name  acatalecticus 
when  the  feet,  or  metres,  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
complete  ;  catalecticus  when  they  want  one  syllable  or 
two,  or  even  a  foot.  Of  verses  which  consist  of  trisyllabic 
feet,  some  are  catalectici  in  syllabam,  in  which  one  sylla- 
ble only  remains  of  the  defective  foot ;  others  catalectici 
in  bisyllabum,  when  two  syllables  remain ;  as,  e.  g.,  in  the 
hexameter.  Trochaic  and  iambic  feet  can  be  catalectic 
only  in  syllabam. 

[§  830.]   Caesura  is  the  interruption  of  the  rhythm  by 
the  end  of  a  word.     In  the  dactylic  hexameter  of  Ovid, 

Donee  eris  felix,  multos  numerabis  arnicas, 
or  in  the  one  of  Virgil, x 

I'nfandum  regina  jubes  renovdre  dolorem, 

the  end  of  the  foot  is  throughout  at  variance  with  the  end 
of  the  word ;  and  while  the  rhythm  requires  the  union  of 
two  words,  the  sense  is  opposed  to  it,  inasmuch  as  it  re- 
quires a  pause  at  the  end  of  each.  On  this  circumstance, 
however,  rests  the  connexion  of  the  feet,  and  a  long 
verse  cannot  exist  without  some  caesurae,  especially  one 
towards  the  middle  of  the  line,  generally  called  emphati- 
cally the  caesura.  We  must  carefully  distinguish  incision 
from  caesura.  Incision  is  the  coincidence  of  the  end  of 
the  foot  with  the  end  of  the  word  ;  and  in  some  species 
of  verse  (in  the  trochaic  tetrameter,  in  the  dactylic  pen- 
tameter, and  in  choriambic  verses)  it  is  essential,  and  is 
often  used,  also,  in  the  hexameter  under  certain  forms. 
[§  831.]  4.  In  what  follows,  we  shall  give  a  brief  ac- 


OF    METRE.  533 

count  of  those  species  of  verse  which  the  Roman  poets 
have  used,  and  of  the  laws  they  observed  in  their  struc- 
ture. We  shall  first  speak  of  verses  with  simple  rhythm, 
then  of  those  with  artificial  rhythm,  and  shall,  lastly,  add 
some  remarks  on  compound  verses,  and  on  the  combina- 
tion of  different  kinds  of  verse  to  a  lyric  strophe.  We 
shall  thus  be  enabled,  at  the  same  time,  to  see  the  differ- 
ence of  the  forms  of  the  several  species  of  ancient  poetry. 
The  epic  makes  use  only  of  one  simple  rhythm,  the 
dactylic  ;  while  the  drama  (with  the  exception  of  its  lyric 
part),  with  greater  variety,  moves  in  the  three  other  sim- 
ple rhythms,  the  iambic  trimeter,  however,  being  its 
principal  verse.  In  both  species  of  poetry,  verses  of  the 
same  measure  and  of  the  same  length  are  repeated  in 
uninterrupted  succession  (icard  ori^ov).  Lyric  poetry, 
on  the  contrary,  on  account  of  its  lively  character,  makes 
use  of  the  artificial  rhythms,  as  well  as  of  verses  of  com- 
pound or  mixed  rhythm ;  repeating,  however,  in  succes- 
sion verses  of  artificial  rhythm  only  in  some  of  its  species 
of  verse  ;  while  in  the  others  compound  verses  are  com- 
bined into  a  rhythmical  whole,  called  strophe. 

[§  832.]  5.  Trochaic  verses,  as  has  been  observed  above, 
are  generally  measured  by  dipodiae.  But  the  tribrachys 
may  stand  for  the  trochee  without  injury  to  the  metre; 
and  as  the  last  syllable  of  the  series  is  doubtful,  a  spondee 
or  an  anapaest  may  stand  in  the  second  foot;  or,  when 
the  verse  consists  of  several  dipodiae,  in  the  second, 
fourth,  and  sixth  foot.  Consequently,  this  is  the  measure 
of  the  trochaic  dipodia, 


As  the  arsis,  when  it  falls  on  two  short  syllables  after 
the  resolution  of  the  long  syllable,  cannot  be  expressed 
equally  on  both,  the  ictus  is  laid  on  the  first  of  the  two 
shorts. 

Note. — The  spondee  or  anapaest  in  the  uneven  places  (i.  e.,  1,  3,  5,  &c.) 
is  found  only  in  the  Latin  comic  writers,  and  is  at  variance  with  pure 
rhythm.  The  dactyl  can  only  be  admitted  in  the  even  places  as  the  reso- 
lution of  the  spondees,  but  is  very  seldom  used,  and  is  still  more  unsuita- 
ble to  the  uneven  places,  where  even  the  spondee  is  only  admitted  by  too 
great  a  license. 

[§  833.]  The  most  common  species  of  trochaic  verse 
is  the  tetrameter  catalectic,  called,  in  Latin,  quadratics,  or, 
from  the  number  of  the  complete  feet,  septenarius : 


534  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

—   v^  —  O  —   W  —   C    I    —   ^  —  W  —   ^  — 

It  has  its  incision  after  the  second  dipodia,  where  a  word 
ends.     In  Plautus  and  Terence,  that  is,  in  the  drama, 
many  scenes  are  found  in  this  measure,  which  is  well 
adapted  to  express  excitement  and  emotion.     The  fol- 
lowing example,  from  Terentianus  Maurus,  de  Syllab., 
exhibits  the  pure  measure  :   we  have  marked  the  first 
arsis  of  the  dipodia  with  the  accent  : 
Niilla  vox  humana  constat  \  dbsque  septem  litteris, 
Rite  vacates  vocavit  \  quds  magistra  Graecia  : 
Quidquid  audis  praeter  istas,  |  pars  soni,  non  vox  erit. 
Quinque  contenta  estfiguris  \  Romuli  Latinitas. 
This  verse,  however,  is  not  found  in  such  purity  in  the 
comic  writers,  but  with  all  the  changes  mentioned  above  ; 
so  that  the  last  catalectic  dipodia  alone  shows  the  true 
measure.     In  the  following  passage  from  Terence,  Jlndr., 
ii.,  1,  18,  foil.,  every  arsis  is  marked  with  the  accent  : 
Jl'd  te  advenio,  spcm,  salutem,  \  consilium,  auxilium  ex- 

petens. 

Ncque  pol  consili  locum  hdbeo,  \  neque  ad  auxilium  cdpiam. 
Sed  istuc  quidnam  est  ?     Hodie  uxorem  \  duds  1     Jl'iunt. 

Pamphile, 
Si  id  facis,  hodie  postremum  \  me  vides.     Quid  ita  ?     El 

mihi. 
Vereor  dicer  e,  huic   die,  quaeso,  \  Byrria.     E'go   dicdm. 

Quid  est  ? 

Sponsam  hie  tuam  amat.     Nae  fste  haud  mecum  \  sentit. 
E'hodum  die  mihi. 

[§  834.]  Note.  —  The  name  of  versus  ithyphallicus  is  given  to  a  trochaic 
verse  of  three  feet.     It  is  found  in  its  pure  measure  in  Horace,  at  the  close 
of  another  verse,  Carm.,  i.,  4,  appended  to  a  dactylic  tetrameter  : 
Solvitur  acris  hiems  grata  vice  \  veris  et  Favoni. 
Ac  neque  jam  stabulis  gaudet  pecus,  \  aut  ardtor  igni. 

[§  835.]  6.  The  iambic  rhythm  is  the  reverse  of  the 
trochaic,  as  it  begins  with  the  thesis,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  anacrusis  (prelude)  to  the  trochee.  As 
such  it  has  no  necessary  measure,  and  may  therefore  be 
long,  whence  arises  the  following  measure  of  die  iambic 
dipodia  : 


Consequently,  we  may  say,  that  instead  of  the  iambus  in 
all  places  the  tribrachys  may  stand,  except  in  the  last 


OF    METRE.  535 

place,  since  the  last  syllable  of  the  verse  is  anceps,  and 
cannot,  therefore,  be  resolved;  and  that  in  the  uneven 
places  1,  3,  5,  the  spondee,  and,  as  its  resolutions,  the 
anapaest  and  dactyl,  may  stand  instead  of  the  iambic  (of 
course,  so  that  the  second  half  of  the  dactyl  be  in  am',  and 
the  ictus  rest  on  the  first  of  the  two  short  syllables). 

[§  836.]  This  is  the  general  rule ;  but  poets  either  impose  restrictions 
on  themselves,  in  order  to  produce  greater  harmony,  or  allow  themselves 
greater  latitude,  to  facilitate  the  composition  of  their  verses.  The  earliest 
Greek  iambographi  are  most  careful  in  this  respect,  and  seldom  use  even 
the  tribrachys.  The  tragedians  much  more  frequently  admit  the  tribrachys 
in  all  places  but  the  last ;  the  spondee  and  dactyl,  in  accordance  with  the 
general  rule,  in  the  uneven  places  :  they  do  not  like  the  anapaest ;  they 
use  it  almost  exclusively  in  the  first  place  and  in  a  whole  word,  but  in  all 
places  only  in  the  case  of  proper  names,  in  regard  to  which  greater  lati- 
tude must  be  allowed.  The  Greek  comic  writers  introduced  the  anapaest 
in  all  places,  the  last  being  always  excepted,  with  certain  limitations,  as 
when  a  dactyl  precedes.  The  Roman  comic  writers  and  Phaedrus  adopt- 
ed all  these  licenses,  and,  besides,  admitted  the  spondee  in  the  even  places, 
so  that  in  their  verses  the  iambus  maintains  its  right  only  in  the  last  foot. 
On  the  other  hand,  Horace,  in  his  Epodes,  and  Seneca  the  tragedian,  re- 
turned to  the  original  strictness,  and  they  only  use  the  tribrachys  instead 
of  the  iambus  occasionally  in  the  even  places  ;  in  the  uneven,  besides  the 
iambus,  they  use  the  spondee,  and  rarely  the  anapaest  or  dactyl ;  e.  g., 
Horat.,  Epod.,  2 : 

Hos  inter  e'piilas,  ut  juvat  pastas  oves 
Videre  pro'perantes  domum, 

Positosque  vernas,  ditis  examen  domus, 
Circum  renidentes  Lares. 

Haec  u'bl  locutus  fenerator  Alfius,  &c. 

[§  837.]  The  iambic  verse,  which  is  in  most  common 
use,  is  the  trimeter  acatalecticus,  or,  from  the  number  of 
its  feet,  called,  in  L  atin,  senarius  ;  which  is  the  usual 
measure  of  the  dialogue  of  the  drama.  It  has  generally 
a  caesura  in  the  third  or  fourth  foot ;  the  first  is  called 
penthemimeral  (nevO^nipsprjg)  after  the  fifth  half  foot,  the 
second  hephthemimeral  (e^Orjutfjieprjg)  after  the  seventh 
half  foot ;  e.  g.,  Hor.,  Epod.,  17  : 

Jam  jam  efficaci  \  do  manus  scientiae 

Supplex,  et  oro  \  regna  per  Proserpinae, 

Cariidia,  parce  \  vocibus  tandem  sacris, 

Citumque  retro  solve,  \  solve,  turbinem. 

It  may  be  combined  also  with  other  caesurae,  as  is  the 

case  in  the  third  and  fourth  verse  of  this  passage.     The 

metrical  writers  have  pointed  out  many  niceties  in  the 

structure  of  these  verses  ;    as,  e.  g.,  that  the  third  and 

fourth  foot  ought  not  to  consist  of  single  words  ;  that, 

when  the  last  word  is  a  creticus,  a  preceding  long  syllable 

ought  not  to  be  the  last  syllable  of  a  polysyllabic  word. 


536  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

As  these  rules  and  observations  have  reference  to  the 
Greek  tragedians  only,  farther  particulars  must  be  learned 
from  the  works  on  metre.  As  an  example  of  this  species 
of  verse,  we  take  a  passage  from  Phaedrus,  and  mark 
each  arsis  with  the  accent : 

Jld  rivum  eundem  lupus  et  ugnus  venerant 
Siti  compulsi,  superior  stabdt  lupus, 
Longeque  inferior  dgnus.     Tune  fauce  improba 
Latro  incitdtus,  jurgii  causam  intulit : 
Cur,  inquit,  turbulentam  fccisti  mihi 
Istdm  bibenti  ?     Ldniger  contra  timens  : 
Qui  possum,  quaeso,  fa  cere,  quod  quereris,  lupe  ? 
[§  838.]  Verses  consisting  of  iambic  dimeters  are  com- 
monly found  in  Horace  in  the  Epodes,  subjoined  to  a 
longer  iambic  or  dactylic  verse  ;  e.  g.,  Epod.,  2  : 
Bedtus  ille,  qui  procul  negoliis, 

Ut  prisca  gens  mortdlium, 
Paterna  rura  bobus  exercct  suis, 
Soliitus  omnifcnore. 

Or,  Epod.,  14 : 

Mollis  inertia  cur  taut  dm  diffuderit  imis 

Oblivionem  sensibus, 
Candide  Maecenas,  occidis  saepe  rogando  : 

Deus,  deus,  nam  me  vetat. 

The  metre  in  which  a  trimeter  is  followed  by  a  dimeter 
was  that  in  which  Archilochus,  the  most  ancient  writer 
of  iambic  verse,  composed  his  poems. 

Dimeter  catalectic  verses,  of  which  the  first  foot  may 
be  a  spondee,  or  instead  of  it  an  anapaest,  but  of  which 
the  other  feet  are  pure,  are  found  among  the  Roman  poets 
who  have  come  down  to  us,  only  in  Seneca  in  choruses ; 
e.  g.,  Med.y  862,  foil.  : 

Ut  tigris  orla  gndtis 
Cursu  furente  liistrat 
Gangeticiim  nemiis,  sic 
Frendre  nescit  iras 
Medea,  non  amores. 

And  Terentianus  Maurus  uses  this  verse  in  speaking  of  it : 
Et  condere  inde  carmen 
Multi  so  lent  poctae. 
Horatium  videmus 


OF    METRE.  537 

Versus  tenoris  hujus 
Nusquam  locasse  juges, 
Jit  Arbiter  disertus 
Libris  suis  frequentat. 

[§  839.]  Tetrameter  iambics,  complete  and  incomplete, 
are  common  in  the  Roman  comic  writers  ;  the  first  are 
called  octonarii,  the  others  septenarii,  from  the  number 
of  the  complete  feet.  An  example  of  octonarii  is  found, 
Terent.,  Jlndr.,  i.,  3,  ink. : 

Enimvero,  Dave,  nil  heist  \  segnitiae  neque  socordiae, 
Quantum  intellexi  mo' do  senis  \  sententiam  de  nuptiis, 
Quae  si  non  astu  providentur,  mfTaut  herum  pessumdabunt. 
JVec  quid  agam  cerium  est :  Pdmphilum  \  ne  adjutem  an 

auscultem  seni. 

Si  ilium  relinquo,  ejus  vitae  timeo  :  sin  opitulor,  hujus 
minas. 

The  septenarii  have  a  very  lively  and  animated  rhythm. 
There  is  an  incision  in  the  middle.  An  example  is, 
Terent.,  Andr.,  iv.,  2,  11: 

Per  omnes  adjuro  deos,  \  nunquam  earn  me  deserturum, 
JVbw,  si  capiundos  mi  hi  sciam  esse  inimicos  omnes  ho  'mines ', 
Hanc  mi  expetivi :  contigit,  \  conve'niunt  mores.     V a' leant, 
Qui  inttr  nos  discidium  volunt :  \  hanc  nisi  mors  mi  adimet 
nemo. . 

[§  840.]  7.  The  halting  iambus  (CholiambusJ,  or  Scazon 
(oKa&v),  called  also  Hipponactean  verse,  is  a  compound 
verse,  and  therefore  properly  belongs  to  another  place, 
but  may  be  conveniently  treated  of  here,  that  it  may  not 
be  separated  from  the  other  iambic  verses. 

The  choliambic  is  an  iambic  senarius,  instead  of  the 
last  foot  of  which,  however,  a  trochee  is  introduced,  the 
fifth  foot  being,  for  the  sake  of  contrast,  usually  a  pure 
iambus.  This  species  of  verse  is  adapted  to  satire  ;  the 
Roman  poets,  however,  especially  Catullus,  have  also 
employed  it  for  the  expression  of  the  softer  feelings  ;  e.  g., 
in  the  8th  poem,  where  it  is  particularly  suitable : 

Miser  Catulle  desinas  ineptire, 
Et  quod  vides  perfsse,  perditum  ducas. 
Fulscre  quondam  candidi  tibi  soles, 
Quum  vcntitabas,  quo  puella  duccbat 
Jlmata  nobis  quantum  amabitiir  niilla. 


538  LATIN    tillAMMAR. 

Ibi  ilia  multa  turn  jocosa  fiebant, 

Quae  tu  volebas,  nee  puella  ndlebat. 

Fulsere  vere  cdndidi  tibi  soles  ! 

Nunc  ilia  non  volt,  tu  quoque  impotens  noli, 

JVec  qude  fugit  sector  e,  nee  miser  vive. 
[§  841.]  8.  Of  all  the  dactylic  metres,  the  Hexameter  is 
the  most  used.  Being  employed  especially  in  epic  poe- 
try, it  has  obtained  the  name  of  the  heroic  verse.  It 
properly  consists,  according  to  its  name,  of  six  dactyls, 
for  the  last  of  which,  however,  a  trochee  (or,  as  the  last 
syllable  is  doubtful,  a  spondee)  is  always  substituted. 
The  first  four  places  admit  dactyls  or  spondees  without 
distinction,  and  the  verse  gains  in  strength  and  variety  by 
their  intermixture,  all  dactyls  producing  too  tripping  a 
movement ;  all  spondees  too  heavy  a  movement.  These 
effects  Virgil  has  designedly  produced  in  the  verses 

Qutidrupeddnte  putrem  sonitit  quatit  ungula  cdmpum. 
rili  inter  sese  magnd  vi  brdchia  tollunt. 

In  the  fifth  place  a  spondee  seldom  occurs,  but  when 
it  does  occur,  a  dactyl  generally  precedes.  Such  a  verse 
is  called  versus  spondiacus.  It  has  a  hard  and  heavy 
sound,  but  the  slowness  of  its  movement  is  often  suited  to 
the  thought,  and  therefore  constructed  on  purpose.  In 
such  lines  the  Roman  poets  are  fond  of  placing  a  word 
of  four  syllables  at  the  end  of  the  verse  ;  as,  Virg.,  Eel.,  iv., 
49,  and  den.,  ii.,  68, 

Cara  deum  soboles,  magnum  Jovis  incrementum. 

Constitit,  atque  oculis  Phrygia  agmina  circumspexit. 
Ovid,  Met.,  vi.,  69,  Et  vetus'in  tela  deducitur  argumentum. 
Ibid.,  128,  Nexilibus  flores  hederis  habet  intertextos. 

Note. — A  word  of  three  syllables  at  the  end  of  a  spondiacus  would  bring 
the  ictus  on  the  last  syllable  of  the  preceding  word,  and  this  is  contrary 
to  the  Roman  system  of  accentuation,  which  is  not,  indeed,  generally  at- 
tended to  in  the  construction  of  the  hexameter,  but,  at  the  end  of  the 
verse,  is  generally  made,  if  possible,  to  harmonize  with  the  ictus.  For 
this  reason,  the  best  metricians  avoid  using  a  word  of  three  syllables  at  the 
end  of  the  spondiac  verse,  or,  at  least,  they  make  a  monosyllabic  word  pre- 
cede it  (as,  e.  g.,  Juvenal,  Sat.,  iv.,  87,  turn  quo  de  fluviis  aut  aestibus  out 
nimboso  Vere  locuturi,  and  in  many  other  passages).  Proper  names,  how- 
ever, render  exceptions  necessary. 

[§  842.]  The  poets  bestowed  especial  care  on  the 
caesura  of  this  verse,  as  it  is  too  long  to  be  read  in  one 
breath ;  and  by  this  means  it  obtains  a  fresh  variety,  the 
caesura  producing  an  apparent  change  in  the  rhythm. 


OF    METRE.  539 

The  caesura  most  natural  and  the  most  common  is  that  in 
the  third  foot,  either  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  i.  e., 
after  the  first  short  syllable  of  the  dactyl.  The  former  is 
called  the  caesura  (rop/)  nevOrjpipepTjg  fsemiquinariaj,  or 
masculine  ;  the  other  is  called  by  the  Greek  writers  on 
metre  caesura  Kara  rpirov  Tpo%alov,  and  by  the  moderns 
the  trochaic  caesura,  because  a  trochee  ^  w  immediately 
precedes,  or  the  feminine,  because  the  half  of  the  verse 
ends  in  the  thesis.  In  ancient  heroic  poetry  the  mascu- 
line caesura  is  the  prevalent  one ;  the  trochaic,  which  is 
really  expressive  of  less  force,  is  also  often  used,  accord- 
ing to  the  character  of  the  thought  or  sense.  If  the  cae- 
sura is  not  in  the  third  foot,  it  generally  is  in  the  fourth  ; 
but  here  only  one  species  of  it  is  allowed,  that  after  the 
arsis.  This  is  called  e^Orffiifjieprj^  (semiseptenariaj,  and  is 
considered  a  beauty  when,  at  the  same  time,  there  is  a  less 
considerable  caesura  in  the  second  foot.  Catull.,  EpithaL, 
Pel.,  139, 

Eumenides  \  quibus  anguineo  ||  redimita  capillo. 
Virg.,  Jien.,  i.,  9, 

Quidve  dolens  \  regina  deum  ||  tot  volvere  casus. 

[$  843.]  Note  1. — Every  well-constructed  hexameter  has  one  of  these 
three  caesurae  ;  with  them  may  be  combined  several  others  made  of  the 
single  feet.  And  in  this  respect  the  caesura  after  the  first  arsis  is  particu- 
larly deserving  of  notice,  as  giving  great  emphasis  to  a  monosyllabic  word. 
In  the  principal  caesura  of  the  verse,  poets  frequently  introduce  a  pause 
in  the  sense,  which  must  be  attended  to  in  determining  which  caesura  is 
the  principal  one ;  for  it  oftens  happens  that  at  the  common  place  for 
the  caesura,  in  the  third  foot,  there  is  a  caesura  in  the  word,  and  in  the 
fourth  foot,  besides  the  caesura  in  the  word,  also  a  pause  in  the  sense.  In 
this  case  the  latter  is  to  be- considered  as  the  principal  caesura,  and  to  be 
distinguished  accordingly  in  reciting;  e.  g.,  Hor.,  Serin.,  i.,  4,  61, 

Postquam  discordia  tetra 
Belli  ferratos  pastes  portasque  refregit, 

the  caesura  K£vdt]fj,i/j,epr}£  would  separate  the  adjective  from  the  substan- 
tive ;  it  is  better,  therefore,  after  postes,  where  by  means  of  -que,  at  least,  a 
new  noun  is  added.  In  like  manner,  it  does  not  appear  doubtful  to  us  that 
in  Horat.,  Epist.,  ii.,  3,  137,  the  caesura  should  be  made  thus  : 

Fortunam  Priami  cantaV  \  et  nobile  bellum, 

Fortunam  Priami  \  cantabo  et  nobile  bellum ; 

for  the  elision  of  the  vowel  does  not  prevent  the  caesura,  the  word  being 
regarded  as  closed  before  the  elided  vowel. 

[§  844.]  A  peculiar  kind  of  incision  is  that  which  is  called  caesura  bucolica, 
in  which  both  the  sense  and  the  word  close  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot. 
It  may  also  be  joined  with  one  of  the  before-mentioned  principal  caesurae, 
but  the  pause  in  the  sense  coinciding  with  the  end  of  the  foot,  of  course 
compels  the  reciter  to  make  a  longer  pause  than  usual  before  the  fifth 
foot.  This  caesura  bucolica  sometimes  beautifully  expresses  the  rapidity 


540  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

of  a  lively  movement  till  it  comes  to  a  sudden  check  :  but  in  consequence 
of  the  disproportionate  shortness  of  the  last  member  of  the  verse,  it  gen- 
erally makes  the  impression  of  an  uncultivated  simplicity ;  and  this  ap- 
pears to  be  the  reason  why  it  was  so  much  used  by  the  Greek  bucolic 
poets,  from  whom  it  derives  its  name. 

[$  845.]  Note  2. — A  monosyllabic  word  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  if  another 
monosyllable  does  not  precede,  produces  a  singular  effect,  by  compelling 
the  reader,  in  order  that  it  may  be  understood,  to  lay  an  accent  upon  it, 
which  is  not  suited  to  the  thesis.  This  effect,  however,  is  sometimes  de- 
signedly produced  by  the  poets,  either  to  express  something  harsh  and 
rough,  or  in  a  ludicrous  way  something  which  is  unexpected  ;  e.  g., 
Dat  latus,  insequitur  \  cumulo  praeruptus  aquae  mons. 

Virg.,  Aen.,  I,  106. 
Illic,  Ut  pcrhibent  \  aut  intempesta  silet  nox. 

Virg.,  Georg.,  i.,  247. 
Parturiunt  monies,  \  nascetur  ridiculus  mus. 

Horat.,  Art.  Poet.,  139. 

[§  846.]  9.  Next  to  the  hexameter,  the  most  common 
dactylic  verse  is  the  pentameter.  It  has  this  name  from 
its  containing  the  number  of  five  complete  metres  ;  but  it 
has  properly  six  feet,  of  which  the  third  and  sixth  are 
incomplete.  The  measure  is  the  following  : 

^3^-33-  I  -  ^  w  ^  w  ^  ' 

In  the  second  half  there  must  be  pure  dactyls  ;  and  in 
the  first,  dactyls  and  spondees  are  commonly  intermixed  ; 
for  two  spondees  give  a  hardness  to  the  rhythm.  After 
the  third  arsis,  where  the  caesura  is  invariable,  a  pause 
equivalent  to  two  morae  must  be  made  in  order  to  com- 
plete the  rhythm.  Hence  the  lengthening  of  a  short  syl- 
lable by  the  force  of  the  arsis  is,  according  to  the  strict 
rule,  in  this  place  not  admissible,  though  there  are  sev- 
eral exceptions  to  be  found  in  the  Roman  poets.  (Re- 
specting the  Greek,  see  Friedemann,  Dissert,  de  media 
Syllaba  Pentametri,  in  Spitzner's  work,  De  Versu  Graeco- 
rum  HeroicOj  Lips.,  1816.)  There  is  the  same  pause  at 
the  end  of  the  verse,  where,  according  to  the  general  rule, 
a  short  syllable  may  stand,  but  in  fact  is  rarely  found  in  a 
word  ending  in  a  short  vowel.  This  verse  commonly 
ends  in  words  of  two  syllables,  and  words  of  three  sylla- 
bles are  not  often  used  for  the  conclusion,  as  the  accent 
in  these  falls  unpleasantly.  This  verse  is  used  only  as  an 
appendage  to  an  hexameter,  arid  both  together  constitute 
the  elegiac  verse.  Although  originally  employed  on 
mournful  or  amatory  subjects,  it  was  soon  turned  to 
lighter  topics  ;  but  it  is  not  adapted  to  a  long  poem,  and 
is  best  suited  to  epigrammatic  and  sententious  poetry; 
c  g.,  Martial.  Epigr.,  v.,  76, 


OF    METRE.  541 

Profecit  poto  Mithridates  saepe  veneno 
Toxica  nepossent  saeva  nocere  sibi: 

Tu  quoque  cavisti,  coenando  tarn  male  semper, 
Ne  posses  unqudm,  Cinna,  perirefame. 

[§  847.]   10.  Of  the  other  dactylic  verses  we  shall  men- 
tion the  dimeter  catalecticus,  called,  also,  versus  JIdonius, 
/         /  _ 

—    W   W   —   S^ 

used  as  an  appendage  to  other  verses  in  lyric  poetry. 
Farther,  the  tetrameter  catalecticus,  or  versus  Jllcmanius, 
from  the  lyric  poet  Alcman,  who  frequently  used  it :  the 
last  foot  of  it  is  preserved  pure. 

The  trimeter  catalecticus  in  syllabam, 

£zz£^~ 

used  by  Horace,  after  the  example  of  Archilochus,  before 
or  after  a  dimeter  iambicus  ;  e.  g.,  Epod.,  11, 

I'nachidfurere  \  silvis  honor  em  decutit 
Fervididre  mero  \  arcana promordt  loco  ; 
and  Epod.,  13, 

Tu  vina  Torquato  move  \  consule  pressa  meo 
Levdre  duris  pectora  \  sollicitudinibus. 

Horace  uses  the  tetrameter  catalecticus  as  an  appendage 
to  the  heroic  hexameter,  Carm.,  i.,  7, 

Jllbus  ut  obscuro  \  deterget  nubila  coelo 
Saepe  Notus,  neque  parturit  imbres 
PerpetuoSj  |  sic  tu  sapiens  \  finire  memento 

Tristitiam  vitaeque  labores. 

[§  848.]  11.  The  anapaestic  rhythm  (w  w  ^)  is  the  re- 
verse of  the  dactylic.  Instead  of  the  pure  anapaest,  the 
spondee,  dactyl,  or  proceleusmaticus  may  stand,  but  the 
ictus  must  be  placed  as  in  the  pure  anapaest,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  dactyl  must  be  read,  not  £  w  w,  but  _  £  w. 

Anapaests  are  used  by  the  Greek  tragic  and  comic 
poets  most  frequently  in  systems,  in  which  there  is  no 
doubtful  syllable,  except  at  the  end  ;  but  they  are  gen- 
erally divided  into  dimeters.  A  system  always  ends  in  a 
dimeter  catalecticus  in  syllabam,  called  versus  paroemiacus. 
This  is  usually  preceded  by  a  monometer,  hence  called 
basis  anapaestica  ;  and  sometimes  such  a  verse  is  intro- 
duced in  the  middle  of  the  system.  In  the  Roman  poets, 
whose  works  have  come  down  to  us,  we  find  but  few 
Zz 


542  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

anapaests  of  this  kind ;  Terence  nowhere  uses  them ; 
Plautus  not  unfrequently,  but  with  difficult  measures  and 
many  licenses  ;  Seneca  the  tragedian  did  not  use  the 
paroemiacus,  whence  his  anapaests  have  no  proper  close. 
Besides  these  dimeters,  the  Greeks  very  frequently  use 
the  tetrameter  catalecticus  in  syllabam,  which  has  a  caesura 
in  the  middle,  after  the  second  dipodia.  Plautus  like- 
wise uses  it ;  but  as  he  indulges  in  great  licenses,  and  as 
his  text  is  very  corrupt,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to 
Hermann's  Elementa  Doctrin.  Metr.,  p.  405,  foil.  We 
take  a  specimen  of  the  dimeter  anap.  from  Seneca,  Hipp., 
974, 

Res  humanas  ordi'ne  nullo 

Fortuna  regit  spargitque  manu 

Mune'ra,  caeca,  pejorS,  f  ovens. 

Vincit  sanctos  dira  libido, 

Fraus  sublimi  regnat  in  aula  ; 

Trade' re  turpi  fasces  populus 

Gaude't,  eosdem  colit  dtque  odit. 

Tristis  virtus  pervcrsa  tulit 

Praeml'a  recti,  castos  sequitur 

Mala  paupertas  :  vitioque  potens 

Regna't  adulter. 

0  vane  pudor  falsumque  decus  I 

[§  849.]  12.  The  artificial  rhythms  arise  from  the  sim- 
ple, by  the  suppression  of  a  thesis ;  hence,  each  foot  of 
these  rhythms,  having  a  double  arsis,  is  equivalent  to  a 
metre.  By  this  collision  of  one  arsis  with  another,  the 
impression  of  vehemence  and  violence  is  produced;  and 
the  Roman  lyric  and  dramatic  poets,  with  whom  verses 
of  this  kind  supply  the  place  of  the  choral  songs  of  the 
Greeks,  have  made  good  use  of  them.  From  the  com- 
bination of  the  uneven  rhythm  (^  ^  or  ^  J)  arise  the  Pae- 
onic  rhythms,  exhibited  in  their  purity  in  the  Creticus 
^  w  ->  the  Bacchius  w  ^  ^,  and  the  Antibacchius  ^  ^  ^. 
This  rhythm  is  called  Paeonic,  because  these  feet  were 
regarded  as  originating  from  contractions  of  the  four 
Paeons  ;  for  the  Creticus  ^  ^  ^  is  equivalent  to  the  first 
Paeon  ^  w  C^,,  and  to  the  fourth  ^  w  ^;  the  Bacchius 
w  ^  £  to  the  second  Paeon  ^  C^  ;  and  the  Antibacchius 
—  '  ^  to  the  third  Paeon  C^  {_  w.  From  the  even  rhythm 
(-  ^  ^  or  w  w  ^)  arose,  by  combination,  the  Choriambic  and 


OF    METRE.  543 

Ionic  rhythm  ;  the  Choriambic  ^  w  w  ^,  the  Ionic  in  two 
forms,  a  majori  ^  ^  w  w,  a  minori  w  w  ^  £. 

[§  850.]  13.  The  Creticus  £  w  /  allows  the  resolution 
of  either  arsis,  but  at  the  close  of  the  verse  only  the  reso- 
lution of  the  first  into  two  shorts.  In  Plautus  and  Ter- 
ence it  is  commonly  used  in  tetrameters,  a  dimeter  being 
occasionally  inserted.  In  the  following  example,  from 
Terence,  Jlndr.,  iv.,  1,  a  dactylic  verse  begins  : 

Hocine  credibile  aut  memordbile, 

Tdnta  vecordia  inndta  cuiquam  ut  siet, 

TJ't  malis  gaudeant  dtque  ex  incommodis 

Jl'lterius  sua  ut  comparent  commoda  ?  ah 

1'dne  1st  verum  1  immo  id  est  ge'nus hominum pessumum,  in 

Dcnegando  modo  quis  pudor  paulum  adest, 

Post,  ubi  tempu*  promissa  jam  pcrfici, 

Turn  coacti  necessdrio  se  a'pcriunt. 

An  iambic  verse  forms  the  conclusion  (clausula), 
nil  opust  |  ibi  vercntur. 

[§  851.]  14.  The  Bacchius  ^££is  frequently  used  by 
the  Roman  comic  poets  in  systems  and  in  verses.  It 
admits  the  resolution  of  either  arsis  ;  the  latter,  however, 
not  at  the  end  of  the  verse,  because  the  syllable  is  doubt- 
ful. The  close  of  such  verses  is  iambic  or  anapaestic  j 
e.  g.,  Terence,  Jlndr.,  iii.,  2, 

Mkuc,  Archylis,  quae  adsolent  quaeque  oportet 
Signa  esse  ad  saliitem,  omnia  huic  esse  video. 
Nunc  primum  fac  istaec  lavet,  post  detnde 
Quodjussi  ei  dari  bibere^  et  quantum  imperdvi 
Date :  mox  ego  hue  revertor. 

In  the  second  verse,  in  the  foot  se  video,  the  first  arsis 
is  resolved  into  two  shorts,  vide  ;  in  the  fourth  verse,  in 
the  foot  dari  bibe,  the  second  arsis  is  resolved.  The  ictus, 
as  it  cannot  be  laid  upon  both  syllables,  is  placed  upon 
the  first  of  the  two  shorts.  The  Jlntibacchius  does  not 
form  any  verse. 

[§  852.]  15.  The  most  common  kind  of  verse  of  the 
Ionic  species  a  majori  (/_  /_  ^  J)  is  the  tetrameter  brachy- 
catalectus,  also  called  Sotadeus,  the  poet  Sotades  having 
written  his  poems  in  this  metre.  Its  original  measure  is 
this: 

/  /         I  /  /         I  /  /         I  / 


544  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

But  as  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  and  a  trochaic 
dipodia  may  be  substituted  for  an  lonicus,  it  admits  a 
great  variety  of  forms,  and  belongs  altogether  to  the  most 
difficult  metres.  Terentianus  Maurus  employs  it  in  his 
poem  on  the  letters,  and  generally  uses  the  trochaic  di- 
podia instead  of  the  third  lonicus  a  majori.  We  take 
the  beginning  of  his  poem  as  an  example,  and  divide  the 
metres  : 

Elemcnta  ru\des  quae  pue\ros  doccnt  ma\gistri 
Vocalia  \  quaedam  memo\rant,  consona  \  quaedam, 
Haec  redder e  \  vocem  quoni\dm  vdlent  se\orsa, 
Nullumque  si\ne  illis  potis  \  est  coirc  \  verbum. 

[§  853.]  16.  The  lonicus  a  minori  was  much  used  by 
the  yEolic  lyrists  (Sappho,  Alcaeus,  Alcman).  In  Horace, 
Carm.,  iii.,  12,  we  find,  in  imitation  of  Alcaeus,  a  system 
of  ten  feet,  of  pure  measure  throughout,  and  without 
hiatus.  The  division,  according  to  which  twice  four  feet 
are  combined  and  closed  by  a  shorter  verse  of  two  feet, 
is  arbitrary. 

Miserarum  est^  \  neque  amdri  \  dare  ludum  \  neque  dulci 
Mala  vino  \  lavere,  aiit  ex\animdri  \  metuentes 
Patruae  verbera  linguae. 

[§  854.]  17.  The  so-called  Anacreontic  verse  consists 
originally  of  two  lonici  a  minori, 

—  —         —  _ 

If,  however,  we  consider  the  first  two  short  syllables  as 
an  anacrusis,  and  combine  with  this  the  change  of  the 
lonicus  a  minori  into  a  trochaic  dipodia,  we  obtain  the 
following  measure  : 


or  — 


\_/  w  w  — 

And  these  are  the  different  forms  of  the  small  Anac- 
reontic poems,  most  of  which  were  composed  at  a  very 
late  period,  after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  lyric  poet. 
The  Romans  did  not  use  this  verse,  unless  we  considei 
the  dimeter  iambicus  catalecticus,  mentioned  in  §  838,  to 
be  a  specimen.  It  is,  however,  the  foundation  of  the 
Gall  iamb  us. 


OF    METRE.  545 

[§  855.]   The  Galliambus  adds  to  a  complete  Anacre- 
ontic verse  another,  but  incomplete  Anacreontic, 


whence,  with  the  licenses  above  mentioned,  may  be  pro- 
duced, 

—    X^/^ !  UC  '  ^    '    w  ~ 

WW  WW  WV-/ 

and  Jiis  is  the  form  which  Catullus  has  given  to  his  Gal- 
liarnbi,  the  only  complete  specimens  which  remain  in  his 
63d  poem.     The  example  in  which  Terentianus  Maurus 
has  given  instructions  respecting  this  metre  is  as  follows  : 
Sondt  hoc  subinde  metro  \  Cybeleium  nemus, 
Nomenque  Gdlliambis  \  memdrdtur  hinc  datum, 
Tremulos  quod  esse  Gallis  \  hdbiles  putdnt  modos, 
Jldeo  lit  frequenter  ilium  \  prdpe  db  ultimo  pedem, 
Mage  quo  sonus  vibretur,  \  studednt  dare'  tribrdchyn. 
Catullus   accordingly  has   generally  resolved  the  last 
arsis  before  the  catalexis  into  two  short  syllables.     The 
beginning  of  his  poem  is  this  : 

Super  dltd  vectus  Jltys  \  celeri  rate'  mdria 
Phrygtum  nemus  citato  \  ciipide  pede'  tetigit. 
[§  856.]  18.  The  Choriambus  £^,^£  admits  only  the 
resolution  of  the  first  arsis  into  two  shorts,  very  seldom 
the  contraction  of  the  middle  short  syllables  into  one  long. 
Only  the  dramatic  poets  have  placed  the  iambic  dipodia, 
which  is  of  the  same  measure,  in  the  place  of  the  chori- 
ambus ;  yet  always  after  another  choriambus,  the  second 
arsis  of  which,  followed  by  an  iambic  thesis,  preserves 
the  unity  of  the  rhythm.  The  lyric  poets,  when  they 
made  use  of  the  choriambus  in  verse,  always  preserved  it 
pure. 

[§  857.]  19.  As,  however,  the  ancient  poets  did  not 
compose  verses  entirely  of  the  choriambic  foot,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  impetuous  movement,  but  prefixed  or  sub- 
joined to  it  feet  of  a  different  rhythm,  we  are  naturally 
led  to  speak  of  compound  verses.  A  compound  verse  is 
one  in  which  series  of  different  rhythms  are  combined. 
This  combination  may  be  so  accomplished,  that  either  the 
alternation  of  arsis  and  thesis  is  not  interrupted,  or  two  of 
each  may  come  together.  The  first  species,  in  which  the 
rhythmical  connexion  is  preserved,  and  only  a  different 
proportion  of  the  arsis  and  thesis  takes  place,  is  by  far 


546  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

the  most  common.  The  second,  in  which  the  transition 
from  thesis  to  thesis,  or  from  arsis  to  arsis,  takes  place,  is 
in  itself  unrhythmical  ;  but  a  poet  may  sometimes,  never- 
theless, desire  to  produce  such  an  effect. 

[§  858.]  20.  The  simplest  species  of  composition  is  seen 
in  the  logaoedic  verses,  where,  in  order  to  produce  a  sim- 
ple prosaic  close,  the  verse  descends  from  the  trisyllabic 
feet  ^  w  w  and  ^  w  £  to  the  dissyllabic  ^  w  and  ^  w.  This 
name  is  generally  given  only  to  dactylic  verses  ending 
in  trochees  ;  but  the  same  relation  exists  in  anapaests. 
Such  a  logaoedic  verse  is  that  which  closes  the  Alcaic 
stanza, 

£w^Wv£w-0 

JVecte  meo  Lamiae  coronam.     Horat. 

As  the  trochee  in  this  verse  serves  to  moderate  the  lively 
rhythm,  so  a  trochee  is  very  often  used  before  a  dactylic 
series  as  a  sort  of  introduction.  Hence  it  is  now  com- 
monly called  a  Base.  As  it  supplies  the  place  of  a  series, 
the  final  syllable  is  doubtful  ;  i.  e.,  a  spondee  may  some- 
times stand  as  base  instead  of  the  trochee  ;  nay,  occasion- 
ally this  spondee  is  even  resolved  into  a  trisyllabic  foot. 

[§  859.]  21.  Logaoedic  dactylic  verses  with  their  base 
are  called  by  the  general  name  of  Jleolic  verses,  from  the 
lyric  poets  of  that  nation,  who  invented  or  used  them. 
Some  kinds  have,  also,  special  names. 

The  Pherecratean  verse, 

^ioUw^B 

in  which  the  dactyl  is  very  seldom  contracted. 

The  Glyconian  verse  is  lengthened  half  a  foot  ;  and 
has,  in  Horace,  always  a  spondee  as  its  base, 


Note.  —  The  unconnected  juxtaposition  of  the  Glyconian  and  Pherecra- 
tean verses  produces  the  Priapean  verse  (which  is  consequently  a  versus 
asynartetus)  ;  e.  g.,  Catull.,  xviii., 

Hunc  lucum  tibi  dedico  \  consecroque,  Priape, 

Qua  domus  tua  Lampsaci  est,  \  quaque  silva,  Priape, 

Nam  te  praecipue  in  suis  \  urbibus  colit  ora 

Hellespontia,  caeteris  \  ostreosior  oris. 

[§  860.]  The  Phalaecian  verse  consists  of  a  dactyl  and 
three  trochees, 

x  -  I  '         /      '     '  _ 

—  \y  \  —  \-<  w  —  w  —  ^  —  \j 

This  verse  has  eleven  syllables,  and  is  therefore  called 
Hendecasyllabus,  and  under  this  name  it  has  often  been 


OF    METRE.  547 

used  by  the  Latin  poets,  especially  Catullus  and  Martial, 
in  smaller  poems  ;  e.  g.,  Catull.,  iii.  : 

Lugete,  O'  Veneres  Cupidinesque 
E't  quantum  est  hominiim  venustiorum  : 
Passer  mortuus  est  meae  puellae, 
Passer,  deliciae  meae  puellae, 
Quern  plus  ilia  oculis  suis  amabat. 
Nam  mellitus  erdt,  sudmque  norat 
I'psa  tarn  bene  qudm  puella  mdtrem, 
Nee  sese  a  gremio  illius  movebat, 
Sed  circumsiliens  modo  hue  modo  illuc 
A'd  soldm  dominam  usque  pipilabat. 
Qui  nunc  it  per  iter  tenebricosum, 
I'lluc,  unde  negdnt  redire  quemquam. 
A't  vobis  male  sit,  malae  tendbrae 
O'rci,  quae  omnia  be'lla  devordtis, 
Tdm  bellum  mihi  passer  em  abstulistis  ! 
O'  factum  male  !     O'  miselle  passer  ! 
Cuja  nunc  opera  meae  puellae 
Flendo  turgiduli  rubent  ocelli. 

The  base,  as  we  here  see,  is  commonly  a  spondee,  and 
Catullus  is  the  only  one  among  the  Latin  poets  who  has 
allowed  himself  greater  license,  and  occasionally  uses 
the  original  trochee. 

[§  861.]  22.  As  the  dactyls  in  the  logaoedic  verse  finish 
with  trochees,  so  choriambi  must  be  resolved  at  the  close 
into  iambi,  because  in  the  choriambus  the  arsis  closes, 
and,  according  to  the  most  common  mode  of  composition, 
a  thesis  should  be  subjoined  to  it.  In  this  way  we  find 
in  the  Roman  poets  (especially  in  Horace)  a  choriambus 
with  an  incomplete  iambic  dipodia. 


Sanguine  viperino. 

Commonly,  however,  the  choriambus  has  abase  prefixed, 
and  thus  we  find  in  Horace  two  or  three  choriambi  closing 
with  one  iambus. 

This  poet  makes  his  metre  still  more  difficult  by  using 
only  the  spondee  as  a  base,  and  by  making  an  incision 
after  every  choriambus  except  the  last.     Such  verses  are 
called  Jlsclepiadei,  and  are  either  short  ;  as, 
Maecenas  atavis  \  edite  regibus 
0  et  praesidium  et  \  dulce  decus  meum  ! 
or  longer,  as 

Nullam,  Fare,  sacra  \  vile  prius  \  severis  arborem 
Circa  mite  solum  \  Tiburis  et  \  moenia  Catili. 
Siccis  omnia  nam  \  dura  deus  \  proposuit  :  neque 
Mordaccs  aliter  \  diffugiunt  \  sollicitudines. 


548  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

[§  862.]  23.  In  the  species  of  compound  verse  hitherto 
mentioned  the  base  may  be  regarded  as  the  smallest 
trochaic  series,  from  which  a  transition  is  made  to  another 
rhythm.  In  other  verses,  however,  we  find  a  more  com- 
plete trochaic  series  ;  in  Horace,  Carm.,  i.,  8,  before  a 
choriambic  verse  of  two  choriambi  with  an  iambic  close. 
The  poet  has  imposed  on  himself  the  restraint  of  using 
the  spondee  throughout  instead  of  the  second  trochee. 

_  w--    |    ^Hww^ww^w^O 

The  caesura  after  the  arsis  of  the  first  choriambus  is  re- 
markable, and  cannot  be  considered  appropriate.  In  the 
poem  referred  to,  this  verse  is  combined  with  a  shorter 
choriambic  of  the  kind  mentioned  above. 

Lydia  die,  per  omnes 

Te  dcos  o?'d,  |  Sybarin  cur  properas  amdndo. 
The  same  trochaic  dipodia  before  a  logaoedic  dactylic 
series  produces  the  hendecasyllabic  Sapphic  verse, 
X        X   _  X  X         /_ 

—     w  —     v^    —      ww     —       w  —  ^ 

Persicos  odi  puer  apparatus. 

The  transition  from  iambi  to  dactyls  may  take  place,  if 
the  rhythmical  connexion  is  to  be  regarded,  only  by  the 
iambic  series  being  catalectic.  And  this  is  the  case  in 
the  hendecasyllabic  Jllcaic  verse, 

*£„£*£    w±    v~ 

Frui  paratis  et  valido  mihi. 

[§  863.]  Note. — We  may  here  mention  the  Saturnian  verse,  an  old  Roman 
measure,  which  in  later  times  was  rarely  used.  It  consists  of  a  dimeter 
iambicus  catalecticus,  to  the  thesis  of  which  three  trochees  are  added. 
The  early  Roman  poets,  however,  allowed  themselves  many  licenses  in 
the  use  of  this  measure,  and  it  is  difficult  to  reduce  the  fragments  which 
are  here  and  there  quoted,  to  the  proper  measure.  We  shall  therefore 
quote  the  regular  Saturnian  verses,  which  Terentianus  Maurus  composed 
upon  it  as  a  model : 

ut,  si  vocet  Camoenas  \  quis  novem  sorores 
Et  Naevio  poetae  \  sicferunt  Metellos 
quit/m  saepe  laederentur  \  esse  comtninatos  : 
dabunt  malum  Metelli  \  Naevio  poetae. 
Dabunt  malum  Metelli  \  clauda  pars  dimetri, 
post  Naevio  poetae  :  \  tres  vidcs  trochaeos, 
nam  nil  obest  trochaeo,  \  longa  quod  suprema  ast. 

[§  864.]  24.  This  may  be  sufficient  for  the  compound 
verses  which  are  used  by  the  Latin  lyric  poets.  A  poem 
may  consist  of  a  succession  of  verses  of  the  same  kind,  as 
is  usually  the  case  with  simple  verses,  and  the  choriambic 
among  compound  ;  or  verses  of  different  measure  and 


OF    METRE.  549 

rhythm  are  combined  into  a  rhythmical  whole,  called  a 
strophe,  the  single  verses  remaining-  separate  (which  is 
chiefly  indicated  by  the  doubtful  syllable).  In  the  com- 
bination of  different  verses  into  a  strophe,  the  poet  is 
guided  by  his  feeling,  and  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate 
all  the  varieties  of  the  strophe  that  maybe  made.  Horace 
(whom  we  have  here  chiefly  to  attend  to),  without  having 
any  Grecian  model  (as  it  appears),  formed  short  strophes, 
either  of  choriambic  verses  alone,  or  of  choriambic  and 
Aeolic  verses,  of  which  we  spoke  above.  It  will  not  be 
found  difficult  to  resolve  these  strophes  into  their  ele- 
ments. Of  the  more  artificial  Greek  strophes  we  find 
in  this  poet  the  Sapphic  and  the  Alcaic.  In  both  he  has 
introduced  some  changes,  according  to  his  own  views. 

[§  865.]  The  Sapphic  strophe  consists  of  a  Sapphic 
hendecasyllabic  verse  thrice  repeated,  and  closed  with 
an  Adonic  (see  §  847).  Horace,  instead  of  the  syllaba 
anceps  at  the  end  of  the  trochaic  dipodia,  uses  only  a 
spondee,  and  introduces  a  caesura  after  the  fifth  syllable, 
but  exchanged  it  sometimes  for  a  trochaic  caesura  after 
the  sixth  syllable.  In  some  of  his  poems  (especially 
Carm.,  iv.,  2)  he  allows  himself  the  use  of  versus  hyper- 
metri  ;  i.  e.,  verses  which  with  their  final  syllable  extend 
by  elision  into  the  following  verse  ;  rarely,  however,  and 
chiefly  with  enclitics.  Sometimes  he  unites  in  a  singular 
manner  the  Adonic  verse  with  the  preceding  hendecasyl- 
labic ;  e.  g.,  Carm.,  i.,  2,  19, 

labitur  ripa  Jove  non  probante  u- 
xorius  amnis, 

so  that  it  might  seem  as  if  he  regarded  them  both  as  one. 
The  hiatus,  however,  is  also  found,  and  m  is  not  elided 
when  the  following  verse  begins  with  a  vowel.  The 
former  practice,  therefore,  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a 
license  which  Horace  assumed  after  the  example  of  Sap- 
pho. But  in  point  of  rhythm  the  verses  are  indeed  so 
connected  together  that  no  chasm  exists  anywhere,  but 
the  thesis  is  always  succeeded  by  the  arsis.* 


*  [Compare,  however,  the  article  Arsis  in  the  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  an 
also  Key's  Rnjoindrr  to  Donaldson,  p.  12.]  —  Am.  Ed. 


550  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

X  XXX 


X  ^  ^  X  _ 

Integer  vitae  scelerisque  purus 
Non  eget  J\fawis  jaculis  neque  arcu 
JVec  venenatis  gravida  sagittis, 
Fusee,  pharetra. 

[§  866.  J  The  Jllcaic  strophe  consists  of  the  Alcaic  hende- 
casyllabic  verse  twice  repeated,  a  dimeter  iambic  hyper- 
catalectic,  and  a  logaoedic  of  two  dactyls  and  two  tro- 
chees. 

The  Greek  metre  is  the  following : 


x 
_  x 


Horace  strengthens  the  first  three  verses  by  spondees, 
making  it  his  rule  to  use  the  long  syllable  in  all  the  places 
in  which,  by  the  above  scheme,  it  is  allowed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  syllaba  anceps  at  the  end  of  the  verse, 
which  remains  anceps.  The  metre,  therefore,  according 
to  the  usage  of  Horace,  is  commonly  given  thus : 

x 


_  X 

X  X 


It  is,  however,  useful  to  keep  the  original  Greek  measure 
in  view,  because  the  Roman  poet  sometimes  deviates 
from  his  own  rule,  just  because  it  is  arbitrary,  using  an 
iambus  instead  of  the  spondee  at  the  beginning  of  the  first 
three  verses.  (In  the  first  verse  of  the  strophe,  i.,  9,  1 ; 
31,  9  ;  35,  37  ;  ii.,  9,  5  ;  in  the  second,  i.,  37,  22  ;  ii.,  1,  6  ; 
14,  6  ;  19,  22  ;  iii.,  1,2;  1,  26  ;  3,  34  ;  5,  22  ;  in  the  third, 
i.,  35,  15  ;  37, 15  ;  ii.,  3,  3  ;  iii.,  29,  11  ;  but  never  in  the 
fourth  book.)  But  he  never  makes  use  of  a  short  syllable 
before  the  caesura,  according  to  Bentley's  remark  on 
Cam.,  iii.,  2,  1 ;  compare  iii.,  5,  17.  The  caesura  of  the 
Alcaic  hendecasyllabus  is  always  observed  by  Horace, 
and  is  an  excuse  for  the  hiatus  ;  Cam.,  ii.,  20,  13.  The 
caesura,  however,  is  sometimes  made  in  a  compound 
word  ;  it  very  rarely  (iv.,  14,  17,  and  i.,  37,  14)  falls  on 
an  uncompounded  word  of  more  than  two  syllables. 


THE    ROMAN    CALENDAR.  551 

Horace  is  also  careful  in  observing  the  caesurae,  and  ac- 
cordingly does  not  use  two,  or,  in  the  third  verse,  three, 
dissyllabic  words  one  after  another  at  the  beginning. 
The  hiatus  between  several  verses  is  not  unfrequent :  the 
third  and  fourth  verses  are  sometimes  united  by  elision  ; 
as,  e.  g.,  in  the  last  strophe  of  Carm.^  ii.,  3, 

Omnes  eodem  cogimur,  omnium 

Versatur  urnd  serins  ocius 
Sors  exitura  et  nos  in  aeternum 
Exilium  impositura  cymbae. 


APPENDIX  II, 

THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR. 

[§  867.]  THE  Roman  names  of  the  days  of  the  month 
are  entirely  different  from  our  own.  Without  entering 
here  upon  the  manner  in  which,  in  the  early  times,  the 
year  was  divided  and  denned,  we  shall  commence  at  once 
with  the  Julian  year  and  its  division  into  months.  Ac- 
cording to  this,  the  month  of  February  in  a  common  year 
had  twenty-eight  days ;  April,  June,  September,  and  No- 
vember thirty,  and  the  others  thirty-one  days.  The  days 
of  these  months  are  not  reckoned  in  an  uninterrupted 
series,  from  one  to  thirty  or  thirty-one,  but  are  calculated 
backward  from  three  days,  which  are  fixed  in  every  month. 
These  three  days  are  the  first,  fifth,  and  thirteenth,  which 
are  called  by  their  Roman  names,  the  Calendae,  Nonae, 
and  Idus,  of  a  month.  (The  names  of  the  months,  as 
was  remarked  in  §  38,  are  used  as  adjectives,  and  as  such 
they  are  joined  to  the  three  feminine  names  just  men- 
tioned.) In  the  Roman  system  of  counting  from  a  certain 
point,  this  point  itself  is  included  in  the  calculation. 
Thus,  e.  g.,  the  third  day  before  the  nonae,  i.  e.,  before 
the  fifth  of  the  month,  is  not  the  second  of  the  month,  but 
the  third.  Hence  we  may  give  it  as  a  practical  rule,  that 
in  calculating  the  days  of  the  month,  we  must  add  one  to 
the  number  from  which  we  deduct.  When  the  point 
from  which  we  have  to  count  backward  is  the  first  of  the 
month  (Calendae),  it  is  not  sufficient  to  add  one  to  the 
number  of  days  of  the  current  month,  but  the  Calendae 
itself  must  also  be  taken  into  the  account,  i.  e.,  the  num- 


552  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

ber  of  days  of  the  current  month  must  be  increased  by 
two  before  we  deduct  from  them.  Hence,  dies  tertius 
ante  Cat.  Julias  is  the  29th  of  June,  as  June  has  thirty 
days.  This  is  the  cause  of  the  wrhole  apparent  difficulty 
in  calculating  the  Roman  dates.  But,  besides  this,  we 
have  to  consider  another  peculiarity,  which  is  a  remnant 
of  the  ancient  arrangement  of  the  Roman  year,  ascribed  to 
King  Numa,  viz.,  in  the  months  of  March,  May,  July,  and 
October,  the  Nonae  fall  on  the  7th,  and  the  Idus  on  the 
15th,  instead  of  the  5th  and  13th.  In  leap  years  (i.  e., 
according  to  the  Roman  expression,  every  fifth  year)  Feb- 
ruary has  one  day  more,  but  this  intercalary  day  was  not 
added  at  the  end  of  the  month,  as  is  the  custom  in  modern 
times,  but  was  inserted  in  the  place  where  formerly  the 
intercalary  month  (mensis  intercalaris)  had  been  inserted 
to  make  the  lunar  year  of  King  Numa  harmonize  with  the 
solar  year,  that  is,  after  the  23d  of  February,  so  that  the 
24th  of  February,  i.  e.,  the  sixth  day  before  the  Calendae 
of  March,  was  reckoned  double,  and  was  called  bis  sextus 
or  bis  sextum,  whence  the  leap  year  itself  was  called 
annus  bis  sextus.  On  this  subject,  see  the  classical  work 
of  Ideler,  Handbuck  der  mathematischen  und  technischen 
Chronologic,  Berlin,  1825,  in  the  beginning  of  vol.  ii. 

[§  868.]  Respecting  die  grammatical  form  of  stating 
the  day  of  a  month  the  following  points  must  be  observed. 
The  ablative  indicates  the  time  when  a  thing  occurs ; 
hence  we  say,  e.  g.,  die  tertio  ante  Calendas  Martias,  but 
die  and  ante  may  be  omitted,  and  we  may  say  tertio  Cal- 
endas, or  in  figures  Hi.  Cal.  Cicero  and  Livy,  however, 
use  a  different  form,  either  exclusively,  or,  at  least,  much 
more  commonly  than  others  ;  e.  g.,  ante  diem  tertium  Cal- 
endas, or  Nonas,  Idus  (abridged  a.  d.  Hi.  Cal.).  This 
peculiarity,  instead  of  the  correct  die  tertio  ante  Calendas, 
cannot  be  explained  otherwise  than  by  the  supposition 
that  ante  changed  its  place,  and  that  afterward  the  ablat. 
was  changed  into  the  accusat.,  as  if  it  were  dependent  on 
ante,  while  the  real  accusat.  Calendas  remained  unchan- 
ged. Pridie,  the  day  before,  and  postridie,  the  day  after, 
are  either  joined  with  the  genitive  ;  as,  pridie  ejus  diei,  or, 
in  the  case  of  established  calendar  names  and  festivals, 
with  the  accusative,  to  which  people  were  more  accus- 
tomed ;  as,  pridie  Idus,  pridie  Compitctlia,  pridie  natalem, 
postridie  ludos  J/polfinares. 


THE    ROMAN    CALENDAR. 


553 


[§  869.]  This  expression  ante  diem  must  be  considered 
as  an  indeclinable  substantive,  since  we  often  find  it  pre- 
ceded by  prepositions  which  govern  the  accusat.  or  ablat. ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.,  3,  dixi  ego  idem  in  Senatu,  caedem 
te  optimatum  contulisse  in  ante  diem  V.  Cal.  Novembris  (or 
Novembres,  is  being  probably  only  the  ancient  termina- 
tion of  the  accusat.,  instead  of  esj  ;  Liv.,  xliii.,  16,  in 
ante  dies  octavum  et  septimum  Calendas  Octobres  comitiis 
dicta  dies ;  xlv.,  2,  supplicatio  indicia  est  ex  ante  diem  quin- 
tum  Idus  Octobres,  cum  eo  die  in  quinque  dies  j  and  in  the 
same  manner  postridie,  e.  g.,  Cic.,  ad  Jltt.,  ii.,  11,  nos  in 
Formiano  esse  volumus  usque  ad  pridie  Nonas  J\faias. 

[§  870.]  In  order  to  facilitate  the  calculation  of  a  date 
in  the  ancient  calendar  (such  as  it  was  established  by  C. 
Julius  Caesar,  in  B.C.  45),  we  have  annexed  Broder's 
table,  in  which  the  beginner  may  easily  .find  his  way. 


Our  Days 
of  the 
Month. 

March,  May, 
July, 
and  October 
have  31  Days. 

Jan.,  Aug.,  Decemb., 
have  31  Days. 

April,  June,  Septemb. 
and 
Novemb.  have 
30  Days. 

Febr.  has  28  Days, 
in  Leap  Years  2d. 

1. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

Calendis. 

2. 

VM 

IV.  )     ante 

IV.  )    ante 

IV.  )    ante 

3. 

V.    I    ante 

III.  (  Nonas 

III.  (  Nonas 

III.  f  Nonas 

4. 

V.  (  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

Pridie  Nonas 

5. 

II.  J 

Nonis. 

Nonis. 

Nonis. 

6. 

Bridie  Nonas 

VIII.  ^ 

VIII.  ^ 

VIII.  ^ 

7. 

Nonis. 

VII.    | 

VII. 

VII. 

8. 

VIII.  ^ 

VI.      (ante 

VI.     (ante 

VI.     (ante 

9. 

VII. 

V.       (Idus 

V.       fldus 

V.       fldus 

10. 

VI.     (ante 

IV. 

IV. 

IV. 

11. 

V.       flclus 

in.   ) 

III.    j 

III.    j 

12. 

IV. 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

Pridie  Idus 

13. 

III.     J 

Idibus. 

Idibus. 

Idibus. 

14. 

Pridie  Idus 

XIX.    ^ 

XVIII.  >| 

XVI.  ^ 

15. 

Idibus. 

XVIII. 

XVII. 

j3 

XV. 

16. 

XVII.'v 

XVII. 

£ 

XVI. 

I 

XIV. 

B 

17. 

XVI.      A 

XVI. 

§ 

XV. 

g 

XIII. 

•a 

18. 

XV.        g 

XV. 

a 

XIV. 

2 

XIL 

08 

19. 

XIV.       1 

XIV. 

CD 

XIII. 

r^3         . 

XI. 

S 

20. 

XIII.       o> 

XIII. 

•5^ 

XII. 

«4-I   "SlO 

O   G 

X. 

K) 

S3 

21. 

XIL      --S? 

XII. 

^_   t>0 

^   B 

XI. 

^~^  ^ 

IX. 

^"O 

22. 

XI.         -3  g> 

XI. 

V-^"£ 

X. 

r  a  _o 

VIII. 

_ 

23. 

x.    >r* 

X. 

8,2 

IX. 

1=5  ~0 
S  S-t 

VII. 

6 

24. 

IX.         J.2 

IX. 

13 

VIII. 

~3 

VI. 

.2 

25. 

VIII.       g  a 

VIII. 

IQJ 
15 

VII. 

O 

V. 

c 

26- 

vn.      $~ 

VII. 

O 

VI. 

0) 

IV. 

cc 

27. 

VI.          0 

VI. 

<D 

V. 

1 

III.    , 

28. 

V.            » 

V. 

1 

IV. 

Pridie  Calendas 

29. 

iv.       g 

IV. 

III.     J 

Martias. 

30. 

in.    ; 

III. 

) 

Prid.  Calend. 

31. 

Prid.  Calend 

Prid.  Calend. 

(of  the  month 

(of  the  month 
following). 

(of  the  month 
following.) 

following). 

A  A  A 


554  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


APPENDIX  III. 


ROMAN  WEIGHTS,  COINS,  AND  MEASURES. 

[§  871.]  1.  THE  Roman  pound  ( libra,  pondoj  is  about 
|  of  the  Paris  pound,  that  is,  11  ounces  and  1^  drachm. 
(According  to  Rome  de  1'Isle,  it  contained  6048  Paris 
grains;  according  to  Cagnazzi,  6135;  according  to  Le- 
tronne,  6154;  according  to  Paucker  andBockh,6165,  9216 
of  which  make  a  Paris  pound.)  It  is  divided  into  12 
parts  (unciaej,  and  these  twelve  parts  together  are  called 
an  as.  The  names  of  the  fractions  are  :  TL  is  uncia  (about 
an  ounce  in  weight) ;  T^  sextans,  that  is,  £  ;  T32-  quadrans, 
that  is,  i ;  T\  triens,  that  is,  i ;  ~  quincunx  $  ~  semis  or 
semissiSj  i.  e.,  half  an  as  ;  ^  septunx  ;  T^  bes  or  bessis, 
i.  e.,  two  parts  out  of  three,  or  f ;  T9¥  dodrans,  compounded 
from  dequadrans,  i.  e.,  | ;  }-|  dextans  or  decunx  ;  |i  deunx, 
i.  e.,  one  ounce  less,  scil.  than  an  as.  These  names  are 
also  applied  to  other  relations ;  thus  we  say,  e.  g.,  he 
was  instituted  heir  ex  dodrante  ;  i.  e.,  he  received  T\ ;  ex 
deunce,  he  received  11  of  the  whole  property.  An  uncia 
contains  2  semiunciae,  3  duellae,  4<  sicilici,  6  sextulae,  24 
scrupula  or  scripula.  One  ounce  and  a  half  is  sescuncia 
(from  sesquiunciaj.  Compounds  of  as  are  tressis,  3  ases  ; 
octussis,  8  ases ;  decussis,  10  ases ;  centussis,  100  ases. 

[§  872.]  2.  The  most  ancient  Roman  money  was  of 
copper,  and  the  as,  as  a  coin,  was  originally  a  pound  of 
copper  coined.  At  the  time  when  the  Romans  com- 
menced to  coin  silver  (some  years  before  the  first  Punic 
war),  the  copper  as  was  reduced,  at  first  to  |,  afterward 
to  y1^,  and  at  last  to  J¥  of  the  original  weight,  so  that  the 
coin  which  had  originally  weighed  a  pound  of  copper, 
was  afterward  only  half  an  ounce  in  weight. 

Silver  coins  were  the  denarius,  originally  equal  to  10 
ases,  and  subsequently,  after  the  reduction  of  the  as  to  y1^, 
equal  to  16  ases.  Haifa  denarius  was  called  quinarius  ; 
{-  of  a  denarius  sestertius,  that  is,  originally  2  ases  and  a 
half  (hence  it  is  written  HS  ;  i.  e.,  2^) ;  but  when  the  de- 
narius had  become  equal  to  16  ases,  it  was  worth  4  ases. 
Silver  coins  of  still  smaller  value  were  the  libella,  =  jl-a 


ROMAN    WEIGHTS,    COINS,    AND    MEASURES.          555 

of  a  denarius ;  the  sembella,  —  J^  of  a  denarius  ;  terun- 
cius,  —  f\  of  a  denarius,  3  unciae  of  the  ancient,  and  4 
unciae  of  the  reduced  copper  money.  A  denarius  weighed 
a  little  more  or  less  than  73  Paris  grains,  but  was  gradu- 
ally reduced,  under  the  first  emperors,  to  63  grains ; 
hence  the  Roman  pound  in  the  times  of  the  Republic  con- 
tained about  84  denarii  (which,  according  to  Plin.,  Hist. 
Nat.,  xxxiii.,  46,  was  the  legal  amount),  and  in  the  reign 
of  Domitian  from  96  >to  100. 

Gold  was  coined  in  various  ways  :  an  aureus  in  the 
times  of  the  emperors  was  equal  to  25  denarii  or  100 
sestertii  ;  consequently,  1000  HS  are  equal  to  10  aurei, 
100,000  HS  to  1000  aurei,  and  decies  HS  to  10,000  aurei. 
The  Emperor  Honorius  made  25  pounds  of  copper  coin 
equal  to  one  solidus  (aureus),  that  is,  a  pound  of  copper 
equal  to  a  silver  denarius. 

[§  873.]  3.  The  Romans  generally  calculated  according 
to  sestertii,  and  a  nummus  is  simply  a  sestertius.  Instead 
of  mille  sestertii,  we  may  say,  with  equal  correctness,  mille 
sestertium  (genit.  plur.),  just  as  we  commonly  say  mille 
passuum.  A  million,  as  was  remarked  in  §  115,  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  form  of  multiplication  :  decies  centena  milia 
sestertium,  or  more  commonly  by  decies  alone,  centena 
milia  being  omitted  ;  centies,  therefore,  is  10  millions,  and 
millies  100  millions.  As  people  were  thus  accustomed  to 
hear  the  word  sestertium  in  connexion  with  mille,  they 
came  by  a  kind  of  grammatical  blunder  to  consider  ses- 
tertium as  a  substantive  of  the  neuter  "gender,  and  hence 
they  said  unum  sestertium,  septem  sestertia,  bis  dena  sester- 
tia,  sexcenta  sestertia,  &c.,  instead  of  unum  mille  sestertium, 
septem  milia  sestertium,  &c.  In  Cicero  it  does  not  often 
occur,  but  is  yet  found  in  some  passages,  as  in  Verr.,  iii., 
50 ;  Parad.,  6,3;  but  in  the  writers  of  the  silver  age  it 
is  quite  common. 

Decies  sestertium,  a  million  of  sestertii,  centies  sestertium, 
&c.,  is  used  as  a  singulare  tantum  of  the  neuter  gender ; 
e.  g.,  Cic.,  in  Verr.,  ii.,  7,  HS  decies  numeratum  esse ;  Phil- 
ip., ii.,  16,  amplius  HS  ducenties  acceptum  hereditatibus  ret- 
tuli.  But  the  mistake  was  carried  still  farther  by  de- 
clining this  expression  ;  e.  g.,  Liv.,  xlv.,  4,  argenti  ad  sum- 
mam  sestertii  decies  in  aerarium  rettulit,  up  to  the  sum  of 
one  million  sestertii ;  Cic.,  Philip.,  ii.,  37,  syngrapha  ses- 
tertii centies,  a  bill  often  millions  of  sestertii ;  Tacit.,  Jinn., 


556  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

xii.,  58,  Bononiensi  coloniae,  igni  haustae,  subventum  cen- 
ties  sestertii  largitione,  by  a  present  of  ten  millions  of  ses- 
tertii ;  Sueton.,  Caes.,  50,  Serviliae  sexagies  sestertio  mar- 
garitam  mercatus  est,  he  bought  her  a  pearl  for  six  mill- 
ions of  sestertii;  Sueton.,  Octav.,  41,  Senatorum  censum 
duodecies  sestertio  taxavit,  he  fixed  the  senatorial  census  at 
1,200,000  sestertii;  Cic., p.  Font.  (Niebuhr,  Fragm.),  §  4, 
Testis  non  invenitur  in  ducentis  et  tricies  sestertio  ;  ad  Jltt., 
iv.,  2,  superficiem  aedium  aestimarunt  HS  (sestertio)  decies. 

[§  874.]  4.  With  regard  to  Greek  weights  and  money, 
we  can  here  add  only  a  few  remarks.  An  Attic  talent 
(tahntum)  is  equal  to  80  Roman  pounds ;  a  mina  (fivd)  is 
the  sixtieth  part  of  it ;  i.  e.,  equal  to  li  Roman  pound  ; 
and  100  drachmae  make  one  mina.  Consequently,  a  talent 
has  60  minae  or  6000  drachmae.  The  same  names  and 
proportions  occur  in  the  Greek  coins.  The  most  common 
silver  coin,  which  forms  the  unit  in  calculations,  is  the 
drachma  (which  is  worth  6  obolij.  It  varies  very  much  in 
weight,  according  to  the  different  places  and  times,  but  in 
general  it  is  considered  equal  to  the  Roman  denarius. 
The  Attic  drachma,  however,  is  somewhat  better  than  the 
Roman  denarius.  (See  Bockh,  The  Public  Econom.  of 
Athens,  chap,  iv.,  2d  edit.,  Engl.  transl.)  When  compared 
with  Roman  money,  a  mina  is  equal  to  4  aurei,  and  a 
talent  to  240  aurei,  or  to  24,000  sestertii. 

[§  875.]  5.  The  basis  of  Roman  measures  is  the  foot, 
pes,  which,  according  to  the  most  accurate  calculations  of 
modern  scholars,  contained  131  Paris  lines,  144  of  which 
make  a  Paris  foot.  The  Roman  foot  is  divided  either, 
according  to  the  general  fractional  system,  into  12  unciae, 
or  into  16  digiti  (ddnrvhoi).  Smaller  measures  are  : 
semipes,  %  foot ;  palmus,  i  foot,  or  4  digiti,  i.  e.,  the  breadth 
of  a  hand  (nahaiarf)),  but  in  later  times,  and  even  down 
to  the  present  day  in  Italy,  the  name  palmus  is  transferred 
to  the  length  of  a  span,  and  is  equal  to  £  of  a  foot.  Greater 
measures  are  :  palmipes,  a  foot  and  a  palmus,  i.  e.,  1£ 
foot ;  cubitus  (TTT^VC),  l£  foot ;  passus,  a  pace,  or  5  feet  ; 
actus,  120  feet,  or  12  decempedae.  The  Greek  stadium 
has  600  Greek  and  625  Roman  feet ;  40  stadia  are  some- 
what more  than  a  geographical  mile.  On  the  Roman 
roads  milestones  were  erected  at  intervals  of  1000  pas- 
sus, and  such  a  Roman  mile  of  5000  feet  contains  8 
stadia,  amounting  to  very  little  more  than  A  of  a  geo- 


ABBREVIATIONS    OF    WORDS.  557 

graphical  mile,  whereas  a  modern  Italian  mile  is  ^  of  a 
geographical  one.  A  Gallic  leuca  is  l£  Roman  mile. 
From  leuca  the  French  lieue  is  formed,  but  the  Franks 
assigned  to  it  the  length  of  3  Roman  miles. 

[§  876.]  A  jugerum  is  a  square  measure  of  240  feet  in 
length,  and  120  in  breadth,  that  is,  28,800  Roman  square 
feet. 

Roman  cubic  measures  for  fluids  are  :  the  amphora  or 
quadrantal,  i.  e.,  a  Roman  cubic*foot ;  it  contains  2  urnae, 
8  congii,  48  sextarii,  96  heminae,  192  quartarii,  and  576 
cyathi.  There  is  only  one  larger  measure,  viz.,  the  culeus, 
containing  20  amphorae.  Greek  cubic  measures  are  : 
the  metretes  or  cadus,  equal  to  1^  amphora  j  it  is  divided 
into  12  %o£c,  and  144  norvkai,  so  that  one  KOTV^TJ  is  half 
a  sextarius.  An  amphora  of  water  or  wine  is  said  to 
weigh  80  Roman  pounds,  and,  consequently,  a  congius 
would  weigh  10,  and  a  sextarius  1|-.  As  the  sextarius, 
being  the  most  common  measure,  contains  12  cyathi,  these 
twelfths  are  denominated,  like  the  12  unciae  of  an  as,  ac- 
cording to  the  common  fractional  system ;  e.  g.,  sextans, 
quadrans,  triens  vini,  for  •£-,  i,  i  of  a  sextarius. 

Dry  substances  were  chiefly  measured  by  the  modius, 
which  is  the  third  of  an  amphora,  and,  accordingly,  contains 
16  sextarii  :  6  modii  make  a  Greek  medimnus.  Respect- 
ing this  whole  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  excel- 
lent work  of  Joh.  Fr.  Wurm,  De  Ponderum,  Nummorum, 
J\fensurarum  ac  de  JLnni  ordinandi  Rationibus  apud  Ro- 
manos  et  Graecos,  Stuttgardiae,  1821,  8vo. 


APPENDIX  IV. 


NOTAE  SIVE  COMPENDIA  SCRIPTURAE  ;  OR  ABBREVI- 
ATIONS OF  WORDS. 

[§  877.]  MANY  words  and  terminations  of  frequent  oc- 
currence are  abridged  in  ancient  MSS.,  as  well  as  in  books 
printed  at  an  early  time ;  e.  g.,  atque  is  written  atq3,  per 
p ;  the  termination  us  is  indicated  by  9,  as  in  quib9,  non 
by  n,  and  m  and  n  are  frequently  indicated  by  a  hori- 
zontal line  over  the  preceding  vowel.  Such  abbrevia- 
tions are  no  longer  used  in  books,  and  whoever  finds  them 
A  A  A  2 


558 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


in  MSS.  or  early  prints,  may  easily  discover  their  mean- 
ing with  the  assistance  of  a  modern  text.  Praenomina, 
however,  and  certain  political  words,  i.  e.,  names  of  of- 
fices and  dignities,  are  still  abridged  in  modern  editions. 
We  shall  subjoin  a  list  of  those  which  occur  most  fre- 
quently, for  the  assistance  of  beginners. 


1.  Praenomina. 


A.     Aulus. 
Ap.     Appius. 

C.  or  G.     Gaius. 
Cn.  or  Gn.     Gnaeus. 

D.  Decimus. 
K.     Kaeso. 
L.     Lucius. 
M.     Marcus. 
M'.     Manius. 


Mam.     Mamercus. 

N.     Numerius. 

P.     Publius. 

Q.  or  Qu.     Quintus. 

S.  or  Sex.     Sextus. 

Ser.     Servius. 

Sp.     Spurius. 

T.     Titus. 

Ti.  or  Tib.     Tiberius. 


2.  Constitutional  Designations. 


Aed.     Aedilis. 

Cal.  or  Kal.     Calendae,  or 

other  cases  of  this  word. 
Cos.     Consul. 
Coss.     Consules,  or  Consu- 

libus. 

D.     Divus. 
Des.     designatus. 
Eq.Rom.    Eques  Romanus. 
F.     Filius. 
Imp.     Imperator. 

Legatus,  or  Legio. 
Nonae  or  other  cases. 
Optimus   Maximus, 


Leg. 
Non. 
O.  M. 


as  a  surname  of  Juppiter. 


P.  C.     Patres  Conscripti. 

PI.     Plebis. 

Pop.     Populus. 

P.R.     Populus  Romanus. 

Pont.  Max.  Pontifex  Max- 
imus. 

Pr.     Praetor. 

Praef.     Praefectus. 

Proc.     Proconsul. 

S.     Senatus. 

S.P.Q.R.  Senatus  populus- 
que  Romanus. 

SC.     Senatus  consultum. 

Tr.     Tribunus.          [testas. 

Trb.  Pot.      Tribunitia  Po- 


3.  Other  Abbreviations  which  are  still  in  use. 


A.     Anno. 

A.  c.     Anno  currente. 

A.D.     Anno  Domini. 

A.  pr.     Anno  praeterito 

A.M.     Anno  mundi. 

A.  u.  c.     Anno  urbis  condi- 

tae. 
A.  Chr.     Anno  Christi. 


a.  Chr.     ante  Christum. 

c.     caput. 

cf.     confer  or  conferatur. 

Cod.     Codex. 

Codd.     Codices. 

B.  M.     Bene  merenti. 

Dn.     Dominus. 

I).  N.     Dominus  Noster. 


ANCIENT    FORMS    OF    DECLENSION. 


559 


D.  D.     Dono  dedit. 

D.D.D.  Dono  dedit  dica- 
vit 

D.  M.     Diis  Manibus. 

D.  S.     De  suo. 

D.  S.P.P.  Desuapecunia 
posuit. 

F.  C.     Faciendum  curavit. 

Ictus.     lureconsultus. 

J.  U.  D.  Juris  Utriusque 
Doctor. 

i.  e.     id  est. 

1.  loco  or  lege  :  h.  1.  hoc 
loco  or  hac  lege. 

L.  B.     Lectori  benevolo. 

1.  c.  or  1. 1.  loco  citato  or  lo- 
co laudato. 

L.M.     Libens  merito. 

L.  S.     Loco  Sigilli. 

MS.     Manuscriptus  (liber). 

MSS.     Manuscripti  (libri). 


pag.  m.     pagina  mea. 

P.  P.O.      Professor  Publi- 

cus  Ordinarius. 
Ps.     Postscriptum. 
Q.D.B.V.    Quoddeusberie 

vertat. 
S.  V.  B.  E.  E.  V.      Si  vales 

bene  est,  ego  valeo. 
scil.     scilicet, 
seq.  sequens  ;  and  seqq.  sc- 

quentes  or  sequentia. 
S.     Salutem. 
S.  D.     Salutem  dicit. 
S.  D.  P.     Salutem  dicit  plu- 

rimam. 
v.     versus. 

vid.     vide  or  videatur. 
V.  Cl.     Vir  clarus  or  claris- 

simus. 
VV.  DD.      Viri    Docti    or 

Doctissimi. 


APPENDIX  V. 


ANCIENT  FORMS  OF  DECLENSION.* 

[§  878.]  THE  element  of  a  word,  stripped  of  all  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes,  is  called  the  Root.  Generally,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  secondary  form,  which  may  be  called  the 
Crude  form,  containing  something  more  than  the  mere 
element,  but  yet  not  enough  to  render  it  fit  for  universal 
use,  the  base,  however,  of  all  the  forms  which  are  ac- 
tually employed.  For  example,  in  the  word  currum,  the 
letter  m  is  the  accusative  sign;  this  being  removed,  we 
have  the  crude  form  of  the  noun,  curru.  It  is  clear  that 
curru  is  the  base  on  which  are  built  curru-s,  curru-s, 
curru-i,  curru-m,  and  curri-bus,  for  in  this  last  the  u  is 
only  represented  by  a  euphonic  i.  But  curru  is  not 
the  simplest  element  to  which  the  word  is  reducible  ;  we 
have  the  verb  curr  in  curro,  curris,  currit,  currere,  &c. 

*  Allen's  Etymological  Analysis  of  Latin  Verbs,  &C.,  p.  viii.,  seqq. 


560  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

The  root  is  curr:  the  noun,  however,  is  formed  by  the 
letter  u,  and  hence  the  crude  form  curru,  and  the  nomi- 
native curru-s,  &c. 

[§  879.J  Now  every  crude  form  must  end  in  a  conso- 
nant or  in  a  vowel  ;  #,  e,  i,  o,  or  u.  Hence  nouns  have 
been  divided  into  two  great  classes,  consonant-nouns  and 
vowel-nouns.  The  latter  of  these  have  been  naturally 
subdivided  according  to  the  particular  vowel  found  ;  and 
hence  the  a-declension,  the  e-declension,  the  i-declen- 
sion,  the  o-declension,  and  the  w-declension.  The  Third 
declension,  as  it  is  called,  is  on  this  plan  split  into  two  ; 
namely,  the  i-declension  and  the  consonant  declension. 
The  consonant  declension  must  be  taken  as  the  original 
declension,  and  then  the  z'-declension  stands  on  the  same 
ground  as  the  a-,  e-,  o-,  and  u-  declensions.  The  conso- 
nant declension  preserves  the  case-endings  most  fully.  In 
the  vowel  declensions  the  last  letter  of  the  crude  form 
and  the  vowel  of  the  case-ending  are  sometimes  incor- 
porated and  disguised.  * 

[§  880.]  Now  from  these  premises  some  idea  may 
easily  be  formed  of  the  ancient  forms  of  declension,  and 
in  order  to  carry  out  this  idea,  it  will  be  worth  while  to 
give  a  table  of  the  declensions  as  they  would  stand  if  the 
case-endings  were  affixed  at  once  to  the  crude  form  with- 
out any  contraction  or  incorporation  ;  for  in  so  doing  we 
shall  detect  several  ancient  forms  which  actually  occur. 
The  case-endings  are, 

SING.  PLUR. 

5,  Nom.  es. 

is,  Gen.  um. 

(b)i,  Dat.  bus. 

m,  Accus.  es. 

e,  Abl.  bus. 

The  vocative  has  not  been  inserted,  because  this  case 
is  always  either  the  crude  form  (modified  frequently  on 
euphonic  principles)  or  the  same  as  the  nominative.  In 
the  o-declension,  in  Latin,  we  find  an  e  at  the  end  of  the 
vocative  ;  as,  taure.  This  e  is  the  representative  of  the 
o  or  u  in  the  nominative,  tawus  =  tauros* 


Boppt  Vergleich.  Gramm.,  p.  234. 


ANCIENT  FORMS  OF  DECLENSION.  561 

VOWEL  DECLENSIONS. 


Forma  (A). 
Forma-s,          Forma-es. 
Forma-is,         Forma-um. 
Forma-(b)i,     Forma-bus. 
Forma-m,        Forma-es. 
Forma-e,         Forma-bus. 
Die  (E). 
Die-s,   '            Die-es. 
Die-is,              Die-um. 
Die-(b)i,           Die-bus. 
Die-m,             Die-es. 
Die-e,               Die-bus. 

Navi  (I). 
Navi-s,            Navi-es. 
Navi-is,           Navi-um. 
Navi-(b)i,       Navi-bus. 
Navi-m,          Navi-es. 
Navi-e,           Navi-bus. 
Jlvo  (O). 
Avo-s,             Avo-es. 
Avo-is,           Avo-um. 
Avo-(b)i,        Avo-bus. 
Avo-m,           Avo-es. 
Avo-e,            Avo-bus. 

Jlrcu  (U). 

Arcu-s,  Arcu-es. 

Arcu-is,  Arcu-um. 

Arcu-(b)i,  Arcu-bus. 

Arcu-m  Arcu-es. 

Arcu-e,  Arcu-bus. 

Dj  881.]  It  is  probable  that  all  these  declensions  once 
a  b  in  the  dative,  and  that  the  remaining  i  is  only  the 
relic  of  the  bi  which  we  see  in  ti-bi,  i-bi,  si-bi,  and  u-bi, 
as  in  Greek  the  i  is  the  relic  of  <f>i,  e.  g.,jwop0^=|itop07/-0i. 
It  is  also  probable  that  in  all  these  declensions  the  dative 
plural  ended  in  bis.  The  plural  bis=bus  remained  in 
regular  use  in  three  of  the  declensions,  and  examples  of 
it  are  not  wanting  in  the  other  two ;  as,  deabus,  nymfabus, 
horabus,  duobus,  ambobus,  dibus,  diibus,  amicibus,  &c.* 

[§  882.]  With  respect  to  the  genitive  plural,  it  is  dis- 
puted whether  the  original  ending  was  um  or  rum,  seeing 
that  in  the  consonant  declension,  and  the  i-  and  u-  de- 
clension there  is  no  r,  and  in  the  a-  and  o-  declensions 
there  is.  Struve  contends  that  the  r  is  euphonic,  and 
that  the  original  ending  is  um,  answering  to  the  Greek 
G)v.  Many  things  favour  this  view ;  e.  g.,  o-um  would 
naturally  be  contracted  into  urn,  which  is  constantly  found 
in  such  instances  as  deum,  vir&m,  Graium,  signiferum,  &c., 
whereas  the  transition  from  orum  to  um  is  not  so  easy. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  a-declension ;  as,  Dar- 
danidum,  coelicolum.  That  this  contracted  form  was  a 

*  Orelli,  Inscript.,  Nos.  1628,  1629,  4601,  2118,  4608,  1676,  1307,  3413, 
4681.— Struve,  iiber  die  Lot.  Decl,  p.  15,  $  10. 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

very  old  one  appears  clearly  from  the  instances  given  by 
Cicero  (Orat.,  §  155,  156).  Still  the  forms  boverum 
and  Joverum,  in  Varro  (viii.,  74),  and  lapiderum,  regerum, 
nancerum,  in  Charisius,  seem  to  point  to  a  full  and  origi- 
nal ending  erum,  the  e  being  the  connecting  vowel.  In  a 
note  on  the  above-cited  passage  in  Varro,  Miiller  ob- 
serves that  those  forms  are  the  remains  of  the  ending  of 
which  the  original  type  must  have  been  in  Greek  and 
Latin  2QM.  Perhaps  it  is  an  argument  for  considering 
the  r  euphonic,  that  in  Sanscrit  the  letter  n  is  inserted  in 
some  forms  in  a  similar  way.  For  example,  vach  is  "  a 
discourse  ;"  the  plural  genitive-ending  is  dm :  the  geni- 
tive, then,  is  vachdm.  Now,  when  the  crude  form  ends  in 
a  vowel,  the  ending  dm  is  joined  to  it  by  a  euphonic  n  ; 
thus,  vana  is  "a  wood;"  the  genitive  plural  is  not  vana- 
am,  but  vana-n-am.  Thus  the  gentive  of  musa  would,  in 
Sanscrit,  be  musanam  (=musarumj.  On  the  other  hand, 
however,  it  should  be  stated  that  the  pronouns  (and  they 
would  naturally  preserve  the  old  formation  longer  than 
any  other  parts  of  speech)  have  the  termination  sam  in 
Sanscrit,  answering  to  the  Latin  rum.  Compare  Sans. 
ta-sdm  and  the  Lat.  ista-rum,  to  which  it  is  equivalent. 

[§  883.]  Most  of  the  changes  from  the  original  type  of 
the  Latin  declensions  given  under  §  880  may  be  traced 
from  existing  instances.  To  give  them  all  would  lead 
too  far  :  one  example  shall  be  mentioned.  The  full  form 
of  the  genitive  singular  of  the  a-declension  is  a-j-z's, 
e.  g.,  formats.  This  is  found  with  a  euphonic  change  of 
the  vowel  i  to  e  ;  as,  partis  dimidiaes,  Proculaes,  Satur- 
niaes.*  It  was  abbreviated  in  three  ways  :  first,  by  drop- 
ping the  i,  whence  formas  ;  secondly,  by  dropping  the  s  ; 
as,forma'ij  and,  thirdly,  bye  on  tractinganntoae;  as,  forma. 
Examples  of  the  first  contraction  are  paterfamilias  and 
?naterfamilias.  Examples  of  the  second  contraction  are 
common  in  Lucretius  and  other  old  writers.  Some  occur 
in  Virgil ;  as,  aurai  (Jlzn.,  vi.,  747) ;  picta'i  (Jim.,  ix.,  26). 
The  third  contraction  became  the  common  form. 

*  Orelli,  Inscript.,  Nos.  4376,  4537,  2869,  4897. 


REMAINS    OF    EARLY    LATIN.  563 


APPENDIX  VI. 


REMAINS    OF   EARLY   LATIN. 

[§  884.]  WE  have  very  few  specimens  of  the  Latin 
language  previous  to  the  time  of  Ennius  and  Plautus, 
when  it  had  become  nearly  developed,  and  was  substan- 
tially the  same  as  in  the  later  times  of  the  Republic.  The 
specimens  of  the  ancient  language  which  have  come  down 
to  us  principally  consist  of  fragments  of  ancient  laws, 
preserved  by  Festus,  Cicero,  and  others,  and  of  a  few  in- 
scriptions. The  former,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
appear  to  have  been  considerably  altered ;  and  the  latter 
are,  unfortunately,  too  few  to  give  us  much  assistance  in 
tracing  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  language.  Of  these, 
however,  one  of  the  most  important  was  the  ancient  song 
of  the  Fratres  Arvales,  discovered  in  the  year  1777,  and 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  same  as  was  sung  in  the 
most  early  times,  though  the  inscription  was  not  cut  till 
A.D.  218.  It  appears  from  the  introductory  remarks 
that  this  song  was  confined  to  the  priests,  the  Publici 
being  excluded.  The  song  is  as  follows  : 

1.  Enos  Lases  juvate, 

2.  Neve  luerve,  Marmar,  sins  incurrere  in  pleoris  : 

3.  Satur  furere,  Mars,  limen  salis  sta  berber  : 
4>.  Semunis  alternei  advocapit  conctos. 

5.  Enos  Marmor  juvato  : 

6.  Triumpe,  triumpe,  triumpe,  triumpe,  triumpe. 

1.  Enos  is  a  form  of  the  first  person  plural  (nosj,  anal- 
ogous to  the  German  uns.     Lases  is  instead  of  Lares. 
(Quinctil.,  Inst.  Or.,  i.,  4,  §  13.) 

2.  Luerve  for  luerve-m,  according  to  a  custom  of  drop- 
ping the  final  m,  which  lasted  till  Cato's  time.     This  form 
is  equivalent  to  luem.     Marmar  is  a  name  of  Mars,  who 
was  called  J\Iamers  in  the  Oscan  language.     Sins  is  in- 
stead of  sinas.     Pleoris  is  the  older  form  ofplures.     The 
root  of  this  word  is  pie,  as  we  see  in  ple-nus  and  in  im- 
ple-o,  and  the  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  ior  or  or. 
Pleores  afterward  became  plures,  in  the  same  way  as 
reversus  or  reorsus  was  shortened  into  rursus. 


564 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


3.  Satur  furere,  &c.     The  meaning  appears  to  be,  "Q 
Mars,  having  raged  to  your  satisfaction,  put  a  stop  to  the 
scorching  heat  of  the  sun."     Compare  Horace  (Od.,  i.,  2, 
37),  "  longo  satiate  ludo,"     Limen  for  lumen  may  be  com- 
pared with  plisima  for  plurima  (Fest.r  p.  205).     Salis  is 
the  original  form  of  solis:  compare  creAa^,  f/Aioc,  Jlu-selius^ 
&c.     Whether  we  read  sta  or  ta,  the  meaning  seems  to 
be  "  cause  to  cease,"  which  may  be  derived  from  either 
root.     Berber  is  another  form  offervere. 

4.  Semuneis  is  semones,  i.  e.,  semihemones.     Jldvocapit 
is  instead  of  advocabite,  the  e  being  omitted  as  in  die,  due, 
fac^fer.     The  future  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of  an  im- 
perative.* 

[§  885.]  The  other  extant  religious  compositions,  though 
few  and  scanty,  contribute  to  the  same  conclusion  with 
the  preceding,  that  the  oldest  Latin  was  not  so  unlike  the 
language  with  which  we  are  familiar  as  to  defy  interpre- 
tation. The  fragments  of  the  oldest  Roman  laws,  though 
undoubtedly  genuine  in  substance,  must  be  considered  a& 
having  undergone  much  alteration  in  the  orthography  at 
least.  They  are  precious  memorials  of  primeval  Latinity, 
but,  like  the  Homeric  poems,  they  not  unfrequently  ex- 
hibit the  deformity  of  an  ancient  statue,  which  the  false 
taste  of  a  later  age  may  have  daubed  over  with  a  coat  of 
coloured  piaster.!  We  will  now  proceed  to  give  speci- 
mens of  the  same,  with  the  later  Latin  opposite.J 

I.  LEGES  REGIAE. 

Lex  Romuli. 


Sei  par entem  puer  verberit, 
ast  ole  plorasit,  puer  Diveis 
parentom  sacer  esto  :  sei  nu- 
rus,  sacra  Diveis  parentom 
esto. 


Si  parentem  puer  verbe- 
larit,  at  ille  ploraverit,  puer 
Divis  parentum  sacer  esto : 
si  nurus,  sacra  Divis  paren- 
tum esto. 


Lex  Numoe. 


Sei  quips  hemonem  loebe- 
som  dolod  sciens  mortei  duit, 
pariceida  esto  :  sei  im  impru- 
dens  se  dolod  malod  oceisit, 


Si  quis  hominem  liberum 
dolo  sciens  morti  det,  parri- 
cida  esto 
dens  sine 


s     eum    mpru- 
dolo    malo   occi- 


*  Donaldson's  Varronianus,  p.  139,  seq. — Penny  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  xx  ,  p. 
112.  t  Donaldson's  Varronianus,  p.  145. 

t   Grotefend,  Ausf.  Gramm.  der  Lat.  Spr.,  vol.  i.,  p.  167, 


REMAINS    OF    EARLY    LATIN. 


565 


pro  kapited  oceisei  et  nateis 
ejus  endo  condoned  arictem 


subicito. 


derit,  pro   capite  occisi   et 
natis  eius  in  concione  arie- 


tem  subjicito. 
Lex  Numa. 


Pellex  aram  Junonis  ne 
tangito.  Si  tanget,  Junoni 
crinibus  demissis  agnum 
feminam  caedito. 


Pthx  asam  Junonis  ne 
tacito.  Sei  facet,  Junonei 
crinibous  demiseis  arnum 
feminam  caidito. 

II.  LEGES  TRIBUNICLE  ET  AEDILICLE. 

Lex  Tribunicia,  Jl.U.C.  261. 

Sei   quips   aliuta  faxsit, 

ipsos  Jovei  sacer  esto :   sei 

quips  im,  quei  eo  plebeiscito 

sacer  sit,  ocisit,  pariceida  nee 


esto. 


Si  quis  aliter  fecerit,  ipse 
Jovi  sacer  esto :  si  quis  eum, 
qui  eo  plebiscite  sacer  sit, 
occiderit,  parricida  ne  sit. 


Edictum  Jledilium  Curulium. 


Titulus  scriptorum  singu- 
lorum  utei  scriptus  sit,  co- 
erato  ita,  utei  intellegi  recte 
possit,  quid  morbi  vitiive 
quoique  sit,  quis  fugitivus 
errove  sit,  noxave  solutus  non 


sit. 


Titulus  scriptorum  singu- 
lorum  uti  scriptus,  curato 
ita,  ut  intelligi  recte  possit, 
quid  morbi  vitiive  cuique 
sit,  quis  fugitivus  errove  sit, 
noxave  solutus  non  sit. 


III.  LEGES  XII.,  TABULARUM  RESTITUTE. 
Tab.  1. 


Rem  ubei  pacont,  orantod: 
nei  ita  pacont,  endo  comitiod 
aut  endo  f or  od  anted  medidiem 
causam  coniciuntod.  Post 
medidiem  praisented  ambobus 


stlitem  adeicitod.     Sol  ocasus 
suprema  tempestas  estod. 


Rem  ubi  pangunt,  oranto  : 
ni  ita  pangunt,  in  comitio 
aut  in  foro  ante  meridiem 
causam  conjiciunto.  Post 
meridiem,  prsesentibus  am- 


bobus,  litem  addicito.  Sol 
occasus  suprema  tempestas 
esto. 

Tab.  2. 


Sei  quips  nox  fourtom 
faxsit,  seiim  aliquips  oceisit, 
joured  caisos  estod.  Sei  lu- 
cei  fourtom  faxsit,  sei  im 
aliquips  endo  ipsod  capsit, 


veroerator. 


Si  quis  nocte  furtum  fece- 
rit, si  eum  aliquis  occiderit, 
jure  caesus  esto.  Si  luce 
furtum  fecerit,  si  eum  aliquis 
in  ipso  ceperit,  verberator. 


BUB 


566 


LATIN    GRAMMAR. 


Tab.  3. 


•diris  confesi,  rebosque 
joured  joudikateis,  XXX 
dies  joustei  suntod.  Posti- 
dea  manuis  endojactio  estod : 
endo  jous  ducitod.  Nei  jou- 
dikatom  faxsit,  aut  quips  endo 
eo  im  joured  vindicit,  secom 
ducitod,  vincitod  aut  nesvo 
aut  compedebos  :  XV  pondo, 
nei  majosed,  at  sei  volet  mino- 
sed  vincitod.  Sei  volet,  sovod 
vivitod :  nei  souod  vivit,  quei 
im  vinctom  habebit,  libras 
faris  endo  dies  datod;  sei 
volet,  pious  datod. 

Tab. 
Sei  pater  Jidiom  ter  venom 

•  !/»  *  •  ji  •»      .  » 


duit,  fidios   of  patre   leiber   det,  filius  a  patre  liber  esto 


estod. 


Aeris  confessi,  rebusque 
jure  judicatis,  triginta  dies 
justi  sunto.  Postea  manus 
injectio  esto  :  in  jus  ducito. 
Ni  judicatum  fecerit,  aut 
quis  interea  eum  jure  vin- 
dicarit,  secum  ducito,  vin- 
cito,  aut  nervo  aut  compedi- 
bus  :  quindecim  pondo,  ne 
majore,  at,  si  volet,  minore, 
vincito.  Si  volet,  suo  vivito : 
ni  suo  vivit,  qui  eum  vinctum 
habebit,  libras  farris  in  dies 
dato ;  si  volet,  plus  dato. 


Si  pater  filium  ter  venuin- 


Tab.  5. 


Sei  paterfamilias  intestato 
moritor,  quoi  sovos  heres  nee 
escit,  acnatos  proxsumos  fa- 
miliam  habetod :  sei  acnatus 
nee  escit,  centileis  familiam 
herciscuntod. 


Si  pater  familias  intestato 
moritur,  cui  suus  haeres  nori 
erit,  agnatus  proximus  fa- 
miliam habeto :  si  agnatus 
non  erit,  gentiles  familiam 
herciscunto. 


Tab.  6. 


Quom  nexsom  faxsit  man- 
cipiomque,  utei  lincua  noncu- 
pasit,  it  a  jous  estod. 


Cum  quis  nexum  fecerit 
mancipiumve,  uti  lingua 
nuncupaverit  ita  jus  esto. 


Tab.  7. 


Sei 


we*  quips  ocentasit,  cas- 
menve  condisit,  quod  inf ami- 
am  faxit  flacitiomque  alterei, 
fuste  feritor.  Quei  malom 
Gasmen  incantasit,  malomque 
venenom  faxsit  duitve,  kapi- 
tal  estod. 


Si  quis  occentaverit,  car- 
menve  condiderit,  quod  in- 
famiam  fecerit  flagitiumque 
alteri,  fuste  feritor.  Qui 
malum  carmen  incantaverit 
malumque  venenum  fecerit 
dederitve,  capitale  esto. 


REMAINS    OF    EARLY    LATIN. 


567 


Tab.  8. 


Jlmbitus  parietis  estertios 
pes  estod. 


Inter  vicinorum  aedificia 
spatium  duorum  cum  dimi- 
dio  pedum  relinquitor. 
Tab.  9. 


Preivileciad  nei  endoro- 
cantod.  Forctei  sanateique 
siremps  jous  estod. 


Privilegia    ne    irroganto. 
Bono   sanatoque   civi  idem 


jus  esto. 
Tab.  10. 


Sumtus  luctumque  of  De- 
orom  J\faniom  joured  remove- 
tod.  Quei  coronam  parit 
ipsos  pequniave  ejus  virtutis 
ercod  arduitor,  et  ipsei  mortuo 
parentalebos  ejus,  dum  intus 
positos  escityforisve  exfertur, 
endoposita  se  frauded  estod. 
Neive  ausom  arduitod,  ast 
quoi  auso  denteis  vinctei  es- 
cunt  im  com  olo  sepelire  ure~ 
reve  se  frauded  estod. 


Sumtus  luctumque  ab 
Deorum  Manium  jure  re- 
moveto.  Qui  coronam  pa- 
raverit  ipse  pecuniave,  ejus 
virtutis  ergo  addatur,  et  ipsi 
mortuo  parentalibus  ejus, 
dum  intus  positus  erit,  fo- 
rasve  effertur,  imposita  sine 
fraude  esto.  Neve  aurum 
addat,  et  cui  auro  dentes 
vincti  erunt,  eum  cum  illo 


sepelire  urereve  sine  fraude 
esto. 

Tab.  11. 


Jousus  poplei  sofraciaque 
suntod.  Quodcuomque  pos- 
tremom  poplos  jousit,  id  jous 
ratomque  estod. 


Jussus  populi  suffragiaque 
sunto.  Quodcumque  pos- 
tremum  populus  jusserit,  id 


jus  ratumque  esto. 
Tab.  12. 

Sei  servos  scientoddominod  I  Si  servus  sciente  domino 
fourtom  faxsit,  noxiamve  furtum  fecerit,  noxamve  no- 
noxsit,  noxsai  deditod.  \  cuerit,  noxas  dedito. 

IV.  Senatus  Consultum  de  Bacchanalibus.* 
(2.)  Marcius  L.F.  S.  (p.)  Postumius,  L.  F.  Cos.,  Sena- 
turn  consuluerunt  N.  Octob.  apud  aedem  Duelonai,  Scri- 
bendo  arfuerunt  M.  Claudius,  M.  F.  L.  Valerius,  P.  F.  Q. 
Minucius,  C.  F.  De  Bacanalibus,  quei  foideratei  esent,  ita 
exdeicendum  censuere.  Nei  quis  eorum  Bacanal  habuise 
velet.  Sei  ques  esent,  quei  sibei  deicerent,  necesus  esse 
Bacanal  habere,  eeis  utei  ad  Pr.  urbanum  Romam  veni- 


Merely  a  part  of  this  is  given. 


568  LATIN    GRAMMAR. 

rent,  deque  eeis  rebus,  ubei  eorum  utra*  audita  esent, 
utei  senatus  noster  decerneret,  dum  ne  minus  Senatoribus 
C.  adesent,  (quom  e)  a  res  consoleretur.  Bacas  vir  nequis 
adiese  velet  ceivis  Romanus,  neve  nominis  Latini,  neve 
socium  quisquam,  nisi  Pr.  urbanum  adiesent,  isque  de 
Senatus  sententiad  dum  ne  minus  Senatoribus  C.  adesent, 
quom  ea  res  consoleretur,  jousisent,  censuere.  Sacerdos 
ne  quis  vir  eset,  magister  neque  vir  neque  mulier  quisquam 
eset,  neve  pecuniam  quisquam  eorum  comoinem  (h)  abuisse 
velet,  &c. 

*  We  should  read  probably  verba. 


INDEX. 


The  numbers  indicate  the  paragraphs  in  brackets. 


A  (ab,  abs,  absque},  its  meaning, 
304,  305,  306,  396. 

a  pedibus,  ab  epislolis,  a  rationibus 
esse,  and  similar  phrases,  305, 
in  fin. 

a  principio,  304. 

a  puero,  a  pueris,  304,  a.,  ab  ini- 
tio,  304. 

a  Platone,  and  similar  expres- 
sions, 304,  b. 

abalienare,  construction  of,  468. 

abest  mihi,  420,  note,  469.  Non 
multum  abest  quin,  540.  Tan- 
turn  abesl  ut — ut,  779. 

abhinc,  478,  and  note. 

abhorrere,  construction  of,  468. 

abbreviation,  in  case  of  several 
persons  having  the  same  prae- 
nomen  and  cognomen,  785. 

ablative,  with  passive  verbs,  451. 
Ablativus  instrumenti,  455.  Ab- 
lativus  causalis,  452.  Paraphra- 
sed by  the  partic.  perf.  passive, 
454,  719.  Ablative  denoting 
price  or  value,  456.  Ablat.  de- 
noting in  regard  to,  457.  Ablat. 
with  verbs  denoting  abundance 
or  want,  460.  Ablat.  with  the 
adject,  full  and  empty,  462. 
Ablat.  of  quality,  471.  Ablati- 
vus modi,  472.  Ablat.  denoting 
the  time  when1?  475.  Ablat. 
denoting  how  long  before  or 
after  ?  476,  foil.  Ablat.  in  an- 
swer to  the  question,  "how 
long  before  the  present  time  1" 
478.  To  the  question,  "  in 
what  time?'  479.  Ablat.  de- 
noting duration  of  time,  396. 
Ablat.  of  place,  481 .  Ablat.  in 
poetry  and  prose,  instead  of  ex 
or  a  with  the  ablat.,  481,  482. 
Ablat.  with  comparatives,  483. 
Ablat.  of  measure,  488.  Ablat. 


absolute,  640,  foil.  ;  formed 
with  the  partic.  fut.,  643.  Ab- 
lat. absolute  in  passive  con- 
structions has  no  reference  to 
the  subject,  640.  Ablatives 
absolute,  of  which  the  subject 
occurs  in  the  leading  proposi- 
tion, are  rare,  641.  Ablat.  of 
the  partic.  perf.  pass,  as  ablat. 
absolute,  647.  Ablat.  absolute 
as  an  adverb,  648.  Ablat.  of 
the  gerund  denoting  instru- 
mentality, 667.  Ablat.  of  the 
gerund  with  ab,  dc,  ex,  in,  pro, 
667. 

abscissum  and  abscisum,  189. 

absolvere,  with  the  gen  it.,  446. 

abstinere,  145  ;  construction,  468. 

abstract  nouns  used  for  concrete 
ones,  675. 

abundare,  construction  of,  460. 

abunde,  267 ;  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

ac,  use  of,  332,  foil. ;  instead  of 
quam,  340.  Ac  and  atque  after 
aeque,  juxta,  &.C.,  340. 

accedere,  construction  of,  415. 

accedit  ut,  621,  622  ;  accedit  quod, 
626. 

accent  of  final  syllables,  34.  Ac- 
cent in  verse,  828. 

accidit  ut,  621. 

accipere,  with  the  participle  fu- 
ture, 653. 

accusare,  with  the  genit.,  446. 

accusative,  382 ;  with  intransit. 
verbs,  383-386;  with  imper- 
sonal verbs,  390.  Accusativus 
Graecus,  458  ;  the  same  in 
prose,  459.  Accus.  denoting 
space  and  time,  395.  Accus. 
in  answer  to  the  question, 
"how  long  before  the  present 
time"?"  478.  Accus.  without 


570 


INDEX. 


a  preposition  in  poetry,  401. 
Accus.  in  exclamations,  402. 
Accus.  with  prepositions,  404  ; 
with  the  verbs  of  remembering 
and  reminding,  &c.,  439,  440. 
Accus.  of  the  subject  in  the 
construction  of  the  accus.  with 
the  infinit.,  605.  Accus.  with 
neuter  verbs  indicating  a  par- 
ticular part,  458.  Accus.  to 
denote  dress,  458.  Accus.  in 
relative  clauses  with  the  accus. 
with  the  infinit.,  774.  Accus. 
of  the  gerund,  666. 

accusative  with  the  infinit.  as  sub- 
ject or  object,  600 ;  as  nomi- 
nal, of  the  predicate,  600,  note ; 
with  the  verbs  of  saying,  decla- 
ring, &c.,  602 ;  after  relative 
pronouns  and  conjunctions,  in- 
stead of  the  subjunctive,  603  ; 
used  as  an  exclamation  or  a 
question  expressed  with  indig- 
nation, 609  ;  alternates  with 
ut,  620.  Difference  between 
the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  and 
the  accus.  of  the  gerund,  655. 

acquiescerc,  construction  of,  415, 
416. 

ac  non,  334,  781. 

ac  si,  with  the  subjunctive,  572. 

active  verbs  used  as  deponents, 
207,  note. 

ad,  meaning  of,  296  ;  with  the 
gerund,  666. 

ad  id  locorum,  434. 

ad  tempus,  meaning  of,  296. 

ad  unum  omncs,  phrase,  296. 

adde  quod,  628. 

adeo,  meaning  of,  281. 

adesse,  construction  of,  415. 

adhibere,  construction  of,  416. 

adhuc,  meaning  of,  292 ;  adhuc 
locorum,  434. 

adjectives,  used  as  adverbs,  266, 
383,  in  fin.,  682  ;  used  substan- 
tively,  363 ;  their  neuter  gen- 
der with  substantives  of  other 
genders,  368  ;  used  for  adverbs 
of  place,  685  ;  used  for  ordinal 
adverbs,  686.  Adject,  deno- 
ting origin,  683.  Adject,  with- 
out a  substantive  in  the  con- 


struction of  the  ablat.  absolute, 
645,  646,  648.  Adjective,  po- 
sition of,  683,  793,  796.  Ad- 
jectives derived  from  proper 
names,  and  used  instead  of  the 
genitive  of  the  latter,  684.  The 
same  is  not  frequent  in  the 
case  of  adjectives  derived  from 
appellative  nouns,  684,  note. 
Construction  of  two  adjectives 
being  compared  with  each  oth- 
er, 690.  Adjectives  from  which 
no  adverbs  are  formed,  267. 
Adjectives  in  arius,  684,  note. 
Adjectives  formed  from  names 
of  towns,  255,  256.  Relative 
adjectives,  their  construction 
with  the  infinit.  is  poetical, 
598,  659,  in  fin. 

adipisci,  466. 

adire,  construction  of,  387. 

adjutarc,  construction  of,  388, 
note. 

adjuvare,  with  the  accusat.,  388. 

admonere,  construction  of,  439  ; 
with  ut  or  the  accusat.  with 
the  infinit.,  615. 

adolesccntia,  675. 

adscribo,  orthography  of,  325. 

adspcrgcre,  construction  of,  418. 

adulari,  construction  of,  389,  413. 

advenire  and  adventare,  construc- 
tion of,  489. 

adverbs  in  e,  263 ;  in  o,  264 ;  in 
ter,  265  ;  in  im,  268  ;  in  itus, 
269  ;  with  double  terminations, 
265,  note.  Adverbs  in  the  form 
of  neuters,  266.  Adverbs  in 
the  form  of  a  particular  case, 
and  in  composition,  270.  Ad- 
verbs of  place  with  a  genitive, 
434.  Adverbs  joined  to  sub- 
stantives, 262,  note ;  used  as 
prepositions,  276 ;  with  parti- 
ciples, 722.  Ordinal  adverbs 
instead  of  numeral  adverbs, 
727. 

advcrsus,  meaning  of,  299. 

ac,  diphthong,  2. 

acdes,  ellipsis  of,  762. 

aemulari,  construction  of,  389, 
note  3,  413. 

aequalis,  construction  of,  411. 


INDEX. 


571 


aequare  and  aequiparare,  construc- 
tion of,  389,  note  2. 

aeque  ac,  340. 

aequi  boni  facio,  &c.,  444,  note. 

aequius  and  aequum  erat,  the  in- 
dicative instead  of  the  sub- 
junctive, 518. 

aestimare,  with  the  genitive,  444. 

affatim,  with  the  genitive,  432. 

afficere,  construction  of,  461. 

affinis,  construction  of,  411,  43G. 

affluere,  construction  of,  460. 

agere  cum  aliquo,  with  the  geni- 
tive of  the  crime,  446  ;  id  agere 
ut,  614. 

aggredior,  construction  of,  387. 

am'  for  aisnc,  218. 

ait,  ellipsis  of,  772;  its  position, 
802. 

Alcaic  strophe,  866. 

ali,  dropped,  136,  708. 

alias  and  alioqui,  difference  be- 
tween, 275. 

alienare,  construction  of,  468. 

alienus,  construction  of,  468,  470. 

aliquanto  and  paulo,  difference  be- 
tween, 108,  in  fin.,  488. 

aliquantum,  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

aliquis  and  aliqui,  meaning  of, 
129  ;  declension,  135.  Aliquid 
joined  with  an  adjective,  433  ; 
aliquid  as  an  adverb,  385,  677. 
Aliquis  and  quis,  difference  in 
the  use  of,  708. 

aliquispiam,  129. 

aliquo,  adverb  of  place,  434. 

— alls,  the  termination,  251. 

aliter,  adverb,  264,  note  1. 

alius  and  alter,  difference  be- 
tween, 141. 

alius — alius,  712  ;  alius — alium, 
with  the  plural,  367. 

alius,  with  the  ablative  in  poetiy, 
484.  Aliud,  with  the  genitive, 
432. 

allatrare,  construction  of,  417. 

alter  and  alius,  difference  be- 
tween, 141. 

alter — alter,  700,  note.  Alter — 
alterum,  with  the  plural,  367. 

altero  tanto,  487. 

alteruter,  130,  140. 


amb  (a/z0f)>  inseparable  preposi- 
tion, 330. 

ambire,  conjugation  of,  215,  in  fin. 

amicior,  with  the  accusative,  458. 

amicus,  construction  of,  410. 

amplius,  with  the  omission  of 
quam,  485. 

an,  use  of,  353,  354  ;  in  indirect 
questions,  353,  and  note  at  the 
foot  of  the  page.  An — an,  a 
poetical  and  unclassical  form 
of  a  question,  554,  in  fin. 

anacoluthon,  757,  815. 

anacrusis,  835. 

anapaestic  verse,  848. 

angor,  construction  of,  627. 

animans,  gender  of,  78,  in  fin. 

animi,  in  some  expressions  used 
for  animo,  437. 

animo,  472,  note  1. 

animus,  used  as  a  circumlocution, 
678. 

an  minus,  554,  in  fin. 

anne,  in  double  questions,  554. 

an  non,  use  of,  454,  in  fin. 

annus,  compounded  with  numer- 
als, 124. 

answer,  implied  in  the  question, 
716. 

ante,  meaning  of,  297 ;  its  posi- 
tion, 324 ;  with  the  ablative, 
476. 

antea  and  anteliac,  323. 

antecedere,  construction  of,  488. 

antecellere,  construction  of,  417, 
488. 

antequam,  construction  of,  576. 

— anus,  the  termination,  254. 

aorist  of  past  time,  500. 

apage,  222. 

aposiopesis,  758,  823. 

appellare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

appetens,  with  the  genitive,  438. 

apposition,  370  ;  its  place,  796. 

apprime,  meaning  of,  273. 

aptus,  construction  of,  409  ;  aptus 
qui,  with  the  subjunctive,  568  ; 
aptus,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664. 

apud,  meaning  of,  297  ;  with  the 
names  of  authors,  297. 

aqua,  ellipsis  of,  763. 


572 


INDEX. 


arcere,  construction  of,  468  ;  with 
quominus,  ne,  or  quin,  543. 

arcessere  or  accersere,  202 ;  con- 
struction, 446. 

ardeo,  construction  of,  452. 

Argos  and  Argi,  89. 

arguere,  with  the  genitive,  446. 

— arium,  the  termination,  242. 

— arius,  the  termination,  252. 

arsis,  827  ;  lengthened,  828. 

as,  and  its  division,  871. 

— as,  the  ancient  form  of  the  gen- 
itive singular,  45. 

— as,  the  termination  of  the  Greek 
accus.  plural,  74. 

— as,  the  derivative  termination, 
255,  c. 

Asclepiadean  verse,  861. 

assentio  and  assentior,  206. 

assequi  ut,  618. 

assimilation  in  verbs  compound- 
ed with  prepositions,  325,  foil. 

assis  non  habere,  444,  note. 

— asso,  the  termination,  instead 
of  avcro,  161,  e. 

assuescere,  construction  of,  416. 

assuetus,  meaning  of,  633. 

asynartetus  versus,  859,  note. 

at,  use  of,  349 ;  is  superfluous, 
756  ;  at  vero,  use  of,  349. 

Athos,  Mount,  declension  of,  52, 3. 

atquc,  use  of,  332,  note ;  meaning, 
333 ;  used  for  quam,  340.  Atque 
adeo,  737. 

atqui,  use  of,  349. 

attendere,  construction  of,  417. 

— atus,  the  termination,  253. 

attraction,  with  the  dative  with 
licet  essc,  601  ;  with  mihi  nomen 
est,  421.  Attraction  to  the 
case  of  the  leading  proposition 
with  the  particle  quam,  in  the 
case  of  the  accusative  with  the 
infinitive,  603  ;  sometimes, 
also,  in  the  case  of  a  partici- 
ple, 774. 

audio  te  canentem  and  te  canere, 
difference  of,  636. 

auditur,  construed  like  dicitur, 
with  the  nominative  and  infin- 
itive, 607,  note. 

auscultare,  construction  of,  413. 

ausim,  161,  181. 


aut  and  vel,  336 ;  aut  in  a  nega- 
tive sense,  337.  Aut — aut,  338, 
809  ;  with  the  singular,  374. 

autem,  its  position,  355  ;  ellipsis 
of  autem,  781. 

avarus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

avidus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

— ax,  the  termination,  249,  4. 

Bacchic  verse,  851. 

base,  of  a  verse,  858. 

belle,  294,  note. 

bello,  475,  note,  in  fin. 

bellum,  construed  like  the  names 
of  towns,  400. 

bene  te  !  759. 

benedicere,  construction  of,  413. 

biduum,  triduum,  124. 

— bills,  the  termination,  249,  3. 

boni  consulo,  444,  note. 

bos,  declension  of,  69. 

brevi,  scil.  temporc,  763. 

— bulum,  the  termination,  239. 

— bundus,  the  adjective  termina- 
tion, 248. 

C.  for  Gaius,  4;  its  pronuncia- 
tion, 6. 

caesura  (T0fj.fi},  830  ;  in  the  sena- 
rius,  837  ;  in  the  hexameter, 
842,  foil.  ;  caesura  bucolica, 
844  ;  caesura  in  the  Sapphic 
verse,  865  ;  in  Asclepiadean 
verse,  861  ;  in  Alcaic  verse, 
862 ;  in  the  Saturnian  verse, 
863. 

calendar,  calculation  of,  867,  foil. 

canere  receptui,  to  sound  a  retreat, 
422,  note. 

capax,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

capitis  and  capite  damnare,  accu- 
sare,  447. 

caro,  ellipsis  of,  763. 

causa  and  gratia,  joined  with  mea, 
tua,  sua,  &c.,  424,  659,  679  ;  its 
position,  792  ;  is  omitted,  663, 
764. 

cave,  used  as  a  circumlocution  for 
the  imperative,  586  ;  with  the 
subjunctive,  without  ne,  624. 

cavere,  construction  of,  414,  534. 

cedere,  construction  of,  413. 

cedo,  the  imperative,  223. 


INDEX. 


573 


celare,  with  two  accusatives,  391. 

censeo,  followed  by  ut,  instead  of 
the  accusative  with  the  infini- 
tive, 617. 

Ceos,  declension  of,  52,  3. 

cerneres,  528. 

certe  and  certo,  266,  note  1. 

cervices  and  cervicem,  94. 

cetera  and  reliqua,  for  ceteris,  459. 

ceterum,  meaning  of,  349 

cetos  and  cetus,  89. 

ceu,  poetical,  340  ;  with  the  sub- 
junctive, 572. 

Chaos  and  Chaus,  89. 

choriambic  verse,  856,  861. 

ci  or  ti,  6,  note  1. 

cingor,  construction  of,  458. 

do  and  cieo,  180. 

circa  and  circum,  meaning  of,  262, 
298. 

circumdare,  construction  of,  418, 

circumf under e,  construction  of, 
418. 

cis,  citra,  meaning  of,  298 

citare,  with  the  genitive,  446. 

clam,  adverb  and  preposition,  321. 

clanculum,  321. 

Cn.,  that  is,  Gnaeus,  4. 

coarguere,  construction  of,  446, 

coenare  and  habitare,  with  the  gen- 
itive, 444,  note. 

coepi,  used  pleonastically,  753. 

coeptus  sum,  221,  in  fin. 

cognomen,  placed  after  the  gen- 
tile name,  797. 

cogo,  construction  of,  613. 

collective  nouns,  with  the  plural 
of  the  verb,  366. 

collocare,  construction  of,  489. 

com  for  cum,  in  compound  verbs, 
329. 

comitari,  construction  of,  388, 
note  1. 

comitiis,  475,  note  in  fin. 

commiserari,  construction  of,  442. 

commonere,  commonefacere,  con- 
struction of,  439,  615. 

communicare,  construction  of,  416. 

communis,  with  the  dative  and 
genitive,  411. 

commutare,  construction  of,  456. 

comparare,  construction  of,  415, 
416. 


comparative,  with  the  ablative, 
483  ;  used  pleonastically,  690. 

compedes,  76. 

compertus,  with  the  genitive,  446, 
note. 

complere,  construction  of,  463. 

complures,  meaning  of,  65,  in  fin. 

componere,  construction  of,  415. 

compos,  with  the  genitive,  436, 
437,  note  2. 

compound  words,  260  ;  verbs 
compounded  with  prepositions, 
325,  foil. ;  compound  numerals, 
116,  118  ;  compounds  of  sequor 
and  sector,  388,  note  1. 

conari,  construction,  610. 

concedere,  with  ut  and  the  accusa- 
tive with  the  infinitive,  613, 
624  ;  with  the  participle  future 
passive,  653. 

concessive  mood,  529,  and  note. 

concrete  nouns,  used  for  abstract 
ones,  673  ;  for  names  of  public 
offices,  674. 

condicione,  472,  note  1. 

conducere,  444;  with  the  partici- 
ple future  passive,  653. 

conducit,  with  the  dative,  412. 

conferre,  construction  of,  415, 416. 

conficitur  ut,  618. 

confidere,  construction  of,  413, 
452. 

congrucre,  construction  of,  415. 

conjugation,  ancient  forms  of, 
161,  foil.  ;  paraphrased  conju- 
gation, 168,  498. 

conjungere,  construction  of,  415, 
416. 

conjunctions,  331,  foil.,  356;  con- 
junctions repeated,  756 ;  omit- 
ted, 782. 

conjunctus,  with  the  ablative 
alone,  474. 

conscius,  construction  of,  437, 
note  2. 

consecutio  temporum,  512,  foil. 

consentaneum  erat,  the  indicat. 
used  for  the  subjunctive,  518. 

consentire,  415. 

considere,  construction  of,  489. 

consors,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

constare,  construction  of,  444, 452. 

consfituere,  construction  of,  489  ; 


574 


INDEX. 


with  the  infinitive  and  with  ut, 
614. 

constructio  ad  synesim,  368. 

consuescere,  143  ;  construction  of, 
416. 

consuetude  est,  with  the  infinitive 
and  with  ut,  622,  in  fin. 

consulere,  construction  of,  414. 

consumere,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664. 

contendere  ut,  614. 

contcntus,  construction  of,  467. 
Contentus  sum  with  the  infinit. 
perfect,  590. 

conterminus,  with  the  dative,  411. 

contineri,  construction  of,  452. 

contingit  ut,  621. 

continue,  meaning  of,  272. 

contra,  meaning  of,  299  ;  contra 
ea,  349  ;  contra  auro,  323. 

contraction,  11. 

convenio,  construction  of,  387. 

convenit,  construction  of,  413  ; 
used  in  the  indicative  instead 
of  the  subjunct.,  518. 

converter -e,  145. 

conviciari,  with  the  dative,  412. 

convincerc,  with  the  genitive,  446. 

corpus,  used  instead  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun,  678. 

correlative  pronouns,  130 ;  ad- 
verbs, 288. 

Cos,  declension  of,  52,  3. 

creare,  with  two  accusatives,  394. 

credo,  777  ;  crcdcrcs,  528. 

Creticus,  verse,  850. 

cretus,  with  the  ablat.,  451. 

criminc,  ellipsis  of,  446. 

— crum,  the  termination,  239. 

cui,  a  monosyllabic  word,  11. 

cui  bono  fuit,  422,  note. 

cujus,  a,  um,  139,  2. 

— culum,  the  termination,  239. 

— culus,  diminutive  termination 
of  comparatives,  104,  note. 

cum,  meaning  of,  307  ;  in  answer 
to  the  question  "  in  what  man- 
ner]" 472;  ellipsis  of,  473; 
appended  to  the  ablative  of 
personal  andrelative  pronouns, 
324,  in  fin. 

cumprimis,  meaning  of,  273. 

— cunque,  the  suffix,  128. 


cupere,  construction  of,  414  ;  with 
the  nom.  or  the  accus.  with  the 
infinit.,  609. 

cupido,  gender  of,  75,  in  fin. 

cupidus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

cupiens,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

cupio  tibi,  tua  causa,  414. 

cur,  276,  2  ;  est  cur,  562. 

curare,  construction  of,  614,  653, 
713. 

curiosus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 

Damnare,  construction  of,  446. 

damnast  indeclinable,  103. 

dare,  quantity  of,  152,  note  ;  with 
the  dative,  422  ;  with  the  par- 
ticiple future  passive,  653  ; 
with  the  infinit.  it  is  poetical, 
except  with  bibere,  653 

Darius  and  Dareus,  2. 

dative  with  verbs  compounded 
with  prepositions,  415 ;  with 
verbs  of  difference,  468  ;  with 
verbs  of  separation,  469.  Da- 
tive of  attraction  with  licet  esse, 
601  ;  with  mihi  nomen  est,  421. 
Dative  with  passive  verbs  in- 
stead of  ab,  419  ;  with  the  par- 
ticiple perf.  pass.,  419,  note. 
Dativus  commodi  and  incom- 
modi,  405.  Dativus  ethicus, 
409.  Dative  of  the  gerund 
with  esse,  664 ;  with  names  of 
dignities  and  offices,  665. 

de,  meaning  of,  308  ;  its  position, 
324 ;  is  used  instead  of  the 
genitive,  430  ;  de  nocte,  308. 

debebat,  the  indicat.  instead  of 
the  subjunct.,  518. 

decedere,  construction  of,  468. 

decernere,  construction  of,  619. 

decet,  dedecet,  with  the  accus., 
390  ;  decet,  with  the  infinit.  ac- 
tive and  passive,  608. 

declarare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

dedocere,  construction  of,  391. 

deesse,  with  the  dative  of  the  ge- 
rund, 664. 

deest  mihi,  420,  note. 

defective  nouns,  in  case,  88,  foil. ; 
in  number,  91,  foil. 

defendere,  construction  of,  469. 


INDEX. 


575 


deferre,  scil.  nomcn,  with  the  gen- 
it.,  446. 

deficere,  construction  of,  388. 

defungi,  construction  of,  465. 

dejicere,  construction  of,  468. 

dein,  as  a  monosyllable,  11. 

delectari,  construction  of,  629. 

ddcctat  me,  390,  note. 

deligere,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

demonstratives,  omitted,  765, 
note  ;  used  instead  of  rela- 
tives, 805. 

demovere,  construction  of,  468. 

denique,  meaning  of,  727. 

depellere,  construction  of,  468. 

dependence  of  tenses  on  one  an- 
other, 512. 

deponents,  derived  from  nouns, 
147,  note  ;  deponents  with  the 
ablat.,  465. 

derivation  of  verbs  from  nouns, 
235  ;  from  adjectives,  235. 

desiderative  verbs,  232. 

designare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

desitus  sum,  200. 

desperare,  construction  of,  417. 

desuetus,  633. 

delerior  and  pejor,  difference  be- 
tween, 111,  note. 

deterrere  with  quominus  and  ne, 
543. 

deturbarc,  construction  of,  468. 

dicere,  with  two  accusatives,  394 ; 
ellipsis  of,  620,  769. 

dicer es,  528. 

dicit,  ellipsis  of,  772. 

dicitur,  construction  of,  607. 

dies,  its  gender,  86  ;  compounded 
with  numerals,  124 ;  die,  by 
day,  475  ;  dies,  repeated,  743. 

differre,  construction  of,  468. 

difficile,  adverb,  267,  and  note  2. 
Difficile  est,  the  indicat.  being 
used  for  the  subjunct.,  520. 

difficilis,  with  the  infinit.,  the  su- 
pine, or  ad,  671. 

dignari,  with  the  ablat.,  467,  note. 

dignus,  with  the  ablat.,  467 ;  with 
qui  and  the  subjunct.,  568  ; 
with  the  supine,  670. 

diminutive  verbs,  233  ;  substan- 


tives, 240  ;  adjectives,  250  ; 
comparatives,  104,  note. 

dis  or  di,  the  inseparable  prepo- 
sition, 330. 

discerneres,  528. 

discordari  cum  aliquo,  469. 

dissidere,  construction  of,  413,  in 
fin. 

dissimilis,  construction  of,  411. 

distare,  construction  of,  468. 

distinguere,  construction  of,  468, 
foil. 

distributive  numerals  and  their 
use,  119. 

diu,  294. 

diversus,  with  ab,  dat.  and  genit., 
468,  470. 

divertor,  as  a  deponent,  209,  in  fin. 

dives,  its  declension  and  compar- 
ison, 102,  note  ;  its  construc- 
tion, 437,  note  2. 

division  of  words  into  syllables, 
14,2. 

docere,  construction  of,  391. 

dolere,  construction  of,  452,  629. 

dominari,  construction  of,  413. 

domus,  its  declension,  83  ;  is  con- 
strued like  names  of  towns, 
400. 

donare,  construction  of,  418. 

donee,  350,  575. 

donicum,  350,  note. 

doti  dico,  422,  note. 

dubitative  mood,  530. 

dubito  or  non  dubito,  construction 
of,  540,  541  ;  dubito  an,  mean- 
ing of,  354,  541. 

ducere,  like  habcre,  with  two  accu- 
satives, 394  ;  in  numero,  or  in 
loco,  394,  note  3  ;  with  the 
genit.,  444  ;  with  the  dative, 
422. 

dudum,  287. 

duim  for  dcm,  162. 

dum,  meaning  and  construction, 
350,  note,  506,  507,  575  ;  com- 
pounded with  a  negative,  733. 

dummodo,  dummodo  ne,  its  mean- 
'  ing,  342  ;  construction,  572,  in 
fin. 

dumtaxat,  meaning  of,  274 

duum,  for  duorum  and  duarum,  115. 

duumviri,  is  doubtful,  124. 


576 


INDEX. 


E  or  exy  meaning  of,  309  ;  is  used 
instead  of  the  genitive,  430 ; 
cases  in  which  it  may  be  omit- 
ted, 468. 

e  re  publica,  for  the  good  of  the 
republic,  309,  in  fin. 

— e,  the  ancient  termination  of 
the  dat.  of  the  third  declension, 
63. 

— e,  for  ei,  in  the  fiftn  declension, 
85,  3. 

e,  elided  in  the  imperfect  of  the 
fourth  conjugation,  162. 

ea,  quantity  of,  16,  note  1. 

ecce,  compounded  with  pronouns, 
132,  in  fin.  ;  with  the  nominat. 
and  accus.,  403. 

ccqua  and  ecquae,  136,  note. 

ecquid,  meaning  of,  351,  note. 

ecquis  and  ecquisnam,  meaning  of, 
136. 

edepol,  361,  note. 

edicere  ut,  617. 

edim  for  edam,  162. 

editus,  with  the  ablat.,  451. 

edocerc,  with  two  accusat.,  391. 

efficere  ut,  618. 

efficiens,  with  the  genit.,  438,  note. 

efficitur,  with  the  accus.  with  the 
infinit.,  or  ut,  618,  note. 

e/ugere,  construction  of,  388. 

egere,  construction  of,  463. 

ei  was  used  anciently  instead  of 
i,  2. 

ejus  used  for  suus,  550  ;  (quoad) 
ejus  fieri  potest,  434. 

— ela,  the  termination,  237,  note. 

elision,  8. 

ellipsis,  758,  foil. ;  of  a  preposi- 
tion, 778. 

emere,  construction  of,  444. 

en,  compounded  with  pronouns, 
132,  in  fin. ;  the  interrogative 
particle,  351 ;  the  interjection 
with  the  nominat.,  403. 

Iv  dia  6votv,  741. 

— endus  and  undus,  terminations 
of  the  part.  fut.  pass.,  167. 

enim  and  nam,  345,  note. 

enimvero,  meaning  of,  348,  note. 

ens,  156. 

— entissimus,  termination  of  cer- 
tain superlatives,  105,  c. 


enunquam,  351. 

— er,  in  the  lengthening  of  the 
infinit.  pass.,  162. 

eo,  344,  note  ;  with  comparatives, 
487  ;  as  a  conjunction,  444, 
note  ;  as  an  adverb  of  place 
with  the  genitive,  434. 

eodem,  with  the  genit.,  434. 

epicene  (nomina  epicoena),  42. 

epistola,  with  a  possessive  pro- 
noun, 684. 

epistolary  style,  requires  the  per- 
fect and  imperfect  instead  of 
the  present,  503. 

epodus,  gender  of,  54,  in  fin. 

e'lroiec  and  ETrolrjaev,  500. 

cquidem,  278. 

— ere,  instead  of  erunt,  163. 

erga,  meaning  of,  299. 

ergo,  679. 

— errimus,  termination  of  certain 
superlatives,  105. 

— erunt  (3d  pers.  plur.  perf.  act.), 
shortened  in  poetry,  163. 

esse,  joined  with  adverbs,  365  ; 
esse  a  pedibus,  ab  epistolisf  a  ra- 
tionibus,  &c.,  305,  in  fin.  Esse 
with  the  dative,  420,  422  ;  with 
the  genit.  of  quality,  427,  448, 
note  1  ;  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664 ;  with  the  genit. 
of  the  gerund,  662 ;  with  the 
ablat.  of  quality,  471. 

esse  videtur,  to  be  avoided  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence,  819. 

esse,  in  the  infin.  perf.  pass.,  592. 

esse,  est,  ellipsis  of,  776. 

est,  equivalent  to  licet,  227. 

est,  qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  561. 

est,  quod,  with  the  subjunct.,  562. 

est  ut,  621,  752  ;  equivalent  to  est 
cur,  562. 

et,  whether  used  for  ac,  340,  note ; 
foretiam,  335 ;  rarely  by  Cicero, 
698 ;  is  superfluous,  756 ;  el- 
lipsis of,  783.  Difference  be- 
tween et  and  quc,  333. 

et— et  (que},  337,  809. 

et  ipse,  for  etiam,  698  ;  for  idem, 
697. 

et  is  (quidem),  699. 

et — neque  (nee),  337,  809. 

ctnon,  334,  781. 


INDEX. 


577 


etenim,  345,  note. 

etiam,  its  difference  from  quoque, 

335  ;  with  comparatives,  486. 
etiamnunc   and  etiamtum,  differ- 
ence between,  285. 
etsi,  341,  809. 

—etum,  the  termination,  243. 
etymology,  231. 
eu,  the  diphthong,  1. 
— eus,  the  termination,  250, 
evadere,  construction  of,  468. 
evenit  ut,  621. 
exaequare,  construction  of,  389, 

note  2. 

excedere,  with  the  accusat.,  387. 
excellere,  construction  of,  488. 
exdudere,  construction  of,  468. 
exire,  construction  of,  468. 
existimare,    with    two    accusat., 

394 ;  is  used  pleonastically,  750. 
existunt  qui,'  with  the  subjunct., 

561. 

expedire,  construction  of,  468. 
expedit,  with  the  dative,  412. 
experiens,  with  the  genit.,  438, 

note. 
expers,  with  the  genit.,  436,  437, 

note  2  ;  with  the  ablat.,  437, 

note  2. 
ex  quo  (scil.  tempore),  309,  478, 

763. 

exscissum  and  excisum,  189. 
extemplo,  meaning  of,  272. 
extra,  meaning  of,  300. 
extremum  est  ut,  621. 
exuere,  construction  of,  418. 
exulare,  construction  of,  468. 
exuor,  construction  of,  458. 

Fabula,  ellipsis  of,  39,  in  fin. 
fac  (facio),  quantity  of,  24.     Fac 

forming  a  circumlocution  for 

the  imperative,  586 ;  with  the 

subjunct.,  618,  624. 
facere  de  aliquo,  aliquo,  alicui,  and 

facer e  cum  aliquo,  491  ;  facere, 

with   two    accusatives,    394  ; 

with  the  genitive,  444 ;  with 

a  participle,  618. 
facere  certiorem,  construction  of, 

394,  note  1. 

facere  non  possum  quin,  538. 
facere  quod,  628. 

0 


facere  ut,  618,  619,  816. 

facere,  ellipsis  of,  771. 

facile,  adverb,  267. 

facilis  and  difficilis,  with  the  su- 
pine or  ad,  671. 

factum,  egregie  facfum,  722. 

fallit  me,  390,  note. 

familiaris,  with  the  dative  and 
genit.,  410. 

familias,  the  ancient  genit.,  45, 
npte  1. 

fando  audire,  220. 

fas,  with  the  supine  in  u,  670. 

faxo,  faxim,  &c.,  161,  e. 

fearing,  verbs  of,  with  ut  and  ne, 
533. 

febris,  ellipsis  of,  763. 

fecundus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

fer,  quantity  of,  24. 

ferax,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

fere  and  ferme,  their  difference 
from  paene  and  prope,  279. 

fertilis,  with  the  genit.,  436,  437, 
note  2. 

fertur,  607. 

fidere,  construction  of,  413,  452. 

fieri  and  esse,  with  the  genit.,  444, 
448. 

fieri  non  potest  ut,  621 ;  quin,  538. 

figures,  821,  &c. 

filius  andfilia,  ellipsis  of,  761. 

finitimus,  with  the  dative,  411. 

fit,  construction  of,  621. 

flagitare,  with  two  accusat.,  393. 

flocci  habere,  444,  note. 

florere,  with  the  ablat.,  460. 

foras  andforis,  400,  in  fin. 

forem,  156,  in  fin.,  224. 

fore  ut,  594. 

forte,  fortasse,  forsitan,  271,  728. 

for  tuna  fortes,  759. 

fortuitus,  as  a  word  of  three  syl- 
lables, 11. 

fractions,  how  expressed,  120. 

freni,  proved  to  occur,  99. 

frequentative  verbs,  231,  1. 

fretus,  construction  of,  467. 

frui,  construction  of,  465,  466. 

frustra,  meaning  of,  275. 

fugere,  construction  of,  388 ;  fugit 
me,  390,  note. 

fuisse,  instead  of  esse,  with  the 
part.  perf.  pass.,  592. 


578 


INDEX. 


fulgurat  and  fulminat,  difference 
of,  228. 

fungi,  construction  of,  465,  466. 

future  tense,  its  use,  509,  510, 
516  ;  in  the  sense  of  the  im- 
perat.,586;  future  perfect,  511; 
future  perfect  with  ero  and  f  ae- 
ro, 168,  note. 

futurum  cssc  ut,  594,  621. 

futurum  fuissc  ut,  595. 

G,  the  letter,  4. 

gaudco,  construction  of,  629. 

gender,  of  the  predicate,  376. 

genitive,  of  the  subject  and  ob- 
ject, 423,  and  note  1.  The 
genitive  instead  of  a  noun  in 
apposition,  425.  The  genit. 
with  adverbs  of  place,  434; 
with  neuters  of  adjectives,  435 ; 
with  relative  adjectives,  436  ; 
with  the  participle  present  ac- 
tive, 438  ;  with  neuters  of  pro- 
nouns, and  adjective  pronouns, 
432.  Genitive  of  quality,  426, 
427.  Pleonastic  genitive  in  ex- 
pressions denoting  time,  434, 
in  fin.  Genitive  paraphrased 
by  prepositions,  430  ;  of  value 
and  price,  444,  445  ;  of  guilt 
and  crime,  446 ;  of  punishment, 
447. 

genitive  of  the  gerund,  425,  659, 
foil.  ;  joined  with  the  genit. 
plural  of  substantives,  661. 

genitive,  of  the  participle  fut. 
passive  with  essc,  662. 

genitivus  partitivus,  429,  431. 

genitive,  its  position,  791 ;  in- 
stead of  the  ablat,  437,  470  ; 
instead  of  the  accusat,  661  ; 
the  genit.  animi  with  adjec- 
tives, 437,  1. 

genitus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  451. 

gentium,  used  pleonastically,  434. 

genus,  used  in  circumlocutions, 
678  ;  (hoc,  id,  illud  omne)  genus 
used  adverbially,  428 ;  genus 
clari,  for  gen  ere,  in  Tacitus,  458. 

gerund,  in  a  passive  sensp,  658. 

gerundivum,  656. 

gladiatoribus,  in  answer  to  the 
question,  "when!"  475,  note. 


|  gloriari,  construction  of,  452. 

gnarus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

gradatio,  a  figure,  822. 

gratia  and  causa,  679  ;  their  posi- 
tion, 792. 

gratias  agere,  construction  of,  628. 

gratias,  271. 

gratis  constat,  equivalent  to  nihilo 
constat,  445. 

gratulari,  construction  of,  629. 

gratum  mihi  est,  construction  of, 
626. 

Greek  words  in  poc,  Latinized, 
52,  1. 

Habere,  with  two  accusat.,  394  ; 
in  numero,  or  in  loco,  394,  note 
3  ;  with  the  genit.,  444  ;  with 
the  dative,  442  ;  with  the  par- 
ticiple perf.  pass.,  634. 

habeo  (non  habed)  quod,  with  the 
subjunct.,  562  ;  habco  facer e, 
562,  653. 

hac,  291. 

hactenus,  meaning  of,  291,  fin. 

haec,  instead  of  hae,  132. 

haud  and  non,  difference  between, 
277  ;  haud  scio  an,  354,  721. 

hei,  with  the  dative,  403. 

hcu,  with  the  accusat.,  402. 

hexameter,  841. 

hiatus,  8,  10  ;  within  a  word,  11. 

hie,  meaning  of,  127  ;  in  expres- 
sions of  time,  479,  note  ;  as  an 
adverb  of  place  with  the  genit., 
434. 

hie — illc,  700,  foil.  ;  hie  joined 
with  tails  and  tantus,  701,  note  ; 
hie  et  hie,  hie  et  ille,  701. 

hie,  hue,  hinc,  adverbs  of  place, 
291. 

hinc,  344,  note  291. 

historical  infinitive,  582  ;  histor- 
ical period,  817. 

hoc,  pleonastic,  748  ;  with  the 
genit.,  432. 

hoc,  with  comparatives,  487. 

hoc  dico,  700. 

homo,  homines,  ellipsis  of.  363, 
381,  760. 

honor  and  honos,  59. 

hortor,  construed  with  ?//,  615. 

hortus  and  horti.  (hortidi},  96. 


INDEX. 


579 


hostis,  with  the  genit.  and  dative, 

410. 

huic,  as  a  monosyllable,  11. 
hue,  with  the  genit.,  434. 
hujus  non  facio,  444,  note, 
hypothetical  sentences,  519,  524 ; 

in  the  infinitive,  593,  595,  596. 

Hypothetical  subjunctive,  529. 

/  and  u,  middle  sounds,  2  ;  i  and 
e  for  the  Greek  ei,  1.  The  let- 
ter i,  3  ;  i  in  the  genit.  singul., 
instead  of  is,  61,  1  ;  in  the 
ablative  of  names  of  towns,  63, 
in  fin.,  and  the  note  at  the  foot 
of  the  page ;  i,  for  ii,  in  the 
genit.  sing,  of  the  second  de- 
clens.,  49  ;  in  the  perfect,  160  ; 
i,  instead  of  ji,  in  the  com- 
pounds ofjacere,  183. 

— ia,  the  termination,  246,  2. 

— ia,  quantity  of,  16,  note  1. 

jam,  e.  g.,  nihil  jam,  286. 

iambic  verse,  835,  foil. 

jamdudum,  287. 

jampridem,  287,  in  fin. 

— ibam,  instead  of  iebam,  162,. 

— ibo,  instead  of  mm,  162. 

— icio,  instead  of  jicio,  in  the  com- 
pounds of  jacio,  183,  in  fin. 

— icus,  the  termination,  250,  2. 

ictus,  828. 

id,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  id  aetatis, 
id  temporis,  459  ;  id  agere  ut, 
614  ;  id  quod,  instead  of  quod, 
371. 

idem,  meaning  of,  127  ;  with  the 
genit.,  432 ;  instead  of  etiam 
and  tamen,  127,  697  ;  idem  qui, 
ac,  atque,  ut,  cum,  704  ;  idem 
with  the  dative,  704,  in  fin. 

identidem,  276,  2. 

idoneus,  with  qui  and  the  sub- 
junctive, 568  ;  with  the  dative 
of  the  gerund,  664. 

jecur,  declension  of,  57. 

igitur,  355  ;  placed  first  in  Cice- 
ro, 357;  equivalent  to  "I  say," 
739. 

ignarus,  with  the  genitive,  436. 
— He,  the  termination,  244. 
ndem  and  iisdem,  pronunciation 
of,  132,  note. 


— Ills,  the  termination,  249,  3. 

— Uis,  the  termination,  250,  3. 

iliac,  291. 

illacrimare,  construction  of,  416. 

illaec,  instead  of  illae,  132. 

ille,  meaning  of,  127,  700  ;  in  ex- 
pressions denoting  time,  479 ; 
as  a  pronoun  of  the  third  per- 
son, 125,  note ;  the  preceding 
substantive  is  understood,  767, 
note.  Ille  and  hie,  700,  702 ; 
ille,  joined  with  talis  and  tantus, 
701,  note  ;  ille  et  ille,  701,  note  ; 
ille  quidem,  744. 

illic,  illuc,  illinc,  291. 

— illimus,  termination  of  superla- 
tives, 105,  b. 

illo,  291,  note. 

illud,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  used 
pleonastically,  748. 

illuderc,  construction  of,  417. 

imitari,  388. 

immemor,  436. 

immunis,  437,  note  2,  468. 

immo,  meaning  of,  277. 

impatiens,  with  the  genit.,  438. 

impedire,  with  quominus  and  ne, 
543,  c ;  with  the  infinitive,  544. 

imperare,  construction  of,  617. 

imperative,  583  ;  paraphrased  by 
fac,  noli,  cave,  586 ;  the  imper- 
ative of  direct  speech  becomes 
the  subjunctive  in  the  oratio 
obliqua,  603.  Use  of  the  im- 
perative future,  584 ;  the  im- 
perat.  fut.  passive  has  no  sec- 
ond person  plur.,  151, 164.  The 
imperat.  perf.  passive,  587. 

imperfect  of  the  indicative,  502  ; 
the  imperfect  in  hypothetical 
sentences,  524  ;  used  instead 
of  the  pluperfect,  525,  528. 

imperfect,  of  the  subjunctive,  in 
doubtful  questions,  530,  note  ; 
its  difference  from  the  perfect 
of  the  subjunct.,  504. 

imperitus,  construction  of,  436. 

impersonal  verbs,  with  the  accu- 
sat.,  390  ;  with  the  genit.,  441  ; 
with  the  ablat ,  464  ;  with  the 
dative,  412. 

impertire,  418. 

!  impetrare  vt,  618. 


580 


INDEX. 


implere,  463. 

imponere,  490. 

impos,  436. 

impotens,  436. 

imprimere,  416. 

imprimis,  meaning  of,  273. 

impune,  adverb,  267. 

in,  meaning  of,  314,  foil ;  with 
the  accusative  instead  of  the 
ablative,  316;  with  the  abla- 
tive in  answer  to  the  question 
"whither"?  "489;  omitted  in  ex- 
pressions denoting  place,  481, 
482  ;  in  expressions  denoting 
time,  475  ;  with  names  of 
towns,  398.  In  manibus  esse, 
habere,  316  ;  in  dies,  with  com- 
paratives, 315. 

in,  the  negative  prefix  in  com- 
pounds, 328. 

inanis,  437,  note  2. 

incassum,  meaning  of,  275. 

incedere,  387. 

incertum  cst  an,  354. 

inchoatives,  234 ;  list  of  them, 
204,  foil. 

inciditut,  621. 

incommodare,  412. 

increpare,  446. 

incumbere,  415,  416 

incuriosus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

incus  are,  446. 

inde,  344,  note. 

indicative,  in  sentences  of  a  con- 
dicio  irnperfecta,  518,  519,  b., 
520,  521,  522  ;  in  inserted  clau- 
ses, 516  ;  as  a  circumlocution. 
547,  548. 

indigere,  463. 

indignari,  629. 

indignus  qui,  with  the  subjunct., 
568  ;  indignus  with  the  abla- 
tive, 467. 

indirect  speech,  545,  foil.,  603. 

induere,  418. 

inesse,  415,  416. 

infamare,  446. 

infinitive  perfect,  instead  of  the 
infinit.  present,  590,  611 ;  infin- 
it.  future  with  verbs  of  promis- 
ing and  hoping,  605 ;  infinit. 
future,  paraphrased;  the  his- 
torical infinit.,  599,  note  ;  the 


infinit.  as  the  subject,  597, 598 ; 
as  the  object,  597;  as  the  pred- 
icate, 600,  note.  The  infinit. 
with  relative  adjectives  is  po- 
etical, 598,  659,  in  fin.  ;  the  in- 
finit. instead  of  the  genit.  of 
the  gerund,  659  ;  instead  of  ut 
with  the  subjunct.,  616. 

infinitum  est,  the  indicat.  instead 
of  the  subjunct.,  520. 

infra,  meaning  of,  300. 

inimicitiae,  a  plurale  tantum,  94. 

inimicus,  with  the  dative  and 
genit.,  410. 

initio,  at  first,  without  a  preposit., 
495. 

innitor,  452. 

inquam,  "  I  say,"  739. 

inquit,  ellipsis  of,  772  ;  its  posi- 
tion, 802. 

insatiabilis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

inscius,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

inscribere,  416,  490. 

insculpere,  490. 

inserere,  490. 

insimulare,  446. 

insolens,  436. 

insolitus,  436. 

inspergere,  418. 

ins  tar,  89. 

instituo,  615. 

insuesco,  416. 

insuetus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

insumere,  with  the  dat.  of  the  ge- 
rund, 664. 

integrum  cst  ut,  623. 

intentum  esse,  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664. 

inter,  meaning  of,  300  ;  with  the 
gerund,  666 ;  instead  of  the 
genitive,  430  ;  repetition  of, 
745. 

intercedere,  with  quominus  and  ne, 
543. 

inter -cinder e,  418. 

interdicere,  418,  469. 

inter diu,  475. 

intered,  270. 

interea  loci,  434. 

inter  esse,  construction  of,  415, 
449,  745. 

interjections,  359,  foil. ;  construc- 
tion of,  403. 


INDEX. 


581 


interrogare,  with  two  accusat., 
393  ;  with  the  genit.,  446. 

interrogative  particles,  351,  note. 
Interrogative  sentences,  552, 
553,  554  ;  in  the  accusat.  with 
the  infinit.,  603. 

mtra,  meaning  of,  300. 

intransitive  verbs  used  in  a  tran- 
sitive sense,  and  governing  the 
accusat.,  383  ;  with  the  dative, 
412. 

invadere,  387. 

invenire,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 

inveniuntur  qui,  with  the  subjunc- 
tive, 561. 

inventum,  as  a  substant.  joined 
with  an  adverb,  722. 

invidere,  412,  413. 

invidendus,  as  an  adjective,  657. 

— inus,  the  termination,  252. 

inutilis,  409  ;  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664. 

— is,  the  termination,  237, 

Ionic  verse,  852,  foil. 

ipse,  meaning  of,  125,  note,  695, 
702  ;  used  as  the  subject,  696  ; 
with  possessive  pronouns,  696, 
note ;  in  the  oblique  cases,  702. 
Ipsum  joined  to  an  infinitive, 
598  ;  to  nunc  and  turn,  270  ;  et 
ipse,  instead  of  etiam,  698. 

irasci,  with  the  dative,  412 ;  its 
perfect  succensui,  209. 

ire,  with  the  supine,  669. 

irony,  implied  in  certain  particles, 
345,  note,  526. 

is,  meaning  of,  127;  at  the  be- 
ginning of  a  sentence,  699  ; 
instead  of  the  reflective  pro- 
noun, 604 ;  ellipsis  of,  765,  766 ; 
used  pleonastically  with  qui- 
dem,  744  ;  isque,  et  is  (quidem), 
699  ;  is— qui,  556,  704. 

is  (m),  in  the  accusat.  plur.  in- 
stead of  es,  68,  note. 

— is,  dropped  in  the  preterite 
tenses,  161. 

islands,  names  of,  construction 
of,  398,  note  1. 

istac,  291. 

iste,  meaning  of,  127,  701 ;  iste 
joined  with  talis  and  tantus, 
701,  note. 


istic,  istuc,  istinc,  adverbs  ol  place, 

291. 

isto,  as  an  adverb,  291,  note. 
istud,  with  the  genitive,  432. 
ita,  281,  726 ;  used  pleonastically, 

748  ;  ita.  ut,  726. 
itaque,   344,  note ;  its  position, 

355;  comp.  739. 
— itas,  the  termination,  246. 
iterum,  123. 
itinere,  without  the  preposit.  in, 

482. 

jubeor  facere,  vetor,  607. 
jubere,  construction  of,  412  ;  with 

the  accus.  with  the  infinit.  &c., 

617. 
jucundus,  with  the  supine,  infinit., 

or  ad,  671. 
judicare,  with  two  accusat.,  394  ; 

with  the  genit.  of  a  crime,  446. 
jugerum,  declension  of,   97 ;   its 

meaning,  875. 
— ium,    derivative    termination, 

241. 
— ium,  in  the  genit.  plur.  of  the 

third  declens.,  66. 
junctus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  474. 
Juppiter,  declension  of,  69. 
— ius,  quantity  of,  16  ;  termina- 
tion, 251,  6. 
juratus,  with  an  active  meaning, 

123. 

juris  (e)  consultus,  437,  note  2. 
justum  erat,  the  indicat.  instead 

of  the  subjunct.,  518. 
juvare,  388  ;  juvat  me,  390,  note. 
juxta,  as  an  adverb,  323 ;  juxta 

ac  (atque),  340,  note. 

K,  the  letter,  5. 

Labor  are,  452. 

laetari,  with  the  ablat.,  452. 

latet  me  and  mihi,  390,  note. 

lavere,  instead  of  lavare,  171. 

laurus,  declension  of,  97. 

laxare,  468. 

Icgatus,  joined  with  the  genit. 

and  dative,  681. 
lege,  472,  note  1. 
legem  dare,  construction  of,  617. 
— lentus,  the  termination,  252, 10. 
levare,  468. 


582 


INDEX, 


liberarc,    with   the   genit.,   446  ; 

with  the  ablat.  aJone,  or  with 

ab,  468 
liber,  468. 

licere,  with  the  genit.,  444. 
licet,  construed  as  a  conjunction, 

574  ;  licet  esse,  with  the  accus. 

and  the  dative,  601  ;  with  the 

infinit.    act.    and    pass.,   608 ; 

with  the  subjunct.,  624 ;  licet, 

the  indicat.  instead  of  the  sub- 
junct., 518 ;  used  pleonastical- 

ly,  750. 
litterae,  orthography  of,  12  ;  with 

distributive     numerals,     119  ; 

with  possessive  pronouns,  684. 
locare,  with  the  genit.,  444  ;  with 

in  and  the   ablat.,  489  ;  with 

participle  fut.  pass.,  653. 
,  locorum,  434;  loci  and  loca, 

difference  between,  99. 
loco  and  locis,  without  the  prepos. 

in,  481. 
locus,  in  apposition  to  names  of 

towns,  399. 
logaoedic  verse,  858. 
long  syllables,  15  ;  long  vowels, 

16,  note  1  ;  in  certain  words, 

17. 

longc,  with  comparatives  and  su- 
perlatives, 108. 
longus,  with  the  accusat.,  395. 
longum  est,  the  indicat.  instead 

of  the  subjunct.,  520. 
luci,  in  the  phrase  cum  primo  luci, 

78,  note. 
htdere,  transitive  and  intransitive, 

383. 
ludis,  in  answer  to  the  question 

"  when  ?"  475,  note. 
— lus,  la,  lum,  the  termination, 

240. 

Mactare,  418. 

macte,  103,  and  macti,  453. 

magis,  used  in  circumlocutions, 

106,  114,  690;  pleonastically, 

747. 

magnamy  maximum  par  tern,  459. 
magni,  parvi,  &c.,  with  the  verbs 

of  estimating,  444,  445. 
magno,  parvo,  &c.,  with  the  verbs 

of  buying,  445. 


maledicere,  412. 

malim,  with  the  subjunct.,  624. 

malle,  construction  of,  488. 

mallem,  meaning  of,  528". 

mandare,  617. 

mane,  89,  270. 

manere,  with  the  accusat.,  383. 

manifestus,  with  the  genit.,  446, 
note. 

mare,  ellipsis  of,  763. 

me,  before  the  names  of  gods, 
361,  note. 

mederi,  with  the  dative,  412. 

medicari  and  medicare,  construc- 
tion of,  413. 

meditari  ut,  614. 

mediusfidius,  361,  note. 

meherculc,  361,  note. 

melius  erat,  the  indicat.  instead 
of  the  subjunct.,  518. 

melos,  mclus,  and  melum,  89. 

memini,  construction  of,  439,  440, 
with  the  infinit.  present,  589. 

memor,  436. 

— men,  the  termination,  238. 

in  mentem  venit,  construction  of, 
439,  440. 

— mentum,  the  termination,  238. 

—met,  the  suffix,  131,  139. 

metuens,  with  the  genit.,  438. 

mctucre,  construction  of,  414,  533. 

mcum  est,  448. 

mi,  for  mihi,  131. 

mihi  crede,  instead  ofprofecto,  801. 

mile,  Roman,  875. 

miles,  instead  ofmilites,  364. 

militia,  construed  like  the  names 
of  towns,  400. 

military  expressions  without  the 
prepos.  cum,  473. 

millc  and  milia,  116 

millies,  in  the  sense  of  "  very 
often,"  692. 

million,  how  expressed,  115. 

minimum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

ministrare,  construction  of,  412, 
653. 

minus,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  in- 
stead of  non,  731  ;  without 
quam,  397,  485. 

miror,  629. 

miser ari,  442. 

miser escere  and  misereri,  442. 


INDEX. 


583 


miser et,  390,  441. 

mittere,  with  the  particip.  fut. 
pass.,  653 ;  with  the  particip. 
fut.  act.,  668. 

mode  of  an  action,  271. 

moderari,  414. 

modi,  joined  with  a  pronoun,  sup- 
plies the  place  of  a  pronoun  of 
quality,  678. 

modo,  472,  note  1. 

modo — modo,  723. 

modo  non,  i.  e.,  "  nearly,"  729. 

modo  ne,  572. 

modus,  used  in  circumlocutions, 
678. 

monere,  with  ut,  or  the  accus. 
with  the  infinit.,  615 

mora,  in  verse,  826. 

mos  or  moris  est,  construction  of, 
622. 

movere,  as  an  intransitive  verb, 
145. 

mo-x,  meaning  of,  287. 

multi  et,  756. 

multo,  with  superlatives,  108  ; 
with  comparatives,  487. 

multum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

multus  and  plurimus,  the  singular 
instead  of  the  plural,  109. 

muta  cum  liquida,  31. 

mutare  and  commutare,  construc- 
tion of,  456. 

mutuo,  264. 

Nae,  360,  note. 

nam  and  enim,  345,  note ;  nam, 

namque,   345,  note,   739,   808, 

note, 
names  in  ius  used  as  adjectives, 

254. 

nascilur,  615. 
natu,  90,  670. 
natura  fert,  ut,  622,  in  fin. 
natus,  "  old,"  with  the  accusat, 

397;  with  the  ablat.,  451. 
nauci  habcre,  444,  note, 
we,  inseparable  particle,  330,  in  fin. 
ne,  24,  note,  347,  532,  573. 
ne,  the  interrogative  particle,  352, 

554  ;  with  the  accus.  with  the 

infinit.,  609. 
ne — ne,  a  poetical  and  unclassical 

form  of  a  question,  454. 


ne  aliquid,  708  ;  ne  multa,  ne  mul- 

tis,  ne  plura,  769  ;  ne  non,  535  ; 

after  vide,  754,  note. 
ne,  with  the  subjunct.  instead  of 

the  imperat.,  529,  note. 
ne,  with  the  imperative,  in  Plautus 

and  Terence,  585. 
nee — nee,  with  the  singular,  374. 
nee,  instead  of  ne — quidem,  277. 
nee,  instead  of  neu,  535,  in  fin. 
nee  ipse,  698. 
nee  is,  699. 
necne,  554. 
nee  non,  334. 
necesse,  103,  in  fin.  ;  necesse  est, 

construction  of,  625  ;  with  the 

infinit.  act.  and  pass.,  608. 
necesse  fuit,  the  indicat.  instead 

of  the  subjunct.,  519. 
nedum,  with  the  subjunct.,  573, 

724,  a. 

nefas,  with  the  supine  in  u,  670. 
negatives,  doubled,  337  ;  instead 

of  an  affirmative  expression, 

754,  foil. ;  joined  with  a  con- 
junction, 738. 

negligens,  with  the  genit.,  438. 
nego,  instead  of  non  dico,  799. 
negotium,  ellipsis  of,  448. 
nemo  and  nullus,  88,  676  ;  nemo 

est  qui,  with  the  subj  .,561;  nemo 

non,  755. 

nempe,  meaning  of,  278,  345,  note. 
nequa  and  nequae,  137,  note. 
nequaquam,  289. 
neque  and  et  non,  334. 
neque,  instead  of  et  ne,  535. 
neque — neque,  or  nee — nee,  neque 

— nee,  nee — neque,  338. 
neque  enim,  neque  vero,  neque  ta- 

men,  808. 

neque  (nee) — et  (que),  338. 
neque  non,  754. 
neque   quisquam,   ullus,   unquam, 

£c.,  738. 

nequicquam,  meaning  of,  275. 
ne — quidem,    277  ;    its    position, 

801. 

ne  quis,  137,  709,  738. 
nescio  an,  meaning  of,  354,  721 ; 

nescio  an  nullus,  nunquam,  721 ; 

nescio  quis,  equivalent  to  ali- 

quis,  553,  in  fin. 


584 


INDEX. 


nescius,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

neve,  347,  535,  585. 

neuter,  pronunciation  of,  1 ;  dif- 
ference between  neuter  and  ul- 
lus,  431. 

neuters  of  adjectives,  used  as 
adverbs,  267  ;  as  substantives 
with  a  genitive,  435 ;  neuters 
of  pronouns  with  intransitive 
verbs,  385  ;  neuters  of  pro- 
nouns, used  as  substant.  with 
a  genit.,  432,  433 ;  used  as 
substantives,  368  ;  the  neuters 
of  possessive  pronouns  used 
instead  of  the  genit.  of  personal 
pronouns,  448,  449. 

neutralia  passiva,  148. 

ni,  use  of,  343. 

nihil,  with  the  genitive,  432  ;  in- 
stead of  non,  677  ;  nihil  aliud 
quam,  735,  771  ;  nihil  est  quod, 
with  the  subjunct.,  562  ;  nihili 
facio,  444,  note  ;  nihil  non, 
755  ;  nihilo  secius,  283. 

nimirum,  271,  345,  note. 

nisi  and  si  non,  343 ;  nisi,  with 
the  indicat.,  526;  nisi,  "ex- 
cept," 732,  b.,  735  ;  nisi  forte, 
with  the  indicat.,  526  ;  nisi 
quod,  627  ;  nisi  vero,  with  the 
indicat.,  526. 

nocte,  noctu,  475. 

noli,  used  in  paraphrasing  the 
imperat.,  586. 

nolim,  with  the  subjunct.,  624. 

nollem,  meaning  of,  528. 

nomen  est,  construction  of,  421. 

nominare,  with  two  accusatives, 
394. 

nominative,  with  the  infinit.,  in 
the  case  of  the  passive  verbs 
of  thinking  and  declaring,  607 ; 
with  the  active  of  the  same, 
612.  Import  of  the  nomina- 
tive, 379 ;  nominative,  instead 
of  the  vocative,  492. 

nomine,  679. 

-non,  followed  by  a  negative,  754, 
in  fin. ;  non,  without  a  conjunc- 
tion, 781  ;  its  position,  799  ; 
non,  with  the  imperative,  585, 
note ;  difference  between  non 
and  haud,  277. 


nondum,  necdum,  &c.,  733. 

non  est  quod,  with  the  subjunct., 
562. 

non  ita,  non  item,  730. 

non  magis — quam,  725,  809. 

non  minus — quam,  725. 

non  modo — sed  (verum),  equivalent 
to  non  dicam — sed,  724,  809. 

non  modo,  instead  of  non  modo  non, 
724,  b. 

nonne,  352. 

non  nemo,  nihil,  nullus,  nunquam, 
755. 

nonnihil,  677. 

non  nisi,  "  only,"  755 ;  its  posi- 
tion, 801. 

non  possum  non,  754. 

non  quo  (quod,  quin),  536,  537, 
572. 

non  quia  non,  instead  of  non  quin, 
537. 

non  tarn — quam,  724. 

nos,  instead  of  ego,  and  noster  in- 
stead of  meus,  694. 

nostri  and  nostrum,  difference  be- 
tween, 431,  694. 

not,  expressed  by  parum,  minus, 
731 ;  by  non  item,  730,  b. 

not,  how  expressed  with  an  im- 
perat., 585. 

not  only — but  (also),  expressed 
by  non  solum — sed  etiam,  724  ; 
sed  et,  335. 

noun,  placed  in  the  dependent 
clause,  814;  proper  nouns  used 
as  adjectives,  258. 

novum  est  ut,  523. 

noxius,  with  the  genit.,  446,  note  ; 
with  the  dative  of  the  gerund, 
664. 

nubere,  with  the  dative,  406. 

nubilo,  646. 

nudius  tertius,  270. 

nullius  and  nullo,  instead  of  nemi- 
nis  and  nemine,  676. 

nullus  and  neuter,  difference  be- 
tween, 431 ;  nullus  est  qui,  with 
the  subjunct.,  561 ;  nullus,  676 ; 
used  for  non,  688  ;  nullus  non, 
755  ;  nullus  dubito,  688,  in  fin. 

num.,  meaning  of,  351,  note;  is 
not  used  in  double  questions, 
554 ;  num. — num,  in  poetical  and 


INDEX. 


585 


unclassical  forms  of  a  question, 

454,  in  fin. 

number,  of  the  verb  when  belong- 
ing to  several  subjects,  373, 
374 ;  when  they  are  connected 
by  cum,  375. 

numerals,  with  the  genitive,  429. 

numerus,  oratorical,  818  ;  poet- 
ical, 827. 

numqua  and  numquae,  137. 

numquid,  351,  note. 

nuncupare,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 

nunc — nunc,  723  ;  nunc  and  tune, 
732. 

nunquam  non,  755. 

nuntiatur,  like  dicitur,  with  the 
nominat.  and  the  infinit.,  607. 

•nuper,  287. 

nuspiam,  284. 

nusquam,  433. 

O,  instead  of  u  after  v,  2  ;  instead 

of  au,  2. 
o,  the  termination  of  verbs,  its 

quantity,  26,  note. 
o,  with  the  accusat.,  402 ;  with 

the  vocat.,  492. 
o  si,  with  the  subjunct.,  571. 
ob,  meaning  of,  300. 
obire,  387. 
oblivisci,  439. 
obruo,  460. 
obsequi,  388,  note  1. 
obstare,  with  quominus  and  ne,  543. 
obtrectare,  412,  413. 
obumbrare,  417. 
occumbere,  387. 
occurrit,  ut,  621,  a. 
oe,  the  diphthong,  2. 
Oedipus,  declension  of,  59. 
qfficere,  with  quominus  and  we,  543. 
oZerc,  383. 
oZ/i,  o//a  (from  ollus,  i.  e.,  z7/e),  132, 

note. 

omnino,  266,  note  2. 
omnium,  with  superlatives,  691. 
— on,  termination  of  the  genitive 

plur.,  73,  b. 
opera  med,  equivalent  to  per  me, 

455,  note. 

operam  dare,  ut,  614,  a. 
oportebat,  oportuit,  the  indicat.  in- 
stead of  the  subjunct.,  518. 


oportet,  construction  of,  600,  625. 
oppetere  mortem,  387. 
oppido,  107,  note,  266,  note  2. 
oppidum,  in  apposition  to  names 

of  towns,  399. 
oppleo,  460. 
optabilius  erat,  the  indicat.  for  the 

subjunct.,  518. 
optare,  610,  613. 
opus,  with  the  supine  in  u,  670  ; 

opus  est,  construction  of,  464, 

625 ;   with  the  infinit.  active 

and  passive,  608. 
— or,  the  termination,  236. 
oratio  obliqua,  603. 
orbare,  460. 
orbus,  462. 
ordine,  472,  note  1. 
ordo,  ellipsis  of,  763. 
oriundus,  meaning  of,  210. 
oro,    construction  of,    393,  615; 

ellipsis  of,  773. 
orthography,  12. 
ortus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  451  ; 

ortus  ab  aliquo,  451,  note. 
— osus,  the  termination,  252,  9. 

Paene  and  prope,  differ  from  fere 
and/mm;,  279. 

palam,  321. 

par  ac,  340,  note. 

par  erat,  the  indicat.  for  the  sub- 
junct., 518. 

parare,  with  the  infinit.  and  ut, 
611. 

parcere,  194 ;  with  the  dative,  412. 

pariter  ac,  340,  note. 

pars,  its  use  in  fractional  numer- 
als, 120  ;  ellipsis  of,  763  ;  pars 
— pars  with  the  plural,  367. 

particeps,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

participles,  with  the  genit.,  438  ; 
used  in  paraphrases,  454,  718. 

participle  perf.  pass.,  used  in  cir- 
cumlocution for  the  ablat.  de- 
noting cause,  454,  719  ;  deno- 
ting a  permanent  condition, 
495. 

participle  fut.  pass.,  its  significa- 
tion, 499,  631,  649  ;  in  the  in- 
finit., 596. 

participle  perfect  of  deponents,  in 
a  passive  sense,  632. 


586 


INDEX. 


participle,  used  for  the  infinit., 
636  ;  for  a  substantive,  637. 

participle  fut.  act.,  its  genit.  not 
in  use,  its  plural,  639  ;  in  the 
infinit.,  593. 

participle  perf.  pass.,  used  alone 
as  an  ablat.  absolute,  647. 

participle  perfect,  of  both  pass- 
ives and  deponents,  denoting 
merely  priority,  635. 

participle  fut.  pass.,  631,  649, 
foil.;  with  the  indicat.,  518; 
comp.,  650. 

participle  pres.  act.,  with  a  genit., 
438,  714. 

parti-m,  271,  723. 

parum,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  in 
the  sense  of  "  not  enough," 
731. 

parumper,  276. 

parvi,  see  magni. 

parvo,  see  magno. 

passive  verbs,  with  a  reflective 
meaning,  146  ;  with  the  accu- 
sative, 391,  note. 

passive  construction,  in  the  ac- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  606. 

pathetic  word,  789. 

patiens,  438. 

patior,  613. 

patrocinari,  with  the  dative,  412. 

patronymics,  245. 

paulisper,  276. 

pauio  and  aliquanto,  difference  be- 
tween, 488. 

peculiaris,  411. 

pecuniae,  ellipsis  of,  763. 

pcjor  and  deterior,  difference  be- 
tween, 111,  note. 

pellere,  468. 

pendere,  with  the  genit.,  444. 

penes,  meaning  of,  300. 

pcnsi  and  pili  habere,  444,  note. 

pentameter  verse,  846. 

penus,  penum,  84. 

— per,  the  suffix,  276. 

per,  meaning  of,  301  ;  used  to  de- 
note the  means,  455  ;  in  adju- 
rations, 794. 

per  and  prae,  strengthen  the 
meaning  of  adjectives,  107. 

pcrcontari,  393. 

perditum  ire,  for  perdcre,  669. 


perduim,  for  perdani)  162. 

perfect,  used  as  an  aorist,  513, 
foil. ;  perfect  indicat.,  500  ;  per- 
fect subjunct.,  equivalent  to 
the  present,  527. 

perficcre  ut,  618. 

pcrinde  and  proinde,  282  ;  perinde 
ac  (atque),  340,  note. 

period,  810;  its  structure,  810, 
foil. 

periodus  UOVOKU^OC,  810. 

peritus,  436. 

permittcrc,  with  the  infinit.  or  ut, 
613  ;  with  the  subjunct.  alone, 
624;  with  the  participle  fut. 
pass.,  653. 

Perseus,  declension  of,  52,  4. 

pcrsuadere,  407;  with  ut,  or  the 
accusat.  with  the  infinit.,  615  ; 
persuasum  mihi  habeo,  634. 

pertaesus,  construction  of,  442, 
633. 

pcrtinerc,  ellipsis  of,  770. 

petere,  construction  of,  393  ;  with 
ut,  615. 

phalaecian  verse,  860. 

piget,  construction  of,  390,  441. 

plane,  263,  in  fin. 

plenus,  with  the  genit.,  437,  2. 

pleonasm,  742,  foil.  ;  in  quoting 
the  words  of  another  person, 
749  ;  in  certain  verbs,  750. 

plerique  and  plurimi,  difference 
between,  109,  note. 

plerumque,  266. 

pluperfect,  in  English  and  Latin, 
505  ;  how  used  by  historians, 
508. 

plural  of  verbs  with  collective 
nouns,  366 ;  the  plural  of  ab- 
stract nouns,  92  ;  the  plural  of 
pronouns  instead  of  the  singu- 
lar, 694 ;  in  praenomens  and 
cognomens  common  to  several 
persons,  785. 

pluralia  tantum,  93. 

plurimi  and  plerique,  difference 
between,  109,  note ;  plurimi, 
444. 

plurimo,  445. 

plurimum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

plus,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  rarely 
used  for  magis,  725 ;  non  plus 


INDEX. 


587 


for  non  magis,  725  ;  plus  with- 
out guarn,  485. 
poenitendus,  used  as  an  adjective, 

657. 
poenitet,  construction  of,  390,  441, 

442. 
poetical  arrangement  of  words, 

795. 

polleo,  460. 

pondo  libram,  libras,  428. 
pondo,  87. 
pone,  302. 
poncre,  489. 

pono,  posui,  positum,  18,  3. 
porro,  meaning  of,  289,  348,  note. 
poscerc,  construction  of,  393 ;  with 

ut  or  the  accus.  with  the  infin- 

it.,  613  ;  with  the  subjunctive 

alone,  624. 
position,  30,  31. 
possessive  pronouns,  ellipsis  of, 

768. 

possum,  for  posse  m,  520. 
post,  with  the  ablat.,  476 ;  with 

the  accusat ,  477,  478. 
postea,  276,  in  fin. ;  posted  loci,  434. 
posterior  and  postremns,  for  postc- 

rius  and  postremum,  686. 
postquam   and  posteaquam,   with 

the  perfect  indicat.,  506  ;  with 

the   imperfect   or   pluperfect, 

507. 
postulare,   construction   of,    393, 

613  ;  with  the  genii.,  446. 
potcns,  with  the  genit.,  436. 
poterat,  the  indicat.  for  the  sub- 

junct.,  518. 
potiri,  465,  466. 
potius,  used  pleonastically,  747  ; 

ellipsis  of,  779. 
si  potuero,  510. 
potus,  pransus,  in  an  active  sense, 

633. 

/j-prae,  meaning  of,  107,  310. 
praebere,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 
praeccderc,  387. 
praecipue,  273. 
praeditus,  460  ;  ellipsis  of,  471, 

note. 

praeesse,  415. 
praefcctus,  with  the   genit.    and 

dative,  681. 
praescribere,  617. 


pracsentc  and  pracsenti,  difference 
between,  64,  note  1. 

praesertim,  meaning  of,  273. 

praestare,  with  the  dative,  387 ; 
with  two  accusat.,  394 ;  with 
the  ablat.,  488. 

praestolari,  207,  413. 

praeter,  meaning  of,  302  ;  used  as 
an  adverb,  323  ;  praeter  modum, 
302. 

praeterea,  270. 

praeterquam  quod,  627,  735. 

praeterit  me,  390,  note. 

praevcrtor,  deponent,  209  ;  con- 
struction of,  417. 

precari,  615. 

prece,  defective  in  the  singular, 
89. 

predicate,  365  ;  its  number,  373  ; 
its  gender,  376. 

prepositions,  put  after  their  case, 
324 ;  inseparable  prepositions, 
330  ;  prepositions  used  as  ad- 
verbs, 323 ;  in  composition  with 
other  words,  325 ;  their  posi- 
tion, 324,  794;  expressed  by 
participles,  454 ;  repeated,  745  ; 
ellipsis  of  prepositions,  778. 

present  tense,  used  for  the  future, 
510 ;  as  an  historical  tense, 
501. 

pretii  and  pretio,  ellipsis  of,  445. 

prior  and  primus,  for  prius  and 
primum,  686. 

prius,  used  pleonastically,  717,  in 
fin. 

priusquam,  576. 

pro,  meaning  of,  311  ;  pro  nihilo 
haberc,  444,  note. 

pro  co,  and  proinde  ac,  340,  note. 

pro  se  quisque,  312  ;  with  the  plu- 
ral of  the  verb,  367. 

probare  alicui,  meaning  of,  419, 
note. 

procul,  321. 

profecto,  266,  note  2. 

prohibere,  construction  of,  468 ; 
with  quominus  and  ne,  543 ; 
with  the  infinit.,  544 ;  espe- 
cially in  the  passive,  607. 

proin,  makes  one  syllable,  11. 

proinde,  282,  344,  note. 

pronoun,  relative,  in  the  gender 


588 


INDEX. 


and  number  of  the  noun  fol- 
lowing, 372  ;  attracts  the  noun 
of  the  leading  sentence,  814. 
Personal  pronouns,  how  their 
genit.  arose,  660  ;  with  the  ac- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  604; 
use,  693.  Possessive  pronouns, 
omitted,  768  ;  used  for  the  per- 
sonal ones  with  a  preposition, 
424,  684. 

pronominal  relationsr  expressed 
by  special  sentences,  715. 

prope,  267,  note  1,  323;  its  con- 
struction, 411  ;  propc  and  prop- 
ter,  802. 

propcmodum,  279. 

propmquus,  with  the  dative,  411. 

proprium,  ellipsis  of,  448. 

proprius,  construction  of,  411. 

propter,  meaning  of,  302  ;  used  as 
an  adverb,  265,  note  1,  323. 

prospiccre,  414. 

prostare,  444. 

proverbs,  elliptical  expressions 
in,  759,  776. 

protinus,  meaning  of,  272. 

provider ~e,  construction  of,  414. 

providus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

prudcns,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

— pse,  the  suffix,  132,  in  fin. 

— pte,  appended  to  suo,  sua,  139, 
note. 

pudendus,  used  as  an  adjective, 
657. 

pudet,  construction  of,  390,  441, 
443. 

pugna,  for  in  pugna,  375,  note. 

pugnam  pugnare,  384. 

punior,  a  deponent,  206,  in  fin. 

purgare,  with  the  genit.,  446. 

purus,  construction  of,  468. 

putare,  with  two  accusatives,  394 ; 
with  the  genit.,  444  ;  used  ple- 
onastically,  750. 

putares,  528. 

Qu,  5,  31,  106,  note. 

qua,  as  a  correlative,  288. 

qua — qua,  723. 

(/Macro,  construction  of,  393. 

quaeso,  223;  with  the  accusat., 

393. 
qualis,  765,  note. 


qualisqualis,  128.    * 

qualis — tails,  704. 

quam  and  ac,  340 ;  quam,  with 
comparatives,  483,  484  ;  ellip- 
sis, of,  485  ;  with  superlatives, 
108,  689 ;  quam  or  quum  and 
ex  quo  after  ante  and  post,  478  ; 
quam  est  (erat),  ellipsis  of,  484, 
in  fin.  ;  quam,  with  the  sub- 
junctive after  comparatives, 
560,  note  ;  quam,  pro,  with 
comparatives,  484,  in  fin. ; 
quam  qui,  with  comparatives, 
560 ;  with  superlatives,  774, 
note. 

quamquam,  peculiar  use  of,  341, 
note  ;  construction  of,  574. 

quamvis,  construction  of,  574. 

quando,  quandoquidem,  meaning 
of,  346. 

quantity,  15,  foil. ;  of  derivative 
words,  17,  1 ;  of  Greek  words, 
16,  note  1 ;  of  derivative  syl- 
lables, 20. 

quanta,  with  comparatives,  487 

quantuluscunque,  with  the  indic- 
at.,  521. 

quantum,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

quantum  possum,  the  indicat.,  559. 

quantus,  for  quam  with  posse  with 
superlatives,  689  ;  quantus — 
tantus,  704  ;  quantuscunque, 
with  the  indicat.,  521. 

quasi,  adverb,  282  ;  with  the  sub- 
junct.,  572 ;  quasi  and  quasi 
vero,  used  in  an  ironical  sense, 
572,  716. 

que,  its   generalizing   character 

•  when  appended  to  pronouns 
and  adverbs,  288  ;  its  position, 
358  ;  used  pleonastically,  807  ; 
is  lengthened  in  verse  by  the 
arsis,  828,  in  fin. ;  difference 
between  que  and  et,  333 ;  que 
— et,  que — que,  338. 

queo  and  nequeo,  261. 

quit  the  ablat.,  133,  note  ;  quicam 
for  quocum  and  quacum,  133, 
note,  comp.  561,  in  fin. 

qui,  for  quis,  134  ;  difference  be- 
tween qui  and  quis,  134,  note. 

qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  556,  foil., 
559  ;  with  esse  and  a  substan- 


INDEX. 


589 


tive  instead  of  quo,  705 ;  qui 
vero,  qui  autem,  805. 

quiaf  meaning  of,  346. 

quicunque  and  quisquis,  difference 
between,  128  ;  quicunque,  with 
the  indicat..  521  ;  instead  of 
omnis  and  quivis,  706. 

quid,  with  the  genit.,  432  ;  in  the 
sense  of  cur,  677,  711  ;  quid 
and  aliquid,  708 ;  quid  aliud 
quam,  771  ;  quid  est  quod,  with 
the  subjunct.,  562  ;  quid  mihi 
cum  hac  re  ?  770  ;  quid  ?  quid 
censes  1  769  ;  quid  ergo  ?  quid 
enim  1  quid  ita  1  quid  turn  1  quid 
quod  ?  quid  multa  1  quid  plura  1 
769. 

quidam,  meaning  of,  129,  707. 

quidem,  its  meaning  and  position, 
278,  355,  801. 

quidquam  or  quicquam,  137  ;  used 
as  an  adverb,  677. 

quidquid,  with  the  genit.,  432. 

quilibet,  quivis,  137 ;  use  of,  710. 

quin,  538,  foil. ;  with  the  indicat., 
542  ;  with  the  imperative,  542  ; 
non  quin,  536  ;  quin  in  the  sense 
of  even  or  rather,  542,  in  fin. ; 
instead  of  quod  non  (accus.), 
539  ;  instead  of  quo  non,  after 
dies,  539  ;  after  dubito,  540. 

quippe,  346  ;  quippe  qui,  565. 

quippiam  and  quidquam,  with  the 
genit.,  432. 

quis(queis),  for  quibus,  133,  note. 

quis  and  qui,  difference  between, 
134,  note ;  between  quisnam 
and  quinam,  134;  quis  and  uter, 
431 ;  quis  and  aliquis,  136,  708  ; 
quis  est  qni,  with  the  subjunct., 
561. 

quispiam,  quisquam,.  and  aliquis, 
129,  708,  in  fin. 

quisquam,  129,  676,  709. 

quisque,  as  a  relative,  710 ;  joined 
with  the  superlative,  710,  b. ; 
position,  800 ;  pro  se  quisque, 
367. 

quisquis,  quicunque,  difference  be- 
tween, 128,  706  ;  quisquis,  with 
the  indicat.,  521. 

quo,  the  correlative,  288  ;  with  a 
comparative,  487;  for  ut  eo. 


536  ;  with  the  genit.,  434  ;  quo 
magis — eo  magis,  690,  note ; 
quo  mihi  hanc  rem  1  770  ;  quo 
secius,  544. 

quoad,  meaning  and  construction 
of,  575. 

quocum,  quacum,  quibuscum,  in- 
stead of  cum  quo,  qua,  &.C.,  324, 
in  fin. 

quod,  a  conjunction  expressing 
cause,  346  ;  with  the  subjunct. 
of  dicere,  putare,  551  ;  in  a  lim- 
iting sense,  quod  sciam,  quod 
intelligam,  559  ;  quod  in  the 
sense  of  "  in  regard  to,"  627  ; 
quod  is  unclassical  in  a  purely 
objective  proposition,  629. 

quod,  with  the  genit.,  432 ;  pre- 
fixed to  conjunctions,  quodsi, 
quodnisi,  &c.,  342,  note,  807. 

quorninus,  543. 

quoniam,  meaning  of.,  346. 

quopiam,  288. 

quoquam,  288. 

quoque  and  etiam,  difference  be- 
tween, 335  ;  its  position,  355. 

quotquot,  128  ;  construed  with  the 
indicat.,  521. 

quot — tot,  130. 

quotusquisque,  710 ;  quotusquisque 
est  qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  561. 

quum  and  cum,  5. 

quum,  the  chief  rule  concerning 
it,  579,  in  fin. ;  construed  with 
the  indicat.  and  subjunct.,  577, 
578,  foil.  ;  with  the  present 
indicat.,  580  ;  with  the  perfect, 
581  ;  with  the  historical  infinit., 
522 ;  in  lively  descriptions, 
580  ;  difference  between  quum 
and  si,  579,  note ;  quumprimum, 
with  the  perfect  indicat.,  506  ; 
quum — turn,  723,  809. 

quummaxime  and  tummaxime,  285. 

R  and  s,  kindred  sounds,  7. 
raptum  ire,  for  rapere,  669. 
ratio,    used  in   circumlocutions, 

678  ;  ratione  472,  note  1. 
— re,  the  termination  for  ris,  166. 
re,  the  inseparable  preposition, 

330. 
reapse,  132. 


590 


INDEX. 


recens,  an  adverb,  267. 

rccordari,  with  the  genit.,  439. 

rectum  est,  ut,  623- 

recusare,  with  quominus  and  nc, 
543. 

reddere,  equivalent  to  facerc,  394  ; 
rcddi,  equivalent  to  fieri,  is  rare, 
394,  note  1. 

rcdolere,  with  the  accusat.,  383. 

refert,  23,  in  fin. ;  449,  note. 

refertus,  construction  of,  437,  2, 
462. 

regnare,  with  the  genit.  (Horat), 
466. 

relative  adjectives,  with  the  gen- 
itive, 436  ;  the  same  principle 
applied  to  other  adjectives,  437. 

relative  clauses,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  accusat.  with  the 
infinit.,  603  ;  in  relation  to  two 
different  sentences,  804. 

relative  construction,  changed 
into  the  demonstrative  one, 
806. 

relative  pronouns,  used  instead 
of  demonstrative  ones  with  et, 
803  ;  joined  with  conjunctions, 
545,  547  ;  in  quoting  the  senti- 
ments of  another  person,  549  ; 
used  for  ut,  556,  560,  567  ;  in 
general  expressions,  561 ;  used 
for  quum,  564 ;  after  dignus, 
&c.,  568  ;  to  express  a  repeat- 
ed action,  569. 

relinquitur  ut,  621. 

reliqua,  "  for  the  rest,"  459. 

reliquum  est  ut,  621. 

reminisci,  construction  of,  439. 

remunerari,  461. 

repente,  272. 

reperire,  with  two  accusat.,  394. 

reperiuntur  qui,  with  the  subjunct., 
561. 

repetundarum,  763. 

reponere,  490. 

reposcere,  with  two  accusatives, 
393. 

rcpugnarc,  with  quominus  and  ne, 
543. 

res,  used  in  circumlocutions,  678. 

resipere,  construction  of,  383. 

restat  ut,  621. 

rcvcrtor,  as  a  deponent,  209,  in  fin. 


reum  facerc,  with  the  genit.,  446. 
reus,  with  the  genit.,  446,  note, 
rhythm,  of  speech,  818  ;  of  verse, 

827. 

— rimus,  — ritis,  termination,  165. 
rite,  280. 
rivers,  names  of,  in  us,  used  as 

adjectives,  257. 
rogarc,    with    two    accusatives, 

393  ;  with  ut,  615. 
rudis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 
rursus,  used  pleonasticallyv  747, 

in  fin. 
rus,  construed  like  the  names  of 

towns,  400. 

Sacpe,  267,  note  1  ;  its  degrees 
of  comparison,  294. 

saltern,  meaning  of,  274. 

sapcrc,  with  the  accusat.,  383. 

Sapphic  verse,  862,  865. 

sat,  satis,  with  the  genit,  432; 
satis  csse,  with  the  dative  of 
the  gerund,  664;  satis  habeo, 
and  satis  mihi  est,  with  the  in- 
finit. perfect,  590. 

satrapes,  declension  of,  46. 

satus,  with  the  ablat.  alone,  451. 

sciens,  with  the  genit.,  438,  note. 

scilicet,  345,  note. 

scito  for  sci,  164. 

sc  and  suus,  in  explanatory  sen- 
tences with  the  accusat.  with 
the  infinit.,  604;  se  in  the  ac- 
cus.  with  the  infinit.,  after  the 
verbs  of  promising  and  hoping, 
605. 

sc,  the  inseparable  preposition, 
330. 

secundum,  meaning  of,  303. 

secus,  adverb,  283 ;  a  substan- 
tive for  sexus,  84,  89,  428. 

secutum  and  sequutum,  159,  in  fin. 

sed  and  autcm,  348,  note  ;  sed,  sed 
tarnen,  in  the  sense  of  "  I  say," 
739  ;  ellipsis  of  sed,  781  ;  sed 
et,  335  ;  sed  is,  699. 

semideponents,  148. 

semis,  87,  103. 

seorsus  and  seorsum,  290. 

sequor  and  sector,  with  the  accu- 
sative, 388. 

scquitur  ut,  621,  622. 


INDEX. 


591 


)  646. 

serere,  in  two  significations,  200, 
in  fin. 

servitutem  servire,  384. 

sestertius,  sestertium,  873. 

seu,  336  ;  seu — seu,  with  the  plu- 
ral of  the  predicate,  374. 

sexcenti,  sexcenties,  in  a  general 
and  indefinite  sense,  692. 

short  vowels,  16  ;  in  certain 
words,  17. 

si,  for  num,  354,  in  fin.  ;  differs 
from  quum,  579,  note  ;  ellipsis 
of,  780  ;  si  quid  and  aliquid, 
708  ;  si  and  nisi,  with  the  im- 
perfect subjunct.  instead  of  the 
pluperfect,  525  ;  si  minus,  343  ; 
si  nihil  aliud,  771 ;  si  quisquam, 
710. 

sibi,  used  pleonastically  with  suo, 
746. 

sic,  281 ;  used  pleonastically,  748, 
has  different  accents,  33,  note. 

sicut,  meaning  of,  282  ;  with  the 
subjunct.,  572. 

siqua  and  siquae,  137,  note. 

siqui,  siquis,  136,  708,  740. 

similis,  with  the  genit.  and  dative, 
41 1, 704 ;  similiter  ac,  340,  note. 

simul,  with  the  ablat.,  321 ;  sirnul 
—simul,  723. 

simulac  and  simulatque,  with  the 
perfect  indicat.,  506  ;  with  the 
pluperfect,  507. 

sin,  342 ;  sin  minus,  sin  aliter, 
343,  731.  , 

sine  ullo,  &c.,  709. 

singular,  the,  has  a  collective 
meaning  in  the  names  of  dif- 
ferent fruits,  92  ;  is  used  for 
the  plural,  364,  373,  note  1 . 

singuli,  119. 

siquidcm,  346. 

sis,  for  si  vis,  360. 

sive,  meaning  of,  336  ;  sive — sive, 
339,  374,  522. 

wdes,  360. 

solere,  for  saepe,  720. 

solum,  274. 

solus,  for  solum,  tantum,  modo,  687. 

spoliare,  with  the  ablat.,  460. 
sponte,  90. 

stare,  with  the  genit.,  444;  with 


the  ablat.,  452;  stat  per  me, 
construction  of,  543  ;  stare  ab 
aliquo,  304,  b. 

statim,  272. 

statuere,  construction  of,  489 ; 
with  the  infinit.  and  ut,  611. 

sterilis,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

strophe,  S31. 

studere,  with  the  dative,  412  ; 
with  the  infinit.  or  ut,  610, 
614;  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  664. 

studiosus,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

suadeo,  615. 

sub,  meaning  of,  319. 

subject  and  predicate,  362,  foil. 

subjunctive,  of  the  future,  496, 
497  ;  subjunctive  in  Latin  and 
English,  512 ;  in  hypothetical 
sentences,  524;  in  interroga- 
tive sentences,  552,  553  ;  after 
relative  pronouns,  555,  foil.  ; 
in  explanatory  clauses,  545, 
foil.  ;  the  subjunctive  of  the 
present  and  perfect,  instead  of 
the  indicat.  of  the  future,  527  ; 
subjunctivusconcessivus,  529 ; 
in  doubtful  questions,  530  ;  the 
subjunctive  without  ut,  625  ; 
subjunct.  of  the  present,  used 
as  an  imperative,  386,  529 ; 
subjunct.  perfect  the  same  as 
the  subjunct.  of  the  future  per- 
fect, 497,  524;  the  subjunct. 
perfect,  a  softened  indicative, 
527  ;  subjunct.  perfect,  instead 
of  the  subjunct.  present,  528  ; 
instead  of  the  indicat.,  551  ; 
subjunctive  denoting  repeated 
actions,  569. 

subito,  meaning  of,  272. 

sublime,  an  adverb,  267. 

substance  and  origin  of  things, 
expressed  by  a  termination, 
250,  252. 

substantives,  verbal,  used  only 
in  the  ablat.  sing.,  90,  in  fin.  ; 
substantiva  mobilia,  used  as 
adjectives,  102  ;  comp.  41, 
365  ;  verbal  substantives,  con- 
strued like  their  verbs,  681  ; 
substantives  expressed  by  a 
participle.  637;  used  instead 


592 


INDEX. 


of  participles,  644 ;  used  as  ad- 
jectives, 257,  foil.  ;  instead  of 
adjectives,  102,  672 ;  in  cir- 
cumlocutions, 678 ;  pleonas- 
tically,  773  ;  substantives,  par- 
aphrased by  qui  with  a  verb, 
714;  two  substantives  con- 
nected by  a  preposition  and 
extended  into  a  proposition, 
715 ;  two  substantives  joined 
together,  the  latter  of  which 
defines  the  former,  741. 

subter,  320,  in  fin.,  489. 

succensere,  construction  of,  412, 
413. 

sujficcre,  with  the  dative  of  the 
gerund,  660. 

sui,  sibi,  se,  125,  note  ;  in  paren- 
thetical clauses,  550  ;  sui  for 
se,  with  the  genit.  of  the  ge- 
rund, 660. 

summe  and  maxime,  106. 

summum,  271. 

sunt  qui,  with  the  subjunct.,  563  ; 
sunt,  ellipsis  of,  776. 

super,  meaning  of,  320. 

super  are,  with  the  ablat.,  488. 

superesse,  construction  of,  415. 

super est  ut,  621. 

superlative,  its  formation,  104, 
3, 105,  109,  foil. ;  strengthened, 
108  ;  with  the  genit.,  429. 

supersedere,  construction  of,  416. 

superstes,  construction  of,  411. 

supine,  153,  note  ;  668,  foil. 

supplicare,  with  the  dative,  406. 

supra,  meaning  of,  303. 

sus,  declension  of,  69. 

suscipere,  with  the  participle  fut. 
pass.,  653. 

susluli,  not  derived  from  sufferre, 
213. 

suus,  instead  of  cjus,  550  ;  oppo- 
sed to  alienus,  125,  550  ;  suus 
sibi,  746. 

syllables,  division  of  words  into, 
14,  2  ;  doubtful  syllables,  829. 

synaeresis,  11. 

synesis,  constructio  ad  synesim, 
368. 

syncope,  in  verbs,  160. 

Tacdet,  construction  of,  390,  441. 


talentum,  874. 

talis,  followed  by  qui,  and  ellipsis 
of,  556, 557  ;  talis  ac,  340,  note ; 
talis — qualis,  704. 

tarn,  281  ;  tam—quam,  374,  724. 

tamen,  used  pleonastically,  341, 
note. 

tamquam,  an  adverb,  282  ;  a  con- 
junction, 572. 

tandem,  meaning  of,  287. 

tanti  est,  444,  note  1. 

tantisper,  276. 

tanto,  with  comparatives,  487. 

tantum,  "only,"  274;  with  the 
genit.,  432  ;  tantum  abest  ut — 
ut,  779  ;  tantum  non,  729  ;  tan- 
tum ut,  726. 

tantus,  followed  by  qui,  and  ellip- 
sis of,  556,  557 ;  tantus — quan- 
tus,  704. 

taxare,  construction  of,  444. 

— te,  the  suffix,  131. 

temere,  280. 

temperare,  construction  of,  414. 

templum,  ellipsis  of,  762. 

tempore  and  in  tempore,  475. 

tempori,  "in  good  time,"  63,  note. 

tempus  est  abire  and  abeundi,  659  ; 
ellipsis  of  tempus,  763. 

tempus  impendere,  with  the  dative 
of  the  gerund,  664. 

tenax,  with  the  genit.,  436. 

teneri,  with  the  participle  perf. 
pass.,  592. 

tenses,  of  the  verb,  493,  foil.  ; 
tenses  of  the  subjunct.,  524 ; 
tenses  used  in  the  epistolary 
style,  503. 

tentare,  with  the  infin.  andut,  614. 

tenus,  meaning  of,  313. 

—ter,  264. 

Teos,  declension  of,  52,  3. 

terra  mariquc,  481. 

Thalcs,  declension  of,  71,  in  fin. 

Thebaicus  and  Thebanus,  differ- 
ence between,  256,  in  fin. 

thesis,  827. 

— ti,  pronunciation  of,  6. 

ti  or  ci,  orthography  of,  6,  note  1. 

time,  particles  expressing  time, 
270;  expressions  of  time  in 
the  accusat.,  395  ;  in  the  ablat., 
396. 


INDEX. 


593 


timens,  with  the  genit.,  438. 

timere,  construction  of,  414. 

titles,  where  they  are  placed  with 
names,  796. 

— tor,  trix,  102,  236. 

toto,  tota,  ablat.  without  in,  482. 

towns,  names  of  in  e,  in  the  ablat. 
e,  63,  b. ;  construction  of  names 
of  towns,  398. 

tradere,  with  the  participle  fut. 
pass.,  653. 

traditur,  construction  of,  507. 

tranquillo,  646. 

transjectus  and  transmissus,  con- 
struction of,  392. 

tribuere,  with  the  dative,  422. 

trochaic  verse,  832. 

— tudo,  the  termination,  247. 

tui,  feminine,  with  the  particip. 
fut.  pass,  in  the  masc.  gender, 
660. 

turn  and  tune,  difference  between, 
285  ;  turn  maxime,  270  ;  turn — 
turn,  723  ;  turn  temporis,  434. 

tu,  in  questions  expressive  of  in- 
dignation, 693. 

17,  instead  of  e,  2. 

v,  softened  down  into  u,  3,  note. 

u,  hardened  into  v,  3,  note,  11. 

vacare,  406. 

vacuusr  with  the  ablat.,  462,  468. 

va,e,  construction  of,  403. 

valde,  107,  266. 

valeo,  construction  of,  460,  463. 

vapulo,  148. 

ubi,  with  the  genit.,  434 ;  with 
the  perfect  indicat.,  506 ;  ubi- 
ubi,  128. 

—ye,  330,  in  fin.,  336,  337. 

vehementer,  264,  note  1. 

vehi,  construction  of,  455. 

vel  and  aut,  difference  between, 
336 ;  vel — vel,  339 ;  vel,  strength- 
ening, 734  ;  with  superlatives, 
108  ;  in  the  sense  of  "  for  ex- 
ample," 734. 

velim,  with  the  subjunct.,  527, 
624. 

velle,  construction  of,  424  ;  with 
the  infinit.  pass.,  611. 

vellem,  meaning  of,  528. 

velut,  "  for  example,"  282  ;  veiut, 


and  velut  si,  with  the  subjunct., 
572. 

vendere,  with  the  genit.  or  ablat., 
444  ;  its  passive  veneo,  187. 

venire,  with  the  dative,  422  ;  with 
the  genit.  and  ablat.,  444. 

venit  in  mentem,  construction  of, 
439,  foil. 

verbs,  neuter  passives,  148  ;  neu- 
ter verbs  joined  with  an  accu- 
sat.,  144,  385  ;  used  imperson- 
ally in  the  third  person  passive, 
144 ;  transitive  verbs,  used  as 
neuters,  143,  145 ;  verbs  with 
a  relative  pronoun  instead  of 
a  substantive,  714 ;  verbs  re- 
peated, 716,  717;  their  posi- 
tion, 787,  foil. ;  ellipsis  of  verbs, 
774 ;  verbs  compounded  with 
prepositions,  415  ;  with  trans, 
392  ;  passive  verbs  with  the 
dative,  419  ;  with  the  accusat., 
according  to  the  Greek  fashion, 
458. 

vere  and  vero,  266,  note  1. 

verisimile  est,  followed  by  the  ac- 
cusat. with  the  infinit.,  600  ;  by 
ut,  623. 

veritum  est,  used  impersonally, 
390. 

vero,  meaning  of,  266,  348  ;  use 
of  in  answers,  716  ;  in  the  ap- 
odosis,  716  ;  ellipsis  of,  781. 

verses,  feet  of,  826. 

versus,  the  preposition,  303. 

vertere,  in  a  reflective  sense,  145  ; 
with  the  dative,  422. 

verum,  verumtamen,  348,  note, 
739  ;  verum  enimvero,  349. 

verum  est,  followed  by  the  accu- 
sat. with  the  infinit.,  600 ;  by 
ut,  623. 

vesci,  construction  of,  465,  466. 

vestri  and  vestrum,  difference  be- 
tween, 431. 

vetare,  construction  of,  607,  617  ; 
with  quominus  and  ne,  543,  544. 

vi  and  per  vim,  difference  between, 
455,  note. 

via,  ablat.  without  in,  482. 

vicem,  instead  of  vice,  453. 

vicinus,  construction  of,  411. 

videlicet,  345,  note. 


594 


INDEX. 


viderc  ut,  614  ;  construed  like  the 
verbs  of  fearing,  534. 

vidcres,  cernercs,  meaning  of,  528, 
in  tin. 

videri,  construction  of,  380  ;  used 
pleonastically,  751. 

viri,  compounded  with  numerals, 
124. 

vitam  vivcre,  and  similar  expres- 
sions, 383,  in  fin. 

mtio  creati  magistratus,  472,  note. 

ullus,  129,  709. 

ultra,  meaning  of,  303;  adverb, 
323. 

ultro,  289. 

ultum  ire,  for  ulcisci,  669. 

— ulum,  the  termination,  239. 

— um,  instead  of  arum,  45  ;  in- 
stead of  orum,  51  ;  in  distribu- 
tive numerals,  119,  note  1. 

— um,  the  genit.  plur.  for  ium,  51. 

unde,  344  ;  with  the  genit.,  434. 

— unde,  344,  note. 

undecunque,  288. 

— undus,  instead  of  endus,  167. 

uni,  unae,  una,  115,  note. 

unquam,  284,  comp.  709,  a. 

unus,  for  solum,  tantum,  modo, 
687 ;  unus,  with  a  superlative 
and  excellere,  691. 

unusquisque,  declension  of,  138  ; 
meaning  of,  710. 

vocare,  with  two  accusatives,  394. 

vocative,  its  position,  492  ;  with 
interjections,  403. 

volam,  the  future,  use  of,  509. 

volo,  with  the  nominat.  or  the  ac- 
cusat.  with  the  infinit.,  610  ; 
with  the  infinit.  or  the  partici- 
ple perfect  pass.,  611;  with 
ut,  613  ;  with  the  subjunctive 
alone,  624  ;  si  voluero,  510. 

voti  and  votorum  damnari.  447. 

urbs,  used  in  apposition  to  names 
of  towns,  399. 

urinor,  207. 

— us,  the  termination,  237. 

uspiam,  284. 

usquam,  284 ;  with  the  genit.,  434. 

usque,  286,  322. 

usquequaque,  289,  in  fin. 


usu  vend  ut,  621. 

usus  est,  used  impersonally,  464. 

ut,  an  adverb  of  similitude,  282, 
531,  note  ;  a  conjunction  with 
the  subjunctive,  531,  613,  foil.  ; 
in  questions  expressive  of  in- 
dignation, 609  ;  with  the  per- 
fect indicat.,  506 ;  its  place, 
356  ;  ellipsis  of,  777 ;  ut  after 
adjective  expressions,  instead 
of  the  accusat.  with  the  infinit., 
623  ;  ut  in  the  sense  of  "  even 
if,"  and  in  negative  sentences, 
ut  non,  573  ;  ut,  equivalent  to 
"  because,"  726  ;  ut — ita  (sic), 
726  ;  ut  ne,  347,  note,  535  ;  ut 
non,  347,  note,  532,  573  ;  ut  non 
for  quin,  539  ;  ut  primum,  with 
the  perfect  indicat.,  506  ;  ut 
qui,  565. 

utcunque,  with  the  indicat.,  521. 

uter,  its  difference  from  quis,  431. 

utcr -que,  141,  note  2 ;  with  the 
plural  of  the  verb,  367 ;  with 
a  genit.,  430. 

uti,  construction  of,  465,  466. 

ulile,  est  ut,  623. 

utilis,  construction  of,  409  ;  with 
the  dative  of  the  gerund,  664 ; 
utilis  fuitt  518. 

utinam,  utinam  ne,  utinam  non, 
with  the  subjunct.,  571. 

utique,  282. 

utpote  qui,  565. 

utrique,  use  of,  141,  note  2. 

utrum,  352. 

utrumne,  in  double  questions,  554. 

utut,  128  ;  with  the  indicat.,  521. 

— uus,  the  termination,  249. 

uxor,  ellipsis  of,  761. 

Words,  their  accent,  in  reference 
to  rhythm,  828  ;  formation  of 
words,  231,  foil.  ;  arrangement 
of  words  in  the  formation  of 
sentences  in  prose,  786,  foil. ; 
in  poetical  compositions,  795. 

Y,  in  Greek  words,  1. 
Zeugma,  775. 


THE    END. 


VALUABLE  CLASSICAL  WORKS 

RECENTLY    PUBLISHED    BY 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  NEW-YORK, 

DESIGNED    FOR 

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ill. 

MILL'S  LOGIC,  RATIOCINATIVE  AND  INDUCTIVE, 
Being  a  connected  View  of  the  Principles  of  Evidence  and 
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IV. 

JACOBS'S  GREEK  READER, 

Greek  Reader.  Principally  from  Jacobs.  With  EnglisU 
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12mo.  Sheep  extra.  $1  75. 

v. 

A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE, 
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NEAL'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  PURITANS, 
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al Notes,  by  Rev.  John  O.  Choules.  2  vols.  8vo.  Portraits. 
Muslin  gilt.  $3  50. 

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JARVIS'S  NEW  CHRONOLOGICAL  INTRODUCTION, 
A  Chronological  Introduction  to  the  History  of  the  Church, 
being  a  new  Inquiry  into  the  True  Dates  of  the  Birth  and 
Death  of  Christ,  with  a  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  &c.  By  Rev. 
S.  F.  Jarvis,  D.D.  1  vol.  8vo.  Muslin  extra.  $3  00. 

IX. 

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and  also  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ.     By  Henry  Hunter.     8vo 
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The  Old  and  New  Testaments  connected,  in  the  History  of 
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LEWIS'S  PLATONIC  THEOLOGY, 
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logue on  Laws,  accompanied  with  Notes,  Critical  and  Philo- 
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York  Courier  and  Enquirer. 

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Reason.     By  Philip  Nicholas  Shuttleworth.     18mo.     Muslin. 
45  cents. 

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XXIV. 

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XXV. 

THE   REFORMERS  BEFORE  THE  REFORMATION, 
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Bonnechose.     Translated  by  Campbell  Mackenzie,  B.  A.     8vo. 
50  cents. 

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MMLVAINE'S   EVIDENCES  01-   CHRISTIANITY, 
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XXVIII. 

REFORMATION   IN   ENGLAND, 
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