ONTAA0,
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GRAMMAR
LATIN LANGUAGE,
LONDON :
ooDB and SHAW.
New-street-Square.
G R A M M A K
LATIN LANGUAGE.
BY
C. G. ZUMPT, PH.D.
PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY, AND MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY,
OF BERLIN.
TRANSLATED FROM THE NINTH EDITION OF THE ORIGINAL,
AND ADAPTED TO THE USE OF ENGLISH STUDENTS,
BY
LEONHARD SCHMITZ, PH.D., F.R.S.E.
RECTOR OF THE HIGH SCHOOL OF EDINBURGH.
WITH
NUMEROUS ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS BY THE AUTHOR.
SECOND EDITION."
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS,
PATERNOSTER-BOW.
1847.
THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION.
IN the year 1843 I received a letter from two English scholars
suggesting to me the necessity of a new translation of my Latin
grammar, and requesting my assistance in the undertaking.
Until then I had not been aware of the fact that the existing
translation, which had been made from the third edition of my
work (of which however it was not an exact representation, as
some portions of the original were omitted), had remained in its
original condition, and although it had gone through several
editions, yet had not been adequately improved and corrected,
while the German original, by continued labour on my part,
had, in its details, become quite a different work. This in-
formation was of course a sufficient reason for me to promise
my best aid and co-operation in the new translation ; for what-
ever considerations may have induced my learned translator
to allow my work to be printed again and again in its first and
imperfect form, it was to me a matter of the highest importance
that a nation which so highly prizes the study of philology and
takes so deep an interest in its progress, should be presented
with my work in the best and most perfect form that I am able
to give to it. It is unnecessary here to enter into the question
why the plan of a new translation was not carried into effect by
those gentlemen who originally proposed it to me, but I was
happy to hear that ultimately the execution had been entrusted
A 3
VI THE AUTHOR S PREFACE
to Dr. L. Schinitz, who, I feel convinced, has done all that can
be desired, both in point of correctness and good taste.
The Latin language is so rich and happy in its organization,
and has been so consistently developed by the energetic spirit
of the Roman people as well as by the exquisite tact of the
Roman authors, that a continued study of it is amply re-
warded. It is now upwards of thirty years that 1 have been
before the public as a writer on Latin grammar * ; my varied
studies have always led me back to this subject, and I may
truly declare, that during each fresh revision of my grammar,
when I was engaged in incorporating with my system the
observations I had made in the meantime, and in considering
the doubts and objections which had been raised in my mind, I
have become more and more convinced of the inexhaustible
mine of human wisdom which presents itself in the language of
a happily organized nation like the Romans. I am not speaking
here of the accidental matter contained in a grammar, nor of
the accumulation of similar passages, it will afford far greater
pleasure to the pupil to discover for himself in the authors whose
works he is reading passages which confirm or illustrate the
rules he has learned, nor of niceties of expression, for these
are curiosities rather than any thing else, but I mean real
philological discoveries and peculiarities, which arise from the
organic structure of the language, derive their explanation from
it, and in return throw light upon the whole fabric of the lan-
guage itself; and the result of all this is, that the general
principles are better ascertained and established. It is owing
to these continued studies that even the present translation of
the ninth edition of my Latin grammar has been enriched by
some not unimportant improvements, which I have communi-
cated in MS. to Dr. Schmitz, and it will henceforth be our
united endeavour to remedy every deficiency that may yet be
found.
* The first foundation of the present work was laid in a book which I
wrote for the use of my pupils under the title " Regeln der Lateinischen
Syntax, mit zwei Anhangen iiber die Grundregeln und die nach einem neuen
System geordneten unregelraiissigen Verba," Berlin, 1814, 8vo.
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. vii
My Latin grammar has met with great favour, or, as the
phrase is, " has been a very successful book," as I must infer
from the number of editions and copies that have been sold ;
but this success has not weakened my exertions in labour-
ing without interruption for its improvement. An author is
himself rarely able to point out that which has gained for his
production the favour of the public ; he is satisfied with being
able to labour for the realisation of his own ideas ; a com-
parison with the works of others does not concern him, nor
would it be becoming to him. But he can state the principle
which has guided him throughout his work ; and in reference
to the present grammar, this principle is no other than the
desire to trace the facts and phenomena of the language to
a philosophical or rational source. The facts as such must first
be established, and in this respect it has been my endeavour
to examine the texts of the authors, and not to allow myself
to be misled, as has been so often the case, by erroneous
traditions ; further, to distinguish between the periods of the
language, the different species of literary productions, the an-
cient and genuine from later and affected authors, and by
this means to ascertain that which is essential and peculiar to
the purest Latin idiom ; but in so doing I have not left un-
noticed those points which must be regarded as frequent or
otherwise justifiable deviations from the ordinary rules. It
is only those things which do not grow forth from the living
body of the language that must be passed over in silence.
In order to separate that which is genuine and ancient from
what is arbitrary or recent, I have adopted the method of
distinguishing between text and notes, the one being printed
in large and the other in small type, a distinction which
will, I think, be useful also to the teacher. Another great
point which I have always endeavoured to keep in view has
been a rational development of the rules from one another.
By this, however, I do not mean a demonstration of the
principles of universal grammar, that is, of those principles
which are common to all languages. I value this branch of
philology, as a sort of applied logic, indeed very highly, but my
A 4
Vlll THE AUTHORS PREFACE
opinion is that it can be studied with advantage only by those
who are acquainted with the languages of different nations, both
civilised and uncivilised, and I have confined myself to ex-
plaining the peculiarities of the Latin language and its charac-
teristic differences from the modern European languages of
Roman and Germanic origin, referring only now and then to its
connection with the Greek. But it is my endeavour to reduce
these peculiarities of the Latin language to simple and precise
principles, to proceed from the simple to the complex, and to
distinguish that which is in accordance with the rules from that
which is of a mixed nature. What I here say refers more
particularly to the syntax ; for in regard to etymology, it ought
not to be forgotten that the Latin language is something which
has been handed down to us in a given form, and which is to be
learned in this given form. It would have been easy to go back
to certain primitive forms which constitute the first elements
in the formation of the language, and thereby to explain many
an irregularity in the mixture of forms ; but in teaching a
language which is learned not only for the purpose of training
the intellect, but of using it in speaking and writing, the eye
and memory of the pupil ought not to be troubled with hypo-
thetical or assumed forms, which he is expected to forget, but
frequently does not forget, and which he is rather apt to take
for real forms. In etymology, a complete analogy alone can be
of practical use ; hence I have endeavoured to make the list of
irregular verbs and the section on the formation of words
important branches of grammar which had been much neglected
by my predecessors as complete as possible. In the syntax,
on the other hand, it is right that there should be a philosophical
development of the complex from the simple, taking that which
is peculiarly Latin as the groundwork. This part of my gram-
mar has arisen from dictations, which I made the basis of a
course of lectures on Latin syntax ; and I still believe that this
method is best suited to teach pupils not indeed the first be-
ginners, but those who have already made some progress in the
understanding of Latin sentences the whole of the Latin
syntax in a manner which is at once a training of their intellect
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. IX
aud their memory. Some example or other must be made the
basis ; it must be explained and impressed upon the memory as
a model for imitation. The examples given in the text of the
present grammar may serve this purpose ; all have been selected
with special care, and each contains a complete thought ex-
pressed in a classical form. The teacher must cause his pupils
to form a number of other similar sentences, and make the
pupils translate them from the vernacular tongue into Latin.
It is desirable that such sentences should be chosen with taste
or be carefully prepared for this purpose beforehand ; but as
their object is only to impress the rule upon the mind of the
learner, it is advisable to pay attention to variety of expression
rather than to particular neatness or elegance.
My Grammar further contains a section on the signification
of the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, which properly
speaking does not belong to grammar, but to a dictionary. But
it is nevertheless necessary, since the ordinary dictionaries are
partly incorrect and partly incomplete in their explanations of
these particles, which contain the life and soul of a language,
and since special books on the particles, such as were formerly
used in schools, are either no longer consulted or do not answer
the purposes for which they were written. The Syntax has
been enlarged by what is called Syntaxis ornata, and it is strange
that for this part of my work I have been censured by several
scholars, who thought it inconsistent with the strictly progressive
spirit of the Grammar, and the philosophical development of the
grammatical laws, because the observations which form the
substance of the Syntaxis ornata are not given as necessary
principles, but in the form of suggestions, which may be fol-
lowed or not, at discretion. But this is the very point which I
myself have expressly stated in the introduction to that part of
my work, where I direct attention to the difference between the
Syntaxis regularis and the Syntaxis ornata. But as those
observations on style point out so much that is correct, in-
genious, and peculiar to the Latin language, should they not
be made at all, because their application is left to choice? or
shall we allow them to stand in a somewhat looser connection,
X THE AUTHOli'S PREFACE
and arrange the different observations under rational and in-
telligible beads ? Surely the latter course must be preferred ;
and I see that my critics have, in fact, adopted the very same
method, except that what I have discussed in separate chapters,
on " Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech," on
"Pleonasm," "Ellipsis," "Arrangement of Words, and Con-
struction of Periods," is treated of by them under the heads of first,
second, and third Appendices. The real appendices in the present
work, on metres, measures, and weights, calendar, &c., are of a
different nature ; they do not indeed belong to grammar, but as
they contain information on matters important and necessary for
the understanding of the authors read in schools, and as this in-
formation is either not to be found elsewhere, or is not suf-
ficiently correct, no one, I hope, will grudge it a place at the end
of this Grammar.
I cannot part from the English reader without expressing my
delight at the vigour and energy with which classical studies
are prosecuted in Germany and England. In the former
country a fresh impulse was given to these studies some thirty
years ago, just at the tune when the nation was on the point of
losing its independence ; in England the revival of classical
studies must be dated, I believe, from the time that the contest
between idealism and realism became settled; and these two
branches of human knowledge have now arrived at a point
where they recognize each other in peaceful harmony, the one
exerting itself in exploring the treasures of nature, and the other
those of mind. Germany owes her safety to her free schools
and universities, and builds her hopes upon them; England,
to the energy of her people and to her public institutions ; and
the two countries might with advantage exchange some of their
excellencies. In England, the educational establishments and
teachers appear to be fettered by old traditional and conventional
forms ; while in Germany, the sublimest truths which are pro-
mulgated from the professorial chair, die within the lecture rooms
of the universities, and produce no fruit. But be the difference
between the two countries ever so great, the characteristics
of the educated men in both consist in their rising above the
TO THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION. xi
immediate necessities of time, place, and occupation, and in their
recognition of the connection existing between the individual
and the spirit of all mankind. Hence a knowledge of antiquity,
and of what it has produced, is necessary to every educated
person, in proportion to the influence it has exercised upon sub-t
sequent ages, and the study of antiquity will ever have the most
salutary effect upon man in elevating him above the trivial
wants of ordinary life, and affording him the means of mental
and intellectual culture. To those among my contemporaries,
who are anxious to obtain these advantages, I offer the present
work as a means of penetrating more deeply and more easily
into the spirit of the Roman classics and of Roman antiquity.
C. G. ZUMPT.
Berlin, Feb. 23. 1845.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
WHEN the honourable task of preparing a translation of the
Ninth Edition of Professor Zumpt's Latin Grammar had been
entrusted to me by the publishers, the Author himself most
willingly consented to co-operate with me in endeavouring to
present his work to the English public in as perfect a form as
possible. His professional engagements in the University of
Berlin have enabled him continually to improve the successive
editions of his Grammar, which has thus become infinitely su-
perior to what it was when originally translated. Scarcely a
year has elapsed since the publication of the ninth edition of the
original, yet the Author's unceasing labours in this department
of philology have enabled him already to collect a large number
of corrections and additions for future use ; and all the* im-
provements he has been kind enough to communicate to me in
manuscript for incorporation in the English translation, which
hence possesses considerable advantages over the German work.
In the etymological part of the present Grammar, some
additions might have been made here and there from English
sources, and some English scholars may perhaps be inclined to
censure me for having neglected to do so, since the etymology
of the Latin language has been studied by a few scholars in this
country more comprehensively than on the Continent. But
Professor Zumpt has abstained, on principle, from introducing
into his work etymological disquisitions which would have led
his readers beyond the immediate objects of his Grammar, and
it was impossible for me to set aside that principle, without
xiv TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
making material alterations in the first part of the present
work. I may also add that, on the whole, I coincide with
the Author's views on this point ; and even if I did not, I
should not think myself justified in introducing into his work
that which he himself has purposely excluded. The few points
on which I have added any explanatory remarks, are such as are
regarded by the Author, in common with all other grammarians,
as inexplicable difficulties or anomalies, although it appears to
me that the language itself contains sufficient analogies for
their explanation.
When I undertook the present translation, I expected, as was
stated in the advertisement, that the Latin Grammar of Pro-
fessor Madvig of Copenhagen, which had appeared about the
same time as the last edition of Professor Zumpt's work,
would furnish some more or less important improvements which
might be advantageously embodied in the present translation ;
but a comparison of the two books soon showed me that all the
new and valuable points in Madvig's Grammar were known to
Professor Zumpt, and had received from him their due share
of attention; Madvig having published his views on several
grammatical questions in separate dissertations and elsewhere,
previously to the appearance of his Grammar.
' In conclusion, I venture to express my hope 'that the present
transition of a work which enjoys the highest reputation in
Germany may contribute also in this country towards a more
accurate knowledge of the language of a nation which, above all
others, deserves to engage the attention of every well-educated
Englishman.
L. S.
fandon, April, 1845.
INTRODUCTION.
THE Latin language was once spoken by the Romans, at first
only in a part of Middle Italy, but subsequently in all Italy and
in other countries subject to the Romans. At present it can be
learnt only from books and the monumental inscriptions of that
people.
The earliest Latin writings that we possess, were composed
about 200 years before the birth of Christ, and in the sixth
century after Christ Latin, as a spoken language, died entirely
away. It had then become quite corrupted through the influence
of the foreign nations which had settled in the Roman dominions,
and it became so mixed up with the languages of the invaders
that a number of new languages (Italian, French, Spanish, Por-
tuguese,) were gradually formed out of it. All persons who
wrote Latin in later times had learned it as a dead language.
During the long period in which the Latin language was
spoken, it underwent various changes, not only in the number
of its words and their meanings, in their forms and combinations,
but, to some extent, in its pronunciation also. We shall in this
Grammar describe the language, though not exclusively, such
as it was spoken and written during the most important period
of Roman literature, that is, about the time of Julius Caesar
and Cicero, till shortly after the birth of Christ. That period
is commonly called the golden age, and the subsequent one, till
about A. D. 120, the silver age of the Latin language.
The Latin language in its origin is nearest akin to the Greek,
and at the time when the Romans became acquainted with the
literature, arts, and institutions of Greece, they adopted a great
many single words, as well as constructions, from the Greek.
Both languages, moreover, belong to the same family from
which the English, German, northern, and many other lan-
guages have sprung.
CONTENTS.
ELEMENTARY PART.
Chap.
I. Of the Vowels and Consonants 1
H. Of Syllables - 11
III. Of the Length and Shortness of Syllables - - 12
IV. Of the Accent of Words - 22
THE ACCIDENCE.
V. Division of Words according to their Signification - 25
VI. Nouns Substantive. General Rules of Gender - 26
VII. Number, Case, and Declension - - - 30
VIII. First Declension - 32
IX. Greek Words in e, as, and es - - 33
X. Gender of the Nouns of the First Declension - 35
XI. Second Declension - - - - 35
XII. Greek Words of the Second Declension - - 38
XIII. Gender of the Nouns of the Second Declension - 40
XIV. Third Declension. Genitive - - 41
XV. The remaining Cases of the Third Declension - 49
XVI. Greek Forms in Words of the Third Declension - 58
XVII. Gender of Words of the Third Declension.
Masculines - - - 61
XVIII. Feminines - - 62
XIX. Neuters - - 65
XX. Fourth Declension - - 67
XXI. Fifth Declension - 69
XXII. Irregular Declension. Indeclinables. Defectives - 70
XX13I. Heteroclita. Heterogenea - 77
XXIV. Nouns Adjective. Terminations. Declension - 80
XXV. Comparison of Adjectives - - - 84
XXVI. Comparison of Adverbs and increased Comparison - 86
XXVII. Irregular and defective Comparison - - 87
XXVlli. Numerals. I. Cardinal Numerals - - 91
XXIX- II. Ordinal Numerals - 95
XXX. III. Distributive Numerals - - - 96
XXXI- IV. Multiplicative Numerals - - - 99
XXXII. V. Proportional Numerals - - - 100
a
XV111 CONTENTS.
Chap. Pag*?
XXXIII. VI. Numeral Adverbs - - - 100
XXXIV. Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives - - 102
XXXV. Declension of Pronouns - 105
XXXVI. Declension of the Possessive Pronouns and of Pro-
nominals - 1 1 1
XXX VII. The Verb - 113
XXXVIII. Moods. Tenses - - 116
XXXIX. Numbers. Persons - 117
XL. Formation of the Tenses - 119
XLI. The Verb esse - 123
XLII. The four Conjugations - 126
XLIII. Remarks on the Conjugations - - 140
LIST OF VERBS WHICH ARE IRREGULAR IN THE FORMATION OF
THEIR PERFECT AND SUPINE.
XLIV. First Conjugation - - 149
XLV. Second Conjugation- - 151
XLVI. Third Conjugation. 1. Verbs which have a Vowel
before o including those in vo - - 158
XL VII. 2. Verbs in do and to - 162
XL VIII. 3. Verbs in bo andpo - 166
XLIX. 4. Verbs with a Palatal Letter, g, c, ct, h, qu, and
gu (in which u is not considered as a vowel)
before o
L. 5. Verbs which have I, n, n, r before o
LI. 6. Verbs in so and xo
LII. Inchoatives *
LIII. Fourth Conjugation
LFV. List of Deponent Verbs
LV. Deponents of the Second Conjugation
LVI. Deponents of the Third Conjugation
LVII. Deponents of the Fourth Conjugation
LVIII. Irregular Verbs
LIX. Defective Verbs
LX. Impersonal Verbs -
LXI. Etymology of Nouns and Verbs
LXIL Etymology of Particles
LXIII. Primitive Adverbs -
LXIV. Comparison of Adverbs
LXV. Prepositions -
LXVI. Prepositions in Composition
LXVH. Conjunctions - - -
LXVUI. Interjections
CONTENTS. XIX
Chap. Page
SYNTAX.
I. CONNECTION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
LXIX. Subject and Predicate - 280
II. ON THE USE or CASES.
LXX. Nominative Case - - 290
LXXI. Accusative Case - - - 291
LXXH. Dative Case - 304
LXXni. Genitive Case - - 316
LXX1V. Ablative Case - - - 331
LXXV. Vocative Case - 354
HI. USE or THE TENSES.
LXXVI. The Tenses - 355
IV. Or THE MOODS.
LXXVU. Indicative Mood - - 372
LXXVHI. Subjunctive Mood - - 376
LXXIX. Imperative Mood - - - - 412
LXXX. Infinitive Mood - - - - 415
LXXXI. Use of the Participles - -448
LXXXn. Use of the Gerund - >, - -453
LXXXIH. Use of the Supine - - - , - 459
SYNTAXIS OENATA.
LXXXIV. Peculiarities in the Use of the Parts of Speech - 462
LXXXV. Pleonasm - - 502
LXXXVI. Ellipsis - - - 511
LXXXVII. Arrangement of Words, and Structure of Periods - 527
APPENDIX I. Of Metre, especially with regard to the Latin
Poets - 551
APPENDIX II. The Roman Calendar ... 573
APPENDIX III. Roman Weights, Coins and Measures - 576
APPENDIX IV. Notae sive Compendia Scripturae; or Abbrevia-
tions of Words ... 580
INDEX ...... 533
LATIN GRAMMAR.
ELEMENTARY PART,
CHAPTER I.
OP THE VOWELS AND CONSONANTS.
[ i.] 1. THE Vowels of the Latin language are, A, a; E, e;
I, i ; O, o ; U, u ( Y, y} : and the diphthongs, AE, ae ; OE, oe ;
AU, au, and EU, eu. Their ancient pronunciation did not
differ in any essential point from that of the modern Italian or
German ; but the modern pronunciation varies in the different
countries of Europe, though the length and shortness of the
vowels are and ought to be observed everywhere. The Latin
language has no signs to distinguish a long from a short vowel,
such as we find in the Greek language, at least in the case of
two vowels. The names of the vowels are mere imitations of
their sounds, and not specific words, like the Greek alpha,
iota, &c.
Note. The vowel y (called y psilori) occurs only in words which were
introduced into the Latin language from or through the Greek, at a time
when it was already developed, such as, syllaba, pyramis, Pyrrhus, Cyrus ;
whereas other words, the Greek origin of which leads us back to more
ancient times, or has been obscured by changes of sound, have lost their
original y ; such as mus (from the Greek ftDc), silva (from vX/), and lacrima
(from Mirpwov). The word stilus, too, is better written with i, since practice
did not acknowledge its identity with the Greek arvXoc. The diphthong eu,
if we except Greek words, occurs only in heus, heu, and eheu, in ceu, sen, and
neu, and in neuter and neutiguam. The diphthongs containing an i, viz. ei,
oi, and f, have not been mentioned in our text as Latin diphthongs; because
B
2 LATIN GRAMMA If.
they occur only in a few interjections, such as hei, eia, oiei, and hui, and in
cases where dein, proin, huic, or cui, are contracted into one syllable, which is
commonly done in poetry.
The ancients in pronouncing a diphthong uttered the two vowels of which
it consists more distinctly than we do. The word neuter, in particular,
was pronounced in such a manner that the two vowels in eu, though
united, were yet distinctly heard. In this manner we may reconcile the
assertion of the grammarian Consentius, that it is a barbarism to pronounce
neutrum as a word of two syllables, with those passages in Latin poetry
which necessarily demand the diphthong. Neutiquarti in the comic poets
has its first syllable always short, as if it were nutiquam, from which we may
infer that it was not so much the long diphthong as the two short vowels,
that were heard. In like manner the diphthongs ae and oe were pronounced,
and hence we find that in the early times ai and oi were pronounced and
written in their stead, and that the Latins expressed the Greek ai and <u by
ae and oe ; for, if these diphthongs are pronounced in the manner above
described, it will be perceived that the difference between the sounds of e
and i is but slight. The Greek must likewise have been pronounced in
such a manner that the two vowels were distinctly heard ; for the Latins, in
whose language this diphthong does not occur, use in its place sometimes e
and sometimes i, or either of them indiscriminately. Before consonants
we always find i, e. g., eclipsis, Nilus, Clitus, Heraclidae ; and in Latin we
must accordingly pronounce and write PolyclituA, and not Polycletus (see
my remark on Cic. in Verr. iv. 3.) ; Hilotes or Hilotae (Ilotae, for the Greek
is ETXwrte or ETXwrai), and not Helotes. Before vowels, on the other hand,
the Greek is sometimes changed into e, and sometimes into t; the e
appears, for example, in Aeneas and Medea, and the f in Iphigenia and
elegia, whereas Alexandrea and Alexandria, Thucydideus and Thucydidius
are used indiscriminately. In Cicero the forms Ariopagus and Ariopagitae,
are better established than Areopagus, Areopagitae, and the like, which we
commonly find in our editions, whereas the form Dareus is much more
authentic according to the MSS. of Latin authors, than Darius. This fact
is now generally acknowledged, and does not require here to be supported
by authorities.
[ 2.] It was, however, only by degrees that the pronunciation and ortho-
graphy became fixed, and this was mainly the work of the grammarians
during the first centuries after Christ. Previously there existed many
peculiarities in the pronunciation, which were also adopted in the written
language, and some of these are still retained in the' texts of a few of the
early writers, such as Plautus, Terence, and Sallust, for historical reasons,
or, so to speak, from diplomatic fidelity. But such peculiarities should not be
imitated by us, for they were gradually given up by the ancients themselves.
With regard to pronunciation and orthography, we must necessarily adhere
to the rules which were laid down by the ancient grammarians, who cer-
tainly did not derive them from the vulgar idiom of the people, but from
the uncovrupt and pure language of the educated classes. In the earliest
times the broad pronunciation of the long i was commonly indicated by ei,
but without its being pronounced as a diphthong ei, which is foreign to the
Latin language : for example, heic for hie, queis for quis (quibm), eidus for
ir1.m, and in the accusative plural of the third declension when it terminates
in is (see 68.), swh as omneis, arteis, for omnis and artis, which terminal
tion of the accusative was subsequently changed into es. A middle sound
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 3
between the two short vowels u and t was preserved, in some-words, down to a
still later time : and many persons pronounced and wrote lubet, existumo, clu-
peus, inclutus, satura, for libet, existimo, clipeus, &c. ; the adjective termination
umus for imus, as finitumus for finitimus, and the superlatives optumus,
maxumus, and pulcherrumus, for optimus, maximus, &c. Julius Caesar declared
himself in favour oft, which was afterwards adopted generally, although the
emperor Claudius wanted to introduce a new letter for the indefinite vowel
in those words. We must further observe that in early times o was used
instead of M, after the letter , e. g. volt, volnus, avom, and even in the nomi-
native avos instead of avus ; in some words o took the place of e ; for example,
vorto and its derivatives for verto, vaster for vester. U instead of e occurs
in the termination of the participle undus for endus, and was retained in
some cases in later times also. (See 167.) Lastly, we have to mention
that the vulgar pronunciation of au was o ; e. g. Claudius was pronounced
as Clodius, plaustrum as plostrum, and plaudo as plodo ; but in some words
this pronunciation, which in general was considered faulty, became estab-
lished by custom, as in plostellum, a little carriage, a diminutive form of
plaustrum. This was the case more especially when the common mode of
pronouncing served to indicate a difference in meaning, as in lotus, washed,
and lautus, splendid or elegant; and codex, a tablet for writing (or a book),
and caudex, a block of wood. In the compounds of plaudo the form plodo
thus became prevalent.
[ 3.] 2. The Consonants are, B, b; C, c; D, d; F,f; G, g;
H, h; (K, k;) L, 1; M, m; N, n; P, p; Q, q; R, r; S, s;
T, t; X, x; (Z, z). With regard to their classification, it is
only necessary nere to observe that /, m, n, r, are called liquids
(liquidae), and the rest mutes (mutae), with the exception of s,
which, being a sibilant (littera sibilans), is of a peculiar nature.
The mutes may again be classified, with reference to the organ
by which they are pronounced, into labials (u, b, p, /), palatals
(g, c, k, qu\ and linguals (d, t). X and z (called zeta) are
double consonants, x being a combination of c and s, and z of
d and s.
Note. It will be observed that there are some letters in our own alphabet
which do not occur in this list : j and v were expressed by the Latins by
the same signs as the vowels t and u, viz. I and V; but in pronunciation
they were distinguished ; whence we hear of ^.n i or v consonant ; and, like
ordinary consonants, they make position when preceded by another con-
sonant, and do not form an hiatus when preceded by a vowel. It is only in
consequence of poetical licences which are rendered necessary by the metre
(which however, at the same time, show the kindred nature existing between
the sounds of the vowel and consonant), that the v is at one time softened
down into u; as, for example, when the words solvit and silva are made to
form three syllables (comp. 184.) : and, at others, the vowels i and u are
hardened into the consonants j and v, which is very often the case with i ;
by this means the preceding short syllable is lengthened, as in the words
abies, aries, consiliuin, fluvius, tenuis, and some others. Virgil, for example,
xises fluvjorum rex Eridanus ; Ovid, at the close of an hexameter verse.
B 2
4 LATIN GRAMMAR.
custos erat arjctis aurei, for arietis ; Lucretius, copia tenvis and neque fen-
vius extol, for tennis, tenuius. In cases where the preceding syllable is
already long, the poet rtiay at least get rid of a syllable which does not suit
the verse, as in Juvenal, comitata est Hippia ludjutn and nuper consult
Junjo ; and (iv. 37.), Quum jam semjanimum laceraret Flavins orbcm. We
may therefore, in writing Latin, make use of the signs j and r, which are
employed in modern languages, for the purpose of distinguishing the pro-
nunciation before a vowel at the beginning of a syllable, and we need
not retain the defective mode of writing of the Romans, since they viewed
these letters just as we do, and would willingly have adopted so convenient
a means of distinction if they had known it, or if their better knowledge
had not been obliged to give way to habit. But this rule cannot be
applied to Greek words, since t and v with the Greeks had only the na-
ture of vowels. We therefore read locaste, iambus, Zones, La'ius, Agaue,
euoe; and the i at the beginning of these words is treated as a vowel,
in their connexion with prepositions, as in ab Ionia, ex Ionia. Some Greek
proper names, however, are justly written and pronounced in Latin with
aj, as Grajus, Ajax, Maja, Troja, Achaja.
[ 4.] H is only an aspiration ; it is not considered as a vowel, and there-
fore when joined with a consonant it does not lengthen the preceding
syllable. The ancients themselves (see Quintil. i. 5. 21.) were in doubt
with regard to several words, as to which was the more correct, to pronounce
it or not ; for example, as to whether they should pronounce have or ave,
herfera or edera, harena or arena, harundo or arundo, hcducinor or alucinor,
herus or eras, vehemens or vecmens (vemens), ahenum or aenurn, mihi or mi,
prehendo and deprchendo, or prendo and deprendo, and several other words, in
which, however, the orthography now adopted is the more correct of the two.
The letter G arose out of C, for in the early .times the sounds of k (e)
and g were not distinguished in writing, on account of their similarity ; and
although the Romans wrote, for example, leciones, yet they pronoxmced
legiones. The fact of the praenomina Gajus and Gnaeus, when indicated only
by the initials, being frequently written C. and Cn., is a remnant of the old
orthography ; and it is expressly attested by ancient grammarians (see, e. g.,
Quintil. i. 7. 28.) as well as by the Greek mode of writing those names
(Pa'ior, FvaTof), that they were never pronounced otherwise than Gajus
and Gnaeus, which was at the same time the invariable mode of writing them
when they were given at full length. Even when the initials only are given,
we meet with G. and Gn., just as often as with C. and Cn.
I s.J K became a superfluous letter in Latin, as its place was supplied by c.
In early times it was chiefly used in words beginning with ca, such as kaput,
kalumnia, Karthago ; but this is now done, according to the example of the
ancients, in abbreviations only, such as K. for Kaeso, K. or Kal. for Ka-
lendae.
Q is in reality likewise a superfluous letter, not differing in value from
e ; but it has been more fortunate than k in maintaining its place, at least
in those cases where the sound of c is followed by u, and the latter by
another vowel, as in quam, quern, qui, quo, antiquus. The first of these words
is to be pronounced cuam, as a monosyllable ; and it remains doubtful as to
whether the u is still a vowel, or assumes the nature of a consonant cvam.
There are some few words in which the pronunciation and orthography
hesitate between qu and c; e.g., in coquus and equuleus : in some others c is
known 1 to be the correct pronunciation, from the testimony of the ancients
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 5
themselves, although we still write qu, partly for the sake of distinction, and
partly for etymological reasons. Thus we distinguish the conjunction quum
from the preposition cum ; and write quotidie and quotannis on account of
their formation from quct, and sequutus and loquutus on account of their
derivation from sequor and loquor, although ft is quite certain that all the
Romans pronounced, and most of them also wrote, CMTK, cotidie (cottidie only
to indicate the shortness of the vowel), secutus, locutus. The last two must
absolutely be spelled secutus and locutus (see Schneider, Elementarlehre,
p. 332.) ; an<J with regard to the others, too, it is but just that we should
follow the instructions of the ancients. The reader will find in this work
the conjunction spelled quum; but he ought to remember, that it is done
only for the purpose of distinguishing it, to the eye, from the preposition, and
that it ought to be pronounced as cum.*
Z occurs only in words borrowed from the Greek, e. g gaza, trapeza ;
and w can be used only when modern words are introduced into the Latin
language without undergoing any change in their orthography.
[ 6.] 3. Respecting the pronunciation of the consonants, it
must be observed, that the rule with the Latins was to pro-
nounce them just as they were written. Every modern nation
has its own peculiar way of pronouncing them ; and among the
many corruptions of the genuine pronunciation there are two
which have become firmly rooted in nearly all Europe, and
which it is, perhaps, impossible to banish from the language.
We pronounce c, when followed by e, i, y } ae, or oe, both in
Latin and Greek words, like our s, and when followed by other
vowels or by consonants like a k. The Romans on the other
hand, as far as we can ascertain, always pronounced c like k;
and the Greeks, in their intercourse with the Romans, did not
hear any other pronunciation. The earliest instance in which c
was pronounced in this or a similar manner seems to have been
when it was followed by i with another vowel after it, for the
terminations tins and tia are so frequently used for cius and cia,
that we must infer that they were similarly sounded. But even
this similarity seems to have been foreign to the old and correct
pronunciation. We pronounce ti before a vowel like ski, but
likewise without any reason. But it is easy to discover the
transition from the pure pronunciation to that which is now
customary, for the ti in all these cases is short, and in quick
* Lipsius, in his Dialogus de recta Pronuntiatione Linguae Latinos, ex-
presses himself upon the pronunciation of c in this remarkable manner :
" Pudet non tarn erroris quam pertinacise, quia corripi patiuntur at non
corrigi, et tenent omnes quod defendat nemo. Itali, Hispani, Germain, Galli,
Britanni in hoc peccato : a qua gente initium eniendandi ? Audeat enim
una aliqua et omnes audient."
B 3
6 LATIN GRAMMAK.
speaking it easily changes into shi. For this reason it would
be quite wrong to pronounce the long ti in the genitive totius in
the same manner, since there can be no excuse for it. But
there are some cases in which even the short ti, according to the
common pronunciation, is not read like shi: 1) in Greek words,
such as Miltiades, Boeotia, Aegyptius; 2) when the t is pre-
ceded by another t, by s or x, e. g. Bruttti, ostium, mixtio; and
3) when it is followed by the termination of the infinitive
passive er, as in nitier, guatier.
Note. In many words it is difficult to determine whether they ought tc
be spelled with ci or ti. The question must he decided partly by a correct
etymology, partly by the orthography adopted by the Greeks, and partly by an-
cient and authentic inscriptions ; for nearly all our MSS. were made at a time
when ci was pronounced in the wrong way, and was accordingly confounded
with ti. Thus, it appears that in the derivative adjectives formed from nouns
and participles we must write icius and not itius ; e. g. gentilicius, aedilicius,
noviciutt, commendaticius, as, indeed, we always write patricius and the proper
names Fabricius and Mauritius. We now commonly write conditio, though
it is better to write conditio and ditio. In nuntius, and all its derivatives, on
the other hand, the ti is correct ; and also in otium, infitior (from fateor),
and fetialis (Greek 0;r/u\f). In inscriptions and ancient MSS. we find
only contio, and not concio.
[ 7.] Mai the end of a word (where it is always preceded by
a vowel) was pronounced by the ancients more indistinctly than
at the beginning of a word ; perhaps in the same manner as in
the French le nom, where the m is heard much more indis-
tinctly than in le midi. When the word following began with
a vowel, the final m of the preceding word was not sounded at
all, according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, or it
formed only a gentle transition from the one vowel to the other.
S, like the Greek <r, was pronounced more sharply than with
us ; a circumstance which accounts for some irregularities in the
early orthography, such as the doubling of the s in caussa, as
Cicero wrote according to an express testimony, though it was
disapproved of as useless by the ancient grammarians.
In the ancient pronunciation there must have been a peculiar
resemblance between the letters s and r ; since it is mentioned
by Varro (de Ling. Lat. vii. 6.) and others, that formerly, that
is, before the Latin language had assumed a fixed form through
its literature, s was pronounced in many words, for which af-
terwards r was substituted, as in Papisius, Valesius, lases, eso,
arbosem, melios. Some forms of this kind, such as honos, lepos,
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 7
and arbos, were used down to a very late time, and occur even
in the language of the classical writers.
Note. This affinity between the two sounds accounts for various phenomena
in the accidence of the Latin language (see Schneider, Elementarlehre,
p. 342. foil.) : but we do not by any means believe that the r in the above-
mentioned words, and still less in all cases where it occurs between two
vowels, is of later origin, or that it arose out of the *, and that the latter was
the original sound. The r after a vowel is just as ancient and original in
the Latin language as the r after a consonant ; and wherever the s is not a
mere dialectic peculiarity, as in arbosem, pignosa, robose, and majosibus, it
has taken the place of r for definite reasons observed in the formation of
words. For example : we do not think that mosis, most, and mosem were
the earlier and more genuine forms for moris, mori, morem ; or that the
nominative mos contains the original form ; and that, in the other cases, the
* was afterwards supplanted by r (as has been most confidently stated by
Kriiger in his Grammatik der Lat. Sprache, p. 190. foil.); but we assert that
mor is the true root, and that mosis, mosi, and mosem, if they were used at
all, arose merely from a difference in pronunciation. The nominative as-
sumed the form mos instead of mor, because 5 was a kindred sound to r, and
because in other cases, too, is the sign of the nominative.
[ 8.] 4. The meeting of two vowels, one of which forms the
ending and the other the beginning of a word, causes an hiatus
or yawning. It is impossible to avoid it in the various com-
binations of words, though it is never considered an elegance. In
verse it is removed by the former of the vowels, whether it be
short or long, being, passed over in reading or speaking (elisio).
When therefore we find, e. g., sapere, aude, or moid anus urna,
we pronounce saper 1 aude and mot anus urna. (Comp. Heindorf
on Horace, Serm. i. 9. 30.) How far anything similar was
done in ordinary language (in prose), cannot be said with cer-
tainty, although it is not improbable that at least short vowels,
when followed by another vowel, were likewise passed over
in quick speaking, and that people pronounced, for instance,
namqu 9 erit tempus, atqu' ego quum viderem. The aspirate h does
not remove the hiatus, nor does it therefore prevent the elision
of the first vowel in verse, so that we pronounce toller* humo,
when we find it written tollere humo. As the ra at the end of
a word was not audibly uttered when the next word began
with a vowel, the vowel preceding the m is likewise passed over
in reading verse, although the word is written at full length.
The hexameter line multum ille et terris jactatus et alto, is there-
fore read mult iff et terris, &c. In the compounds veneo for
venurn eo, and animadverto for animum adverto, this elision is
B 4
8 LATIN GRAMMAR.
made also in writing. The earlier poets threw out the s in the
terminations us and is when they were followed by consonants.
Lucilius, e. g., says, Turn lateral? dolor certissimu? nuntiu" 1
'mortis; and even Cicero, in his youthful attempts at poetry
sometimes did the same, as in de terra lapsu 1 repente, magwj?
leo and torvu' draco : but, in the refined poetical language of the
Augustan age, this elision was no longer customary.
[ 9 .] Note 1. When the vowel thrown out by the elision is preceded by
another one, the latter does not produce a disagreeable hiatus, as in Capitolia
ad alta, which is read in verse Capitol? ad alta. Nor is there any hiatus,
and consequently no elision, when a long vowel at the end of a word is
shortened, viz. in the case of monosyllabic words in the middle of the thesis
of dactylic verses, and in the dissolved arsis of iambic and trochaic feet, and
in the case of polysyllabic words at the end of the thesis of dactylic verses.
See, for example, Horace, Serm. i. 9. 38. : Si me amas, inquit, paulum hie
odes. Ovid, Metam. iii. 501. : dictoque vale vale inquit e.t Echo. Virgil, JEn.
iii. 211. : insulae lonio in magno ; and many other passages.
[ 10.] Note 2. It was remarked above that the hiatus is not removed in
writing ; and that, of the two vowels which produce it, the former is thrown
out in reciting a verse. But an exception to this rule occurs when a word
terminating in a vowel or an m is followed by the word est ; for in this case
we find, at least in the critical editions of Plautus and Terence, that the first
word is preserved entire, and that est loses its vowel. The texts therefore
are written and pronounced temulenta 'st mulier, homo 'st, molestum 'st The
same thing has been found here and there in very ancient MSS. containing
fragments of Cicero's works, e. g. una natio 'st, difficile 'st, and in the oration
for Milo : quae ilia barbaria 'st. (See Niebuhr's note on the fragment pro
Fontejo, p. 60.) In like manner we find est joined with 'a preceding word
terminating in us, e. g. opust and dictust; but in this case it remains doubtful
as to whether the s of opus is thrown out, or whether est has lost its first two
letters. Something similar, though more rarely, occurs in the termination
fe, e. g. quali 'st. Whether the second person es was likewise joined with a
preceding word terminating in us is uncertain. (See Schneider, Elemen-
tarlchre, p. 162. foil.)
[ 11.] Note 3. The hiatus which occurs within a word is generally not
removed ; and for this reason we did not notice it above. It should, how-
ever, be observed, that two vowels of the same sound are frequently united
(contracted) into one long vowel, and the poets always make dero and desse
out of deero and deesse. This explains the forms nil for nihil, and deprendo
for deprehendo, which arise from the elision of the aspirate. The contraction
of two equal or unequal vowels in the perfect of verbs, after the elision of
the v, is still more frequent ; e. g. audisti for audivisti, audiisti ; deleram
for delcveram, norunt for noverunt, concerning which see 160. It also
not unfrequently happens in. verse, that two different vowels are united,
by a rapid pronunciation, into a diphthong; in which, however, both
vowels are audible. This is called by a grammatical term synaeresis,
and occurs when the two vowels of the words dein, delude, proin, proinde,
huic and cut, are united into diphthongs which are otherwise foreign to
the Latin language. In this way alone it is possible to make use of the
word fortultus in the dactylic hexameter ; and it is for the same purpose
VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 9
that in nouns terminating in eus, when this ending is preceded by a long
syllable, we must contract into a diphthong not only the ei in the genitive
singular, and els in the ablative plural, but also ed and eo ; for example,
aloet, auret, Nerei, aureis (also anteis, from the verb anteed), Euryst ed,
cerea, just as a synaeresis sometimes occurs in the Greek words Stoe, Nso-
TrroXt/ioc, and la. Some harsher kinds of synaeresis, such as quia, via, vietis,
and quoad, are found in the comic poets and in Lucretius.
[ 12.] 5. There is no necessity for giving any special rules
about the orthography in Latin, since there is absolutely nothing
arbitrary in the spelling of words that requires to be learned :
but there are a great many separate words, of which neither
the pronunciation nor the spelling is established, and with regard
to which the ancients themselves were uncertain even in the
best times of their literature, as we see from the monuments
still extant. We shall here notice a few things which have not
been mentioned in our previous observations. We spell and pro-
nounce anulus, sucus, paulum, belua, litus better with one con-
sonant than with two ; whereas comminus, immo, nummus, solle-
mnis, sollers, sollicitus, Juppiter, and quattuor, are more correctly
spelled with two consonants than one. It is not certain whether
we ought to write Utera or littera, though in most MSS. the t
is doubled. The authority of the ancient grammarians and the
best MSS. teach us to spell the singular mille with a double, and
the plural milia with a single /. The forms narus and navus are
not customary now, though they appear to be better than gnarus
and qnavus. Artus (narrow) is certainly better established than
arctus ; auctor and auctumnus, on the other hand, are justly
preferred to autor and autumnus. The insertion of a p between
m and t, e. g. in emptus, sumpsi, rather facilitates the pronun-
ciation than otherwise ; and the verb temptare is decidedly pre-
ferable to the form tentare which is now commonly used, the
former being found in the best MSS. The forms conjunr,
quotiens, and totiens are demanded by most of the ancient gram-
marians, and are found in good MSS., instead of conjux, quo-
ties, and toties. The words caecus, maereo, are more correctly
spelled with the diphthong ae than oe, and saeculum, saepire, and
taeter are better with the diphthong than with the simple
vowel e ; whereas in heres, fetus, femina, and fecundus, and
therefore probably in fenus, fenoris also (which are of the same
root), the simple vowel is better than the diphthong. But
it is very doubtful whether we ought to write scena or
10 LATIN GRAMMAR.
scaena, and obscenus or obscaenus or obscoenus. We do not
notice any other points here, because the orthography now
commonly adopted is the correct one. Compare Cellarius,
Orthographia Latina, ed. Harles, Altenburg, 1768, 8vo ; and
Schneider, Elementarlehre, Berlin, 1819, 8vo.
[ is.] 6. The Romans had no other point than the full
stop, and our whole artificial system of punctuation was un-
known to them: but, to facilitate the understanding of their
works, we now use in Latin the same signs which have become
established in our own language. The peculiarities, however,
in the formation of Latin sentences, the many complications
of their parts, and the attraction of the relative pronouns,
demand great caution in applying the signs of punctuation
in order that we may not by the use of too many signs separate
those parts of a sentence which belong to one another.
7. With regard to the use of capital and small letters, it
must be observed, that the Romans, generally speaking, wrote
only in capital letters (litterae unciales), until in the latest period
of antiquity the small letters came into use, which are now
always employed in writing Latin. Capital initials are at present
used : a) at the beginning of a verse or at le;ist of a strophe ; )
at the beginning of a new sentence, both in prose and in verse,
after a full stop, and after a colon when a person's own words
are quoted ; c) in proper names, and in adjectives and adverbs
which are derived from them, e. g., Latium, sermo Latinus, La-
tine loqui ; ef) in words which express a title or office, such as
Consul, Tribunus, and Senatus, but not in their derivatives.
8. The diaeresis (puncta diaereseos) is a sign to facilitate
reading ; it is put upon a vowel which is to be pronounced se-
parately, and which is not to be combined with the preceding one
into a diphthong, as in aer, a'e'ris, aerius, poe'ta ; and also in aural,
vital, since ai is only an ancient form for ae. In cases where
the diphthong would be foreign to the Latin language, the diae-
resis is unnecessary, as in diei, Persei, because there can be no
fear of any one pronouncing the ei as a diphthong ; ferreus too
does not require it, since in a Latin word no one will regard eu
as a diphthong. But we must write Gams and silucs, when the
consonants j and v are to be pronounced as vowels. The signs
to indicate the length or shortness of a vowel or a syllable
(- and w ) were sometimes used by the ancients themselves.
SYLLABLES. 11
CHAP. II.
OF SYLLABLES.
[ 14.] 1. A VOWEL or a diphthong may by itself form a
syllable, as in u-va, me-o ; all other syllables arise from a com-
bination of consonants and vowels. The Latin language allows
only two consonants to stand at the end of a syllable, and three
only in those cases where the last is s. At the beginning of a
syllable, also, there can be no more than two consonants, except
when the first is a c, p, or s, followed by muta cum liquida ;
and at the beginning of a word there never are three con-
sonants, except in the case of sc, sp, and st being followed by an
r or I; for example, do-ctrina, Ba-ctra, corru-ptrix, sce-ptrum,
ca-stra, magi-stri, I-sthmus ; spretus, strenuus, scriba, splendor.
2. It often appears doubtful as to how a word is to be di-
vided into syllables, and where the division is to be made at the
end of a line, when the space does not suffice. The following rules,
however, which are founded on the structure of the language,
should be observed : 1) A consonant which stands between two
vowels belongs to the latter, as in ma-ter. 2) Those consonants
which, in Latin or Greek, may together begin a word, go
together in the division of syllables ; e. g., pa-tris, and not
pat-ris, as tr occur at the beginning of tres. In like manner,
li-bri (brevis), i-gnis (gnomon), o-mnis, da-mnum (ftvdofiai),
a-ctus, pun-ctum (tcrrjpa), ra-ptus, scri-ptus, pro-pter (Ptole-
maeus), Ca-dmus (fytwfs), re-gnum (ryvovs), va-fre (fretus^), a-thleta
(-$At/3o), i-pse, scri-psi (tya,vo>\ Le-sbos (a-ftsvwfjit), e-sca, po-sco
(scando), a-sper, ho-spes (spes), pa-sfor, fau-stus, i-ste (stare).
The cases in which three consonants begin a syllable have been
mentioned above. Whenever there occurs any combination of
consonants which cannot stand at the beginning of words, they
are treated according to the analogy of the rest. All combi-
nations of muta cum liquida, for instance, go together, as most
of them may commence a word ; and we must therefore divide
ara-chne, a-gmen, fra-gmentum, Da-phne, Pha-tnae, rhy-thmus,
smara-gdus, and Lu-gdunum, since gd is to be treated like ct.
3) In compound words, the division must be made so as to
keep the parts distinct, as inter-eram (not inte-reram\ because
)2 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the word is compounded of inter and eram. So also ab-utor,
ab-rado, abs-condo, abs-temius (from temetum), com-es, sus-cipio
(from the form subs), dis-quiro, et-iam, quon-iam, ney-otium (for
neg is equivalent to nee), ob-latum ; and red-eo, red-undo, prod-
eo, and sed-itio, for the d, here inserted to prevent hiatus, must
go with the preceding vowel, because, if added to the second, it
would obscure the elements of the compound word. But when
the component parts of a word are doubtful, or when the first
word has dropped its termination to prevent hiatus, the syllables
are divided as if the word were not a compound; e. g., po-tes
(from pote or potis es), ani-madverto and not anim-adverto, vc-
neo (from venum eo\ ma-gnanimus, am-bages, and lon-gaevus.
CHAP. III.
OP THE LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES.
[ is.] SYLLABLES are long or short, either by the nature of
the vowel they contain, or they become long by their short vowel
being followed by two or more consonants, that is, by their
position. We shall first speak of the natural length and short-
ness of vowels.
1. All Diphthongs are long, and also all those single vowels
which have arisen from the contraction of two into one, such
as cogo (from coago), rnalo (from mavolo), tiblcen (from tibiicen
and tibia, but tublcen from tuba), blgae (from bijiigae), bubus and
bobus (from bovibus), and so also dis for diis, gratis for gratiis,
and nil for nihil.
Note. The preposition prae is commonly made short when compounded
with a word which begins with a vowel, e. g. Ovid, Metam. vii. 131. : Quos
vbi viderunt praeacutae cuspidis hastas. The reason for this peculiarity is
explained in the rule following ; but there is no other instance in the Latin
language of a diphthong standing before a vowel. It occurs only in Greek
proper names, in which however the diphthong remains long, as Aeolides Sisy-
phus, and Aeeta relictus, for the examples which are adduced as proofs of the
diphthong being shortened (Ovid, Heroid. vi. 103., and Trist. iii. 12. 2.) are
not decisive.
2. A Vowel is short, when it is followed by another vowel
( Vocalis ante vocalem brevis esf), as in deus, films, plus, ruo,
r.orruo ; and, as A is not considered as a consonant, als6 in such
words as traho, contralto, veho, and adveho.
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 13
[ 16.] Note. Exceptions. 1) The vowel e in eheu is always long, the
o in ohe is frequently long, and the i in Diana sometimes. 2) The e in the
termination of the genitive and dative of the fifth declension is long when it
is preceded by a vowel, as in diei, speciei. 3) a is long in the obsolete ending
of the genitive in the first declension, as in aurai and pictai, for aurae and
pictae, in Virg. 4) a and e are long in the vocative terminations di and ei of
the words ending in ajus and ejus ; e. g., Gai, Vultei. (See Chap. XI. note 3.)
5) All the genitives in ius, except alterius, have the i commonly long ; the
poets however use the i in illius, istius, ipsius, unius, totius, ullius, and utrius,
sometimes as a long and sometimes as a short vowel. The instances of the i
in sollus being shortened cannot be relied upon ; but allus, being a contrac-
tion for aliius, can never be made short. Alterius, on the other hand, is
sometimes made long (see 49.). 6) The verb fio has the i long, except
when an r occurs in it. Ovid, Trist. i. 8. 7.: Omnia jam f lent, fieri quae posse
negabam. 7) Greek words retain their own original quantity, and we there-
fore say aer, eos (>}wc), Amphlon, Agesilaus, and Menelaus. The e and i in the
terminations ea and eus, or ia and ius, therefore, are long when they represent
the Greek ua and HOC (the Romans, not having the diphthong ei in their
language, represent the Greek sometimes by e and sometimes by i, but
these vowels, of course, are always long) ; e. g., Galatea, Medea, JEneas,
Dareus or Darius, Iphigenla, Alexandria, Antiochla, Nicomedla, Samaria,
Seleuda, Thalia, Arlus, Basillus, nosocomlum, and the adjectives Epicureus,
Pythagoreus, spondeus, and the like : but when the Greek is ta or in, the e
and i are short, as in idea, philosophia, theologia. The same is the case with
the patronymic words in ides, since the Greek may be t#ije as in Priamides
and JEacides; or djc, as in Atrldes, Pelldes, which are derived from Atreus
and Peleus. The only exceptions to this rule are, ihatplatea (a street) has
the e short, though according to the Greek n-Xarela it ought to be long, and
that chorea is sometimes used instead of chorea (^optia). Some of the late
Roman poets use academta instead ofacademla, although in Greek writers it
is always long, whether spelled with or with .
Note 2 It is a part of the above rule, that a long vowel or diphthong
at the end of a word, when the word following begins with a vowel, is usually
made short in the thesis of a verse. (See above, Chap. I. 4. note 1 .)
[ 17.] 3. Usage (auctoritas) alone makes the vowel in the
first syllable of mater, f rater, pravus, mano (I flow), dico, duco,
miror, nitor, scribo, dono, pono, utor, muto, sumo, cura, &c. long ;
and short in pater, avus, cado, maneo, gravis, rego, tego, bibo,
minor, colo, moror, probo, domus, sono, soror, and others. It
must be presumed that the student makes himself acquainted
with the quantity of such words as these by practice, for rules can
be given only with regard to derivatives. It must further be
observed, that the i in the following words is long : formica,
lectwa, lorica, veslca, urtlca, hemma, resma, saglna, saliva, castlgo,
and formldo.
a) Derivative words retain the quantity of their root, as in
declension and conjugation : thus the a in amor and amo is
short, and therefore also in amoris, dmat, amabam, amavi, &c. ;
14 LATIN GRAMMAR.
except when the consonants after the vowel of the root produce
a difference. New words formed from roots likewise retain the
quantity; as from dmo amor, amicus, amabilis; from lux, lucis
luceo, lucidus ; from mater maternus, matertera ; and from
finis flnio, fmitio, finitimus, &c.
[ is.] With regard to Conjugation, however, the following rules also
must be observed.
1. The perfect and supine, when they consist of two syllables, and the
tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long, even when in the present
tense it is short, e. g., video, vidi; fugio, fugi ; lego, legi, legisse, legeram, &c.
(except, however, when one vowel stands before another, in which case the
general rule remains in force, as in ruo, rui, dirui); video, visum; moveo,
motum, motus, moturus. Seven dissyllable perfects, however, and nine dis-
syllable supines, together with their compounds, make their penultima short ;
viz. bibi, dedi,fidi (from.jindo), steti, stiti, tuli, and scidi (from scindo), and
datum, ratum, satum, itum, Htum, citum, qwtum, situm, and rutum. Sisto makes
its supine statum, whence status, a, um, and the compounds adstttum, destitum,
restitum.
2. Perfects which are formed by reduplication, as tundo, tutudi; cano, cecini;
petto, pepuli, have the first two syllables short: but the second sometimes
becomes long by position, as in mordeo, momordi; tendo, tetendi. Pedo and
caedo are the only two words which retain the long vowel in the syllable
which forms the root, pepedi, cecldi; whereas cado. in accordance with the
rule, has cecidi.
3. The perfect posui and the supine positum have the o short, although in
pono it is long.
With regard to Declension, we must notice the exception that the words
lar, par, sal, and pes, shorten their vowel throughout their declension : salis,
pedis, &c.
[ 19.] In the formation of new words by Derivation, there are several
exceptions to the above rule. The following words make the short vowel
long: macer, mdcero; legere, lex, legis, legare; rego, rex, regis, regula; tego,
tegula ; secus, secius ; sedeo, sedes ; sero, semen, semeittis ; lino, lltera (if' we
do not prefer litterd); stips, stipis, stipendium; suspicor, susplcio; persono,
persona; voco, vox, vocis; and homo, humanus. The following words have a
short vowel, although it is long in the root: labare from Idbi; ndtare from
ndre; paciscor from pax, pads; ambitus and ambitio from ambire, ambltum;
dicax from dicer e; fides and perfidus fromfido and fldus (and we regu-
larly find infidus) ; molestus from moles; nota and ndtare from notus ; odium
from odi ; sopor from sopire ; dux, duds, and redux, reduds, from duco ; lucerna
from luceo; status, statio, stabilis, stabulum, must be derived from sisto, unless
we suppose that they are likewise shortened from statum (from stare).
[ 20.] The Terminations, or final syllables, by means of which an adjective
is formed from a verb or a substantive, are of a different kind. Among these
alia, aris, arius, aceus, anus, ivus, and osus, have a long vowel ; but idus, icus,
and icius, a short one ; e. g., letdlis, vulgaris, montanus, aestlvus, vinosus,
avidus, bellicus, patrwius. A long i, however, occurs in amicus, aprlcus, pu-
dicus, antlcus, and postlcus, and in the substantives mendlcus and umbilicus.
The terminations His and bills have the i short when they make derivatives
from verbs, but long when from substantives ; e. g., facilis, docflis, and amabilis,
but dvilis, hostllis, jmerilia, senilis, &c. The f in the termination inus may be
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 15
long or short : it is long in adjectives derived from names of animals and
places, as anserinus, asinlnus, equlnus, luplnus, Caudinus, Latlnus, and a few
others, such as divlnus, genulnus, clandestlnus, intestlnus, marinus, peregrlnus,
and vidnus; it is short in most adjectives which express time, as crastmus,
diutinus, pristinus, serotmus, hornotmus, perendmus, and in those which indicate
a material or substance, as adamantmus, bombycinus, crystallinus, elephantimis,
cedrimis, faginus, oleagmus. Some adjectives expressive of time, however,
have the i long, viz. matutinus, vespertinus, and repentlnus.
[ 21.] 5) Compounded words retain the quantity of the
vowels of their elements : thus from avus and nepos we make
ab&vus and abnepos, from pravus depravo, from probus improbus,
from jus (juris) perjurus, from lego (I read) perlcgo, and from
lego (I despatch) ablego, delego, collega. Even when the vowel is
changed, its quantity remains the same: e. g., laedo, illldo; caedo,
incldo; aequus, inlquus; fauces, sujfoco; claudo, recludo; facio,
efflcio; cado, incldo; ratus, irritus; rego, erigo; lego, eligo. We
may therefore infer from compounded words the quantity of
those of which they consist; e. g., from adoro, admiror, and abutor
we conclude that oro, miror, and utor have the first syllable long ;
and from commoror and desuper, that the first syllable in moror
and super is short, which is not always accurately distinguished
in pronunciation, because these syllables have the accent. (See
Chap. IV.)
We shall mention here, by way of example, a few more compounds from
which the quantity of the vowels in their elements may be inferred. We
shall choose such as cannot be mentioned in any of the subsequent lists, and
present them in the third person singular of the present tense. We have a
long vowel in exhdlat, conclamat, allatrat, delibat, consfipat, evitat, irritat,
deplorat, enodat, compotat, refutat, obdurat, and community and a short one in
cxarat, comparat, enatat, irrigat, alligat, perfrteat, erudit, expolit, devorat,
comprobat, computat, recubat, and suppiidet.
But there are some exceptions, and the following compounded words
change the long vowel into a short one : dejero and pejero from juro ; cau-
sidicus, fatidicus, mcdedtcus, veridicus, from dicere ; agnttus and cognitus from
nutus; innub(us), -a, and pronub(us)> -a, from nubo. The case is reversed
in imbecillus from baculus.
t 22 -l I n respect to Composition with Prepositions, it is to be remarked,
that prepositions of one syllable which end in a vowel are long, and those
which end in a consonant are short : deduco, aboleo, perimo. Tra (formed
from trans), as in trado, traduco, is long ; but the o (for ob) in omitto and
operior is short. Pro, in Greek words, is short, as in propheta, but prologus,
propola, and propino form exceptions. In Latin words pro is long, e. g.
prodo, promitto : but in many it is short ; profugio, profugus, pronepos, pro-
fiteer, profari, prof anus, profestus, profecto, prqficiscor, profundus, protervus,
procella, and a few others, the derivation of which is doubtful, as proceres,
propitius, properare , in some the quantity is undecided. Se and di (for dis)
16 LATIN GRAMMAR.
are long ; the only exceptions are dirimo and disertus. Re is short ; it is long
only in the imperson.il verb refert * : in all other cases where it appears
long, the consonant which follows it must be doubled (in verse), as in rep-
puli, repperi, rettuli, rettudi, reccido, redduco, relligio, rettiquiae ; the four
perfects reppuli, repperi, rettuli and rettudi appear to have been pronounced
and spelled in this way, even in prose. In the same manner reddo, reddere,
arose from do. The termination a in prepositions of two syllables is long,
as in contrddico ; all the others are short, as ante/era, praetereo.
[ 23.] When the first word of a composition is not a preposition, it is
necessary to determine the quantity of the final vowel (a, e, i, o, u, y) of the
first word. 1) a is long, as in quare and qudpropter, except in quasi. 2) e
is mostly short, as in calefacio (notice especially neque, nequeo, nefas, nefastus,
nefarius, nefandus), but long in nequam, nequidquam, nequaquam and nemo
(which is contracted from ne and hemo, the ancient form for homo) ; also in se-
decim and the pronouns memet, mecum, tecum, and secum ; in veneficus, videlicet,
vecors, and vesanus. 3) i is short, e. g. signijico, sacrttegus, cornicen, tubicen,
omnipotent, undique ; but long in compounded pronouns, as quilibet, utrique,
in ibidem, ubique, utroblque, llicet and scilicet; also in the compounds of
dies, as blduum, trlduum, meridies ; and lastly, in all those compounds of
which the parts may be separated, such as lucrlfacio, agriculture, siquis,
because the i at the end of the first word is naturally long, and remains so.
4) o is short, hodie, duodecim, sacrosanctus, but long in compounds with
contro, intro, retro, and quando (quandoquidem alone forms an exception) ; it
is long in alioqui, ceteroqui, utroque, and in those Greek words in which
the o represents the Greek w, as in geometria. 5) u and y are short, as in
quadrupes, Polyphemus.
4. In regard to the quantity of Final Syllables, the following
special rules must be observed :
A. MONOSYLLABIC WORDS.
[ 24.] 1) All monosyllables ending in a vowel are long ;
except the particles which are attached to other words : que, ve,
ce, ne, te (tute), pse (reapse), and pte (suopte).
Note. Ne, the interrogative particle, is always short, and ia attached to
other words as an enclitic, as in videsne, dost thou see ? or dost thou not
see ? In the ordinary pronunciation it was still more shortened by throwing
off the vowel, as in credori 1 tibi hoc nunc f and, in case of an s preceding, this
letter was likewise dropped, as ain' tu f for aisne tu ? satin'' recte ? satin'
salvae f for satisne recte ? satisne salvae f The conjunction ne (lest, or that
not) is long. Respecting ne, as an inseparable negative particle in compo-
sitions, see above, 23.
2) Among the monosyllables ending in a consonant, the sub-
stantives are long, as sol, ver,fur, jus; and all those are short
* The re in this word is probably not a particle as in relego, but the
accusative of the word res, so that refert is equal to rem fert. This
would account for the length of the e. (See Key, The Alphabet;, p. 78.)
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 17
which are not substantives, as ut, et, nee, In, an, ad, quid, sed, quts,
quot. The following substantives however are short : cor, fel,
mel, vir and os (gen. ossis), and probably also mas, a male being,
and vas, a surety, since they have the a short in the genitive :
marts, vddis. Some words, on the other hand, are long, although
they are not substantives ; as en, non, gum, sin, eras, plus, cur,
and par with its compounds, and also the adverbs in ic or uc, as
sic, hie, hue. The monosyllabic forms of declension and conju-
gation follow the general rules about the quantity of final syl-
lables, and das, fies, and scls accordingly are long, while dat, Jlet,
and scit are short ; his, quos, quds are long, like the terminations
os and as in declension. So also the ablative singular hoc and
hdc. The nominative hie and the neuter hoc, on the other hand,
although the vowel is naturally short, are commonly used as
long, because the pronunciation was hicc and hocc (as a compen-
sation for the ancient form hice, hoce). The abridged impera-
tives retain the quantity of the root, so that die and due are
long, while fac and^/er are short.
Note. We formerly thought with other grammarians, that fac was long,
and that we ought to read face in those passages in which it is found short.
(See Heinsius and Burmann on Ovid, Heroid. ii. 98.) But there is no
satisfactory evidence for fac being long, and the instances quoted by Vos-
sius (Aristarch. ii. 29.) have now been altered for other reasons.
B. FINAL SYLLABLES IN WORDS OP TWO OR MORE SYLLABLES.
[ 25.] 1) Such as terminate in a Vowel.
A is short in nouns, except in the ablative singular of the first
declension and in the vocative of Greek proper names in as
which belong to the first or third declension, e. g. dEnea, Palld.
A is long in verbs and indeclinable words, such as amd, frustrd,
ergd, anted, and posted (except when separated into post ea\
except itd, quid, ejd, and the imperative putd in the sense of
" for example." In the indeclinable numerals, as triainta and
qnadraginta, the a is sometimes long and sometimes short.
E is short, as in patre 1 , curre, nempe; but long in the ablative
of the fifth declension and in the imperative of the second con-
jugation ; the poets however, and especially the comic ones,
sometimes shorten the imperative of the words cave, habe, jube,
mane, tare, vale, and vide. Adverbs in e formed from adjec-
tives of the second declension are likewise long, as docte, doctis-
C
18 LATIN GRAMMAR.
siitie, recte, rectissime : also fere, ferme, and ohe (but bene and
male are always short, and inferne and superne sometimes), and
Greek words of the first declension terminating in e, as crambe,
Circe, and Greek plurals, as Tempe and cete.
[ 26.] / is long. It is short only in the vocative of Greek
words in is, e. g. Alexi, in the Greek dative in i, which however
occurs seldom, as in Palladl, Teihyi, and in nisi, quasi, and cui,
when it is used as a dissyllable. The i is common or doubtful
in mihl, sibi, ibl and ubl; in compounds we commonly find ibi-
dem and always ubique, whereas in ubwis and ubinam the i is
always short. In uti for ut the i is long, but in the compounds
utinam and utique short.
O is common in the present tense of all the conjugations, and
in the nominative of the third declension, as in sermo, virgo;
the Greek words in o (to, Gen. ovs) however remain long in
Latin, as Id, Dido. But o is long in the second declension,
as in lecto, and in adverbs formed from nouns and pronouns
by means of this termination (see 264.); e. g. vulgo, falso,
paulo, eo, quo, and also ergo, iccirco, quando, and retro. In the
poets however gerunds and the following adverbs are some-
times short : ergo in the sense of " therefore," porro, postremo,
sero, quando (the compound quandoquidem occurs only with a
short o). The adverbs modo (with all its compounds, and also
quomodo), clto, illico, and immo, and also cedo (for die or da), ego,
duo, and octo are always short, whereas ambo is generally long.
Note. O as a termination of verbs has been here described as common ;
it must however be observed, that it is naturally long, and is used so by
most poets of the best age, such as Virgil, Horace (in his Odes), and Ovid
(in his Metamorphoses), in their serious productions. In their lighter poems
however, and in the works of later poets, it is also used short, according to
the example of the comic poets, though this was done at first less frequently,
until at last it became the prevalent custom to make the o short. (See
Lennep's elaborate note on Ovid, Heroid. xv. 32., reprinted in the edition of
Loers.) The same is the case with o in substantives of the third declension,
for the earlier poets always prefer using it as a long syllable.
7 is always long, as in diu, vultu, cornu.
Yin Greek words is always short.
2) Such as terminate in a Consonant.
[ 27.] All final syllables ending in a consonant are short, and
special rule& are required only for those ending in the sibilant s.
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 19
Note. The dissyllabic compounds of par retain the quantity of the
single word, and the cases ofistic and illic follow those of hie. (See 131.)
Greek words retain their original quantity in their final syllables, except
those in or, as Hector, Nestor, which are short in Latin, although in Greek
they end in o>p. The only exceptions in genuine Latin words are lien
(formed from lienis which is still used) and alec.
[ 28.] As is long in Latin words, with the exception of anas,
andtis ; but the Greek nominatives in as, which make their
genitives in aSos and in Latin in adis, such as, llias, Pallas, and
the Greek accusatives plural of the third declension, are always
short, as in heroas.
.Es is long, e. g. antes, leges, audies, patres. But Latin no-
minatives in es, which increase in the genitive, and have their
penultima short, are themselves short ; e. g. miles, milltis ; seges,
segetis (except abies, aries, paries, Ceres, and the compounds of
pes) ; also the nominatives plural of Greek words, which increase
in the genitive singular, as Amazoncs, Troades ; the preposition
penes and the second person of the compounds of sum, es,
e. g. abes, potis ; but the es (for edis) from edo is long. (See
212.)
[ 29.] 7s is generally short, but long in all the cases of the
plural, as armls, vobls, omnls (accus. for omnes) ; in the second
person singular of verbs whose second plural is Itis, that is,
in the fourth conjugation, and in possls, veils, noils, malls, and
vis (thou wilt), with its compounds, such as mavis, qwvls,
quamvls. Respecting the quantity of is in the perfect sub-
junctive and in the second future see 165. Is, lastly, is long
in proper names of the third declension, which, increasing in
the genitive, have their penultima long ; e. g. Quirls, Itis ; Sam-
nls, Itis ; Salamls, mis ; Simols, entis.
Os is long, as in nepos, honos, viros ; it is short only in
compos and impos, and in Greek words and cases in os, e. g.
Delos, Erinnyos.
Us is short in verbs and nouns except monosyllables, but
long in the genitive singular, in the nominative and accusative
plural of the fourth declension, and in the nominatives of the
third, which have u in the genitive, as virtus, utis ; palus, udis.
It is also long when it represents the Greek ovs, as in Panthus,
Melampus, Sapphus. (Comp. 59.)
Ys in Greek words is short, as Halys, Tcthys, chlamys, and
c 2
20 LATIN GKAM.MAU.
long only in the few instances in which the yis of the genitive is
contracted into ys.
[ 30.] 5. Syllables (as was remarked in the beginning of this
chapter) may become long by their vowel being followed by
two or more consonants, that is, by their position : x and z are
accounted as two consonants. (See above, 3.) A position
may be formed in three ways: 1. When a syllable ends in
two or three consonants,* as in ex, est, mens, stirps. 2. When
the first syllable ends in a consonant and the second begins with
one, as in ille, arma, mentis, in nova. 3. When the first syllable
ends in a vowel, and the one following begins with two con-
sonants. By the first and second kinds of position, a syllable
which is naturally short becomes long. Exceptions to this rule
occur only in the comic poets who frequently neglect position,
especially that of the second kind.
Note. In syllables long by position .we usually pronounce "the vowel
itself short ; but the ancients in their pronunciation even here distin-
guished the long vowel from the short one, just as in Greek we must pro-
nounce Trpdffcrw with a long a, because it is naturally long, as we see from
7r0ai and irpaypa. With regard to other vowels, we are assisted by the
Greek signs )/> w and f, o ; but in Latin words, unless we can be guided by
verse, we can derive information only from etymology and from the state-
ments of the ancient grammarians. Thus they distinguished est (he is) from
eat (for edify, and they pronounced the vowel in con and in when followed
in compounds by f or *, long, as in Infelix, Insanus, consul, cdnfecit. (See
Cicero, Orat. 48.) Dens, gens, mens, fans, frons, and mons, were uttered
with a long vowel, and in like manner pax, lex, lux, rex, and vox, because
they have their vowel long in the genitive also (plebs, plebis, belongs to the
same class) ; whereas fax, nex, nix, mix, were pronounced with their vowel
short, because they form the genitive fads, necis, &c. (Coinp. Schneider,
Elementarl. p. 108. foil.)
[ si.] In the third kind of position (made by two consonants
beginning the syllable after a vowel), we must distinguish as to
whether it occurs within a word or between two words, and
whether the consonants are muta cum liquida, or not. Within
a word a syllable ending in a short vowel is regularly made
long, when it is followed by two consonants or x and z, as in
a-ptus, fa-ctus, a-xis ; but when the first consonant is a mute
and the second a liquid (which is called positio debilis), they
make the vowel only common, according to the pronunciation in
prose. Thus, we may pronounce either cerebrum, lugubris, me-
diftcris, integri, or cerebrum, lugubris, mediocris, integri. Ovid,
for example, says: Et primo similis volucri, mox vera volucris.
LENGTH AND SHORTNESS OF SYLLABLES. 2 1
(Metam. xiii. 607.) Between two words the vowel is rarely
lengthened, except in the arsis of a verse. The last syllable of a
word thus remains short, e. g. in Horace at the beginning
of an hexameter: quern mala, stullitia aut; or at the end:
praemia scribae. An instance in which the vowel is lengthened
by the accession of the arsis occurs in Virgil, Bucol. iv. 51. :
Terrasque tractusque marts coelumque profundum.
Qu is not accounted as two consonants, for u is not a true .
consonant, though we usually pronounce it as such. But j
alone is sufficient to make position, because this consonant was
pronounced double (in early times it was also written double) ;
e. g. major like maijor, and in like manner in ejus and Troja.
In the compounds of jugum alone it does not lengthen the pre-
ceding vowel, as byugus, quadrijugus, nor does it, according to
the rule mentioned above, lengthen the vowel when it begins
a new word, and the preceding word ends in a short vowel, as in
the hexameter of Virgil (Georg. i. 125.): Ante Jovem nulli
subigebant arva coloni.
Note. The determination of the quantity of a vowel before muta cum
liquida within a word has great difficulties, and we must add the following
observations. The practice of the different poets varies greatly. Virgil, e.g.,
is particularly fond of lengthening a vowel by its position before muta cum
liquida ; and he and the poets in general usually contrive to make the vowel
thus lengthened coincide with the arsis in the verse ; by the same con-
trivance he also lengthens the short final syllable of a word, especially the
enclitic que, in the second foot of an hexameter, by the muta cum liquida
which follow it. We have further to- observe particular words which have
their vowel short, viz. liber, niger, piger, and ruber ; but in their inflections,
where the muta cum liquida occurs, the vowel almost always becomes long;
coluber, e. g., is short ; but colubrae, coliibris, are long, and migro is made
long by the best poets in the hexameter. Other words however are either
never lengthened, as arbitror, or very seldom, as locuples. There are, on the
other hand, some cases of muta cum liquida, which form a strong position
both in Latin and Greek, viz. where the liquid is either I, tw, or n, and the
mute either b, g, or d (See Buttmann's Greek Grammar, 7. 10.) Thus
the Latin words publicus, agmen, regnum and ignarus, always have their
first syllable long.
It is almost superfluous to repeat here, that we are speaking only of such
vowels as are naturally short ; for, when the vowel is naturally long, a
lengthening by positio debilis is out of the question, and we therefore always
say ambulacrum, lavdcrum, delubrum, involucrum aud salubris. When the
consonants muta cum liquida belong to different syllables, as in ab-luo, ob-ruo.
quam-ob-rem, they make, real position. .
c 3
22 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. IV.
OF THE ACCENT OF WORDS.
[ 32.] 1. IT is a general rule that every word has an accent on
one particular syllable. This accent is twofold, either the cir-
cumflex ( A ), or the acute ('), for what is called the grave in Greek
means only the absence of either accent. Some words have no
accent, viz. the enclitics ne, que, ve, ce, which never appear by
themselves, but are attached to other words. Prepositions lose
their accent when they precede the cases which they govern.
Note. The addition of these enclitics produces a change in the accent of
the words to which they are attached, and which thus become compounds.
The ancient grammarians have established the rule, that whenever an
enclitic has a meaning of its own, the accent is thrown back upon the
syllable immediately before the enclitic, and either as the acute (if the vowel
of that syllable is short), or as the circumflex (if the vowel is long), as in
Musaque (norninat.) homineque, and Musaqiie (ablat.) armisque. When, on
the other hand, the enclitic has no meaning by itself, and forms only one
word with that to which it is attached, the accent varies, as will be shown
hereafter. This is the case with que ; for in some compounds it either does
not possess the meaning of " and " at all, or only very indistinctly. Hence
in itdque (and so) the accent belongs to the short penultima, and in itaque
(therefore), in which the meaning of " and " is quite obscured, the pronun-
ciation places the accent upon the antepenultima. In the same manner we
have to distinguish between utique (and that) and utique (certainly). By
way of exception the same grammarians place the accent on the penultima
in utrdque and pleraque, on account of the accent of the masculine forms
uterque and plerique, although according to the general rule, que not meaning
" and," we ought to pronounce utraque and pleraque. They further inform
us that we should pronounce nequando and siquando, in order that quando
may not be taken for a separate word, and aliquando in order to distinguish
it from aliqudnto.
[ 33.] 2. Monosyllables are pronounced with the circum-
flex, when their vowel is long by nature and not merely by
position, as in dos, mos, Jlds, jus, lux, spes, forts and mons ; but
when the vowel is naturally short, they are pronounced with the
acute, although the syllable may be long by position ; e. g. drs,
pars, fax, dux.
Note. Sic (so) the adverb should be pronounced with the circumflex,
and sic, which indicates a wish, with the acute ; e. g. Sic fe, ,diva potens
Cypri, &c. in Horace Comp. Priscian, De XII. Vers. JEn.
ACCENT OF WORDS. 23
3. Words of two syllables have the accent on the first, either
as circumflex, when the vowel of that syllable is naturally long,
and that of the second one short ; or as acute, when the vowel of
the first syllable is short and that of the second long ; or when
the vowel of the first as well as that of the second is long ; e. g.
Roma, musa, luce, juris ; but homo because both syllables are
short ; deas, because the first is short and the second long ; drte,
because the first is long only by position ; and doti, for although
the vowel of the first is naturally long, yet that of the second is
likewise long. The ancient grammarians do not notice those
cases where a syllable long by position is at the same time long
by the nature of its vowel (see above, 30.); but it is pro-
bable that consul, monte, dente, esse (for edere), asthma and
sceptrum, were pronounced in the same manner as luce.
4. Words of three syllables may have the accent on the ante-
penultima and penultima ; the acute on the antepenultima,
when the penultima is short, as in caedere, pergere, homines ; the
accented syllable itself may be long or short. The circumflex
is placed on the penultima on the conditions before-mentioned,
as in amdsse, Romdnus ; and the acute, when those conditions do
not exist, and yet the penultima is long, as in Romdnis, Me-
tellus. No word can have the accent further back than the
antepenultima, so that we must pronounce Constantinopolis, sol-
licitudinibus.
Note. Priseian (p. 803. ed. Putsch.) remarks as an exception, that the
compounds of facere, which are not formed by means of a preposition, such
as calefacit, tepefa.cit, and (p. 739.) the contracted genitives in t instead
of n (see 49.), have the accent on the penultima, even when it is short, as
in ingeni, Valeri, so that we must pronounce calefdcit, ingeni. Reasserts
the same with regard to the vocative of proper names in ius, e. g. Virgili,
Valeri; while other grammarians (A. Gellius, xiii. 25.) leave to this case its
regular accentuation, Virgili and not Virgili.
[ 34.] 5. Words of two or more syllables never have the ac-
cent on the last, and it appears that it was only the grammarians
who invented a different mode of accentuation for the purpose
of distinguishing words which would otherwise sound alike.
They tell us that the words pone (behind) and ergo (on account
of) should have the accent on the last syllable, to distinguish
them from pone (put) and ergo (therefore). They further accen-
tuate the last syllables of the adverbs circum, docte, raro, primo,
sohtm, and modo, to distinguish them from the cases which have
c 4
21 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the same terminations. The interrogatives quando, qualis,
quantus, ubi, and others, are said to have the accent on the first
syllable, according to the rule ; but when used in the sense of
relatives, to have the accent on the last syllable, unless the acute
be changed into the grave by reason of their connection with
other words which follow. The words ending in as which ori-
ginally ended in atis, such as optimas, nostras, Arpinas, are said
to have the accent on the syllable on which they had it in their
complete form, and which is now the last. The same is asserted
with regard to the contracted perfects, such as audit for audivit.
It is impossible to determine how much of all this was really
observed by the ancients, since it is expressly attested by earlier
writers, such as Quintilian, that in Latin the accent was never
put on the last syllable. But it is certainly wrong to put the
grave on the last syllable of all adverbs, as some persons still do,
or to use accents for the purpose of indicating the natural length
of a vowel, which is better expressed by a horizontal line (~).
[ 35.] 6. These rules concerning accentuation ought to lead
us to accustom ourselves to distinguish accent from quantity ;
to read, for example, homines and not homines, and to distinguish
in our pronunciation edo (I eat) from edo (I edit), lego (I read)
from lego (I despatch), and in like manner furis (thou rarest),
tigis (thou readest) and regis (thou rulest) from the genitives
furis, regis and legis; further, levis (light) from levis (smooth),
mdlus (bad) from mains (an apple-tree), pdlus, udis (a marsh),
from pdlus, i (a post), anus (an old woman) from anus (jrpcaKTos),
lutum (mud) from lutum (a dyer's weed), and also lu'teus (dirty
or muddy) from lu'teus (yellow), and pffpulus (the people) from
po'pulus (a poplar). In our own language accent and quantity
coincide, but it is very wrong to apply this peculiarity to a lan-
guage to which it is foreign.
25
THE ACCIDENCE,
CHAP. V.
DIVISION OF WORDS ACCORDING TO THEIR SIGNIFICATION.
[ 36.] THE words of every language are either nouns, verbs,
or particles.
A noun serves to denote an object or a quality of an object,
and may accordingly be either a substantive, as domus (a house),
a pronoun, as ego (I), or an adjective, as parvus (small). Nouns
are declined to indicate their different relations.
A verb expresses an action or condition which is ascribed to a
person or a thing, as scribo, ire, dormire, amari. A verb is con-
jugated in order to indicate the different modes in which an
action or condition is ascribed to a person or a thing.
Particles are those parts of speech, which are neither declined
nor conjugated, and which are neither nouns nor verbs. They
are divided into the following classes. 1) Adverbs express the
circumstances of an action or condition, as scribit bene, he writes
well: diu dormit, he sleeps long. 2) Prepositions express, either
directly or indirectly (295.), the relations of persons or things
to one another or to actions and conditions ; as, amor meus erga
te, my love towards thee; eo ad te, I go to thee. 3) Conjunctions
express the connexion between things, actions, or propositions ;
as, ego et tu; clamavit, sed pater non audivit. 4) Interjections
are the expressions of emotion by a single word; as ah, ohe,
vae.
These are the eight parts of speech in Latin ; all of them
occur in the following hexameter :
Vae tibi ridenti, quia mox post gaudia flebis.
26 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. VI.
NOUNS SUBSTANTIVE. GENERAL RULES OF GENDER.
[37.] NOUNS substantive are either proper (nom ina propria\
i. e. the names of one particular man or thing, or common (110-
mina appellativa), i. e. such as denote persons or things in so far
as they belong to a class.
All nouns have one of three genders ; masculine, feminine,
or neuter.
The manner in which the gender of a noun can be ascertained
from its termination will be explained under each declension.
Our object here is to show the gender of nouns, both proper
and common, in so far as it depends upon their meaning.
1. The following are masculine: the names of men and of
male beings; as homo,vir, scriba, Jlamen, consul, rex, deus, daemon,
Cupido (the God of Love), manes (the spirits of the departed),
lemures (spectres) ; and the names of rivers, winds, and months,
the words Jluvius, ventus, and mensis being themselves masculine.
[ 33.] Exceptions. There are some substantives which do not originally
denote men,but have come to be applied to them by custom ; as operae, labour-
,,,. s . vigiliae and excufiiae, sentinels ; copiae, troops ; auxilia, auxiliary troops ;
mancipium, a slave ; scortum and prostibulum, a prostitute. All such words
have the gender which belongs to them according to their termination.
The names of rivers in a, belonging to the first declension, vary in
their gender. (See Schneider, Formenlehre, p. 14.) Modern writers com-
monly make them feminine ; but the ancients, in most cases, make them
masculines, which is the gender belonging to them. (See 47.) The
mythological rivers Styx and Lethe are feminine, as in Greek. The names
of winds and months are, without exception, masculine ; hence hi Etesice,
hie Libs, hie Aprilis. With regard to the names of the months it must be
observed that all of them are adjectives, and that the best writers use them
only as such, the substantive mensis being understood. Hence also Ca-
lendae Januariae, Nonae Sextiles, Idus Martiae, Majae, ante Calendas Au-
gustas, Idibus Decembribus. See Drakenborch, on Livy (iv. 37.), who, with
most other commentators, is so strongly convinced of this, that he does not
hesitate to correct passages in which this rule is not observed.
The names of mountains are generally said to be masculine ; but when
the word mons is not joined with them, the gender depends upon their
termination, as in alta Aetna.
[ 39.] 2. The following are feminine: the names of women
and female beings; e. g. uxor, wife ; soror, sister; anus, an old
woman ; socrus, mother-in-law ; Juno, Venus; and even when
they end in um, as Phanium, Gtycerium, Leontium. Most of the
GENDER OF SUBSTANTIVES. 27
names of trees, towns, countries, and islands, just as the words
arbos, urbs, terra (regio), and insula, tjiemselves are feminine ;
e. g. alta cedrus, pinus, abies, the high cedar, pine, fir ; umbrosa
faff us, the shady beech ; ficus Indica, opulenta Corinthus, antiqua
Tyrus, dura Lacedaemon, Aegyptus superstitiosa, clara Salamis.
Exceptions. The names of trees and shrubs ending in er, and following
the third declension, are neuter ; as acer, deer, papaver, to which we must
add robur, the oak. Masculine are oleaster and pinaster, which belong to the
second, and styrax which belongs to the third declension : also many shrubs
and smaller plants in us, i ; e. g. amarantus, asparagus, calamus, dumus, helle-
borus, intubus, rhamnus, and spinus. The following vary, and may be used as
masculine or feminine : cytisus, raphanus, rubus, and grossus, an unripe fig.
Among the names of towns the following are masculine : 1) All plurals in
t, as Argi, Delphi, Puteoli, Veji ; 2) Four names in o : Hippo (with the
surname regius), Narbo Marcius, Frusino, and Sulmo ; the analogy of which
is followed also by Croto, although the regular form in Greek is >/ Kporatv ;
3) Tunes, etis, and Canopus, as in Greek 6 KavtuCot,-. Some names in us, untis,
such as Pesslnus, Sellnus, and in us, i, such as Pharsalus, Abydus, and also
Marathon, are masculine, according to the Greek custom, though they are
sometimes also used as feminines. The following are neuter : 1) Those ending
in um, and the Greek names in on, as Tusculum, Ilion ; 2) The plurals in a,
orum, e. g. Susa, Arbela, Ecbatana, Leuctra ; 3) Those ending in e and ur,
which follow the third declension, as Caere, Redte, Praeneste, Tergeste, Nepete
or Nepet, Anxur, and Tibur ; Tuder is likewise neuter ; 4) The indeclinable
names in i and y, as Illiturgi, Asty, and some others, particularly barbarous
names, the declension of which is defective, as Suthul, Hispal, Gadir, whereas
their Latin forms, Hispalis and Gades, ium, are feminine. Argos, as a neuter,
occurs only in the nominative, otherwise Argi, orum, is used. The many
exceptions we have here enumerated might render us inclined altogether
to drop the rule respecting the feminine gender of names of towns ; but we
must adhere to it on account of the numerous Greek names in us, i, and
of the Greek or non-Italian names in on (o), onis ; and there appears
moreover to have been a tendency to make feminine even those which are of
a different gender, provided they are in the singular. This is the case,
besides those we have already mentioned, with Croton, and may also be
observed in the case of Praeneste; for Virgil says, Praenesie sub ipsa, and
Juvenal gelida, Praeneste, but otherwise the neuter gender is well estab-
lished. (Liv.vi.29. ; Sil.Ital. ix. 404.) The poets change the names of some
places ending in um into us, e. g. Saguntus, and use them as feminines. (See
Schneider, Formenl. p. 479.)
Among the names of countries those in um and plurals in a are neuter,
as Latium, Bactra; the names Bosporus, Pontus, and Hellespontus, which
properly denote the seas adjacent to these countries, are masculine ; the
same is the case with Isthmus when used as the name of a country, for ori-
ginally it is a common noun signifying " a neck of land." Of the names of
islands, some ending in um are neuter ; as is also the Egyptian Delta.
It must further be observed that most names of precious stones are feminine
as in Greek ; but beryllus, carbunculus, opalus, and smaragdus are masculine.
The names of dramatic compositions are used in the early and good language
as feminine, the wordfabula being understood ; e. g. hcec Trundentus (Plauti),
Eunuchus (Terentii) acta est, $-c. (See Quintil i. 5. 52. with Spalding's
note.) Juvenal (i. 6.), however, says, Orestes nondum fimtus.
28 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 40.] 3. There are many names of persons, which are
common to both sexes, as they denote an occupation or quality
which may belong either to a man or a woman, although the one
is more frequently the case than the other. Such words are
called common (communia). Those found in Latin with two
genders are contained in the following hexameter lines :
Antistes, votes, adolescens, auctor et augur,
Dux,judex, index, testis, cum cive sacerdos,
Municipi adde parens, patrueli affinis et heres,
Artifici conjux atque incola, miles et hostis,
Par,juvenis, martyr, comes, infans, obses et hospes,
Interpres, praesul, custos, vindexqne, satelles.
Some other words are not noticed here, because they are used only in appo-
sition to feminines ; those mentioned above, however, may be accompanied
by adjectives in either gender ; e. g. Cic. Cat. 2. : In hoc sumus sapientes,
quod naturam Sptimam ducem, tamquam deum, sequimur. Pro Balb. 24. : Sacer-
dos ilia Cereris civis Romanafacta est. Virg. 2En. x. 252. : Alma parens Idaea
deum. -Liv. i. 7. : Mater mea, veridica interpres deum. To these we may add
contubernalis, properly an adjective, which cannot be accommodated to verse,
and perhaps also exul and princeps, with regard lo which the passages of the
ancients are not decisive, since the non alia exul in Tacit. Ann. xiv. 63. may
be explained as apposition, and Romano princeps in the Eleg. ad Liviam, 356.
may be taken as an adjective, as in other cases. Obses is well attested as a
nomen commune by Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxiv. 13. : Obsidibus, quae Porsenae mit-
tebantur. Auspex yet awaits a better authority than praeclaram auspicem in
the Declam. (Porcii Latronis) in Catil. c. 16.
It is further to be observed, that antistes and hospes, in the sense of priestess
and hostess, are not attested as well as the feminine forms antistita, ae, and
hospita, ae.
[ 41.] 4. Substantiva mobilia are those substantives in which
the root receives different terminations for the masculine and
feminine genders. The termination for the feminine is always a
or trix, and the latter occurs in those cases in which the masculine
ending in tor is derived from transitive verbs, as in victor, vie-
trix; ultor, ultrix; praeceptor, praeceptrix ; inventor, inventrix.
The feminine is indicated by a when the masculine ends in us or
er, or some other termination, e. g. coquus, coqua ; puer, puera ;
or more frequently the diminutive form puella ; magister, md-
gistra; leno, lena ; caupo, copa ; tibicen, tibicina ; avus, avia ;
rex, regina; antistes, antistita. The feminine termination tria
is Greek, and is formed from masculines in tes or ta, as psaltes,
psaltria ; poe'ta, poetria.
[ 42] 5. Some names of animals have special forms to dis-
tinguish the two sexes: agnus,agna; cervus, cerva ; Columbus,
GENDER OF SL'BSTANTI VES. 29
columba ; equus, equa; gallus, gallina ; juvencus, juvenca ; lupus,
lupa ; leo, lea and leaena ; porous, porca ; vitulus, vitula ; ursus,
ursa. In some cases the words are altogether different, as in
taurus, vacca, a bull and cow ; aries, ovis, ram and sheep ;
hoedus, capella ; catus,felis.
Most other names of animals are common (epicoena) ; that is,
they have only one grammatical gender which comprises both
sexes, e. g. passer, anser, corvus, canis, cancer are masculine ;
aquila, felis, anas, vulpes are feminine, though they may denote
animals of either sex. With regard to those names which may
distinguish the genders by terminations, it should be observed
that one form (generally the masculine) predominates, such as
equus, leo, lupus as masculine, and felis, ovis as feminine. If the
sex of the particular animal is to be stated, the word mas or
femina are added to the name ; as, anas mas, anas femina, femina
anguis, musca femina, femina. piscis, and lupus or porcus femina,
although we have the forms lupa and porca. Instead of mas
we may also use masculus or mascula, e. g. vulpes mascula, a
male fox ; pavo masculus, a male peacock.
Some of these nouns epicene however, in which the difference
of sex is more frequently noticed, are used as real common
nouns, so that they are masculine when the male animal, and
feminine when the female animal, is particularly specified. Of
this kind are bos, canis, elephantus, lepus, vespertilio, mus, which
are masculine when the difference of sex is not noticed ; but fe-
minine when the female is designated. Thus we generally find,
e. g., elephanti prudentissimi habentur, lepores timidi sunt ; but at
the same time canes rabidae, elephantus gravida, lepus fecunda :
and Horace abandoning the usual gender, takes the liberty of
saying (Serm. ii. 8. 87.): membra gruis sparsi, and jecur anseris
albae. (See Bentley's note.)
The following nouns are sometimes masculine and some-
times feminine, without regard to difference of sex : . an-
guis and serpens, a serpent ; dama, fallow-deer ; talpa, a
mole ; also sus, a pig ; and tigris, tiger ; but sus is commonly
feminine, while tigris is commonly masculine. Others are of
uncertain gender, in as far as they have both a masculine and a
feminine form, which, however, are used indiscriminately and
without regard to sex. Thus we have the feminine forms
colubra, lacerta, luscinia, and simia along with the masculines
30 LATIN GRAMMAR.
coluber, lacertus, luscinius, and simius, without simia, for in-
stance, having any reference whatever to a female monkey. In
like manner, palumbus and palumba (the same as palumbes) are
used indiscriminately.
[ 43.] 6. The following are neuter. All indeclinable sub-
stantives, as gummi, pascha, sindpi, and pondo which is used as
an indeclinable noun in the sense of " pound ;" the names of the
letters of the alphabet, as c triste, o longum, Graecum digamma,
&c., and all words and expressions which, without being sub-
stantives, are conceived and used as such, or quoted merely as
words ; e. g. ultimum vale, scire tuum nihil est, vivere ipsum turpe
est nobis, tergeminum cro</><wy, hoc ipsum diu mihi molestum est
(Cicero), lacrimas hoc mihi paene movet (Ovid), where the words
diu and paene are quoted from the sayings of another person,
and it is said* that the very word diu or paene is painful.
Note. The names of the letters of the alphabet, however, are sometimes
used as feminines, the word littera being understood ; e. g. Quintil. i. 4. 11. :
Sciat etiam Ciceroni placuisse aiio Maiiamque geminata i scribere. The names
of the Greek letters in a, as beta, gamma, delta, are used as feminines only by
Ausonius, Technop. de Lift.
CHAP. VII.
NUMBER, CASE, AND DECLENSION.
[ 44.] THE Latin language distinguishes, in nouns and verbs,
the singular and plural (numerus singularis and pluralis) by
particular forms ; it has also different forms to distinguish six
different cases (casus) in the relations and connections of nouns.
The ordinary names of these cases are nominative, genitive,
dative, accusative, vocative, and ablative. The different forms
of these cases are seen in the terminations which are annexed to
the crude form of a word. Declension is the deriving of these
different forms, both in the singular and plural, from one an-
other, the nominative forming the starting point. The nominative
and vocative are called casus recti, and the others casus obliqui.
There are five declensions distinguished by the termination
of the genitive singular, which ends :
12345
9* i is us ei
NUMBER, CASE, AND DECLENSION.
31
All declensions have the following points in common :
1. In the second, third, and fourth declensions there are
neuters which have three cases alike, viz. nominative, accu-
sative, and vocative.
2. The vocative is like the nominative, except in the second
declension and some Greek words in the first and third.
3. Where no exception arises from neuters, the accusative
singular ends in m.
12345
am um em urn em
4. The genitive plural ends in um.
12345
arum
orum
um
num.
crum
5. The dative plural is in all declensions like the ablative
plural.
12345
is Is thus Ibus (ubus} ebus
The following table contains the terminations of all the five
declensions :
SINGULAR.
neut.
neut.
Norn, a (e, as, es}
us, er, um
a, e, o c, /,
n, r, s, t, x
us, u
es.
Gen. ae (es}
Dat. ae
i
o
is
i
us
ui
'e'i.
e'i.
Ace. am (en)
Voc. a (e)
Abl. a (e)
um
e, er, um
o
em (im)
like nom.
e()
um, u
us, u
u
em.
es.
e.
PLURAL..
neut.
neut.
neut.
Nom. ae
i, a
es, a (ia}
us, ua
es.
Gen. arum
orum
um (ium)
uum
erum.
Dat. is
is
ibus
ibus (ubus)
ebus.
Ace. as
os, a
es, a (ia)
us, ua
es.
Voc. ae
i, a
es, a (ia)
us, ua
es.
Abl. is
is
ibus
ibus (ubus)
ebus.
32 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. VIII.
FIRST DECLENSION.
[ 45.] THE first declension comprises all nouns which form the
genitive singular in ae. The nominative of genuine Latin words
of this kind ends in a. Greek words in a, as musa, historia,
stoa, follow the example of the Latin ones, and shorten the final
vowel when it is long in Greek. Some Greek words in e, as,
and es have peculiar terminations in some of their cases. (See
Chap. IX.)
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. vi-a, the way. Nom. vi-ae, the ways.
Gen. vi-ae, of the way. Gen. vi-arum, of the ways.
Dat. vi-ae, to the way. Dat. vi-is, to the ways.
Ace. vi-am, the way. Ace. vi-ds, the ways.
Voc. vi-a, O way ! Voc. vi-ae, O ways !
Abl. vi-d, from the way. Abl. vi-is, from the ways.
In like manner are declined, for example, the substantives
barba, causa, cura, epistola, fossa, hora, mensa, noverca, penna,
porta, poena, sagitta, silva, stella, uva, victoria,, and the ad-
jectives and participles with the feminine termination a; as,
longa, libera, pulchra, lata, rotunda, lecta, scripta.
Note 1. An old form of the genitive singular in as has been retained
even in the common language, in the word familia when compounded with
pater, mater, filius, and Jilia ; so that we say paterfamilias, patresfamilias,
filiosfamilias. But the regular form familiae is not uncommon ; sometimes,
though not often, we find familiarum in composition with the plural of those
wordsr
Note 2. An obsolete poetical form of the genit. sing, is at for the
diphthong ae or ai, as in aulai, aurai, picta'i, which three forms occur even
in Virgil.
Note 3. Poets form the genitive plural of patronymics in es and a, of
several compounds in cola and gena, and of some few names of nations, by
the termination urn instead of arum, as Aeneadum, Dardanidum, coelicolum,
terrigenum, Laptthum. Of a similar kind are the genitives amphorum,
drachmum, which are used even in prose, instead of amphoramm, drachma-
rum. (Comp. 51.)
Note 4. Some words form the dative and ablative plural in abus in-
stead of is, such" as anima, dea, jilia, liberta, nata, mula, equa, asina ; for
the purpose of distinguishing them from the dative and ablative plural of the
masculine forms, which would otherwise be the same. The regular termina-
tion t*, however, is generally preferred, notwithstanding the possibility of
ambiguity ; and it is only dcabus and Jiliabus that can be recommended, lor
GREEK WORDS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 33
the former is used in a solemn invocation by Cicero : dis dedbusque omnibus ;
and the latter by Livy (xxiv. 26.), cum dudbus Jilidbus virginibus. Liber-
tabus frequently occurs in inscriptions. The termination dbus has remained
in common use for the feminine of duo and ambo : duabus, ambabus.
CHAP. IX.
GREEK WORDS IN , as, AND S.
[ 46.] 1. IN the dative singular and throughout the plural,
Greek words in e, as, and es, do not differ from the regular
declension. In the other cases of the singular they are declined
in the following manner :
Nom. e as es.
Gen. es ae ae.
Ace. en am (sometimes an) en.
Voc. e a e and a.
Abl. e a a and e.
Words of this kind in e are: aloe, crambe, epitome, Circe,
Danae, Phoenlce ; in as : Aeneas, Boreas, Gorgias, Midas,
Messias, Satanas ; in es : anagnostes, cometes, dynastes, geo -
metres, pyrites, satrapes, sophistes, Anchises, Thersites, and
patronymics (i. e. names of persons derived from their parents
or ancestors, see 245.) ; e. g. Aeneades, Alcides, PeKdes, Pria-
mides, Tydldes.
Note. Common nouns, such as epistola and poeta, which, on their adoption
into the Latin language, exchanged their Greek termination r\ or ije for the
Latin a, are treated as genuine Latin words, and no longer follow the Greek
declension. But a great many other common, as well as proper, nouns like-
wise follow the Latin declension ; and it must be especially remarked, that
the early Latin writers, including Cicero, show a. tendency to Latinize the
declension of those words which they have frequent occasion to use. Thus
we prefer with Cicero grammatica, rhetorica, dialect ica, musica, togrammatice,
rhetorice, dialectice, musice, and we may say Creta and Penelopa just as well
Hecuba and Helena, although some writers, especially the later poets,
rith an affectation of erudition, preferred Crete and Penelope. But there
is no fixed law in this respect. In the words in es, Cicero prefers this Greek
termination to the Latin a, e.g. Philoctetes, Scythes, Perses, sophistes, to
Persa, sophista, &c. In the accusative he sometimes uses en, as Arsinoen,
Circen, Stnopen. (See my note on Cic. in Verr. iv. 18.) But although he
D
34 LATIN GRAMMAR.
would use the nominative Sinope for Sinopa, yet he makes the genitive
Sinopae in the adverbial sense of " at Sinope," e. g. in Rull. ii. 20. As to
the practice of Horace, see Bentley on -Epod. xvii. 17.
2. Greek words in as commonly take the accusative an
in poetry, and Virgil uniformly uses Aenean. In prose
the Latin am is much more frequent, although Livy too has
Aenean, and in Quintus Curtius we not unfrequently find the
forms Amyntan, Philotan, Perdiccan, and others, along with
Amyntam, Philotam, Perdiccam.
The vocative of words in es is usually e, as in Virgil:
Conjugio, Anchise, Veneris dignate superbo ; but the Latin vo-
cative in a also occurs frequently, e. g. at the end of an hex-
ameter in Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 187.: Atridd, vetas cur? and
in Cicero : Aeeta, Thyesta ! The vocative in a seldom occurs,
as in the oracle mentioned by Cicero, De Divin. ii. 56. : Ajo
te, Aeacida, Romanes vincere posse. Words in es form their
ablative regularly in a, e. g. in Cicero : de Philocteta, de Pro-
tagora Abderita. The poets, however, sometimes use the termi-
nation e, as in Virgil : Uno graditur comitatus Achate.
3. Generally speaking, however, the patronymics in rjs, genit.
ov, are the only Greek words that follow the first declension ;
and the majority of proper names ending in es follow the third
declension, as Alcibiades, Miltiades, Xerxes. But many of them
form the accusative singular in en (as Euphraten, Mithridaten,
Phraateri), and the vocative in e, together with the forms of
the third declension in em and es. (See Chap. XVI.)
Note. The word satrapes ((rarpdTrije, ov) is best declined after the first
declension ; but no example of the genit. sing, being satrapae is known ;
Nepos (Lysand. 4.) uses satrapis. This does not necessarily presuppose
the existence of a nominative satraps, which occurs only in later times,
but may be the same as Miltiades, genitive Miltiadis. Instances of the
dative satrapae, accus. satrapen, and ablat. satrape, occur in other writers, as
well as in the correct texts of Q. Curtius. The form satrapem must be re-
jected ; but the Latin form satrapam may be used. The plural is throughout
after the first declension, satrapae, satraparum, &c.
FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35
CHAP. X.
GENDER OF THE NOUNS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION.
[ 47.] NOUNS in a and e are feminine, and those in as and es
(being chiefly names of men) are masculine.
Note. Nouns denoting male beings are of course masculine, though they
end in a, as auriga, collega, nauta, parriclda, poeta, scriba. Names of rivers
in a, such as Garumna, Trebia, Sequana, Himera (to be distinguished from
the town of the same name), and Hadria (the Adriatic) are masculine, ac-
cording to the general rule. (See Chap. VI.) The three rivers Allia, Albula,
and Matrona, however, are feminine. Cometa and planeta, which are usually
mentioned as masculines, do not occur in ancient writers, who always use
the Greek forms cometes, planetes ; but cometa and planeta would, according
to analogy, be masculine.
CHAP. XL
SECOND DECLENSION.
[ 48.] ALL nouns which form the genitive singular in i, belong
to the second declension. The greater part of them end in the
nominative in us, the neuters in um; some in er, and only one in
ir, viz. vir with its compounds, to which we must add the
proper name, Trevir. There is only one word ending in ur,
viz. the adjective satur, satura, saturum.
The genitive of those in us and um is formed by changing
these terminations into i. The vocative of words in us ends in
: as, O felix anne, O happy year ! In all other cases the
vocative is like the nominative.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. gladi-us, the sword. Nom. gladi-l, the swords.
Gen. gladi-l, of the sword. Gen. gladi-orum, of the swords.
Dat. gladi-o, to the sword. Dat. gladi-ls, to the swords.
Ace. gladi-um, the sword. Ace. gladi-os, the swords.
Voc. gladi-e, O sword ! Voc. gladi-i, O swords I
Abl. gladi-o, from the sword. Abl. gladi-is, from the swords.
36 LATIN GRAMMAR.
The neuters in urn are declined in the same way ; but in the
plural they have the termination a, and the nominative, accu-
sative, and vocative are alike in the singular as well as in the
plural.
SINGULAR. PI-URAL.
Nona, scamn-um, the bench. Nom. scamn-a, the benches.
Gen. scamn-i, of the bench. Gen. scamn-orum, of the benches.
Dat. scamn-o, to the bench. Dat. scamn-u, to the benches.
Ace. scamn-um, the bench. Ace. scamn-a, the benches.
Voc. scamn-um, O bench ! Voc. scamn-a, O benches !
Abl. scamn-o, from the bench. Abl. scamn-ls, from the benches.
Vir and its compounds, as well as satur, simply add the ter-
minations of the different cases to the nominative.
Some of the words in er are likewise declined by merely
adding the terminations to the nominative, as puer, puer-i,
puer-o, puer-um, puer-orum, puer-is, puer-os ; others reject the
short e in the oblique cases, as liber (a book), libr-i, libr-o,
libr-um, &c. Those which retain the e are not very nume-
rous, viz. adulter, gener, puer, socer, vesper, Liber (the god
Bacchus), and liberi (the children, only in the plural); the
adjectives asper, lacer, liber (free), miser, prosper, and tener.
To these we must add the compounds of ferre and gerere, as
Lucifer, armiger, and the words presbyter, Iber, and Celtiber
(plural Celtiberi). The adjective dexter has both forms, dexter a
and dextra, dexterum and dextrum, although the elision of the e
is more frequent.
[ 49.] Note 1. The genitive of nouns, both proper and common, in ius
and ium, in the best age of the Latin language, was not it, but z, as fili for
jttiii and hi like manner Appi, ingeni, imperi, consili, negoti. So at least it
was pronounced in the poets before and during the Augustan age, as in
Virgil, Horace, and Tibullus. Propertius is the first who, in a few instances,
has , which occurs frequently in Ovid ; and in the later poets, who preferred
regularity of formation to euphony, it is quite common. (See Bentley on
Terence, Andr. ii. 1. 20.) With regard to poets, the metre must determine
this point; and it was in consequence of the metre that Lucretius (v. 1004.
and vi. 744.), though one of the early poets, wrote ndvigii and remigii, because
otherwise the words would not have suited the hexameter. But the ortho-
graphy of prose writers who lived before the Augustan age is doubtful, on
account of the great discrepancy which, on this point as on everything con-
nected with orthography, prevails in the MSS., even in the most ancient ones
of Cicero, which have recently been discovered. It is, however, probable that,
although ii may have been written, only one i was pronounced, as was always
done in the words dii and diis. The genitive mancipi for ntancipii, which
occurs in many legal expressions, is a remnant of the ancient practice, and
THE SECOND DECLENSION. 37
remained in use in later times. Concerning the accent of these contracted
genitives, and of the vocatives of proper names in ius, of which we shall
speak hereafter, see above, 33., and Bentley, I. c.
Note 2. The following nine adjectives or adjective pronouns, unus, solus,
totus, ullus, uter, neuter, alter, ntdlus, and alius, together with their compounds
uterque, utervis, uterlibet, utercunque, and alteruter, form the genitive in all
their three genders in ius, and the dative in i ; in addition to which uter and
neuter eject the e preceding the r. The i of this genitive is long in prose,
but in verse it .is sometimes made short. (See 16.) Alterius alone
has the i short both in prose and in verse (with a few exceptions, as in
Terence, Andr. iv. 1. 4. ; see 850.), according to the statement of Priscian,
pp. 694. 958. It is true that alterius cannot be used in the dactylic hexameter
without the i being short, but it is used in the same manner in a trochee by
Plautus (Capt. ii. 2. 56.). There are only a few instances in which these
words follow the regular declension. (See below, 140.)
[ 50 -1 Note 3. The vocative of proper names in ius ends in i instead of
ie, e.g. Antoni, Mercuri, Terenti, Tulli, Virgili. In like manner the proper
names in jus, being sometimes softened down into lus, make the vocative in a
simple i, as Gai, Pompei. But this rule cannot be applied to proper names
in lus from the Greek tioy, as in Arlus, Heracllus; nor to those names which
are in reality adjectives, and are used as proper names only whenjilius, deus,
or heros are understood, such as Laertius, the son of Laertes, i. e. Ulysses ;
Cynthius, Delius, the Cynthian or Dclian god, i.e. Apollo; Tirynthius, the
Tirynthian hero, i. e. Hercules. All such words retain ie in the vocative,
and in like manner Pius, when used as a proper name, probably formed the
vocative Pie. For all common nouns and adjectives, according to the testi-
mony of the ancient grammarians, regularly formed their vocative in ie, as
nuntie, adversarie, impie, although there are no passages in ancient writers to
prove it. But Jilius and genius make their vocative Jili, geni, and meus
(though not rara or mewn) makes mi. Deus in the vocative is like the
nominative, as O deus! mi deus!
What has here been said of deus alone is applied by poets to other words
also : they not unfrequently imitate the Greeks by making the vocative like the
nominative, e.g. Terent. Phorm. ii. 2. 10. : O vir fortis atque amicus! Horat.
de Art. Poet. 292.: vos, O Pornpilius sanguis! Carm. i. 2. 43.: almaefilius
Majae. Ovid, Fast. iv. 731. : populus. In Livy too it occurs in some ancient
formulae, as viii. 9. : agedum pontifex publicus populi Rom. ; and i. 24. : tu popu-
lus Albanus ; but there is no reason for doubting the form popule, which
occurs in other passages.
[ 5l -] Note 4. The genitive plural of some words, especially those which
denote money, measure, and weight, is commonly um* instead of orum, par-
ticularly nummum, sestertium, denarium, cadum, medimnum, modium, jugerum,
talentum. Nummum is commonly used in this way in connection with nume-
rals ; whereas otherwise, when it merely denotes money in general, nummorum
* We do not write um, as is done in most editions, for several reasons : 1)
because it is doubtful whether this form arose from contraction ; 2) because,
according to the testimony of the ancient grammarians, no final syllable in m
with a vowel before it is long (which would be implied in the circumflex),
whence no one would be able to distinguish by his ear such a genitive as
nummum from the accus. sing., as Quintilian, i. 6. 1 7. attests ; and 3) because
no accents are used in Latin.
D 3
38 LATIN GRAMMAR.
is the usual form, e. g. tantum nummorum, acervi nummorum. There are
some other -vvords in which this is the usual form in certain combinations,
such as praefectus fabrum, or socium,fromfaber and socius; so also duum-
virum, triumvirum, decemvirum. Liberi and deus have both forms, liberorum,
deorum, and liberum, deum. Poets indulge in still greater licences, especially
with names of nations ; they say, e. g., Argivum, Danaum, Poenum, &c., instead
of Argivorum, Danaorum, Poenorum, and in Livy we find Celtiberum as well
as Celtiberorum. We might point out several more isolated peculiarities of
this kind, as ephorum in Corn. Nepos, Agesil. 4. Respecting the genitive
of numerals (cardinal, and especially distributive numerals), see below,
Chap. XXIX. and XXX.
Note 5. Deus has three forms in the nom. and ablat. plur., viz. dei, dii, and
di, and dels, diis, and dis. The forms in i are the most usual, and in reality
only one of them, since dii and diis were pronounced as monosyllables
(Priscian, p. 737.), and are most frequently found thus spelled in the ancient
MSS.
The following words may serve as exercises of declension :
Annus, year ; corvus, raven ; hortus, garden ; lectus, bed ; me-
dicus, physician ; morbus, illness ; nuntius, messenger : populus,
people ; rivus, brook ; taurus, bull ; ventus, wind. Neuters in
um: Astrum, star ; bellum, war; collum, neck ; dolium, cask ;
donum, present ; membrum, limb ; negotium, business ; ovum,
egg ; poculum, cup.; proelium, battle ; sepulcrum, sepulchre ;
signum, sign ; tergum, back ; vinculum, fetter. Those in er,
genit. eri, have been mentioned above. The following are the
most common among those which reject the e before the r:
Ager, field ; aper, boar ; arbiter, arbitrator ; ouster, south wind ;
cancer, cancer, or crab ; coluber, snake ; culter, knife ; faber,
workman ; liber, book ; magister, teacher ; minister, servant.
To these must be added the proper names in er, e. g. Alexander,
gen. Alexandri. The adjectives which reject the e are aeger,
ater, creber, glaber, macer, niaer, piger, impiger, pulcher, ruber,
sacer, scaber, sinister, taeter, vafer.
CHAP. XII.
GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.
[ 52.] 1. GREEK words in os and neuters in ov, which
make ov in the genitive, are commonly Latinized in the nomi-
native by the terminations us ana um, such as the common
GREEK WORDS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 39
nouns taunts, antrum, theatrum, and the proper names Homerus,
Pyrrhus, Corinthus. Other common nouns which are more
rarely used, admit of both terminations in the nominative, as
arctos and arctus, barbitos and barbitus, scorpios and scorpius;
and this is still more frequently the case in proper names, so
that, e. g., Pares, Delos, Isthmos, and Ilion are used along with
Parus, Delus, Isthmus and Ilium. Generally speaking, how-
ever, the Greek forms belong more particularly to poets and the
later prose writers. Greek names in pos with a consonant before
it sometimes become Latinized by the termination er, and some-
times they change pos into rus, and make their vocative in
& The former takes place in by far the greater number of
cases, e. g. Alexander, Maeander, Teucer; the only instances
in which the termination rus is found are Codrus, Hebrus,
Locrus, Petrus. In the compounds of perpov and a few others,
both forms are used, as hexameter and hexametrus, though the
latter occurs more frequently. Words ending in os in the
nominative may make the accusative in on instead of um, as
Delon, Bosporon, Tarson. The nominative plural sometimes
ends in oe (the Greek diphthong 01), as in canephoroe, Cicero, in
Verr. iv. 3. 8. ; doryphoroe, Curt. iii. 7. ; Locroe, Quintil. x. 1.
70. The genitive plural in on instead of orum occurs in the
titles of books, such as Bucolicon, Georgicon.
2. Greek proper names in ovs, contracted from oos, are in
Latin either resolved into ous or end in us, as Alcinous, Ari-
stonus, Panthus. The vocative of the latter form is u, as
Panthu. The ablative Aristono occurs in Curtius, ix. 21.
3. Some Greek proper names in ws, which in Greek follow
the second Attic declension (as Athos, Ceos, Cos, Teas), in Latin
either follow the Greek declension, e. g. Athos, gen. and dat.
Atho, accus. Atho or Athon; or they take the Latin form, as
Tyndareus for Tyndareos, and Cous (for Cos, Kws), Coo, Coum f
ablat. Co, e. g. in Co insula. Athos, however, is also declined
as a noun of the third declension with the nominative Athon or
Atho Athonem, Athene.
4. Greek words in evs of the third Greek declension, such as
Orpheus, Idomeneus, Phalereus, Prometheus, were pronounced in
Latin sometimes "eus as one syllable, and sometimes 2us. The
best way is to make them follow entirely the second Latin
declension, as Orphe'i, Orpheo, Orpheum, with the exception of
40 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the vocative, which (according to the Greek third declension)
ends in eu. The Greek terminations, gen. eos, dat. et (con-
tracted ei), accus. ea*, are chiefly found in poetry; but the
accusative is frequent also with prose writers, though Cicero
(ad Att. vii. 3.) does not approve of it, as Phalerea, Pro-
methea, Tydea. The terminations ei, eo, ea are sometimes con-
tracted by poets into a diphthong, because the metre requires it.
(See above 11.) Horace makes the genitive of Achilles and
Ulixes Achille'i, Ulixel, or contracted A chillei, Ulixel, as though
the nominative still ended in svs. The name Perseus is usually
formed by Cicero after the first declension : nom. Perses, gen.
and dat. Persae, ace. Persen, abl. Perse and Persa. Livy pre-
ferred the second declension : Perseus, Persei, Perseo (rarely
Persi, according to the third, like the Greek TLspast), but in the
accusative he has more frequently Persea than Perseum.
CHAP. XIII.
GENDER OP THE NOUNS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION.
[ 53.] 1. NOUNS in us, er, and ir are masculine ; those in um
and the Greek nouns in on are neuter.
2. Of those in us however the following are feminine :
the names of plants and precious stones, as well as those of
towns and islands, with a few exceptions. (See above, 39.)
It must be observed, that in many cases where the name of
a tree ends in us fern., there is a form in um denoting the fruit
of the tree, e. g. cerasus, cerasum; malus, malum; morus, mo-
rum; pirus, pirum ; primus, prunum; pomus,pomum; butjicus
signifies both the tree and the fruit. There are only four other
genuine Latin words in us which are feminine, viz. alvus,
humus, vannus, and colus, which however is sometimes, de-
clined after the fourth declension, gen. us. Pampinus, a
branch of a vine, is rarely feminine, but commonly mas-
culine. Virus (juice or poison) and pelagus (TO irfruvyos, the
* In some words also ea, if the verse requires it, as Idomenea, Eionea : fja
and ta are Ionic forms, and the Attic id is not customary in Latin.
THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 41
sea) are neuter. Vulgus (the people) is sometimes masculine,
but more frequently neuter.
[ 54.] Note. With regard to the numerous Greek feminines in us (or o),
which have been adopted into the Latin language, such as the compounds
of rj '6 &>e : exodus, methodus, periodus, and synodus, the student must be
referred to his Greek grammar, for the Latin differs in this respect from the
Greek. The words biblus, and papyrus (the Egyptian papyrus), byssus,
and carbasus (a fine flax and the linen made out of it), are feminine, being
names of plants ; but they retain this gender also when they denote things
manufactured from them. Pharus, being the name of an island, is femi-
nine ; but it is also feminine in the sense of a light-house, which meaning it
obtained from the fact of the first light-house being built in that island near
Alexandria ; it is however now and then used as a masculine (Sueton.
Claud. 20.). Arctus (o), denoting a bear, is properly both masc. and fern. ;
but as the name of a constellation, it is in Latin always feminine. J3arbitus
(a lyre) or barbitos, is sometimes used as fern, and sometimes as masc., but
we also find hoc barbiton.
We must notice here especially a number of words which in Greek are
properly adjectives, and are used as feminine substantives, because a sub-
stantive of this gender is understood. Such words are : abyssus, atomus, dia-
lectus, diphthongus, eremus, paragraphus, diametrus and perimetrus, the two
last of which however are used by Latin writers also with the Greek termi-
nation os. For the substantives understood in these cases, see the Greek
grammar. As different substantives may be understood, we have both
antidotus and antidotum. The word epodus also belongs to this class, but its
gender varies according to its different meanings : when it denotes a lyric
epilogue, it is feminine ; when it denotes a shorter iambic verse after a longer
one, or when it is the name of the peculiar species of Horatian poetry, it is
masculine.
CHAP. XIV.
THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE.
[ 55.] NOUNS of the third declension form their genitive
in is. The nominative has a great variety of terminations, for
sometimes there is no particular ending, and the nominative
itself is the crude form, such as it usually appears after the sepa-
ration of the termination of the genitive ; frequently however the
nominative has a special ending (s). The former is, generally
speaking, the case with those words the crude form of which ends
in I or r, so that the nominative ends in the same consonants, and
the genitive is formed by simply adding is; e. g. sol, consul, cal~
car, agger, auctor, dolor, murmur. Words like pater and imber, the
crude form of which appears in the genitive and ends in r with a
42 LATIN GRAMMAR.
consonant before it, as patr-is, imbr-is, admit of a double expla-
nation : either the nominative was increased for the purpose of
facilitating the pronunciation, or the genitive rejected the short
e; the former however is the more probable supposition.
In some words the nominative has s instead of r, as flos,
gen. flor-is; tellus, tellur-is; in addition to which the vowel
sometimes undergoes a change, as in corpus, corpor-is; onus,
oner-is. When the crude form ends in n with a vowel before
it, the formation of the nominative is likewise accompanied by
changes : on throws off the n, and in becomes en or is changed
into o. Thus leo is made from leon (leon-is), carmen from carmin
(carmin-is\ and virgo from virgin (virgin-is). Only when the
genitive ends in enis, the nominative retains en, as in lien-is, lien.
2) The particular termination which the nominative receives in
other cases is e for neuters, as mar-is, mar-e, and s or x which
arises out of s, for masculines and feminines. This s is some-
times added to the final consonant of the crude form without
any change, as in urb-is, urb-s; due-is, dux (dues}', leg-is, lex
(legs) ; when the crude form ends in d or t, these consonants
are dropped before the s; e. g. frond-is, frons ; mont-is, mons;
aetdt-is, aetds; seget-is, seges; in addition to this the vowel i also
is sometimes changed into e, as in miUt-is, miles; judic-is, judex.
In all these cases where the nominative is formed by the addition
of an s to the final consonant of the crude form, the nominative
has one syllable less than the genitive, or in other words, the s
assumes an e or i before it, and then the nominative has the
same number of syllables as the genitive, or in case the nomi-
native assumes I, both cases are quite the same ; e. g. nub-es,
civ-is, pan-is.
These are the most essential points in the formation of the
nominative in the third declension. We shall now proceed to
the particulars, taking the nominative, as is the usual practice,
as the case given, and we shall point out in what way the geni-
tive is formed from it.
[ 56.] 1. The nouns in a, which are neuters of Greek origin,
make their genitive in atis, as poema, poematis.
2. Those in e change e into is, as mare, maris; Praeneste,
Praenestis, and probably also caepe, caepis, for which however
there is also the form cepa, ae.
3. The nouns in i and y are Greek neuters. Some of them
THIKD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 43
are indeclinable, as gummi, and others have the regular genitive
in is, as sindpi, sinapis (there is however a second nominative in
is, as in several other words ending in i, as haec sinapis] ; misy,
misyis and misys or misyos. The compounds of meli (honey)
alone make their genitive according to the Greek in itis, as
melomeli, melomeUtis.
4. Those in o (common) add nis to form the genitive, some-
times only lengthening the o, and sometimes changing it into z.
Of the former kind are carbo, latro, leo, ligo, pavo, praedo, sermo ;
and all those ending in io, as actio, dictio, pugio. Of the latter
kind (genit. mis') are all abstract nouns in do, as consuetudo, mis ;
most nouns in go, as imago, virgo, origo ; and a few others, as
cardo, hirundo, turbo, homo, nemo. Caro has carnis. The names
of nations in o have this vowel mostly short, as Macedones,
Senones, Saxones; it is long only in lones, Lacones, Nasamones,
Suessones, and Vettones.
5. The only nouns ending in c are alec or allec, allex, gen.
allecis; and lac, gen. lactis.
6. Nouns ending in / form the genitive by merely adding is,
such as sol, sal, consul, pugil, animal. Mel has mellis, and in
plur. mella ; fel has fellis, but is without a plural.
7. Those in en (which are all neuters, with the exception of
pecten) make mis, as carmen, flumen, lumen, nomen. Those in
en retain the long e and have enis ; but there are only two
genuine Latin words of this kind, ren and lien; for lichen,
splen, and attagen are of Greek origin.
Greek words in an, en, in, yn, and on follow the Greek
rules in regard to the length or shortness of the vowel and also
in regard to the insertion of a t : Paean, Paeanis ; Siren and
Troezen, enis ; Philopoemen, Philopoemenis ; Eleusin, Eleuslnis ;
Phorcyn, Phorcynis ; agon, agonis ; canon, canonis ; Cimon,
Cimonis; Marathon, onis ; Xenophon, Xenophontis. It is,
however, to be observed that very few Greek words in wv, avos
(except names of towns), have in Latin the nominative on, but
generally o. Thus we always read Hiero, Laco, Plato, Zeno,
and in Cicero, also Dio and Solo ; in the poets, on the other
hand, and in Nepos and Curtius among the prose writers, we
find several nominatives in on, as Conon, Dion, Phocion, He-
phaestion. The name Apollo is completely Latinized, and makes
the genit. ApolUnis. Those in &>j>, wvros vary, and we find
*D 6
44 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Antipho without the n, though most end in on, as Xenophon.
Those in wv, ovos and a>v, ovros, usually retain in Latin the
same nominative in on, but we always find Macedo and never
Macedon.
[ 57.] 8. Those ending in r must be distinguished according
to the vowel which precedes it : they may end in ar, er, yr, or,
Or ur.
a) Those in ar have sometimes aris, as in calcar, lucar, pul-
vmar, torcular, and Nar ; and sometimes aris, as baccar, jubar,
nectar, Idr (plur. lares), par and its compounds (e. g. impar,
imparts}, and the proper names Caesar, Hamilcar, and Arar.
But Lar or Lars, the Etruscan title, has Lartis. Far makes
its genitive f arris, and hepar, hepatis.
b) Many of the Latin words in er make eris, as agger, aggeris;
mulier, mulieris, &c., and the adjectives pauper and uber. Others
drop the short e, as, for instance, all those ending in ter (e. g.
venter, uter, pater), with the exception of later, and the words
imber, September, October, November, December. Iter makes
its genit. (from a different nominat.) itineris. Juppiter (Jov?
pater) makes the genitive Jbvis without the addition of patris.
Greek words in er follow the rules of the Greek language,
whence we say crater, eris ; aer, aeris. Ver (the spring), gen.
veris, originally belonged to the same class.
c) Nouns ending in yr are Greek, and follow the rules of the
Greek grammar : martyr, martyris.
d) Those in or have oris, as amor, error, soror ; but arbor,
the three neuters ador, aequor, marmor, and the adjective memor,
have oris. Cor has cordis, and so also in the compounded
adjectives concors, discors, misericors. Greek proper names;
such as Hector, Nestor, and others, have dris, as in Greek.
e) Those in ur have iiris, e. g. fulgur, vultur, and the adject.
cicur. Fur (a thief) alone Inasfuris; and the four neuters ebur,
femur, jecur, and robur have oris, as eboris, roboris. Jecur has,
besides jecoris, also the forms jecinoris, jocinoris, andjocineris.
[ 58.] 9. Those ending in s are very numerous ; they may
terminate in as, es, is, os, us, aus, or in s with a consonant pre-
ceding it.
a) Those in tas form their genitive in atis, as aetas, aetatis:
but anas has anatis ; mas has maris ; vas (a surety), vadis ;
vas (a vessel), vdsis ; and as, assis. The Greek words vary ac-
THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 45
cording to their gender ; the masculines make antis, the feminines
adis, and the neuters atis. (See the Greek grammar.) Conse-
quently Pallas, the name of a male being, has the genit. Pal-
lantis, like gigas, gigantis ; as the name of the goddess Minerva,
Palladis ; and artocreas neut. has artocreatis.
5) Those ending in es must be divided into two classes.
Those belonging to the first increase in the genitive, the
letters d or t, which were dropped in the nominative, being
restored to their place, and their termination is either ttis,
etis, etis, or Idis, edis, edis. The genitive in Itis occurs in
most of them, as in antistes, comes, eques, hospes, miles, pedes,
satelles, caespes, fomes, gurges, limes, merges, palmes, stipes, and
frames, together with the adjectives ales, codes, dives, sospes, and
super stes, in all of which the es is short. (See 28.) The follow-
ing make their genitive in etis : abies, aries, paries, interpres, seges,
teges, and the adjectives hebes, indiges, praepes, and teres. The
genit. in etis occurs in the Greek words lebes, tapes, Cebes, Mag-
nes ; in the words quies, inquies, requies, and the adjective locu-
ples. Those which make idis are obses, praeses, and the adject.
deses and reses. The genitive in edis occurs in pes, pedis, and
its compounds, e. g. the plural compedes. Heres and merces,
lastly, make their genitive in edis. The following words must
be remembered separately : bes, bessis ; Ceres, Cereris ; pubes
and impubes, puberis and impuberis; but the forms impubis, genit.
impubis, neut. impube are also found. The proper name Caeres,
(from the town of Caere), has Caeritis and Caeritis. The second
class of words -in es change the es of the nominative into is, without
increase, such as caedes, clades, fames, nubes, rupes ; it must also
be observed, that several words belonging to this class vary in
the termination of the nominative between es and is, so that
along with feles, vulpes, vehes, aedes, we also have vulpis, vehis,
aedis (see Liv. iv. 25. ; Cic. in Verr. iv. 55.) ; and on the other
hand, we have torques and valles along with the more usual
forms torquis and vallis.
c) Most words in is form their genitive in is, without
any increase, as avis, civis, panis, piscis, and a great many
others, together with the adjectives in is, e. Others in-
crease by one syllable, and make their genitive in idis, Itis or
eris : Idis occurs in cassis, cuspis, lapis, and in the Greek words
aegis and pyramis ; Itis occurs only in Us, Quirls and Samnis,
46 LATIN GRAMMAR.
plur. Quirites, Sammtes ; and eris only in cinis, cucumis, and
pulvis, gen. pulveris, cucumeris, and cineris. Glis has gliris ;
pollis (the existence of which, in the nominative, cannot be
proved, so that some suppose pollen to have been the nom.) and
sanguis have pollmis, sangumis (but the compound exsanguis
remains in the genit. exsanguis)', semis, being a compound of
as, makes semissis. Greek words which have the genit. in LOS
or SMS form their genit. in Latin in is, without increase ; but, if
their genit. is i&os, they increase in Latin and have Idis. Of
the former kind we have only the verbal substantives in sis, as
basis, mathesis, the names of towns compounded with TroXts,
e. g. Neapolis, and a few other proper names of the feminine
gender, such as Lachesis, Nemesis, Syrtis, Charybdis. All
other proper and common nouns regularly make the genitive in
idis ; tigris alone has both forms, and ibis, ibidis, takes in the
plural the shorter form ibes. Later authors use the genitive
in is, and the dative and ablative in i, instead of idis, idi, ide, in
other cases also, such as Serapis, Tanais, for Serapidis, Tanaidis,
and in the dat. and ablat. Serapi and Tanai, for Serapidi, Sera-
pide, and Tanaidi, Tanaide. (See below, 62.) Salamis stands
alone by making its genitive Salammis (from a nominative
Salamin).
[ 59.] d) Those in os sometimes have otis, as cos, dos, nepos,
sacerdos, and sometimes oris, like os (the mouth), fios, glos, mos,
ros, and in like manner honos and lepos, the more common forms
for honor* and lepor. Gustos makes custodis ; os (bone), ossis ; bos,
bovis. The adjectives compos and impos have potis. The Greek
masculines herds, Minds, and Tros have ois, and some neuters
in os, such as Argos, epos, occur only in the nominative and
accusative.
e) Of the words in us, the feminines in us make their
genitive in utis, as virtus, juventus, senectus; or udis, as the three
words incus, palus, and subscus. Tellus alone has telluris, and
Venus, Veneris. The neuters in us have sometimes eris, viz.
foedus, funus, genus, latus, munus, olus, onus, opus, pondus, scelus,
sidus, ulcus, vulnus ; and sometimes oris, as corpus, decus, dedecus,
facinus, fenus, frigus, litus, nemus, pectus, pecus, which in an-
* Cicero uses throughout only honos (for Philip, ix. 6. must be cor-
rected from the Vatican MS.), and there is no doubt but that honor in the
fragm. Pro Tullio, 21. ed. Peyron, must likewise be changed into honos.
THIRD DECLENSION. GENITIVE. 47
other sense has pecudis, pignus, stercus, tempus, and the noun
epicene lepus, leporis, a hare. All monosyllables which have a
long u, form their genitive in uris, as cms, jus, pus, rus, tus,
and mus. Grus and sus have uis : gruis, suis ; the adjective
vetus, veteris, and intercus, intercutis. Greek proper names
in us have untis, as Amathus, Selinus, Trapezus ; the compounds
of TTOVS make podis, as tripus and Oedipus, which name, how-
ever, is sometimes made to follow the second declension, the us
being in that case shortened." Polypus always follows the
second.
f) Greek words in ys make the genitive yis, contracted
ys, or altogether in the Greek form yos. Some few, as chlamys,
have ydis.
g) The only nouns ending in aes are aes, aeris, and praes,
praedis.
A) There are only two words in aus, viz. laus and fraus, of
which the genitives are laudis, fraudis.
i) Among the nouns ending in s preceded by a consonant,
those in Is (except puls), ns, and rs, change the s into tis, e. g.
fons, mons, pons, ars, pars, Mars fontis, partis, &c. There
are only a few, such as frons (a branch), glans, juglans,
and some others, which make dis frondis ; but frons (the fore-
head) makes frontis. The other words in s with a consonant
before it, that is, those in bs, ps, and ms, form their genitive
in bis, pis, mis, e. g. urbs, urbis ; plebs, plebis ; stirps, stirpis ;
hiems, hiemis, which is the only word of this termination. Cae-
lebs has caelibis ; the compounds of capio ending in ceps have
ipis, as princeps, particeps principis, participis ; auceps alone
has aucupis. The compounds of caput, which likewise end in
ceps, such as anceps, praeceps, biceps, triceps, make their genitive
in cipitis, like caput, capitis. Greek words follow their own
rules: those in ops make opts, as Pelops, epops, merops; or opis,
as Cyclops, hydrops. Gryps (a griffin) has gryphis, and Tiryns,
Tirynthis.
10. The termination occurs only in caput and its compounds,
gen. capitis.
[eo.] 11. The genitive of words in x varies between cis
and gis, according as the x has arisen from cs or gs, which
may be ascertained by the root of the word. The former
is more common, and thus the following monosyllables with a
48 LATIN GRAMMAR.
consonant before the x make their genit. in cis : arx, calx, falx,
lanx, merx ; gis occurs only in the Greek words phalanx, sphinx,
and syrinx.
But when the x is preceded by a vowel, it must be ascer-
tained whether this vowel remains unchanged, and whether it is
long or short. The Latin words in ax have ads, as pax, fornax,
and the adjectives, e. g. audax, efficax. Fax alone has a short
a, fads. Greek words too have mostly ads, as thorax, Ajax,
and only a few have ads, as corax, climax, while the names of
men in nax have nactis, such as Astyanax, Demonax. Words
in ex generally make their genitive in ids, as judex, artifex,
supplex ; but egis occurs in rex and lex, and egis in aquilex, grex,
Lelex ; eds in nex, foenisex, and in precis (from prex which is
not used) ; eds in vervex, Myrmex. Remex has remigis ; senex,
senis ; and supellex, supellectilis. The words in ix sometimes
make their genitive in Ids and sometimes in ids. Of the former
kind are cervix, dcatrix, comix, coturnix, lodix, perdix, phoenix,
radix, vibix, and all the words in trix denoting women, such as
nutrix, victrix, and the adjectives felix and pernix, and probably
also appendix ; ids occurs in calix, choenix, coxendix, Jilix, fornix,
fulix, hystrix, larix, natrix, pix, salix, varix, and Cilix. Nix has
nwis, and strix, strigis. The words ending in ox have ods, e. g.
vox, vocis ; ferox, ferocis ; but two words have ods, viz. Cappadox
and the adjective praecox (the genit. is also written praecoquis).
Nox has noctis ; Allobrox, Allobrogis. The following words in
ux form the genitive in uds : crux, dux, nux, and the adjective
t rux ; the u is long only in two words, viz. lux and Pollux, genit.
luds, Polluds. Conjux (conjunx is established on better autho-
rities) has conjugis ; and frux (which, however, does not occur),
frugis. The words in yx are Greek, and vary very much in the
formation of their genitive : it may be yds (Eryx), yds (bombyx),
ygis (Japyx, Phryx, Styx), $gis (coccyx}, and ychis (onyx). There
is only one word ending in aex, viz. faex, gen. faeds ; and in aux
only faux, gen.fauds.
REMAINING CASES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 49
CHAP. XV.
THE REMAINING CASES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
[ 61.] ALL the remaining cases follow the genitive in regard to
the changes we have mentioned. It should be remarked that
any other of the oblique cases might have been chosen, instead
of the genitive, for the purpose of showing the changes in which
all participate; but we have followed the common practice.
It now only remains to give a tabular view of the terminations.
SINGULAR. PLUBAL.
Nom. Nom. es, neut. a (some ia).
Gen. is. Gen. um (some ium).
Dat. . Dat. ibus.
Ace. em (neut. like nom.). Ace. like nom.
Voc. like nom. Voc. like nom.
Abl. e (some f). Abl. ibus.
Examples for exercise are contained in the preceding chapter ;
but we subjoin the following words, either with or without
adjectives, as exercises in which the student may also apply
the rules contained in the next chapters r Sol splendens (lucidus),
the shining sun; agger eminens (altus), a high mole; pater
prudens (jprovidus), the prudent father; dolor levis (parvus),
a slight pain ; uxor concors (Jida), a faithful wife ; leo nobilis
(superbus^, a noble lion ; virgo erubescens (pudica), the blushing
maiden ; urbs vetus (vetusta), the ancient town ; lex acris (as-
pera), a severe law; from tristis (severa), a grave forehead;
civitas immunis (liberal), a free city ; cassis fulgens (splendidd),
a brilliant helmet ; judex clemens (benignus), a mild judge ; miles
fortis (strenuus), a brave soldier ; avis cantrix (canora), a singing
bird ; rupes praeceps (ardua), a steep rock ; calcar acre (acutum),
a sharp spur ; animal turpe (foedum), an ugly animal ; carmen
duke (gratum), a sweet poem ; corpus tenue (macrum), a thin
body ; ingens (yastum) mare, the vast sea ; sidus radians (au-
reumjy the radiant star.
E
50 LATIN GEAMMAE.
Remarks on the separate Cases.
1. Cicero commonly, and other authors of the best age fre-
quently, make the genitive of Greek proper names ending in es,
i instead of is. Thus in the most accurate and critical editions
we read Isocrati, Timarchidi, Theophani, Aristoteli, Praxiteli,
and even Herculi; i instead of is is found most frequently (even
in ordinary editions) in the names ending in cles, as Agathocli,
Diocli, Neocli, Prodi, Peridi, Themistocli. The genitive i is
used also in barbarian names in es, which were introduced
through the Greek into the Latin language, such as Ario-
barzani, Mithridati, Hystaspi, Xerxi, and others. The genitives
Achilli and Ulixi, which likewise frequently occur in Cicero,
probably arose from the contraction of Achillel and Ulixe'i first
into Achillei and Ulixei, and then of ei into i, which had the
same sound. (See above, Chap. XII. 4.) After the time of
Cicero, however, the genitive in is alone was used.
[ 62.] 2. Many words in is make the accusative singular im
instead of em, viz.
- a) All Greek nouns, proper as well as common, and such
as have passed through the Greek into the Latin, and form
the accusative in that language in iv; but those which have
in Greek both terminations w and i8a (i. e. the barytons in
if, gen. tSos) may in Latin also have the accusative in idem,
though it does not often occur.* The ordinary Latin accu-
sative of such words therefore is : basim, poesim, paraphrasim,
Charybdim, Neapolim, Persepolim, Tanaim, and of those which
make their genitive in tSos, idis, at least when they are proper
names, the accusatives Agim, Memphim, Osirim, Parim, Pha-
larim, Serapim, Tigrim, Zeuxim, &c., are more frequent than,
e. g., Busiridem, Paridem. But in feminine derivatives from
names of places and in substantives (properly adjectives) in tis,
and especially itis, the accusative in idem is more frequent, e. g.
Limnatidem, Phthiotidem, arthritidem, pleuritidem. The accusa-
tive in im for idem, therefore, does not prove that the genitive
* Those which in Greek end in 'c, gen. tfoc (oxytona), have in Greek
only Wo, and in Latin only idem: e. g. aegis, pyramis, tyrannis, Thais, Bacchis,
Lais, Chalcis, and especially the feminine patronymics and gentile names,
such as Aeneis, Heracleis, Thebais, Aeolis, Doris, Phocis.
BEMABKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 51
ends in is instead of idis, or the ablative in i instead of ide,
although an ablative in i not seldom occurs in proper names
in is, which make their genitive in idis, e. g. Osiri, Phalari,
Tigri, instead of the regular Osiride, &c. Latin writers, how-
ever, and especially the poets, for metrical reasons, often use
the Greek form of the accusative in instead of int. (See Chap.
XVI.)
ft) Many proper names (not Greek) of rivers and towns which
do not increase in the genitive, make, according to the analogy
of the Greek, the accusative in im instead of em, e. g. Albim,
Athcsim, Baetim, Tiberim, Bilbilim, Hispalim.
c) The following Latin common nouns : amussis, ravis, sitis,
tussis, and vis. In the following the termination em is less
common tham im: febris, pelvis, puppis, restis, turns, and
especially securis. The words clavis, messis, navis, have com-
monly clavem, messem, navem, but may have also im.
Note. An accusative in im now and then occurs in some other words,
as in bipennim from bipennis ; burim from buris ; cucumim, a rare form for
cucumerem, from cucumis ; neptim ; and sementim, which is much less common
than sementem.
[ 63.] 3. The dative and ablative singular seem originally to
have had the same termination which was either i or e, just as
those two cases are alike in the second declension, and in the
plural of all declensions. At a later time it became the general
rule to use i exclusively in the dative and e in the ablative ; but
aere (from aes), for aeri, in Cicero (Ad Fam. vii. 13.), and Livy
(xxxi. 13.), andjMrc forjuri in inscriptions and in Livy (xlii. 28.)
seem to be remnants of early times. The termination i, however,
which properly belongs to the dative, is much more commonly
used in the ablative instead of e. It occurs
a) In all words which form their accusative in im instead of
em, with the exception of those Greek words which make the
genitive in idis. Thus we have po'e'si, Neapoli, Tiberi, some-
times also Osiri, Phalari, and among Latin common nouns not
only tussi and vi, but febri, igni, pelvi, puppi, turri, securi,
though the ablative in e is not entirely excluded in these latter
words. But restim has more commonly reste, and navem more
usually nave than navi. Clave and clavi, and semente and se-
menti, are equally in use.
E 2
52 LATIN GRAMMAR.
b) In neuters in e, al, and ar, e. g. mart, vectigali, calcari,
&c. ; but far, farris, and baccar, jubar, hepar, nectar, and
sal, which have a short a in the genitive, form the ablative iif e.
Rete has both rete and reti, and rus ruri as well as rure, but
with some difference in meaning. (See 400.) The poets some-
times use the ablative mare, e. g. Ovid, Trist. v. 2. 20. Names
of towns in e (see 39.) always make their ablative in e, as
Caere, Reate (at Caere, at Reate), Livy, xxvii. 23. ; xxx. 2. ;
and Praeneste (at Praeneste), in Cicero.
e) In adjectives and names of months ending in is, e, and in
er, is, e, for example, facili, celebri, celeri, Aprili, Septembri, and
in those substantives in is which are properly adjectives, e. g.
aequalis, affinis, annalis, bipennis, canalis, familiaris, gentilis,
molaris, natalis, popularis, rivalis, sodalis, strigilis, vocalis, tri-
remis and quadriremis, and according to their analogy, per-
haps also contubernalis. But these words being used also as
substantives have more or less frequently the termination e,
and juvenis always makes juvene, aedilis commonly aedile ; in
affinis, familiaris, sodalis, and triremis, the ablative in e is at-
tested by the authority of prose writers, although i is generally
preferred. When such adjectives as these become proper
names, they always have e, as Juvenale, Martiale, Laterense,
Celere.
Note. The ablative in e from adjectives in is, and in er, is, e, is very
rare, though it is found in Ovid. (Heroid. xvi. 277. ; Metam. xv. 743. :
coeleste. Heroid. viii. 64. ; Fast. iii. 654. : perenne. Fast. vi. 158. : porca
bimestre.) The ablative in i instead of e, on the other hand, is used by good
writers in several substantives in is, besides those mentioned above, e. g. in
amnis, avis, civis, classis, fustis, ignis, orbis, unguis, and sometimes in su-
pellex, supellectili. Of substantives in er, imber has more frequently imbri
than imbre ; vesper has both vespere and vesperi ; but the latter, especially
in the sense of "in the evening," as opposed to mane, in the morning
Cicero and Livy often use the ablatives Carthagini, Anxuri, Tiburi, to
denote the place where (see the commentat. on Liv. xxviii. 26.) ; and in
the preface of Corn. Nepos we find Lacedaemoni. But the common practice
of the ancient writers does not allow us to extend this system, or to make
it the rule for all names of towns which follow the third declension ; it must
rather be supposed that, though the ancient language was so uncertain
between e and i, that we find in Plautus carni, parti, sermoni, along with
carne, &c., the forms became more decidedly separated in the course of
time, and only a few isolated remnants and particular phrases remained
in use with the classic authors. (Comp. 398. in fin.) Thus we have tempori,
" in times." (See 475.)
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 53
[ 64.] 4. The ablative singular in i or e indiscriminately
occurs, generally speaking, in adjectives of one termination
and in the comparative, as prudens, prudente and prudenti;
elegans, elegante and eleganti; vetus, vetere and veteri; locuples,
locuplete and locupleti; dwes, dwite and diviti ; degener, degenere
and degeneri; felix, felice and felici; Arpinas, Arpinate and
Arpinati; major, majore and majori. But it is also a general
rule, that words in ans and ens, when used as substantives,
e. g. infans and sapiens (except continens), and when they are
actual participles, especially in the construction of the ablative
absolute, always prefer e; e. g. Tarquinio regnante, when
Tarquinius was king ; but when they are adjectives, they prefer
i to e.
Note 1. It should however be observed, that there is no rule so full of
exceptions as this, for on the one hand the adjectives themselves vary
their terminations according to euphony or the requirement of a verse, and
on the other, the writers (and the editions of their works) widely differ from
one another. In Horace, for example, we find the participles in ans and ens
when used as adjectives, almost invariably forming the ablative in e (see
Bentley on Carm. i. 25. 17.), whereas the same words are generally found
with i in Cicero. On the whole, however, it will always be safest to
make the ablative of adjectives of one termination in t ; lJQr_thje_exclusiyel^
occurs only \\\ pauper, sencx andpHnceps, and in the majority of those in es t
viz. hospes, sospes, deses, pubes, impubes and superstes. The i, on the other
hand, is certain in the following words mentioned by the ancient gram-
marians : memor, immemor, and par with its compounds (in par also when
used as a substantive), and also in most adjectives in x, as trux, atrox, audax,
pertinax and pervicax ; especially in those in plex : simplex, duplex, triplex,
multiplex; further in anceps and praeceps, inops, iners and hebes, concors,
discors, ingens, recens and repens. It must further be observed, that praesens,
when used of things, makes the ablative in i, and when used of persons, in e,
as is confirmed by the phrase in praesenti (scil. tempore), which is of frequent
occurrence. Comparatives are found in Cicero and Livy more frequently
with e than with i, but the latter afterwards became more general.
Note 2. The following substantives, which are properly adjectives,
artifex, consors, nutrix, vigil, victrix, and ultrix, have as substantives the
termination e, but as adjectives of the feminine or neuter gender they
prefer the ablative in t. Proper names also, when they are in reality ad-
jectives, have only e, as Felix, Clemens felice, Clemente.
[ 65.] 5. The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of
neuters end in a ; but neuters in e, al, and ar, which also form
the ablative singular in i, and all participles and adjectives which
make the ablative, singular either in i alone, or vary between e
E 3
54 LATIN GRAMMAR.
and 2, have ia instead of a, except the adjective vetus and all
comparatives ; e. g. maria, vectigalia, calcaria, paria, facilia,
sapientia, ingentia, victricia; amantia, sedentia, audientia ; .but
majora, doctiora, &c.
Note. The neuter far however has farra ; jubar, hepar, and nectar have
no plural ; and sal has no neuter plural, but only sales with masculine
gender.
Those adjectives which make the ablat. sing, in e exclusively, should for
this reason make their plural only in a ; but with the exception of hospita
(if it be really derived from Tiospes, and not from hospitus~), no neuter plural
of them is found, although some grammarians mention paupera and iibera.
It must be remarked in general, that the neuter plural occurs in adjec-
tives of one termination in as, ans, ens, rs, and x, and besides these only in
par, hebes, teres, locuples, quadrupes, versicolor, anceps, and praeceps, and
that in all these cases it ends in ia. Thus there remains only vetus, vetera,
although the ablative sing, is vetere or veteri. No authority has yet been
adduced for bicorpora and tricorpora.
Pluria is said to make an exception among the comparatives, but it is
only an obsolete form, and is not found in ancient writers, who invariably
have plura. Complures, on the other hand, which has lost its signification
of a comparative in the ordinary language (it signifies several or some), makes
both compluria and complura.
[ 66.] 6. The following words make their genitive plural
in turn instead of um :
a) All neuters which have ia in the nominative plural, that
is, those in e, al, and ar, and all participles and adjectives
which follow the third declension. Comparatives therefore
(with the exception of plurium and complurium) and those ad-
jectives which have only e in the ablative singular, retain the
termination um in the genit. plur., as pauperum, superstitum.
To these we must add the adjectives caelebs, celer, cicur, compos,
impos, djjypSi memor, immemor, supplex, uber, vetus, and vigil;
all compounds of facio and capio, and of such substantives as
make the genitive plur. in um, e. g. degenerum, bicorporum,
inopum, quadrupedum, versicolorum, and perhaps also ancipitum
and tricipitum. The poets sometimes form the genitive plural
of adjectives, especially of participles in ns, by a syncope, in
um instead of ium ; and later prose writers, such as Seneca
and Tacitus, sometimes follow their example, and use, e. g.,
potentum, dolentum, salutantum.
b) Words in es and is, which do not increase in the genitive
singular (e. g. nubes, nubium; civis, civium; but militum and
lapidum from miles and lapis, gen. militis, lapidis) ; the follow-
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 55
ing words in er: imber, linter, venter, uter, and the word caro,
carnium. Vates, strues, the plural ambages, and generally also
sedes, together with apis, cants, juvenis, and volucris, form excep-
tions, and make their genitive plur. in um. Panis is uncertain.
(Respecting mensis see my note on Cic. in Verr. ii. 74. ;
Schneider on Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 5.)
c) Many monosyllabic substantives, and without exception
those ending in s and x preceded by a consonant, make ium, as
montium, dentium, arcium, mercium, from mons, dens, arx, merx.
Lynx however has lyncum; sphinx, sphingum; and opes, from ops,
has opum. Gryphum also is probably the genit. plur. of gryps.
But the greater number of monosyllabic words ending in s
and x preceded by a vowel make their genitive plur. in um,
and not in ium. The latter occurs only in as, assium ; glis,
glirium; Us, litium; mas, marium; os, ossium; vis, virium; and
generally also in fraus, fraudium, and mus, murium. To these
we must add faux (which, however, is not used in the nomi-
native singular), faucium ; nix, nivium; strix, strigium; and nox,
noctium.
Note. The genitive plural in um therefore is used in aes, cms,
dos, flos, grus, jus, laus, mos, pes with its compounds (except compedes, of
which the form compedium is well attested), praes, sus, Ores, Tros, dux, fax,
frux and prex (which occur only in the plur.), grex, lex, nux, rex, vox,
Phryx and Thrax. Fur and ren have furum, renum ; lar, too, has more
frequently larum than larium. Of those words, which have not been noticed
here, a genitive cannot be proved to exist ; but it is probable that the genit.
plur. of vas (vadis) was vadium, and in like manner cor, par, and sal proba-
bly had cordium, parium, saliwm, in order to avoid the ambiguity which would
arise from vadum, cordum, parum, salum. Cordium occurs in the Vulgate,
Jerem. iv. 4.
d) Substantives of two or more syllables ending in ns and
rs have ium and um, though the latter occurs more rarely ; e. g.
cliens, cohors, Picens, Vejens, Gamers; and -in like manner those
which, like adolescens, infans, parens, sapiens, serpens, are properly
participles, and admit um only because they are substantives
(whence we frequently find parentum from parentes), commonly
make their genitive in ium: adolescentium, sapientium, &c. The
names of people in as, atis, such as Arpinas, Fidenas, form their
genitive almost exclusively in ium: Arpinatium, Fidenatium.
Penates and optimates, which usually occur only in the plural,
E 4
56 LATIN GRAMMAR.
follow their analogy. Other substantives in as generally have
um : e. g. aetatum, civitatum ; but ium also is correct, and Livy,
for example, always uses civitatium. The genit. plur. ium in
words with other terminations, if it should occur, must be
regarded as an exception. Quiris and .Samnis, however, con-
trary to the rule, generally make Quiritium, Samnitium.
[ 67.] 7. Names of festivals in alia which are used only in
the plural, as Bacchanalia, Compitalia, Saturnalia, Sponsalia,
make their genitive plural in ium or orum, as Bacchanalium
or Bacchanaliorum. And Horace (Cferm. iii. 5. 10.), on this
principle, makes anciliorum from ancile, plur. ancilia ; and
Suetonius, in several passages, has vectigaliorum instead of
vectigalium.
8. With regard to the dative and ablative plural, it is to be
remarked, that the Greek words in ma prefer the termination is
of the second declension to ibus. Thus Cicero and other authors
use poematis, epigrammatis, emblematis, hypomnematis, peripetas-
matis, peristromatis, toreumatis ; but ibus occurs now and then,
as diplomatibus, in Tacitus and Suetonius ; poematibus in the
Rhetor, ad Herenn. iv. 2. ; and in Sueton., Tit. 3. ; strategema-
tibus in Frontinus, Strateg., Prsef. lib. iv.
[ 68.] 9. The accusative plural of words which make the
genitive plur. in ium ended, in the best age of the Latin
language, in Is, which was also written eis, but not pronounced
so: e. g. artis, montis, civis, omnis, similis, mediocris. But the
termination es was also in use, and in the course of time became
so prevalent that is was preserved only in a few exceptions, such
as t ris.
Note. Priscian, towards the end of his seventh book, discusses the accu-
sative plur. in is instead of es, more minutely than any other ancient writer.
Among modern works see especially Norisius, in his Latinitas et Orthogra-
phia utriusque Pisanae Tabulae, which is reprinted in Cellarius, Orthographia
Latina, vol. ii. p. 233. foil. ed. Harles. There is no doubt, that until the
time of Augustus, those words which form their genitive plural in ium
(to which must be added celer, as in all other respects it follows the
analogy of the adjectives in er, is, e, although it makes the genit. plur.
celerurri), had in the accusative plural more commonly the termination is
than es ; but it must be borne in mind, that es was at the same time in use
with is. Thus we find even in the Columna Rostrata of Duilius, closes, that
is, classes, together with closets ; and in the ancient Florentine MS. of Virgil
we find urbes, ignes, omnes, sonantes, fines, as well as urbis, ignis, &,c., although
es, on the whole, is not so frequent as is. (Comp. Gellius, xiii. 20.) In the
newly discovered fragments of Cicero, it is true, we generally find is in words
REMARKS ON THE SEPARATE CASES. 57
of this kind, but there are instances also of es being used in the same words.
The ancient grammarians in vain attempted to fix the varying practice by rules
and exceptions. Pliny (ap. Charisium, p. 104. ed. Putsch.) denied the accu-
sativefunis, and Varro (ibid.) the accusativesyizZcz's, mercis, axis, lintris, ventris,
stirpis, corbis, vectis, neptis, and even urbis, and in his work De Ling. Lat. (viii.
67. ed. Miiller), he asserts that gentis alone was used, and, on the other hand,
that mentes and denies were the only correct forms. Valerius Probus (see
Orthograph. Noris. p. 242.) gives us to understand that the words in es, genit.
is, did not form the accusative in is, although they have ium in the genitive
plural. Thus much is clear, that the termination is gradually became anti-
quated, and that the desire of scholars to have an outward distinction of the
accusative from the nominative, gave way to the general practice. Charisius
(p. 1 22 . ed. Putsch.) says : consuetudo traduxit ad nominativi et accusativiformam,
And this probably took place about the end of the Augustan age ; for in the
ancient MS. containing the fragment of the ninety-first book of Livy, we
no longer find the accus. in is ; and in the best MSS. of the complete books,
it occurs only in a few isolated passages, and Quintilian does not mention
this disputed point at all. Afterwards is was still sometimes used by Tacitus
and Gellius ; but with Tacitus this arose from his desire to revive the ancient
power and energy of the language, and with Gellius from his antiquarian
studies. This is not the place to inquire in what manner an editor of ancient
authors has to act in the face of this obvious inconsistency of the writers
themselves ; there are few who faithfully follow the authority of the MSS. ;
others, such as Bentley in his Terence and Horace, every where restore the
accus. in is (why Bentley, without inconsistency, edited arces and rates in
Horace, has not yet been examined) ; and most of them pay as little atten-
tion to the difference in doubtful cases, as to the ancient orthography in
general, but merely follow the vulgar tradition. We have noticed here
the difference of opinions to caution the student, that in reading the ancients
he may not confound the short is of the genit. sing, with the long Is of the
accus. plur.
[ 69.] 10. Juppiter (which was much more common than
Jupiter) is declined as follows : genit. Jovis, dat. Jovi, accus.
Jovem, voc. Juppiter, abl. Jove. In the plural Joves only is
found.
Bos, bovis, makes the nominat. and accus. plur. boves, gen.
bourn, dat. and ablat. bubus, and less frequently bobus. Sus
makes the dat. and ablat. plur. subus, which is a contraction of
the less frequent form suibus.
58 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XVI.
GREEK FORMS IN WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
[ 70.] A GREAT number of Greek words, especially proper
names, belong to the third declension ; and as their genitive ter-
minates in os (sws, ovi), they follow the third declension in their
own language also. Among the terminations of the nominative
mentioned above, some belong exclusively to Greek words, viz.
ma, z, y, an, In, on, yn, er, yr, ys, eus, yx, inx, ynx, and the plurals
in e ; but there are also Greek words with other terminations,
most of which, however, are quite treated as Latin words, for
which reason the termination on is generally Latinized into o
(see above, 56.), and the Greek forms are used by Latin
writers, especially the poets, only in some cases.
1. In the genitive singular, the poets frequently use the
Greek termination os instead of the Latin is, especially in words
in is which usually make their genitive idis, whether simple
or derivative (see 245.), e. g. Daphnidos, Phasidos, Atlantidos,
Erymanthidos, Nere'idos ; so also in nouns in as and ys, as
Pallados, Tethyos ; and in eus, as Peleos, Theseos (Ovid, Metafa.
viii. 268.), although the Latin termination e'i or contracted ei
(according to the second declension), as in Thesei, Terei, is more
commonly used. (See above, Chap. XII. 4.)
But in prose the Greek termination of the genitive is seldom
used. Substantives in is derived from verbs in particular,
such as basis, ellipsis, mathesis, poe'sis, make their genitive like
the nominative, and not baseos, matheseos, &c., which forms are
found only in unclassic writers. (See Vitruv. x. 15. ; Spartian.
Ael. Verus, 3. ; Sever. 3.) In the few words in y the genit. in
yos is used for the sake of euphony, e. g. misyos. Pan, the
shepherds' god, admits the Greek genit. Panos in prose, to
distinguish the word from panis, bread.
The feminines in o, however, such as echo, Calypso, Dido,
lo, Sappho, have usually the Greek genitive in us, as echus,
Didus, Sapphus, the Latin termination onis being less common.
Their dative, accusative, and ablative end in o, and the Latin
terminations oni, onem, one, are but rarely used.
GREEK FORMS IN THE THIRD DECLENSION. 59
[7i.] 2. The Greek accusative of the third declension in a is
very often used by the Latin poets instead of em. Thus Horace
uses only heroa, Cyclopa, Memnona, Agamemnona, Helicona,
Chremeta, and not Cyclopem, Agamemnonem, &c. Among the
prose writers Cicero most studiously avoids the Greek ter-
mination, except in aer, aether, and Pan, of which he makes the
accusative aer a, aether a. and Pana (for the reason mentioned
above). In all other instances the Greek accusative in a must
b6 looked upon, in Cicero, as an exception. It occurs much
more frequently in Nepos, Livy, Curtius, and the authors' of
what is called the Silver Age, though principally in proper
names and along with the common Latin termination em, e. g.
Bdbylona, Eleusina, Lacedaemona, Marathona, Parmeniona,
Sidona, Timoleonta, Troezena, also Periclea, Stratoclea, and
similar names ending in the nominative in cles. In like manner
words in is and ys admit even in prose the Greek forms in and
yn together with the Lathi im and ym, but Cicero uses them
only by way of exception ; Livy and Curtius have them more
frequently, e. g. Nabin, Agin, Halyn, Tigrin. The accus.
Eleusin, instead of Eleusinem (a), must be traced to the form
Eleusis, gen. is, which, however, is not well attested. For the
accusative of words in eus, which later writers usually make ea,
as Persea, Demetrium Phalerea, see above, Chap. XII. 4.
Proper names in es, which in Greek follow the first declension
(gen. ov), and in Latin the third (gen. is) (see Chap. IX. 3.), have
in the accusative the termination en along with that in em, e. g.
Aeschinen, Achillen, and Ulixen (inasmuch as these names are not
formed from 'A%i\\evs and 'QSvo-a-svs, but from the less common
*A%i\\r)s and 'OSuo-o-^s, ov), and especially barbarian names,
such as Mithridaten, Phraaten, Xerxen, Araxen, Euphraten.
The termination en for em is moreover found in those com-
pounds which in Greek follow the third declension, but in the
accusative admit of yv and 77 (contracted from so); but en is
used much less frequently. Instances of this kind are Sophoclen
in Cic. De Off. i. 40., Hippocraten and Epicyden in Livy.
Some words are in Greek declined in two ways, either after
the first or after the third declension, such as Sdkrjs, ~Kps^s,
gen. ov and VJTOS ; in Latin they may have the shorter form and
yet follow the third declension (e. g. the ablat. Thale), and in
60 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the accusative they admit also of the termination en, e. g. (Jhre
metem and Chremen, Thalem or Thaletem and Thalen.
[ 72.] 3. The vocative singular is in most Greek words like
the nominative ; but those ending in s form a distinct vocative
by rejecting that consonant, both in Greek and Latin. Thns
the vocative of words in is, ys, eus: Daphni, Phylli, Thai,
Coty, Tiphy, Orpheu, Perseu. Words in is, idis, however, make
the vocative just as often like the nominative, as Bacchis, My sis,
Thais. Nouns in as, antis, make their vocative in Greek av and
a, but the latter only is used in Latin, e. g. Atla, Calcha.
Proper names in es, gen. is, have the vocative of the first de-
clension in e together with the regular one. This is the case with
those which in Greek follow the first declension (e. g. Carneade,
Simonide and Achille, see above), and with those which although
they follow the third in all other respects, yet admit of the
accusative in t]v. Thus we sometimes find Damocle, Pericle,
Sophocle, Socrate.
[ 73.] 4. The plural of those Greek proper names which by
the forms of their accusative and vocative sing, show their ten-
dency to follow the first declension, is sometimes formed after
that declension. Thus we find in Cicero, De Orat. ii. 23., the
nom. Naucratae ; and Orat. 9., the accus. Thucydidas.
5. The Greek termination of the nominat. plur. es, instead of
the Latin es, is not uncommon in poetry, e. g. Arcades, At-
lantides, Erinnyes ; but the metre must decide. The termination
if, Latin Is, occurs even in the nominative of the names of
towns Trallis and Sardis, though principally in the latter.
Horace, Epist. i. 11. 2., says: Croesi regia Sardis.
In the nominative plural the neuters in os have the Greek
termination e, as cete, mele, and the plural Tempe, ra
Note. No other cases are formed from these neuters in DC, and in the sin-
gular too they occur only in the nom. and accus., and we must therefore use
the Latin forms cetus and melum (according to the second declension). So
also chaos, gen. chat, abl. chao. See 87.
6. In the genitive plural only a few words retain the Greek
termination on (o>v), and that generally only in titles of books,
e. g. metamorphoseon, epigrammaton.
Note. Curtius, iv. 50. (13.) makes the genitive Maleon, from MoXetTf, or
MaXitte (sing. MaXituc), entirely in the Greek fashion, for the Lathi name is
Malienses.
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 61
7. In the dative plural the Greek termination si or sin is
used very rarely, and only by poets. Ovid, e. g., has Lemniasi
and Troasin, from Lemniades and Troades. In prose writers
there are very few examples that can be relied upon, such as
ethesi from ra rfOvj.
[ 74.] 8. The accusative plural in as is admissible in all
words which have this termination in Greek. It is however
seldom used in prose, though in common nouns it occurs more
frequently than the accusat. sing in a, e. g. harpagonas, pha-
langas, pyramidas, and even in Cicero we find aspidas, can-
tharidas. He also uses the proper names Aethiopas, Arcadas,
and Cyclopas, and Livy always has the accusat. Macedonas. It
is surprising to find, that the same termination is now and then
given also to barbarian names of nations, e. g. Allobrogas in
Ca3sar, and Lingonas, Nemetas, Ordovicas, Brigantas, Siluras
and Vangionas in Tacitus.
. CHAP. XVII,
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. MAS-
CULINES.
[ 75.] MASCULINE are those which end in o, or, os, and er,
and those in es which increase in the genitive, especially those
in es, Itis, e. g. sermo, error, sudor, Jlos, mos, venter, stipes.
Exceptions in o. Words ending in do, go and io are feminine,
e. g. consuetudo, formido, grando, imago, oratio, dictio, lectio,
auditio, communio, &c., also caro and the Greek words echo and
Argo (the ship of the Argonauts). The following, however, are
masculine : in do, the words cardo and ordo, together with udo
and cudo or cudon ; in go : ligo, margo, and harpago ; and all
words in io, which are not abstract nouns derived from verbs
and adjectives, but common names of things, such as pugio (a
dagger), scipio (a staff), septentrio (north pole), titio (a fire-brand) ;
several names of animals, as curculio*, papilio, scorpio, stellio,
vespertilio, and a few others of rare occurrence ; and lastly those
formed from numerals, such as unio, binio or duplio, ternio, qua-
* Also spelled gurgulio ; it is masculine in its two significations of " air-
pipe," and " wood worm."
62 LATIN GRAMMAR.
ternio, quinio, senio, &c. Unio in the sense of a particular pearl
(margarita) is likewise masculine; but when it signifies unity
(unitas), and is used in an abstract sense, it is feminine ; but it
is only in ecclesiastical writers that it has this meaning.
Note. Cupido, desire, therefore is feminine, but masculine when it is the
name of the god of Love. Poets, however, sometimes use it as a masculine,
even in the former signification, and Horace does so always, aspravus cupido,
falsus cupido. Margo may have either gender, but the masculine is more
frequent, as was remarked above.
[ 76.] Exceptions in or. The following words in or, oris, are
neuter : ador, aequor, marmor, and cor, cordis. Arbor is feminine
according to the general rule. (See 39.)
Exceptions in os. Cos, dos, and the Greek eos are feminine.
Os, ossis, and os, oris, and the Greek words chaos, ethos, epos,
melos, are neuter.
Exceptions in er. A great many words in er are neuter, viz.
cadaver, iter, spinther, tuber (a hump), uber, ver, and verber
(rarely used in the singular, but very frequently in the plural,
verbera), and all the names of plants in er: acer, cicer, laser,
papaver, piper, siler, siser, suber and zingiber. Tuber (a kind of
peach-tree) is feminine ; but when it denotes the fruit, it is mas-
culine. Linter is commonly used as a feminine, but is well
attested also as a masculine.
Exceptions in es increasing in the genitive. The following
are feminine: merges, itis ; seges and teges, etis; merces, edis ;
quies, etis, with its compounds inquies and requies. Compes,
which, however, does not occur in the nominative sing., but
only in the plural compedes, is feminine. Aes, aeris, is neuter ;
ales and quadrupes are properly adjectives, but as substantives
they are mostly used as feminines.
CHAP. XVIII.
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. FEMI-
NINES.
[ 77.] FEMININE are those which end in as, is, ys, aus, and x,
those in es which do not increase in the genitive, and those in
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 63
s preceded by a consonant, e. g. auctoritas, navis, chlamys, laus
and fraus, pax, radix, arx, nubes, pars, mors, hiems.
Exceptions in as. The following are masculine : as, gen.
assis, and its compounds, though they have different terminations,
as quadrans, a fourth of an as ; bes, two-thirds of an as ; decussis,
ten ases * ; and the Greek words which make their genitive in
antis, as adamas, elephas, and the names of mountains : Acraaas,
Atlas, Mimas. Mas, maris, and vas, vadis, are, of course, mas-
culine. The following are neuters : Greek words in as, which
make their genitive atis, as artocreas, erysipelas (see 58.), and
the Latin words vas, vasis, and fas and nefas, which, however,
occur only in the nom. and accus.
Exceptions in is. The following are masculine: 1) Those in
is, gen. eris, as cinis, cucumis, pulvis and vomis (commonly vomer);
2) The following which increase in the genitive : glis, lapis,
pollis, and sanguis; 3) The following which do not increase:
amnis, axis, callis, canalis, cassis (used especially in the plural
casses, a hunter's net, and not to be confounded with cassis, Idis,
a helmet) ; caulis or colis, collis, crinis, ensis, fascis (generally in
the plural, fasces), finis, follis, funis, fustis, ignis, mensis, orbis,
panis, piscis, postis, scrobis, sentis, torquis, torris, unguis, vectis,
vermis. Some of these words, however, are used by good
authors also as feminines, though not often, especially callis,
canalis, scrobis, torquis, and finis, cinis, in the singular, whereas
the plural fines in the sense of boundary or territory, and cineres
in the sense of the ashes of a corpse, are always masculine.
As mensis is masculine, Aprilis, Quintilis, and Sextilis have the
same gender. Some substantives in is are properly adjectives,
and a substantive masculine being always understood, they are
themselves used as masculines : e. g. annalis, commonly in the
plural annales (libri), annals ; jugales (equi), two horses yoked
together ; molaris (lapis), a millstone, or if dens is understood,
a back-tooth or grinder; natalis (dies), birth-day; pugillares
(libetti) a tablet for writing.
Note. Anguis and tigris may have either gender ; canis is generally
mascul., but when it denotes a dog used in hunting, it is very often feminine.
(See 42.) Aqualis, callis, corbis, and clunis, plur. dunes, are used by good
writers as words of either gender. Delphis is masculine, but the more
* See the Appendix on Roman weights, coins, and measures.
64 LATIN GRAMMAR.
common forms are delphinus, or delphin. Cossis has not been mentioned
above, because the only authority we have for it is a doubtful passage in
Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxx. 39., and cossus, i, is more probable.
That the names of rivers in is are masculine follows from the general
rule ( 37.) ; thus we read horridus Albis, flavus Tiberis, rapidus Tigris.
Names of mountains with this termination are not numerous : Lucretilis, a
hill in Latium, is masculine, for Horace says, amoenus Lucretilis. The
Greek names, Carambis, a promontory on the Asiatic coast of the Black
Sea, and Peloris in Sicily, are feminine, the word a/cpa being understood.
All the masculines in is, whatever may be their genitive, are contained
in the following hexameter lines :
Mascula sunt panis, piscis, crinis, cinis, ignis,
Funis, glis, vectis, follis, fastis, lapis, amnis,
Sic fastis, postis, scrobis, axis, vermis et unguis,
Et penis, collis, callis, sic sanguis et ensis,
Mugilis et mensis, pollis, cum caule canalis,
Et vomis, sentis, pulvis, finis, cucumisqae,
Anguis, item torquis, torris, cum cassibus orbis.
Exceptions in ys. Names of rivers and mountains with this
termination are masculine, according to the rules laid down in
Chap. "VI.; e. g. Halys, Othrys.
[ 78.] Exceptions in x. The following are masculine : 1 )
The Greek words in ax: as anthrax, cordax, thorax. 2) The
majority of those in ex: apex, caudex, codex, cimex, cortex, culex,
frutex, grex, irpex, latex, murex, obex, podex, pollex, pulex, pumex,
ramex, silex, sorex, ulex, vertex or vortex. 3) Some in ix: viz.
calix, fornix, phoenix, sorix; and generally also varix. 4) One
word in ux: viz. tradux, properly an adjective, palmes being
understood. 5) The following Greek words in yx : calyx,
coccyx, onyx, oryx and bombyx (in the sense of silkworm ; it is
femin. when it signifies silk) ; and the names of mountains, such
as Eryx. 6) The subdivisions of an as which end in unx: as
quincunx, septunx, deunx. (See Appendix III.)
Note. Many words in ex commonly enumerated in these lists are mas-
line from their signification, such as rex, pontifex, carnifex, foenisex, vervex.
Some words vary between the masculine and feminine genders, as cortex,
obex, pumex, and silex, which have been mentioned above, but the masc. is
better attested. To these we must add imbrex and rumex, both genders of
which are supported by equal authority. It niay be remarked, that the
number of masculines in ex is greater than that of feminines ; for if we put
aside the above-mentioned masculines, there remain only the following
feminines : for/ex, lex, nex, supellex, prex (not used in the nom.), andfaex. .
Pellex, ilex, vitex, and car ex are feminines from their meaning, according to
the general rule. Atriplex is the only neuter in ex, and is rarely used as a
feminine.
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 05
Onyx is masculine when it denotes a species of marble, or a vessel made
of it ; but as the name of a precious stone (see 39.) it is feminine. Calx
is sometimes used as a masculine like the diminutive calculus, but it does not
occur in ancient writers. Lynx occurs as masculine only in a single passage
of Horace (timidos lyncas), and is otherwise feminine, as in Greek. The
archaic cum primo luci is believed to be preserved in a passage of Cicero
(De Off. iii. 31.; comp. Varro, De L. L. vi. 9.).
Exceptions in es, gen. is without increase. The Greek word
acinaces alone (aKivd/crjs, ov) is decidedly masculine. Vepres,
which rarely occurs in the singular, and palumbes, though com-
monly masculines, are found also as feminines.
Exceptions in s preceded by a consonant. The following are
masculine : dens, fons, mons and pons; adeps commonly, and
forceps sometimes. Some words are properly adjectives, but
are used as masculine substantives, because a substantive of that
gender is understood : confluens or confluentes (amnes}, torrens
(amnis^), oriens and occidens (sot), rudens (funis), bidens and tri-
dens; and several Greek words, such as elops, epops (Lat. upupa),
merops, gryps (gryplnis), hi/drops, chatybs.
Note. The divisions of the as ending in ns, e. g. sextans, quadrans, triens,
dodrans, are masculine, as was remarked 77. Serpens, in prose writers, is
generally feminine, but the poets use it also as a masculine. Stirps, in a
figurative sense, is always feminine, but in its original sense of "stem" it
is frequently found as a masculine. Continens, the continent, properly an
adjective, with the ellipsis ofager or terra, is of doubtful gender, though the
feminine seems preferable. Bidens, a fork, is masculine, but when it signi*
fies " a sheep two years old " it is feminine, ovis being understood. The
plural torrentia, from torrens, occurs in Curtius ix. 35., and must be explained
by supplying flumina, torrens being properly an adjective. A few participles
used as substantives in philosophical language are neuters, as ens, accidens,
consequens. Animans, being properly a participle, occurs in all three genders ;
but according to the practice of Cicero it is generally feminine in the sense
of " a living being," and masculine in the sense of " a rational creature."
(See Schneider, Formenlenre, p. 126. fol.)
CHAP. XIX.
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. NEUTERS.
[ 79.] WORDS ending in a, e, i, y, c, I, n, t, ar, ur, us are
neuter : e. g. poema, mare, sinapi, misy, lac and alec, animal, mel,
carmen, flumen, caput (the only word of this termination), calcar,
pulvinar, fulgnr, guttur, opus, tempus.
F
(56 LATIN GRAMMAR.
1. Exceptions in /. The following are masculine: sol, sal and
mugil, which form is more common than mugilis. Sat in the
singular is sometimes found as a neuter, but in the plural the
ancients use only sales both in the sense of " salt" and in the
more common one of " witticisms." Salia in the sense of " dif-
ferent kinds of salt" is only a modern medical term.
2. Exceptions in n. There are only three Latin words in en
which are masculine, viz. pecten, pecilnis, ren and lien (or lienis);
the others in en are of Greek origin : e. g. attagen, lichen and
splen. Delphin (commonly delphinus), paean, agon, canon, gno-
mon, horizon, and the names of mountains in on, as Cithaeron,
Helicon, are likewise masculines. The following in on are
feminine : aedon, halcyon (Lat. alcedo), icon, and sindon; and,
according to the general rule, all the Greek names of towns,
with a few exceptions, such as Marathon, which is more fre-
quently masculine.
3. Exceptions in ar. Par is common in the sense of " mate,"
but neuter in the sense of " a pair."
4. Exceptions in ur. Astur, turtur, vultur and furfur are
masculine.
5. Exceptions in us. All words of two or more syllables
which retain the u in the genitive, that is, which end in utis
or udis, are feminine : e. g. juventus, salus, senectus, servitus,
virtus; incus, palus, and subscus; also tellus, telluris, and pecus,
pecudis, a sheep, whereas pecus, pecoris (neut.), signifies " cattle"
in general. Venus, Veneris, the name of a goddess, is naturally
feminine ; but it retains the same gender in the sense of " grace-
fulness" (generally in the plural). Respecting the names of
animals in us, see above, 42. Lepus and mus are masculine ;
grus and sus are feminine, when the particular sex is not to be
specified. Of Greek words in us, tripus, tripodis, is masculine ;
apus and lagopus are feminine, perhaps only because avis is
understood. Rhus, as a tree, is feminine, as a seed or spice
masculine.
FOURTH DECLENSION. 67
CHAP. XX.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
[ so.] THE fourth declension is only a particular species of the
third, which has arisen from contraction and elision. The
nominative of masculine and feminine words ends in us, and of
neuters in u. The following is the form of their declension :
SINGULAR.
Nom. fruct-us, fruit. corn-u, horn.
Gen. fruct-us. corn-us.
Dat. fruct-ui. (corn-ui) corn-u.
Ace. fruct-um. corn-fa.
Voc. fruct-us. corn-u.
Abl. fructu. corn-u.
PLCEAI,.
Nom. fruct-us. corn-ua.
Gen. fruct-uum. corn-uum.
Dat. fruct-lbus. corn-ibus.
Ace. fruct-us. corn-ua.
Voc. fruct-us. corn-ua.
Abl. fruct- thus. corn-ibus.
The following words may be used as exercises : actus, coetus,
cursus, gradus, lusus, magistratus, motus, sensus, sumptus, vultus:
the only neuters are, genu, gelu, veru, pecu (the same as pecus,
tfm). Tonitrus and tonitruum t plur. tonitrua, are more com-
monly used than tonitru.
Formerly it was believed that the neuters in u were inde-
clinable in the singular, but recent investigations (especially
those of Freund, in an Appendix to the preface to his Latin
Dictionary) compel us to give up this opinion, especially with
regard to the genitive; for it is only in late technical writers
that we find, e. g., cornu cervinum and cornu bubulum making
the genitive without any termination of the first word : cornu-
cervini, cornububuli. The dative ui is likewise mentioned by
an ancient grammarian (Martian. Capella, lib. iii.), but there
is no instance except cornu in Livy, xlii. 58., which must be
looked on as a contraction of cornui.
r 2
68 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 81.] Note 1. The genitive of the words in us was originally uis, which
was afterwards contracted into us. Instances of the ancient form are still
found in our authors, as anuis in Terence. Sometimes, on the other hand,
the genitive of words in us was i, after the second declension, which is still
found now and then as well as us, not only in comic writers, but in good
prose, e. g. senati and tumulti in Sallust. ' The dative in u instead of ui ia
still more frequent, especially in Cassar, who is said by Gellius (iv. 19.) to
have sanctioned this form exclusively ; e. g. equitatu, magistrate, usu, for
equitatui, &c. ; it is, however, found also in a few passages of other writers.
[ 82.] Note 2. Some words make the dative and ablative plural in ubus
instead of ibus. They are contained in the following two hexameters :
Arcus, acus, portus, quercus, ficus, lacus, artus,
Et tri bus et partus, specus, adde veruqne pecuque.
But it must be observed, that instead officubus a better form is fids, from
ficus, i (see 97.), and that arcubus and quercubus, though mentioned by
ancient grammarians, do not occur in other writers any more than arcibus,
or quercibus. Portus has both forms, ubus and ibus, and tonitrus has more
commonly tonitribus than tonitrubus.
[ 83.] Note 3. Domus takes, in some of its cases, the forms of the second
declension ; but this is exclusively the case only in the genit. domi in the
sense of " at home ;" in the abl. domo in the sense of " from home ;" and in
the ace. plur. domos in the sense of " home," when several places are alluded
to. In the other signification, the forms of the fourth declension prevail,
though we find the ablat. domo, genit. plur. domorum, ace. plur. domos,
along with domu (see Garatoni on Cic. Philip, ii. 18.), tiomuum, and domus
(see my note on Cic. in Vcrr. iv. 4.) ; but domo for domui seldom occurs.
GENDER OF WORDS OF THE FOURTH DECLENSION.
[ 84.] The words in us are masculine. The following only are
feminines : acus, domus, manus, porticus, tribus, and the plurals
idus, iduum, and quinquatrus, quinquatruum. To these must be
added coins, which however also follows the second declension.
(See 53. and 97.) The words anus, nurus, socrus, and quercus
are feminine, according to the general rule, on account of their
signification.
Note. Penus, us (provisions), is feminine; but there are two other forms
of this word, one after the second declension, penum, i, and the second after
the third, penus, oris, both of which are neuter. Specus is most frequently
masculine, but in the early language, and in poetry, it is found both as a
feminine and as a neuter. In Valer. Maximus, i. 2., we have in quoddam
praealtum specus for in quendam specum; but the reading is doubtful. Secus,
when used for sexus, is neuter, but occurs only in the nominat. and accus. in
the connection of virile and muliebre secus. (Comp. 89.)
The few words in u are neuter, without exception.
FIFTH DECLENSION. 69
CHAP. XXL
FIFTH DECLENSION.
[ 85.] THE fifth declension, like the fourth, may, with a few
changes, be traced to the third. The nominative ends in es,
and the declension is as follows :
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. di-es, a day. Nona, di-es.
Gen. di-ei. Gen. di-erum.
Dat. di-ei. Dat. di-ebus.
Ace. di-em. Ace. di-es.
Voc. di-es. Voc. di-es.
Abl. di-e. Abl. di-ebus.
Note 1. Only the three words dies, res, and species, have their plural
complete ; and Cicero condemned even specierum and speciebus as not being
Latin. The words acies, fades, effigies, series, and spes, are found in good
prose writers only in the nominative sing, (perhaps in the vocative also)
and accusative plural ; the others have, from their signification, no plural.
Note 2. The e in the termination of the genitive and dative singular is
long, when preceded by a vowel, as in diet, maciei, but short after a consonant,
as iufidei, rei.
Note 3. An old termination of the genitive was es (contracted from e'is),
but is not found in our authors, except in the word Diespiter = Diei pater.
But there are several instances of e and I being used for the ei of the genitive
and dative. The e for the genitive occurs very frequently in poetry (Virg.
Georg. i. 208. die; Horat. Carm. iii. 7. 4.; Ovid. Metam. iii. 341., 'and
vii. 728. fide) ; and also in some passages of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust ; e. g.
pernicie causa (some write pernicii), in Cic. pro Rose., Am. 45. In sinistra
parte acie in Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 23., and 'several times in Sallust. Instances
of the dative ending in e occur in Horace, Serm. i. 3. 95. commissa fide ; and
in Livy, v. 13. insanabili pernicie nee causa nee finis inveniebatur. The
dative in f occurs in Nepos, Thrasyb. 2. : pernicii fuit; and the genitive in i
appears in Livy, ii. 42., in the connection of tribuni plebi for plebei (plebes =
plebs).
GENDER OF WORDS or THE FIFTH DECLENSION.
[ 86.] The words of the fifth declension are feminine, with
the exception of dies, which is mascul. and femin. in the singular,
and masculine only in the plural. The compound meridies is
masculine only, but does not occur in the plural, as was re-
marked above.
70 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note. Good prose writers make the singular of dies much more frequently
masculine than feminine. The latter gender, generally speaking, is used
only when dies denotes duration or length of time, and in the sense gf a
fixed or appointed day. Thus we find certa, constitute, praestituta, dicta,
finita dies, but also stato die.
CHAP. XXII.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. INDECLIN ABLES. DEFECTIVES.
[87.] THE irregularities in the declension of substantives may
be comprised under two general heads : A. Indeclinables and de-
fectives; B. Heteroclita and heterogenea.
A. Some substantives have a defective declension, inasmuch
as they have either no terminations at all to mark the different
cases (indeclinables), or want particular cases, or even a whole
number (defectives).
I. Indeclinables, or words which retain the same form in all
cases, are chiefly the names of the letters of the Greek and
Latin alphabets, ,e. g. alpha, beta, gamma, digamma, delta, iota,
a, c, v, &c. It is only late and unclassical authors that decline
the Greek names in a. Delta, as a name of a country, is like-
wise indeclinable; but it is found only in the nomin. and accus.
Further, a number of foreign words, such as git, manna, pascha,
and a few Greek substantives in i and y, such as gummi and
misy, which, however, occurs also as a declinable word (see
55.); and besides the indeclinable gummi there exist other
declinable forms also, e. g. haec gummis, hoc gumma, and hoc
gumen. Hebrew proper names, which differ in their termi-
nations from Greek and Latin words, are either not declined
at all, as Bethleem, Gabriel, Ruth, or they take a Latin ter-
mination in the nominative also, e. g. Abrahamus, Jacobus, Jo-
sephus, Juditha. David and Daniel are the only names which,
without taking any termination in the nominative, make the
genitive Davidis and Danielis. Others, as Joannes, Moses,
Judas, Maria, have already acquired through the Greek a de-
clinable termination, and are accordingly declined after the first
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 71
or third declension. Jesus makes the accusat. Jesum, but in
the other cases it remains unchanged, Jesu.
Among the genuine Latin words we must notice pondo, which
is used only as a plural, and remains unchanged in all its cases,
e. g. auri quinque pondo, five pounds of gold. This peculiarity
arose from the omission of the word librae, to which was added
the superfluous pondo, an ablative in the sense of " in weight "
(in which it still often occurs ; see 428.), afterwards librae was
omitted and pondo retained its place. Semis, half an as, has
become an indeclinable adjective (one half) from a declinable
substantive, gen. semissis, and is used as such in connection with
other numerals.
[ 88.] II. Defectives in case are those substantives which want
one or more cases. There are many words of which the nomi-
native singular cannot be proved to have existed, as for instance,
of the genitives dapis, dicionis, feminis (for which the nominat.
femur is used), frugis, inter necionis, opis, pollinis, stipis (little
money), vicis, and of the plurals preces and verbera (for which
we use as a nom. sing, plaga or ictus}. The genitive neminis
from nemo occurs very rarely, and its place is supplied by nullius.
(See 676.) The vocative is wanting in a great many words,
from their signification. The genitive plural is wanting, that
is, does not occur in our authorities, in several monosyllabic
words, as os, or is; vas, vadis ; glos, pax, and others. (See 66.)
The genit. and dat. sing, of vis is very rare, but the plural vires,
virium, &c., is complete.
[ 89.] With regard to words which want several cases, it
most frequently happens, that only those cases exist which are
alike (i. e. especially the nominat. and accusat.), all the others
being wanting. This is the case, a) With Greek neuters in
es (properly adjectives) and os in the singular, and with those
in e in the plural, e. g. caco'e'thes, chaos, epos, melos, cetos (which
make the plural mele, cete, as in Greek), and Tcmpe. Some of
these words, however, have a declinable Latin form in us, i, or
um, i, viz. chaus, cetus, melus (mascul.), and melum, from which
the ablatives chao, melo are derived; and besides (TO) Argos,
there is a declinable Latin form Argi, Argorum, Argis. b)
With the Latin neuters fas, nefas, nihil, parum (too little), and
'instar, which was originally a substantive signifying " an image,"
or " resemblance," and was then used as an adjective ija the
* 4
72 LATIN GRAMMAR.
sense of "like," but only in such connections as admit of its
being explained as a nominative or accusative. Secus, sex, is like-
wise used only in cases that are alike, especially as an accusative
absolute, virile secus, muliebre secus, e. g. canis muliebre secus ;
in other phrases sexus, us, is the ordinary word, c) With the
plural of many monosyllabic words, as neces, kinds of death ;
paces, treaties of peace ; especially neuters, as aera, brazen
images ; jura, rights ; rura, fields ; tura, incense ; and others,
the plural of which generally occurs only in poetical language,
as farra, corn ; mella, honey ; fella, bile. To these we must
add the poetical plurals Jlamina, murmura, silentia, colla.
The following plurals grates, munia, munera, likewise occur
only in the nom. and accus., and the ablatives gratibus and
munibus are rarely used. Metus which is complete in the sin-
gular, and astus, of which the ablat. singular is used, have, in
the plural, those cases only which are alike.
The following must be remembered separately : fors occurs
only in the nom. and abl. singular (forte, by chance); lues, in
the nom., ace., and ablat. singular ; mane, in the nom., ace., and
abl. singular, and is alike in all of them, but it is used also as
an adverb. Satias for satietas does not occur, in good prose,
in any other form. There are several words which are frequently
used in the plural (see 94.), but which in the singular have
only one or other case, more especially the ablative ; e. g prece
from preces occurs in prose also ; but the ablative singular of
ambages, compedes, fauces, obices, and verbera is used only in
verse, and not in ordinary prose.
[ 90.] Some words occur only in particular combinations
and in a particular case: dicis with causa and gratia; nauci
in the phrase non nauci facere or esse ; diu noctuque, or die
et noctu, old ablatives, for which however node et interdiu
are mora commonly used ; derisui, despicatui, divisui, ostentui,
in combination with dud or esse ; infitias with ire; suppetias
with ferre; pessum and venum with ire and dare, whence venire
and vendere, for which Tacitus, in the same sense> uses veno
ponere, exercere ; foris and foras (from fores =r/5*re) ; gratis (for
gratiis), ingratiis ; sponte with a pronoun, as mea, tua, sua, or a
genitive ; in promptu and in procinctu commonly with esse and
stare. We must particularly notice some verbal substantives,
which frequently occur in good writers, but rarely in any other
form than the ablat. sing, in combination with a genitive or still
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 73
more frequently with a pronoun, such as meo, tuo, &c., e. g. con-
cessu and permissu ; monitu and admonitu ; mandatu, missu, ro-
gatu, oratu ; arbitratu, jussu et injussu ; accitu, coactu atque effla-
gitatu meo. Sometimes they are found without a genit. or an
adject., as in Caes. De Bell Gall. v. 27. ; Liv. iv. 29. 32., v. 19.
[9i.] III. Defectives in number are words which have either
no plural or singular.
1. Many words from their signification can have no plural,
and are termed singularia tantum. This is the case : a) With
abstract nouns which have a simple and universal meaning,
e. g. justitia, pietas, pudor, temperantia, experientia, infantia,
pueritia, adolescentia, juventus, senectus, fames, sitis ; 6) With
words which denote a substance or mass without division or
subdivision, as aurum, argentum, argilla, sabulum, coenum,
limus, sanguis, and panis, inasmuch as we thereby do not un-
derstand a single loaf, but the substance of bread in general.
Some words of this kind however, when used in the plural, de-
note separate objects, consisting of the substance indicated by
the name, as aera, works in bronze ; cerae, wax- tablets ; ligna,
pieces of wood ; c) Collective words, as indoles, the whole na-
tural abilities of a person; plebs and vulgus, victus, supellex,
virus. Proper names should strictly have no plural, but cases
often occur, where a plural is necessary, viz. when persons of
the same name or character are spoken of, and it may be re-
marked in general that in cases like this the person who speaks
or writes must decide for himself. It is surprising that there
exists no plural of the words vesper (vespera), meridies, ver,
justitium, letum, and specimen.
[ 92.] Note 1. It is, however, remarkable, that the plural of abstract
nouns is much more common in Latin than in our own language, to denote
a repetition of the same thing, or its existence in different objects. Cicero
( Pro Leg. Man. 5.), for example, says : adventus imperatorum nostrorum
in urbes sociorum ; in Pis. 22. : concursus Jiebant undique ; effusiones homi-
num ; De Off*, ii. 6. : interitus exercituum ; ibid, ii. 8. : exitus erant bellorum
aid mites aut necessarii ; ibid. ii. 7. : reliquorum similes exitus tyrannorum ; in
Verr. v. 11.; exitus conviviorum tales fuerunt. The phrases incurrere in odia
hominum and animos adders militibus, are of quite common occurrence, and
animus is used in the plural whenever the courage or anger of several persons
is spoken of, just as we always read terga verier e, to take to flight, when the
act is ascribed to many, and never tergum. Animi, however, like spiritus, is
used in the plural also to denote the boldness or high spirits of one man.
Qualities, when attributed to several persons, are frequently (not always)
- used in the plural; e. g. proccritates arborum, Cic. Cat. 17.; odistis hominum
novorum industrias, in Verr. iii. 4. ; ingcniis excettentibus pracditi homines, De
74 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Fin. v. 24. The plural in this case often denotes different species of the
same quality ; e. g. sapiens nostras ambitiones levitatesque contemnit, Cic. Tusc.
v. 36. ; saepe excellentiae quaedam in amicitia sunt, Lael. 19. ; somnus et quietcs
ceterae, De Off. i. 29. In like manner we find invidiae multitudinis, insaniae,
desperationes,, iracundiae, fortitudines, turpitudines, mortes, exitia, omnes et
metus et aegritudines ad dolorem referuntur, &c. (See in particular Cic. De
Off. iii. 32.) We must further notice the frequent use of the plural in
words denoting the phenomena of the weather, as nives, pruinae, grandines,
imbres, pluviae ; i. e. falls of snow, showers of hail, &c. ; and soles, sunbeams.
(See Quintil. xi. 3. 27.) All we have said hitherto relates to good prose ; the
poets go still further, and use the plural without either of the two reasons
mentioned above ; e. g. amores, irae, metus, and timores, flamiua, murmura,
otia, silentia, partly for the purpose of being more emphatic, and partly on
account of the metre, where the singular does not suit it.
Note 2. The names of fruits of gardens and fields, on the other hand,
are frequently used in the singular in a collective sense, where we are in the
habit of employing the plural ; e. g. Pythagorei faba abstinuerunt (Cic.) ;
fabam, lentem, rapum serere ; ciceris catinus. In like manner nux or uva does
not denote a single nut or grape, but the particular kind of fruit, as in
Horace, Serm. ii. 2. 121. : pensilis uva secundas et nux ornabat mensas. In a
similar way Cicero uses the names of species of animals : villa abundat porco,
haedo, agno, gallina, Cat. 17. ; and Livy, v. 53., of building materials : tegula
publice praebita est.
[ 93.] 2. Other words (jpluralia tantum} occur only in the
plural, and in the singular either not at all, or only in writers
who cannot be taken as models. This is the case
a) With the following collective names of personal beings :
liberi, gemini, majores, posteri, primores and proceres, superi and
inferi, coelites, consentes, penates, lemures, excubiae, operae. When
in any of these cases an individual is to be indicated, it can be
done only, by making it a part of the collective, e. g. one child,
unus or una liberorum or ex liberis. Manes or dii manes how-
ever is used in the plural also to denote the departed soul of an
individual.
ft) A great number of other pluralia tantum denote a complex
of things, the constituent parts of which are not conceived
separately, or at least are not designated by the same word as
the whole complex itself. Such words are rendered in English
either by plurals or collective words. The most important
among them are :
a) Artus, exta, intestina and viscera, foria (orwn), tormina,
ilia, armamenta, impedimenta, utensilia, induviae, exuviae, manubiae,
parietinae, reliquiae, sentes, vepres, virgulta, bellaria, crepundia,
scruta, donaria, lautia, inferiac, justa, serta, compedes, verbera,
grates, lamenta, minae, prcces, dirae, ambages, argutiae, deliciae, di-
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 75
vitiae, facetiae, nugae,gerrae, quisquiliae, insidiae,praestigiae, tricae.
To these we may add some other but similar ideas, which are
more frequently expressed by the plural than the singular, as an-
gustiae, blanditiae, illecebrae, ineptiae, minutiae, latebrae, salebrae.
[ 94.] /?) The following words are used in Latin in the plural,
because they denote things composed of several parts, whereas we
frequently express the same things in the singular: Altaria
(altare is less common), arma, moenia, bigae, trigae, quadrigae (in
the so-called Silver Age the singular also was used, the chariot
being the main thing thought of), cancelli and clathri, casses and
plagae, exequiae, fides (a lyre, properly the strings which were
also called nervf), fores and valvae, loculi, phalerae, salinae, scalae,
scopae, codicilli, pugillares, tabulae, cerae, dunes and nates. The
meaning of the plural is more obscure in the following words :
cervices*, fauces, clitellae, cunae, cunabula and incunabula, inimi-
citiae (is used by Cicero in the singular only as expressing a
philosophical idea, otherwise it is a plurale tantum), induciae,
nuptiae, obices, pantices, praecordia (orurn), sordes, tenebrae.
It is curious that the plural of some of the words of this
class expresses also a plurality of the same things of which the
plurale tantum indicates but one, e. g. that fauces signifies not
only " a throat," but " several throats," or "mouths." In this
case the distributive numerals are used instead of cardinal
ones. (See 119.)
[ 95.] The names of certain days in the Roman calendar are
plurals, as calendae, nonae, idus, nundinae and feriae ; so also the
names of festivals and festive games (like ludi itself), e. g.
Bacchanalia, Floralia, Saturnalia, Olympia, and natalicia,
sponsalia and repotia; further, many names of towns, such as
Athenae, Thebae, Gades, the neuters Arbela, Bactra, Leuctra,
and a considerable number of names of towns which are pro-
perly names of the people, as Delphi, Leontini, Parisii, Treviri.
Such plural names of nations are often used for that of the
country they inhabit. Horace, for example, says: tollor in
arduos Sabinos, i. e. into the high country of the Sabines.
(See 680.)
* In ancient Latin prose, i. e. especially in Cicero, it is a plurale tantum ;
for cervicem in Cic. in Verr. v. 42. is only a misprint in the modern editions ;
but the poets, and, after the Augustan age, prose writers also, use the word
in the singular. (Comp. Qnintil. viii. 3. 35.)
76
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 96.] Some words which are apparently the same vary in
meaning according to their number, which is sometimes ac-
companied by a difference of gender. Lustrum is a period of
five years, and lustra, dens of wild beasts ; fastus, us, plur.
fastus, pride ; and fasti, the calendar ; forum, market, and fori,
passages ; tempus, time, and tempora (sometimes tempus also),
the temples of the head.
In other words the plural has a different meaning from the
singular, though one nearly allied to it, and without giving
up the meaning of the singular for the plural, e. g.
SINGULAR.
Ager, domain land.
Aedes, a temple.
'Aqua, water.
Auxilium, help.
Bonum, something good.
Career, a prison.
Castrum, a fort. [forum.
Comitium, a part of the Roman
Copia, abundance.
Cupedia, daintiness.
Epulum, a solemn feast.
Facultqs, power to do some-
thing.
Fortuna, fortune.
Hortus, a garden.
Littera, letter of the alphabet.
Ludus, pastime.
Naris, nostril.
Natalis (dies), birth-day.
(Ops, obsol.) Opis, help.
Opera, labour.
Pars, a part.
Rostrum, a beak, pointed head
of a ship.
Sal, salt.
PLURAL.
Agri, property of individuals.
Aedes, a house.
Aquae, medicinal springs.
Auxilia, auxiliary troops.
Bona, property. [course.
Carceres, the barriers of a race-
Castra, a camp. '
Comitia, assembly for election.
Copiae, troops.
Cupediae, or cupedia, dainties.
Epulae, a feast, a meal.
Facultates, property.
Fortunae, goods of fortune.
Horti and hortuli, pleasure-
grounds.
Litterae, an epistle.
Ludi, public games.
Nares, ium, nose warns.
Natales, birth, high or low.
Opes, power, wealth.
Operae, workmen.
Partes, (commonly) a party.
Rostra, the raised place from
which the orators spoke.
Sales, witticisms.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 77
CHAP. XXIII.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. HETEROCLITA. HETEROGENEA.
[ 97.] B. THE second kind of irregularity in the declension
of substantives consists in too great an abundance of forms.
It happens either, that although there is but one nominative,
the other cases have two forms after different declensions, or
that both the nominative, and all the other cases, have two dif-
ferent forms. If owing to the different terminations, such a
word has at the same time different genders, it is called a
heterogenes ; if it has merely different forms, it is called a
heterocllton. It must however be observed that there are only
very few words in which the practice of good prose does not
give preference to one of the forms, and in the following list
we shall always put the preferable form first.
Forms of different declensions are found with the word
jugerum; for, besides the ablative sing, and plur. jugero and
jugeris, poets for metrical reasons use jugere and jugeribus.
Some names of trees in us, viz. cupressus, Jicus, laurus, pinus,
besides the forms of the second declension, also take those
of the fourth in us and u, i. e. in the genit. and ablat. sin-
gular, and in the nom. and accus. plural, e. g. laurus (after the
second and fourth declension), gen. lauri and laurus, dat. lauro,
ace. laurum, voc. laure, abl. lauro and lauru. Nom. plur. lauri
and laurus, gen. laurorum, dat. and abl. lauris, accus. lauros
and laurus, voc. lauri. In other names of trees the second de-
clension greatly predominates, except quercus, which follows the
fourth entirely. The same is the case with coins, a distaff; but
the cases in i, orum, is, do not exist, perhaps only accidentally,
for, according to the ancient grammarians, the word may follow
both the second and fourth declensions. Respecting senatus,
tumultus, gen. us and i, see 81. Vas, vasis, a vessel, sometimes
makes the genit. vast from vasum, which is not altogether out of
use. The plural ilia has iliorum and iliis along with ilium and
ilibus.
[ 98.] Words which have different forms in the nominative
as well as other cases may follow the same declension in either
case, as balteus and balteum, callus and callum, clipens and cli-
78
LATIN GRAMMAR.
peum (especially a consecrated shield), carrus and carrum, com-
mentarius and commentarium, cubitns and cubitum, pileum and
pileus, baculum and baculus, palatum and palatus, jugulum and
jugulus, catinus, catillus, and catinum, catillum; and some names
of plants, as lupinus and lupinum, papyrus and papyrum, por-
rum and porrus : or they follow different declensions ; as
Alimonia, ae. alimonium, i.
Amygdala, ae. amygdalum, i.
Vespera, ae. vesper, i, the evening star, is regular. In
the sense of evening, we find the nom.
vesper and accus. vesperum, but the ab-
lative vesper e and vesperi, from vesper, is;
in the Silver Age generally, we also find
vespera, ae.
Cingulum, i. cingula, ae.
Essedum, i. esseda, ae.
Incestum, i. incestus, us.
Delphinus, i. delphin, inis.
Elephantus, i. elephas, antis.
Consortio, onis consortium, i.
Mendum, i. menda, ae.
Penum, i. penus, us; and penus, oris.
Tergum, i. tergus, oris, only in poetry, and in prose
after Augustus.
Pavo, onis. pavus, i.
Scorpio, onis. scorpius, i.
Palumbes, is. palumbus, i; and palumba.
Colluvio, onis. colluvies, ei.
Crater, eris. cratera, ae.
Plebs, is. plebes, ei.
Paupertas, atis pauperies, ei.
Juventus, utis juventa, ae; andjuventas, atis.
Senectus, utis. senecta, ae.
Gausape,is(&\8o gausapum, i; and gausapa, ae.
gausapes, is,
masc.).
Praesepe, zs(also praesepium, i.
praesepes, is,
fern.).
Tapete, is. - tapetum, i; and tapes, etis.
IRREGULAR DECLENSION. 79
Angiportus, us. angiportum, i. Rictus, us. rictum, i.
Arcus, us. arcus, i (in Cic. DeNat. Deor. iii. 20., rainbow).
Tonitrus, us. tonitruum. Vallus. vallum,
(tonitru).
To femur, oris, the hip, the forms of the nominat. femen, and
gen. feminis, are not unfrequent. Fames, is, and requies, etis, take
the forms of the fifth declension: fames makes the ablat. fame,
and requies has requiem and requie besides requietem and requiete.
It is of comparatively frequent occurrence that substantives
have different forms both of the first and fifth declensions, as bar-
baria, barbaries ; luxuria, es : duritia, es ; materia, es ; mollitia,
es ; segnitia, es (the forms after the fifth declension commonly
occur only in the nom., ace., and ablat.), and that verbal substan-
tives of the ftmrth declension have a second form in urn, i, like
the participle of the perfect, as conatus and conatum, eventus and
eventum, praetextus and praetextum, suggestus and suggestum.
[ 99.] To this class belong those substantives which, in the
plural, assume a different gender and a different form, in some
instances, along with the regular one :
1. Masculines, which in the plural become also neuters : jocus,
plur. joci and joca (of pretty equal authority, though joca is
better established by the practice of Cicero); locus, plur. loci
(generally passages in books or subjects for investigation and
discussion = topics) and loca (in the common sense of " places,"
whence the difference is briefly expressed thus : loci librorum,
loca terrarum). The poets use sibila for sibili ; and of intubus
and tartarus they make the plural intuba and tartara.
2. Feminines which in the plural become also neuters : car-
basus, a species of flax, plur. carbasi and carbasd, sails made of
it ; ostrea, plur. ostreae and ostrea, orum ; margarita, plur. mar-
garitae, and in Tacitus also margarita, orum.
3. The following neuters become a) Masculines: coelum,
coeli ; siser, siseres ; porrum (which is much more frequent in the
singular than porrus), porri; Z>) Feminines: delicium, deliciae ;
epulum, epulae ; balneum, balneae (in the sense of a public
bath balnea is more frequent) ; c) Both masculines and neuters :
rastrum, rastri and rastra ; frenum, freni * andfrena.
* The nominative freui, for which Schneider (Formevlehre, p. 476.) has
no authority, occurs in Curtius, iii. 34. vii. 40. ; Valer. Maxim, ii. 9. 5. ;
Seneca, de Ira, i. 7. ; Sil. Ital. i. 240.
80 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XXIV.
NOUNS ADJECTIVE. TERMINATIONS. DECLENSION.
[ 100.] 1. THE noun adjective denotes a quality of a person
or a thing, expressed either by a substantive or a pronoun. The
participle is an adjective formed from a verb, and, as far as
its form is concerned, is an adjective. An adjective has three
genders, and can thus be joined with substantives of different
genders. But there are only two classes of adjectives in which
the three genders are indicated by three different terminations ;
namely, the adjectives and participles in us, a, urn, such as bonus,
dona, bonum; amatus, amata, amatum; and those in er, a, um,
such as liber, libera, liberum ; and the isolated satur, satura,
saturum.
To these adjectives of three terminations the following thir-
teen in er, is, e must be added : acer, acris, acre; alacer, alacris,
alacre; campester, campestris, campestre; celeber, Celebris, celebre;
celer, celeris, celere; equester, equestris, equestre; paluster, palus-
tris, palustre; pedester, pedestris, pedestre; puter, putris, putre;
saluber, salubris, salubre; Silvester, silvestris, silvestre; terrester,
terrestris, terrestre; volucer, volucris, valuer e. Originally they
had only two terminations, is for the masculine and feminine,
and e for the neuter. The termination er for the masculine ex-
clusively was afterwards added to them ; but as the termination
is is not very often used in good prose for the masculine, it will
be best to treat them as a class of adjectives which have three
terminations for the three genders.
Note 1. Ernesti on Tacit. Annul, ii. in fin. goes too far in asserting that
the masculine in is is not suited for prose. He himself quotes two passages
from Tacitus for Celebris, and one in the Auct. ad Herenn. ii. 4. : locus Cele-
bris. Several others may be added from Curtius. In Cicero, De Divin. \. 57.
we find annus salubris ; and in like manner locus, ventus, effectus salubris in
Celsus, i. 3., ii. 1., iii. 6. ; in Livy, xxvii. 1. : tumultus equestris; xxix. 35. :
exercitus terrestris ; and xxvii. 26. : tumultus silvestris ; also collis and locus
silvestris in Caesar, Bell. Gall. ii. 18., vi. 34. ; vomitw acris in Celsus,
viii. 4.
Note 2. The names of the months, September, October, November, De-
cember, also belong to this class of adjectives. As adjectives, however, they
are defective, since the neuter never occurs, and the masculine and feminine
NOUNS ADJECTIVE. 81
scarcely in any other connection than with mensis (niasc.), Calendae, Nonae,
and Idus. Horace uses libertate Decembri.
[101.] 2. Other adjectives have in reality two forms,
the one for the masculine and feminine in common (generis
communis), and the other for the neuter. This class consists
of those in is, neut. e, as levis (masc. and fern.), leve, and the
comparatives in or (masc. and fern.), us (neut.), as levior, levius.
Note. Some adjectives have a double form ; one in us, a, urn, the other in
is, e.
Hilarus, or, urn. hilaris, e.
Imbecillus, a, urn. imbecillis, e (rare).
Imberbus, a, um (rare). imberbis, e.
Inermus, a, um (rare). inermis, e.
Semermus, a, um. semermis, e.
Semisomnus, a, um. but insomnis, e.
Exanimus, a, um. exanimis, e.
Semianimus, a, um. semianimis, e.
Unanimus, a, um. unanimis, e (rare).
Bijugus, a, um. bijugis, e (rare).
Quadrijugus, a, um. quadrijugis, e.
Multijugus, a, um. multijugis, e.
The forms acclivus, declivus, proclivus, and a few others not mentioned
here, are but rarely used for acclivis, declivis, and proclivis.
[ 102.] 3. All other adjectives have only one termination
for all three genders ; as felix, prudens, anceps, sollers, pauper,
dives, vetus, Arpinas. So also the present participles in ns,
as laudans, monens, legens, audiens. But all the adjectives of
this class have the termination ia in the nom., accus., and voca-
tive plural of the neuter gender. (Very few, and properly
speaking only vetus, veteris, have the termination a, respecting
which see above, 65.) E. g. felicia, prudentia, ancipitia, sol-
lertia, laudantia. Opulens and violens are only different forms ol
opulentuf, violentus.
Note 1 . Dives is an adjective of one termination, and the neuter therefore
is dives, as dives opus, dives munvs. There is another form of the word with
two terminations, dis, neut. dite, but it very rarely occurs in the nominative
singular : dis being found only in Terence, Adelph. v. 1. 8., and dite in Valer.
Flacc. ii. 296. : but in the other cases and in the plural it is frequently used,
as ditem Asiam, diti gnza, ditin stipendia facere, ditibus promissis ; the nomi-
native plural divitia does not seem to occur at all. In the comparative and
superlative both forms divitior, divitissimus, and ditior, ditissimus, are equally
jn use ; the longer forms in the prose of Cicero, and the shorter ones in
poetry and later prose writers. Pubes, genit. jndieris, is an adjective of one
termination ; but the compound impiibes, eris, appears also in the form
impubis, e, genit. impubis, e. g. impube corpus.
G
82 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note 2. Substantives in tor derived from transitive verbs may like-
wise be classed among adjectives, as praeceptor, victor ; for as they may
easily form a feminine in trix (see 41.), they have almost the character
of adjectives ; and even in prose we read, e. g., victor exercitus, victrice
litterae, in tarn corruptrice provincia. Thus Livy says of L. Brutus,
ille liberator populi Romani animus ; that is, aliquando liberaturus popvlum
Rom. ; and Tacitus, eductus in domo regnatrice. (See Bentley on Horace,
Carm. iv. 9. 39.) The use of these substantives as adjectives is limited in
prose; but the poets extend it much further, and use even the Greek
patronymics in as and is in the same manner. Ovid, e. g., says, Pelias hasta,
laurus Parnasis, Ausonis ora, Sithonis unda ; and Virgil, ursa Libystis, &c.
A singular feature of these words is, that, together with the feminine termi-
nation of the plural trices, they have also a neuter termination, tricia ; e. g.
victricia bella, idtricia tela ; hence in the plural they become adjectives of
three terminations, as victores, victrices, victricia. The substantive hospes,
too, has in poetry a neuter plural, hospita, in the sense of an adjective.
[ 103.] 4. With regard to the declension of adjectives, it
must be observed that the feminines in a follow the first de-
clension ; the masculines in us and er, which make the feminine
in a, and the neuters in urn, follow the second. All other ter-
minations belong to the third declension. As therefore adjec-
tives follow the same declensions as substantives, the former also
have been treated of above, and their irregularities have been
pointed out. (See 51. and 66., &c.)
Note. The following table shows the declension of adjectives of one
termination :
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom. Nom. es, neut. ia.
Gen. is Gen. ium, sometimes um.
Dat. i Dat. ibus.
Ace. em, neut. like nom. Ace. like nom.
Voc. like nom. Voc. like nom.
Abl. f, sometimes e. Abl. ibus.
5. Indeclinable adjectives are : nequam ; frugi (properly a
dative of the obsolete frux, but is used quite as an adjective ;
its derivative frugalis is not found in any ancient writer) ;
praesto (occurs only in connection with the verb esse) ; and semis,
which is always added to other numerals in the sense of " and a
half," the conjunction being omitted, e. g. recipe uncias quinque
semis, take five ounces and a half. It must not be confounded
with the substantive semis, gen. semissis. Potis or pote is obso-
lete, and occurs only in poetry in connection with esse (whence
arose the contracted form posse). Damnas, guilty, is used only
as a legal term, in connection with esto and sunto.
NOUNS ADJECTIVE. 83
Adjectives defective in number are pauci and plerique, which,
in ordinary language, have no singular. The diminutive of
paucus, however, occurs as a neuter pauxillum or pauxillulum,
though rarely in other genders. The singular plerusque is ob-
solete, and is found only in Sallust, who was fond of old forms
of expression, e. g. pleraque juventus, nobilitas ; plerumque
exercitum ; but the neuter plerumque (the greatest part) likewise
occurs, though only in an isolated passage of Livy. It is
usually an adverb, signifying " mostly," or, " for the most part."
(See 266.)
Of adjectives defective in case there are several of which
the nominative is not in use, or, at least, cannot be proved to
have been used ; e. g. sons, seminex (or seminecis), and a few
similar compounds. We further do not find ceterus and ludi-
crus (or ceter, ludicer?), but the other genders occur in the
nominative. The genitive primoris has neither a nomina-
tive (primor or primoris), nor the neuter forms. Cicero uses
the word only in the phrase primoribus iabris (equivalent to
primis\ others frequently use the plural in the sense of prin-
cipes, or the grandees of a nation. Parum, too little, is the
neuter of the obsolete parus connected with parvus, and is
used as a substantive only in the nom. and accusative. Ne-
cesse exists only as a neuter in connection with est, erat, &c.,
and with habeo, habes, &c. ; necessum, which is likewise used
only with est, erat, &c., very rarely occurs except in old Latin,
the adjective necessarius, a, urn, being used in its stead. Vo-
lupe is likewise obsolete, and is used only with est, erat, &c.
Of mactus, a, um, which is believed to be a contraction of magis
auctus, we have only macte and macti with the imperative of
the verb esse. (Comp. 453.) The genitive of glerigu.is
wanting; but plurimi, which has the same meaning, supplies the
deficiency.
G 2
84 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XXV.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
[ 104.] 1. ADJECTIVES (also the present and past participles
when used as adjectives,) may, by means of a change in their
termination, be made to indicate that the quality they denote
belongs to a subject in a higher or in the highest degree.
The degrees of comparison (gradus comparationis), as this
change is called, are, the comparative, when a comparison is
made between two (persons, things, or conditions), and the
superlative, when a comparison takes place among three or
more. The fundamental form of the adjective in this respect
is called the positive.
Note. An object may be compared either with another, or with itself at dif-
ferent times, or one of its qualities may be compared with another ; e. g. Gajus
doctior est quam Marcus, or Gajus doctior nunc est quam fuit, or Gajus doctior est
quam justior. (Respecting this peculiarity of the Latin language, see 690.)
The comparative, however, is also used, in an elliptic mode of speaking,
instead of our " too" (nimis) ; e. g. si tibi quaedam videbuntur obscuriora; that
is, too obscure, or more obscure, than it should be (quam par erat), or, as we
may say, " rather obscure," in which sense paulo is sometimes added, as in
paulo liberius locutus est, he spoke rather freely. In like manner the superla-
tive, when used without the objects of comparison being mentioned, indicates
only that the quality exists in a high degree, which we express by the adverb
very, e. g. homo doctissimus, does not always mean " the most learned," but
very often " a very learned man ;" and intemperantissime vixit, he lived very
intemperately.
2. The comparative has the termination wr for the masculine
and feminine, and lus for the neuter ; and these terminations are
added to the stem of the word such as it appears in the oblique
cases. The rule may be practically expressed thus : to form the
comparative add or or us to that case of the positive which
ends in i, that is, in words of the second declension to the
genitive, and in those of the third to the dative, e. g. doctus
(docti), doctior; liber (liberf), liberior ; pulcher (pulchri\ pul-
chrior ; levis, levior ; acer (acri), acrior ; prudens, prudentior ;
indulgens, indulgentior ; audax, audacior ; dives, divitior ; velox,
velocior. (Sinister alone makes the comparative sinisterior, which
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 85
has the same meaning as the positive, although its genitive is
sinistri and not sinister?).
Note. Some comparatives also have a diminutive form, as grandiusculus,
majusculus, longiusculus, meliusculus, minuscvlus, tardiusculus, pluscidum. Their
signification varies between a diminution of the comparative and of the
positive ; e. g. minuscvlus may mean rather small or rather smaller.
3. The superlative ends in issimus, a, urn, and is formed as the
comparative by adding this termination to the stem of the posi-
tive, such as it presents itself in the genitive and the other oblique
cases, after the removal of the terminations, e. g. doct-issimus, pru-
dent-issimus, audac-issimus, concord-issimus. It has already been
remarked ( 2.) that this termination of the superlative was
originally written and pronounced umus, and it is even now
retained in the editions of some ancient authors, as the comic
poets and Sallust.
[ 105.] 4. The following cases must be noticed as ex-
ceptions :
a) All adjectives in er (those in er, a, um, as liber and
pulcher, as well as those in er, is, e, as acer, celeber, and
those of one termination, as pauper, gen. pauperis) make the
superlative in er rimus, by adding rimus to the nominative of
the masculine gender, as pulcher -rimus, acer-rimus, celebcr-
rimus, pauper-rimus, Vetus and nuperus, too, have veterrimus,
nuperrimus. Maturus has both forms, maturissimus and ma-
turrimus, though the latter chiefly in the adverb.
>) Some adjectives in His, viz. facilis, difficilis, similis,
dissimilis, yracilis and humilis, make the superlative in illimus,
by adding Umus to the positive after the removal of the ter-
mination is, as facil-limus, humil-limus. Imbecillus or imbecillis
has two forms, imbecillissimus and imbecillimus ; agilis, on the
other hand, has no superlative.
c) Adjectives compounded with dicus, flcus and volus (from
the verbs dicer e, facere, velle) make the comparative in entior
and the superlative in entissimus, from the unusual and obsolete
forms dicens, volens, faciens, e. g. maledicentior, benevolentior,
munificentior, munificentissimus, magnificentissimus.
Note. Terence (Pftorin. v. 6. 3 1 .) makes mirificissimus, from mirificus, but this
and similar forms are considered by the ancient grammarians as anomalies,
and mirijicentissimus is the usual form. Several adjectives in dicus, and most of
G 3
86 LATIN GRAMMAR.
those mjicus, have no comparative and superlative, at least they are not found
in our writers. Adjectives compounded with loquus (from loqui), such as
grandiloquus, vaniloquus, are said to form their degrees of comparison from
loquens, but no instance of the kind occurs ; in Plautus, however, we find
mendaciloquius, and confidentiloquius.
CHAP. XXVI.
COMPARISON BY ADVERBS AND INCREASED COMPARISON.
[ ice.] 1. INSTEAD of the peculiar forms of the comparative
and superlative, we sometimes find a circumlocution, magis
and maxime, or adverbs of a similar meaning (as summe), being
added to the positive. This rarely occurs in the case of adjec-
tives which form their degrees of comparison in the regular
way, and for the most part only in poetry (Horace, e. g., uses
magis beatus and magis aptus) ; but where the regular or gram-
matical comparison cannot be used, its place is supplied by
circumlocution. (See below, 114.)
[ 107.] 2. A degree is also expressed by the adverbs ad-
modum, bene, apprime, imprimis, sane, oppido, valde. and multum,
and by the particle per, which is united with the adjective (or
adverb) into one word, as in perdijficilis (though per is some-
times separated by some intervening word, e. g. per mihi diffi-
cilis locus), and, like sane, it is made still more emphatic by the
addition of quam, e. g. locus perquam dijficilis, an extremely
difficult passage. Generally speaking, all simple adjectives, pro-
vided their meaning admits of an increase or decrease, may become
strengthened by being compounded with per. Some few (espe-
cially in late writers) are increased in the same way by being
compounded with prae, e. g. praedives, praepinguis, praelongus.
Adje'ctives to which per or prae is prefixed, admit of no
further comparison; praedarus alone is treated like a simple
adjective.
Note. Oppido, for the etymology of which we must refer to the dictionary,
is of rare occurrence, and belongs to the more ancient language, though
it is now and then used by Cicero, e. g. oppido ridiculus, and increased by
guam: oppido quam pauci. Midtum also is but rarely used in thip way. Valde
is indeed frequent in Cicero ; but it has a peculiar and ethical shade of mean-
ing, and is rarely used in the prose of later times.
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 87
[ los.] 3. When the adverb etiam (still) is added to the
comparative, and longe or multo (far) to the superlative, the sense
of the degrees is enhanced. / W, even, and (juatn, us much as
possible, likewise serve to denote an increase of the meaning
expressed by the superlative. Both words have acquired this
signification by ellipsis : vel by the ellipsis of the positive,
e. g. Cicero vel optimus oratorum Romanorum ; i. e. Cicero, a
good or rather the very best of Roman orators (so also vel with
a comparative in the only passage of Cicero where it is known
to occur, DeOrat.i. 17.: ingenium vel majus,}; quam^loy: the
ellipsis of posse, which however is frequently added to it ; e. g.
quam maximum potest militum numerum colligit ; quam maximas
possum tibi gratias ago. As these words increase the sense, so
paulum or paulo, paululum or paululo, on the other hand,
diminish it, as paulo doctior, only a little more learned. U-
quqnto increases the sense, and has an affirmative power ;
it may be expressed by " considerably " or " much." (See
Chap. LXXIV. 15.)
CHAP. XXVII.
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON.
[109.] 1. SOME adjectives make their degrees of comparison
from obsolete forms, or take them from other words of a similar
signification.
Bonus, melior, optimus.
Mains, pejor, pessimus.
Magnus, major, maximus.
Multus, plus (pi. plures, plurimus (equivalent in
plura), the plural to plerlque).
Parvus, minor, minimus.
Nequam \ See 103. f nequior, nequissimus.
Frugi J indeclin. [ frugalior, frugalissimus.
Egenus, . egentior, egentissimus (egens).
Providus, providentior, providentissimus (pro-
vidcns).
G 4
88 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note. Multus and plurimus as numerals are used only in the plural. In
the singular mtdtus is equivalent to " manifold," or " great," as multus labor,
multa cur a, and sometimes plurimus has the same sense, e. g.plurimam salutem
dico. Poets, however, use the singular mJdtus and plurimus also in the sense
of the plural, e. g. multa and plurima avis, i. e. multae, plurimae aves, a great
many birds ; multa canis, many dogs. Of the comparative the neuter only
occurs in the nom. and accus. singular (plus), and is used as a substantive ;
in the genitive pluris, and ablat. plure, with the ellipsis of pretii or pretio, it
is used with verbs of value, in the sense of " for more," or " at a higher
price." The plural is complete, gen. plurium (better than plurum) ; but
the neuter is commonly plura, and rarely pluria. (See 65, 66.) The
superlative plerique is derived from the obsolete plerusque (see 103 .), and
has no genitive. In ordinary language plerique only means " most people,"
or " the majority ;" but plurimi both " most people " and " a great many."
All writers, however, do not observe this difference. Nepos often uses
plerique in the sense of " a great many," and Tacitus quite reverses the sig-
nifications; comp. Hist. i. 86. and iii. 81., where plerique is followed by
plures, and iv. 84., where we read : Deum ipsum multi Aesculapium, quidam
Osirim, plerique Jovem, plurimi Ditem patrem conjectant. The sense of
plerique is sometimes enhanced by the addition of omnes, as plerique omnes,
by far the greater number.
[ no.] 2. The following adjectives have a double irregular
superlative :
Exter or exterus, a, urn, exterior, extremus and extimus.
(Infer or inferus), a, um, inferior, infimus and imus.
(Super or superus], a, um, superior, supremus and summus.
(Poster or posterns), a, um, posterior, postremus and postumus.
Note. The forms enclosed in brackets are either not found at all, as poster,
posterus, or occur only in obsolete Latin, which, however, does not pre-
vent the use of the oblique cases and of the other genders. Exter signifies
" being without," and the plural exteri, foreigners ; inferus, " being below,"
superus, " being above," e. g. mare superum and inferum, the two seas which
surround Italy. Posterus (that it once existed is clear from praeposterus)
signifies that which succeeds or follows, but the plur. posteri, descendants.
The superlative extimus is much less common than extremus, and postumus
occurs only in the sense of a last or posthumous child.
[ in.] 3. There are some forms of the comparative and
superlative which have no adjective for their positive, but an
adverb which is derived from an adjective, and has the signifi-
cation of a preposition.
(citra), citerior, citimus.
(ultra), ulterior, ultimus.
(intrd), interior, intimus.
(jprope, whence pro-
pinquus\ propior, proximus.
IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 89
The following, on the other hand, have neither an adjective
nor an adverb for their positive :
deterior, deterrimus.
odor, ocissimus.
potior, potissimus.
prior, primus.
Note. Deterior and deterrimus may be compared, but not confounded,
withpejor saidpessimus. Pejor generally means " worse than something which
is bad," and is therefore used as comparative of mains, whereas deteri.or means
something which is inferior, or worse than something which is good, so that
it is a descending, just as melior is an ascending comparative of bonus. Potior
and potissimus are derived from the obsolete positive potis (see 103), and
prior may be traced to the adverb prae.
[ 112.] 4. The following adjectives have a superlative, but
no comparative :
Falsus, falsissimus ; diversus, diversissimus / incUtus, incli-
tissimus ; novus, novissimus ; sacer, sacerrimus ; vetus (the com-
parative is supplied by vetustior), veterrimus (vetustissimus), and
some participles which are used as adjectives, as meritus, meri-
tissimus.
[H3.] 5. Most adjectives in ilis and btlis derived from verbs,
together with those in His derived from substantives (see 250.),
have no superlative. To these we must add the following:
agrestis, alacer, ater, caecus, declivis, proclivis, deses (comparative
desidior), jejunus, longinquus, propinquus, protervus, salutaris,
satur, surdus, teres, and vulgaris. In like manner there is no
superlative of adolescens, juvenis (comparative junior contracted
from juvenior), and senex (comparative senior), which words are
regarded as adjectives.
Note. The verbal adjectives amabilis, fertilis, nobilis, ignobilis, mobilis,
and utilis, however, have their degrees of comparison complete.
6. The two adjectives, anterior and sequior, exist only as
comparatives. The neuter of the latter, sequius, and the adverb
secius (otherwise), differ only in their orthography.
[H4.] 7. Many adjectives have no degrees of comparison
at all, because their signification precludes comparison ; such are
those which denote a substance, origin, possession, or a definite
time ; e. g. aureus, adamantinus, Graecus, peregrinus y equinus,
socialis, paternus, aestivus, hibernus, vivus.
90 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note. Dexter and sinister seem likewise to belong to this class; the
comparatives dexterior, sinisterior, and the irregular superlative dextimus,
do indeed occur (sinistimus is mentioned, but its use cannot be proved), but
without differing in meaning from the positive. Dexter also signifies skilful,
and in this sense dexterior is used as a real comparative.
Others do not form the comparative and superlative in the
usual grammatical manner by the terminations ior and issimus,
but by the adverbs magis and maxime, which are put before
the adjective, and by the particles mentioned above. Such ad-
jectives are :
a) Those in which the termination us is preceded by a vowel,
as idoneus, dubius, necessarius, noxius, arduus, ingenuus: com-
parative magis necessarius, superlative maxime necessarius, &c.
In qu however, the u is not regarded as a vowel (see above,
5.); hence antiquus, e.g., has its regular comparative, anti-
quior, and superlative antiquissimus.
Note. As this rule depends entirely upon euphony, respecting which
opinions differ, we cannot be surprised to find exceptions. Adjectives
in uus in particular frequently make the superlative in the regular gram-
matical way. Cicero and Suetonius use assiduissimus, Sallust, strenuissimus,
and Ovid, exiguissimus and vacuissimus, while the comparative of these words
occurs only in much inferior authorities. Adjectives in ius are found much
more seldom with the grammatical degrees of comparison than those in mis,
and whenever they do occur, they reject one t, as noxior, in Seneca, de Clem.
1 3. ; industrior in the Pseudo-Cicero, De Domo, 11.; egregius in Juvenal, xi.
12. The only superlatives that occur are egregiissimus, in Gellius, and piis-
simus very frequently in the silver age of the language, in Curtius, Seneca,
and Tacitus, though Cicero had censured the triumvir Antony for having
used this wholly un-Latin form. (Philip, xiii. 9.) The forms (jpiens) pientes
and pientissimus are found in inscriptions only. Among the adjectives in eus
there are no exceptions, and it is only the later jurists that use the compa-
rative idoneor for the inharmonious idoneior.
b) Many adjectives compounded with substantives and verbs,
e. g. degener, inops, magnanimus, consonus, foedifragus, pestifer;
and those which have the derivative terminations tcus, idus,
iilus, dlis, His, bundus, e. g. modicus, credulus, trepidus, rabidus,
rubidus, garrulus, sedulus, exitialis, mortalis, principalis, anilis,
hostilis, scurrilis, furibundus.
Note. This remark cannot form a rule, for there are a great many com-
pounded adjectives and derivatives like the above, which have their de-
grees of comparison; for example, those compounded with mens and cor:
amens, demens, concors, discors, vecors, and the adjectives ending in dicus,
ficus, and volus, which were mentioned above. ( 105. c). Although it is
useful to classify the whole mass of such words under certain divisions, still
the dictionary can never be dispensed with.
CARDINAL NUMERALS. 91
c) A great number of adjectives which cannot be said to
form a distinct class ; their want of the degrees of comparison
is surprising, and they must be carefully committed to memory :
albus, almus, caducus, calvus, canus, curvus, ferus, gnarus, lacer,
mutilus, lassus, mediocris, memor, merus, mirus, mutus, navus,
nefastus, par, parilis, dispar, properus, rudis, trux (the degrees
may be formed from truculentus\, vagus.
CHAP. XXVIII.
NUMERALS. CARDINAL NUMERALS.
[ us.] NUMERALS are partly adjectives and partly adverbs.
The adjectives are: 1) Cardinal, denoting simply the number
of things, as tres, three ; 2) Ordinal, indicating the place or
number in succession, as tertius, the third ; 3) Distributive,
denoting how many each time, as terni, each time three, or
three and three together ; 4) Multiplicative, denoting how ma-
nifold, as triplex, threefold ; 5) Proportional, denoting how
many times more, as triplum, three times as much ; and 6) Ad-
verbial numerals, denoting how many times, as ter, thrice or
three times.
I. CARDINAL NUMERALS.
The cardinal numerals form the roots of the other numerals.
The first three, unus, duo, tres, are declined and have forms for
the different genders ; the rest, as far as one hundred, are in-
declinable. The hundreds, as 200, 300, 400, &c., are declinable
and have different terminations for the genders. Mille, a thou-
sand, is indeclinable, but has a declinable plural for the series
of numbers which follows. A higher unit, such as a million or
billion, does not exist in Latin, and a million is therefore ex-
pressed by the form of multiplication : decies centena milia, L e.
ten times a hundred thousand, or decies alone, with the omission
of centena milia, at least when sestertium (ffS) is added, and
in like manner vicies, two millions ; octogies, eight millions ;
92
LATIN GRAMMAR.
centies, ten millions ; millies, a hundred millions ; bis millies, two
hnndred millions.
SINGULAR.
Nom. unus, una, unum, one.
Gen. unius.
Dat. uni.
Ace. unum, unam, unum.
Voc. une, una, unum.
Abl. uno, una, uno.
PLURAL.
Nom. uni, unae, una.
Gen. unorum, unarum, unorum.
Dat. unis.
Ace. unos, unas, una.
Voc.
Abl. unis.
Note. The genitive singular uni and the dative uno, unae, are of rare oc-
currence and unclassical. (Comp., however, 49.) The plural uni, unae, una,
occurs as a numeral only in connection with pluralia tantnm, i. e. such nouns
as have no singular, e. g. unae nuptiae, one wedding ; una castra, one camp ;
unae litterae, one letter. (See Chap. XXX). Unus is used also as a pure ad-
jective by dropping its signification of a numeral and taking that of " alone,"
or "the same," e. g. Cats. Sell. Gall. iv. 16. : uni Ubii legates miserant, the
Ubians alone had sent ambassadors ; Cic. Pro Place. 26. : Lacedaemonii septin-
gentosjam annos unis moribus vivunt, with the same manners.
Duo and tres are naturally plurals.
Nom. duo, duae, duo.
Gen. duorum, duarum, duorum.
Dat. duobus, duabus, duobus.
Ace. duos and duo, duas, duo.
Abl. duobus, duabus, duobus.
Nom. tres (mas. and fern.), tria.
Gen. trium.
Dat. tribus.
Ace. tres (mas. and fern.),
Abl. tribus.
Note. Ambo, ae, o, both, is declined like duo, and has likewise two forms
for the accusat., ambos and ambo, which have entirely the same meaning. In
connection with pondo (pounds) we find dua pondo, and tre pondo, for duo
and tria, a barbarism noticed by the ancients themselves. (Quintil. i. 5. 15.)
Duum, a second form of the genit. of duo, is the regular one in compounds,
as duumvir, but is frequently used also in connection with milium. Thus
Pliny says that he had compiled his work e lectione voluminum circiter duum
milium ; but Caesar and Livy likewise use this form.
4. IV. quattuor.
5. V. quinque.
6. VI. sex.
7. VII. septem.
8. VIII. octo.
9. IX. novem.
10. X. decem.
11. XI. undecim.
12. xii. duodecim. [tres.
13. xili. tredecim or decem et
14. XIV. quattuordecim.
15. XV. quindecim.
1 6. XVI. sedecim or decem et sex.
17. xvii. decem et septem, or
septendecim.
18. xviil. decem et octo, or duo-
deviginti.
19. xix. decem et novem, or un-
deviginti.
20. XX. viginti.
CARDINAL NUMERALS. 93
21. XXI. units et viginti, or vi- 100. C. centum.
ginti unus. 109. CIX. centum et novem,
22. xxii. duo et viginti, or vi- or centum novem.
ginti duo. 200. CC. ducenti, ae, a.
23. xxiii. tres et viginti, or vi- 300. CCC. trecenti, ae, a.
ginti tres. 400. CCCC. quadringenti, ae,a.
28. xxviii. duodetriginta, or 500. j).orio.quingenti,ae, a.
octo et viginti. 600. DC. sexcenti, ae, a.
29. xxix. undetriginta, or no- 700. DCC. septingenti, ae, a.
vem et viginti. 800. DCCC. octingenti, ae, a.
30. XXX. triginta. 900. DCCCC. nongenti, ae, a.
40. XL. quadraginta. 1000. M. or do. wzzVfe.
50. L. quinquaginta. 2000. Ciocio. or MM. duo mi-
60. LX. sexaginta. lia, or fo's mille.
70. LXX. septuaginta. 5000. IQQ. quinque milia.
80. LXXX. octoginta. 10,000. CCioo. decem milia.
90. xc. nonaginta. 100,000. CCCiooo. centum milia.
Note 1. The Roman signs for numbers have arisen from simple geome-
trical figures. The perpendicular line (I) is one; two lines crossing one
another (X) make ten ; half this figure (V) is five ; the perpendicular line
with an horizontal one at the lower end (L) is fifty, and if another Jiorizontal
line is added at the upper end ( C) we nave one hundred. From this sign
arose the round C, which is accidentally at the same time the initial of centum.
This C reversed (0), which is called apostrophus, with a perpendicular line
preceding it (10), or drawn together as D, signifies 500. In every multipli-
cation with ten a fresh apostrophus is added, thus 100=5000, 1000=
50,000. When a number is to be doubled, as many C are put before the
horizontal line, as there are behind it. Thus CIO=1000, CCIOO =10,000,
&c. A thousand is expressed in MSS. by oo, which is evidently a contrac-
tion of CIO. M, which is used for the same number, is the initial of mille.
Note 2. Wherever, in the above list, two numerals are put together, the
first is always preferable. Forms like octodecim and novendecim, which are not
mentioned in the list, are not supported by any authority ; even septendecim,
according to Priscian (De Sign. Num. 4.), is not so good as decem et septem,
although it is used by Cicero (7w Verr. v. 47. ; De Leg. Agr. ii.17.; Philip.
v. 7.), and also by Tacitus (Annal. xiii. 6.). Septcm et decem in Cicero (Cat. 6.)
and octo et decem in Pliny (Epist. viii. 18.) are isolated peculiarities. Instead
of octoginta we sometimes find octuaginta, and corresponding with it octuagies;
but these forms cannot be recommended.
[ lie.] The intermediate numbers are expressed in the fol-
lowing manner : from twenty to a hundred, either the smaller
number followed by et precedes, or the greater one precedes
without the et ; e. g. quattuor ct sexaginta or sexaginta quattuor.
94 LATIN GllAMMAK.
For 18, 28, 38, 48, &c., and for 19, 29, 39, 49, the expressions
duodeviginti, duodctriginta, up to undecentum, are more frequent
than decent et octo, or octo et viginti. In such combinations
neither duo nor un (unusj can be declined. Above 100, the
greater number always precedes, either with or without et, as
mille unus, mille duo, mille trecenti, or mille et unus, mille et duo,
mille et trecenti sexaginta sex. The et is never used twice, and
poets when they want another syllable take ac, atque, or que,
instead. There are indeed exceptions to this rule, but being
less common, they cannot be taken into consideration, and some
of them are mere incorrect readings. (See my note on Cic. in
Verrem, iv. 55.)
The thousands are generally expressed by the declinable sub-
stantive milia and the cardinal numbers, as duo milia, tria milia,
quattuor milia, decem milia, unum et viginti milia, quadraginta
quinque milia. The distributive numerals are used more rarely,-
as bina milia, quina milia, dena milia, quadragena sena milia.
The objects counted are expressed by the genitive which de-
pends on the substantive milia; e. g. Xerxes Mardonium in
Graecia reliquit cum trecentis milibus armatorum, unless a lower
declined numeral is added, in which case things counted may be
used in the same case with milia ; e. g. habuit tria milia tre-
centos milites, or milites tria milia trecentos habuit; but even
then the genitive may be used, e. g. habuit militum tria milia
trecentos, or habuit tria milia militum et trecentos. (See the com-
mentators on Livy, xxxix. 7.) It is only the poets that express
the thousands by the indeclinable adjective mille preceded by an
adverbial numeral, as bis mille equi, for duo milia equorum ;
they are in general fond of expressing a number by the form
of multiplication; Ovid (Trist. iv. 10. 4.), for example, says:
milia decies novem instead of nonaginta milia.
Note. With regard to the construction of the word mille we add the fol-
lowing remarks. Mille is originally a substantive, which is indeclinable in the
singular, but occurs only in the nom. and accus. As a substantive it governs
the' genitive, like the Greek \i\tds, e.g. Cic. Pro Milan. 20.: quo in /undo
propter insanas illas substructions facile mille hominum versabatur valentium ;
Philip, vi. 5 : quis L. Antonio mille nummum ferret expensum, and very fre-
quently mille passuum. Livy joins mille as a collective noun (see 366.) to
the plural of the verb, xxiii. 44. : mille passuum inter urbem erant castraque ;
xxv. 24. : jam mille armatorum ceperant partem. But mille is also an inde-
clinable adjective, and as such is most frequently used in all its cases,
e. g. equites mille praemissi ; senatus mille hominum numero constabat ; da
ORDINAL NUMERALS.
<J5
mihi basia mille ; rem mille modis temptavit, &fc. With this adjective mille, as
with numerals in general, a genitivus partitivus may be used, according to
429., and thus we read in Livy, xxi. 61. : cum octo milibus peditum, mille
equitum, where the genitive stands for the ablative, owing to its close con-
nection with the word peditum ; and xxiii. 46. : Romanorum minus mille
interfecti.
CHAP. XXIX.
II. ORDINAL NUMERALS.
[ 117.] THE ordinals denote the place in the series which any
object holds, and answer to the question quotus ? All of them
are adjectives of three terminations, us, a, urn.
1. primus.
2. secundus (alter).
3. tertius.
4. quartus.
5. quintus.
6. sextus.
7. Septimus.
8. octavus.
9. nonus.
10. decimus,
11. undecimus.
12. duodecimus.
13. tertius decimus.
14. quartus decimus.
15. quintus decimus.
16. sextus decimus.
17. Septimus decimus.
18. octavus decimus, or duode-
vicesimus.
19. nonus decimus, or undevi-
cesimus.
20. vicesimus, sometimes vige-
simus.
21. unus et vicesimus, vicesimus
primus.
22. alter et vicesimus, vicesimus
secundus.
30. tricesimus, some-
tunes trigesimus.
40. quadragesimus*
50. quinquagesimus.
60. sexagesimus.
70. septuagesimus.
80. octogesimus.
90. nonagesimus.
100. centesimus.
200. ducentesimus.
300. trecentesimus.
400. quadringentesimus.
500. quingentesimus.
600. sexcentesimus.
700. septingentesimus.
800. octingentesimus.
900. nongentesimus.
1000. millesimus.
2000. fo's millesimus.
3000. fer millesimus.
10,000. decies millesimus.
100,000. centies millesimus.
1,000,000. decies centies mille-
simus.
96 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[H8.] In expressing the intermediate numbers, the most
common practice is to place the smaller number before the
greater one with the conjunction et, or to make the greater
number precede the smaller one without et, as quartus et vicesi-
mus, or vicesimus quartus. But there are many instances in
in which the smaller number precedes without et ; e. g. quintus
tricesimus ; and from 13 to 19 this is the ordinary method,
though we also find tertius et decimus, decimus tertius, and deci-
mus et tertius. (See Cic. de Invent., i. 53. and 54.) Instead of
primus et vicesimus, &c., we find still more frequently unus et
vicesimus, fern, una et vicesima, or with the elision of the vowel,
unetvicesima, with the genitive unetvicesimae, as in Tacit. Annal.
i. 45., and Hist. i. 67. The 22d, 32d, &c., is more fre-
quently and better expressed by alter et vicesimus or vicesimus
et alter, than by secundus et vicesimus. Now and then we meet
with duoetvicesimus, duoettricesimus, in which case the word duo
is indeclinable. The 28th, 38th, &c., are expressed also by
duodetricesimus, duodequadragesimus, and the 29th, 39th, 99th,
by undetricesimus, undequadragesimus, undecentesimus, the words
duo and unus (un) being indeclinable ; and both forms are of more
frequent occurrence than octavus and nonus et vicesimus, or vice-
simus octavus, vicesimus nonus. There is a class of adjectives in
anus which are derived from ordinal numerals, e. g. primanus,
secundanus, tertianus, vicesimanus: they express the class or
division to which a person belongs; in Roman writers they
chiefly denote the legion of the soldiers, whence the first word
in their compounds is feminine, e. g. tertiadecimani, quartade-
cimani, tertia et vicesimani, that is, soldiers of the thirteenth,
fourteenth, twenty-third legion. In Tacitus we meet with the
forms unetvicesimani and duoetvicesimani.
CHAP. XXX.
III. DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS.
[ 119.] DISTRIBUTIVE numerals denote an equal number dis-
tributed among several objects or at different times, and answer to
the questions: "How many apiece?" and, "How many each
DISTRIBUTIVE NUMERALS. 97
time ? " (quoteni ?) They are always used in the plural. The
English language having no corresponding numerals has recourse
to circumlocution.
Examples. Horat. Serm. i. 4. 86. : Saepe tribus lectis videos coenare qua-
temos, to dine four on each couch ; Liv. xxx. 30. : Scipio et Hannibal cum
singulis interpretibus congressi sunt, each with an interpreter ; Cic. in Verr.
ii. 49. : pueri senum septenumve denum annorum senatorium nomen nundinati
sunt, boys of sixteen or seventeen years each purchased the title of senator ;
Liv. v. 30. : Senatus consultum factum est, ut agri Vejentani septena jugera
plebi dividerentur, each plebeian received seven jugera. The passage in
Cicero (ad Att. xvi. 8.), Octavius veteranis quingenos denarios dot, has the
same meaning as (ad Fam. x. 32.) Antonius denarios quingenos singulis
militibus dat ; that is, five hundred denarii to each soldier. When the
distributive singuli is expressly added, the cardinal numeral is sometimes
used ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 55. : singulis censoribus denarii trecenti ad statuam
praetoris imperati sunt.
Hence the distributives are applied in multiplication (with adverbial
numerals), the same number being taken several times ; e. g. non didicit bis
bina quot essent ; lunae curriculum conficitur integris quater septenis diebus ;
Gellius, xx. 7. : Homerus pueros puellasque Niobae bis senos dicitfuisse, Eu-
ripides bis septenos, Sappho bis novenos, Bacchylides et Pindarus bis denos ;
quidam alii scriptores tres fuisse solos dixerunt. Poets in this case sometimes
apply the cardinal numerals ; . e. g. Horace has, bis quinque viri, i. e. decem-
viri; and in prose we find decies (vicies, tricies) centum milia, although the
form decies centena milia, mentioned above ( 115.), is much more common.
Distributives are further used, instead of cardinals, with words which have
no singular ; e. g. bini codicilli, bina post Romulum spolia opima (see 94.) ;
and with those substantives the plural of which, though it has a different
signification from the singular, yet retains the meaning of a singular,
e. g. aedes, castra, littcrae, ludi ( 96.). It must however be observed, that in
this case the Romans commonly used uni instead of singuli, and trini instead
of terni, since singuli and terni retain their own distributive signification
We therefore say, for example, bina castra uno die cepit ; trinae hodie nuptiae
celebrantiir ; quotidie quinas out senas litteras accipio ; for duo castra would
mean " two castles," duae aedes " two temples," and duae litterae " two letters
of the alphabet." This, however, is not the case with liberi (children),
for this word has not the meaning of a singular (liberi are children, and
not a child), and we accordingly say duo liberi, jus trium liberum, &c.
Bini is used for duo to denote things which exist in pairs, as bini boves,
binae aures; and in Virgil, Aen. i. 317.: bina manu crispans hastilia. No
prose writer goes beyond this in the use of the distributives instead of the
cardinals (except in combination with milia, see 1 16.). Poets and Pliny
the elder use these numerals in the singular in the sense of multiplicatives,
e. g. Lucan, viii. 455. : septeno gurgite, with a sevenfold whirl ; Plin. xvii. 3. :
campus fertilis centena quinquagena fruge, with one hundred and fifty fold
corn. In the ordinary language they occur only in the plural, and as adjec-
tives of three terminations, i, ae, a.
1. singuli. . 4. quaterni. 7. septeni.
2. bini. 5. quini. 8. octoni.
3. terni, or trini. 6. seni. 9. noveni.
H
98
LATIN GRAMMAR.
10. deni.
\ \ . undeni.
12. duodeni.
13. terni deni.
14. quaterni deni.
15. quini deni,
16. seni deni.
17. septeni deni.
18. octoni deni.
1 9. noveni deni.
90. nonageni.
100. centeni.
200. duceni.
300. treceni.
400. quadringeni.
500. quingeni.
600. sexceni.
700. septingeni.
800. octingeni.
900. nongeni.
20. viceni.
21. viceni singuli.
22. viceni bini.
23. viceni terni, &c.
30. triceni.
40. quadrageni.
50. quinquageni.
60. sexageni.
70. septuageni.
80. octogeni.
A longer form of the hundreds: ducenteni, trecenteni, qua-
dringenteni, &c., which is mentioned by Priscian, cannot be
proved to exist. Here too there is some freedom in the com-
bination of the numerals : instead of viceni quaterni, we may
say quaterni et viceni or quaterni viceni, and for 18 and 19 we
have also the forms duodeviceni and undeviceni. The genitive of
these numerals is commonly in wm instead of orum, as binum,
ternum, quaternum, quinum, &c., but not singulum for singulo-
rum.
" A thousand each time " might, according to analogy, be expressed by
milleni, and then continued fti's milleni, ter milleni, &c. ; but this form is not
in use, and instead of it we say singula milia, bina, tcrna, quaterna, qiiina
milia ; e. g. Sueton. Octao. extr. : Legavit Augustus praetorianis militibus
singula milia nummum (that is, one thousand to each), cohortibus urbanis
quingenos, legionariis trecenos nummos ; Livy : in singulis legionibus Romanis
qiiina milia peditum, treceni equites erant. Milia alone is frequently used for
singula milia, if its distributive meaning is indicated by some other word ; e.g.
Livy, xxxvii. 45. : ddbitis milia talentum per duodecim annos, i. e. one thousand
talents ea.ch year ; Curtius, v. 19. : singulis vestrum milia denarium darijussi,
where mille is an incorrect reading ; comp. Liv. xxii. 36. This use of the
plural, which occurs in other words also, as asses, librae, jugera, with the
ellipsis of singuli, ae, a, has been established by J. Fr. Gronovius on Livy, 5v.
15. and xxix. 15. ; and by Bentley on Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 156.
From these distributives are derived adjectives in arius, which
indicate of how many units or equal parts a thing consists,
whence they are termed partiaria, e. g. numerus binarius, a
number consisting of two units, i. e. two ; scrobes ternarii, holes
of three feet ; versus senarius, a verse of six feet ; numrnus de-
narius, a coin of ten units, that is, asses ; senex octogenarius, an
old man of eighty ; rosa centenaria, a rose with one hundred
leaves ; cohors quingenaria, of 500 men. The word numerus is
most frequently combined with these adjectives, to supply the
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS. 99
place of the substantives unio, binio, ternio, which are not based
on very good authority. (See 75.) Singularis and milliarius
are more commonly used instead of singularius, millenarius.
CHAP. XXXI.
IV. MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS.
[ 120.] MULTIPLICATIVES answer to the question, " How
many fold?" (quotuplex?) They are: simplex, duplex, triplex,
quadruplex, quincuplex, septemplex, decemplex, centuplex. These
are the only ones that can be shown to have been in use. Sixfold
does not occur in Latin; it might be sexuplex or seplex, but
not sextuplex, as some grammarians assert. Octuplex is attested
by the derivative octuplicatus, and novemplex by the analogy of
septemplex. (Modern writers use also : undecimplex, duode-
cimplex, sedecimplex, vicecuplex, tricecuplex, quadragecuplex, quin-
quagecuplex, sexagecuplex, septuagecuplex, octogecuplex, nonagc-
cuplex, ducentuplex, trecentuplex, quadringentuplex, quingentuplex,
acting entuplex, &c., and millecuplex.)
It will not be out of place here to add the Latin expres-
sions for fractions, which are always denoted by pars : is
dimidia pars, ^ tertia pars, $ quarta pars, quinta, sexta,
septima pars, &c. In cases where the number of the parts into
which a thing is divided, exceeds the number of parts mentioned
only by one, as in f , f , , the fractions are expressed in Latin
simply by duae, tres, quattuor paries, that is, two out of three,
three out of four, and four out of five parts : \ may be ex-
pressed by octava pars, or by dimidia quarta. In all other
cases fractions are expressed as in English : f , duae septimae ; %,
tres septimae, &c., or the fraction is broken up into its parts,
e. g. | by pars dimidia (f ) et tertia (f ) ; and | by tertia et
septima.
H 2
100 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XXXII.
V. PROPORTIONAL NUMERALS.
[121.] PROPORTIONAL numerals express how many times more
one thing is than another, but they cannot be used throughout.
They answer to the question guotuplus ? They are : simplus, a,
um; duplus, triplus, quadruplus, quinquiplus, (probably sexu-
plus,} septuplus, octuplus, (perhaps nonuplus,} decuplus, centuplus,
and according to the same analogy we might form ducentuplus,
and so on, as in the multiplicatives above. But they are almost
universally found only in the neuter.
CHAP. XXXIII.
VI. NUMERAL ADVERBS.
[ 122.] 1. THE numeral adverbs answer to the question, " How
many times?" quotiens? to which totiens is the demonstrative,
and aliquotiens the indefinite. The form in ns is the original,
and prevailed in the best periods of the language ; subsequently
the termination es was preferred in numerals, but ens still re-
mained in the words just mentioned.
1. semel. 14. quaterdecies or quattuor
2. bis. decies.
3. ter. 15. quinquiesdecies or quinde-
4. quater. cies.
5. quinquies. 16. sexiesdecies or sedecies.
6. sexies. 17. septiesdecies.
7. septies. 18. duodevicies, or octiesdecies.
8. octies. 19. undevicies, or nomesdecies.
9. novies. 20. vicies.
10. decies. 21. semel et vicies.
11. undecies. 22. bis et vicies.
12. duodecies. 23. ter et vicies, &c.
13. ter decies or trcdecies. 30. tricies.
NUMERAL ADVERBS. 101
40. quadragies. 400. quadringenties.
50. quinquagies. 500. quingenties, &c.
60. sexagies. 800. octingenties, &c.
70. septuagies. 1,000. millies.
80. octogies. 2,000. bis millies.
90. nonagies. 3,000. ter millies, &c.
100. centies. 100,000. centies millies.
200. ducenties. 1,000,000. millies millies.
300. trecenties.
With regard to the intermediate numbers, 21, 22, 23, &c.,
the method above adopted is the usual one, but we may also say
vicies semel and vicies et semel, though not semel vicies ; for bis
vicies, for example, would mean twice twenty, i. e. forty.
[ 123.] 2. The numeral adverbs terminating either in um
or o, and derived from the ordinals, or rather the ordinals them-
selves in the ace. or ablat. singular neuter gender, are used in
answer to the question " of what number ? " or " what in num-
ber?" (The Latin quotum? or quota? cannot be proved to
have been used in this way.) e. g. primum or primo, for the
first time, or first ; secundum or secundo, tertium or tertio, &c.,
decimum, undecimum, duodecimum, tertium decimum, duodevi-
cesimum. The ancients themselves were in doubt as to whether
the termination um or o was preferable (see Gellius, x. 1.) ; but
according to the majority of the passages in classical writers,
we must prefer um ; the form secundum alone is less common ;
and instead of it we find iterum, a second tune, and secundo,
secondly, for which however deinde is more frequently used.
The difference between primum and primo is this, that the sig-
nification "for the first time" is common to both, but that of
"firstly" belongs exclusively to primum, while primo has the
additional meaning of " at first."
[ 124.] Note. It may not be superfluous to notice here some substan-
tives compounded with numerals : thus, from annus are formed biennium,
triennium, quadriennium, sexennium, septuennium (more correct than, sept-
ennium), decennium, a period of two, three, four, six, &c., years. From
dies we have biduum, triduum, quatriduum, a time of two, three, four days.
From viri are formed duoviri, tresviri, quattuorviri, quinqueviri, se- or sex-
viri, septemviri, decemviri, quindecemviri, all of which compounds, if they
may be so called, denote a commission consisting of a certain number of
men, appointed for certain purposes. A member of such a commission is
called duumvir, triumvir, from which is formed the plural triumviri, which,
properly speaking, is ungrammatical, and, in fact, still wants the sanq-
H 3
102 LATIN GRAMMAR.
lion of a good authority.* In inscriptions triumviri does not occur, and
duomviri only once (Gruter, p. 43. No. 5.) : the ordinary mode of writing it
was // viri, /// viri. Printed books, without the authority of MSS., are
not decisive. To these words we may add the three, bimus trimus, and
quadrimus; \. e. a child of two, three, four years.
CHAP. XXXIV.
PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
[ 125.] 1. PRONOUNS are words which supply the place of a
substantive, such as, I, thou, we, and in Latin, ego, tu, nos, &c.
These words are in themselves substantives, and require nothing
to complete their meaning ; hence they are called pronouns
substantive (pronomina substantiva), but more commonly per-
sonal pronouns, pronomina personalia.
Note. Sui is a pronoun of the third person, but not in the same way that
ego and tu are pronouns of the first and second persons. For the third
person (he, she, it) is not expressed in Latin in the nominative, and is im-
plied in the third person of the verb ; but if it is to be expressed, a de-
monstrative pronoun, commonly ille, is used. The other cases of the
English pronoun of the third person are expressed by the oblique cases of
is, ea, id, the nominative of which belongs to the demonstrative pronouns.
Thus we say, pudet me mei, tui, ejus ; laudo me, te, eum. Sui, sibi, se, is the
pronoun of the third person in a reflective sense, as : laudat se, he praises
himself, in which proposition the object is the same as the subject. The
use of this reflective pronoun in Latin is somewhat more extensive than in
our language ; for sui, sibi, se, and the possessive suits, sua, suum, are used
not only when the subject to which they refer occurs in the same sentence,
but also when in a dependent sentence the subject of the principal or govern-
ing sentence is referred to ; e. g. putat hoc sibi nocere, he thinks that this
injures him (instead of himself). The beginner must observe that where-
ever he may add " self" to the pronoun of the third person, he has to use
the reflective pronouns and the possessive suus, sua, suum ; e. g. Gajus con-
temnebat divitias, quod se felicem reddere non possent, because they could not
make him (i. e. himself, and not any other person) happy ; but quod eum
felicem reddere non possent would mean, because they could not make him
(some other person, e. g. his friend) happy.
[ 126.] 2. Besides these there is a number of words which
are adjectives, in as much as they have three distinct forms for
the three genders, and their meaning is not complete without a
substantive either expressed or understood. But their inflection
* But it does occur in Cic. Oral. 46. ; Varro, De Ling. Lut. v. 81., 5x. 85.
'ed. Miiller, and is based on good MSS. TBANSI,.
PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 103
differs so widely from what are commonly called adjectives, and
they are so frequently used instead of a substantive, that they
are not unjustly termed pronouns. They are
1) The adjunctive: ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self.
2) The demonstrative: hie, haec, hoc; iste, ista, istud; ille, ilia,
illud; is, ea, id, and the compound idem, eadem, idem.
3) The relative: qui, quae, quod, and the compounds qui-
cunque and quisquis.
4) The two interrogatives : viz. the substantive interrogative,
quis, quid? and the adjective interrogative, qui, quae, quod?
5) The indefinite pronouns : aliquis, aliqua, aliquid and ali-
quod; quidam, quaedam, quiddam and quoddam; aliquispiam, or
abridged quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam and quodpiam; quis-
quam, neuter quidquam; quivis, quilibet, and quisque; and all
the compounds of qui or quis.
Respecting the use of these pronouns, see Chap. LXXXIV.
C. The following observations are intended to develope only
the fundamental principles.
[ 127.] Note 1. Signification of the Demonstrative Pronouns.
Hie, this, is used of objects which are nearest to the speaker, whereas
more distant objects are referred to by ille. The person nearest of all to
the speaker is the speaker himself, whence hie homo is often the same as ego
(see some passages in Heindorf on Horace, Sat. i. 9. 47.) ; and in this respect
hie is called the pronoun of the first person. Iste points to the person to
whom I am speaking, and to the things appertaining to him. Thus iste
liber, ista vestis, istud negotium, are equivalent to thy book, thy dress, thy
business ; and iste is, for this reason, called the pronoun of the second person.
Hie, that, is the pronoun of the third person ; that is, it points to the person
of whom I am speaking to some one, hence ille liber means the book of
which we are speaking. (Compare on these points 291.) Is is used: 1)
to point to something preceding, and is somewhat less emphatic than " the
person mentioned before;" and, 2) as a sort of logical conjunction, when
followed by qui, is qui answers to the English "he who." Idem, the same,
expresses the unity or identity of a subject with two predicates ; e. g. Cicero
did this thing, and he did that also, would be expressed in Latin, idem illud
perfecit, hence idem may sometimes answer to our "also;" e.g. Cicero
was an orator and also a philosopher, Cicero orator erat idemque (et idem)
philosophus.
[128.] Note 2. The compounded Relatives. They are formed
by means of the suffix cunque, which, however, is sometimes separated from
its pronoun by some intervening word. It arose from the relative adverb
cum (also spelled quum) and the suffix que, expressive of universality (as in
quisque, 129. ; and in adverbs, 288.). Cunque therefore originally signi-.
B 4
10-1 I.ATIN GKAM-MAK.
fied " whenever." By being attached to a relative pronoun or adverb,
e. g. qualiscunque, quotcunque, ubicunque, utcunque, quandocunque, it renders
the relative meaning of these words more general, and produces a relativum
generate ; and as qui signifies " who," quicunque becomes "whoever," or "every
one who ;" e. g. quemcunque librum legeris, ejus summam paucis verbis in com-
mentaria referto, or utcunque se res habuit, tua tamen culpa est. It thus always
occurs in connection with a verb, as the subject of a proposition. The same
signification is produced by doubling the relative ; e. g. quotquot, qualisqualis ;
and in the case of adverbs, ubiubi, utut, quoquo, &c. Thus we should have quiqui,
quaequae, quodquod= quicunque, quaecunque, quodcunque ; but these forms are
not used in the nominative, and instead of them quisquis, quidquid, were formed
from the substantive interrogative quis f quid ? and the doubled relative
quisquis retained its substantive signification, " every one who," whereas
quicunque has the meaning of an adjective. So, at least, it is with the neuter
quidquid, whatever. The masculine quisquis, by way of exception, is like-
wise used as an adjective ; e. g. in Horace : quisquis erit vitae color ; and
Pliny : quisquis erit ventus (nay, even the neuter quidquid in Virgil, Aen. x.
493., and Horace, Carm. ii. 13. 9., which is a complete anomaly). In the
oblique cases the substantive and adjective significations coincide..
[129.] Note 3. The Indefinite Pronouns. All the above-men-
tioned words are originally at once substantives and adjectives, and for this
reason they have two distinct forms for the neuter. According to the
ordinary practice, however, quisquam is a substantive only, and is often ac-
companied by the adjective ullus, a, um. Quispiam, too, is principally used
as a substantive ; but aliquispiam, in the few passages where it occurs (it is
found only in Cic. Pro Sext. 29. : aliquapiam vi ; and Tuscul. iii. 9. : aliquod-
piam membrwrri), is used as an adjective ; and aliquis, which has the same
meaning, is found in both senses. Quisquam, with the supplementary
ullus, has a negative meaning ; e. g. I do not believe that any one (quis-
quam) has done this : quispiam and aliquis are affirmative, and quidam
may be translated by " a certain." By adding the verbs vis and libet to
the relative we obtain quivis and quilibet, any one ; and by adding the
particle que we obtain quisque and the compound unusquisque. All of these
words express an indefinite generality : respecting their difference, compare
Chap. LXXXIV. C.
[ 130.] 3. The possessive pronouns are derived from the
substantive pronouns, and in form they are regular adjectives
of three terminations : mews, tuus, suus, noster, vester ; to which
we must add the relative cujus, a, um ; and the pronomina gen-
tilicia (which express origin), nostras, vestras, and cujas.
4. Lastly, we include among the pronouns also what are
called pronominalia, that is, adjectives of so general a meaning,
that, like real pronouns, they frequently supply the place of a
noun substantive. Such pronominalia are. a) Those which
answer to the question, who ? and are partly single words and
partly compounds : aiius, ullus, nullus, nonnullus. If we ask,
which of two? it is expressed by liter? and the answer to it is
alter, one of two; neuter, neither; alteruter, either the one or
DECLENSION OF PllONOUNS.
105
the other ; utervis and uterlibet, either of the two. The relative
pronoun (when referring to two) is likewise uter, and in a more
general sense utercunque. i) Those which denote quality, size, or
number in quite a general way. They stand in relation to one
another (whence they are called correlatives), and are formed
according to a fixed rule. The interrogative beginning with
qu coincides with the form of the relative, and according to the
theory of the ancient grammarians they differ only in their
accent (see 34.) ; the indefinite is formed by prefixing ali;
the demonstrative begins with t, and its power is sometimes
increased by the suffix dem (as in idem) ; the relative may ac-
quire a more general meaning by being doubled, or by the suffix
cunque ( 128.) ; the indefinite generality is expressed (according
to 129.) by adding the words libet or vis to the (original)
interrogative form. In this manner we obtain the following
pronominal correlatives, with which we have to compare the ad-
verbial correlatives mentioned in 288.
Interrog. Demonst.
qualis talis
quantus tantus, tan-
tundem
quot tot, totidem,
quotas totus
Relat.
qualis
quantus
quot
quotas
Relat. generate.
qualisqualis,
qualiscunque.
quantusquantus,
quantuscunque
quotquot, quot-
cunque
quotuscunque.
Indefin.
Indef. gener.
qualislibet.
quantuslibet,
quantusvis.
quotlibet.
aliquantus
aliquot
(aliquotus)
To these we must add the diminutives quantulus, quantuluscunque, tantulus,
aliquantulum.
CHAP. XXXV.
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
[ i3i.] 1. DECLENSION of the personal pronouns ego, tu, sui.
SINGULAR.
Nom. Ego, I. Tu, thou.
Gen. mei, of me. tui, of thee. sui, of himself, her-
self, itself.
Dat. mihi, to me. tibi, to thee. sibi, to himself, &c.
Ace. me, me. te, thee. se, himself, &c.
Voc. like nom. like nom.
Abl. me, from me. te, from thee. se, from himself, &c.
106
LATIN GKAMMAK.
Nom. Nos, we.
Gen. nostri, nostrum,
of us.
Dat. nobis, to us.
Ace. nos, us.
Voc. nos, O we.
Abl. nobis, from us.
PLURAL.
Vos, you.
vestri, vestrum,
of you.
twfo's, to you.
vos, you.
t?os, O you !
vobis, from you.
sui, of themselves.
s$z, to themselves.
se, themselves.
se, from themselves.
Note. The suffix me may be added to all the cases of these three pronouns
to express the English emphatic self, as egomet, mihimet, temet, semet, and even
with the addition of ipse after it, as mihimet ipsi, temet ipsum. The genit.
j)lur. and the nominat. tu alone do not admit this suffix. Instead of it the
emphasis is given to tu by the suffix te, as tute, and to this again by the ad-
dition of met, as tutemet. The accus. and ablat. singular of these pronouns
admit a reduplication, meme, tete, sese; of sui alone it is used in the plural
also.
The contracted form of the dative, mi for mihi (like nil for nihil) is fre-
quently found in poetry, but rarely in prose. The genitives mei, tui, sui,
nostri, vestri, are properly genitives of the possessive pronouns meum, tuum,
suum, nostrum, vestrum, for originally the neuters meum, tuum, Sfc. were used
in the sense of " my being," or of " as regards me, thee," &c. (the Greek 7-0
e'/i6v), instead of the simple I, thou, &c. In like manner the genitives nos-
trum, vestrum, are properly the genitives of the possessives nostri and vestri.
(See 51.) The beginner may pass over the origin of these forms, since
they are used as the real genitives of the personal pronouns ; but he must be
reminded of it in the construction of the gerund, 660. Respecting the dif-
ference between nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum, see 431.
[ 132.] 2. Declension of the demonstrative pronouns and ipse.
SINGULAR.
Nom. & Voc. Hie, haec, hoc,
this.
Gen. hujus, of this.
Dat. huic (or hmc), to this.
Ace. hunc, hanc, hoc, this.
Abl. hoc, hac, hoc, from this.
PLURAL.
Nom. & Voc. hi, hae, haec,
these.
Gen. horum, harum, horum,
of these.
Dat. his, to these.
Ace. hos, has, haec, these.
Abl. his, from these.
Note. The ancient form of this pronoun was hice, haece, hoce, in which we
recognise the demonstrative ce, which when a word by itself appears in the
form ecce. The cases ending in c arose from the omission of the e, which is
still found in old Latin, e. g. hance legem, hace lege. (This explains the ob-
solete form haec for hae or haece in Terence. See Bentley on Ter. Andr. i.
1. 99.) In ordinary language the cases in * alone sometimes take the com-
plete ce to render the demonstrative power more emphatic, e. g. hujusce,
hosce. By adding the enclitic interrogative ne to ce or c, we obtain the
interrogative hicine, haecine, hocine, $~c.
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
107
The pronouns iste, ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, are declined
alike, and in the following manner:
PLURAL.
Nom. & Voc. illi, iliac, ilia,
they or those.
Gen. illorum, illarum, illorum.
Dat. illis.
Ace. illos, illas, ilia.
Abl. illis.
SINGULAR.
Nom. & Voc. ille, ilia, illud,
he, or that.
Gen. illius.
Dat. illi.
Ace. ilium, illam, illud.
Abl. illo, ilia, illo.
Note. Besides the forms iste, ista, istud, and ille, ilia, illud, there exist
in early Latin the forms istic, istaec, istoc or istuc, and illic, illaec, illoc
or illuc, which with regard to inflection follow hie, haec, hoc, but occur only
in the cases ending in c, except the dative, that is, in the accus. istunc, istanc,
illunc, illanc; ablat. istoc, istdc, illoc, iliac; neut. plur. istaec, illaec. (Istuc
and istaec sometimes occur even in Cicero.) Priscian regards these forms as
contractions from iste and ille with hie, but it probably arose from the addi-
tion of the demonstrative ce according to the analogy of hie, for in early
Latin we find also istace, istisce, illace, illisce, illosce, illasce, though very
rarely. By means of the connecting vowel i, both c and the complete ce
may be united with the interrogative enclitic ne, e. g. istucine, istocine, illicine,
illancine, istoscine.
Illi and isti are obsolete forms of the genitive for iUiiu and istius, and
the dative istae, illae, for isti, illi; and the nom. plur. fern, istaec, illaec, for
istae, illae. (See Bentley on Terence, Hec. iv. 2. 17.)
Virgil uses olli as a dative sing, and nom. plur , and Cicero, in an antique
formula (De Leg. ii. 9.), the plural olla and olios, from an ancient form ollus.
Ipse (in the ancient language ipsus), ipsa, ipsum, is declined
like ille, except that the neuter is ipsum and not ipsud.
Note. This pronoun is called adjunctive because it is usually joined to other
nouns and pronouns. In connection with some cases of is, viz. eo, ea, eum,
earn, it loses the i in early Latin ; thus we find eapse (nom. and ablat.), eopse,
eumpse, eampse, in Plautus ; and in Cicero the compound reapse = re ipsa, or
re ea ipsa, in fact, is of common occurrence. The suffix pte in possessive
pronouns is of a similar kind.
SINGULAR.
Nom. is, ea, id, he, she, it,
or that.
Gen. ejus.
Dat. ei.
Ace. eum, earn, id.
Abl. eo, ea, eo.
PLURAL.
Nom. ii (ei), eae, ea, they
or those.
Gen. eorum, earum, eorum.
Dat. Us (els').
Ace. eos, eas, ea.
Abl. Us (m).
By the addition of the suffix dem we form from is idem,
eadem, idem (as it were isdem, eadem, iddem), which is declined
in the other cases exactly like the simple is, ea, id. In the
jusative eundem and eandem are preferable to eumdem,
108 LATIN GRAMMAR.
camdem, and in like manner in the genitive plur. eorundem,
carundem.
Note. Eae as a dative singular feminine for ez, and ibus and eabus for us,
are obsolete forms. The plural ei is rare, and eidem is not to be found at all.
In the dative and ablative plural, too, eis and eisdem are not as common
as Us, iisdem. It must, however, be observed that iidem and iisdem we're
always pronounced in poetry, and therefore probably in the early prose
also, as if they had only one i ; but whether it was ever written with one t
cannot be determined, on account of the fluctuation of the MSS. In most
passages, however, only one i is written. In what manner ii and Us were
dealt with cannot be ascertained from the poets, because they dislike the
pronoun is in general, and more particularly these cases of it, for which they
use the corresponding forms of hie (see 702.) ; but Priscian (p. 737., and
Super xii. vers. p. 1268.) asserts that in this word, as in dii, diis, the double i
was formerly regarded in poetry as one syllable, and that in his time it still
continued to be thus pronounced.
By composition with ecce or en (behold ! the French voila),
we obtain the following expressions, which were of frequent
use in ordinary life : eccum, eccam, eccos, eccas ; eccillum or ellum,
ellam, ellos, ellas ; eccistam.
[ 133.] 3. Declension of the relative pronoun, qui, quae,
quod.
SINGULAR. PIJJBAL,.
Nom. Qw, quae, quod, who Nona, qui, quae, quae, who or
or which. which.
Gen. cujus (quojus, obsol.), Gen. quorum, quarum, quorum.
of whom.
Dat. cm or cui(quoi, obsol.), Dat. quibus.
to whom.
Ace. quern, quam, quod, whom. Ace. quos, quas, quae.
Abl. quo, qua, quo, from whom. Abl. quibus.
Note. An ancient ablat. singular for all genders was qui. Cicero uses it
with cum appended to it, quicum for quocum ( 324.), when an indefinite person
is meant, and when he does not refer to any definite person mentioned before
(compare the examples in 561. and 568.). Quicum for quacum is found in
Virgil, Aen. xi. 822. Otherwise the form qui for quo occurs in good prose
only in the sense of " in what manner ? " or " how ? " as an interrogative or
relative, e.g. qui jit? how does it happen? qui convenit f qui sciebas? qui
hoc probari potest cuiquam? qui tibi id facere licuit? qui ista intellecta sint,
debeo discere, &c^ and in the peculiar phrase with uti: habeo qui utar, est
qui utamur (I have something to live upon), in Cicero. Instead of quibus in
the relative sense, there is an ancient form quis, or queis (pronounced like
fjuis), which is of frequent occurrence in late prose writers also.
[ 134.] There are two interrogative pronouns, quis, quid ? and
qui, quae, quod 9 the latter of which is quite the same in form as
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 109
the relative pronoun, and the former differs from it only by its
forms quis and quid. The interrogatives quisnam, quidnam ?
and quinam, quaenam, quodnam? express a more lively or em-
phatic question than the simple words, and the nam answers to
the English " pray."
Note. The difference between the two interrogative pronouns as observed
in good prose is, that quis and quid are used as substantives, and qui, quae,
quod as adjectives, and this is the invariable rule for quid and quod, e. g.
quod f acinus commisit? what crime has he committed? not quid f acinus, but
we may say quid facinoris ? Quis signifies " what man ? " or " who ? " and
applies to both sexes ; qui signifies " which man ?" But in dependent inter-
rogative sentences these forms are often confounded, quis being used for the
adjective qui, and vice versa qui for quis. We do not, however, consider quis
to be used for qui in cases where quis is placed in apposition with sub-
stantives denoting a human being, as in quis amicus, quis hospes, quis miles, for
in the same manner quisquam is changed into an adjective, although there is
no doubt of its substantive character, e. g. Cic. In Verr. v. 54. : quasi enim
ulla possit esse causa, cur hoc, cuiquam civi Romano jure accidat (viz. ut virgis
caedatur). But there are some other passages in which quis is used for qui,
not only in poets, such as Virgil, Georg. ii. 178. : quis color, but in prose
writers, e. g. Liv. v. 40. : quisve locus ; Tacit. Annal. i. 48. : quod caedis initium,
quis finis. In Cicero, however, it is thus used with very few exceptions (such
as, Pro Dejot. 13.: quis casus) only before a word beginning with a vowel,
e. g. quis esset tantus fructus, quis iste tantus casus. Qui, on the other
hand, is used for quis, partly for the same reason of avoiding a disagree-
able sound, when the word following begins with s, as in Cic. Divin. 6. :
nescimus qui sis ; c. 12. : qui sis considera; Ad Att. iii. 10. : non possum obK-
visci quifuerim, non sentire qui sim; but partly without any such reason, as in
Cic. In Verr. v. 64. : qui esset ignordbas ? Pro Rose. Am. 37. : dubitare qui
indicarit; In Verr. v. 59.: interrogetur Flavius, quinam fuerit L. Herennius.
Cicero In Catil, ii. 3. : video qui habeat Etruriam, is an incorrect reading, and
in Pro Rose. Am. 34. : qui primus Ameriam nuntiat ? the qui must probably be
changed into quis. Thus much remains certain, that the rule respecting the
use of quis and qui cannot be denied even in indirect questions.
[ 135.] The indefinite pronoun atiquis also has originally two
different forms : atiquis, neut. aliqiidd which is used as a substan-
tive, and aliqui, aliqua, aUquod. But aliqui is obsolete, although
it occurs in some passages of Cicero, e. g. De Off. iii. 7. : aliqui
casus; Tuscul. v. 21. : terror aliqui; Acad. iv. 26.: anularius aliqui;
De Re Publ. i. 44. : aliqui dux; ibid. iii. 16. : aliqui scrupus in
animis haeret, and a few other passages which are less certain.
In ordinary language aliquis alone is used, both as a sub-
stantive and as an adjective ; but in the neuter the two forms
aliquid and aliquod exist, and the difference between them must
be observed. The femin. singul. and the neuter plur. are both
aliqua, and the form aliquoe is the femin. nom. plural.
110 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 136.] But there is also a shorter form of the indefinite
pronoun, without the characteristic prefix ali, and exactly like the
interrogative pronoun : quis, quid, as a substantive, and qui, quae,
quod, as an adjective. This form is used, in good prose, only
after the conjunctions si, nisi, ne, num, and after relatives, such
as quo, quanta, and quum. This rule is commonly expressed
thus: the prefix all in aliquis and its derivatives aliquo, ali-
quando, and alicubi is rejected when si, nisi, ne, num, quo, quanta,
or quum, precede ; e. g. Consul videat, ne quid respublica detri-
menti capiat ; quaeritur, num quod officium aliud olio majus sit ;
sometimes another word is inserted between ; e. g. Cic. De Orat. ii.
41.; si aurum cut commonstratum vellem; Pro Tull. 17.: si quis
quern imprudens occiderit ; Philip, i. 7. : si cui quid ille promisisset.
Some consider the combination of this indefinite quis or qui
with the conjunctions si, ne, num, and with the interrogative
syllable en (ec} as peculiar and distinct words, as siquis or siqui,
numquis or numqui, although properly speaking, ecquis or ecqui
alone can be regarded as one word, for en by itself has no
meaning. (See 351.) For the particulars respecting the
use of this abridged form, and the difference between it and
the complete one, see Chap. LXXXIV. C. With regard to the
declension of these compounds it must be observed, 1) that in
the nominative the forms quis and qui are perfectly equivalent,
which is accounted for by what has been said about aliquis ; hence
we may say both si qui, ecqui, and si quis, ecquis ; 2) that in the
femin. singul. and the neuter plur. the form qua is used along
with quae, likewise according to the analogy of aliquis. We
may therefore say siqua, nequa, numqua, ecqua, but also si quae,
ne quae, num quae, ecquae.
Note. Which of the two is preferable, is a disputed point. Priseian
(v. p. 565 and 569.) mentions only siqua, nequa, numqua, as compounds of
aliqua. As the MSS. of prose writers vary, we must rely on the authority
'of the poets, who are decidedly in favour of the forms in a, with a few
exceptions, such as si quae, the neut. plur. in Propert. i. 16. 45., and the
femin. sing., according to Bentley's just emendation, in Terent. Heaut. Prol.
44., and Horat. Serm. ii. 6. 10. (Si quae tibi cura, in Ovid, Trist. i. 1. 115.,
must be changed into siqua est.) Respecting ecqua and ecquae, see my note
on Cic. In Verr. iv. 11.
[ 137.] The compounds of qui and quis, viz. quidam, quispiam,
quilibet, quivis, quisque, and unusquisqne, are declined like the
relative, but have a double form in the neuter singular,
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINALS. 1 1 1
qiiiddam and quoddam, unumquidque and unumquodquc, accord-
ing as they are used as substantives or as adjectives. (See above,
129.) Quisquam (with a few exceptions in Plautus) is used
only as a substantive, for ullus supplies its place as an adjective,
and the regular form of the neuter therefore is quidquam (also
written quicquam). It has neither feminine nor plural. Qui-
cunque is declined like qui, quae, quod, and has only the form
quodcunque for the neuter; quisquis, on the other hand, has
only quidqnid (also written quicquid), being generally used in
these two forms only as a substantive. The other forms of this
double relative are not so frequent as those formed by the suffix
cunque.
Note. In Cicero, Pro Rose. Am. 34., and/n Verr. v. 41 ., we find cuicuimodi
instead of cujuscujusmodi, of what kind soever. See my note on the latter
passage.
[ 138.] Each of the two words of which unusquisque is com-
posed is declined separately, as gen. uniuscujusque, dat. unicuique,
ace. unumquemque, &c.
CHAP. XXXVI.
DECLENSION OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS AND OF PRO-
NOMINALS.
[ 139.] 1. THE possessive pronouns meus, mea, meum; tuus,
tua, tuum ; suus, sua, suum; noster, nostra, nostrum; vester,
vestra, vestrum, are declined entirely like adjectives of three ter-
minations. Meus makes the vocative of the masculine gender
mi, as O mi pater! It is only in late writers that mi is used
also for the feminine and neuter.
Note. The ablative singular of these pronouns, especially the forms suo,
sua, frequently takes the suffix pte, which answers to our word " own ; "
e. g. in Cicero, suapte manu, suopte pondere ; in Plautus, meopte and tuopte
ingenio ; in Terence, nostrapte culpa, &c. All the cases of suus may, with
the same sense, take the suffix met, which is usually followed by ipse ; e. g.
Liv. vi. 36. : intra suamet ipsum moenia compulere ; v. 38. : terga caesa suomet
ipsorum certamine impedientium fugam ; xxvii. 28. : Hannibal suamet ipse
fraude captus dbiit. The expression of Sallust, Jug. 85., mmmetfacta diccre,
stnnds alone.
112 LATIN GRAMMAR.
2. The possessive pronoun cujus, a, urn, lias, besides the.
nominative, only the accusative singular, cujum, cujam, cujum ;
cuja, the ablative singular feminine, and cujae, cujas, the nomi-
native and accusative plural feminine ; but all these forms occur
only in early Latin and legal phraseology.
3. Nostras, vestras, and cujas (i. e. belonging to our, your
nation, family, or party), are regularly declined after the third
declension as adjectives of one termination : genitive nostratis,
dative nostrdti, &c., plural nostrates, and neuter nostratia ; e. g.
verba nostratia, in Cic. Ad Fam. ii. 11.
[ uo.] 4. The peculiar declension of the pronominal adjec-
tives uter, utra, utrum ; alter, altera, alterum ; alius (neut. aliucT),
ullus, and mtllus, has already been explained in 49.
Nom. uter, Gen. utrius, Dat. utri.
neuter, neutrlus, neutri.
alter alterius, . alteri.
alius (neut. aliucT), alms, alii,
ullus, ulllus, iilli.
nullus, null'ms, nulli.
Note. In early Latin there occur several instances of the regular
formation of the genit. t, ae, and of the dative o, ae, and some are met
with even in the best writers. Cic. De Div. ii. 13. : aliae pecudis ; De Nat.
Deor. ii. 26.: alterofratri ; Nepos, Eum. 1. : alterae alae ; Caes. Sell. Gall.
v. 27. : alterae legioni; Cic. Pro Rose. Com. 16. : nulli consilii ; Caes. Sell.
Gall. vi. 13. : mdlo consilio; Propert. i. 20. 25. : nullae curae ; ibid. iii. 9. 57.
tolo orbi ; Curt. vi. 19. : toto corpori. According to Priscian, the regular form
of neuter was even more common than the other, and in a grammatical sense
we find, for instance, generis neutri ; but neutrius is nevertheless preferable.
The compound alteruter is either declined in both words,
genitive alteriusutrius, accusative alterumutrum, or only in the
latter, as alterutri, alterutrum. The former method seems to
have been customary chiefly in the genitive, as we now gene-
rally read in Cicero, for the other cases easily admitted of an
elision. The other compounds with uter, viz. uterque, uterlibet,
utervis, and utercunque, are declined entirely like uter, the suf-
fixes being added to the cases without any change. The words
unus, solus, and totus are declined like ullus.
[ 141.] Note 1. Alter signifies the other, that is, one of two ; alius,
another, that is, one of many. But it must be observed, that where we use
another to express general relations, the Latins use alter ; e. g. dctrahcre
alteri sui commodi causa contra naturam est, because in reality only two
persons are here considered as in rc'lation to each other.
THE VERB. 113
Note 2. Uterque signifies both, that is, each of two, or one as well as tho
other, and is therefore plural in its meaning. The real plural utrique is
used only when each of two parties consists of several individuals ; e. g.
Macedones Tyrii, uni alteri, and both together, utrique. But even good
prose writers now and then use the plural utrique in speaking of only two
persons or things, as Nepos, Timol. 2.: utrique Dionysii ; Curtius, vii. 19. :
utraeque acies ; Liv. xlii. 54. : utraque oppida ; and xxx. 8. : utraque cornua ;
and is not altogether foreign to the practice of Cicero. (See p. Lig. 12., p.
Mur. 12., in Verr. IV. 14., comp. my note on Cic. in Verr. III. 60.)
CHAP. XXXVII.
THE VERB.
[ 142.] 1. THE verb is that part of speech by which it is
declared that the subject of a sentence does or suffers something.
This most general difference between doing which originates in
the subject, and suffering which presupposes the doing or acting
of another person or thing, is the origin of the two main forms
of verbs, viz. the active and passive (activum et passivum).
2. The active form comprises two kinds of verbs : trans-
itive or active properly so called, and intransitive or neuter
verbs. The difference between them is this: an intransitive.
verb expresses a condition or action which is not communicated
from the agent to any other object; e. g. I walk, I stand, I
sleep ; whereas the transitive verb expresses an action which
affects another person or thing (which in grammar is called the
object and is commonly expressed by the accusative) ; e. g. I love
thee, I read the letter. As far as form is concerned this differ-
ence is important, for neuter verbs cannot have a passive voice,
whereas every transitive or active verb (in its proper sense)
must have a passive voice, since the object of the action is
the subject of the suffering; e. g. I love thee thou art loved;
I read the letter the letter is read.
[ 143.] Note 1. It is not meant that every transitive verb must have
an object or accusative, but only that an object may be joined with it.
It is obvious, that in certain cases, when no object is added, transitive
verbs take the sense of intransitive ones. Thus edit, amat, when without an
accusative, may be considered to be used for coenat and est in amore, and
with regard to their meaning they are intransitive, though in grammar
they remain transitive, since aliquid may be understood. In some cases
I
114 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the difference between the transitive and intransitive meaning is ex-
pressed, even in the formation of the verbs themselves, as in jacc.rc,
iaccrc; pendere, pendere; albare, albere ; fugare, ftigcrc ; placare, pla-
cere ; sedare, sedere, and some others of the same kind. Assuesco and
consucsco (I accustom myself) have assumed an intransitive meaning, the
pronoun being omitted, and the new forms assuefacio and consuefacio were
devised for the transitive sense. In the same manner we have the intransi-
tive calere, patere, stupere, and the transitive calefacere, patefacere and
stupefacere.
[ 144.] Note 2. When an accusative is found with a neuter verb, the
neuter verb has either assumed a transitive meaning, and then has also a
passive voice, or the accusative is used in the sense of an adverb, and is to
be accounted for by some ellipsis, or by a licence of speech. (Concerning
both, see 383.)
Sometimes however a passive voice is formed. from real neuter verbs, but
only in the infinitive and in the third person singular, and the verb becomes
impersonal, i. e. it is without any distinct subject : for instance, start jubet,
he orders (one) to stand ; stetur eo quod major pars decreverit, Curt. x. 20. ;
favetur tibi, favour is shown to thee ; via excessum est, (people) went out of
the way ; ventum est, itum est, itur, eatur, ibitur. Thus, when in comedy the
question is asked quid agitur? the humorous answer is statur, or vivitur
When the subject is to be added, it is done by means of ab, as in Livy,
Romam frequenter migratum est a parcntibus raptarum, which is equivalent
to parentes migraverunt; and in Cicero, ejus orationi vehementer ab omnibus
reclamatum est, and occurritur autem nobis et quidem a doctis et eruditis, equi-
valent to omnes reclamarunt and docti occurrunt.
[ 145.] Note 3. With transitive verbs the subject itself may become
the object, e. g. moveo, I move, and moveo me, I move myself. It often
occurs in Latin that the pronoun is omitted, and the transitive is thus
changed into an intransitive. The verb abstineo admits of all three con-
structions ; transitive, as in manus ab aliqua re abstineo, I keep my hands
from a thing ; with the pronoun of the same person, abstineo me, and intran-
sitive, abstineo aliqua re, I abstain from a thing. There are some other
verbs of this class, consisting chiefly of such as denote change ; e. g.,
vertere and convertcre, mutare, flectere and deflectere, inclinare ; hence we
may say, for instance, inclino rein, sol se declinat ; and in an intransitive
sense, dies, acies inclinat ; animus inclinat ad pacem faciendum ; verto rem,
verto me; detrimentum in bonum vertit, ira in rabiem vertit; fortuna rei pub-
licae mutavit ; mores populi Romani magnopere mutaverunt. In like manner
the following verbs are used both as transitive and intransitive, though with
greater restrictions : augere, abolere, committere, decoquere, durare, inclpere,
intermitterc, continuarc, insinuare, laxare, remittere, lavare, minuere, movere
(chiefly with terra, to quake, in an intrans. sense, though now and then in
other connections also), praecipitare, mere, solvcre, suppeditarc, tvrbare,
vibrare, and many others. The compounds of vertere, devertere, divcrtere,
and revertere, are used only this reflective sense, but occur also in the pas-
sive with tha same meaning.
[ HO.] We must here observe that the passive of many words has not
only a properly passive meaning, but also a reflective one, as in crucior, I
torment myself; delector, I delight myself; fallor, I deceive myself; feror, I
throw myself (upon something) ; movcor and commoveor, I move or excite
myself; homines cffunduntur, men rush (towards a place) ; vchicula frangun-
tur, the vehicles break ; lavor, I bathe (myself) ; inclinor, I incline ; mutor, I
THE VERB. 115
alter (myself) ; vertor, but especially dc- di- and re-vertor. Many of these
passive verbs are classed among the deponents, the active from which they are
formed being obsolete, or because the intransitive meaning greatly differs.
[ 147.] 3. It is a peculiarity of the Latin language, that
it has a class of verbs of a passive form, but of an active
(either transitive or intransitive) signification. They are called
deponents (laying aside, as it were, their passive signification),
e. g. consular, I console ; imitor, I imitate ; fateor, I confess ;
sequor, I follow ; mentior, I lie ; morior, I die. These verbs,
even when they have a transitive signification, cannot have a
passive voice, because there would be no distinct form for it.
Note. Many deponents are in fact only passives, either of obsolete
actives, or of such as are still in use. The latter can be regarded as depo-
nents only in so far as they have acquired a peculiar signification : e. g.
gravor signifies originally "I am burdened," hence, " I do a thing unwil-
lingly," " I dislike," " I hesitate ; " vehor, I am carried, or I ride, equo, on
horseback, curru, in a carriage. Several passives, as was remarked above,
have acquired the power of deponents from their reflective signification ;
e.g. pascor, I feed myself; versor, I turn myself, and thence I find my-
self, or I am. The following deponents are in this manner derived from
obsolete actives ; laetor, I rejoice ; proficiscor, I get myself forward, I
travel ; vescor, I feed myself, I eat. With regard to the greater number of
deponents, however, we are obliged to believe that the Latin language,
like the Greek with its verba media, in forming these middle verbs, followed
peculiar laws whieh are unknown to us. It must be especially observed,
that many deponents of the first conjugation are derived from nouns, and
that they express being that which the noun denotes : e. g. ancillor, ar-
chitector^ argutor, aucupor, auguror, &c., as may be seen from the list in
207.
[ 148.] 4. Before proceeding we must notice the following
special irregularities. The three verbs Jio, I become, or am
made, vapulo, I am beaten, and veneo, I am sold or for sale,
have a passive signification, and may bo used as the passives
of facto, verlero, and vendo, but, like all neuter verbs, they
have the active form, except that fio makes the perfect
tense factus sum, so that form and meaning agree. They are
called neutralia passiva. The verbs audco, Jido, gaudeo, and
soleo have the passive form with an active signification in the
participle of the preterite, and in the tenses formed from it : as
ausus, jisus, gavisus, solitus sum, eram, &c. They may there-
fore be called semideponentia, which is a more appropriate name
than netitro-passiva, as they are usually termed, since the fact of
their being neuters cannot come here into consideration. To
i 2
116 LATIN GRAMMAR.
these we must add, but merely with reference to the participle
of the preterite, the verbs jurare, coenare, prandcre, and potare,
of which the participles juratus, coenatus, pransus, and potus,
have, like those of deponents, the signification : one that has
sworn, dined, breakfasted, and drunk. Comp. perosus and exo-
sus in 221. The same is the case with some other intiwnsitive
verbs, which as such ought not to have a participle of the pre-
terite at all ; but still we sometimes find conspiratus and coalitus,
and frequently adultus and obsoletus (grown up and obsolete) in
an active, but intransitive sense, and the poets use cretus (from
cresco), like natus.
CHAP. XXXVIII.
MOODS. TENSES.
[ 149.] THERE are four general modes (moods, modi), in which
an action or condition expressed by a verb may be represented :
1 ) Simply as a fact, though the action or condition may differ
in regard to its relation and to time: this is the Indicative;
2) As an action or condition which is merely conceived by the
mind, though with the same differences as the indicative, Con-
junctive, or Subjunctive ; 3) As a command, Imperative ; 4) In-
definitely, without defining any person by whom, or the time
at which, the action is performed, although the relation of the
action is defined, Infinitive.
[ 150.] To these moods we may add the Participle which
is, in form, an adjective, but is more than an adjective by
expressing at the same time the different relations of the action
or suffering, that is, whether it is still lasting or terminated. A
third participle, that of the future, expresses an action which is
going to be performed, or a condition which is yet to come.
The Gerund, which is in form like the neuter of the participle
passive in dus, supplies by its cases the place of the infinitive
present active. The two Supines are cases of verbal substantives,
and likewise serve in certain connections (which are explained
in the syntax) to supply the cases for the infinitive.
When an action or condition is to be expressed as a definite
and individual fact, either in the indicative or subjunctive, \ve
NUMBERS, PERSONS. 1 1 7
must know whether it belongs to the past, the present, or the
future, or in one word, its time, and time is expressed in a verb
by its Tenses. We must further know its position in the series
of actions with which it is connected, that is, the relation of the
action, viz. whether it took place while another was going on,
or whether it was terminated before another began. If we
connect these considerations, we shall obtain the following six
tenses of the verb :
f An action not terminated in the present time ; I write, scribo : Present
tense.
I An action not terminated in the past time ; I wrote, scribebam : Imperfect
j tense.
. An action not terminated in the future ; I shall write, scribam : Future
tense,
An action terminated in the present time; I have written, scripsi: Perfect
tense.
An action terminated in the past time ; I had written, scripseram : Plu-
perfect tense.
An action terminated in the future ; I shall have written, scripsero :
L Future perfect tense.
The same number of tenses occurs in the passive voice, but
those which express the terminated state of an action can be
formed only by circumlocution, with the participle and the
auxiliary verb esse : scribor, scribebar, scribar, scriptus sum,
scriptus eram, scriptus ero. The subjunctive has no future tenses :
respecting the manner in which their place is supplied, see 496.
The infinitive by itself does not express time, but only the
relation of an action, that is, whether it is completed or not
completed. By circumlocution we obtain also an infinitive for
an action or a suffering which is yet to come.
CHAP. XXXIX.
NUMBERS. PERSONS.
[i5i.] THE Latin verb has two numbers, singular and plural,
and in each number three persons. These three persons, I, the
one speaking, thou, the one spoken to, and he or she, the one
spoken of, are not expressed in Latin by special words, but are
i 3
118 LATIN GRAMMAR.
implied in the forms of the verb itself. The same is the case in
the plural with we, you, they, and these personal pronouns are
added to the verb only when the person is to be indicated in an
emphatic manner.
The following is a general scheme of the changes in termi-
nation, according to the persons, both in the indicative and
subjunctive :
In the Active.
Person: 1. 2. 3.
Sing. s, t.
Plur. mus, tis, nt.
The termination of the first person singular cannot be stated
in a simple or general way, since it sometimes ends in o, some-
tunes in m, and sometimes in i (see the following Chapter).
In the second person singular the perfect indicative forms an
exception, for it ends in ti. Respecting the vowel which pre-
cedes these terminations, nothing general can be said, except
that it is a in the imperfect and pluperfect indicative.
In the Passive.
Person: 1. 2. 3.
Sing, r, ris, tur.
Plur. mur, mini, ntur.
This, however, does not apply to those tenses of the passive,
which are formed by a combination of the participle with a
tense of the verb esse.
The imperative in the active and passive has two forms, viz.
for that which is to be done at once, and for that which
is to be done in future, or an imperative present and an
imperative future. Neither of them has a first person, OAving
to the nature of the imperative. The imperative present has
only a second person, both in the singular and plural ; the im-
perative future has the second and the third persons, but in the
singular they have both the same form, to in the active, and tor
in the passive voice. The imperative future passive, on the
other hand, has no second person plural, which is supplied by
the future of the indicative, e. g. laudalimini.
FOKMATION OP THE TENSES. 119
CHAP. XL.
FORMATION OF THE TENSES.
[ 152.] 1. THERE are in Latin four conjugations, distinguished
by the infinitive mood, which ends thus :
1. are. 2. ere. 3. ere. 4. ire.
The present indicatives of these conjugations end in :
1. o, as. 2. eo, es. 3. 0, is. 4. w, Is.
Note. Attention must be paid to the difference of quantity in the termi-
nation of the second person in the third and fourth conjugations, in order to
distinguish the presents of the verbs in t'o, which follow the third conjugation,
e.g.fodio,fitgio, capio (see Chap. XL VI.), from those verbs which follow the
fourth, such as audio, erudio. This difference between the long and short i
remains also in the other persons, with the exception of the third singular,
which is short in all the four conjugations; e.g.legimus, legitis ; audimus,
audltis ; for when i is followed by another vowel, it is short according to the
general rule that one vowel before another is short. The long a was men-
tioned above as the characteristic of the first conjugation, but the verb Ware
is an exception, for the a here is not a mere part of the termination as in
lauddre, but belongs to the stem of the word. The syllable da in this verb
is short throughout, damus, datis, dabam, &c., with the only exception of the
monosyllabic forms dds and da.
[ 153.] 2. In order to obtain the forms of the other tenses,
we must further know the perfect and the supine; for the
three tenses of the completed action in the active are derived
from the perfect ; and the participle perfect passive, which is
necessary for the formation of the same tenses in the passive, is
derived from the supine. These four principal forms, viz.
Present, Perfect, Supine, and Infinitive, end thus :
Praes. Perf. Supine. Infinit.
1. o, avi, atum, fire
2. eo, ui, itum, ere.
3. o, i, turn, ere.
4. io t wi, ztum, ire.
Note. We have here followed the example of all Latin grammars and of
the Roman grammarians themselves, in regarding the supine as one of the
main forms, that must be known in order to derive others from it. But
the beginner must beware of supposing that the two participles, of the
perfect passive and the future active, are derived in the same manner from
the supine as, for example, the pluperfect is from the perfect ; and that the
i 4
120 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Btipine exists in all the verbs to which one is attributed in the dictionary
or grammar. The whole derivation is merely formal ; and the supine
in fact occurs very rarely. But its existence is presupposed on account
of the two participles which do occur, in order to show the changes which
the stem of the verb undergoes. If we were to mention the participle of
the perfect passive instead of the supine, we should do little better, since it
is wanting in all intransitive verbs, though they may have the participle
future active ; and again, if we were to mention the future participle, we
should find the same difficulty, for it cannot be proved to exist in all verbs,
and in addition to this we ought not to mention among the main forms of
the verb one which is obviously a derivative form. In dictionaries it would
be necessary to mention, first the participle perfect, or where it does not
occur, the participle future active ; but if, as is the case in a grammar, we
have to show in one form that which is the basis of several changes, a
third form is necessary, and it is best to acquiesce in the supine. In making
use of the list which will be given hereafter, the beginner must always bear
in mind, that the supine is scarcely ever mentioned for its own sake, but
merely to enable him to form those two participles correctly.
3. With regard to the first, second, and fourth conjugations,
no particular rule is needed as to how the perfect and supine are
formed. According to the above scheme they are :
1. laud-o, laud-avi, laud-atum, laud-are.
2. mon-eo, mon-ui, mon-itum, mon-ere.
4. aud-is, aud-iui, aud-ltum, aud-ire.
[ 154.] 4. But in the third conjugation the formation of the
perfect and supine presents some difficulty. The following
general rules therefore must be observed (for the details, see
the list of verbs of the third conjugation). When the termi-
nation of the infinitive ere, or the o of the present tense, is
preceded by a vowel, the forms of the perfect and supine are
simply those mentioned above, that is, i and turn are added to
the stem of the verb, or to that portion of the verb which re-
mains after the removal of the termination, e. g. acuere, acii-o,
acu-i, acu-tum. The vowel becomes long in the supine, even
when it is otherwise short. So also in minuo, statuo, tribuo, and
solvo, solutum, for v before a consonant is a vowel.
But when the o of the present is preceded by a consonant,
the perfect ends in si. The s in this termination is changed
into x when it is preceded by c, g, h ? or qu (which is equal
to c) ; when it is preceded by b, this letter is changed into p ;
if d precedes, one of the two consonants must give way, and
either the d is dropped, which is the ordinary practice, or the s ;
e. g. duco, duxi; rego, rexi; traJw, traxi ; coquo, coxi ; scribo,
scripsi ; claudo, clausi, but drfcndo, defendi. Verbs in po pro-
FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 121
sent no difficulty : carpo, carpsi ; sculpo, sculpsi. That lego
makes legi, bibo, bibi, and emo, emi, is irregular according to
what was remarked above: but figo, fixi; nubo, nupsi; demo,
demsi (or according to 12. dempsi), are perfectly in accordance
with the rule.
5. The supine adds turn to the stem of the verb, with some
change of the preceding consonants : b is changed into p ;
g, h, and qu into c ; instead of dtum in the verbs in do, we find
sum, e. g. scribo, scriptum ; rego, rectum ; traho, tractum ;
coquo, coctum (verbs in co remain unchanged, as dictum,
ductum) ; defendo, defensum ; claudo, clausum. The supine in
xum is a deviation from the rule, as in figo, Jixum, and so also
the throwing out of the n of the stem, as in pingo, pictum ;
stringo, strictum ; although this is not done without reason ; for
in several verbs of the third conjugation the n is only an in-
crease to strengthen the form of the present, and does not
originally belong to the root; it is therefore thrown out both
in the perfect and in the supine, as in vinco, fundo, relinquo
vici, victum ; fusi, fusum ; reliqui, relictum ; or in the supine
alone, as in the two verba mentioned before, and in Jingo, sup.
fictum. Of the words in which o is preceded by /, m, n, r, or s^
only a few in mo follow the ordinary rule ; e. g. como, demo;
perf. compsi, dempsi; sup. compium, demptum: all the others
have mixed forms.
6. Two irregularities are especially common in the formation
of the perfect of the third conjugation. The first is the addition
of a syllable at the beginning of the verb, called reduplication, in,
which the first consonant of the verb is repeated either with the
vowel which follows it, or with an e, e. g. tundo, tutudi; tendo,
tetendi; cano, cecini ; curro, cucurri ; fallo, fefelli ; parco, peperci.
In the compounds of such words the reduplication is not used,
except in those of do, sto, disco, posco, and in some of curro. The
second irregularity is that many verbs of the third conjugation
form their perfect like those of the second, just as many verbs
of the second make that tense like those of the third. This is
the case especially with many verbs in lo and mo, as alo, alui,
alltum (altum) ; molo, molui, molitum ; gemo, gemui, gemltum.
Concerning this and other special irregularities, see the list
of verbs in Chap. L.
[ 155.] 7. The derivation of the other tenses and forms of a
verb from these four (present, perfect, supine, and infinitive),
122 LATIN GRAMMAR.
which are supposed to be known, is easy and without irregu-
larity in the detail.
From the infinitive active are formed :
) The imperative passive, which has in all conjugations the
same form as the infinitive active.
) The imperative active, by dropping the termination re. It
thus ends in conjugation, 1. in a, 2. e, 3. e, 4. I, as ama, mone,
lege, audi.
c) The imperfect subjunctive active, by the addition of m, so
that it ends in the four conjugations in arem, erem, erem, irem,
e. g. amarem, monerem, legerem, audirem.
d) The imperfect subjunctive passive, by the addition of r, as
in amarer, monerer, legerer, audlrer.
e) The infinitive present passive, by changing e into i, e. g.
amari, moneri, audiri, but in the third conjugation the whole
termination ere is changed into i, as in legere, legi.
From the present indicative active are derived :
a) The present indicative passive, by the addition of r, as
amor, moneor, legor, audior.
b) The present subjunctive active, by changing the o into em
in the first conjugation, and in the three others into am ; as,
amem, moneam, legam, audiam.
c) The present subjunctive passive, by changing the m of
the present subjunctive active into r ; as amer, monear, legar,
audiar.
d) The imperfect indicative active, by changing o into abam
in the first conjugation, in the second into bam, and in the
third and fourth into ebam. A change of the m into r makes
the imperfect indicative passive, e. g. amabam, amabar ; mo~
nebam, monebar ; legebam, legebar ; audiebam, audiebar.
e} The first future active, by changing o into abo in the
first conjugation, in the second into bo, and in the third and
fourth into am. From this is formed the first future passive by
adding r in the first and second conjugations, and by changing
m into r in the third and fourth ; e. g. laudabo, laudabor ; mo-
nebo, monebor ; legam, legar ; audiam, audiar.
/) The participle present active, by changing o in the first
conjugation into ans, in the second into ns, and in the third and
fourth into ens ; e. g. laudo, laudans ; monco, monens ; frf/<>,
Icgens ; audio, audicns. From this participle is derived the
THE VERB ESSE. 123
participle future passive, by changing ns into ndus ; e. g. aman-
dus, monendus, legendus, audiendus ; and the gerund : amandum,
monendum, legendum, audiendum.
From the perfect indicative active are derived :
a) The pluperfect indicative, by changing i into eram : lauda-
veram, monueram, legeram, audiveram.
b) The future perfect, by changing z into cro: laudavero,
monuero, legero, audivero.
c) The perfect subjunctive*, by changing i into trim : lauda-
verim, monuerim, legerim, audivcrim.
d) The pluperfect subjunctive, by changing i into issem
(originally essem) : laudavissem, monuissem, legissem, audivissem.
e) The perfect infinitive active, by changing i into isse
(originally esse) : laudavisse, monuisse, legisse, audivisse.
From the supine are derived :
a) The participle perfect passive, by changing um into us, ,
um : laudatus, a, um ; monitus, a, um ; lectus, a, um ; auditus,
, um.
b} The participle future active, by changing um into urus, a,
um: laudaturus, a, um; moniturus, a, um ; lecturus, a, um;
auditurus, a, um.
By means of the former participle we form the tenses of the
passive, which express a completed action ; and by means of the
participle future we may form a new conjugation expressing
actions which are to come. See Chap. XLIII.
CHAP. XLL
THE VERB JESSE.
[ 156.] THE verb esse, to be, is called an auxiliary verb,
because it is necessary for the formation of some tenses of the
passive voice. It is also called a verb substantive, because it is
the most general expression of existence. Its conjugation ia
* We use this name -because the tense is most commonly used in the sense
of a perfect subjunctive, although its form shows that it is in reality the
subjunctive of the future perfect, the termination ero being changed into
crim.
124
LATIN GIIAMMAH.
very irregular, being made up of parts of two different verbs,
the Greek slpi, sari, so-opai (from which sim and sum, cst, eso
or ero, were easily formed), and the obsolete fuo, the Greek
fyvG). The supine and gerund are wanting, but the inflection in
the persons is regular.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Sum, I am.
es, thou art.
est, he is.
Plur. SMWJM*, we are.
estis, ye are.
svnt> they are.
Sing. Emm, I was.
eras, thou wast.
erat, he was.
eramus, we were.
erutis, ye were.
crant, they were.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Tlur.
Sing. Sim, I may be.
sis, thou mayst be.
sit, he may be.
Plur. simus, we may be.
sitis, ye may be.
sint, they may be.
Imperfect.
Sing Essem, I might be.
esses, thou mightst be.
esset, he might be.
Plur. essemus, we might be.
essetis, ye might be.
essent, they might be.
Future.
Sing. Ero, I shall be.
eris, thou wilt be.
erit, he will be.
Plur. erirnus, we shall be.
eritis, ye will be.
erunt, they will be.
Instead of a subjunctive, the parti-
ciple futurus is used with sim.
Futurus sim, sis, &c. I may be
about to be.
Sing. Fui, 1 have been, or was.
fuisti, thou hast been, or wert.
fuit, he has been, or was.
Plur. fuimus, we have been, or were.
fuistis, ye have been, or were.
m ' \ they have been, or were.
fuere, J
Perfect.
Sing. Fuerim, I may have been.
fueris, thou mayst have been.
fucrit, he may have been.
Plur. fuenmus, we may have been.
fueritis, ye may have been.
fuerint, they may have been.
Sing. Fueram, I had been.
fueras, thou hadst been.
fuerat, he had been.
Tlur.fuerumus, we had been.
fueratis, ye had been.
fuerant, they had been.
Pluperfect.
Sing. Fuissem, I should, or would
have been.
fuisses, thou shouldst, &c.
fuisset, he should, &c.
Plur. fuissemus, we should, &c.
fuisxetis, ye should, &c.
fuissent, they should, &c.
THE VERB ESSE. 125
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Future Perfect.
Sing. Fuero, I shall have been. No Subjunctive.
fueris, thou wilt have been.
fuerit, he will have been.
Plur. fucrlmus, we shall have been.
fueritis, ye will have been.
fuerint, they will have been.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing. Es, be thou. Plur. este, be ye.
Future, Sing. Esto, thou shalt be. Plur. estate, ye shall be.
esto, he shall be. sunto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
Present, state not terminated, esse, to be.
Perfect, terminated, fuisse, to have been.
Future, futurum (am, um) esse, or fore, to be about to be.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, not terminated (ens), being.
Future, futurus, a, um, one who is about to be.
Note. The participle ens is only used as a substantive in philosophical
language (see above, 78. in fin.), and also in the two compounds, absens
and praesens.
The compounds absum, adsum, desum, insum, intersum, obsum, pracsum,
subsum, supersum, have the same conjugation as sum. Prosum inserts a d
when pro is followed by e ; e. g. prodes, prodest, &c. Possum, I can (from
pot, for potis, and sum), has an irregular conjugation. (See the irregular
verbs, 211.)
The i in simus and sitis is long, and the e in eram, ero, &c., is short, as is
indicated above in the conjugation itself, and also in the compounds : pro-;
simus, proderam, proderant, proderit, Sac.
Siem, sies, siet, sient, and fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant (from the obsolete fud),
are antiquated forms for the corresponding persons of sim, and occur in the
comic writers and in Lucretius. Instead of cssem we have another form for
the imperfect subjunctive, forem (likewise from fuo), in the singular and
the third person plural. The infinitive fore belongs to the same root.
Cicero rarely uses the form forem, but Livy frequently, especsally in the
sense of the conditional mood, " I should be." Other writers, especially the
poets and Tacitus, use it in all respects like essem. The perfect fuvi, and
the tenses derived from it,fuveram, fuvisscm, fuvero, are other forms of/tu,
&c., and occur in the earliest poets ; and in like manner we find, in the an-
cient language, escit, escunt, for erit and erunt.
126
LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XLIL
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
[ 157.] IN the following table the terminations are separated
from the root of the verb, which renders it easy to conjugate any
other verb according to these models. The verb lego (see Chap.
XL.) is irregular in the formation of its perfect, but it has been
retained asan example of verbs of the third conjugation, because
the very absence of any peculiar termination in the perfect is a
safeguard against misunderstandings which might arise ; for
example, from duco, duxi; scribo, scripsi; or claudo, clausi.
I. ACTIVE VOICE.
First Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Am-em, I may love.
am-es, thou inayst love.
am-et, he may love.
Plur. am-emus, we may love.
am-etis, ye may love.
am-ent, they may love.
Imperfect.
Sing, am-abam, I loved, or I was Sing, am-arem, I might love.
am-abds. [loving. am-ares.
am-dbat. am-aret.
Plur. am-dbamus. Plur. am-arHmus.
am-dbatis. am-aretis.
am-dbant. am-arent.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Am-o, I love.
am-ds, thou lovest.
am-at, he loves.
Plur. am-amuS) we love
am-atis, ye love.
am-ant, they love.
Future.
Sing, am-dbo, I shall love.
am-dbis.
am-dbit.
Plur. am-dbimus.
am-abitis.
am-dbunt.
Sing, am-uvi, I have loved, or I
am-avisti. [loved.
am-avit.
Plur. um-avinms.
am-avistls.
am-uverunt (e).
Perfect.
Sing, am-avcrim, I may have loved.
am-averis.
am-averit.
Plur. am-averimus.
am-avcrltis.
am-averint.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 127
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pluperfect.
Sing, am-averam, I had loved. Sing, am-avissem, I might have loved.
am-averds. am-avisses.
am-averat. am-avisset.
Plur. am-averumus. Plur. am-avissemtis.
am-averatis. am-avissttis.
am-averant. am-avissent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, am-avero, I shall have loved.
am-averis.
am-averit.
Plur. am-avcrlmus,
am-averltis.
am-averint.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, am-a, love thou. Plur. am-dte, love ye.
Future, Sing, am-tito, thou shalt love. Plur. am-atote, ye shall love.
am-uto, he shall love. am-anto, they shall love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Imperf. (or of an action still going on) am-dre, to love.
Perf. and Plupcrf. (or of an action completed) am-avisse, to have loved.
Future, am-aturum esse, to be about to love.
GERUND.
Gen. am-andi ; Dat. am-ando ; Ace. am-andum ; Abl. am-ando.
SUPINE.
am-atum ; am-atu.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. and Imperf. (of an action still going on) am-ans, loving.
Future, am-aturus, about to love.
Second Conjugation.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Mon-eo, I advise. Sing. Mon-eam, I may advise.
mon-es. mon-eus.
mon-et. . man-eat.
Plur. mon-emus. Plur. mon-edmus.
won-clis. mon-eatis.
mon-ent. mon-eant.
128 LATIN GRAMMAR.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imperfect.
Sing, mon-cbam, I advised, or I was Sing, mon-erem, I might advise.
mon-ebus. [advising. mon-eres.
mon-ebat. mon-eret.
Plur. mon-ebamus. Plur. mon-eremus.
mon-ebutis. mon-cretis.
mon-ebant. mon-erent.
Future.
Sing, mon-ebo, I shall advise.
mon-ebis.
mon-ebit.
Plur. mon-ebimus.
mon-ebitis.
mon-cbunt.
Perfect.
Sing. TWOW-MZ, I have advised, or I Sing mon-uerim, I may have advised.
mon uisti. [advised. mon-ueris.
mon-uit. mon-uerit,
Plur. mon-uimus. Plur. mon-uerlrmus.
mon-uistis. mon-uerltis.
mon-uerunt (e). mon-uerint.
Pluperfect.
Sing, mon-ueram, I had advised. Sing, mon-uissem, I should have ad-
nwn-uerds. mon-uisses. [vised.
mon-uerat. mon-uisset.
Plur. mon-uerdmus. Plur. mon-uissemus.
mon-ueratis. mon-uisselis.
mon- uerant. mon-uissent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, mon-ucro, I shall have advised.
mon-ueris.
mon-uerit.
Plur. mon-uerimus.
mon-uerltis.
mon-uerint.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, mon-e, advise thou. Plur. mon-ete, advise ye.
Future, Sing, mon-cto, thou shalt advise. Plur. mon-etote, ye shall advise.
mon-eto, he shall advise. mon-ento, they shall advise.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Impcrf. mon-ere, to advise.
Perf. and Pluperf. mon-uisse, to have advised,
Future, mon-iturum esse, to be about to advise.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
129
GERUND.
Gen. mon-endi ; Dat. mon-endo ; Ace. mon-endum ; Abl. mon-endo.
SUPINE.
mon-itum; mon-ttu.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. and Imperf. mon-cns, advising.
Future, mon-iturus, about to advise.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Leg-o, I read,
leg-fs.
leg-it.
Phir. leg-imus.
leg-itis.
leg-unt.
Third Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Leg-am, I may read.
leg-as,
leg-at.
Plur. leg-dmus.
leg-atis.
leg-ant.
Imperfect.
Sing. leg-ebam t I read, or I was Sing, leg-erem, I might read.
leg-ebds. [reading.
leg-ebat.
Plur. leg-ebdmus.
leg-ebdtis.
leg-ebant.
Sing, leg-am, I shall read.
leg-es.
leg-et.
Plur. leg-emus.
leg-etis.
leg-ent.
leg-eres.
leg-eret.
Plur. leg-eremus.
leg-eretis.
leg-erent.
Future.
Perfect.
Sing, leg-i, I have read, or I read.
leg-isti.
leg-it.
Plur. leg-imus.
leg-istis.
leg-erunt (e).
Sing, leg-erim, I may have read.
leg-eris.
leg-erit.
Plur. leg-erimus.
leg-erltis.
leg-erint.
K
130
LATIN GRAMMAK.
INDICATIVE.
Sing, leg-eram, I had read.
leg-eras.
leg-erat.
Plur. leg-erdmus.
leg-eratis.
leg-erant.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pluperfect.
Sing, leg-issem, I should have read.
leg-isses.
leg-isset.
Plur. leg-issemus.
leg-issetis.
leg-issent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, leg-era, I shall have read.
leg-eris.
leg-erit.
Plur. leg-eilmus.
leg-erltis.
leg-erint.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, leg-e, read thou. Plur. leg-ite, read ye.
Future, Sing, leg-tto, thou shalt read. Plur. leg-itdte, ye shall read.
leg-fto, he shall read. leg-unto t they shall read.
INFINITIVE.
Pfes. and Imperf. leg- ere, to read.
Perf. and Pluperf. leg-isse, to have read.
Future, lec-turum esse, to be about to read.
GERUND.
Gen. leg-endi; Dat. leg-endo ; Ace. leg-endum ; Abl. leg-endo.
SUPINE.
Icc-tum; lec-tu.
PARTICIPLES.
Pros, and Imperf. leg-ens, reading.
Future, lec-turus, about to read.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 131
Fourth Conjugation.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Aud-io, I hear. Sing. Aud-iam, I may hear.
aud-ls. aud-ids.
aud-it. aud-iat.
Plur. aud-lmus. Plur. aud-idmus.
aud-itis. aud-iatis.
aud-iunt, aud-iant.
Imperfect.
Sing, aud-iebam, I heard, or I was Sing, aud-lrem, I might hear.
aud-iebds. [hearing. aud-ires.
aud-iebat. aud-iret.
Plur. aud-iebdmus. Plur. aud-iremus.
aud-iebdtis. aud-iretis.
aud-iebant. aud-irent.
Future.
Sing, aud-iam, I shall hear.
aud-ies.
aud-iet.
Plur. aud-iemus.
aud-ietis.
aud-ient
Perfect.
Sing, aud-liri, I have heard, or I heard. Sing, aud-iverim, I may have heard.
aud-ivisti. aud-iveris.
aud-ivit. aud-iverit.
Plur. aud-ivimus. Plur. avd-iverlmus.
aud-ivistis. aud-iveritis.
avd-iverunt (e). aud-iverint.
Pluperfect.
Sing, aud-iveram, I had heard. Sing, aud-ivissem, I might have heard.
aud-iveras. aud-ivisses.
aud-iverat. aud-ivisset.
Plur. aud-iverdmus. Plur. aud-ivissemus.
aud-iveratis. aud-ivissetis.
aud-iverant. aud-ivissent,
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing. aud~ivero, I shall have heard.
aud-iveris.
aud-iverit.
Plur. aud-iverimits.
aud-iveritis.
aud-iverint.
K 2
132
LATIN GRAMMAR.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, aud-i, hear them. Plur. aud-ite, hear ye.
Plur. aud-itote, ye shall hear.
Future, Sing, aud-ito, thou shalt hear.
aud-ito, he shall hear.
INFINITIVE.
aud-iunto, they shall hear.
Pres. and Imperf. and-lre, to hear.
Perf. and Pluperf. aud-ivisse, to have heard.
Future, aud-iturum esse, to be about to hear.
GERUND.
Gen. aud-iendi ; Dat. aud-iendo ; Ace. aud-iendum ; Abl. aud-iendo.
SUPINE.
atid-itum; aud-ltu.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. & Imperf. aud-iens, hearing.
Future, aud-iturus, about to hear.
\ 158.] H. PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Am-or, I am loved.
am-aris (e).
am~atur.
Plur. am-amur.
am-amini.
am-antur.
First Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Am-er, I may be loved.
am-eris (e).
am-etur.
Plur. am-emur.
am-emini.
am-entur.
Imperfect.
Sing, am-abar, I was loved, or I was Sing, am-drer, I might be loved.
am-abaris (e). [being loved. am-areris (e).
am-dbatur. am-aretur.
Plur. am-abamur. Plur. am-aremur.
ain-abamini. am-aremini.
am-abantur. am-arentur.
Future.
Sing, am-abor, I shall be loved.
am-aberis (e).
am-abitur.
Plur. am-abimur.
am-abimini.
am-abuntur.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 133
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Perfect.
Sing, am-atus (a, Mm) sum, I have Sing- am-dtus (a, urn) ^im, I may
been loved, or I was loved. have been loved.
am-atus es. am-dtus sis.
am-atus est. am-atus sit.
Plur. am-ati (ae, a) sumus. Phir. am-dti (ae, a) simus.
am-ati estis. am-ati sitis.
am-ati sunt. am-dti sint.
Pluperfect.
Sing, am-atus (a, um) eram, I Sing, am-dtus (a,um) essem, I might
had been loved. have been loved.
am-dtus eras. am-dtus esses.
am-dtus erat. am-dtus esset.
Plur. am-dti (ae, a) eramus. Plur. am-dti (ae, a) essemus.
am-dti eratis. am-dti essetis.
am-dti erant. am-dti essent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, am-dtus (a, um) ero, I shall have been loved.
am-dtus eris.
am-dtus erit.
Plur. am-dti (ae, a) erimus.
am-dti eritis.
am-dti erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, am-are, be thou loved. Plur. am-amini, be ye loved.
Future, Sing, am-ator, thou shalt be loved. Plur. am-aminor, ye shall be loved.
am-ator, he shall be loved. am-antor, they shall be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Imperf. (or of a passive state still going on), am-ari, to be loved.
Perf. and Pluperf. (or of a state completed), am-dtum (am, um) esse, to have
been loved.
Future, am-dtum iri, to be about to be loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Perfect, am-dtus, a, um, loved.
In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), am-andus, a, um,
deserving or requiring to be loved.
K. 3
134
LATIN CRAMMAK.
Second Conjugation.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Mon-eor, I aiu advised.
mon-eris (e).
mon-etur.
Plur. mon-emur.
mon-emini.
mon-entur.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Man-ear, I may be advised.
mon-edris (e).
mon-eatur.
Plur. mon-eamur.
mon-eamini.
mon-eantur.
Imperfect.
Sing, mon-ebar, I was advised, or
I was being advised.
mon-ebdris (e).
mon-ebatur.
Plur. mon~ebamur.
mon-ebamini.
mon-ebantur.
Sing, mon-erer, I might be advised.
mon-ereris (e).
mon-eretur.
Plur. mon-eremur.
mon-eremini.
mon-erentur.
Future.
Sing, mon-ebor, I shall be advised.
mon-eberis (e).
mon-ebitur.
Plur. mon-ebimur.
mon-ebimini.
mon-ebuntur.
Sing, mon-itus (a, urn) sum, I have
been advised, or I was adv.
mon-itus es.
mon-itus est.
Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) sumus.
mon-iti estis.
mon-iti sunt.
Perfect.
Sing, mon-itus ( a, um) sim, I
have been advised.
mon-itus sis.
mon-itus sit.
Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) simus.
mon-fti sitis.
mon-tti sint.
may
Pluperfect.
Sing, mon-itus (a, um) eram,
had been advised.
mon-itus eras.
mon-itus erat.
Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) eramus.
mon-fti eratis.
mon-iti erant.
Sing, mon-itus (a, um) essem, I
should have been advised.
mon-itus esses.
mon-itus esset.
Plur. mon-tti (ae, a) essemus.
mon-iti essetis.
mon-iti essent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, mon-itus (a, um) ero, I shall have been advised.
mon-itus eris.
mon-itus erit.
Plur. mon-iti (ae, a) erimus.
mon-iti eritis.
mon-iti erunt.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 135
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, mon-ere, be thou advised. Plur. mon-emini, be ye advised.
Future, Sing, mon-etor, thou shalt be Plur. mon-eminor, ye shall be
advised. advised.
mon-etor, he shall be &c. mon-entor, they shall be &c.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Imperf. mon-eri, to be advised.
Perf. and Pluperf. mon-itum (am, um) esse, to have been advised.
Future, mon-itum iri, to be about to be advised.
PARTICIPLES.
Perfect, mon-ttus, advised.
In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), mon-endus t de-
serving or requiring to be advised.
Third Conjugation.
INDICATIVE. SDBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Leg -or, I am read. Sing. L'eg-ar, I may be read.
leg-eris (e). leg-aris (e).
leg-itur. leg-atur.
Plur. leg-imur. Plur. leg-amur.
leg-imini. leg-amini.
leg-untur. leg-antur.
Imperfect.
Sing, leg-ebar, I was read, or I was Sing, leg-erer, I might be read.
leg-ebdris (e). [being read. leg-ereris (e).
leg-ebatur. leg-eretwr.
Plur. leg-ebamur. Plur. leg-eremur.
leg-ebamini, leg-eremini.
leg-ebantur. leg-erentur.
Future.
Sing, leg-ar, I shall be read.
leg-eris (e).
leg-etur.
Plur. leg-emur.
leg-emini.
leg-entur
Perfect.
Sing, lec-tus (a, urn) sum, I have Sing, lec-tus, (a, um) sim, I may have
been read, or I was read. been read.
lec-tus es. lec-tus sis.
lec-tus est. . lec-tus sit.
Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) sumus. Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) simus.
lec-ti estis. lec-ti sitis.
lec-ti aunt. lec-ti sint.
K 4
136
LATIN GRAMMAR.
INDICATIVE.
Sing, lec-tus (a, urn) eram,
had been read.
lec-tus eras.
lec-tus erat.
Plur. lec-ti (a0, a) eramus.
lec-ti eratis.
lec-ti erant.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pluperfect.
Sing, lec-tus (a, urn) essem, I should
have been read.
lec-tus esses.
lec-tus esset.
Plur. lec-ti (ae, a) essemus.
lec-ti essetis.
lec-ti essent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, lec-tus (a, urn) ero, I shall have been read.
lec-tus eris.
lec-tus erit.
Plur. lec-ti erimus.
lec-ti eritis.
lec-ti erunt.
IMPERATIVE.
Present, Sing, leg-ere, be thou read. Plur. leg-imini, be ye read.
Future, Sing. leg-ttor, thou shalt be read. Plur. leg-iminor, ye shall be read.
leg-itor, he shall be read. leg-untor, they shall be read.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Imperf. leg-i, to be read.
Perf. and Pluperf. lec-tum (awi, urn) esse, to have been read.
Future, lec-tum iri, to be about to be read.
PARTICIPLES.
Perfect, lec-tus, read.
In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), leg-endus, de-
serving or requiring to be read.
INDICATIVE.
Sing. Aud-ior, I am heard.
aud-lris (<?).
aud-itur.
Plur. aud-lmur.
aud-imini.
aud-iuntur.
Fourth Conjugation.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Aud-iar, I may be heard.
aud-iaris (e).
aud-iatur.
Plur. aud-iamur.
aud-iamini.
aud-iantur.
Imperfect.
Sing, aud-iebar, I was heard, or I Sing, aud-irer, I might be heard.
was being heard.
aud-iebdris(e). aud-ireris (e).
aud-iebatur. aud-iretur.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 137
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Plur. au.d-ieba.mur. Plur. aud-iremur.
aud-iebamini. aud-iremini.
aud-iebantur. aud-irentur.
Future.
Sing, aud-iar, I shall be heard.
aud-ieris (e).
aud-ietur.
Plur. aud-iemur.
aud-iemini.
aud-ientur.
Perfect.
Sing, aud-ltus (a, uni) sum, I have Sing, aud-ltus (a, urn) sim, I may
been heard, or I was heard. have been heard.
aud-ltus es. aud-ltus sis.
aud-ltus est. aud-ltus sit:
Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) sumus. Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) simus.
aud-lti estis. aud-lti sitis.
aud-lti stint. aud-lti sint.
Pluperfect.
Sing, aud-ltus (a, urn) eram, I Sing, aud-ltus (a, urn) essem, I might
had been heard. have been heard.
aud-ltus eras. aud-ltus esses,
aud-ltus erat. aud-ltus esset.
Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) eramus. Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) essemus.
aud-lti eratis. aud-lti essetis.
aud-lti erant. aud-lti essent.
Second Future, or Future Perfect.
Sing, aud-ltus (a, urn) era, I shall Have been heard.
aud-ltus eris.
aud-ltus erit.
Plur. aud-lti (ae, a) erimus.
aud-lti eritis.
aud-lti erunt.
IMPEEATIVE.
Present, Sing, aud-lre, be thou heard. Plur. aud-imini, be ye heard.
Future, Sing, aud-ltor, thou shalt be heard. Plur.aMrf-iminor,ye shall be heai-d.
aud-ltor, he shall be heard. aud-iuntor, they shall be &c.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. and Imperf. aud-lri, to be heard.
Perf. and Pluperf. aud-ltum (am, urn) esse, to have been heard.
Future, aud-ltum iri, to be about to be heard.
PARTICIPLES.
Perfect, aud-ltus, heard.
In dus (commonly called Future, or Future of Necessity), aud-iendus, de-
serving or requiring to be heard.
138
LATIN GRAMMAR.
III. DEPONENTS.
[ 159.] With regard to conjugation the deponent differs from
the passive only by the fact that it has both the participles
of the active and of the passive voice, that is, for all the three
states of an action : that in ns for an action not completed ; that
in us, a, urn for an action completed ; and that in urus, a, um
for one about to take place. The fourth participle in ndus with
a passive signification is an irregularity, and is used only in
those deponents which have a transitive signification ; e. g. hor-
tandus, one who should be exhorted. Of deponents which have
an intransitive meaning, e. g. loqui, this participle is used only
sometimes, chiefly in the neuter gender (often, but erroneously,
called the gerund), and in a somewhat different sense, e. g.
loquendum est, there is a necessity for speaking. It will be
sufficient in the following table to give the first persons of each
tense, for there is no difficulty, except that these verbs with a
passive form have an active meaning.
A. INDICATIVE.
1st Conjug. 2d Conjug. 3d Conjug. 4th Conjug.
Present.
S. hort-or, I ex- ver-eor, I fear. sequ-or, I follow, bland-ior, I flatter.
hort.
P. hort-amur.
S. hort-abar.
P. hort-abamur.
S. hort-abor.
P. hort-abimur.
S. hort-atus (a,
um) sum.
P. hort-ati (ae, a)
sumus.
S. hort-atus (a,
um) eram.
P. hort-ati (ae, a)
eramus.
ver-ebar.
ver-ebamur.
sequ-tmur.
Imperfect.
sequ-ebar.
sequ-ebamur.
First Future.
ver-ebor.
ver-ebimur.
sequ-ar.
sequ-emur.
Perfect.
ver-ftus (a, urn) secu-tus (a, uni)
sum. sum.
ver-tti (ae, a) su- secu-ti (ae, a) su-
mus. mus.
Pluperfect.
vcr-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um)
eram. eram.
ver-iti (ae, a) era- secu-ti (ae, a) era-
mus. mus.
bland-imur.
bland-iebar.
bland-iebamur.
bland-iar.
bland-iemur.
bland-ltus (a, MOT)
sum.
bland-lti (ae, a) su-
mus.
bland-itus (a, um)
eram.
bland-iti (ae,a) era-
mus.
DEPONENTS. 139
1st Conjug. 2d Conjug. 3d Conjug. 4th Conjug.
Future Perfect.
S. hort-atus (a, ver-itus (a, urn) secu-tus (a, uin) bland-itus (a, uni)
urn) ero. ero. era. ero.
P. hort-ati (ae, a) ver-iti (ae, a) eri- secu-ti (ae, a) eri- bland-iti (ae, a) eri~
B.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
S. hort-er.
P. hort-emur.
er-ear.
rer-eamwr.
Present.
sequ-ar.
sequ-amur.
bland-iar.
bland-iamur.
S. hort-drer.
P. hort-aremur.
rer-erer.
ver-eremur.
Imperfect.
sequ-erer.
sequ-eremur.
bland-irer.
bland-iremur.
Perfect.
S. hort-atus (a, ver-itus (a, urn) secu-tus (a, urn) bland-itus (a, urn)
uni) sim. sim. sim. sim.
P. hort-ati (ae, a) ver-iti (ae, a) si- secu-ti (ae, a) si- bland-iti (ae, a) si-
simus. mus. mus. mus.
Pluperfect.
S. hort-atus (a, ver-itus (a, um) secu-tus (a, um) bland-itus (a, uni)
um) essem. essem. essem. essem.
P. hort-ati (ae, a) ver-iti (ae, a) es- secu-ti (ae, a) es- bland-iti (ae, a) es-
essemus. semus. semus. semus.
C. IMPERATIVE.
Present.
S. 2. hort-are.
P. 2. hort-amini.
ver-ere.
ver-emini.
u
sequ-imini.
bland-Ire,
bland-imini.
Future.
S.-2. hort-ator.
3. hort-ator.
ver-etor.
ver-etor.
seow-itor.
sequ-itor.
bland-ltor.
bland-itor.
P. 2. (is wanting, but is supplied by the Future Indicative.)
3. hort-antor. ver-entor. sequ-untor. bland-iuntor.
D. INFINITIVE.
Present and Imperfect.
hort-ari. ver-eri. sequ-i. bland-iri.
Perfect and Pluperfect.
hort-atum (am, ver-itum(am,um) secu-tum(am,um) bland-itum (am, um)
um) esse. esse. esse. esse.
Future.
hort-aturum (am, vcr-iturum (am, sccu-turum (am, bland-iturum (am,
um) esse. um) esse. um) esse. um) esse.
140
LATIN GRAMMAR.
E. GERUND.
Gen. hort-andi.
Dat. hort-ando.
Ace. hort-andum.
Abl. hort-ando.
ver-endi.
ver-endo.
ver-endum.
ver-endo.
scqu-endi.
sequ-endo.
sequ-endum.
sequ-endo.
bland-iendi.
bland-iendo.
bland-iendum.
bland-iendo.
hort-ans.
hort-atus, a, urn.
hort-aturus, a,um.
hort-andus, a, um.
1. hort-atum.
2. hort-atu.
F. PARTICIPLES.
Present and Imperfect.
ver-ens. sequ-ens. bland-iens.
Perfect and Pluperfect.
ver-itus, a, um. secu-tus, a, um. bland-itus, a, um.
Future.
ver-iturus, a, um. secu-turus, a, um. bland-iturus, a, um.
Future, with Passive Signification.
ver-endus, a, um. sequ-endus, a, um. bland-iendus, a, um.
ver-itum.
ver-itu.
G. SUPINE.
secu-tum.
secu-tu.
bland-ltum.
bland-ltu.
Note. The supine secutum and the participle secutus arc analogous to
solutum and solutus, from solvo, in pronunciation and orthography ; for the
consonant v, which is audible in the present sequor, is softened into the
vowel , and lengthened according to the rule mentioned above, 154. In
sequutum, as some persons write, the additional vowel u cannot be explained
in any way. The same is the case with locutum from loquor. (Comp. above,
5. in fin.)
CHAP. XLIII.
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS.
[ 160.] 1. IN the terminations avi, evi } and ivi of the tenses
expressing a completed action, viz. of the perfect and pluperfect,
indicative and subjunctive, and of the future perfect, as well as
of the infinitive perfect active, a syncopation takes place.
) In the first conjugation the v is dropped and the vowels a-i
and a-e are contracted into a long a. This is the case wherever
avi is followed by an s, or ave by an r ; e. g. amavisti, amdsti ;
amavissem, amdssem ; amavisse, amdsse ; amaverunt, amdrunt ;
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 141
amaverim, amdrim ; amaveram, amdram ; amavero, amdro,
&c. Both forms, the entire and the contracted one, are on the
whole of the same value, but the latter seems to be chiefly
used, when the contracted vowel is followed by an s, whereas
the entire form was preferred in those cases where an r follows,
although even in this case Livy is rather partial to the con-
tracted form ; e. g. vindicarimus, oppugnarimus, necarimus, ma~
turarimus ; in Cicero too it is not uncommon. A contracted
form of the verb juvare (adjuvare) occurs only in the more
ancient language ; e. g. adjuro for adjuvero in a verse of Ennius
(ap. Cic. Cat. Maj. 1.).
b) The termination evi in the second and third conjugations
is treated in the same manner ; e. g. neo, I spin, nevi, nesti,
nestis, nerunt. Thus we often find complessem, deleram, and in the
third conjugation consuerunt for consueverunt, quiessem, decressem,
decresse for decrevisse ; siris, sirit, for siveris and siverit. The
termination ovi however is contracted only in novi, novisse, with
its compounds, and in the compounds of moveo, movi; e. g.
norunt, nosse, cognoram, cognoro, commossem.
c) In the fourth conjugation ivi is frequently contracted be-
fore 5, hence instead of audivisse, audivisti, audivissem, we find
audisse, audisti, audissem, and in the time of Quintilian the
latter forms must have been more commonly used than the
others. But there is another form of the tenses expressing a
completed action, which arises from simply throwing out the v :
audii, audiissem, audieram, audiero. But it must be observed
that those forms in which two i meet are not used at all in good
prose (as in Cicero), except in the compounds of the verb ire (see
205.), and are found only here and there in poetry, as in Virgil:
audiit, mugiit, muniit, especially when the word would not
otherwise suit the dactylic hexameter, as for example oppetii,
impediit. In those forms, on the other hand, where i and e meet,
the v is frequently thrown out even in good prose ; e. g. audic-
runt, desierunt) definieram, quaesieram.
Note. A contraction occurs in the perfect of the first, second, and fourth
conjugations, when a t or m follows ; the forms of the perfect then be-
come externally like those of the present tense, and can be distinguished
only in some cases by the length of the vowel. This contraction occurs only
in poetry, but not very commonly. Some grammarians have denied it alto-
gether, and have endeavoured to explain such passages by supposing that
they contain an enallage, that is, an interchange of tenses ; but such a sup-
142 LATIN GRAMMAR.
position involves still greater difficulties. Priscian, in several passages, men-
tions the contracted forms fumut, audit, cuplt, for fumavit, audivit, cupivit, as
of common occurrence, which at least supports in general the view of the
ancient grammarians, although it does not render an examination of the par-
ticular passages superfluous. We shall pass over the less decisive passages ; but
it for iit is undeniable in petiit (in Virg. Aen. ix. 9.) ; desit (in Martial, iii.
75. 1., and x. 86. 4.) ; abit, obit, and perit (in Juvenal, vi. 128. 559. 295.
563., and x. 118.). We accordingly consider that quum edormit, in Hoi-ace
(Serm. ii. 3. 61.), is likewise a perfect. In the first and second conjugations
there are some instances which cannot be denied. To view donat in Horace
(Serm. i. 2. 56.) as a present would be exceedingly forced ; but if we con-
sider it as a contracted perfect, it quite agrees with the construction. Com-
pare Terent. Adelph. iii. 3. 10. : omnem rem modo seni quo pacto hdberet
enarramus ordine ; Propert. ii. 7. 2. : flemus uterque diu ne nos divideret.
Lastly, the first person in ii is found contracted into i; Persius, iii. 97.:
sepeli ; Seneca, Here. Oct. 48. : redi ; Claudian, in Rufin. ii. 387. : unde redi
nescis.
2. Another syncopation, which frequently occurs in early
Latin, and is made use of even in the later poetical language of
Virgil and Horace, consists in the throwing out of the syllable
is in the perfect and pluperfect of the third conjugation after an
s or an x ; e. g. evasti, for evasisti ; dixti, for dixisti ; divisse, for
divisisse ; admisse for admisisse ; sis is thrown out in percusti for
percussisti in Horace ; iss too is rejected in forms like surrexe,
for surrexisse ; consumpse, for consumpsisse ; so also abstraxe, for
abstraxisse ; abscessem, for abscessissem ; erepsemus, for erepsisse-
mus, and others.
[i6i.] 3. The forms of the future perfect and of the perfect
subjunctive in the first conjugation in asso and assim, for avero
and averim ; in the second in esso and essim, for uero and uerim ;
and in the third in so and sim, for era and erim, are obsolete.
Numerous instances of these occur in ancient forms of laws (and
in later imitations of such forms) and in Plautus and Terence.
Note. In this manner are formed, commonstrasso, levasso, peccasso, creas-
sit, cooptassit, imperassit, and many others of the first conjugation. The
following belong to the second : licessit, cohibessit, prohibessis, and ausim.
Capso, capsis, capsit, capsimus, accepso, rapsit, surrepsit, occisit, incensit,
adcmpsit, axim, adaxint, taxis, objexim, objexis, and others, occur in the third
conjugation. The following forms deserve especial mention : faxo, faxim,
faxit, faxlmus (Plaut. True. i. 1. 40.), faxitis, faxint. But there is no in-
stance of such a syncopation in the fourth conjugation. We believe that this
form is to be explained by the ancient interchange of r and (comp. 7.)
and a syncopation : hence the transition would be this : levavero levaveso
levasso ; accepero accepeso accepso; ademero ademeso adempso ; oc-
cidcrit occidesit occisit, where the d before the s is dropped, as in incen-
dcrit, incensit. The few words of the second conjugation seem to have
been formed in this manner, on the model of the very numerous words
of the third. The irregularity in forming the perfect of words of the third
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 143
conjugation (capso, accepso, faxo, and axim, instead of fexo, cxini) is in
accordance with the ancient language : thus taxis is derived from tago, tango,
and ausim from the perfect ami, which has fallen into disuse. The
form in so is acknowledged to have the meaning of a future perfect : one
example may suffice : Ennius ap. Cic. Cat. Maj. I.: si quid ego adjuro (for
adjuvero) curamve levasso, ecquid erit praemi ? For this and other reasons
we cannot adopt Madvig's view (Opusc. torn. ii. nr. 2.), that this form is a
future made according to the Greek fashion : levo, levasso, like ytXa'w,
yi\aa(i>.
A few remnants only of this formation remained in use in
the best period of the Latin language ; e. g. jusso forjussero in
Virg. Aen. xi. 467.; an&faxo, in the sense of " I will" or " am a ''
determined to do" (see 511.) in poetry, and in Livy, vi. 35.,
faxo ne juvet vox ista Veto, I will take care that this word Veto
shall be of no avail to you. But especially the subjunctive faxit,
faxint, expressing a solemn wish, as Cicero (in Verr. iii. 35.) says
in a prayer, dii immortales faxint; and Livy (xxix. 27.) in a
prayer says, dii faxitis auxitis; and in a subordinate sentence
in Horace, Serm. ii. 6. 15., oro ut faxis, and in Persius, i. 112.,
veto quisquam faxit. Lastly ausim and ausit as a subjunctive
expressive of doubt or hesitation "I might venture," oc-
curs in Cicero, Brut. 5., and frequently in Livy and Tacitus.
From these and the numerous passages in Plautus and Terence,
however, it is clear that this subjunctive in sim never has the
signification of a perfect subjunctive, but, in accordance with
its formation, it retains the meaning of a future subjunctive.
Note. In the ancient Latin language we find a passive voice of this form
of the future ; viz. turbassitur, in a law in Cic. de Leg. iii. 4., and jussitiir in
Cato, de Ite Rust. 14., instead of turbatum fuerit and jussus fuerit ; and the
deponent mercassitur in an inscription (Gruter, p. 512. line 20.), for mer-
catus fuerit. An infinitive also, with the signification of a first future active,
is formed from it : as in Plautus : expugnassere, impetrassere, reconciliassere ;
and in Lucretius (Fragm. Non. ii. 218.) : depeculassere et dcargentassere
(consequently only in verbs of the first conjugation) ; for which, in later
times, the circumlocution expugnaturum esse, &c. was used exclusively.
[ 162.] 4. In the remains of the early Latin language, and
sometimes also in the poetical productions of the best age, the
infinitive passive is lengthened by annexing the syllable er; e. g.
amarier', mercarier, labier, legier, mittier; the e in the termi-
nation of the imperfect of the fourth conjugation is thrown out,
e. g. nutribam, lenibam, scibam, largibar, for nutriebam, lenicbam,
sciebam, largiebar, and the future of the same conjugation
is formed in ibo instead of iam; e. g. scibo, scrvibo, for sriam,
144 "LATIN GRAMMAK.
serviam (the two last peculiarities are retained, in ordinary
language, only in the verb ire) ; and lastly, the termination im
is used for em and am in the present subjunctive of the first and
third conjugations, but only in a few verbs ; e. g. edim and co-
medim for edam and comedam, frequently occur in Plautus ; also
in Cicero, ad Fam. ix. 20. in fin., and Horace, Epod. iii. 3., and
Scrm. ii. 8. 90. Duim for dem, and perduim for perdam, from
duo and perduo, ancient forms of these verbs, are found also in
prose in forms of prayers and imprecations ; e. g. Cic. in Catil.
i. 9., pro Dejot. 7. The same form has been preserved in the
irregular verb volo, with its compounds, and in sum: velim, no-
Urn, malim, and sim.
[ 163.] 5. For the third person plural of the perfect active
in erunt there is in all the conjugations another form, ere, which
indeed does not occur at all in Nepos, and in the prose of Cicero
very rarely (see Cic, Orat. 47., and my note on Cic. in Verr. i.
6.), but is very frequently used by Sallust and later writers,
especially by the historians, Curtius and Tacitus. In the con-
tracted forms of the perfect this termination cannot well be
used, because the third person plural of the perfect would in
most cases become the same as the infinitive ; e. g. if we were to
form : amaverunt, amarunt, amare; or deleverunt, delerunt, delere.
The vowel e, in the uncontracted termination erunt, is some-
times shortened by poets, as in Horace, Epist. i. 4. 7. : Di tibi
divitias dederunt artemque fruendi; and Virg., Aen. ii. 774. :
obstupui stetfruntque comae, vox faucibus haesit.
[ 164.] 6. The four verbs, dicere, ducere, facere, and ferre,
usually reject the e in the imperative (to avoid ambiguity):
hence we say die, due, fac,fer, and so also in their compounds,
as educ, effer, perfer, calefac, with the exception of those com-
pounds of facere which change a into 2; e. g. confice, perficc.
Inger for ingere is rare and antiquated.
Of scire the imperative sci is not in use, and its place is sup-
plied by the imperative future scito. Scitote is preferred to
scite in order to avoid the possible confusion with scite, the ad-
verb, which signifies " skilfully."
Note. The imperative future of the passive voice, but more especially of
deponents, has some irregularities in the early language and later imitations
of it : a) The active form is used instead of the passive one ; thus we find
arbitrate, amplexato, utito, nitito, for arbitrator, amplcxator, &c. ; and censento
REMARKS OX THE CONJUGATION.?. 145
for censentor ; utunto, tuento, patiunto, in laws. (See Cic. de Leg. iii. 3. fol.)
b) In the second and third persons singular we not uncommonly find the
forms hortamino, veremino, and others, for hortator, veretor, &c. The forms
antestamino, arbitramino, praefamino, profitemino, fruimino, and progredimino,
occur in Cato, Plautus, and in laws ; and passages of this kind have given
rise to the erroneous opinion that there is a second person plural in minor,
such as hortaminor.
[ 165.] 7. Respecting the quantity of the i in the terminations
rirnus and ritis, in the future perfect and the perfect subjunctive,
the statements of the ancient grammarians not only differ, but
contradict one another. The poets use it long or short ac-
cording as the verse requires it ; though to judge from, the
analogy of erimus, eritis, it seems to be naturally short. In
connection with this (comp. 29.) it must be observed, that the
termination ris of the second person singular is used by poets
both long and short, as in Horace, Serm. II. 2. 74., Carm. III.
23. 3., and IV. 7. 20 and 21., and in the following distich of
Ovid, Amor. I. 4. 31.:
Qiiiie tu reddideris, ego primus pocula sumam,
Kt qua tu biberis, hac ego parte bibam :
where however the influence of the caesura also has its effect.
[ 166.] 8. Instead of the termination ris in the second person
in the passive, re is also used, and with Cicero this is the common
termination in the present and imperfect subjunctive, and in the
imperfect and future indicative, even in cases where the repe-
tition of the syllable re produces a disagreeable sound, as in
vererere, pro Quint. 16., m Verr. iii. 18.; mererere, Divin. 18., de
Fin. ii. 35. In the present indicative, on the other hand, re is
used for ris only in the following passages : Divin. 12. in fin.
and in Verr. iii. 80. init. : arbitrare ; pro Balb. 18.: delectare ;
Pkilip. ii. 43.: inaugurare ; ad Fam. vi. 21.: recordare ; and
v. 13. : videre. Such forms as amere, moneare, loquare, audiare;
amarere, amabare, amabere^ monerere, loqucrere, c. are of
common occurrence in all the conjugations.
[ 167.] 9. The participle future passive of the third and fourth
conjugations (including the deponents) is formed in undus in-
stead of endus, especially when i precedes. In the verb potior
potiundus is the usual form. In other verbs it seems to have
been indifferent which of the two forms was used ; though
in some phrases, such as, infinibus dividundis or rcgundis, injure
dicundo, there seems to have been something conventional in the
L
14 G LATIN GRAMMAR.
use of these forms. We must leave it to the student's own ob-
servation to collect other peculiarities of this kind. Respecting
the verbal, adjectives in bundus, see 248.
[ 168.] 10. This is the place to speak of what is called the
conjugatio periphrastica, or the conjugation by circumlocution.
This name is applied in general to any conjugation formed by
means of a participle and the auxiliary verb esse ; but it is
usually limited to the conjugation formed by means of the two
participles future, in the active and passive, and of the verb
esse, for a conjugation made up of the participle present and
esse does not occur in Latin, (e. g., amans sum would be the
same as amo,} and the combinations of the participle perfect
passive with sum, sim, eram, essem, ero, esse, are considered as a
part of the ordinary conjugation of a verb in the passive voice,
as for example amatus eram, which is the pluperfect passive of
amo. But it must be observed, that in the conjugation of the
passive the perfects of esse are sometimes used instead of the above-
mentioned forms for an incomplete action, such as sum, eram,
ero, &c. Amatum fuisse, therefore, is equal to amatum esse as
an infinitive perfect passive ; amatus fueram is equivalent to
amatus eram, and amatus fuero to amatus ero. Amatus fuero,
in particular, is used so frequently for amatus ero, that formerly
it was looked upon as the ordinary future perfect passive, and
was marked as such in the tables of the four conjugations.* But
when the participle is used in the sense of an adjective, and
expresses a permanent state, a difference is clearly discernible ;
e. g. epistola scripta est, when it is a perfect tense, signifies
the letter has been written ; but if scripta is conceived as an
adjective (in contradistinction to a letter not written), the
meaning is, the letter is written, and epistola scripta fuit, in
this case, would signify, the letter has been written (has been
a written one), or has existed as a written one, meaning, that
at present it no longer exists. And this is the usual sense in
which fui is used with the participle perfect, e. g. Liv. xxxviii.
56.: Literni monumcntum monumentoque statua superimposita
* We have abandoned the common practice, partly on account of the
analogy, and partly because the number of instances in which the regular
future perfect with ero occurs is so considerable that there can be no doubt
about it. We do not quote any passages, because this truth is now uni-
versally recognised.
REMARKS ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 147
fait (is there no longer), quam tcmpestate dejectam nuper vidimus
ipsi ; Martial, i. 44.: bis tibi triceni fuimus vocati, that is, " we
were invited, but got nothing to eat:" tantum spectavimus
omnes. The passages therefore in which amatus fui is found
as an ordinary perfect in the sense of amatus sum, may be
doubted in good authors.
Note. Justin (i. 19.), however, writes : Itaque grave bellum natum, in quo
et diu et varia victoria proeliatum fuit (passive) ; Gellius (v. 10.) : Sic ma-
gister eloquentiae confutatus est, et captionis versute excogitatae frustratus fuit
(passive) ; and Plautus several times in deponents ; e. g. oblitus fui, Poenul.
Prolog. 40. ; miratusfui, ibid. v. 6. 10. ; and other passages.
[ 169.] But by the combination of the participle future active
with the tenses of esse, a really new conjugation is formed, de-
noting an intention to do something. This intention may
arise either from the person's own will, or from outward cir-
cumstances, so that, e. g., scripturus sum may either mean " I
have a mind to write, or I am to write," or " I have to write."
The former sense is also expressed by " I am on the point of
writing," or " I am about to write," and this signification is
carried through all the tenses of esse.
Scripturus sum, I am about to Scripturus fui, I was or have
write. been about to write.
Scripturus eram, I was about Scripturus fueram, I had been
to write. about to write.
Scripturus ero, I shall be about Scripturus fuero, I shall have
to write. been about to write.
But the last of these forms was very seldom used, and occurs
only in one passage of Seneca, Epist. ix. 14.: sapiens non
vivet si fuerit sine homine victurus, that is, if he should be
obliged to live without human society. The subjunctive oc-
curs in the same manner.
Scripturus sim. Scripturus fuerim.
Scripturus essem. Scripturus fuissem.
Scripturus sim and scripturus essem serve at the same time as
subjunctives to the future scribam ; but scripturus fuerim and
scripturus fuissem are not used as subjunctives to the future
perfect, scripsero. The infinitive scripturum fuisse denotes an
action to which a person was formerly disposed, and answers to
the English " I should have written," so that in hypothetical
t 2
148 LATIN GRAMMAR.
sentences it supplies the place of an infinitive of the pluperfect
subjunctive; e. g. in Sueton. Caes. 56.: Pollio Asinius Caesarem
existimat suos rescripturum et correcturum commentaries fuisse,
that is, that he would have re-written and corrected, if he had
lived longer. The infinitive with esse likewise first denotes an
intention: scripturum esse, to intend writing, or to be on the
point of writing ; but it then assumes, in ordinary language, the
nature of a simple infinitive future, for which reason it is in-
corporated in the table of conjugations. For the particulars,
see the Syntax, Chap. LXXVI.
Note. In the passive these gerundive tenses (tempora gerundiva), as they
may be called, are expressed by longer circumlocutions : in eo est, or futurum
est ut epistola scribatur, the letter is to be written, or about to be written ;
in eo erat, or futurum erat ut epistola scriberetur, the letter was to be written,
or about to be written ; in eo erit or futurum erit ut epistola scribatur, it will
then be necessary for the letter to be written.
[ no.] The participle future passive expresses (in the nomi-
native) the necessity of suffering an action, and in combination
with the tenses of esse it likewise forms a new and complete
conjugation (tempora necessitatis) ; e. g. amandus sum, I must
be loved ; amandus eram, it was necessary for me to be loved,
and so on with all the tenses of esse. Its neuter combined with
esse and the dative of a person expresses the necessity of per-
forming the action on the part of that person, and may likewise
be carried through all the tenses, as,
mihi scribendum est, I must mihi scribendum fuit, I have
write. been obliged to write.
mihi scribendum erat, I was mihi scribendum fuerat, I had
obliged to write. been obliged to write.
mihi scribendum erit, I shall be mihi scribendum fuerit, I shall
obliged to write. have been obliged to write.
And so also in the subjunctive and infinitive : mihi scribendum
esse ; mihi scribendum fuisse.
149
WHICH ARE
IRREGULAR IN THE FORMATION OF THEIR PERFECT
AND SUPINE.
CHAP. XLIV.
FIRST CONJUGATION.
[ 171.] THE irregularity of the verbs of this conjugation con-
sists chiefly in this, that they take ui in the perfect, and itum in
the supine, like verbs of the second ; which i, however, is some-
times thrown out. It will be seen from the following list * that
some verbs, in some form or other, again incline towards a re-
gular formation of their tenses.
Crepo, crepui, crepitum, make a noise, rattle, creak.
Compounds : concrepo, make an intense noise ; discrepo, differ ; increpo,
chide, rattle.
Cubo, cubui, cubitum, cubare, lie.
There is some authority for the perfect cubavi, incubavi. (See Ouden-
dorp on Caes. B. Civ. iii. 63.) Compounds : accubo, recline at table ; ex-
cubo, keep watch ; incubo, lie upon ; recubo, lie upon the back ; secubo, .
lie apart, and some others. When the compounds take an m before ft,
they are conjugated after the third, but keep their perfect and supine in
ui, itum. (See Chap. XLVHI.)
JDomo, ui, itum, tame, subdue.
Edomo and perdomo strengthen the meaning.
Sono, ui, itum, resound. (Participle sonaturus.}
Consono, agree in sound ; dissono, disagree in sound ; persono, sound
through ; resono, resound. (Resonavit, Manil. v. 566.)
* It has not been the object to include in this list every irregular verb,
especially compounds, but those only which are necessary in good prose.
When no meaning is assigned to a compound verb, it is because the sense is
easily discoverable from that of the root and the preposition with which it
is compounded.
L 3
150 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Tono, ui, (itum), thunder.
Attono (active), strike with astonishment (participle attorittus) ; in
tuno, commonly intransitive, make a sound (participle intonatus) ; circum-
tono.
Veto, ui, itum, forbid. ( Vetamt, only in Persius, V. 90.)
Mico, ui, (without supine,) dart out, glitter.
Emico, ui, atum, dart forth rays; but dimico, fight, makes dimicavi,
atum.
Frico, fricui, fricatum, tta&frictum, rub.
Defrico, infrico, perfrico, refrico, are formed in the same way.
Seco, ui, sectum, cut. (Part, secaturus.}
Deseco, reseco, cut off; disseco, cut in parts.
Juvo, juvi, support, assist ; the supine jutum is rare (see Tac.
Ann. xiv. 4.) ; but the participle juvaturus is found in Sallust,
Jug. 47. ; and Plin., Epist. iv. 15.
So also the compound adjuvo, adjuvi, adjutam, in the participle adjutwus
(Liv. xxxiv. 37.) 5 and adjuvaturus in Petron. 18. Frequentative, adjuto.
Lavo, Idvi, lavatum, lautum, lotum, lavare, wash, or bathe,
which is properly lavari.
The infinitive lavere, whence the perfect lavi seems to come, is pre-
served in old Latin, and is found in poetry, e. g. Hor. Carm. iii. 12. init. :
mala vino lavere, and perhaps also in Caes. De Bell. Gall. iv. 1.
Neco, kill, is regular; but from it are formed, with the same
meaning, eneco, am, atum, and enecui, enectum, both of which
forms are equally well established, but the participle is usually
enectus ; interneco has internecatus.
From Plico, fold, are formed applico, am, atum, and ui, itum;
so explico, am, atum, unfold, explain; implico, implicate.
Cicero regularly uses applicavi and explicavi ; otherwise usage
oa the whole decides in favour of the perfect ui, and the
supine atum. But those derived from nouns in plex form the
perf. and sup. regularly : supplico, duplico, multiplico. Of
replico, whose perfect replicavi occurs in the vulgate, replicatus
only is in use (replictus is an isolated form in Statius, Silv.
iv. 9. 29.).
Poto, drink, is regular, except that the supine usually, instead
ofpotatum, ispotum, whence potus, which is both active and
passive, having been drunk, and having drunk. Compounds,
appotus, active ; and epotus, passive.
SECOND CONJUGATION. 151
Do, dedi, datum, dare, give.
Circumdo, surround ; pessundo, ruin ; satisdo, give security ; venundo,
sell ; are formed like do. The other compounds addo, condo, reddo, belong
to the third conjugation. (See Chap. XL VII.) From a second form duo
we find in early Latin the subjunctive duim, duis, duit, also in the com-
pounds credo and perdo creduam and creduim, perduim. Cic. p. Reg.
Dejot. 7. : di te perduint. See 162.
Sto, steti, statum, stare, stand.
The compounds have iti in the perfect; e.g. consto, to consist of; exsto,
exist or am visible ; insto, insist ; obsto, hinder ; persto, persevere ;
praesto, surpass ; resto, remain over and above. Only those compounded
with a preposition of two syllables retain eti in the perfect, viz. antesto,
circumsto, intersto, supersto. The supine, which is mentioned especially
on account of the participle future, does not exist in all the compounds,
but wherever it is found, it is atum. The supine praestitum of praesto is
certain in late authors only, whereas praestaturus is frequent. Of disto,
the perfect and supine are wanting.
The active verbs juro and coeno have a participle with a
passive form, but an active signification : juratus (with the com-
pounds conjuratus and injuratus), one who has sworn ; and
coenatus, one who has dined. From the analogy of conjuratus,
the same active signification was afterwards given to conspiratus,
one who has formed a conspiracy or joined a conspiracy.
CHAP. XLV.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
[ 172.] THE irregularity of verbs of the second conjugation
consists partly in their being defective in their fo'rms, and
partly in their forming the perfect and supine, or one of them,
like verbs of the third conjugation. With regard to the
first irregularity, there are a great many verbs in this con-
jugation which have no supine, that is, which not only have no
participle perfect passive (which cannot be a matter of surprise,
since their meaning does not admit of it), but also no participle
future active. (See 153.) The regular form of the perfect is
ui, and of the supine itum ; but it must be observed at the same
j. 4
152
LATIN GKAMMAR.
time that some verbs throw out the short i in the supine ; and
all verbs which in the present have a v before eo undergo a
sort of contraction, since, e. g., we find cdvi, cautum, instead
of cavui, cavitum, from caveo, but this can scarcely be considered
as an irregularity, since v and u was only one letter with the
Romans. Respecting the lengthening of the vowel in dissyllabic
perfects, see 18.
We shall subjoin a list of the regular verbs of this conjugation
as exercises for the beginner, confining ourselves to the form
of the present.
Caleo, am warm.
Inchoat. calesco,
Careo, am without.
Debeo, owe.
Doleo, feel pain.
Habeo, have.
Compounds : adhibeo, cohibeo,
&c., a being changed into i.
Jaceo, lie.
Liceo, am to be sold.
Not to be confounded with the
Mereo, merit.
Moneo, admonish.
Noceo, injure.
Pareo, obey (appear).
Compound : apptireo, appear.
Pluceo, please.
Praebeo, offer, afford.
Tdceo, am silent.
The partic. tacitus, is commonly
an adjective.
Terreo, terrify.
Valeo, am well.
impersonal licet, it is permitted.
See Chap. LX.
To these regular verbs we may first add those of which we
spoke shortly before, viz. :
[ 173.] a) Those which make the Perfect in vi instead of vui.
Caveo, cdvi, cautum, cavere, take care.
Praecaveo, take precaution.
Connweo, nivi, or nisei (neither very common), no supine ; close
the eyes.
Faveo, favi, fautum, am favourable.
Fooeo, Jovi, fotum, cherish.
Moveo, movi, motum, move.
Commoueo and permoveo strengthen the meaning ; amoveo and submoveo,
remove ; admoveo, bring to ; promoveo, bring forwards ; removeo, bring
back, OP remove.
Pdveo, pdvi, (no supine), dread.
Hence the compound inchoat. cxpavesco, expavi, is more commonly
used, especially in the perfect.
SECOND CONJLGATIOX. 153
Voveo, vovi, vutum, vow ; devoveo, devote with imprecation.
Ferveo, fervi, an&ferbui, (no supine,) glow, am hot.
Fervit, fervat, fervere, after the third (oomp. Virg. Georg. i. 455., with
Quintil. i. 6. 7.), is an archaism. The inchoatives of the third conjugation
effervesco, refervesco, have the perfect in vi and bui (vi is more frequent
in Cicero) ; in confervesco, bui alone is known.
[ 174.] b~) Those ichich make the Perfect in evi instead 'of \u.
Deleo, delevi, deletum, extinguish, destroy.
Fleo, flevi, fatum, weep.
Neo, nevi, netum, spin.
(From Pleo), compleo, compleui, completum, fill up ; expleo, impleo.
From oleo, grow, we have the compounds : aboleo, abolish ; alo-
Icsco, cease ; adoleo, adolesco, grow up ; exoleo or exolesco and
obsoleo or obsolesco, grow obsolete ; all of which have evi in
the perfect ; but the supine of aboleo is dbolitum t of adolesco,
adultum, and the rest have etum: exoletum, obsoletum. Be-
sides abolitum, however, there exist only the adjectives adultus,
exoletus, obsoletus.
[ 175.] c) Those ichich throw out the short i in the Supine.
Doceo, docui, doctum, teach.
Compounds : edoceo and perdoceo, strengthen the meaning ; dedoceo,
teach otherwise.
Teneo, tenui, (tentum, rare,) hold, keep.
Contineo, keep together ; detiiieo, keep back ; distineo, keep asunder ; and
rctiiieo, retain, have in the supine tentum. Attineo, keep occupied by or iu
a thing ; pertineo, belong to ; and sustineo, keep upright, have no supine :
and from abstineo, abstain, it is found only in legal phraseology (abstentus
hereditate, excluded from the succession).
Misceo, miscui, mixtum or misttim, mix.
Mixtum is better attested by MSS. than misturn. Compounds are,
admisceo, commisceo, immisceo, permisceo.
Torreo, torrui, tostum, roast.
To these we may add
Censco, censui, censum (participle also censitus), estimate, be-
lieve.
Percenseo, enumerate, without supine. Of accenseo, reckon with, we
find accensiis ; of succenseo, am angry, succensurus ; and recenseo, examine,
makes both recenaum and recensltum^ the latter of which is perhaps better
attested.
154 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 176.] rf) Those which make the Perfect regularly in ui, but
have no Supine.
Arceo, arcui, arcere, keep off.
But the compounds coerceo, coerce ; exerceo, exercise ; have a supine
in ttum.
y have a hard skin, am skilled in (callidus).
Candeo, shine, glow (candidus).
Egeo, want. Compound, indigeo.
(From mineo), emmeo, stand forth.
Floreo, flourish.
Frondeo, have foliage ; effrondui.
Horreo, shudder, am horrified (horridus).
Compounds : dbhorreo, and a number of inchoatives, as horresco, per-
horresco.
Langueo, am languid (languidus).
Lateo, am concealed.
Compounds : interlateo, perlateo, sublateo.
Madeo, am wet (madidus).
Nlteo, shine (nitidus).
Compounds : eniteo, interniteo, praeniteo.
Oleo, smell.
Compounds : aboleo and redoleo, have the smell of; suboleo, smell a
little.
Palleo, am pale.
Pateo, am open.
Rigeo, am stiff (rigidus).
Rubeo, am red (rubidus).
Slleo, am silent.
Sorbeo, sorbui, sip.
Perf. sorpsi, very rare. Compounds : dbsorbeo and exsorbeo.
Sordeo, am dirty (sordidus).
Splendeo, am splendid (splendidus).
Stiideo, endeavour, study.
Stupeo, am startled, astonished (stupidus).
SECOND CONJUGATION. 155
Tlmeo, fear (timidus).
Torpeo, am torpid.
Tumeo, swell, am swollen (tumidus).
Vlgeo, am animated.
Vireo, am green or flourish.
Besides these, there is a number of similar verbs which are
derived from adjectives, and occur more rarely, and chiefly in
the form of inchoatives, for the Latin language has great
freedom in the formation of these intransitive verbs and in that
of inchoatives either with or without a primary form. Compare
Chap. LII.
The following are really irregular verbs, and follow the ana-
logy of the third conjugation :
[ 177.] 1. Verbs which make the Perfect in si and the Supine
in sum.
Ardeo, arsi, arsum, ardere, burn.
Haereo, haesi, haesum, cleave.
Compounds : adhaereo, cohaereo, inhaereo.
Jubeo, jussi, jussum, command.
Maneo, mansi, mansum, remain. (But mdno, as, flow).
Permaneo (permanes), wait ; remaneo, remain behind.
Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, stroke, caress.
The compounds demudceo and permulceo strengthen the meaning. The
participle permulsus is certain, but demidctus and permulctus likewise
occur.
Mulgeo, mulsi, mulsum, milk.
Participle comp. emvlsus. The derivative nouns mulctus, us, the milk-
ing, mulctra, and mvlctrcde, show that formerly mulctum also existed.
Rldeo, risi, risum, laugh.
Compounds : arrideo (arrldes), smile upon or please : derideo and
irrideo, laugh at, scorn ; subrideo, smile.
Suadeo, suasi, suasum, advise.
Dissuadeo, dissuade ; persuadeo, persuade ; but, like suadeo, with the
dative.
Tergeo, tersi, tersum, tergere, wipe ; is used also as a verb of the
third conjugation : tergo, tersi, tersum, tergere.
Cicero uses tergo more frequently as a verb of the third conjugation,
156 LATIN GltAMMAK.
whereas the compounds abstergeo, detergeo, extcrgeo, incline more towards
the second (abstergebo, Cic. ad Q. Frat. ii. 10.), although in these com-
pounds too the forms of the third are not uncommon.
Of denseo, the ancient and poetical form for denso, densare,
condense (see Bentley on Horace, Carm. i. 28. 19.), the perfect
densi is mentioned by the grammarians, and the existence of a
supine is attested by the adjective densus.
[ 178.] 2. Verbs which make the Perfect in si, but have no
Supine.
Algeo, alsi, alaere, shiver with cold.
The supine is wanting, but from it is derived the adjective alsitis, a, tan,
cold.
Fulgeo, fulsi, fulgere y shine, am bright. (Fulgere is poetical,
but occurs also in Livy, xxxiv. 3.)
Turgeo, tursi (rare), swell.
Urgeo or urgueo, ursi, press.
3. Verbs with the Perfect in si and the Supine in turn.
Indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, indulge.
Torqueo, torsi, tortum, twist.
Compounds : contorqueo, twist together ; distorqueo, twist away ; extor-
queo, wrest out or from.
4. Verbs with the Perfect in xi and the Supine in turn.
Augeo 3 auxi, auctum, increase.
Luceo, Iuxi 3 lucere, shine ; has no supine.
LugeOy luxi, lugere, mourn ; has no supine.
Frigeo, frixi, frigere y am cold ; has no supine.
[ 179.] 5. Verbs with the Perfect in i, and the Supine in sum.
Prandeo, prandi, pransum, dine. The participle pransus has an
active signification : one who has dined.
Sedeo, sedi, sessum, sit.
Assideo (assides), sit by ; desideo, sit down ; circumsedeo or circumsideo,
surround ; insideo, sit upon ; supersedeo, do without ; possideo, possess ;
dissideo, dissent ; praesideo, preside ; resideo, settle down. The last three
have no supine.
SECOND CONJUGATION. 157
Video, vidi, visum, see.
Iwnideo (invides), envy, alicui ; pervideo, see through ; praevideo, fore-
see ; provideo, provide.
Strldeo, stridi, without supine. In poetry stridere.
6. Verbs with a Reduplication in the Perfect.
Mordeo, momordi, morsum, bite.
Pendeo, pependi, pensum, am suspended.
Dependeo, depend, and impendeo, soar above, am impending, lose the
reduplication.
Spondeo, spopondi, sponsum, vow.
Despondeo, despondi, promise ; respondeo^ respondi, answer, are likewise
without the reduplication.
Tondeo, totondi, tonsum, shear.
The compounds lose the reduplication, as attondeo, detonde.o.
[ 180.] 7. Verbs without Perfect and Supine.
Aveo, desire. Compare Chap. LIX. 9.
Calveo, am bald (calvus).
Cdneo, am grey (canus).
Clueo (also in the passive clueor, and after the third conju-
gation, duo, cluere), am called, is obsolete.
Flabeo, am yellow (flavus).
Foeteo, stink (foetidus).
Hebeo, am dull, stupid (Jiebes).
JFfumeo, am damp (humidus).
Llveo, am pale or envious (lividus).
(Mined) immineo, to be imminent, threatening. Promineo, am
prominent.
MaereOy mourn (maestus).
Polleo, am strong.
Renldeo, shine, smile.
Scateo, gush forth (Scatere in Lucretius).
Squaleo, am dirty (squalidni).
Vegeo, am gay (yegetus).
158 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Cieo, cierc, is the same word as the rare and obsolete do, cire,
stir up ; both make the perfect cwi, according to the fourth
conjugation ; in the supine they differ in quantity, cieo making
citum, and do, citum.
Note. In the compounds too, e. g. concieo, excieo, the forms of the
second and fourth conjugation cannot be separated; but we must observe,
that in the signification of " to call," the forms of the fourth are preferred,
e. g. imperf. cibam, cirem ; infinit. ciri ; the participles concitus and excltus
signify " excited ;" whereas excltus means " called out." Percieo and incieo
retain the signification of " to excite," hence percttus and incitus ; but acclre,
to call towards, summon or invite (of which the present indicative does not
occur), has only accltus. Derived from citum are : cifo, quick ; the fre-
quentative citare, and hence exctlo, incito, and suscito.
[ 181.] 8. Semideponents. (See above 148.)
Audeo, ausus sum, venture. (Partic. future ausurus.J
The ancient future subjunctive (see 162.) ausim, ausis, ausit, ausint, is
a remnant of the obsolete perfect ausi. The participle ausus, and its com-
pound inausus, are used in poetical language with a passive signification.
Gaudeo, gavisus sum, rejoice. (Partic. fut. gavisurus.}
Soleo, solitus sum, am accustomed (to do something).
The impersonal compound assolet, signifies " it usually happens."
CHAP. XL VI.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
IN the list of verbs of this conjugation it seems to be still more
necessary, than in the preceding one, to include those verbs
which, according to Chapter XL., form their perfect and
supine regularly. We divide them into several classes ac-
cording to the characteristic letter which precedes the o in the
present, agreeably to the method which has long since been
adopted in Greek grammars.
[182.] 1. Verbs which have a Vowel before o including those
in vo.
The following have the Perfect and Supine regular :
Acuo, acui, acutum, sharpen.
Exacuo and peracuo, strengthen the meaning ; praeacuo, sharpen at the
end.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 159
Arguo, accuse, convict of (perf. passive in the latter sense
usually convictus, from convincere.} Argutus as an adjective
signifies " clear."
Coarguo, the same ; redargw, refute a charge.
Imbuo, to dip, imbue.
Induo, put on ; exuo, strip off.
Luo (participle luiturus), pay, atone for.
Abluo and eluo, wash off; polluo, defile ; diluo, refute, are derived from
another luo (Taw), and all make the supine in lutum.
Minuo, lessen.
Comminuo, deminuo, diminuo, imminuo, strengthen the meaning.
(Nuo, nod, does not occur.; from it are formed)
Abnuo, refuse ; annuo, assent ; innuo, allude, or refer to ; renuo, decline ;
all of which have no supine ; dbnuo alone has a participle future, abnui-
turus.
Ruo (supine ruitum, ruiturus at least is derived from it ; rutum
occurs only in compounds, and is otherwise obsolete), fall.
Diruo, dirui, dirutum, destroy ; obruo, overwhelm ; pronto, rush for-
wards. Corruo, fall down ; and irruo, rush on, have no supine.
Spuo, spit.
Conspuo, spit on ; despuo, reject with disgust.
Statuo, establish.
Constituo and instituo, institute ; restituo, re-establish ; sulstilzto, establish
instead of; destituo, abandon.
Sternuo, sneeze (without supine) ; the frequentative sternuto is
more commonly used.
Suo, sew.
Consuo, sew together ; dissuo and resuo, unsew.
Tribuo, allot to.
Attribuo, the same ; distribuo, divide ; contribuo, contribute.
Solvo, solvi, solutum, loosen.
Absolvo, acquit ; dissolvo, dissolve ; exsolvo, release ; persoho, pay.
Volvo, roll (frequentative voluto).
Evolvo, unroll ; involvo, roll up ; pervolvo, read through.
The folloAving are without a Supine :
Congruo, congrui, agree r and ingruo, penetrate. The simple
verb (gruo or ruo ?) does not exist.
160 LATIX <; HAM MAR.
Mrtun, metal, fear. ( Timco likewise without supine.) So Pris-
ciau. But metutum occurs in Lucret. v. 1139.
Pluo, pluvi, usually impersonal, it rains. Priscian knows only
the perfect plui, which often occurs in Livy. Charisius men-
tions pluxi. Impluvi or implui are of doubtful' authority.
The comp. compluo and perpluo do not occur in the perfect.
The following are irregular :
[ 183.] Capio, cepi, captum, capere, take hold of.
The compounds change a into f, and in the supine a into e, except ante*
capio. Accipio, receive ; excipio, receive as a guest, succeed ; recipio,
recover ; suscipio, undertake ; decipio, deceive ; percipio, comprehend ;
praecipio, give a precept.
Fdcio, fed, factum, do, make.
Arefacio, dry up ; assuefacio and consuefacio, accustom ; calefacio and
tepefacio, warm ; frigefacio, cool ; labefacio, make to totter ; pat<-fnrin,
open ; satisfacio, satisfy. These have in the passive -fio, -fuctux XUHI,
-fieri. But those which change a into i form their own passive in -Jicior,
and make the supine in -fectum : affieio, affect ; conficio and per/icio, com-
plete ; de/icio, fall off, am wanting ; sufficio, elect in the place of another, or
satisfy; interficio, kill; prqficio, make progress; reficio, revive, repair;
officio, stand in the way, injure. Confit, confieri, howaver, is used as a
passive of conficio^ but only in the third person, and not by Cicero. Dejit,
it is wanting, is common in the comic writers.
Other compounds of facio follow the first conjugation : amplifico, sam'-
fico, and the deponents gratlfaor, ludificor.
Jacio, jeci, jactum, throw.
The compounds change a into z, and in the supine into e, except super-
jacio, of which, however, superjectum also is found. Abjicio, throw away ;
adjicio, add ; dejicio, throw down ; ejicio, throw out ; injicio, throw in ;
objicio, throw against ; rejicio, throw back ; transjicio or trajicio, throw or
carry across. These compounds are sometimes found with i instead of ji :
abicere, inicere, reicere (in the last ei is a diphthong in Virg. Eel. iii. 90. :
a flumine reice capellas) ; and this pronunciation was with the ancients
much more frequent, or perhaps the common one, for in MSS. it is
written so almost everywhere ; and Priscian mentions a form icio as syno-
nymous with jacio. No certain conclusion, however, can be come to, as
the most ancient MSS., such as the Codex Mediceus of Virgil, have a
simple i where the length of the preceding syllable shows the existence of
the consonant/
[ 184.] The following have x in the Perfect :
(From the obsolete lacio, entice, of which lacto is the fre-
quentative), allicio, exi, ectum, allure ; illicio, entice in ;
lead astray ; but elicio makes eliciii, eliciliim, draw out.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 161
(From specio, xi, ctum, see, of which the frequentative is
specto) aspiciOy exi, ectum, look on ; conspicio, the same ;
despicio, look down, despise ; dispicio and perspicio, under-
stand ; inspicio, look into ; respicio, look back ; suspicio, look
up, reverence.
Fluo, fluxi, fluctum, flow.
Affluo, flow in ; confluo, flow together ; effluo, flow out ; interfluo, flow
between.
Struo, struxi, structum, build, pile.
Construo and exstruo, build up ; destruo, pull down ; instnto, set in
order.
Vwo, vixi, victum, live.
[ 185.] Other Irregularities.
Fodio, fodi, fossum, dig.
Effodio, dig out ; confodio and perfodio, dig, pierce through ; suffodio,
undermine.
Fiigio, fugi, fugitum, flee.
Aufugio and effiigio, flee away, escape ; confugio and perfugio, take
refuge.
Ciipio, -ivi, -itum, desire.
Discupio, percupio, strengthen the meaning. Concupio only in the
participle concupiens, otherwise concupisco.
Rapio, rapui, raptum, rob, snatch.
Arripio, arripui, arreptum, seize ; dbripio and eripio, snatch away ;
deripio, plunder ; surripio, steal clandestinely.
Pario, peperi, partum, bring forth. (But the particip. fut. act,
pariturus.} Lucretius has pariri.
Quatio (quassi is not found), quassum, shake.
Concutio, ussi, uSsum, shake violently ; diseutio, shake asunder ; excutio,
shake out, oflT (fig. examine) ; incutio, drive into ; percutio, strike ; reper-
cutio, rebound.
Sapio, ivi and ui, (no supine,) am wise.
Destpio (without perfect), am foolish ; resipio, have a taste of, or become
wise again.
(From the obsolete present coepio,) coepi and coeptus sum, coe-
ptum, (coepere,^) have begun. See 221.
1G2 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. XL VII.
[ 186.] 2. VERBS IN DO AND TO.
The following are regular :
Claudo, clausiy clausum, claudere, close.
Conclildo, shut up, conclude ; excludo and secludo, shut out ; iticludo ;
shut in, are all derived from a form cludo which is still in use.
Divldo, divisi, divisum, divide.
Laedo, injure.
Attldo, strike against; illido, strike upon; colUdo, strike together; elldo,
strike out.
Ludo, sport.
Cottudo, play with ; alludo, play upon ; eludo, deludo, and illudo, ridicule.
Plaudo, si, sum, clap.
Applaudo, applaud. The other compounds (with a different pro-
nunciation) have -odo, -osi, -osum ; as explodo, explode ; complodo, clap the
hands ; supplodo, stamp with the feet.
y shave, scrape ; so in abrddo, circumrado, derado, erddo ;
corrado, scrape together.
Rodo, gnaw.
Abrddo and derodo, gnaw off; arrodo, nibble ; circumrodo, nibble all
round ; perrodo, gnaw through.
Trudo, thrust, with its compounds : defrudo, thrust down ;
extrudo, thrust out ; protrudo, thrust forwards.
Vado (no perfect or supine), go.
But evddo, evasi, evasum, escape ; invado, attack ; pervado, go through.
[ 187.] The following are irregular :
a) With a Reduplication in the Perfect.
Cado, cecidi, cdsum, fall.
Of the compounds, these have a supine : incido, inctdi, incdsum, fall in
or upon ; occido, set ; recido, fall back. The rest have none : concido,
sink together ; decido, fall down ; exctdo, fall out of; accidit, it happens
(used most commonly of a misfortune).
THIRD CONJUGATION. 163
Caedo, cecldi, caesum, cut.
Abscido, abscldi, absclsum, cut off; concido, cut to pieces; intido, cut
into ; occido, kill ; recido, cut away. So decido, excido, praecido, and
others.
Pedo, pepedi, (peditum,^) TrspS
Pendo, pependi, pensum, weigh.
Appendo, appendi, appensum, weigh out to; expendo, spend, also con-
sider, like perpendo; suspendo, hang from ; dependo, pay ; impendo, employ
upon or in something. See 179.
Tendo, tetendi, tensum and tentum, stretch.
Extendo, ostendo, protendo, and retendo, have both supines ; but ex- and
protentum are more frequent ; but ostensum. Retentus is found only in
Ovid, Metam. iii. 166., retensus only in Phaedrus, iii. 14. 5. Detendo has
detensus, in Caes. B.C. iii. 85. ; this participle does not elsewhere occur. The
other compounds have only turn in the supine : attAido (sc. animum), attend ;
contendo (sc. me), strive ; distendo, separate, or enlarge by stretching ;
intendo, strain ; obtendo and praetendo, commonly used in the figurative
sense of alleging ; subtendo, stretch beneath.
Tundo, tutiidi, tunsum and tusum, beat, pound.
The compounds have only tusum ; contundo, contudi, contusum, pound
small ; extundo, (figurative) elaborate ; obtundo and retundo, blunt.
Credo, credidi, credltum, believe.
Accredo, accredtiK, give credit to.
The compounds of do, except those mentioned in 171.
Condo, condidi, conditum, build, conceal ; abdo, abdidi, hide. So addo,
add ; dedo, give up ; edo, give out, publish ; perdo, ruin, lose ; reddo, give
back, render, with an adjective of quality ; trado, deliver ; vendo, sell.
(The passive vendi, except the participles venditus and vendendus, is rare,
and occurs only in late writers; venire is used instead. See 215. But
abscondo appears in the perfect more frequently without the reduplication,
abscondi, than with it, abscondidi.)
[ 188.] i) Making di in the Perfect, and sum in the
Supine.
Accendo, incendo, succendo, -cendi, -censum, light, kindle.
Cudo, forge.
Excudo and procudo, fashion, hammer out.
*efendo, defend, ward off.
?do, eat. See 212.
Exedo and comedo, -edi, -esum, (but also comestus,} consume. Ibid.
M 2
164 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Mando (perfect very rare), chew.
Offendo, offend.
Prehendo, seize ; in early times frequently contracted into
prendo.
Apprehendo, comprehendo, lay hold of, (figurative) understand ; depre-
hendo, detect, seize in the fact ; reprehendo, blame.
Scando, climb.
Ascendo and escendo, climb up ; descendo, descend ; conscendo and in-
scendo, mount, embark.
Strldo (also strideo), strldi (no supine), grate, make a harsh
noise.
Fundo, fudi, fusum, pour.
Diffundo, pour out, spread abroad ; offimdo, pour over ; pro/undo, waste ;
affundo, confundo, effundo, in/undo.
[ 189.] c) Other Irregularities, especially that of a double s in
the Supine.
Cedo, cessi, cessum, yield, go.
Abscedo, go away ; accedo, go to ; antecedo, surpass ; concedo, give way ;
decedo, go away ; discedo, separate myself ; excedo, go out ; incedo, march ;
intercede, come between, interpose ; recedo, retreat ; succedo, come into
one's place.
Findo, fidi, fissum, split.
Diffindo, diffidi, split asunder.
Scindo, scidi, scissum, cut.
Conscindo, conscidi, conscissum, tear to pieces ; e. g. vestem, epistolam i
discindo, interscindo (e. g. pontem), perscindo, and prosdndo have similar
meanings. Rescindo, annul. Respecting the forms of abscindo, cut off,
and exscindo, destroy, there is considerable doubt. According to Gro-
novius on Livy, xliv. 5., and Drakenborch on Silius Ital. xv. 473., two
analogous formations are now generally distinguished : abscindo, abscidi,
abscission, and cxscindo, excidi, excissum ; and abscissum and cxcissum are
said to occur where the present is abscindo, exscindo ; but absclsum and
excisum, where abscldo and excldo are derived from caedo. But this sup-
position is contradicted by usage ; for we find, e. g., urbes cxcisa, although
exscindere urbem is a frequent expression ; and all the MSS. of Horace,
Serm. ii. 3. 303., have capiit abscisum, although we may say abscindere
caput. In short, our opinion is that the forms abscissvm and exscissum do
not exist at all, because, in pronunciation, they are the same as absclsum
and, excisum, from abscidere and excidcre, whose signification is not very
different ; and, moreover, that the perfect exscidi also is not founded on
THIRD CONJUGATION. 165
any authority, since the * by which it is distinguished is not heard in
pronunciation, and is better not introduced in writing. Respecting the
pronunciation and orthography, see 6. and Chap. LXVI. Thus there
remain only abscindo, abscidi, abscindere, and excindo, excindere.
Frendo (the perfect does not occur), fressum and fresum, gnash
with the teeth ; also frendeo, frendere.
Meto, messui, messurn, cut, reap.
Demeto, cut off. The perfects messui and demessui are not common ; in
the sense of reaping, messemfeci is more commonly used.
Mitto, mlsi, missum, send.
Admitto, admit, commit; amitto, lose; committo, intrust, commit a fault ;
demitto and dimitto, dismiss ; emitto, send forth ; immitto, send in, against ;
intermitto, omit ; omitto and praetermitto, leave out ; permitto, permit ; pro-
mitto, promise ; remitto, send back ; submitto, send up, send aid.
Pando, pandi, passum (j>ansum rare), spread abroad.
Expando has expansum and expassum ; dispando only dispansum.
Peto, petwi (in poetry, especially in compounds, petiC), petltum,
ask, seek.
Appeto and expeto, strive for ; oppeto, encounter ; repeto, repeat, seek
again ; compete, meet together, correspond.
Sldo (the perfect and supine usually from sedeo), sit down.
The compounds, too, usually take the perfect and supine from sedeo :
consldo, consedi, consessum ; so assido, seat myself beside ; subside, sink ;
insido, sit upon ; desido and resido, seat myself down. But the form
sldi cannot be entirely denied, either in the simple verb or its com-
pounds.
Sisto, stiti (obsolete), statum, stop (whence status), but sisto,
in a neutral sense, makes the perfect and supine from
stare.
The compounds are all intransitive, and have sttti, stitum; sidisisto, sub-
sffti, substitum, stand still ; dbsisto (no supine) and desisto, desist ; assisto,
place myself beside ; coiisisto, halt, consist ; existo, come forth (perf. exist) ;
insisto, tread upon ; obsisto and resisto, resist ; persisto, persist. Those com-
pounded with dissyllabic prepositions may make the perfect in steti, e. g.
circumsteti in Suet. Caes. 82. ; Tacit. Ann. xiii. 52.
Sterto, stertui, (no supine,) snore : the perf. sterti rests on the
authority of the old reading in Ov. Her. viii. 21.
Verto, verti, versum, turn.
Adverto and converto, turn towards ; animadverto (animum adverto), turn
attention to; averto, turn from; everto, destroy; perverto and subverto,
overturn.
Deverto, turn in to a house of entertainment ; praeverto, anticipate ; and
M 3
166 LATIN GRAMMAR.
reverto, turn back; arc used in the present, imperfect, and future as
deponents more commonly than as actives.
fflsus sum it fidere, trust.
So confido, confide ; diffldo, distrust ; which have rarely confldi, diffldi,
in the perfect.
CHAP. XL VIII.
[ 190.] 3. VERBS IN BO AND PO.
Regular are :
Glubo (glupsi), gluptum (at least degluptum is found), glubere,
peel.
Nubo, cover, am married (applied only to the female), participle
nupta, one who is married.
Obnubo, cover over.
Scribo, write.
Describo, copy ; adscribo, inscribo, praescribo, &c.
Carpo, pluck.
Concerpo and discerpo, tear asunder ; decerpo, gather.
Repo, creep.
Arrepo, creep up to ; irrepo, obrepo, subrepo, prorepo.
Scalpo, grave with a pointed tool, or scratch with the finger.
Sculpo, work with the chisel.
Exculpo, cut out ; inscvlpo, engrave.
Serpo, creep. The supine has not yet been found.
Inserpo, proserpo.
[191.] The following are irregular:
The compounds of cubare, to lie, which take an m with a change
of meaning ; those which do not change the simple cubare,
denote 'to lie ; ' the compounds of the 3d Conjugation
commonly signify 'to lay oneself down.'
Accumbo, -cubui, -cubitum, recline at table ; incumbo, lean upon, apply to
THIRD CONJUGATION. 167
something; procumbo, lie down; succumbo, fall under; occumbo (suppl.
mortem'), die.
Btbo, bibi, bibitum, drink.
jBii&o, imbibo.
Lambo, Iambi, (lambitum, Priscian,) lambere, lick.
Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, break, tear.
Abrumpo, break off; erumpo, break out ; corrumpo, destroy ; interrumpo,
interrupt ; irrumpo, break in ; perrumpo, break through ; prorumpo, break
forth.
Scabo, scabi, scabere, scratch with the finger.
Strepo, strepui, strepitum, make a noise.
CHAP. XLIX.
[ 192.] 4. VERBS WITH A PALATAL LETTER, G, C, CT, H,
QU, AND GU (IN WHICH U IS NOT CONSIDERED AS A
VOWEL), BEFORE 0.
Kegular are :
Cingo, cinxi, cinctum, cingere, gird, surround.
Accingo, in the passive, or me, has the same meaning ; discingo, ungird ;
and others.
From^zj/ro, which rarely occurs, are formed :
Affligo, strike to the ground ; confligo, fight ; infligo, strike upon. Pro-
fiigo belongs to the first conjugation.
Frlgo (supine regular, frictum, rarely frixum), roast, parch.
Jungo, join.
Adjungo and conjungo, join to, with ; disjuttgo and sejungo, separate ;
subjungo, annex.
Lingo, lick. (Hence ligurio or ligurrio.}
Mungo, blow the nose (rare) ; eniungo.
Plango, beat, lament.
Rego, rule, guide.
Arrigo, arrexi, arrectum, and erigo, raise on high; corrigo, amend;
ilirigo, direct ; porrigo, stretch out. Pergo (for perrigo}, perrexi, per-
is 4
168 LATIN GRAMMAR.
rectum, go on; surgo (for surrigo), surrexi, surrectum, rise; and hence
assurgo, consurgo, exurgo, insurgo.
Sugo, suck, exugo.
Tego, cover.
Contego and dbtego, cover up ; detego and retego, uncover ; protego,
protect.
Tingo or tinguo, dip, dye.
Ungo or unguo, anoint.
Perungo, strengthens the meaning ; inungo, anoint.
Stinguo, put out (has no perfect or supine, and is of rare occur-
rence).
Compounds : extinguo, and restinguo, -inxi, -inctum ; so distinguo and
instinguo, though from a different root, the Greek <rna>. Only the par-
ticiple instinctus is used in the sense of ' spurred on, inspired,' and no other
tense is found (otherwise instlgare is used).
Traho, draw.
Pertraho strengthens the meaning; attrdho, contraho, detrdho, extraho,
protraho, retraho; subtraho, withdraw secretly.
Veho, carry (active) ; frequent, vecto, -as.
Adveho, carry to; inveho, carry or bring in. The passive of this verb
vehor, vectus sum, vehi, is best rendered by a neuter verb of motion. So
circumvehor, travel round ; praetervehor, sail past ; invehor, inveigh against
These verbs therefore are classed among the deponents.
Dlco, say.
Addlco, adjudge; contradico, edico, indico; inter dico, forbid; praedico.
Duco, guide, lead, draw.
Abduco, adduco, circumduco ; conduco, hire ; deduco, diduco, educo, induce,
introduco, olduco, perduco, produco, reduco; seduco, lead aside; subdwo,
traduco,
Coquo, coxi, coctum, dress.
Concoquo, digest ; decoquo, boil down, squander.
[ 193.] Irregular in the Supine, throwing out n, or
assuming x.
Fingo, finxi, Jictum, feign.
Confingo, the same ; affingo, falsely ascribe ; effingo, imitate ; reftngo,
fashion anew.
Mingo (a more common form of the present is mejio), miru-i,
mictum, make water.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 169
Pingo, pinxi, pictum, paint,
Depingo, represent by painting ; appingo, expingo.
Stringo, strinxi, strictum t squeeze together.
Astringo, draw close ; constringo, draw together ; destringo, draw
out ; distringo, draw asunder ; obstringo, bind by obligation ; perstringo,
ridicule. *
Flgo, fixi, fixurn, fasten.
Afflgo, affix ; transfigo, pierce through.
Verbs in cto, in which t only strengthens the form of the
Present.
Flecto, flexi, flexum, bend. Comp. inflecto.
Necto, nexi and nexui, nexum, bind.
Pecto, pexi, pexum, comb.
Plecto, without perfect and supine, from the Greek, TrX^ero-w,
strike; usually only in the passive, plector, am punished,
smart for. Another plecto, from the Greek 7rXeG), twist, is
obsolete as an active, but forms the foundation of the de-
ponents : amplector, complector ; participle amplexus, corn-
plexus.
Of angoy anxi, torment ; and ningo, ninxi, snow, no supine is
found.
Of clango, ring loudly, neither perfect nor supine ; according to
analogy the former would be clanxi.
[ 194.] The following are irregular in the formation of the
Perfect :
a) Taking a Reduplication.
Parco, peperci, parsum, spare ; par si is rare, and an archaism ;
parcitum is uncertain.
The distinction is commonly made, that in the sense of sparing life,
health, peperci, parcitum, in that of sparing money par si, parsum, are used ;
but the distinction cannot be carried out, for the sense is, in fact, the same,
viz. to consume as little as possible of any thing. Parco or comparco,
-parsi or -persi, -parsum, to accumulate by saving, with the accus., occurs
indeed in comedy ; but this use of the word is very rare, and does not
seem to have been common in ordinary life, where other expressions were
used, such as pecuniam facere, or in futuros usus coUigere, and parco re-
tained its dative and its ordinary meaning.
170 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Pungo, pupiigi, punctum, pierce.
The compounds have in the perfect punxi; as compungo, disputigo, and
interpungo, distinguish with points.
Tango, tetlgi, tactum, touch.
Attingo and contingo, -figi, -tactum, touch ; contingit, contigit; obtingit,
obtigit (as impersonals), it falls to the lot ; usually in a good sense.
Pango, in the sense of strike, drive in, panxi (obsolete pegi},
panctum ; in the sense of bargain, pepigi, pactum. In this
sense paciscor is employed in the present.
The compounds have pegi, pactum; as compingo, fasten together; im-
pingo. So also oppango, oppegi, strike upon. Of depango and repango,
the perfect and supine are found in the classics.
[ 195.] >) Without changing the Characteristic Letter.
Ago, egi, actum, agere, drive.
Cogo (coago), coegi, coactum, drive together, force; perago, carry
through ; abigo, drive away ; adigo, exigo, redigo, subigo, transigo. Pro-
digo, -egi (without supine), squander ; ambigo, am irresolute, doubt, and
satago (satis ago), am busy, are both without perfect and supine.
Dego, degi (rare), no supine, spend (vitam, aetatem).
Frango, freyi, fractum, break.
Confringo and perfringo strengthen the meaning ; effringo and refriiigo,
break open.
Lego, legi, lectum, read. (But lego, as, send off).
So perlego, praelego, with those changing e into i, as colligo, deligo, eligo,
and seligo, are conjugated. But diligo, intelligo (obsolete intellego), and
negligo (obsolete neglego), have -exi in the perfect. The perfects intettegi
and neglegi are uncertain or unclassical.
Ico or icio, ici, ictum, strike, in connection with foedus. Priscian
(p. 877. and 886.) mentions both forms, but nothing can be
decided, as icit only occurs in the present, and iciunt in Ta-
citus (Ann. xi. 9.) is only a wrong conjecture for faciunt.
Otherwise ferio is used in the present instead.
Vinco, vwi, victum, conquer.
ConvincOj persuade ; devinco, overcome ; evinco, carry a point, establish
by argument.
Linquo, liqui, leave, (no supine,) chiefly used in poetry.
The compounds relinquo, derelinquo, delinquo, have liclrnn in the
supine.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 171
[ 196.] c) Perfect si, Supine sum.
Mergo, mersi, mersum, dip.
Emergo, demerge, and immergo, submergo.
Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, scatter.
Aspergo, conspergo, and respergo, -ersi, -erswm, besprinkle; expergo,
sprinkle abroad.
Tergo, tersi, tersum, wipe. (See above, 177.)
Vergo, vergere, incline towards, without perfect and su-
pine.
CHAP. L.
[ 197.] 5. VERBS WHICH HAVE L, M, N, R, BEFORE 0.
Regular verbs in mo.
Como, compsi, comptum, comere, adorn.
Demo, take away.
Promo, bring out.
Depromo, expromo, the same in signification.
Sumo, take.
Absumo and consumo, consume ; assumo, desunio.
Temno, temnere, despise (poetical).
Contemno, contempsi, contemptum, the same meaning.
Irregular.
[ 198.] a) Conjugated according to the Analogy of the Second
Conjugation.
Alo, alui, alitum (or altum), alere, nourish.
Altus occurs in Cicero and Sallust; afterwards alitus becomes the
common form, as in Livy and Val. Maximus. See Gai'atoni on Cic. p.
Plane. 33.
172 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Colo, colui, cultum, till.
Excolo and percolo strengthen the meaning ; incolo, inhabit a country.
Consulo, consului, consultum, ask advice.
Molo, molui, molitum, grind.
Occulo, occului, occultum, conceal.
Fremo, fremui, fremitum, murmur.
Adfremo, confremo.
Gemo, gemui, gemitum, groan.
Congemo (congemisco), ingemo (ingemisco), ui, no supine, lament.
Tremo, tremui (no supine), tremble.
Contremo strengthens the meaning.
Vomo, vomui, vomitum, vomit.
Evomo, revomo.
Gigno, beget, has (from the obsolete geno), genui, gentium.
Ingigno, implant ; progigno, bring forth.
Pono, posui (posivi obs.), positum, place.
Antepdno, prefer; appono, place by; compono, arrange; depono, lay
down ; dispono, set out, or in order ; expono, explain ; oppono, oppose ;
postpone, to place after ; praepono, prefer ; scpono, set oh one side. Re-
specting the short o in the perfect and supine see 18. 3.
(From the obsolete cello)
Antecello, excello, praecello, ui, (without supine,) surpass ; but per cello,
perculi, perculsum, strike down.
[ 199.] ) Forming the Perfect with Reduplication.
C&no, cecmi, cantum, canere, sing.
Succino, succinui. succentum, sing to ; so occino (or occano), sing, sound
against; concino, ui, harmonize, or, in an active sense, begin a song, with-
out supine, but the substantive concentus is derived from it. Of accino,
intercino, and recino (or recand), no perfect or supine is found ; but from
accino we have the substantive accentus.
Curro, cucurri, cur sum, run.
The compounds, accurro, decurro, excurro, incurro, percurro, praecurro,
and others, sometimes retain, but more frequently drop the reduplication
in the perfect.
Fallo, fefelli, falsum, cheat.
Refello, refelli, (no supine,) refute.
Pello, pepuli, pulmm, drive away.
Appetto, appuli, appidsum, come to land. In the same way are conjugated,
THIRD CONJUGATION. 173
competto, urge, compel; depello, propello, repello, drive away; expello, drive
out ; impello and perpello, urge on.
[ 200.] c) Making vi in the Perfect.
Cerno, crevi, cretum, separate, see, perceive. In the sense of
seeing, perceiving, the verb has neither perfect nor supine.
The perfect crevi is used in juristical language in the sense of
decrevi, and in the phrase hereditatem cernere for hereditatem
adire.
Compounds : Decerno, decrevi, decretum, decree ; so discerno, excerno,
secerno, separate, distinguish.
Lino, levi (or livi), litum, smear.
Collino, ittino, perlino, oblino (participle oblitus, not to be confounded
with oblitus from obliviscor), perlino, besmear. There is also a regular
verb, of the fourth conjugation, of the same meaning, from which the
compounds allinio, circumlinio, illinio, and others used by later writers, are
derived.
Sino, sivi, sltum, allow. In the perfect subjunctive we find
sirim, siris, sirit, along with siverit. (Situs, situated, is per-
haps derived from this verb).
Desino, desivi and desii (at least desit for desiit in Martial, see 160.
note, for desierunt is no proof), desitum, cease. (Desitus est is also used
as a perfect with the infin. passive, like coeptus est. See 221.)
Sperno, sprevi, spretum, despise.
Sterno, stravi, stratum, stretch out on the ground.
Constemo, insterno, spread out (but consterno, as, frighten) ; prosterno,
throw down ; substemo, spread under.
Sero, in the sense of sowing, has sem, satum ; in that of ar-
ranging and connecting together it is said to have serui,
sertum.; but these forms of the simple verb do not occur,
though serta, garlands, is derived from sertum.
The compounds are variously conjugated according to their meaning.
Consero and insero make -ui, -ertum, in the sense of joining ; -evi, -itum,
in the sense of sowing. The following compounds are used only in the
sense of joining : Desero, dissero, exsero, and accordingly make only
serui, sertum. That the verbs sero, sevi, and sero, serui, are really the same,
is proved by the interchange of inserere and conserere in good authors, of
which any dictionary may furnish examples.
Tero, trivi, tritum, rub.
Contero, rub to pieces ; attero, rub away, injure (perfect also atteruf) ;
extero, remove by rubbing.
174 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 201.] d) Other Irregularities.
Velio, velli, and vulsi (but more frequently velli), vulsum, pluck
out.
The compounds convello, revello, and divello, have only velli in the
perfect, but avello and evello have also avvlsi and evulsi.
Psallo, psalli, psallere, play on a stringed instrument.
Emo, emi t emptum, buy.
Coemo, collect by purchase ; redimo, purchase back. The signification
" take " appears in the compounds adimo, take away ; dirirno, divide ;
eximo, take out ; interimo, take away, kill ; perimo, destroy.
Premo, pressi, pressum, press.
Comprimo, press together; deprimo, opprimo, supprimo, press down;
exprimo, press out.
Gero, gessi, gestum, carry, transact.
Congero, bring together ; digero, arrange ; ingero, introduce.
Uro, ussi, ustum, burn.
Aduro, kindle ; comburo, consume by fire ; iniiro, burn in, brand ; exuro,
burn out.
Verro, verri, versum, sweep out.
Quaero, quaesivi, quaesltum, seek.
Another pronunciation of the same word is quaeso. (See 224.) Acquiro,
acquire ; conquiro, collect ; anquiro, exquiro, iitquiro, perquiro, examine ;
requiro, miss, require.
(Fiiro), furere, rage (without perfect or supine) ; insanivi is
used as a perfect instead. Even the first person present is
not found, though furis and furit are common.
F2ro, tuli, Idtum, ferre, is irregular in several points. See below,
213.
CHAP. LL
[ 202.] 6. VERBS IN SO AND XO.
Depso, depsui, depsitum and depstum knead.
Pinso, pinsui and pinsi, pinsitum and pistum (also pinsum),
pound, grind.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 175
Viso, visi, visere, visit. The supine visum belongs to videre,
from which visere itself is derived.
Texo, texui, textum, weave.
Compounds frequently with a figurative signification : attexo, add ;
contexo, put together ; oltexo, cover ; pertexo, carry out ; practexo, add a
hem ; retexo, to undo that which is woven, destroy.
After the Analogy of the Fourth Conjugation :
Arcesso, or accerso, -wi, -ztum, summon.
Both modes of writing this word are found in good MSS. and editions ;
compare Schneider's Elementarlehre, p. 257. foil., and the quotations in
Kritz on Sallust, Catil. 40. The infinitive passive arcessiri occurs
sometimes, as in Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 11. Oudendorp.
Capesso, undertake.
Facesso, give trouble, especially with negotium and periculum,
also equivalent to proficiscor, get off. (facesseris, in Cic.
Div. in Q. Caec. 14.)
Incesso, attack ; no supine. Perfect, incessivi : incessi is doubtful
(Tac. Hist. iii. 77.), unless we refer to this root, and not
to incedo, the frequently occurring phrase, cura, desperatio, &c.,
incessit animos.
Lacesso, provoke.
[ 203.] 7. Verbs in sco, either not Inchoatives, or of which the
Simple is no longer found.
Cresco, crevi, cretum, grow.
So also cow-, de-, excresco, and without a supine: accresco, incresco,
grow up, and succresco, grow up gradually.
Nosco, novi, notum, become acquainted with. The original
form is gnosco (Greek fyfyi/eooTtto), and the g reappears in the
compounds, if possible.
The perfect novi takes the signification of the present, " I know "
( 221.) ; the supine is mentioned only on account of the compounds, for
the participle notus has become an adjective, and the participle future
does not occur. The comp. agnosco, recognise, cognosce (perf. cognovi, I
know), and recognosco, recognise, have in the supine agnitum, cognitvm,
176 LATIN GRAMMAR.
recognitum ; ignosco, pardon, has ignotum ; dignosco and internosco have
no supine.
Pasco, pavi, pastum, feed.
Depasco, feed down. The deponent pascor, feed or eat.
Quiesco, quievi, quietum, rest.
Acquiesco, repose with satisfaction ; conquiesco, requiesco, rest.
Suesco, suevi, suetum, mostly intransitive, grow accustomed, or,
more rarely, accustom another. But suetus signifies " ac-
customed."
So also assuesco, consuesco, insuesco, generally accustom one's self;
desuesco, disaccustom one's self. Some passages where they occur in a
transitive sense (in which otherwise the compounds with facio are used,
see $ 183.) are referred to by Bentley on Horace, Serm, i. 4. 105.
Compesco, compescui, (no supine,) restrain.
Dispesco, dispescui, (no supine,) divide.
Disco, didici, (no supine : disciturus in Appuleius,) learn.
Addisco, addidici, learn in addition ; dedisco, unlearn ; cdisco, learn by
heart.
Posco, poposci, (no supine), demand.
Deposco, depopQsci, and reposco, demand back ; exposco, expoposci,
challenge.
Glisco, ffliscere, increase.
Hisco, hiscere, open the mouth, gape.
CHAP. LII.
INCHOATIVES.
[ 204.] THE inchoatives (see 234.) in sco are partly formed
from verbs (chiefly of the second conjugation*), and partly from
nouns (substantives or adjectives), and are accordingly called in-
choativa verbalia or inchoativa nominalia, that is, verbal or nominal
* According to a passage in Gellius, vi. 15., they were probably pro-
nounced with a naturally long e, as calesco, pallesco.
THIRD CONJUGATION. 177
inchoatives. The first have no other perfect than that of the
simple verb; the others either have none, or form it in a
similar way in ui. Few of the verbal inchoatives have the
supine of the simple verb.
Only those which are of most frequent occurrence are given
in the following list. There are a great many more, but their
formation is easy and analogous. Thus we may form in-
choatives to the intransitive verbs in Chap. XLV., if there is
any occasion for it, and we may be assured that it occurs in
some passage or other of the ancients.
1. Verbal Inchoatives with the Perfect of the Simple Verb.
Acesco (aceo), acui, grow sour ; coacesco, peracesco.
Albesco, and exalbesco (albeo), exalbui, grow white.
Aresco (areo), ami, grow dry.
Calesco (caZeo), calui, become warm.
Canesco (caneo), canui, become grey.
Conticesco (taceo), conticui, am reduced to silence.
Contremisco (tremo), contremui, tremble.
Defervesco (ferveo), deferbui, gradually lose my heat.
Delitesco (lated), delitui, lurk.
Effervesco (ferveo), efferbui, grow hot.
Excandesco (candeo), excandui, grow of a white heat; figuratively, am
enraged.
Extimesco, pertimesco (timed), extimui, am terrified.
Floresco, de-, effloresco (Jloreo), ejflorui, bloom.
Haeresco, and ad-, irihaeresco (haereo), ad-, inhaesi, adhere to.
Horresco, exhorresco, perhorresco (horred), exhorrui, am struck with horror.
Ingemisco (gemd), ingemui, groan.
Intumesco (tumeo), intumui, swell up.
Irraucisco (raucio), irrausi, become hoarse.
Languesco, elanguesco, relanguesco (langueo), elangui, become feeble.
Liquesco (liqueo), licui, melt away.
Madesco (madeo), madui, become wet.
Marcesco (marceo), comp. commarcesco, emarcesco, emarcui, fade.
Occallesco (called), occattui, acquire a callous surface.
Pallesco, expallesco (palleo), pattui, turn pale.
Putresco (putreo), putrui, moulder.
Resipisco (sapio), resipui and resipivi, recover wisdom.
Rubesco, erubesco (rubeo), grow red, blush.
Senesco, consenesco (seneo), consenui, grow old. The participle senectus,
grown old, is little used.
Stupesco and obstupesco (stuped), obstupui, am struck.
Tabesco (tabeo), tabui, pine, waste away.
Tepesco (tepeo), tepui, grow lukewarm.
Viresco, comp. conviresco, eviresco, reviresco (vireo), virui, grow green.
N
178 LATIN GRAMMAK.
2. Verbal Inchoatives which have the Supine as well as Perfect
of the Simple Verb.
f Abolesco, abolevi, abolitum, cease, am annihilated.
-| Exolesco, exolevi, exoletum, grow useless by age. So also obsolesco.
I Adolesco, adolevi, adidtum, grow up. See 174. Oleo.
Coalesco (alere), coalui, coalitum, grow together.
Concupisco (cupere), concupivi, concupitum, desire.
Convalesco (valere), convalui, convalitum, recover health.
Exardesco (ardere), exarsi, exarsum, am inflamed.
Indolesco (dolere), indolui, itum, feel pain.
Inveterasco (inveterare), inveteravi, atum, grow old.
Obdormisco (dormire), ivi, itum, fall asleep ; edormisco, sleep out.
Revivisco (vivere), revixi, revictum, recover life.
Scisco (*cire), scivi, scltum, resolve, decree. Hence plebiscltum, populisc^um.
[205.] 3. Inchoatives derived from Nouns.
a) Without a Perfect.
Aegresco (aeger), grow sick.
Ditesco (dives), grow rich.
Ihdcesco (dulcis), grow sweet.
Fatisco (fatis, adfatim), burst, fall to pieces.
Grandesco (grandis), grow large.
Gravesco and ingravesco (grams'), grow heavy.
Incurvesco (curvus), become crooked.
Integrasco (integer), become renovated.
Juvenesco (juvenis), grow young.
Mitesco (mitis), grow mild.
Mollesco (mollis), grow soft.
Pinguesco (pinguis), grow fat.
Plumesco (pluma), get feathers.
Puerasco, repuerasco (puer), become a child (again).
Sterilesco (sterilis), become barren.
Teneresco, tenerasco (tener), become tender.
b) With a Perfect.
Crebresco, increbresco, and percrebresco (creber), crebrui, grow frequent or
current.
Duresco, obduresco (durus), durui, grow hard.
Evanesco (vanus), evanui, disappear.
Innotesco (notus), innotui, become known.
Macresco (macer), macrui, grow lean.
Mansuesco (mansuetus), mansuevi, grow tame.
Maturesco (maturus), maturui, grow ripe.
Nigresco (niger), nigrui, grow black.
Obmutesco (mutus), obmutui, become dumb.
Obsurdesco (surdus), obsurdui, become deaf.
Recrudesco (crudus), recrudui, to open again (of a wound that had been
closed).
Vilesco and evilesco (vilis), evilui, become cheap or worthless.
*
FOURTH CONJUGATION. 179
CHAP. LIII.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
[ 206.] THE desiderative verbs (see 232.) in urio, e. g.
coenaturio, dormiturio, empturio, have neither perfect nor supine
with the exception of esurio, desire to eat, perfect esurivi, par-
ticip. esuriturus ; nupturio, desire to marry, and parturio, am
in labour, have only perfects, nupturivi and parturivi, but no
supine.
The following verbs vary, either in the perfect or in the
supine, or in both, from the regular form (Ivi, Hum).
Cio, civi, citum, regular; but see 180.
Eo, ivi, itum, with its compounds. See Defective Verbs,
215.
Farcio, farsi, fartum (also written farctum), farcire, stuff. The
supine far sum is more rare and not as good.
Confercio and refercio, fersi, fertum, fill up ; effercio, infercio, are con-
jugated like the simple verb.
Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, fulcire, prop.
The perfect thus presents no external difference from the perfect of
fvlgeo.
Haurio, hausi, haustum, haurire y draw.
The supine hausum is rare, but the participle hausurus is as common as
hausturus.
Queo, quivi or quii, quitum, quire. See 216.
Raucio, rausi, rausum, raucire, am hoarse (raucus).
The compound irrauserit, in Cic. de Orat. i. 61. See 204.
Saepio, saepsi, saeptum, saepire (some write sepio), hedge in.
Salio, salui, more i^arely salii (saltum), salire, spring.
In the comp. desttio, exilio, insilio, &c., the perf. -silui is far better than
the forms in silii and salivi, and must be restored in the authors of the
best age from the MSS. See Drakenb. on Liv. ii. 10., and Schwarz on
Pliny, Paneg. 66. The supine does not exist either in the simple verb or
in the compounds, though the derivatives saZftw, us, desultor, insvltare, lead
us to a form saltum, and in compounds sultum. The regular verb salire,
N 2
180 LATIN GRAMMAR.
salt, must not be confounded with salire, spring. The former is synony-
mous with the obsolete salere or sailer e, from which solans is derived.
Sancio, sanxi, sancltum and sanctum, sancire, decree, sanction.
Sanctus is found as a participle, though it is commonly an
adjective, but sancitus is more common.
Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, sarcire, patch.
Resarcio, repair.
Sentio, sensi, sensum, sentire, feel, think.
Consentio, agree ; dissentio, disagree ; praesentio, perceive beforehand.
The compound assentio is not as common as the deponent assentior, but is
founded on good authority, e.g. Cic. ad Att. ix. 9.: assentio ; ad Fam. v.2. :
assensi ; and three other instances of the perfect, which are quoted by
Biinemann on Lactant. i. 15. 19.
Sepelio, -ivi, sepultum, sepelire, bury.
Venio, veni, ventum, venire, come.
Advenio, arrive ; convenio, meet ; obvenio, encounter ; pervenio, reach ;
invenio, find.
Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, vincire, bind.
Devincio, bind closely, bind by duty.
Amicio, amictum, amicire, clothe. (The perfects amixi and
amicui are attested by the grammarian Diomedes, p. 364., but
are not found in our authors. ,Amicivi (amicisse) on the
other hand occurs in Fronto).
Aperio, ui, rtum, aperire, open.
So operio and cooperio, cover. But comperio makes comperi, compertum,
comperire (is used in the present and infinitive, also as a deponent, com-
perior, comperiri), experience, and reperio, reperi (or repperi), repertum,
find.
Ferio ferire, strike. (In the active percussi is used as a perfect,
and in the passive ictus sum.^)
Ferocio ferocire, am wild or insolent.
Visio visire, /SSeo).
Punio, punish, is regular ; but is sometimes used by Cicero, as
a deponent, de Off. i. 25. : punitur ; Tuscul. i. 44. : puniantur ;
Philip, viii. 3.: puniretur ; p. Milon. 13.: punitus es ; de In-
vent, ii. 27. : punitus sis.
DEPONENT VERBS.
181
CHAP. LIV.
LIST OF DEPONENT VERBS.*
[ 207.] DEPONENT VERBS OF THE FIRST CONJUGATION.
Adminiculor, aid.
Adversor, oppose myself.
Adulor, flatter.
Aemulor, rival.
*Altercor, quarrel.
Alucinor (also alluc. and halluc.),
dote, talk idly.
Amplexor, embrace.
Ancillor, am a handmaid.
Aprlcor, sun myself.
Aquor, fetch water ; frumentor, col-
lect corn ; lignor, collect wood ;
materior, fell timber ; pabular,
forage.
Arbitror, think.
Architector, build (architectus).
Argumentor, prove.
Argutor, chatter, am argutus.
Aspernor, despise.
Assentor, agree, flatter.
Auctionor, sell at auction.
Aucupor, catch birds, am auceps.
Aversor, dislike, avoid with horror.
Auguror (augur), %
*Auspicor (auspex), I practise sooth-
Hariolor (hariolus), r saying.
Vaticinor (votes), J
Auxilior, aid.
Sacchor, revel as a Bacchanal.
Calumnior, cavil.
Cavillor, ridicule.
Cauponor, deal, retail.
Causor, allege.
Circular, form a circle around me.
Comissor, feast.
Comitor, accompany (comes, active
only in the poets).
Commentor, reflect upon, dispute.
Contionor, harangue.
*Con/Kctor, contend.
Conor, attempt.
Consttior, advise.
Conspicor, behold.
Contemplor, contemplate.
Convicior, revile.
Convwor, feast (conviva).
Cornicor, chatter as a crow.
Criminor, accuse.
Cunctor, delay.
Depeculor, plunder.
Despicor, despise; despicio, but de-
spicatus is passive, despised.
Deversor, lodge.
Digladior, fight.
Dignor, think worthy. Cicero how-
ever sometimes uses it in a passive
sense, " I am thought worthy."
Dedignor, disdain.
Dominor, rule (domimis).
Elucubror, produce by dint of labour.
Epulor, feast.
Execror, execrate.
*Fabr&or, fashion.
Fabulor, confabulor, talk.
Famulor, serve (famulus).
Feneror, lend at interest (the active,
* The words to which an asterisk is prefixed, are used also as actives, but
better as deponents. Some deponents have been omitted in the list, which
are either of very rare' occurrence or more commonly used as actives.
Respecting the latter see the note at the end.
M 3
182
LATIN GRAMMAR.
" to restore with interest," occurs
in Terence ; in later writers it is
the same as the deponent).
Ferior, keep holiday.
Frustror, disappoint.
Furor, suffuror, steal.
Glorior, boast.
Graecor, live in the Greek style, that
is, luxuriously.
Grassor, advance, attack.
Gratificor, comply with.
Grator, and gratulor, give thanks,
present congratulations.
[Gravor, think heavy, is the passive
ofgravo.)
Helluor, gluttonise (helluo).
Hortor, exhort ; adhortor, exhortor,
dehortor.
Hospitor, am a guest (hospes), lodge.
Imaginor, imagine.
Imitor, imitate.
Indignor, am indignant, spurn.
Infitior, deny.
Insidior, plot.
Interpreter, explain, am an interpres.
Jaculor, throw, dart.
Jocor, jest.
Laetor, rejoice (laetus~).
Lamentor, lament.
Latrocinor, rob, am a latro.
Lenocinor (alicut), flatter.
Libidinor, am voluptuous.
Licitor, bid at an auction.
Lucror, gain.
Luctor, strive, wrestle (obluctor and
reluctor, resist).
*Ludificor, ridicule.
Machinor, devise.
Medicor, heal.
Meditor, meditate.
Mercor, buy.
*Meridior, repose at noon.
Metor, measure out.
Minor and minitor, threaten.
Miror, wonder ; demiror, the same ;
admiror, admire.
Miseror, commiseror, pity.
Moderor, restrain, temper.
Modular, modulate.
Morigeror, comply, am morigerus.
Moror, delay ; trans, and intrans. ;
comp. commoror.
*Muneror, remuneror, aliquem ali~
qua re, reward.
Mutuor, borrow.
Negotior, carry on business.
Nidulor, build a nest.
Nugor, trifle.
Nundinor, deal in buying and selling.
Nutrlcor, nourish.
Odoror, smell out.
Ominor, prophesy ; abominor, abomi-
nate.
Operor, bestow labour on.
Oplnor, think.
Opitulor, lend help.
*Oscitor, yawn.
Osculor, kiss.
Otior, have leisure.
*Palpor, stroke, flatter.
Parasltor, act the parasite (para&itus).
Patrocinor, patronize.
Percontor, inquire.
Peregrlnor, dwell as a stranger.
Periclttor, try, in later writers, am
in danger.
Philosopher, philosophize.
*Pigneror, take a pledge, bind by a
pledge.
Pigror, am idle (piger).
Piscor, fish.
*Populor, lay waste.
Praedor, plunder.
Praestolor, wait for, with the dat. or
accus. (the quantity of the o is un-
certain, though probably short).
Praevaricor, walk with crooked legs,
act dishonestly, as a praevaricator,
that is, as a false accuser.
Precor, pray ; comprecor, invoke ;
deprecor, deprecate ; imprecor, im-
precate.
Proelior, fight a battle.
Ratiocinor, reason.
Recorder, remember.
Refragor, oppose.
Rimor, examine minutely.
Rixor, wrangle.
Rusticor, live in the country.
Scitor and sdscitor, inquire.
DEPONENT VERBS.
183
Scrutor, perscrutor, search.
Sector, the frequentative of sequor,
follow ; assector, consector, insector.
Sermocinor, hold discourse.
Solor, consolor, comfort.
Spatior, expatior, walk.
Specular, keep a look out.
Stipulor, make a bargain ; adstipvlor,
agree.
Stomachor, am indignant.
Suavior, kiss.
Suffrdgor (the contrary of refragor),
assent to.
Suspicor, suspect.
Tergiversor, shuffle.
Testor and testificor, bear witness.
Tricor, make unreasonable difficulties
(tricas).
Tristor, am sad.
Trutinor, weigh.
Tumvltuor, make uproar.
Tutor, defend.
Vador, summon to trial.
Vagor and palor, wander.
Velificor, steer towards (figuratively,
gain a purpose), whence it is con-
strued with the dat., as honori meo.
Velttor, skirmish with light troops.
Veneror, venerate.
Venor, hunt.
Verecundor, feel shame at doing.
Versor (properly, the passive of
verso), dwell, am occupied in ;
aversor, detest ; obversor, float
before.
Vociferor, vociferate.
Urlnor, dip under water (to void
urine is urinam facer e or reddere).
Note. We must here notice some verbs which are commonly used as
actives, but by some writers, and of good authority, as deponents also. Such
are : communicor, commurmuror (Cic. in Pis. 25.), fluctwor, fruticor (Cic.),
lacrimor, luxurior, nictor. Velificor, in the figurative sense of striving after,
is used by Cicero as a deponent, but in the primary sense of " sailing " it is
much more usually active. Adulor, arbitror, criminor, and more especially
dignor, are used by Cicero as passives, as well as deponents, throughout, and
not merely in the participle, as is the case with many others. See the
Chapter on the Participle, in the Syntax.
CHAP. LV.
[ 208.] DEPONENTS OF THE SECOND CONJUGATION.
Fateor, fassus sum ) fateri, acknowledge.
Confiteor, confessus sum, the same, but usually, confess a crime ; pro-
fiteer, profess ; diffiteor (no participle), deny.
Liceor, licltus sum, with the accus., bid at an auction.
Polliceor, promise.
Medeor, without a . participle, for which medicatus, from medi-
cari, is commonly used.
N 4
184 LATIN GRAMMAR.
* Mereor, meritus sum, deserve. The active is used in the sense
of serving or earning, as merere stipendia ; but the forms are
not kept distinct.
Commereori demereor, promereor, have the same meaning.
Misereor, miseritus or misertus sum, pity.
Respecting the impersonal verb miseret or miseretur me, see 225.
Reor, ratus sum, reri, think.
Tueor, tuitus sum, look upon, fig. defend.
Contueor, intueor, look upon. There was an old form tuor, after the
third conjugation, of which examples are found in the comic writers and
in Lucretius, and in Nep. Chdbr. 1. 3. intuuntur is found for the common
intuentur. The adject, tutus is derived from the form tuor.
Vereor, verltus sum, fear.
Revereor, reverence ; subvereor, slightly fear.
CHAP. LVI.
[ 209.] DEPONENTS OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
FROM the obsolete apiscor, aptus sum, apisci, are derived :
Adipiscor, adeptus sum, and indipiscor, obtain.
Expergiscor, experrectus sum, expergisci, awake.
The verb expergefacere signifies to awaken, whence expergefactus,
awakened. Expergo, with its participle expergitus, is obsolete.
Fruor, fructus and fruitus sum, frui, enjoy. (Particip. frui-
turus).
Perfruor, perfructus sum, strengthens the meaning.
Fungor, functus sum, fungi, perform, discharge.
Defungor, perfungor, completely discharge, finish.
Gradior, gressus sum, gradi, proceed.
Aggredior, aggressus sum, aggredi, assail ; congredior, meet ; digredior,
depart ; egredior, go out of; ingredior, enter on ; progredior, advance ;
regredior, return.
Irascor, irasci, properly an inchoative, grow angry ; iratus sum
DEPONENT VERBS. 185
means only, I am angry. I have been or was angry may be
expressed by succensui.
Labor, lapsus sum, Idbi, fall.
Colldbor, sink together ; dilabor, fall in pieces ; prolabor, fall down ;
delabor, reldbor.
Loquor, locutus sum, loqui, speak.
Alloquor, address ; colloquor, speak with ; eloquor, interloquor ; obloguor,
speak against, revile.
(From the obsolete miniscor,)
Comminiscor, commentus sum, comminisci, devise, imagine (the participle
commenlus usually in a passive sense, feigned) ; reminiscor, reminisci, has
no perfect ; recordatus sum is used instead of it.
Morior, mortuus sum, (participle future, moriturus,} mori, die
(moriri is obsolete, but still occurs in Ovid, Metam. xiv.
215.).
Emorior, commorior, demorior.
Nanciscor, nactus sum, nancisd, obtain. The participle is also
found written nanctus, as in many passages of Livy.
Nascor, natus sum, nasci (nasciturus only in late writers), am
born ; passive in sense, but without an active. It was ori-
ginally gnascor, and the g reappears in agnatus, cognatus.
Enascor, innascor, renascor.
Nitor, nisus or nixus sum, niti, lean upon, strive.
Adnitor, strive for ; connltor and enltor, exert myself; in the sense of
" bring forth," or " give birth," enixa est is preferable ; obnitor, strive
against.
Obliviscor, oblitus sum, oblivisci, forget.
Paciscor, pactus sum (or pepigi), make a bargain.
Comp. compaciscor, depaciscor, or compeciscor and depeciscor, compactus,
depactus sum, whence the adverb compacio or compecto for ex or de com-
pacto, according to contract.
Pascor, pastus sum, feed; intransitive. Properly the passive
of pasco, pavi, pastum, give food ; see above, Chap. LI.
Patior, passus sum, pati, suffer.
Perpetior, perpessus sum, perpeti, endure.
(From plecto, twine,)
Amplector and complector, complexus sum, embrace.
Prqficiscor, profectus sum, prqficisci, traveL
186 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Queror, questus sum, queri, complain.
Conqueror, lament.
Ringor, riugi, grin, show the teeth, whence rictus.
SZquor, secutus sum, sequi, follow.
Assequor and consequor, overtake, attain ; exequor, execute ; insequor,
follow ; obsequor, comply with ; persequor, pursue ; prosequor, attend ;
subsequor, follow close after.
Vehor, see 192.
Vescor, vesci, eat. Edi is used as the perfect.
Ulciscor, ultus sum, ulcisci, revenge, punish.
Utor, usus sum, uti, use.
Abutor, abuse; deutor only in Nepos, Eum. 11.
Devertor, praevertor, and revertor, see under verto. They take
their perfects from the active form : reverti, reverteram, re-
vertissem ; only the participle reversus is used in an active
sense, one who has returned.
Reversus sum for reverti is very rare, but occurs in Nep. Them. 5. ;
Veil. ii. 42. ; Quintil. vii. 8. 2. xi. 2. 17., and other less classic authors, but
never in Cicero.
CHAP. LVII.
[ 210.] DEPONENTS OF THE FOURTH CONJUGATION.
Assentior, assensus sum, assentiri, assent. (As an active, as-
sentio, assensi, dssensum, assentire, it is not so common; see
above, 206.)
Blandior, blanditus sum, blandiri, flatter.
Experior, expertus sum, experiri, experience, try.
Comperior, am informed, is used only in the present tense, along with
comperio ; the perfect therefore is comperi.
Largior, largitus sum, largiri, give money ; dilargior, distribute
money.
Mentior, mentitus sum, mentiri, lie ; ementior, the same.
IRREGULAR VERBS. 187
Metior, mensus sum, metiri, measure.
Dimetior, measure out ; emetior, measure completely ; permetior.
Molior, molitus sum, moliri, move a mass (indies) ; plan.
Amolior, remove from the way ; demolior, demolish, and others.
Opperior, oppertus sum, in Terence, and opperitus sum in Plau-
tus, opperiri, wait for.
Ordior, orsus sum, ordiri, begin.
Exordior, the same ; redordior, begin over again.
Orior, ortus sum, oriri (partic. oriturus), rise. (The partic. fut.
pass, oriundus has a peculiar signification " descended" from
a place or person.) The present indicat. follows the third
conjugation : oreris, oritur, orimur. In the imperf. subjunct.
both forms orerer and orirer are found. See Liv. xxiii. 16. ;
Tac. Ann. ii. 47. ; comp. xi. 23.
So also the compounds coorior and exorior (exoreretur in Lucretius,
ii. 506.) ; but of adorior, undertake, the forms adoriris and adorltur are
certain, whereas adoreris and adoritur are only probable ; adoreretur is
commonly edited in Sueton. Claud. 12.
Partior, partitus sum, partiri, divide (rarely active).
The compounds dispertio, distribute, and impertio (also impartio), com-
municate, are more frequently actives than deponents. Dispertior, dis-
pertitus sum (more frequently active), distribute ; impertior (also impertio,
impartio, impartior), communicate.
Potior, potitus sum, potiri, possess myself of.
It is not uncommon, especially in the poets, for the present indicative
and the imperfect subjunctive to be formed after the third conjugation ;
pofitur, potimur, poteretur, poteremur.
Sortior, sortitus sum, sortiri, cast lots.
Punior, for punio. See 206. in fin.
CHAP. LVIII.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
[an.] THE term Irregular Verbs is here applied to those
which depart from the rule not only in the formation of their
perfect and supine, but have something anomalous in their
188 LATIN GRAMMAR.
conjugation itself. They are, besides sum (treated of before,
156.), possum, edo,fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, queo, nequeo, fio.
1. Possum, I am able.
Possum is composed of potis and sum, often found separately
in early Latin ; by dropping the termination of potis, we obtain
potsum, possum. It therefore follows the conjugation of sum in
its terminations, but the consonants t, s, and/, produce some
changes, when they come together.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Possum, potes, potest. possim, possis, possit.
possumus, potestis, possunt. possimus, possitis, possint.
Imperfect.
poteram, poteras, poterat. possem, posses, posset,
poteramus, -eratis, -erant. possemus, possetis, possent.
Future.
potero, poteris, poterit.
poterimus, -eritis, -erunt.
Perfect.
potui, potuisti, potuit. potuerim, -eris, -erit.
potuimus, -istis, -erunt. potuerimus, -Itis, -int.
Pluperfect.
potueram, -eras, -erat. potuissem, -isses, -isset.
potueramus, -eratis, -erant. potuissemus, -issetis, -issent.
Future Perfect.
potuero, potueris, potuerit.
potuerimus, potueritis, potuerint.
(No IMPERATIVE.)
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. & Imp. posse. Potens has become an adjective).
Perf. & Plup. potuisse.
2. Edo, I eat.
[ 212.] The verb eda, edi, esum, edere, is declined regularly
according to the third conjugation, but here and there it has
syncopated forms, besides its regular ones, similar to the cor-
IRREGULAR VERBS. 189
responding tenses of sum, except that the quantity of the vowel
in the second person singular of the indie, present and of the
imperative makes a difference, the e in es from edo being long
by nature. The tenses in which this resemblance occurs are
seen in the following table :
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present. Imperfect.
Sing. Edo, edis, edit, Sing, ederem, ederes, ederet,
(or es, est.) (or essem, esses, esset.)
Plur. edimus, editis, edunt. Plur. ederemus, ederetis, ederent,
(estis.) (or essemus, essetis, essent.)
IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE.
Sing, ede, es. edere or esse.
Plur. edite, este.
Sing, edito, esto.
Plur. edito, esto, editote, estate. In the Passive only editur, estur ;
edunto. ederetur, essetiir.
In the same way the compounds abSdo, ambedo, comedo, ezedo,
and peredo are conjugated.
3. Fero, I bear.
[ 213.] Fero consists of very different parts, perfect tuli
(originally tetuli, which is still found in Plautus and Terence);
supine, Idtum ; infinitive, ferre ; passive, ferri. But with the
exception of the present indicat. and the imperative, the detail
is regular.
Active. Passive.
INDICATIVE. INDICATIVE.
Pres. Sing. Fero, fers, fert. Pres. Sing, feror, ferris, fertur.
Plur. ferimus, fertis, ferunt. Plur. ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
IMPERATIVE. IMPERATIVE.
Pres. Sing. fer. Plur. ferte. Pres. Sing, ferre. Plur. ferimini.
Fut. Sing, ferto. Plur. fertote, Fut. Sing, fertor. Plur. feruntor.
ferto. ferunto. fertor.
Note. The rest is regular ; imperfect, ferebam ; future, feram, -es ; future
passive, ferar, fereris (ferere), feretwr, &c. ; present subjunctive, feram,
feras ; passive, ferar, feraris, f crater ; imperfect subjunctive, f err em ; pas-
sive, ferrer.
The compounds of fer -o affero, antefero, circumfero, confer -o, defero, and
others, have little that is remarkable. Aufero (originally dbfero) makes
abstidi, ablatum, auferre. Suffero has no perfect or supine, for sustvli, subla-
190
LATIN GRAMMAR.
turn, belong to tollo. Cicero, however (N. D. iii. 33.), has poenas sustulit, but
siistinui is commonly used in this sense. Differo is used only in the present
tense, and those derived from it in the sense of " differ ; " distuli and dilatum
have the sense of " delay."
4. Volo, I will. 5. Nolo, I will not. 6. Malo, I will rather.
[ 214.] Nolo is compounded of ne (for non) and volo. The
obsolete ne appears in three persons of the present in the usual
form of non ; malo is compounded of mage (i. e. magis) and volo,
properly mavolo, mavellem, contracted malo, mallem.
Sing. Volo
vis
mdt
Plur. volumus
vultis
volunt.
Sing, volebam, &c.
Plur. volebamus, &c.
Sing, volam, voles, et
Plur. volemus, etis, ent.
Sing, volw
voluisti, &c.
volueram, &c.
voluero, is, &c.
Sing, velim
veils
velit
Plur. vellmus
velitis
velint.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
Nolo
non vis
non mdt
nolumus
non vvltis
nolunt.
Imperfect.
nolebam, &c.
nolebamus, &c.
Future.
nolam, noles, et
nolemus, etis, ent.
Perfect.
nolui
noluisti, &c.
Pluperfect.
nolueram, &c.
Future Perfect.
noluero, is, &c.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
nolim
noils
nolit
nollmus
nolltis
nolint.
Malo
mavis
mavult
malumus
mavultis
malunt.
malebam, &c.
malebamus, &c.
malam, males, et
malemus, etis, ent.
malui
maluisti, Sac.
malueram, &c.
maluero, is, &c.
malim
malls
malit
malimus
malltis
malint.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
191
Sing, vellem, &c.
Plur. vellemus, &c.
Imperfect.
nollem, &c. '
nollemus, &c.
mallem, &e.
mallcmus, &c.
Sing, voluerim, &c.
Plur. voluerimus, &c.
Perfect.
noluerim, &c.
noluerimus, &c.
maluerim, &c.
maluenmus, &c.
Sing, voluissem, &c.
Plur. voluissemus, &c.
Pluperfect.
noluissem, &c.
noluissemus, &c.
maluissem, &c.
maluisse?nwi, &c.
Pres.
Perf. voluisse.
volens.
volendi
volendo.
IMPERATIVE.
2d Pers. no/z, nollte.
2d Pers. nollto, nolitote.
3d Pers. no&'fo, nolunto.
INFINITIVB.
nolle
noluisse.
PARTICIPLE.
nolens.
GERUND.
malle
maluisse.
7. *o, I go.
[ 215.] The verb eo, M?Z, z^m, zre, is for the most part formed
regularly, according to the fourth conjugation ; only the present,
and the tenses derived from it, are irregular.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Eo, is, it.
Plur. imus, itis, eunt.
Sing, earn, eas, eat.
Plur. eamus, edtis, eant.
Imperfect.
Sing, i&am, ibas, ibat.
Plur. ibamus, ibatis, ibant.
Future.
Sing. Ibo, ibis, ibit.
Plur. ibimus, ibitis, ibunt.
Sing, irem, ires, iret.
Plur. iremus, iretis, irent.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing. f. Sing. 2. ito. 3. ito.
Plur. ite. Plur. 2. itote. 3. eunto
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ire.
Perf. ivisse or tsse.
Fut. iturum (-arw, -ww)
192 LATIN GRAMMAR.
GERUND. SUPINE.
Gen. ennili. Dat. eundo, &c. itum, itu.
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. tens, euntis. Fut. iturus, -a, -urn.
In the passive voice it exists only as an impersonal, itur, Hum
est. Some compounds, however, acquire a transitive meaning ;
they accordingly have an accusative in the active, and may also
have a complete passive : e. gr. adeo, I approach ; ineo, I enter ;
praetereo, I pass by. Thus the present indie, pass, adeor,
adiris, aditur, adlmur, adimini, adeuntur ; subjunct. adear ;
imperf. adibar ; subj. adirer ; fut. adibor, adiberis (e), adibitur,
&c. ; imperat. pres. adire, adimini ; fut. aditor, adeuntor ; par-
ticiples, aditus, adeundus.
These and all other compounds, abeo, coeo, exeo, inter eo and
pereo (perish), prodeo, redeo, have usually only ii in the perfect :
peril, redii. Circumeo and circueo, I go round something, differ
only in their orthography, for in pronunciation the m was lost ;
in the derivatives, circuitus and circultio, it is therefore, with
more consistency, not written. Veneo, I am sold, a neutral
passive verb, without a supine, is compounded of venum and eo,
and is accordingly declined like ire ; whereas ambio, I go about,
which changes the vowel even in the present, is declined regu-
larly according to the fourth conjugation, and has the participle
ambiens, ambientis, and the gerund ambiendi. The part. perf.
pass, is ambitus, but the substantive ambitus has a short i. See
the Commentators on Ovid, Metam. i. 37.
Note. A second form of the future, earn instead of ibo, is mentioned by
Priscian, but is not found in any other writer. It is only in compounds,
though chiefly in late and unclassical authors, that we find -earn, ies, iet, lent,
along with ibo, ibis, &c. See Biinemann on Lactant. iv. 13. 20. Transiet in
Tibull. i. 4. 27. is surprising. Veneo, I am sold, sometimes abandons the
conjugation of eo, and makes the imperfect veniebam instead of venibam, for
so, at least, we find in good MSS. of Cicero, Philip, ii. 37., and in Verr. III.
47., and in some MSS. of Livy, ii. 9. Ambio sometimes follows eo; e. g. amb-
ibat in Ovid, Metam. v. 361. ; Liv. xxvii. 18. ; Plin. Epist vi. 33. ; Tac. Ann.
ii. 19. ; and ambibunt for ambient is said to occur in Pliny (H. N. viii. 35. ?).
[ 216.] 8. Queo, I can. 9. Nequeo, I cannot.
These two verbs are both conjugated like eo : perfect, quivi,
nequivi ; supine, quitum, nequitum. Most of their forms occur ;
IRREGULAR VERBS. 193
but, with the exception of the present, they are not very fre-
quent in prose, and some authors, such as Nepos and Caesar,
never use this verb at all. Instead of nequeo, non queo also was
used, and in Cicero the latter is even more frequent. Qitis and
quit are found only with non.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
Sing. Queo, quis, quit. Nequeo, non quis, non quit.
Plur. quimits, quitis, qucunt. nequlmus, nequltis, nequeunt.
Imperfect.
Sing. Qtilbam, quibat, &c. nequlbam, nequibat, -ant.
Future.
Sing. Quibo. Plur. quibunt. Sing. Plur. nequibunt.
Perfect.
Sing. Quivi, quivit. nequivi, nequisti, nequivit (iif).
Plur. quiverunt. nequiverunt or ne-
quierunt (e).
Pluperfect.
nequierat, nequiercmt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
Sing. Queam, queas, queat. nequeam, nequeas, nequeat.
Plur. queamus, queatis, qucant. neqiteamus, nequeatis, nequeemt.
Imperfect.
Sing. Quirem, quiret. nequirem, nequiret.
Plur. quirent. nequiremus, nequirent.
Perfect.
Sing. quiverit. nequiveritn, ncquierit, ncquierint.
Pluperfect.
Sing. nequisset.
Plur. quisntnit. nequissent.
INFINITIVE.
Quire, quivisse (quisse). nequire, nequivisse (nequisse).
PARTICIPLE.
Quiens (gen. queuntis'). nequiens (gen. nequeuntis).
There is also a passive form of these verbs : quihir, nequitur, quita est, ne-
quitum est, but it occurs very rarely, and is used, like coeptus sum, only when
an infinitive passive follows ; e. g. in Terence : forma in tenebris nosci non
qiiita est, the figure could not be recognised.
O
194
LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 217.] 10. Fio, I become, or am made.
Fio is properly an intransitive verb, the Greek </>u&>, without
a supine. But owing to the affinity existing between the
ideas of becoming and being made, it was used also as a passive of
facio, from which it took the perfect factus sum, and the latter
then received the meaning " I have become," along with that
of "I have been made." In consequence of this transition
into the passive, the infinitive became fieri instead of the
original form fiere. Hence, with the exception of the sup-
plementary forms from facere (factus, faciendus, factus sum,
eram, &c.) and the passive termination of the infinitive, there is
no irregularity in this verb. In the present, imperfect, and
future, it follows the third conjugation ; for the i belongs to the
root of the word, and is long, except in fit and those forms in
which an r occurs in the inflection. (See 16.)
INDICATIVE.
Present.
Sing. Fio,fis,fit.
Plur. fimus, fitis, fiunt.
Imperfect.
Sing, fiebam, as, at.
Plur. fiebamus, a/is, ant.
Future.
Sing, fiam, fies, fiet.
Plur. fiemus, fietis, fient.
INFINITIVE.
fieri (factum esse,factum irf).
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present
fiam, fias, fiat,
fiarmis, fiatis, fiant
Imperfect.
fierem, es, et.
fieremus, etis, ent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. Sing./. Plur./te.
(rare, but well attested.)
Part. Pres. is wanting.
Note. Among the compounds the following must be noticed as defectives :
infit, which is used only in this third person sing., he or she begins ; e. g.,
loqui, or with the ellipsis of loqui; and defit, defiat, defiunt, defieri, which
does not occur in prose. Respecting confit, see above, 183.
CHAP. LIX.
[ 218.] DEFECTIVE VERBS.
THE term Defective Verbs is here applied to those only in
which the defectiveness is striking, and which are found only in
certain forms and combinations, for there is, besides, a very
large number of defective verbs, of which certain tenses are not
DEFECTIVE VERBS. 195
found on account of their meaning, or cannot be shown to have
been used by the writers whose works have come down to us.
Many of them have been noticed in the lists of verbs in the
preceding Chapters ; with regard to others, it must be left to
good taste cultivated by reading the best authors, as to whether
we may use e. g. cupe from cupio, like cape from capio, and
whether we may say dor, I am given, like prodor, or putatus sum
like habitus sum. (Putatum est occurs in Cicero, p. Muren. 17.,
de Divin. I. 39.) We shall here treat of the verbs ajo and in-
quam, I say ; fari, to speak ; the perfects coepi, memini, novi, and
odi ; the imperatives apage, ave, salve, vale ; cedo and queso, and
lastly of for em.
1. Ajo, I say, say yes, or affirm.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present. Present.
Sing. Ajo, ais, ait. Sing. ajas, ajaL
Plur. djunt. Plur. ajant.
Imperfect. (The imperative ai is obsolete. The
Sing, ajebam, ajebas, ajebat. participle ajens is used only as an ad-
Plur. ajebamus, ajebatis, ajebant. ject. instead of affirmativus.)
Perfect. All the rest is wanting, or unclas-
Sing. ait (like the present). sical.
Note. In prose, as well as in poetry, am' ? do you think so ? is frequently
used for aisne, just as we find viden\ abin' for videsne, abisne. See 24. The
comic writers, especially Terence, use the imperfect aibam, &c., as a word of
two syllables.
[ 219.] 2. Inquam, I say.
This verb is used only between the words of a quotation,
while ait, ajunt, are found most frequently in the oratio obliqua.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present. Present.
Sing. Inquam, inquis, inquit. Sing. inquias, inquiat.
Plur. inqmmus, inquitis, inquiunt. Plur. inquiatis, inquiunt.
Imperfect. Future.
Sing, inquiebam, &c. Sing. inquies, inquiet.
Plur. inquiebamus, &c. Plur.
Perfect. IMPERATIVE.
Sing. inquisti, inquit. Sing, inque, inqu&o.
Plur. inquistis, . Plur. inquite.
o 2
196
LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note. The first person of the perfect (more probably inqui than inquif) is
not found; the present inquum is used instead, and inquit may therefore just
as well be taken for the present. The present subjunctive has been here
given according to Priscian, p. 876., but has not yet been confirmed by any
other authority.
[ 220.] 3. Fari, to speak, say.
This very irregular verb, with its compounds affari, effari,
profari, is, generally speaking, more used in poetry than in
ordinary prose. The third persons of the present, fatur, fantur,
the imperativeyre, and the participle fatus, a, um (effatum is used
also in a passive sense), occur most frequently. The ablative of
the gerund, fando, is used in a passive sense even in prose, in the
phrase fando audire, to know by hearsay.
Compounds : qffamur, Ovid ; qffamini, Curtius ; affabar, Virgil ; effabor
and effaberis also occur in poetry. The first person for, the subjunctive
fer, feris, fetur, &c., and the participle fans in the nominative, do not occur,
though the other cases of fans are found in poetry. Fandus, a, urn, only in
the combination fandum et nefandum; fanda, nefanda, which are equivalent
to fas et nefas.
[ 221.] 4. Coepi, 5. Memmi, 6. Novi, 7. Odi,
I have begun. I remember. I know. I hate.
These four verbs are perfects of obsolete presents, which
have gone out of use, with the exception of nosco, and
coepio, coepere. They consequently have those tenses only,
which are derived from the perfect. In meaning, memmi, novi,
and odi are presents ; novi, I know, shows the transition most
clearly, for it properly means " I have learnt to know." (See
203.) Hence the pluperfect has the meaning of an imperfect :
memineram, I remembered ; noveram, I knew ; oderam, I hated,
not " I had hated," and the future perfect has the signification
of a simple future, e. g. odero, I shall hate ; meminero, I shall
remember. Otherwise the terminations are quite regular.
INDICATIVE.
Perfect.
Coepi, Memini, Novi, Odi,
coepisti, meministi, novisti (nosti), odisti,
coepit. meminit. novit. odit.
coepimus, meminimu*, novimns, ndimiix,
coepivtis, meministis, novistis (nnsfis), odisti.*,
cwpeKunl. meminerunt. novermit (noriint). oderuut.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
197
coeneram, &c.
coepero, &c.
coeperim, &c.
coepissem, &c.
Pluperfect'
memineram, &c. noverani, &c.
(wora/n.)
Future.
meminero, &c. riovero.
noveris, &c.
(nom.)
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Perfect.
mcminerim, &c. noverim, &c.
(noriwt.)
Pluperfect.
rncminissem, &c. novissem, &c.
(nossem.)
IMPERATIVE.
only the sing. T/JC- -
mento and plur.
mementote.
INFINITIVE.
meminisse. novissc.
PABTICIPLES.
oderain, &c.
odero, &c.
oderim, &c.
udissem, &c.
odissc.
(perosus, exosus, with an
active meaning.)
coepuse.
Pcrf. pass, coeptus
(begunV
Fut. act. coepturus.
Note. Hence coepisse has a perfect passive coeptus (a, urn) sum; e. g.
Liv. xxx. 30. : qui'a a me bellum coeptum est; xxviii. 14. : quum a neutris
pugna coepta esset; but it is used especially in connection with an infinitive
passive, as in pons institui coeptus est; Tyros septimo mense, quam oppugnari
coepta erat, capta est; de re publica considi coepti sumus; the active forms
coepit, coeperat, however, may likewise be used in this connection. Compare
desitus est, 200. Compounds are occoepi, which is not unfrequently used
along with the regular occipio (the same as incipio), and commemini.
[222.] 8. Apage, 9. Ave, 10. Salve, 11.
be gone. hail. hail. farewell.
Note. Apage is the Greek imperative airayt of oVayw, and akin with
abigo: apage istas sorores! away with them! especially apage te, get thyself
off, or, with the omission of the pronoun, apage, begone. Salveo in Plautus,
Trucvl. ii. 2. 4., may be regarded as the present of solve. Comp. Probus,
Instit. Gram., p. 141., ed. Lindemann. Vale and ave, on the other hand, are
regular imperatives of valeo, I am well, and aveo. I desire ; and they are
mentioned here only on account of their change of meaning.
The plural is, avete, salvete, valete; the imperat. fut. aveto, salveto, valeto.
The future, salvebis, valebis, is likewise used in the sense of an imperative,
and the infinitives mostly with^Jeo: avere, salvere, valere.
o 3
198 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 223.] 12. Cedo, give, tell.
This word is used as an imperative in familiar language, for
da and die, both with and without an accusative. A plural
cette occurs in old Latin.
The e is short in this word, which thus differs from the complete verb cedo,-
I yield, give way.
[ 224.] 13. Quaeso, I beseech.
Quaeso is originally the same as quaero, but in good prose it
is generally inserted in another sentence. Besides this first
person singular, we find only the first person plural quaesumus.
14. for em, I should be.
This imperfect subjunctive, which is conjugated regularly,
has arisen from fuerem of the .obsolete verb fuo, and belongs
to sum. (See above, 156.)
CHAP. LX.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
[ 225.] 1. THE term Impersonal Verbs strictly applies only
to those of which no other but the third person singular is used,
and which do not admit a personal subject (I, thou, he), the
subject being a proposition, an infinitive, or a neuter noun
understood. (See 441. &c.) Verbs of this kind are:
Miseret (me), I pity, perfect miseritum est.
Piget (me), I regret, piguit or pigitum est.
Poenitet (me), I repent, poenituit, fut. poenitebit.
Pudet (me), I am ashamed, puduit or puditum est.
Taedet (me), I am disgusted with (taeduit very rare), per-
taesum est.
Oportet, it is necessary, oportuit, fut. oportebit.
Note. Miscruit, the regular perfect of miseret, occurs so seldom, that we
have not here noticed it. The form commonly used is miseritum or miserlum
IMPERSONAL VEKBS. 199
est, which is derived from the impersonal me miseretur tui, which is not un-
common, although the deponent misereri is otherwise used only as a personal
verb, misereor tui. Compare the passages, Cic. p. Ligar. 5. : cave te fratrwn
pro salute fratris obsecrantium misereatur; in Verr. i. 30. : jam me tui misereri
non potest, where the verb is likewise impersonal.
[ 226.] 2. Besides these impersonals, there are some others,
which likewise have no personal subject, but yet are used in the
third person plural, and may have a nominative (at least a neuter
pronoun) as their subject. Such verbs are :
Libet (mihi), I like, choose ; perf. libuit or libitum est.
Licet (mihi), I am permitted ; perf. licuit or licitum est.
Decet (me), it becomes me, and dedecet, it does not become me ;
perf. decuit, dedecuit.
Liquet, it is obvious ; perf. licuit.
Note. Libuit has been mentioned here as a perfect of libet, but it is
usually found only as a present, in the sense of libet.
[ 227.] 3. There is also a considerable number of verbs
which are used impersonally in the third person, while their
other persons occur with more or less difference in meaning.
To these belong : interest and refert in the sense of " it is
of importance to," with which no nominative can be used as a
subject ; further, accidit, fit, evenit, and contingit, it happens ;
accedit, it is added to, or in addition to ; attinet and pertinet
(ad aliquid), it concerns ; conducit, it is conducive ; convenit, it
suits ; constat, it is known or established ; expedit, it is expedient ;
delectat and juvat, it delights, pleases ; fallit, fugit, and praeterit
me, it escapes me, I do not know ; placet, it pleases ; perf.
placuit and placitum est ; praestat, it is better ; restat, it remains ;
vacat, it is wanting ; est in the sense of licet, it is permitted or
possible, e. g. est videre, non est dicere verum, but especially in
poetry and late prose writers.
[ 228.] 4. The verbs which denote the changes of the
weather : pluit, it rains ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ;
lapidat (perf. also lapidatum esf), stones fall from heaven ; ful-
gurat and fulminat, it lightens (with this difference, that fulmi-
nat is used of a flash of lightning which strikes an object);
tonal, it thunders ; lucescit and illucescit (perf. illuxif), it dawns ;
vesperascit and advesperascit (perf. advesperavif), the evening
approaches ; in all these cases the subject understood is sup-
o 4
200 LATIN GRAMMAR.
posed to be deus or coelum, which are in fact often added as their
subjects.
[ 229.] 5. The third person singular passive of a great
many words, especially of those denoting movement or saying,
is or may be used impersonally, even when the verb is neuter,
and has no personal passive, e. g. curritur, they or people run ;
itur, ventum est, clamatur, fletur, scribitur, bibitur, &c.
[ 230.] 6. All these impersonal verbs, as such, have no
imperative, the place of which is supplied by the present sub-
junctive, e. g. pudeat te, be ashamed of ! The participles also
(together with the forms derived from them, the gerund and the
infinitive future) are wanting, with a few exceptions, such as
libens, licens and liciturus, pocnitens and pocnitendm, pudendns.
CHAP. LXI.
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS.
[ 231.] WE have hitherto treated of the changes which one
particular form pf nouns and verbs, supposed to be known (the
nominative in nouns, and the infinitive in verbs), may undergo
in forming cases and numbers, persons, tenses, moods, &c. But
the origin of that form itself, which is taken as the basis in in-
flection, is explained in that special branch of the study of lan-
guage, which is called Etymology. Its object is to trace all the
words of the language to their roots, and it must therefore soon
lead us from the Latin to the Greek language, since both are
nearly allied, and since the Greek was developed at an earlier
period than the Latin. Other languages, too, must be consulted,
in order to discover the original forms and significations. We
cannot, however, here enter into these investigations, and
must content ourselves with ascertaining, within the Latin
language itself, the most prominent laws in the formation of
new words from other more simple ones ; a knowledge of these
laws is useful to the beginner, since it facilitates his acquir-
ing the language. But we shall here confine ourselves to nouns
(substantive and adjective) and verbs, for the derivation and
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VEKBS. 201
composition of pronouns and numerals have been discussed in
a former part of this work ; with regard to the (unchangeable)
particles, on the other hand, etymology is necessary, as it sup-
plies the place of inflection.
The formation of new words from others previously existing
takes place either by Derivation, or the addition of certain ter-
minations; or by Composition. In regard to derivation, we
have to distinguish primitive and derivative words ; and, with
regard to composition, simple and compound words. We shall
first treat of derivation.
I. VERBS.
Verbs are derived either from other verbs or from nouns.
A. With regard to the former, we distinguish four classes of
verbs: 1. Frequentative; 2. Desiderative ; 3. Diminutive; and
4. Inchoative.
1. Frequentatives, all of which follow the first conjugation,
denote the frequent repetition or an increase of the action ex-
pressed by the primitive verb. They are derived from the
supine by changing the regular atum, in the first conjugation
into Ito, itare ; other verbs of the first conjugation as well as
of the others remain unchanged, the termination of the su-
pine, um, alone being changed into 0, are. Of the former
kind are, e. g., clamo, clamito ; impero, imperito ; rogito, volito ;
of the latter, domo, dom/itum, domito ; adjuvo, adjutum, adjuto ;
and from verbs of the third conjugation : curro, cur sum, cur so ;
cano, cantum, canto ; dico, dictum, dicto ; nosco, notum, noto ;
and so also accepto, pulso, defenso, gesto, quasso, tracto. Some
of these latter frequentatives, derived from verbs of the third
conjugation, serve again as primitives from which new frequen-
tatives are formed, as cursito, dictito, defensito. There are
some double frequentatives of this kind, without the interme-
diate form of the simple frequentative being used or known,
such as actito from ago (acto), and so also lectito from lego, scrip-
tito from scribo, haesito from haereo, visito from video, ventito from
venio, advento.
Some few frequentatives with the termination ito, itare, are
not derived from the supine, but from the present of the pri-
mitive verb. This formation is necessary when the primitive
202 LATIN GRAMMAR.
verb has no supine, as is the case with latco, paveo latito,
pavito. But the following are formed in this manner with-
out there being such a reason: agito, noscito, quaerito, cogito.
Some frequentatives have the deponential form, as amplexor
from amplector, minitor from minor, tutor from tueor, scitor and
sciscitor from scisco.
[ 232.] 2. Desideratives end in urio, urire (after the fourth
conjugation), and express a desire of that which is implied in
the primitive. They are formed from the supine of the latter,
e. g. esurio, esuris, I want to eat, from edo, esum ; so also coe-
naturio from coenatum, dicturio from dictum, empturio from
emptum, parturio from partum, and in this manner Cicero
(ad Att. ix. 10.) jocosely formed Sullaturit et proscripturit, he
would like to play the part of Sulla and to proscribe.
Note. Some verbs in urio after the fourth conjugation, such as ligurire,
scaturire, prurire, are not desideratives, and it should be observed that the
u in these words is long.
[ 233.] 3. Diminutives have the termination illo, illare,
which is added to the stem of the primitive verb, without any
further change, and they describe the action expressed as some-
thing trifling or insignificant ; e. g. cantillare from cantare, to
sing in an undervoice, or sing with a shaking; conscribillare,
scribble ; sorbillare from sorbere, sip. The number of these
verbs is not great.
[ 234.] 4. Inchoatives have the termination sco, and fol-
low the third conjugation. They express the beginning of
the act or condition denoted by the primitive; e. g. caleo, I
am warm, calesco, I am getting or becoming warm ; areo, I am
dry, aresco, I begin to be dry ; langueo, I am languid, languesco,
I am becoming languid. It frequently happens that a pre-
position is prefixed to an inchoative, as in timeo, pertimesco ;
taceo, conticesco. The vowel preceding the termination sco,
scere, is either a (asco), e (esco), or i (isco), according as the in-
choative is derived from a primitive of the first, second, or third
and fourth conjugation (in the last two cases it is isco) ; e. g.
labasco from labare, totter.
pallesco from pallere, be pale.
ingemisco from gemere, sigh.
obdormisco from dormire, sleep.
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 203
Many inchoatives, however, are not derived from verbs, but
from substantives and adjectives, e. g.
puerasco, I become childish, from puer.
maturesco, I become ripe, from maturus, a, urn.
All inchoatives take their perfect and the tenses derived from
it from the primitive verb, or form it as it would be in the
primitive. (See Chap. LIT., the list of the most important
inchoatives.) It must, however, be observed, that not all verbs
ending in sco are inchoatives. See 203.
[ 235.] B. In regard to the derivation of verbs from nouns,
we see that in general the language followed the principle of
giving the termination of the second conjugation to verbs of an
intransitive signification, and that of the first to such as have a
transitive signification. Thus we have, e. g.,
a) flos, floris, fiorere, bloom. and from adjectives :
frons, frondis, frondere, have fo- albris, albere, be white,
liage. calvtis, cohere, be bald.
vis, vires, virere, be strong. flavins, flavere, be yellow.
lux, lucis, lucere, shine. hebes, hebere, be blunt or dull,
but, albus, albare, whitewash.
b) numerus, numerare, count. aptus, aptare, fit.
signum, signare, mark. liber, a, um, liberare, liberate.
fraus, fraudis, fraudare, deceive. celeber, bris, bre, celebrare, make
nomen, nominis, nominare, name. frequent, or celebrate.
indnus, vvlneris, vulnerare, wound. memor, memorare, mention.
arma, armare, arm. communis, communicare, com-
municate.
Both kinds are found compounded with prepositions, without the simple
verbs themselves being known or much used ; e. g.
Laqueus, illaqueare, entwine ; acervus, coacervare, accumulate ; stirps, ex-
tirpare, extirpate ; hilaris, exhilarare, cheer.
The observation of 147. must be repeated here, that many
deponents of the first conjugation (in art) are derived from sub-
stantives for the purpose of expressing " to be that which the
substantive indicates ; " e. g. among the first verbs in the list
there given, we find aemulari, ancillari, architectari, aucupari,
augur ari; and in like manner: comes, comitis, comitari; dominus,
dominari ; fur, fur ari. See 237. The Latin language has
much freedom in formations of this kind, and we may even now
form similar words, just as Persius invented (or was the first, as
far as we know, that used) cornicari, chatter like a crow, and
Horace graecari, live luxuriously like a Graeculus.
204 LATIN GRAMMAR.
II. SUBSTANTIVES.
[ 236.] Substantives are derived
A. From Verbs.
1. By the termination or, appended in place of the um of the
supine in transitive verbs, to denote a man performing the action
implied in the verb ; e. g.
amator, monitor, lector, auditor,
adulator, fautor, conditor, conditor,
adjutor, censor, petltor, largltor,
and a great many others. Those which end in tor form femi-
nines in trix, as fautrix, adjutrix, victrix ; and if in some cases
no such feminine can be pointed out in the writings that have
come down to us, it does not follow, considering the facility of
their formation, that there never existed one. In regard to the
masculines in sor, the formation of feminines is more difficult,
but tonsor makes tonstrix ; defensor, defenstrix ; and expulsor,
throwing out the s, makes expultrix.
Some few substantives of this kind ending in tor are formed
also from nouns ; as aleator, gambler, from alea ; janitor, from
janua ; viator from via.
2. The same termination or, when added to the unaltered
stem of a word, especially of intransitive verbs, expresses the
action or condition denoted by the verb substantively ; e. g.
pavere, pavor, fear ; furere, furor, fury ; nitere, nitor, shine or
gloss. So also, e. g.
clamor, albor, horror, favor, ardor,
amor, rubor, timor, maeror, splendor.
[ 237.] 3. Two terminations, viz. io gen. ionis, and us,
gen. us, when added to the supine after throwing off the urn,
express the action or condition denoted by the verb abstractedly.
Both terminations are frequently met with in substantives
derived from the same verb, without any material difference, as
concur sio and concur sus, consensio and consensus; so also con-
temptio and contemptus, digressio and digressus, motio and motus,
potio and potus, tractatio and tractatus, and others. Some verbs
in are which have different forms of the supine (see 171.),
make also substantives of two forms ; thus we have fricatio and
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 205
frictio, lavatio and lotto, potatio and potio, and according to
their analogy also cubatio and cubitio, although the supine of
cubare is cubitum only.
In this manner are formed from actives and deponents, for
example,
a) sectio. motio. lectio. auditio.
cunctatio. cautio. ultio. sortitio.
acclamatio. admonitio. octio. largitio.
b) crepitus. fletus. cantus. ambitus,
sonitus. visus. congressus. ortus.
Note. Strictly speaking, the Latin language makes this difference, that
the verbal substantives in io denote the action or condition as actually going
on, and those in us as being and existing ; but this difference is frequently
neglected, and it is to be observed, that the writers of the silver age (es-
pecially Tacitus) prefer the forms in us without at all attending to the dif-
ference. A third termination producing pretty nearly the same meaning is
Ura; as in pictura, painting ; conjectura, conjecture ; cullura, cultivation. Some-
times it exists along with the other two, as in positio, positus, positura ; censio,
census, censura. Usually, however, one of them is preferred, in practice,
with a definite meaning. Thus we have mercatus, the market, and merca-
tura, commerce. In some substantives the termination ela produces the
same meaning ; as querela, complaint ; loquela, speech ; corruptela, corrup-
tion.
[ 238.] 4. The termination men expresses either the thing
to which the action belongs, both in an active and passive sense,
as fulmen from fulgere, lightning ; jlumen from Jluere, river ;
agmen from agere, troop or army in its march; examen from
exigere, a swarm of bees driven out : or, the means of attaining
what the verb expresses ; e. g. solamen, a means of consolation ;
nomen (from novimeii), a means of recognising, that is, a name.
The same thing is expressed also by the termination mentum,
which sometimes occurs along with men ; as legmen and tegu-
mentum, velamen and velamentum, but much more frequently
alone, as in adjumentum from adjuvare, a means of relief; con-
dimentum from condire, condiment, i. e. a means of seasoning;
documentum, a document, a means of showing or proving a
thing. Similar words are :
allevamentum. monumentum. additamentum, experimentum.
ornamentum. fomentum. alimentum. blandimentum.
Some substantives of this kind are derived from nouns ; thus
from ater, black, we have atramentum. The connecting vowel
206 LATIN GRAMMAR.
a before mcntum, however, may show that a link was conceived
to exist between the primitive ater and the derivative atra-
mentum, such, perhaps, as a verb atrare, blacken. In like
manner we have calceamentum, a covering for the feet ; capilla-
mentum, a head-dress, wig.
[ 239.] 5. The terminations bulum and culum (or ulum, when
c or g precedes) denote an instrument or a place serving a
certain purpose ; e. g. venabulum, a hunter's spear ; vehiculum, a
vehicle ; jaculum, a javelin ; cingulum, a girdle. So also,
umbraculum. cubiculum, ferculum. vinculum.
poculum. latibulum. stabulum. operculum.
The termination culum is sometimes contracted into clum, as in
vinclum ; and clum is changed into crum, and bulum into brum,
when there is already an / in the stem of the word ; e. g. ful-
crum, support ; lavacrum, bath ; sepulcrum, sepulchre ; Jlagrum,
scourge ; ventilabrum. A similar meaning belongs to trum in
aratrum, plough ; claustrum, lock ; rostrum, beak. Some words
of this class are derived from substantives, as turibulum, censer
(tus, turis) ; acetabulum, vinegar cruet ; candelabrum, can-
delabre.
6. Other and less productive terminations are a and o (gen.
onis), which, when appended to the stem of the word, denote the
subject of the action : conviva, guest ; advena, stranger ; scriba,
scribe ; transfuga, deserter ; erro, vagrant ; bibo, drunkard ; come-
do, glutton. By means of the termination io words are derived
from substantives, denoting a trade to which a person belongs,
as ludio, the same as histrio, an actor; pellio, furrier; restio,
rope maker.
-ium expresses the effect of the verb and the place of the
action ; e. g. gaudium, joy ; odium, hatred ; colloquium, colloquy ;
conjugium and connubium, marriage ; aedificium, building, edifice ;
re- and confugium, place of refuge ; comitium, place of as-
sembly.
-Igo expresses a state or condition : origo from oriri, origin ;
vertigo, giddiness ; rubigo, a blight ; petigo and impetigo, scab ;
prurigo, itch; and hence, porrigo, scurf. A similar meaning
belongs to Ido in cupldo, libido, formido.
[ 240.] B. From other Substantives.
1. The diminutives, or, as Quintilian, i. 5. 46., calls them,
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 207
vocabula deminuta, are mostly formed by the terminations ulus,
ula, ulum, or culus, a, um, according to the gender of the pri-
mitive word : ulus, a, um, is appended to the stem after the
removal of the termination of the oblique cases, e. g. virga,
virgula ; servus, servulus ; puer, puerulus ; rex (regis), regulus ;
caput (capitis), capitulum. So also :
portula, nummulus. rapulum. facula.
litterula. hortulus. oppidulum. adolescentulus.
Instead of ulus, a, um, we find olus, a, um, when the termination
of the primitive substantive, us, a, um, is preceded by a vowel,
e. g.
filiolus. gloriola. ingeniolum.
alveolus. lineola. horreolum.
The termination culus, a, um, ' is sometimes appended to the
nominative, without any change, viz. in the words in I and r,
and those in os and us of the third declension, which take an r
in the genitive ; e. g.
corculum. fraterculus. flosculus. munusculum.
tuberculum. sororcula. osculum. corpusculum.
And so also pulvisculus, vasculum from vas, vasis ; arbuscula from
the form arbos ; and in a somewhat different manner rumusculus
from rumor ; lintriculus and ventriculus from linter and venter.
Sometimes the s of the nominative terminations is and es is
dropped, as in
igniculus. aedicula. nubecula. diecula.
pisciculus. pellicula. vulpecula. plebecula.
In words of other terminations of the third declension, and
in those of the fourth, i steps in as a connecting vowel between
the stem of the word and the diminutive termination culus; e. g.
ponticulus. denticulus. versiculus. anicula.
particula. ossiculum. articulus. corniculum.
coticula. reticulum. sensiculus. geniculum.
The termination ellus, a, um, occurs only in those words of
the first and second declensions which have /, n, or r in their
terminations. Thus oculus makes ocellus; tabula, tabella; asinus,
asellus; liber, libellus; libra, libella; lucrum, lucellum. So also
208 LATIN GRAMMAR.
popellus, fabclla, lamella, patella, agellus, cultellus, flaiellum, fla-
gellum, labellum, sacellum. Cistella is the same as cistula, and
thence we have again cistellula, just as puellula from puella.
Catellus from canis, and porcellus from porous, cannot be brought
under any rule. The termination illus, a, um, occurs more
rarely, as in bacillum, sigillum, tigillum, pupillus, like pupulus,
from the obsolete pupus; villum from vinum. So also codicillus,
Inpillus, anguilla. The termination unculus, a, um, is appended
chiefly to words in o, gen. onis or inis; as,
sermunculus. ratiuncula. homunculus.
pugiunculus. quaestiuncula. virguncula.
A few diminutives of this sort are formed also from words of
other terminations, viz. avunculus from avus, domuncula from
domus, furunculus from fur, ranunculus from fana. The dimi-
nutive termination Icus occurs seldom ; but it is found in equus,
equuleus', acus, aculeus; hinnus, hinnuleus.
Note. Only a few diminutives differ in gender from their primitive words,
as aculeus from acus, fern. ; curriculum from currus, masc. ; and also ranunculus
from rana, and scamillus (a foot-stool) from scamnum, along with which
however we also find the regular diminutives ranula and scamellum. Hence,
there are instances of double diminutives in cases where the primitives have
double forms (see 98.) ; e. g. catillus and catillum ; pileolus and pileolum,
and a few others. The diminutives of common nouns ($ 40.) are said to have
regularly two forms, one in us and the other in a, to designate the two
sexes, as infantulus and infantula, tirunculus, a, from infans and tiro.
[ 241] 2. The termination ium appended to the radical syl-
lable of the primitive expresses either an assemblage of things or
persons, or their relation to one another ; e. g. collega, col-
legium, an assembly of men who are collegae (colleagues) of one
another; so convivium, repast, or assembly of convivae; ser-
vitium, the domestics, also servitude ; sacerdotium, the office of
priest ; minister, ministerium, service ; exul, exilium, exile ; cen-
sors, consortium, community. When this termination is ap-
pended to verbal substantives in or, it denotes the place of the
action, as in repositorium, repository ; conditorium, a place where
a thing is kept, tomb ; auditorium, a place where people assemble
for the purpose of listening to a person.
[ 242.] 3. -arium denotes a receptacle ; e. g. granarium, a
granary or place where grain is kept ; armarium (arma), a cup-
board ; armamentarium, arsenal, or place where the armamenta
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 209
are kept. So also plantarium and seminarium, aerarium, colum-
barium, tabularium, valetudinarium.
[ 243.] 4. etum appended to the names of plants denotes the
place where they grow in great number ; e. g. quercus, quer-
cetum, a plantation of oaks ; so also vinetum, lauretum, esculetum,
dumetum, myrtctum, olivetum; and, after the same analogy, sax-
etum, a field covered with stones ; and, with some change, salic-
tum (from salix), pasture, instead of salicetum; virgultum instead
of virguletum, arbustum from arbos (for arbor), instead of arbo-
retum.
[ 244.] 5. -ile appended to names of animals indicates the
place in which they are kept ; e. g. bubile (rarely bovile), stall
of oxen ; equile, stable (of horses) ; so also caprile, hoedile, ovile.
Some which are formed from verbs indicate the place of the
action expressed by the verb, as cubile, sedile. All these words
are properly neuters of adjectives, but their other genders are
not used. Compare 250.
[ 245.] 6. With regard to patronymics, or names of descent,
which the Latin poets have adopted from the poetical language
of the Greeks, the student must be referred to the Greek
grammar. The most common termination is ides, as Priamus,
Priamides; Cecrops, Cecropides; names in eus and cles make
Ides (si&rjs) ; e. g. Atrides, Pelides, Heraclidae. The names in
as of the first declension make their patronymics in odes; as
Aeneas, Aeneades. The termination iades should properly occur
only in names ending in ius, such as Thestius, Thestiades; but
it is used also in other names, according to the requirements of
the particular verse ; as Laertes, Laertiades ; Atlas, Atlantiades;
Abas, Abantiades; Telamon, Telamoniades.
The feminine patronymics are derived from the masculines,
ides being changed into is, ides into eis, and iades into ias; e. g.
Tantalides, Tantalis; Nereus, Nereis; Thestius, Thestias. Aene-
ades (from Aeneas) alone makes the feminine Aeneis, because the
regular feminine, Aeneas, would be the same as the primitive.
In some instances we find the termination me or tone, as Nep-
tunine, Acrisione.
[ 246.] C. From Adjectives.
1. The termination itas is the most common in forming sub-
stantives denoting the quality expressed by the adjective as an
210 LATIN GRAMMAR.
abstract notion, and is equivalent to the English ty or ity. The
adjective itself in appending itas undergoes the same changes
as in its oblique cases, especially in the one which ends in i.
Thus from atrox, atroci, we obtain atrocitas; from cnpidus,
cupidi, cupiditas. ... So also capax, capacitas; celer, celeritas;
saluber, salubritas; crudelis, crudelitas; facilis, facilitas; clarus,
claritas; fecundus, fecunditas; verus, veritas. Libertas is formed
without a connecting vowel, and facultas and difficultas with
a change of the vowel, as in the adverb difficulter.
The adjectives in ius make their substantives in ietas; e. g.
anxietas, ebrietas, pietas, varietas; those in stus make them in
stas: honestas, venustas, vetustas ; in a similar manner potestas
and voluntas are formed from posse and v elle.
2. Another very common termination is ia, but it occurs
only in substantives derived from adjectives of one termi-
nation, which add ia to the crude form of the oblique cases.
From audax, dat. audaci, we have audacia, and from concors,
concordi, concordia. So also clemens, dementia; constans, con-
stantia; impudentia, elegantia; appetentia and despicientia occur
along with appetitio and appetitus, despectio and despectus. Some
adjectives in us and er, however, likewise form their substan-
tives in ia; e. g. miser, miseria; angustus, angustia; perfidus^
perfidia; and several verbal adjectives in cundus; as, facundus,
facundia; iracundus, iracundia; verecundus, verecundia.
[ 247.] 3. There are numerous substantives in which tudo is
appended to the case of the adjective ending in i; e. g. acritudo,
aegritudo, altitude, crastitudo, longitude, magnitude, fortitudo,
similitude; and in polysyllables in tus, tudo directly grows out
of this termination, as in consuetude, mansuetudo, inquietude,
sollicitudo. Valetudo stands alone. Some of these substantives
exist along with other forms, as beatitude, claritudo, Jirmi-
tudo, lenitudo, and sanctitudo, along with beatitas, claritas, fir-
mitas, &c. In these cases the words in udo seem to denote the
duration and peculiarity of the quality more than those in itas.
To these we must add the termination monia, which produces
the same signification, e. g. sanctimonia, castimonia, acrimonia,
after the analogy of which parsimonia and querimonia (stronger
than querela) are formed from verbs.
4. Substantives in itia, from adjectives in us, are of more rare
occurrence, as justitia from Justus, justi. So avaritia, laetitiu,
maestitia, pudicitia; but also tristitia from tristis.
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 211
5. The termination cdo occurs only in a few substantives ; as
albedo, dulcedo, gravedo (heaviness or cold in the head), pinguedo
(along with pinguitudo).
III. ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are derived :
A. From Verbs.
[ 248.] 1. With the termination bundus, chiefly from verbs
of the first conjugation, e. g. errabundus from errare, cogita-
bundus from cogitare, gratulabundus from gratulari, popula-
bundus from populari. Their signification is, in general, that of
a participle present, with the meaning strengthened, a circum-
stance which we must express in English by the addition of other
words ; e. g. haesitabundus, full of hesitation ; deliberabundus,
full of deliberation ; mirabundus, full of admiration ; venera-
bundus, full of veneration ; lacrimabundus, weeping profusely.
Thus Gellius explains laetabundus as one qui abunde laetus est.
There are but few adjectives of this kind derived from verbs of
the- third conjugation : fremebundus, gemebundus, furibundus,
ludibundus, moribundus, nitibundus. There is only one from a
verb of the second conjugation, viz. pudibundus; and likewise
one only from a verb of the fourth, lascivibundus.
Note. These verbal adjectives in bundus however cannot be regarded as
mere participles, for in general they do not govern any case. But we
find in Livy the expressions vitdbundus castra, mirabundi vanam speciem. A
considerable list of such expressions is given in Ruddimannus, Instit. Grant'
mat. Lot. torn. i. p. 309. ed. Lips.
Some verbal adjectives in cundus are of a similar kind
facundus, eloquent ; iracundus, irascible ; verecundus, full oi
bashfulness ; rubicundus, the same as rubens, reddish.
[ 249.] 2. The ending idus, chiefly in adjectives formed from
intransitive verbs, simply denotes the quality expressed by the
verb :
calidus, from calere. rubidus, from rubere.
algidus, from algere. turgidus, from turgere.
madidus, from madere. rapidus, from rapere.
The termination uus is of more rare occurrence ; e. g. con-
gruus from congruo, agreeing; assiduus, nocuus and innocuus.
p 2
212 LATIN GRAMMAR.
When derived from transitive verbs, it gives to the adjective a
passive meaning, as in irriguus, well watered; conspicuus, visi-
ble ; individuus, indivisible.
3. The terminations ilis and bills denote the possibility of a
thing in a passive sense ; e. g. amabilis, easy to love, hence
amiable ; placabilis, easy to be conciliated ; delebilis, easy to be
destroyed ; vincibilis, easy to be conquered ; facilis, easy to do ;
docilis, docile ; fragilis, fragile. Some of these adjectives, how-
ever, have an active meaning: horribilis, producing horror, hor-
rible ; terribilis, terrible, that is, producing terror ; fertilis,
fertile.
4. -ax appended to the stem of the verb expresses a pro-
pensity, and generally a faulty one :
pugnax. furax.
edax and vorax. audax.
loquax. rapax.
The few adjectives in ulus have a similar meaning, as credulus,
credulous ; bibulus, fond of drinking ; querulus, querulous.
[ 250.] B. From Substantives, viz.
a) From Appellatives:
1. The ending eus denotes the material, and sometimes simi-
larity, e. g.
ferreus. ligneus. plumbeus. virginevs.
aureus. citreus. cinereus. igneus.
argenteus. buxeus. corporeus. vitreus.
Some adjectives of this kind have a double form in -neus and
-nus ; as, eburneus and eburnus, ficulneus andjiculnus, iligneus
and ilignus, querneus and quernus, saligneus and salignus.
2. -icus expresses belonging or relating to a thing; e. g.
classicus from classis ; civicus, relating to a citizen ; dominions,
belonging to a master ; rusticus, rural ; aulicus, relating to a
court ; bellicus, relating to war, &c.
3. The termination His (comp. 20.) has the same meaning,
but assumes also a moral signification, e. g. civilis and hostilis,
the same as civicus and hosticus, but also answering to our civil
and hostile. So servilis, senilis, anilis, juvenilis, puerilis, virilis.
4. The endings aceus and icius sometimes express a ma-
terial and sometimes the origin, e. g. chartaceus, mcmbranaceus,
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 213
papyraceus ; caementicius, latericius, patricius, tribunicius. So
also those derived from participles : collaticius, arisen from con-
tributions ; commenticius, fictitious ; subditicius, supposititious,
and others.
[ 251.] 5. The termination dlis (in English at) is appended
not only to words in a, but also to substantives of other ter-
minations, in which, however, the termination is appended
to the crude form of the oblique cases ; e. g. ancora, conviva,
letum ancoralis, convivalis, letalis ; but from rex, regis, we
have regalis; virgo, virginalis ; sacerdos, sacerdotalis ; caput,
capitalis ; corpus, corporalis. So also auguralis, aditialis, comi-
tialis, annalis, fluvialis, mortalis, novalis, socialis, and others.
Also from proper names, as Augustalis, Claudialis, Flavialis,
Trajanalis, to denote classes of priests instituted in honour of
those emperors. The ending am is somewhat more seldom,
and principally occurs in such words as contain an I; such an,
articularis, consularis, popularis, puellaris, vulgaris, Apollinaris.
The termination atilis denotes fitness for the thing expressed
by the root ; as, aquatilis,Jluviatilis, volatilis.
6. The 'termination ius occurs most frequently in derivatives
from personal nouns in or ; e. g. accusatorius, amatorius, alea-
torius, censorius, imperatorius, praetorius, uxorius. It occurs
more rarely in substantives of other terminations, though we
have regius, patrius, aquilonius. From substantives in or which
do not denote persons, but abstract notions, adjectives are formed
by simply appending us ; as decor, decorus, and so also canorus,
odorus, honorus (less frequently used than honestus).
[ 252.] 7. -inus is found especially in derivations from names
of animals (especially to denote their flesh), e. g.
asininus. ferinus. haedinus anserinus.
caninus. equinus. caballinus. anatinus.
camelinus. taurinus. arietinus. viperinus.
But it also occurs in adjectives derived from names of other
living beings, e. g. divinus, libertinus, inquilinus (from incola),
masculinus, femininus (marinus, living in the sea, stands alone).
Medicina, sutrina, tonstrina, pistrinum, textrinum, are to be
explained by the ellipsis of a substantive, and denote the locality
in which the art or trade is carried on.
p 3
214 LATIN GRAMMAR.
The termination mus, on the other hand, occurs chiefly iu
derivations from names of plants and minerals, to denote the
material of which a thing is made ; e. g. cedrmus, faglnus,
adamantmus, crystallinus, and the ending tinus in derivative
adjectives denoting time, as crastlnus, diutinus, hornotmus, an-
notmus. See 20.
8. The termination arius expresses a general relation to the
noun from which the adjective is formed, but more particularly
the occupation or profession of a person ; e. g.
coriarius. carbonarius. scapharius. ostiarius.
statuarius. aerarius. navicularius. consiliarius.
sicarius. argentarius. codicarius. classiarius.
9. The ending osus denotes fulness or abundance ; as in
aerumnosus. aquosus. bellicosus.
animosus. lapidosus- caliginosus.
artificiosus. vinosus. tenebricosus.
The ending uosus occurs exclusively in derivations from words
of the fourth declension : actuosus, portuosus, saltuosus, vul-
tuosus ; but also monstruosus which is used along with monstrosus.
10. The termination lentus denotes plenty, and is commonly
preceded by the vowel u, and sometimes by o :
fraudulentus. vinolentus. pulverulentus.
turbulentus. opulentus. violentus.
esrulentus. potulentus. sanguinolentus,
11. Less productive and significant terminations are : -anus
which denotes belonging to a thing : urbanus, montanus, humanus
(from homo). (Respecting the adjectives formed from numerals
by means of this termination, see 118. Thus we find febris
tertiana, quartana, a fever returning every third or fourth day) ;
ivus generally denotes the manner or nature of a thing : fur-
tivus, votivus, aestivus, tempestivus ; also from participles : capti-
vus, nativus, sativus ; ernus denotes origin : f rater mis, maternus,
paternus, inf ernus, externus. The same termination and urnus
occur in adjectives denoting time : vernus, hibernus, hesternus,
aeternus (from aeviternus), diurnus, nocturnus ; itlmus occurs in
finitimuS) legitimus, maritimus. The termination -ster in the
adjectives mentioned in 100. denotes the place of abode or
a quality.
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 215
[ 253.] 12. A very extensive class of derivative adjectives
end in atus, like participles perfect passive of the first conjuga-
tion, but they are derived at once from substantives, without its
being possible to show the existence of an intermediate verb.
Thus we have, e. g., aurum and auratus, gilt ; but a verb aurare
does not occur, and its existence is assumed only for the sake of
derivation. Some adjectives of this kind are formed from sub-
stantives in is and end in Itus, as auritus, provided with ears;
pellitus, covered with a skin; turritus, having towers, and so
also mellitus, sweet as honey. Some few are formed by the
ending utus from substantives in us, gen. us ; as, cornutus, as-
tutus ; and according to this analogy nasutus, from nasus, i.
Those in atus are very numerous, e. g.
barbatus. calceatus. aeratus,
togatus. clipeatus. dentatus.
- galeatus. oculatus. falcatus.
[ 254.] b) From Proper Names.
We may here distinguish four classes: 1. names of men,
2. of towns, 3. of nations, 4. of countries.
1. The termination ianus is the most common in forming
o
adjectives from Roman names of men, not only from those
ending in ius, such as Tullianus, Servilianus, but also from
those in us and other endings ; as Crassianus, Marcellianus, Pau-
lianus, Caesarianus, Catonianus, Ciceronianus : anus occurs only
in names in a, and is therefore found less frequently ; as
Cinnanus, Sullanus, still, on the other hand, we find s'epta
Agrippiana, legio Galbiana. Gracchus is the only name in us
that commonly makes Gracchanus ; for Augustanus, Lepidanus,
and Lucullanus occur along with Augustianus, Lepidianus, and
Lucullianus. The termination inus is found chiefly in derivatives
from names of families, e. g. Messalinus, Paulinus, Rufinus,
Agrippina, Plancina ; in real adjectives it occurs much more
rarely, but it is well established in Jugurtha, Jugurthinus (for
which however Jugurthanus also might have been used) ; Plau-
tus, Plautinus ; Verres, Verrinus, to distinguish them from
Plautius, Plautianus ; Verrius, Verrianus. In Suetonius, more-
over, we find bellum Viriathinum, fossa Drusina, and in Cicero
oratio Metellina (an oration delivered against Metellus), ad Att.
i. 13. ; bellum Antiochinum, Philip, xi. 7. ; and paries Antio-
r 4
216 LATIN GRAMMAR.
chinae, ad Fam. ix. 8. The termination eus in Caesareus,
Herculeus, Romuleus, is used only by poets.
There are two terminations for forming adjectives from Greek
names of men, eus or ms (in Greek sios, see 2.) and icus.
Some names form adjectives in both terminations with a slight
difference in meaning, e. g. Philippeus and Philippicus, Pytha-
goreus and Pythagoricus, Isocrateus and Isocraticus, Homerius
and Homericus. Of others, one form only is used, as De-
mosthenicus, Platonicus, Socraticus. To these we must add
those in -idcus formed from names in ias, e. g. Archias. On the
other hand, we have Antiochius, Aristotelius, or with a different
pronunciation, Achilleus, Epicureus, Heracleus, Sophocleus, Theo-
doreus. Sometimes adjectives in eus are formed also from Latin
names, though, at the best period of the language, never without
a definite reason ; e. g. in Cicero, in Verr. iii. 49., Marcellia and
Verria, Greek festivals in honour of those persons; but after-
wards we find, without this peculiar meaning, Augusteus, Lu-
culleus (in Pliny and Suetonius), Neroncus, Roman objects being
thus designated by words with a Greek termination.
Note. It must however be observed that the Roman gentile names in {us were
originally adjectives, and were always used as such. We thus read lex Cor-
nelia, Julia, Tullia, via Flaminia, Valeria, Appia, aqua Julia, circus Flaminius,
theatrum Pompejum, horrea Sulpicia, instead of the adjectives in anus. Nay, the
Romans made this very proper distinction, that the adjectives in ius denoted
every thing which originated with the person in question and was destined for
public use, while those in anus denoted that which was named after the
person for some reason or other ; e. g. lex Sulpicia, but seditio Sulpiciana ;
aqua Appia, but mala Appiana ; porticus Pompeja, but classis Pompejana, &c.
The former meaning is also expressed when the name itself is used adjectively,
as aqua Trajana, portus Trajanus, though an adjective in ianus was formed
even from names ending in anus, as malum Sejanianum, SCtum Silanianum.
According to this analogy Augustus, a, urn, was used for Augustianus, Augus-
tanus, or Augustdlis ; e. g. domus Ai'gusta, pax Augusta, scriptores historiae
Augustae. The poets went still further, and Horace, for example (Carm. iv.
5. 1.) says: Romulae gentis custos, for Romuleae.
[ 255.] 2. From names of places, and chiefly from those
of towns, adjectives are derived ending in ensis, mus, as and
anus.
a) -ensis, also from common or appellative nouns, e. g. castren-
sis from castra ; circensis from circus ; and from names of towns :
Cannae, Cannensis ; Catina, Catinensis ; Ariminum, Ariminensis ;
Comum, Comensis ; Mediolanum, Mediolanensis ; Sulmo, Sul-
monensis ; from (Greek) towns in la (ea) : Antiochensis, Antigo-
ETYMOLOGY OP NOUNS AND VERBS. 217
nensis, Attalensis, Nicomedensis, but in Heracliensis the i is
preserved.
/3) -Inus from names in m and ium ; e. g. Ameria, Amerinus ;
Aricia, Aricinus ; Florentia, Florentinus ; Caudium, Caudinus ;
Clusium, Chisinus ; Canusium, Canusinus. And so also from
Latium, Latinus, and from Capitolium, Capitolinus.
7) -as (for all genders) is used less extensively, and only
forms adjectives from names of towns in urn, though not from
all. It occurs in Arpinum, Arpinas ; Aquinum, Aquinas ;
Privernum, Privernas ; Ferentinum, Ferentinas (ager)\ Casili-
num, Casilinas (along with Casilinensis), But Ravenna also
makes Ravennas ; Capena, Capenas ; Ardea, Ardeas ; Inter-
amna, Interamnas (also ager) ; Frusmo, Frusinas. Antium
makes Antias, but we find also Antiense templum and Antiatinae
sortes.
8) -anus from names of towns in a and ae ; e. g. Roma, Ro-
manus ; Alba, Albanus* ; Sparta, Spartanus ; Cumae, Cu-
manus ; Syracusae, Syracusanus ; Thebae, Thebanus ; also from
some in um and i : Tusculum, Tusculanus ; Fundi, Fundanus.
[ 256.] Greek adjectives, however, formed from names of
towns, or such as were introduced into Latin through the litera-
ture of the Greeks, follow different rules which must be learned
from a Greek grammar. We will here only remark that the
most frequent ending is lus, by means of which adjectives are
formed also from Greek names of countries and islands ; e. g.
Aegyptus, Aegyptius ; Lesbos, Lesbius ; Rhodus, Rhodius ; Co-
rinthus, Corinthius ; Ephesus, Ephesius ; Chlus, Chlus (instead
of Chiius) ; Lacedaemon, Lacedaemonius ; Marathon, Maratho-
nius ; Salamis, Salaminius ; Eretria, Eretrius. Other names
in a take the termination aeus, as Smyrna, Smyrnaeus ; Tegea,
Tegeaeus ; Larissa, Larissaeus ; Perga, Pergaeus, and so also
Cumae (Kvfirj) makes the Greek adjective Cumaeus. In the
case of towns not in Greece, even when they are of Greek
origin, we most frequently find the termination mus : Tarentum,
Tarentinus ; Agrigentum, Agrigentinus ; Centuripae, Centuri-
pinus ; Metapontum, Metapontinus ; Rhegium, Rheginus, whereas
the Latin Regium Lepidi makes the adjective Regiensis. It not
unfrequently happened that the Romans, as may be observed
* Albanus is formed from Alba Longa, Albensis from Alba on lake Fucinus.
218 LATIN GRAMMAR.
in some instances already mentioned, formed adjectives from
Greek names of towns in their own way, and without any
regard to the Greek forms ; e. g. Atheniensis instead of Aihe-
naeus, Thebanus instead of Thebaeus (while Thebaicus is an ad-
jective derived from the Egyptian Thebes), Eretriensis along
with Eretrius, Syracusanus along with Syracusius, Eleusinus
more frequently than the Greek form Eleusinius. The Greek
ending svs was most commonly changed into ensis ; sometimes,
however, it was retained along with the Latin form, as Hali-
carnasseus and Halicarnassensis. In like manner the Greek
irrjf was sometimes retained, as in Abderites ; and sometimes
changed into anus, as in Panormitanus, Tyndaritanus, especially
in all the Greek names of towns compounded with polis, as
Neapolitanus, Megalopolitanus. The other Greek terminations
are usually retained in Latin.
[ 257.] 3. From names which originally belong to nations,
adjectives are formed in icus and ius, in most cases in icus, e. g.
from Afer, Britannus, Gallus, Germanus, Italus, Marsus, Medus,
Celta, Persa, Scytha, Arabs, Aethiops, we have the adjectives
Africus, Britqnnicus, Celticus, Arabicus, &c. ; those in ius are
formed from some Greek names, as Syrus, Syrius ; Cilix,
Cilicius ; Thrax, Thracius. Other names of nations are at
once substantives and adjectives, as Graecus, Etruscus, Sardus,
or adjectives and at the same time substantives, as Romanus,
Latinus, Sabinus. Other substantive names again serve indeed
as adjectives, but still form a distinct adjective in icus, as His-
panus, Hispanicus ; Appulus, Appulicus ; Samnis, Samniticus.
In like manner, Caeres, Vejens, Gamers, Tiburs are both
substantives and adjectives, but still form distinct adjectives
according to the analogy of names of towns : Caeretanus, Vejen-
tanus, Camertinus, Tiburtinus.
Note. It must be remarked that poets and the later prose writers, in ge-
neral, use the substantive form also as an adjective ; e.g. Marsus aper, Colcha
venetia, although Colchicus and Marsicus exist ; Horat. Carm. iv. 6. 7. : Dar-
danas turres quateret; vers. 12. : inpulvere Teucro; vers. 18.: Achivis flammis
urere, instead of Achaicis. And this is not only the case with these forms of
the second declension, which externally resemble adjectives, but Ovid and
Juvenal say Numidae leones, Numidae ursi instead of Numidici ; and Persius
says : Ligus ora for Ligustica. The Greek feminine forms of names of nations
are likewise used as adjectives ; thus Virgil says : Cressa pharetra for Cretica,
Amonis ora for Ausonia, and the like. The same liberty is taken by poets
with the names of rivers in us. Thus Horace, Carm. iv. 4. 38. has : Metau-
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 219
rumflumen; de Art. Poet. 18. : fiumen Rhenum. Even prosewriters sometimes
follow their example in this respect : Plin. Hist. Nat. iii. 16, : ostium Erida-
num; Caes. B. G. iii. 7., and Tacit. Ann. i. 9., Hist. iv. 12. : mare Oceanum.
[ 258.] 4. The names of countries, with some exceptions,
such as the Latin names of districts, Latium and Samnium, and
those borrowed from the Greek language, Aegyptus, Epirus, Per sis,
are themselves derived from the names of nations ; e. g. Bri-
tannia, Gallia, Italia, Syria, Thracia, sometimes with slight
changes, as in Sardi, Sardinia; and Siculi, Sicilia. Africa and
Corsica are real adjectives, to which terra is understood. From
some of these countries, adjectives are formed with the terminations
ensis and anus, as Graeciensis, Hispaniensis, Siciliensis ; Africanus,
Gallicanus, Germanicianus, which must be carefully distinguished
from the adjectives derived from the names -of the respective
nations. Thus exerdtus Hispaniensis signifies an army stationed
in Spain, but not an army consisting of Spaniards ; but spartum
Hispanicum is a plant indigenous in Spain. The following are
some peculiar adjectives of Greek formation : Aegyptiacus, Sy-
riacus. Graecanicus is strangely formed, and expresses Greek
origin or Greek fashion.
[ 259.] C. From other Adjectives.
Diminutives are formed from some adjectives by the termina-
tions ulus, olus, culus, and ellus, according to the rules which
were given above, 240., with regard to diminutive substantives.
Thus we have parvulus, horridulus, nasutulus, primulus ; au-
reolus ; pauperculus, leviculus, tristiculus ; misellus, novellus,
pulchellus, tenellus. Double diminutives are formed from paucus
and paulus : paululus or pauxillus, and pauxillulus, a, um ; and
from bonus (benus), bellus and bellulus. Respecting the diminu-
tives derived from comparatives, comp. 104. 2. Note.
The termination aneus appended to the stem of an adjective
(and participle) in us, expresses a resemblance to the quality
denoted by the primitive ; e. g. super vacaneus, of a superfluous
nature ; but there are only few words of this kind : rejectaneus,
subitaneus, collectaneus, and, according to their analogy, consen-
taneus, praecidaneus, succidaneus.
[ 260.] Besides derivation new words are also formed bj
composition. In examining such words we may consider either
the first or the second part of which a compound consists.
The first word is either a noun, a verb, or a particle. The
220
LATIN GRAMMAR.
second remains unchanged, e. g. benefacio, beneficium, maledico,
satago ; a contraction takes place only in nolo, from ne (for non)
and volo, and in malo, from mage (for magis) and volo. Prepo-
sitions are used more frequently than any other particles in
forming compound words. Respecting their signification and
the changes produced in pronunciation by the meeting of hete-
rogeneous consonants, see Chap. LXVI.
There are only a few words in which verbs form the first
part of a compound, and wherever this is the case, the verb
facio forms the latter part, as in arefacio, calefacio, madefacio,
patefacio, condocefacio, commonefacio, assuefacio and consuefado.
The only change in the first verbs (which belong to the second
conjugation) is that they throw off the o of the present.
When the first word is a noun (substantive or adjective), it
regularly ends in a short i.
patricida.
armiger.
particeps.
aequiparo.
artifex.
aquilifer.
ignivomus.
amplifico.
tubicen.
capripes.
misericors.
breviloquens.
causidicus.
carnivorus.
rupicapra.
alienigena.
aedifico.
belligero.
stillicidium.
vilipendo.
So also biceps, trigeminifratres, centifolia rosa, centimanus Gyges,
from centum,) whereas otherwise the compositions with numerals
are different, as quadrupes, and without any change : quinquere-
mis. A contraction takes place in tibicen for tibiicen, from tibia
and cano, whereas in tubicen and fidicen the connecting vowel
is short according to the rule, there being no i in the words
tuba and fides. When the second word begins with a vowel,
the connecting i is thrown out, as in magnanimus, unanimis,
with which we may compare unimanus and uniformis.
Those words the parts of which are declined separately, may
likewise be regarded as compounds, although they form one
word only in so far as they are commonly written as such ; as
respublica, jusjurandum, rosmarinus, tresviri. So also those of
which the first word is a genitive, as senatusconsultum, plebiscitum,
duumvir, triumvir, that is, one of the duoviri or tresviri.
Note. The Greek language regularly makes the first part of a compound,
when it is a noun, end in o; e.g. $i\6<rooc, \oyoypa^>oe, (w/uaro^vXaC, Svpo^oi-
vi. As many such Greek compounds passed over into the Latin language,
such as philosophus, philologus, graecostasis, Gallograeci, we may form similar
compounds in modern Latin, but only in the case of proper names, as
ETYMOLOGY OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 221
Francogalli, Graeco-Latinus. There is no good reason for rejecting them, if
they really denote one thing which is formed by the combination of two
elements.
[ 261.] The latter word in the composition determines to
what part of speech the whole belongs. In compositions
with particles, the second word either remains unchanged, or
undergoes only a slight variation in its vowel. This variation
must be here considered, especially with regard to the radical
vowel of the verb ; for the vowels i, o, u, a and e remain un-
changed, as in ascribo, commmor, appdno, excolo, adduco, illdbor,
subrepo ; but a and e and the diphthong ae frequently undergo a
change : 1 . a remains only in the compounds of caveo, maneo,
and traho ; but in most other cases it is changed into z, e. g.
constituo from statuo, accipio from capio, abjicio from jacio, ar-
ripio from rapio, incido from cado, adigo from ago ; so also at-
tingo from tango, confringo from frango ; it is changed into e in
ascendo, aspergo, confercio, refello, impertio (along with impartio).
2. e sometimes remains unchanged, as in appeto, contego, contero,
congero, but sometimes it is changed into z : assideo from sedeo,
abstineo from teneo, arrigo from rego, aspicio from specio. Both
forms occur in the compounds of legere, e. g. per lego, read
through ; intelllgo, understand, but intellego too was used in
early times. 3. The diphthong ae remains unchanged only in
the compounds of haereo, as adhaereo ; it is changed into 1. in the
compounds of caedo, laedo, quaero, e. g. incido, illido, inquiro.
Other particulars may be gathered from the lists of irregular
verbs.
In the composition of nouns with verbs, the second word
undergoes more violent changes, and the rules already given
respecting derivation must be taken into account here. But
nouns are also formed in composition with verbs by the mere
abbreviation of the ending, and without any characteristic syl-
lable of derivation. Thus we have from cano, tubicen ; from
gero, claviger, armiger ; from fero, cistifer, signifer ; from facio,
artifex, pontifex ; from capio, princeps, municeps,' particeps.
Compounded adjectives are derived from verbs by the termina-
tion us, which is appended to the verbal stem : mortiferus, igni-
vomus, dulcisonus, like consonus, carnivorus, causidicus ; and from
substantives with a very slight or no change at all, e. g. centi-
marnts, capripes, misericors, uniformis.
222 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note. When the parts of a compound word are separated by the insertion
of one or two unaccented words, it is called, by a grammatical term, a tmesis.
Such a tmesis, however, occurs in prose only in the case of relative pronouns
compounded with cunque, more rarely in those with libet and in adjectives or
adverbs compounded with per, so that we may say, e. g. quod enim cunque
'udicium subierat vicit; qua re cunque potero tibi serviam; quale id cunque
est; per mihi gratum feceris ; per mihi, inquam, gratum feceris.
CHAP. LXII.
ETYMOLOGY OF PARTICLES.
ADVERBS.
[ 262.] 1. As the adjective qualifies a substantive, so the
adverb qualifies a verb, an adjective (consequently a participle
also), and even another adverb ; e. g. prudens homo prudenter
agit ; felix homo feliciter vivit ; eximie doctus ; domus celeriter
extructa ; satis bene scripsit.
Note. There are only certain cases in which an adverb can be joined with
a substantive, viz. when the substantive is used as an adjective or participle,
and accordingly denotes a quality, as populus late rex for late regnans, ruling
far and wide ; admodum puer erat, he was very young, or very much like a
boy ; or when a participle is understood to the adverb, e. g. Tacit. Ann. ii.
20. : gravibus superne ictibus conflictabantur, that is, superne accidentibus, com-
ing from above; ibid. 12. 61.: nullis extrinsecus adjumentis velavit, that is,
extrinsecus ductis or assumptis, by outward or external reasons. In this manner
Livy frequently uses the adverb circa in the sense of neighbouring ; e.g. i. 17. :
multarum circa civitatum irritatis animis. An adverb may be joined with pro-
nominal adjectives, when their adjective character predominates, as in homo
plane noster, entirely ours, that is, devoted to us.
2. Adverbs belong to those parts of speech which are in-
capable of inflexion, for they have neither cases nor any other
forms to denote the difference of persons, tenses, or moods.
But an adverb approaches nearest the declinable parts of speech,
inasmuch as adverbs derived from adjectives or participles
take the same degrees of comparison as the latter. We have,
therefore, in the first place to consider only the etymology of
adverbs and then their degrees of comparison.
With regard to their etymology, adverbs are either simple or
ADVERBS. 223
primitive (primitiva) or derived (derivata). We shall first treat
of derivative adverbs ; their number is great, and certain laws
are followed in their formation.
[ 263.] 3. By far the greater number of derivative adverbs
end in e and ter, and are derived from adjectives and participles
(present active and perfect passive).
Adjectives and participles in us, a, urn, and adjectives in
er, a, um (that is, those which follow the second declension),
make
Adverbs with the termination e.
Thus altus, longus, molestus, doctus, emendatus, ornatus, make
the adverbs alte, longe, moleste, docte, emendate, ornate. With
regard to adjectives in er, a, um, the formation of adverbs
varies according as they throw out the e in the oblique cases or
retain it (see 48. and 51.), for the adverbs follow the oblique
cases. Thus liber and miser make libere and misere ; but aeger
(aegrT) and pulcher (pulchri) make aegre and pulchre. Bonus
makes the adverb bene, from an ancient form benus. Bene and
male are the only adverbs of this class that end in a short e.
Note 1. Inferne, below, and interne, within, although derived from adjectives
in ws, are used with a short e, the former by Lucretius and the latter by
Ausonius, the only writers in which these adverbs respectively occur. To
these we must add superne, above, in Lucretius and Horace, Carm. ii. 20. 11.,
though in the latter the quantity of the e is a disputed point. It cannot be
ascertained whether the poets made the e in these words short by a poetical
licence, or whether these adverbs have any thing pnrticular.
Note 2. Some adverbs in e differ in their meaning from their respective
adjectives, but they must nevertheless be regarded as derived from them.
Thus sane (from sanus, sound, well) signifies " certainly ;" valde (from validtis,
strong, contracted from valide, which furnishes the degrees of comparison)
signifies "very;" and plane signifies "plainly," likejoZanus, but also takes the
meaning of " entirely," or " thoroughly."
[ 264.] 4. All other adjectives and the participles in ns (con-
sequently all adjectives which follow the third declension) form
their
Adverbs in ter,
and retain the changes which occur in the genitive. The
genitive is is changed into iter, except the genitive in ntis (from
the nom. in w.s), which makes the adverb in nter ; e. g. elegans,
eleganter ; amans, amanter ; convenient, convenienter ; but par,
224 LATIN OHAMMAK.
pariter ; utilis, utiliter ; tennis, tenuitcr ; ccler, $ris, celeriter ; sa-
luber, salubriter, and so also ferociter, simpliciter, dupliciter,
concorditer, audaciter (or more frequently contracted into au-
dacter).
Note 1. The termination ter serves also to form the adverbs aliter, other-
wise, andpropter, beside ; the former from the original form alis, neuter olid,
and the latter from prope, being abridged for propiter. (See No. 7. note 1.)
Vehementer is derived from vehement, but takes the signification of " very,"
like valde; e. g. Cic. de Off", ii. 21. : vehcmenter se moderatum praebuit. The
indeclinable nequam has the adverb nequiter.
Note 2. The adjectives mentioned in 101., which have double termi-
nations, us, a, um, and is, e, ought to have also a double form of their
adverbs, but this is the case only in hilare and hilariter; with regard to imbe-
cillus it remains uncertain, as the positive of the adverb does not occur ; and
in the case of the other adjectives of this kind the adverb is wanting alto-
gether. There are, on the other hand, some adjectives in us, a, um, of which
the adverbs have two forms (abundantia) ; as dure, duriter; firme, firmiter;
nave, naviter ; humane, inhumane humaniter, inhumaniter; large, largiter;
luculente, luculenter; turbulente, turbulenter; and in the early language many
more, which are mentioned by Priscian, xv. 3. Of violentm, fraudulentus,
and temulentus, adverbs in ter only exist : violenter, fraudidenter, temulenter.
[ 265.] 5. Although in grammar an adverb is assigned to
every adjective, yet the dictionary must frequently be consulted,
for there are some adjectives whose very signification does not
admit the formation of an adverb, as, for example, those
which denote a material or colour ; while with respect to others
we can say no more than that no adverb of them is found in the
writers whose works have come down to us, as of the adjectives
amens, dims, discors, gnarus, rudis, trux, imbellis, immobilis, in-
Jlexibilis, and others compounded in the same manner. Of vetus
the adverbs are vetuste and antique, and of fidus, fideliter, de-
rived from other adjectives of the same meaning. It frequently
happens that adverbs exist in the degrees of comparison, without
their form of the positive being found ; e. g. tristiter and socor-
diter are not to be found, and instead of uberiter, ubertim is used ;
but the comparatives tristius, socordius, uberius, and the super-
latives are of common use. The adverb magne does not occur,
but its irregular comparative magis, and the superlative maxime,
are of very common occurrence. Multum, plus, plurimum have
no adverbs, but these neuters in some cases serve themselves as
adverbs.
[ 266.] 6. Sometimes particular cases of adjectives supply
the place of the regularly formed adverbs in e; #) of some ad-
ADVERBS. 225
jectives in us, a, um, and er, a, urn, the ablative singular in o
is used as an adverb; e. g. arcano and secreto, secretly; cito,
quickly ; continue, immediately ; crebro, frequently ; falso,
wrongly ; gratuito, gratis ; liquido, clearly ; manifesto, mani-
festly ; mutuo, as a loan, hence mutually ; necessario, neces-
sarily; perpetuo, perpetually; precario, by entreaties; raro,
rarely ; sedulo, sedulously ; serio, seriously ; subito, suddenly ;
tuto, safely. To these must be added some adverbs formed
from participles : auspicato, composite, consulto, directo, festinato,
nee- or inopinato, improviso, iterato, merito, optato, praeparato,
sortito. Along with several of these ablative adverbs, the forms
in e also are occasionally used ; but apart from the origin, the
forms in o do not differ either in meaning or in their degrees of
comparison from those in e.
Note 1. Vcre and vero have a somewhat different sense : the regular ad-
verb of verus, true, is vere : but vero is used in answers in the sense of " in
truth," or " certainly," but it is more commonly applied as a conjunction in
the sense of " but," or " however." We will explain its use in answers by
an example. When I am asked, adfuistine heri in conviviof I answer, ego vero
adfui; or, without a verb, ego vero, minime vero; and vero thus being merely
indicative of a reply, will often be untranslatable into English. The case of
certe and certo is generally different from that of vere and vero: the adverb
which usually takes the meaning of its adjective is certo, while certe takes the
signification of " at least," to limit an assertion ; e. g. victi sumus, out, si dig-
nitas vinci nonpotest, fracti certe. Certe, however, is frequently used also in
the sense of our " certainly," especially in the phrase certe scio, which, in
Cicero, is even more frequent than certo scio. See my note on Cic. lib. i.
in Verr. 1.
Note 2. Omnino, from omnis, altogether, or in general, may also be
reckoned among this class of adverbs. The etymology of oppido, very, is
very doubtful. Profecto, truly, also belongs to this class, if it be derived
from profcctus, a, um; but if it be the same as pro facto, which is more
probable, it belongs to those which we shall mention under No. 10.
[ 267] 7. b) In some adjectives of the third declension the
neuter singular supplies the place of the adverb ; as facile, dif-
ficile, recqns, sublime, impune and abunde, which, however, is not
derived from an adjective abundis, but from abundus. To these
we must add some belonging to adjectives of the second de-
clension : ceterum, plerumque, plurimum, potissimum more fre-
quent than potissime, multum and paulum (for which, however,
in combination with comparatives, the ablatives multo and paulo
are more commonly used), nimium (the same as nimis), parum,
and lastly the numeral adverbs primvm, iterum, tertium, quartum,
&c., which have also the termination o (see 123.), and pos
226 LATIN GRAMMAR.
tremum (o), extremum (), supremum and ultimum (o), wliich are
formed according to the analogy of the numeral adverbs. Poets
in particular and Tacitus who follows their example are accus-
tomed to use the neuter of adjectives, of the second as well as of
the third declension, as adverbs; e. g. muUum similis, acutum
cernere, mite, dulce, crassum, perfidum ridere, indoctum canere,
cerium and incertum vigilare, triste and torvum clamare, immite
sibilare, aeternum discordare, and in the plural multa gemere, tri-
stia ululare, crebra ferire.
Note 1. We have every reason to consider the adverb prope, which has
become a preposition, as the neuter of an obsolete adjective, propis; for
propter, which, as an adverb, has the same meaning, is evidently the regular
adverb, being contracted from propiter, and the comparative propior, and the
adverb propius, must likewise be traced to propis. Saepe is perhaps a word
of the same kind, but the degrees of the adjective, saepior and saepissimua,
are no longer in use.
Note 2. Instead of difficile, however, the regular adverbial forms diffi-
ciliter and difficulter are still more common. Faciliter is unclassical.
[ 268.] 8. A considerable number of adverbs have the ter-
mination im, and are for the most part derived from participles ;
e. g. caesim, punctim, conjunctim, mixtim, contemptim, cursim,
citatim, gravatim (the same as gravate), nominatim, passim (from
pandere), praesertim (from prae and sero), privatim, pcdctentim,
raptim, sensim, carptim, separatim, statim, strictim, tractim.
Adverbs of this kind however are formed also from other parts
of speech, but they generally take the participial termination
atim, even when they are not derived from nouns of the first
declension: catervatim, cuncatim, gregatim, turmatim, curiatim,
gradatim, ostiatim, oppidatim, provinciatim, vicatim, paulatim,
singulatim, generatim, summatim, minutatim. Also confcstim
v'connected with festinare), furtim, singultim, tributim, ubertim,
viritim, vicissim. Affatim (ad fatim, see 205. ), so full as to
burst ; interim is derived from inter ; olim from the obsolete ollns
which is the same as ille.
[ 269.] 9. A smaller class of adverbs is formed from nouns
by the termination Uus, generally to denote origin from that
which is expressed by the primitive ; as coelitus, from heaven ;
funditus, from the foundation, radically ; medullitus, penitus,
primitus the same as primum, radicitus, stirpitus. Some are
derived from adjectives, as antiquitus, divinitus, and humanitus.
Among the same class we reckon those adverbs which end in
ADVERBS. 227
ns or itus, and are not derived from nouns, but from other parts
of speech. Such are intus, from within ; subtus, from below :
extrinsccus and intrinsecus, from without and within: mordicus
(from mordere), e. g. mordicus tenere ; versus, towards (from ver-
tere\ which is commonly used as a preposition.
[ 270.] 10. A large number of adverbs, lastly, arises from
the adverbial use of different cases of substantives, ancj from
the composition of different parts of speech. In this manner
arose the adverbs of time : noctu, vesperi, mane, tempore or tem-
pori, simul (from similis), diu and quamdiu, tamdiu, aliquamdiu,
interdiu, hodie (though contracted from hoc die), quotidie, quot-
annis, postridie, perendie, pridie^ nudius tertius (from nunc dies
tertius, the day before yesterday, or the third day from the
present), nudius quartus, nudius quintus, nudius tertiusdecimus,
propediem, initio, principio, repcnte and dcrepente (ablative of
repens), imprimis and cumprimis, prottnus and protlnus (from
pro and the preposition tenus), alias, actutum, commodum (just
or directly, while the regular adverb commode retains the
meaning " conveniently "), modo, postmodo, alternis, interdum,
cummaxime, tummaxime, nunc ipsum and turn ipsum, denuo (i. e.
de novo), ilicet (ire licet), Ulico (properly in loco) f and extemplo ;
interea and praeterea lengthen the a, so that it is not quite
certain whether they may be considered as compounds of inter,
praeter and ea t the neuter plural.* So also the adverbs of
place : foris, foras, insuper, obvzam, obiter (from ob and iter),
peregre, praesto, recta (soil, via), una, comminus, from a near
point, and eminus, from afar (from manus). In hactcnus,
eatenus, quatenus, aliquatenus, the ablative is governed by the
preposition tenus. The signification of these adverbs is originally
that of locality, but they are frequently used also in a figurative
sense.
[27i.] The mode or manner of an action, in answer to the
question qui (an ancient ablative of quid), how ? is expressed by
adverbs of the same class ; as sponte, an old ablative ; forte, an
ablative offors ; fortuito (u), forsit, forsitan (Jbrs sit an), forsan
and fors have the same meaning as fortasse and fortassis (in
* Prof. Key, The Alphabet, p. 77. foil., accounts for the length of the a by
the very probable supposition that the original forms were posteam, intercom,
praeteream, on the analogy of the existing words postquam, anteqtiam, praeter-
quam, &c. TRANSL.
Q 2
228 LATIN GRAMMAR.
prose fortasse and fursitan alone are used) ; nimirum, scilicet,
videlicet, ulpote (from lit and potc, properly " as possible," hence
" namely," or " as "), dumtaxat, praeterquam, quomodo, quemad-
modum, admodum, quamobrem, quare, quapropter, quantopere,
tantopere, maximopere and summopere, or separately quanto opere,
tanto opere, c. ; quantumvis or quamvis, alioqui or alioquin, cete-
roqui or ceteroquin, frustra, to be explained by the ellipsis of via,
and to be derived from fraus, fraudo ; incassum, nequicquam,
summum (not ad summum), tantum, solum, and tantummodo, so-
lummodo, gratis (from gratiis, whence ingratiis), vulgo, bifariam,
trifariam, multifariam and omnifariam, with which partem must
be understood.
Lastly partim which was originally the same as partem, as in
Liv. xxvi. 46 : partim copiarum ad tumulum expugnandum
mittit, partim ipse ad arcem ducit, but it is more commonly
used either with a genitive or the preposition ex, in the sense of
alii alii; e. g. Cic. Phil. viii. 11. : quum partim e nobis ita ti-
midi sint, ut omnem populi Romani bcneficiorum memoriam abje-
cerint, partim ita a republica aversi, ut huic se hosti favere prae
se ferant; and in the sense of alia alia, as in Cic. De Off. ii.
21 : eorum autem benejiciorum partim ejusmodi sunt, ut ad uni-
versos cives pertineant, partim singulos ut attingant.
[ 272.] Note. On the signification of some of the above-mentioned adverbs.
The adverbs continuo, protinus, statim, confcstim, subito, repente and derepentc,
actutum, illico, ilicet, extemplo, signify in generul "directly" or "imme-
diately," but, strictly speaking, continuo means immediately after ; statim,
without delay ; confe<ttim, directly ; subito, suddenly, unexpectedly ; pro-
tinus, further, i. e. in the same direction in which the beginning was made ;
hence, without interruption ; repente, and derepente, which strengthens
the meaning, signifies " at once," and is opposed to sensim, gradually ;
e. g. Cic. de Off. 5. 33. : amicitias, quae minus delectent et minus probentur,
magis decere censent sapientes sensim dissuere, quam repente praecidere ; actutum
is instantaneously, eodem actu ; ilicet occurs more rarely than illico, but has
almost the same meaning, " forthwith," or " the instant ;" e. g. Sallust, Jug.
45. : ubiformido ilia mentibus dccessit, ilicet lascivia atque superbia incessere;
Cic. p. Muren, 10.: simulatque increpuit suspicio tumultus, artes illico nostrae
conticescunt. Extemplo, which is similar in its derivation (for templum is a
locus religiosus), is similar also in meaning ; e. g. Liv. xli. 1. : alii gerendum
bellum extemplo, antequam contrahere copias hastes possent,_ alii consulendum
prius senatum censebant.
[ 273.] Praescrtim, praecipue, imprimis, cumprimis, and apprime, are gene-
rally translated by " principally ;" but they have not all the same meaning.
Praesertim is our "particularly," and sets forth a particular circumstance
with emphasis ; praecipue retains the meaning of its adjective, prarcijmiis
ADVERBS. 229
being the opposite of communis : jus praecipmun therefore is a privilege and
opposed to jus commune, so that praecipue answers to 'our "especially." The
sense of imprimis and cumprimis is clear from their composition before or
in preference to many others, principally ; apprime, lastly, occurs more
rarely, and qualifies and strengthens only adjectives, as apprime doctiis,
apprime utilis. Admodum also strengthens the meaning ; it properly signifies
" according to measure," that is, in as great a measure as can be, e. g. ad-
modum gratum rnihi feceris ; litterae tuae me admodum delectarunt. In com-
bination with numerals it denotes approximation, and occurs frequently in
Livy and Curtius ; in Cicero we find only nihil admodum, that is, " in reality
nothing at all."
[ 274.] It is difficult to determine the difference among the words which
we generally translate by " only," viz. modo, dumtaxat, solum, tantum, solum-
tnodjf, tantummodo. The common equivalent for only is modo ; solum (alone)
is " merely," and points to something higher or greater ; tantum is only or
merely, but intimates that something else was expected, e. g. dixit tantum, non
probnvit. These significations are strengthened by composition : tantummodo
and solummodo, the latter of which however occurs only in late writers.
Dumtaxat is not joined with verbs, and seems to answer to our " solely ;" e. g.
Cues. Bell. Civ. ii. 41.: peditatu dumtaxat procul ad spcciem utitur, solely
from afar; Curt. viii. 4. (1.) : quo (carmine) significabatur male instituisse
Graecos, quod tropaeis regum dumtaxat nomina inscriberentur ; ibid. ix. 36. (9.) :
aestus totos circa flumen compos inundaverat, tumulis dumtaxat eminentibus,
velut insults parvis. In another signification this word is the same as eerie,
at least (see 266.), and denotes a limitation to a particular point, as in
Cicero : nos animo dumtaxat vigemus, refamiliari comminuti sumus, in courage
at least I am not wanting ; valde me Athenae delectarunt, urbs dumtaxat
et urbis ornamenta et hominum benivolentia. Saltern also signifies " at least,"
but denotes the reduction of a demand to a minimum ; e. g. when I say :
redde mihi libros, si non omnes, saltern tres, or, as Cicero says, eripe mihi hunc
dolorem, aut minue saltern ; finge saltern aliquid commode.
[ 275.] Frustra conveys the idea of a disappointed expectation, as in
frustra suscipere labores; nequicquam that of the absence of success, as in
Ilorat. Carm. i. 3. 21. : nequicquam deus dbscidit Oceano terras, si tamen
impiae rates transiliunt vada. Incassum is less commonly used ; it is composed
of in and cassum, hollow, empty, and therefore properly signifies " into the
air," or " to no purpose," as tela incassum jactare.
Alias and alioqui both mean " elsewhere," but alias signifies " at another
time," or " in another place," whereas alioqui (like ceteroqui and ceterum)
means "in other respects;" as in Livy: triumphatum de Tiburtibus, alio-
quin mitis victoria fuit, or " or else " (in case of a thing mentioned before
not taking place), like aliter; as in Tacitus : dedit tibi Augustus pecuniam non
ea lege, ut semper daretur : languescet alioqui industria. No difference in the
use of alioqui and alioquin has yet been discovered. The addition or
omission of the n, at least, does not appear to depend upon the letter at the
beginning of the word following.
Q 3
230 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. LXIII.
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS.
[ 276.] 1. THE Simple or Primitive Adverbs are few in num-
ber, when compared with the derivatives, especially with those
derived from adjectives, and ending in e and ter. The significa-
tion of the latter depends upon that of their adjective, and has
generally a very definite extent ; but the primitive adverbs ex-
press the most general circumstances that are to be considered
in connection with a fact, and are indicated by the questions
how ? when ? where ? whether ? and the general answers to
them ; but they are for this reason deserving of particular
attention, together with their compounds and derivatives.*
2. To this class belong the negative particles : non, hand, and
ne, together with immo ; the affirmatives : nae, quidem, and utique,
certainly (from which word the negative adverb neutiquam, by
no means, is formed), nempe, namely, surely ; vel, in the sense
of "even" (see 108.); and the interrogative cur, why? (pro-
bably formed from quare or cut ra) : the words which express,
in a general way, the mode of an action, viz. paene, fere, and
ferme, nearly, almost; temere, at random; rite, duly, according
to custom ; vix, scarcely ; nimis (and nimium, see 267.), too
much ; satis or sat, enough, sufficiently ; saltern, at least ; sic and
itd, so, thus; and item and itidem (which are derived from
ita), just so, and the double form identidem, which, however,
has assumed the meaning of a particle of time, " constantly,"
" one time like the other ; " ut or uti, as, and hence sicut or sicuti;
quaniy how much ; tarn, so much ; tamquam, like ; perinde and
* With regard to the following list of particles, which, from their great
importance towards understanding the ancient writers, has been drawn up
with care, we must observe, that by the term primitive adverbs we do not
understand those, of which no root is to be found, but those which cannot
in any useful or practical way be included among the classes of derivative
adverbs mentioned before. A more deep etymological investigation would
lead us into too slippery ground, on which we could expect but little
thanks either from teachers or pupils.
I'HIMITIVE ADVERBS. 231
pruinde (derived from inde), as though, like ; seeus, otherwise,
differently : the adverbs of place : uspiam and usquam, some-
where ; nusquam, nowhere ; procul, far ; prope, near ( 267. note) ;
ul)i } where ? ibi, there ; unde, whence ? inde, hence, together
with their numerous compounds and correlatives, of which we
shall speak presently : the adverbs of time : quando, when ?
with its compounds aliquando, once ; quandoque, at some time ;
quandocunque, whenever; quondam, formerly (contains the
original relative quum, which has become a conjunction) ; nunc,
now ; tune and turn, then ; unquam, ever ; nunquam, never ;
jam, already ; etiam (from et and jam) and quoque, also ; etiam-
nunc and etiamtum, still, yet ; semel, once ; bis, twice (the other
adverbial numerals, see Chap. XXXIIL); saepe, often ; usque,
ever ; heri or here, yesterday ; eras, to-morrow ; olim, formerly ;
mox, soon after ; dudum, previously ; pridem, long since ; tandem,
at last or length ; demum, not until ; from inde are derived
dcinde and' exinde, or abridged dein and exin, thereupon, after-
wards ; subinde *, immediately after, or from time to time ; dein-
ceps, in succession; denique, lastly: further, the adverbs with
the suffix per: semper, always; nuper, lately; parumper and
paulisper, for a short time ; tantisper, for so long, commonly to
indicate a short time, " for so short a time."
Most of the prepositions are originally adverbs, but as they
usually take the case of a substantive after them, they are regarded
as a distinct class of the parts of speech. But they must still be
looked upon as adverbs when they are joined with a verb with-
out a case ; as in Virgil, Pone subit conjunx, " behind there follows
his wife." Hence it happens that clam, secretly, and coram, in
the presence of, are generally reckoned among the prepositions,
whereas palam (propalam), publicly, is universally called an
adverb, though it is formed precisely in the same manner. Ante
and post, when used as adverbs, generally have the lengthened
forms anted and posted (also antehac and posthac), but occur as
adverbs also without any change of form.
Note 1. We must not pass over unnoticed the transition of particles of
place into particles of time, which occurs in other languages also. This
* The accent on the antepenultima for the compounds of inde is necessary
according to Triscian, p. 1008. (618. Kr.)
Q 4
232 LATIN GRAMMAR.
accounts for the use of hie, ibi, ubi, where we should use an adverb ex-
pressive of time. Nor can we wonder at several of these adverbs ap-
pearing frequently as conjunctions (in which character they will have to
be mentioned again in Chap. LXVIL), for whenever they serve to connect
sentences, they become, grammatically speaking, conjunctions; but when
within a sentence they denote a circumstance connected with a verb, they
are real adverbs. Some of them are used in both characters.
[ 277.] Note 2. The Signification of the above Primitive Adverbs.
The ordinary negation is non; haud adds to the negation a special
subjective colouring, with very different meanings either " not at all,"
or' " not exactly." The comic writers use this negation frequently, and
in all kinds of combinations ; but the authors of the best age limit
its use more especially to its combination with adjectives and adverbs
denoting a measure ; e. g. haud multum, hand magnum, hand parvus, hand
mcdiocris, haudpaulo, haud procul, haud longe, especially hand sane in con-
nection with other words ; as hmtd sane facile, res haud sane difficilis, haud
sane intelligo; also haud quisquam, haud wiquam, haud quaquam, by which com-
bination something more is expressed than by the simple negation. In con-
nection with verbs, haud appears much less frequently, and on the whole
only in the favourite phrase haud scio an, which is the same as nescio an,
until later writers, such as Livy and Tacitus, again make unlimited applica-
tion of it.
Ne does not belong to this place as a conjunction in the sense of " in order
that not," but only in so far as it is used for non in the connection of nc-quidem,
not even, and with imperatives, e. g. Tu ne cede malts, sed contra audentior
ito, do not yield to misfortunes. Hence nee (neque) also must be mentioned
here, because it is used instead of ne-quidem, seldom with Cicero, but more
frequently with Quintilian ; e. g. ii. 13. 7. : alioquinec scriberem ; v. 10. 119. :
alioqui nee tradidissem; i. v. 18.: extra carmen non deprehendas, sed nee in
carmine vitia ducenda sunt. \
Immo signifies " no," but with this peculiarity, that at the same time
something stronger is put in the place of the preceding statement which is
denied ; e. g. Cic. ad Alt. ix. 7. : causa igitur non bona est? Immo optima, sed
ageiur foedissime ; de Ojf.ui. 23.: si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitiie
Jilius f Immo vero obsecrabit patrcm, ne id facial. This increase may be
sometimes expressed in English by " nay," or " nay even." But this does
not justify the assertion that immo is an affirmative adverb.
[ 27 8 -] Quidem is commonly used to connect sentences, and must then be
looked upon as a conjunction ; but it is employed also as an adverb to set
forth a word or an idea with particular emphasis, and then answers to our
" certainly " or "indeed." Very frequently, however, especially with pro-
nouns, it only increases their force by the emphasis ; e. g. optare hoc quidem
est, non docere, this I call wish, but not teach ; praecipitare istiul quidem est, non
descendere. Hence it also happens that on the other hand, when quidem is
necessary to connect sentences, a pronoun is added, for the sake of quidem,
which might otherwise be dispensed with. Cicero, e. g., says : Oratorios ex-
ercitationes non tu quidem, ut spero, reliquisti, sed certe philosophiam illis ante'
posuisti. From quidem arose equidem, which is considered to be a compound
of ego and quidem, and is used exclusively in this sense by Cicero, Virgil,
and Horace ; but in others, and more particularly in later authors, it occurs
precisely in the same sense as quidem; e.g. Sallust. Cat. 52. 16.: quare
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 233
vanuin equidem hoc consilium est; Curt. v. 35.; certwra deinde cognoscit ex
Bagistane Babylonia, jion equidem vinctum regent, sed in periculo case, aut
mortis aut vinculorum.
Nempe answers pretty nearly to our " surely," and frequently assumes a
sarcastic meaning, when we refute a person by concessions which he is obliged
to make, or by deductions. It is never used for the merely explanatory
" namely," or " that is," which in the case of simple ideas is either not ex-
pressed at all, or by the forms is (ea, id) est, qui est, dico, or intelligi volo, or
by the adverbs scilicet and videlicet. Respecting the manner in which it is
expressed in the connection of propositions, see 345.
[ 279.] The adverbs paene, fere, audferme, to which we may add prope, on
account of its meaning (from 267. note), all serve to limit a statement, but
there are certain differences in their application. Poene and prope approach
each other nearest : paene being almost and prope nearly ; and thus we say
in Latin paene dixerim and prope dixerim in quite the same sense, I might
almost say. As prope contains the idea of approximation, so paene denotes a
degree. Thus we say : hi viri prope aequales sunt, are nearly of the same age ;
and Caesar, on the other hand, says : non solum in omnibus (Galliae) civitati-
bus, sed paene etiam in singidis domibus factiones sunt, "but almost in every,
family," which is more than the factions in the towns. Propemodum, in a
certain degree, is formed from prope. fere and ferme differ from the other
primitive adverbs, in regard to their long e, for the others end in a short e.
They therefore seem to be derived from adjectives ; but the derivation from
ferus leads to no results. The two words differ only in form, and are used
in inaccurate and indefinite statements, especially with round numbers and
such notions as may be reduced to a number. We say centum fere homines
aderant to express our " somewhere about one hundred ;" paene or prope cen-
tum, nearly a hundred, implying thereby that there should have been exactly
one hundred. And so also fere omnes,fere semper; and with a verb : sic fere
fieri solet, so it mostly or generally happens, the same as fere semper fit.
Hence it is frequently used as a mere form of politeness, when there can be
no doubt about the correctness of a statement; as in quoniamfere constat, aa
it is a fact, I presume.
[ 280.] Temere, at random, is opposed to a thing which is done consulto,
or deliberately ; hence the expressions inconsuUe ac temere, temere et impru-
denter, temere et nullo consilio. Combined with non, temere acquires (but not
in Cicero) a peculiar signification ; it becomes the same as non facile, and
softens an assertion ; for instance, in Horace : vatis avarus non temere est
animus, a poet is not easily avaricious i or non temere quis tarn invitis omnibus
ad principatum acccssit quam Titus. Rite seems to be an ancient ablative
like ritu ; its meaning accords with the supposition, but the form* (ris, rift's)
is uncertain.
[ -'**'] The words sic, ita, tarn, answer to the English "so;" and to them
we may add tantopere from 271., and adeo from 289. With regard to
their difference we remark, that sic is more particularly the demonstrative
" so " or " thus," as in sic sum, sic vita hominum est, sic se res habet ; ita
defines more accurately or limits, and is our " in such a manner," or " in so
far ;" e. g. ita senectus honesta est, si suum jus retinet ; ita defendito, ut nemi-
nem laedas. Very frequently, however, ita assumes the signification of sic,
but not sz'c the limiting sense of ita, respecting which we shall have occasion
to speak in another place ( 726.). Tarn, so much, increases the degree,
234 LATIN GRAMMAR.
and has its natural place before adjectives and adverbs, but rarely before
verbs, where tantopere is used instead. Adeo, to that degree or point,
increases the expression to a certain end or result ; e. g. adeone hospes es in
hue urbe, ut haec nescias? Hence in the connection of propositions, it forms
the transition to the conclusion of an argument, or to the essential part of a
thing. Cicero, when he has related a thing, and then chooses to introduce
the witnesses or documents themselves, frequently says : id adeo ex ipso
senatusconsulto cognoscite ; id adco sciri facUlime potest ex litteris publicis
civitatum (in Verr. iv. 64. iii. 51.), and puts the adeo always after a pronoun.
(Comp. Spalding on Quintil. ii. 16. 18.)
[ i.'82.] Ut, as, must be mentioned here as a ydflt-itYfi- adYfilhi expressive
of similarity. From it is formed utique by means of the suffix que, which
will be considered in 288. It signifies " however it may be," and hence
"certainly." Curt. iv. 44. : iu.hU quidem hdbeo venale, sed fortunam meam
utique non vendo.
The compounds sicut, velut, tamquam, to which we must add quasi, when
used without a verb and as an adverb, signify " as " or " like." The differ-
ence in their application seems to be, that tamquam and quasi express a
merely conceived or imaginary similarity, whereas sicut denotes a real one.
Hence Cicero says : tamquam serpens e latibulis intulisti te ; gloria virtutem
tamquam umbra sequitur ; philosophia omnium artium quasi par ens est, where
the similarity mentioned is a mere conception or supposition ; but it ap-
proaches nearer to reality in me sicut alterum parentem diligit; defendo te
sicut caput meum. Velut is used by late authors in the same sense as quasi ;
but in Cicero it has not yet acquired this signification, but has the peculiar
meaning of our " for example," as bestiae, quae gignuntur e terra, velut
crocodili ; non elogia monumentorum hoc significant, velut hoc ad portam ? and
other passages. All these adverbs occur also as conjunctions ; in Cicero,
however, only tamquam (besides quasi), with and without the addition
of si.
Perinde and proinde have the same meaning, and are adverbs of similarity ;
but pcrinde is much more frequently found in prose writers. The reading is
often uncertain ; and as proinde is well established as a conjunction in the
sense of "therefore" (see 344.), many philologers have been of opinion
that proinde, wherever the sense is " like," is only a corruption of perinde.
But this supposition is contradicted by the authority of the poets, who use
proinde as a word of two syllables. (Comp. Ruhnken on Rutil. Lupus,
p. 31.) We most frequently find the combinations perinde ac, perinde ac si,
as if, as though ; perinde ut, in proportion as, to connect sentences. (See
340.) But without any such additions, Cicero, for example, de Fin. i.
21. says: vivendi artem tantam tamque operosam et perinde fructuosam (and
as fruitful) relinquat Epicurus f
[ ^8J.] Secus has been classed among the primitives, because its deriva-
tion is uncertain. We believe that it is derived from sequor ; and we might
therefore have included it, like mordicus, among those adverbs mentioned in
269. We hold that its primary signification is " in pursuance," " after,"
" beside," which still appears in the compounds intrinsecus and extrimecus.
( 289.) Hence it comes to signify " less," or " otherwise," viz. " than it
should be." Thus we say, mihi aliter videtur, recte secusne, nihil ad te,
justly or less justly, where we might also say an minus; si res secus ceciderit,
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS. 235
if the thing should turn out differently, that is, less well. A comparative
secius (also spelled scquitis) occurs very rarely, because secus itself has the
signification of a comparative ; it is joined with an ablative, nihilo secius,
not otherwise, nevertheless ; quo secius the same as quo minus, in order
that not.
[ 2S4.] To unquam, ever, and usquam, somewhere, we must apply that
which has already been said of quisquam, 129. : they require a negation in
the sentence ; and although this negation may be connected with another
word, unquam and usquam become the same as nunquam and nusquam ; e. g.
neque te usquam vidi, the same as te nusquam vidi. The place of a negative
proposition may, however, be taken by a negative question, as num tu eum
unquam vidisti f hast thou ever seen him ? But uspiam is not negative, any
more than the pronoun quispiam ; but it is the same as alicubi, except that
its meaning is strengthened, just as quispiam is the same as aliquis. In the
writings of modern Latinists and grammarians we find the form nuspiam,
which is said to be the same as nusquam. But nuspiam does not exist at all,
and its formation is contrary to analogy.
[ 285.] It is difficult to define the difference between turn and tune, be-
cause the editions of our authors themselves are not everywhere correct.
But in general the difference may be stated thus : tune is " then," " at that
time," in opposition to nunc ; turn is " then," as the correlative of the relative
quum ; e. g. quum omnes adessent, turn itte exorsus est dicere, when all were
present, then he began to speak. Without a relative sentence, turn is used in
the sense of our " hereupon," " thereupon ; " but we may always supply such
a sentence as " when this or that had taken place." The same difference
exists between etiamnunc and etiamtum, which we translate by " still " or
" yet," and between nunc ipsum and turn ipsum, quummaxime and tummaximc,
just or even then; for etiamnunc, nunc ipsum, and quummaxime, refer to the
present ; but etiamtum, turn ipsum, and tummaxime to the past ; e. g. etiam-
nunc puer est, and etiamtum puer erat ; adest quummaxime frater meus, and
aderat tummaxime frater, my brother was just then present. Compare
732.
[ 286.] Jam, combined with a negative word, answers to our " longer ; "
e. g. nihil jam spero, I no longer hope for anything ; Brutus Mutinae nix jam
sustincbat, could scarcely maintain himself any longer. It is also used for
the purpose of connecting sentences, and then answers to our " further " or
" now."
Usque, ever and anon, does not occur very frequently in this sense ; e. g.
in Horace, Epist. i. 10. 24. : naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. It
is commonly accompanied by a preposition ; viz. ad and in, or ab and ex, and
denotes time and place ; e. g. usque ad portam, usque a prima aetate. See
Chap. LXV. 4.
[ 287.] Nuper, lately, is used in a very relative sense, and its meaning de-
pends upon the period which is spoken of; for Cicero (de Nat. Dear. ii. 50.)
says of certain medical observations, that they were nuper, id est paucis ante
saeculis reperta, thinking at the time of the whole long period in which men
had made observations. In like manner, the length of time expressed by
modo (see 270.)- and max is indefinite. The latter word, as was observed
above, originally signified " soon after," but it is very often used simply in
the sense of " afterwards." Dudum is probably formed from diu (est)
236 LATIN GRAMMAR.
dnin, and answers to the English " previously " or " before," in relation to
u time which has just passed away ; whence it may often be translated by
u shortly before ;" e. g. Cic. ad Att. xi. 24. : quae dadum ad me et quae etiam
ante ad Tidliam scripsisti, ea sentio esse vera. But the length of time is set
forth more strongly injamdudum, long before, or long since. This word, with
poets, contains the idea of impatience, .and signifies " without delay," " forth-
with," as in the line of Virgil, Aen. ii. 103.: jamdudum sumite poenas. The
same strengthening of the meaning appears in jampridem, long since, a long
time ago. Tandem, at length, likewise serves to express the impatience
with which a question is put, and even more strongly than nam ( 134.) ; e. g.
Cic. Philip, i. 9. : haec utrum tandem lex est an legum omnium dissolution
[ 288.] 3. The Adverbs of Place, mentioned above, No. 2.,
ubi, where ? and unde, whence ? together with the adverbs derived
from the relative pronoun, viz. quo, whither ? and qua, in what
way ? are in relation to other adverbs, demonstratives, relatives,
and indefinites, which are formed in the same manner. All
together form a system of adverbial correlatives, similar to that
of the pronominal adjectives. (See above, 130.) We shall
begin with the interrogative form, which is the simplest. Its
form (as in English) is the same as that of the relative, and
differs from it only by its accent. The relative acquires a more
general meaning, either by being doubled, or by the suffix cun-
que, which is expressed in English by " ever," as in " wherever."
Without* any relative meaning, the simple form acquires a more
general signification by the suffix que, or by the addition of the
particular words vis and libet. (We call it an advcrbium loci
generale.} The fact of the suffix que not occurring with quo and
qua is easily accounted for by the possibility of confounding
them with the adverb quoque and the ablative quaque ; but still,
in some passages at least, quaque is found as an adverb, and so
also the compound usquequaque, in any way whatever. The
demonstrative is formed from the pronoun is, and its meaning is
strengthened by the suffix dem. The indefinite is derived from
the pronoun aliquis, or by compositions with it. We thus obtain
the following correlative adverbs :
* We say without in regard to the general analogy. There are, however,
passages in which the suffix que forms a generalising relative, and in
which, e. g. quandoque is used for quandocunque, as in Horat. Ars Poet. 39. :
quaridoque bonus dormitat Homerus, and frequently in Tacitus. See the com-
mentators on Livy, i. 24. 3.
PRIMITIVE ADVERBS.
237
Interrog.
Relative.
Demons! r.
Indefinite.
Universal.
Ubi, "Where ?
ubi, where.
ibi, there.
alicubi, some-
ublque, I
ubiubi.
ibidem.
where.
ubwis, > C ^ er 7'
ubicunque.
ubilibet, J w ere '
Unde l whence ?
unde, whence.
inde, thence.
alicunde, from
undique, 1 from
undeunde.
indidem.
some place.
undevix, J- every-
undecunque.
undelibct, J where.
Quo, whither ?
quo, whither.
eo, thither.
aliquo,tosome
quovis, | to
quoquo.
eodem.
place.
quolibet, > every
quocunque.
J place.
Qua, in what
qua, in the
ea, in that
aliqua,'u\sorne
quavis, 1 in
direction ? in
what way ?
wuy in which.
way.
way.
qualibet, > every
J way.
quaqua.
eddem.
quacunque.
[ 289.] To these we must add those which are formed by com-
position with alius, nullus, uter, and answer to the question where ?
alibi, elsewhere ; nullibi, nowhere (which, however, is based only
on one passage of Vitruvius, vii. 1., its place being supplied by nus-
quam] ; utrubior utrobi, in which of two places ? with the answer
utrobique, in each of the two places. Inibi is a strengthening form
of ibiy and signifies "in the place itself." To the question
whence ? answer aliunde, from another place ; utrimque, from both
sides, which formation we find again in intrinsecus, from within,
and extrinsecus, from without. To the question whither ?
answer alio y to another place ; to utro, to which of two sides ?
answer utroque, to both sides, and neutro, to neither. The fol-
lowing are formed with the same termination, and have the
same meaning : quopiam and quoquam, to some place (the former
in an affirmative, and the latter in a negative sentence, like
quisquam) ; intro, into ; retro, back ; ultra, beyond ; citro, this
side, chiefly used in the combination of ultro et citro, ultro citro-
que (towards that and this side), but ultro also signifies "in
addition to," and " voluntarily." Porro is formed from pro,
and signifies "onwards" or "further," e. g. porro pergere. In
the latter sense it is used also as a conjunction to connect
sentences. Compounds of eo are : adeo, up to that degree or
point, so much ;_ eousque, so long, so far ; and of quo : quousque
and quoad, how long ? We have further to notice the adverbs
with the feminine termination of the ablative a (which is probably
238 LATIN GRAMMAR.
to be explained by supplying via), which have become preposi-
tions ; viz. citra, contra, extra, intra, supra, derived from the
original forms, cis, con, ex, in, super ; also infra, below ; and
ultra, beyond (from the adjectives infer and ulter, which however
do not occur) ; circa, around ; and juxta, by the side or in like
manner. The derivation of the two last is doubtful, but they
belong to the adverbs of place. In this way arose also : nequa-
quam and haudquaquam, in no way ; usqucquaque, in all points,
in all ways, composed of the above-mentioned quaque and usque.
[ 290.] We here add the correlatives to the question whither ?
quorsum or quorsus ? (contracted from guoversum or quoversus).
The answers to them likewise end in us and um (but sometimes
the one and sometimes the other is more commonly used) :
horsum, hither ; aliquovcrsum, towards some place ; aliorsum, to-
wards another place ; quoquoversus, towards every side ; utroque-
versum, introrsum, prorsum, forward (prorsus is better known
in the derivative sense of "entirely"); rursum, or more fre-
quently retrorsum, backward (rursus remained in use in the
sense of "again"); sursum, heavenward (also sursum versus, a
double compound); deorsum, downwards; dextrorsum, to the
right ; sinistrorsum, to the left ; adversus or adcersum, towards
or opposite, usually a preposition ; seorsus or seorsum, separately.
[ 291.] 4. The above-mentioned demonstratives, ibi, there ;
inde, hence, and eo, thither, are used only with reference to rela-
tive sentences, which precede ; e. g. ubi te heri vidi, ibi nolim te
iterum conspicere, where I saw thee yesterday, there I do not
wish to see thee again; unde venerat, eo rediit, he returned
thither, whence he had come. More definite demonstratives,
therefore, are requisite, and they are formed in Latin from the
three demonstative pronouns by means of special terminations.
The place where ? hie, istic, illic, (there),
whither? hue, istuc, illuc, (thither),
whence? hinc, istinc t illinc, (thence).
Instead of istuc and illuc, the forms isto and illo also are in use.
These adverbs are employed with the same difference which we
pointed out above ( 127.) as existing between the pronouns hie,
iste, and ille, so that hie, hue, and hinc point to the place where
I, the speaker, am ; istic, istuc, and istinc, to the place of the
second person, to whom I speak ; and illic, illuc, and illinc to
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 239
the place of the third person or persons, who are spoken of.
The following are compounds of hue and hinc: ad/tuc, until
now ; hucusque, as far as this place ; abhinc and dehinc, from this
moment (counting backwards). To the question qua ? in what
way ? we answer by the demonstratives hac, istac, iliac, which
are properly ablatives, the word via being understood.
Note 1. Cicero thus writes to Atticus, who was staying at Rome, while
he himself lived in exile at Thessalonica, in Macedonia (iii. 12.) : Licet tibi
significarim, ut ad me venires, id omittam tamen : intelligo te re istic prodesse,
hie ne verbo quidem levare me posse. Istic, where you are, that is, at Home,
you can be really useful to me ; hie, here where I live, that is, at Thessa-
lonica, you would not even be able to comfort me with a word. In this
manner the Romans in their letters briefly and distinctly express the lo-
calities of the writer and the person addressed, as well as of the persons
written about.
[ 292.] Note 2. Adhuc expresses the duration of time down to the present
moment, and therefore answers to our " still," when it signifies " until
now " (we also find usque adhuc) ; and strictly speaking, it should not be
confounded either with etiamnunc, which does not contain the idea of du-
ration of time, and answers to the question when ? or with usque eo and
etiamtum, which are the corresponding expressions of the past time. But
even good authors apply the peculiar meaning of the word to the present,
and use adhuc also of the relative duration of the time past ; e. g. Liv. xxi. 48. :
Scipio quamquam grams adhuc vulnere erat, tamen profectus est; Curt. vii. 19. :
praecipitatus ex equo barbarus adhuc tamen repugndbat. " Not yet," is ex-
pressed by nondum, even in speaking of the present, more rarely by adhuc
CHAP. LXIV.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
[ 293.] 1. THE Comparison of Adverbs is throughout depend-
ent upon the comparison of adjectives, for those adverbs only
have degrees of comparison, which are derived from adjectives
or participles by the termination e (o) or ter ; and wherever the
comparison of adjectives is wanting altogether or partly, the
same deficiency occurs in their adverbs.
2. The comparative of adverbs is the same as the neuter of
the comparative of adjectives (majus only has the adverb magis,
265.), and the superlative is derived from the superlative of
the adjectives by changing the termination us into e; e. g.
240 LATIN GRAMMAR.
doctior, doctius ; cleyantior, clegantius ; emcndutiur, emcndatius ;
superlative : doctissimus, doctissime ; elcgantissime, emendatissimc ;
summus, summe. The positives in o (e. g. cito, raro) also make
the superlative in e; meritissimo and tutissimo however are more
commonly used than meritissime and tutissime.
Note. Thus the positive (see 111.) is wanting of deterius, deterrime ;
potius, potissime (we more frequently find potissimum) ; prius, primum or
primo (for prime is not used, but apprime, principally) ; the positive ociter,
to which ocius and ocissime belong, occurs very rarely, since the comparative
ocius has at the same time the meaning of a positive. Of valde, very (con-
tracted from vcdide, 263.) the degrees validius and validissime do not,
indeed, occur in Cicero, but are used in the silver age of the language.
[ 294.] 3. The primitive adverbs, and those derived from
other words by the terminations im and tus, together with the
various adverbs enumerated in 270. foil., that is, in general
all adverbs which are not derived from adjectives and participles
by the endings e (or o instead of it) and ter, do not admit the
degrees of comparison. The only exceptions are diu and saepc :
diutius, diutissime ; saepius, saepissime. Nuper has a superlative
nuperrime, but no comparative, and satis and temperi have the
comparatives satius (also used as a neuter adjective) and tem-
perius (in Cicero). Respecting secius, the comparative of secus,
see 283.
Note, There are a few diminutive adverbs : clanculum from clam, pri-
mulum from primum, celeriuscule, saepiuscule, from the comparatives celerius
and saepius. Belle, prettily, is a diminutive of bene, and from belle are de-
rived bellus and bellissimus, without a comparative, and hence the adverb
bettissime.
CHAP. LXV.
PREPOSITIONS.
[ 295.] 1 . PREPOSITIONS are indeclinable words, or, to use
the grammatical term, particles, which express the relations of
nouns to one another or to verbs : e. g. a town in Italy ; a
journey through Italy ; my love for you ; the first century after
Christ ; he came out of his house ; he lives near Berlin ; on the
PREPOSITIONS. 241
Rhine, &c. They govern in Latin either the accusative or
ablative, and some (though mostly in a different sense) both
cases. Their Latin name is derived from the fact of their being
placed, with a few exceptions, before their noun. We have
already observed (Chap. LXIL) that a considerable number of
these particles are .properly adverbs, but are justly reckoned
among the prepositions, as they more or less frequently govern
a case. Apart from their etymology, and considering only their
practical application in the language, we have the following
classes of prepositions :
1. Prepositions with the Accusative.
Ad, to.
Apud, with, near.
Ante, before (in regard to both time and place).
Adversus and adversum, against.
Cis, citra, on this side.
Circa and circum, around, about.
Circiter, about (indefinite time or number).
Contra, against.
Erga, towards.
Extra, without.
Infra, beneath, below (the contrary of supra).
Inter, among, between.
Intra, within (the contrary of extra).
Juxta, near, beside.
Ob, on account of.
Penes, in the power of.
Per, through.
Pone, behind.
Post, after (both of time and space).
Praeter, beside.
Props, near.
Propter, near, on account of.
Secundum, after (in time or succession), in accordance with, as
secundum naturam vivere,
R
242 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Supra, above.
Trans, on the other side.
Versus (is put after its noun), towards a place ; e. g. in Galliam
versus, Massiliam versus.
Ultra, beyond.
2. Prepositions with the Ablative.
A, ab, abs (a, before consonants; ab, before vowels and some
consonants ; and abs only in the combination of abs te, for
which, however, a te also is used), from, by.
Absque, without (obsolete).
Coram, before, or in the presence of.
Cum, with.
De, down from, concerning.
E and ex (e before consonants only, ex before both vowels and
consonants), out of, from.
Prae, before, owing to.
Pro, before, for.
Sine, without.
Tenus (is put after its noun), as far as, up to.
3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative.
In with the accus. 1. in, on, to, to the question Whither?
2. against. With the ablat. in, on, to the question
Where?
Sub, with the accus. 1. under, to the question Whither?
2. about or towards, in an indefinite statement of time, as
sub vesperam, towards evening. With the ablat., under, to
the question Where? Desub is also used in this sense.
Super, with the accus., above, over ; with the ablat., upon, con-
cerning, like de.
Subter, under, beneath, is used with the accusative, whether it
expresses being in or motion to a place ; it rarely occurs
with the ablative, and is in general little used.
PREPOSITIONS. 243
Remarks upon the Signification of the Prepositions.
[ 296.] 1. Prepositions with the Accusative.
Ad denotes in general an aim or object both in regard to time and place,
and answers to the questions Whither ? and Till when ? e. g. venio, proficiscor
ad te ; Sophocles ad summam senectutem tragoedias fecit. Hence it also
denotes a fixed time, as ad fioram, at the hour ; ad diem, on the day fixed
upon ; ad tempus facere aliquid, to do a thing at the right time. In other
cases ad tempus signifies " for a time," e. g. perturbatio animi plerumque brevis
est et ad tempus. Sometimes also it denotes the approach of time, as ad
lucem, ad vesperam, ad extremum, towards daybreak, evening, towards the
end ; and the actual arrival of a certain time, as in Livy : ad prima signa
veris profectus, at the first sign of spring.
Ad, in a local sense, signifies " near a place," to the question Where? as
ad urbem esse, to be near the town ; ad portas urbis; cruentissima pugna ad
lacum Trasimenum ; pugna navalis ad Tenedum ; urbs sita est ad mare ; it is
apparently the same as in in such phrases as ad aedem Bellonae ; or with the
omission of the word aedem ; ad Opis ; ad omnia deorum templa gratula-
tionem fecimus ; negotium habere ad portum; ad forum ; but in all these cases
there is an allusion to buildings or spaces connected with the places named.
With numerals ad is equivalent to our "to the amount of" or " nearly,"
e. g. ad ducentos, to the amount of two hundred, or nearly two hundred, and
without any case it is an adverb like circiter, as in Caesar, occisis ad hominum
milibus quatuor, reliqui in oppidum rejecti sunt ; Liv. viii. 18 : ad viginti
matronis per viatorem accitis (ablat. absol.) ; iv. 59 : quorum ad duo milia et
quingenti capiuntur. The phrase omnes ad unum, ad unum omnes perierunt
means, " even to the very last man," including the last himself.
Ad, denoting an object or purpose, is of very common occurrence, and
hence arises its signification of-" in respect of; " e. g. vidi forum comitiumque
adornatum, ad speciem magnifico ornatu, ad sensum cogitationemque acerbo el
lugubri ; or f acinus ad memoriam posteritatis insigne ; homo ad labores belli
impiger, ad usum et disciplinam peritus ; ad consilia prudens, &c. But this
preposition is used also in figurative relations to express a model, standard,
and object of comparison, where we say "according to," or "in comparison
with ; " as ad modum, ad effigiem, ad similitudinem, ad speciem alicujus rei, ad
normam, ad exemplum, ad arbitrium et nutum, ad voluntatem alicujus facere
aliquid; persuadent mathematici, terram ad universum coeli complexum quasi
puncti instar obtinere. Particular phrases are, ad verbum, word for word ;
nihil ad hanc rem, ad hunc hominem, nothing in comparison with this thing or
this man.
[ 297.] Apud, " with," both in its proper and figurative sense ; e. g. with
me the opinion of the multitude has no weight, apud me nihil valet hominum
opinio. In connection with names of places it signifies " near," like ad ; e. g.
Epaminondas Lacedaemonios vicit apud Mantineam ; male pugnatum est apud
Caudium, apud Anienem (the name of a river). It must however be
observed that the early writers sometimes (see my note on Cic. in Verr.
iv. 22.), and Tacitus and later authors frequently, use apud for in, and not
merely for ad; as Augustus apud urbem Nolam extinctus est; statua apud thea-
trum Pompeji locator '; apud Syriam morbo absumptus est ; apud senatmn dixit.
and in many other passages, in which the context leaves no doubt. In apud
R 2
244 LATIN GRAMMA II.
practorem and apud judices, the preposition must likewise be taken to
denote the place of the judicial transactions ; we use in this case "before,"
which however cannot be rendered in Latin by ante.
Apud is used also with the names of authors, instead of in with the name
of their works ; as apud Xenophontem, apud Terentium, apud Ciceronem legi*
fur, &<;., but not in Xenophonte, because in Latin the name of an author is
not used for that of his works as in our language.
Ante, " before," denotes also a preference, as ante omnia hoc mihi maxime
placet, above all other things ; hie erat gloria militari ante omnes, he excelled
all.
[ 298.] Cis and citra are commonly used in reference to place, e. g. CM
Taurum montem, and are the contrary of trans : citra Rubiconem, on this side
of the Rubicon. But in later though good prose writers (Quintilian, Pliny)
it frequently occurs for sine, " without," as in citra invidiam nominare ; citra
musicen grammatice non potest esse perfecta nee did citra scientiam musices
potest.
Circum is the more ancient, and circa the later form ; Cicero uses them
both in the sense of " around " (a place) ; and circum, with the strengthened
meaning, " all around ; " e. g. urbes guae circum Capuam sunt, and urbes
circa Capuam ; homines circum and circa se habere ; terra circum axem se
convertit; homo praetor em circum omnia fora sectatur. The phrases circum
amicos, circum vicirtos, circum villas, circum insulas mittere, signify to send
around to one's friends, &c. Circa is used besides, of time also, in the sense
of sub (but not by Cioero) ; Livy and Curtius, e. g.. say : circa lucis ortum,
circa eandem horam, circa Idus. Circa in the sense of concerning, like de,
erga, and adversus, the Greek ica-a, occurs only in the silver age of the
language, in Quintilian, Pliny, and Tacitus; e.g. varia circum haec opinio;
circa deos et religiones negligentior ; publica circa bonus artes socordia.
Circiter is used, it is true, with an accusative, as in circiter meridiem, about
noon ; circiter Calendas, circiter Idus Martias, circiter octavam horam, but it
is more frequently an adverb.
[ 299.] Adversus and contra originally signify " opposite to ;" but they ex-
press also the direction of an action towards an object, with this difference,
that contra always denotes hostility, like our " against" (while erga denotes a
friendly disposition, "towards"), whereas adversus is used in either sense.
Thus Cicero says : praesidia ilia, quae pro tcmplis omnibus cernitis, contra vim
collocata sunt ; and frequently contra naturam, contra leges ; but meus erga te
amor, paternus animus, benivolentia, and similar expressions. We say adversus
aliquem impetum facere as well as modestum, justum esse, and reverentiam ad-
hibere adversus aliquem. But erga also occurs now and then in a hostile
sense, not indeed in Cicero, but in Nepos and Tacitus, e.g. Nep. Datum. 10.:
odio communi, quod erga regem susceperant.
[ 300.] Extra, " without," " outside of," occurs also in the sense ofpraeter,
excepting, apart, as extra jocum.
Infra, e. g. infra lunam nihil est nisi mortale et caducum. It also implies a
low estimation ; as in infra se omnia humana ducere, judicare, or infra se
posita ; and " below" or " under" in regard to measure or size : uri sunt mag-
nitudine paulo infra elephantos.
Inter denotes also duration of time, like our " during ;" as inter tot unnos,
inter coenam, inter epulas. With regard to its ordinary signification " among,"
we must observe that inter se is our " one another ;" e. g. amant inter se pueri,
PREPOSITIONS. 245
obtrectant inter se, furtim inter se aspiciebant, where in reality another pro-
noun is omitted.
Infra, "within," to both questions Where? and Whither? intra hostium
praesidia esse and venire; nullam intra Oceanum praedonum navem esse auditis;
major es nostri Antiochum intra montem Taurum regnare jusserunt. It also
denotes time, both in its duration and a period which has not come to its
close, e. g. omnia commemorabo quae intra decem annos nefarie facta sunt, dur-
ing the last ten years ; intra nonum diem opera absolute sunt, intra decimum
diem urbem cepit, that is, before nine or ten days had elapsed.
Juxta, " beside," e. g.juxta murum, juxta urbem, sometimes also " next to"
in rank and estimation, as in Livy : fides humana colitur apud eos Juxta divinas
religiones. But it is only unclassical authors that use juxta in the sense of
secundum or according to.
Ob, " on account of," implies a reason or occasion, e. g. ob egregiam virtutem
donatus; ob delictum; ob eamrem, for this reason; quamobrem or quamobcausam,
for which reason ; ob hoc ipsum, for this very reason. In the sense of ante, its
use is more limited, as in ob oculos versari.
Penes rarely occurs as a preposition of place in the sense of apud, and is
mpre commonly used as denoting, in the possession or power of; e. g. penes
regem omnis potestas est; penes me arbitrium est hujus rei.
[ 301.] Per, denoting place, signifies "through" and occurs very frequently ;
but it also signifies "in" in the sense of " throughout;" e.g. Caesar conjura-
tionis socios in vinculis habendos per municipia censuit, that is, in all the mu-
tt icipia; per domos hospitaliter invitantur; milites fuga per proximas civitates
dissipati sunt. When it denotes time, it signifies during : per noctem cemuntur
sidera ; per hosce dies, during these days ; per idem tempus, during the same
time ; per triennium, per secessionem plebis, during the secession of the plebs.
Per with the accusative of persons is " through," " by the instrumentality
of," e. g. per te sahus sum. Per, in many cases, expresses the manner in
which a thing is done ; as per litteras, by letter ; per injuriam, per scelus et
latrocinium, per potestatcm auferre, eripere, with injustice, criminally, by au-
thority ; per ludum ac jocum fortunis omnibus erertit, by play and joke he
drove him out of his property ; per iram, from or in anger ; per simulationem
amicitiae me prodiderunt; per speciem honoris or auxilii ferendi, &c., per
causam, under the pretext ; per occasionem, on the occasion ; per ridiculum, in
a ridiculous manner. In many cases a simple ablative might be used instead
of per with the accus., but per expresses, in reality, only an accidental mode
of doing a thing, and not the real means or instrument.
Per, in the sense of " on account of," occurs only in a few phrases : per
aetatem, on account of his age; per voletudinem, on account of illness ; per me
licet, it is allowed, as far as I am concerned. In supplication or swearing,
it is the English "by;" as jurare per aliquid, aliquem orare per aliquid; and
so also in exclamations : per deos immortales, per Jovem, &c.
[ 302.] Pone, " behind," is not frequently used either as an adverb or a
preposition, and is almost obsolete. Tacitus, e. g., says, manus pone tergum
vinctae, for post tergum
Procter. From the meaning " beside," or " along " (implying motion
or passing by), as in Cicero : Servi praeter oculos Lolli pocula ferebant,
there arises the signification of " excepting ;" e. g. in Livy : In hoc legato
vestro nee hominis quidquam est praeter Jiguram et speciem, neqtte Romani
civis praeter habitum et sonum Latinae linguae ; and in Cicero : Arnicum tibi ex
B 3
246 LATIN GRAMMAR.
consularibus neminem esse video praeter Lucullum, except, or beside Lucullus.
It also signifies " besides," when something is added to what has been al-
ready said, and it is then followed by etiam ; e. g. praeter auctoritatem etiam
vires ad coercendum habet, praeter ingentem populationem agrorum pugnatum
etiam egregie est, and may often be translated by "independent of," or
" not to mention."
Praeter also indicates a distinction, as in praeter ceteros, praeter olios,
nraeter omnes excellere orfacere aliquid.
The signification of " against," or " contrary to," is connected with that
of beside ; e. g. praeter consuetudinem, praeter opinionem, expectationem, vo-
luntatem alicujus ; praeter modum, immoderately ; praeter naturam, contrary to
nature.
Propter, for prope, near, is not uncommon, e. g. propter Sicilian, insulae
Vulcaniae sunt; duo Jttii propter patrem cubantes, &c. It has already been
remarked ( 264.), that it is a contraction ot'propiter.
But it most frequently signifies " on account of," implying the moving
cause, as in ego te propter humanitatem et modestiam tuam diligo. It is more
rarely used in the sense of per with persons, as in propter te liber sum,
propter quos 'vivit, through whose aid he lives.
[ 303.] Secundum is derived from sequor, secundus, and therefore properly
signifies " next," " in the sequel," " in succession," e. g. secundum comitia,
immediately after the comitia ; Livy : Hannibal secundum tarn prosperam ad
Cannas pugnam victoris magis quam helium gerentis curis intentus erat. Also
" next in rank ; " as in Cicero, secundum deum homines hominibus maxime
utiles esse possunt ; secundum fratrem tibi plurimum tribuo ; secundum te nihil
est miki amicius solttudine ; Livy says that the Roman dominion was maximum
secundum deorum opes imperium. The signification " along," is still more
closely conected with its original meaning, as in secundum mare Her facere,
secundum flumen paucae stationes equitum videbantur.
In a figurative sense secundum is tire opposite of contra : consequently, 1.
" in accordance with," as secundum natiiram vivere, secmtdum arbitrium ali-
cujus facere aliquid; 2. "in favour of," as in secundum praesentem judicavit,
secundum te decrevit, secundum causam nostrum disputavit. So also in the
legal expression vindicias secundum libertatem dare, postulare, for a person's
liberty.
Supra is the opposite of infra, and is used to both questions, Where ? and
Whither ? In English it is " above," implying both space and measure, e. g.
supra vires, supra consuetudinem, supra numerum ; and with numerals, supra
duos menses, seniores supra sexaginta annos. It is more rarely used in the
sense of praeter, beside ; as in Livy, supra belli Latini metum id quoque acces~
serat; and in that of ante, before, as in Caesar, paulo supra hanc memoriam, a
little before the present time.
Versus is joined also (though rarely) to the prepositions ad or in: ad
Oceanum versus proficisci, in Italiam versus navigare.
Ultra not unfrequently occurs as denoting measure ; e. g. ultra feminam
mollis, ultra fortem temerarius, more than a woman, and more than a brave
man usually is.
2. Prepositions with the Ablative.
[ 304.] Ab (this is the original form, in Greek a-rto), from, in regard to
both place and time (a cujus morte, ab illo tempore tricesimus annus est), and
PREPOSITIONS. 247
also to denote a living being as the author of an action, as in amari, diligi ab
aliquo, discere ab aliquo, and with neuter verbs, which have the meaning of a
passive ; e. g. interire ab aliquo, which is the same as occidi ab aliquo. The
following particulars, however, must be observed :
. a) With regard to its denoting time, we say a prima aetate, ab ineunte
aetate, a primo tempore or primis temporibus aetatis, ab initio aetatis and ab
infantia, a pueritia, ab adolescentia, as well as in connection with concrete
nouns : a puero, a pueris, ab adolescentulo, ab infante, all of which expressions
signify " from an early age." The expressions a parvis, a parvulo, a tenero, a
teneris unguiculis, are less common and of Greek origin. A puero is used in
speaking of one person, and a pueris in speaking of several ; e. g. Diodorum
Stoicum a puero audivi, or Socrates docuit fieri nullo modo posse, ut a pueris
tot rerum insitas in animis notiones haberemus, nisi animus, antequam corpus
intrasset, in rerum cognitione viguisset.
Ab initio and a principio, a primo properly denote the space of time from
the beginning down to a certain point. Tacitus, e. g., says, urbem Romam
a principio reges habuere, that is, for a certain period after its foundation.
Frequently, however, this idea disappears, and ab initio, &c. become the
same as initio, in the beginning ; e. g. Consuli non animus ab initio, non fides
ad extremum defuit, he was neither wanting in courage at first, nor in faith-
fulness at the last ; ab initio hujus defensionis dixi, at the beginning of my
defence.
6) When ab denotes place, it frequently expresses the side on which a
thing happens, or rather whence it proceeds ; as a f route, a tergo, ab occasu
et ortu (solis) : Alexander a fronts et a tergo hostem habebat; Horatius Codes
a tergo pontem interscindi jubebat ; Caesar a dextro cornu proelium commisit.
Hence a reo dicere, to speak on behalf of the defendant, and with the verb
stare; as a senatu stare, to stand on the side of the senate, or to be of the
party of the senate ; a bonorum causa stare, to be on the side of the patriots,
or without the verb stare, in the same sense : hoc est a me, this is for me,
in my favour, supports my assertion ; haecfaeitis a nobis contra vosmet ipsos,
to our advantage, or facere in an intransitive sense : hoc nihilo magis ab
adversariis, quam a nobis facit, this is no less advantageous to our opponents
than to ourselves. So also, the adherents or followers of a school are called
a Platone, ab Aristotele, a Critolao, although in these cases we may supply
profecti, that is, persons who went forth from such a school. Sometimes,
though chiefly in the comic writers, ab is used instead of a genitive : ancilla
ab Andria, fores and ostium ab aliquo concrepuit.
[ sos.J In a figurative sense it signifies " with regard to ;" e. g. Antonius
ab equitatu firmus esse dicebatur ; imparati sumus quum a militibus, turn a
pecunia ; mediocriter a doctrina instructus ;, inops ab amicis ; felix ab omni
laude ; Horace : Nihil est ab omni parte beatum. In the sense of " on the
side of," it also denotes relationship, as in Augustus a matre Magnum Pom-
pejum artissimo contingebat gradu, on his mother's side.
Ab denotes that which is to be removed, and thus answers to our " from,"
or " against," e. g. forum defendere a Clodio, eustodire templum ab Hannibale,
munire vasa a frigore et tempestatibus, that is, contra frigus. So also tutus a
periculo, secure from danger, and timere a suis, to be afraid of one's own
friends.
Statim, confestim, recens ab aliqua re, "immediately after," have originally
reference to place, but pass from their meaning of place into that of time ;
K 4
248 LATIN GRAMMAR.
e.g. Scipio confestim a proelio ad naves rediit, immediately after the battle
Scipio returned to the fleet ; hostes a prospera pugna castra oppugnaverunt,
Liv. ; ab itinere facere aliquid, to do a thing while on a journey.
Ab, further, often describes a circumstance as the cause of a thing, and may
be translated by, " in consequence of," " from," or " out of," as in Livy : dice-
bantur ab eodem animo ingenioque, a quo gesta sunt, in consequence of the same
sentiment ; ab eadem Jiducia animi, ab ira, a spe. Legati Carthaginienses ali-
quanto minore cum misericordia ab recenti memoria perfidiae auditi sunt, in
consequence of the yet fresh recollection ; Curtius : Alexander vates quoque
adhibere coepit a superstitions animi, from superstitious prejudices.
Ab, used to denote an official function, is quite a peculiarity of the Latin
language ; e. g. alicujus or alicui esse (scil. servum or libertum) a pedibus, to
be a person's lacquey, ab epistolis (secretary), a rationibus (keeper of
accounts), a studiis, a voluptatibus.
[ 306 -] Absque is found only in the comic writers, and modern Latinists
should not introduce such antiquated words into their writings. See Burinann
on Cic. de Invent, i. 36. ; Ruhnken, Diet. Terent. p. 228. ed. Schopen. There
is only one passage in Cicero, ad Att. i. 19. : nullam a me epistolum ad te sino
absque argumento pervenire, in which the writer seems to have intentionally
used absque, because he could not well have written the proper word sine,
on account of the proximity of sino.
[ 307.] Cum, "with," not only expresses "in the company of persons," as cum
aliquo esse, cum aliquo ire, venire, proficisci, facere aliquid (also secum, that
is, with one's self), but also accompanying circumstances, as Verres Lampsa-
cum venit cum magna calamitate et prope pernicie civitatis; hostes cum detrimento
sunt depulsi ; and numerous other instances ; also equivalent to our " in,"
in the sense of " dressed in ;" as in hoc qfficina Praetor (Verres) majorem
partem diei cum tunica pulla sedere solebat et pallio. When combined with
verbs denoting hostility, cum, like our " with," has the meaning of " against :"
cum aliquo bellum gerere, to be at war with somebody ; thus cum aliquo queri,
to complain of or against a person.
[ 308.] De is most commonly " concerning," " about," or " on," as in
multa de te audivi, liber de contemnenda morte, scil. scriptus ; Regulus de cap-
tivis commutandis Romam missus est. Also in the phrases de te cogito, I think
of thee ; actum est de me, I am undone. Consequently, traditur de Homero,
is something very different from traditur ab Homero ; in the former sentence
Homer is the object, and in the latter the subject. In the epistolary style,
when a new subject is touched upon, de is used in the sense of quod attinet
ad aliquid ; as in Cicero : de fratre, confido ita esse, ut semper volui; de me
autem, suscipe paulisper meas paries, et eum te esse finge, qui sum ego ; de
rationibus referendis, non erat incommodum, &c. But very frequently it has
the signification of " down from," or " from a higher point ;" as descendere
de rostris, de coelo; Verres palam de setta ac tribunali pronuntiat; further, it
denotes the origin from a place ; as homo de schola, declamator de ludo,
nescio qui de circo maximo, Cic. pro Milon. 24. ; or " of," in a partitive
sense, as homo de plebe, unus de populo, unus de multis, one of the many ;
unus de septem, one of the seven wise men ; C. Gracchum de superioribus
paene solum lego ; versus de Phoenissis, verses from the tragedy of the
Phoenissae ; partem de istius impudentia reticebo, and in the phrases de meo,
tuo, suo, &c., de alieno, de publico.
De also denotes time, which arises from its partitive signification. Cicero
PREPOSITIONS. 249
says, Milo in comitium de nocte venit, that is, even by night, or spending
a part of the night in coming to the comitium ; vigilare de nocte, Alexander
dc die inibat convivia, even in the daytime ; hence multa de nocte, media de
nocte, that is, " in the depth of night," " in the middle of the night," the
signification of the point of beginning being lost in that of the time in general.
fac, si me amas, ut considerate diligenterque naviges de mense Decembri, \. e.
take care, as you are sailing in (a part of) the month of December.
In other cases also de is not unfrequently used for ab or ex ; thus Cicero
says, audivi hoc de parente meo puer, and with a somewhat far-fetched dis-
tinction between what is accidental and what is intentional ; in Verr. iii. 57. :
Non hoc nunc primum audit privatus de inimico, reus ab accusatore ; effugere
de manibus ; Dionysius mensas argenteas de omnibus delubris jussit auferri ;
especially in connection with emere, mercari, conducere de aliquo. Gloriam,
victoriam parere, parare, de aliquo or ex aliquo ; triumphum agere de Gfallis,
Allobrogibus, Aetolis, or ex Gallis, &c. are used indiscriminately.
In some combinations de has the signification of " in accordance with," or
" after," like secundum : de consilio meo, de amicorum sententia, de consilii
sententia, according to the resolution of the council ; de communi sententia ; de
more. In other cases de with a noun following denotes the manner or cause
of an action : denuo, de integro, afresh ; de improviso, unexpectedly ; de in-
dustria, purposely ; de facie novi aliquem, I know a person by his appearance.
In combination with res and causa : qua de re, qua de causa, quibus de causis,
for which reasons.
[ 309.] Ex (for this is the original form, it was changed into e when
consonants followed, whence a certain custom was easily formed), " from,"
" out of," is quite common to denote a place, as an answer to the question
whence? and in some peculiar phrases; such as: ex equo pugnare ; ex equis
colloqui, to converse while riding on horseback ; ex muro passis manibus pacem
petere; ex arbore pendere ; ex loco superiore dicere; ex itinere scribere; con-
spicari aliquid ex propinquo, e longinquo videre aliquid, ex transverso impetum
facere ; ex adverso, and e regione (not ex), opposite ; ex omni parte, in or from
all parts. Ex aliquo audire, accipere, cognoscere, scire, and the like, to hear
from a person's own mouth ; victoriam report/are ex aliquo populo, where ex is
the same as de. Ex vino, ex aqua coquere, bibere, where we say, " with wine,"
&c. are common medical expressions.
Ex, when a particle of time, denotes the point from which : ex illo die, from
that day ; ex hoc tempore, ex quo (not e), since ; ex consulatu, ex praetura, ex
dictatura, after the consulship, &c. ; diem ex die expectare, to wait one day
after another, or day after day.
Ex, " from," denoting cause ; as in ear aliquo or aliqua re dolere, laborare
ex pedibus, e renibus, ex oculis, ex capite; perire ex vulneribus; ex quodam ru-
more nos te hie ad mensem Januarium expectabamus ; ex lassitudine artius
dormire, after a fatigue, or on account of fatigue ; quum e via languerem,
from or after the journey ; ex quo vereor, whence I fear, and still more fre-
quently, ex quo, whence, or for which reason. Hence it has also the signifi-
cation of " in consequence of," or " in accordance with," and that in a great
many expressions ; such as : ex lege, ex decreto, ex testamento, ex Senatuscon-
sulto, ex Senatus auctoritate, ex sententia equivalent to dc sententia, ex con-
suetudine, e more.
With this we must connect the cases in which ex denotes the manner of an
action ; as in ex animo laudare, to praise heartily ; ex sententia and ex rabtnUttr ,
250 LATIN GRAMMAR.
according to one's wish ; e natura vivere, in accordance with nature ; ex im-
proviso, ex inopinato, ex composite, ex praeparato, ex aequo, &c.
Ex denoting a change of a previous state : e servo te libertum meumfeci;
nihil est tarn miserdbile quam ex beato miser ; repente Verres ex homine tamquam
epoto poculo Circaeo foetus est verres.
In a partitive sense, ex denotes the whole from which something is taken,
and is of frequent occurrence : thus unus e plebe, unus e multis, is the same as
unus de plebe and de multis. Connected with this are the phrases : aliquid
est e re mea, something is to my advantage ; e republica (not ex), for the good
of the state.
[ 310.] Prae, "before," signifies place only in combination with agere, ferre,
or other verbs expressing motion, and with pronouns : prae me fero, prae se
fert, prae vobis tulistis, which denote the open display of a thing or of a
sentiment.
Prae is commonly used in comparisons ; as in Cicero : prae se omnes con-
temnit: ut ipse Consul in hoc causa prae me minus etiam quam privatus esse
videatur, in comparison with me ; Romam prae sua Capua irridebunt; omnium
minus atque omnia pericula prae salute sua levia duxerunt.
t It is frequently used also in the sense of " on account of," implying an
obstacle; e.g. solem prae sagittarum multitudine non videbitis; non medius
fidius prae lacrimis possum reliqua nee cogitare nee scribere; non possum prae
fletu et dolore diutius in hoc loco commorari, and so always with a negative
particle, which however is sometimes implied in the negative signification of
the verb ; e. g. Liv. vi. 40. : quum prae indignitate rerum stupor silentiumque
ceteros patrum defixisset; xxxviii. 33.: silentium prae metu ceterorum fuit.
[ 311.] Pro, in regard to place " before," or " in front of a thing ;" e. g.
pro vallo, pro castris aciem instruere, that is, in the front of, close by, or under
the wall; copias pro oppido collocare; pro templis omnibus praesidia cottocata
sunt; hasta posita est pro aede Jovis Statoris; Antonius sedens pro aede Cas-
toris inforo. It also signifies, " at the extreme point of a thing," so that the
person spoken of is in or upon the thing, e. g. pro suggestu aliquid pronun-
tiare, pro tribunali edicere, pro rostris laudare. Hence also pro testimonio
dicere, to declare as a witness, and other expressions denoting place, where
pro is the same as in : e. g. Tacit. Ann. i. 44. : stabant pro contione, the same
as in contione; ibid. ii. 81. : pro muris vocans, on the edge of the wall.
The signification of something standing " before " a thing is the origin of
that of " for," both in the sense of " instead," and that of protection : Unus
Cato est pro centum milibus; MarceUi statua pro patibulofu.it; homo jam pro
damnato est; se gerere or esse pro cive; habere pro hostibus, pro sociis ; habere
pro certo ; aliquid pro mercede, pro praemio est; aliquid pro nihilo estimare,
habere, putare ; also " for" in speaking of payment : pro vectura solvere, to
pay for freight ; dixit se dimidium, quod pactus esset, pro illo carmine daturum ;
praemia mihi data sunt pro hoc industria maxima. " For," the opposite of
" against :" hoc pro me est, or valere debet ; Cicero pro Murena orationem ha-
buit, and in numerous other instances.
[312.] Pro, "in accordance with" or, "in proportion to," occurs very
frequently ; e. g. civitatibus pro numero militum pecwniarum summas describere,
according to the number of soldiers furnished by them ; ego vos pro mea
summa et vobis cognita in rempublicam diligentia moneo, pro auctoritate consu-
lari hortor, pro magnitudine periculi obtestor, ut pad consulatis. Hence in
many particular phrases; as, pro tempore or pro temporibus, in accordance
PREPOSITIONS. 251
with the circumstances of the time, that is, pro condition* temporum, but by
no means " for the time being," or " for a time ;" pro re or pro re nata, ac-
cording to circumstances or emergencies ; pro meo jure, according to my
right ; pro eo ut, pro eo a*, according as ; e. g. Di gratiam mihi referent pro eo
ac mereor, i. e. pro eo quod, quantum, according to my merits ; especially to
denote divisions or share : pro parte, or pro mea, tua, sua parte, for my part, as
far as lies in me ; pro virili parte, according to the capacity of an individual ;
as in : pro virili parte rempublicam defendere ; pro portione, in proportion ;
pro rota portione, or pro rota parte, in a correct proportion. In the phrase
pro se quisque, every one for his part, the three words have almost grown into
one ; e. g. pro se quisque aurum, argentum et aes in publicum conferunt, every
one, though with a somewhat strengthened meaning, " every one without
exception." Quam pro after comparatives deserves especial notice ; e. g.
major quam pro numero hominum pugna editur ; sedes excelsior quam pro habitu
corporis.
[ sis.] Tenus is used to denote limitation, e. g. Antiochus Tauro tenus
regnare jussus est, as far as Mount Taurus, especially in the combination of
verbo and nomine tenus, as far as the word or the name goes. So also ore
tenus sapientia exercitatus in Tacitus, that is, that he could speak wisely, but
not act wisely. It is only in poetry that this preposition is connected with a
genitive, and chiefly with a genitive plural ; e. g. labrorum tenus, up to the lip ;
crurum tenus, laterum tenus ; but in Livy, xxvi 24., too we find Corcyrae tenus.
The accusative is still more rare.
3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative.
[ 314.] In with the accusative expresses the point in space towards which
a movement is directed, like our " to," or " into :" in aedem ire, in publicum
prodire, in Graeciam proficisci, in civitatem recipere ; also the direction in
which a thing extends, e. g. decent pedes in latitudinem, in longitudinem, in
altitudinem, in breadth, length, height ; further, independent of locality, it
denotes the object towards which an action is directed, either with a friendly
or hostile intention : amor in patriam, odium in malos cives, in duces vehemens,
in milites liberalis, dicere in aliquem, and so also oratio in aliquem, a speech
against some one.
It also denotes an object or purpose : haec commutari ex veris in falsa non
possunt; in majus celebrare, for something greater, so that it becomes some-
thing greater ; is imperator in poenam exercitus expetitus esse videtur ; pecunia
data est in rent militarem ; paucos in speciem captivos ducebant, for the sake of
appearance ; in contumeliam perfugae appellabantur, for the purpose of dis-
gracing them ; cum in earn sententiam multa dixisset, in support of this
opinion ; in hanc formulam, in has leges, in haec verba, &c., scribere, foedus
facere.
[ 315.] When joined with words denoting time, it expresses a prede-
termination of that time like the English " for ;" e. g. invitare aliquem in
posterum diem, for the following day ; praedicere in multos annos, in paucos
dies, in multos menses subsidia vitae habere, in hodiernum diem, for this pre-
sent day ; and so in many phrases ; as, in diem vivere, to live only for the day ;
in futurum, in posterum, in reliquum, for the future ; in aeternum, in per-
petuum, for ever ; in praesens, for the present ; in all these cases the word
tempus may be added. Without denoting time, in is used also with the
252 LATIN GRAMMAR.
accusative of other words to express the future ; e. g. Putres in incertum
comitiorum eventum auctores fiunt, give their sanction to the yet uncertain
resolutions of the comitia.
When joined with the numeral singuli, or when this word is to be under-
stood, in expresses a distribution, like the English " on," " for," or " over ;"
e. g. in singulas civitates binos censores describere ; queritur Sicilia tota, Verrem
ab aratoribus pro frumento in modios singulos duodenos sestertios exegisse ; so
also pretium in" capita statuere, i. e. in singula capita; ternis nummis in pedem
tecum transegit, \. e. in singulos pedes. We must here notice also the ex-
pression in singulos dies, or in dies alone, " from day to day," with compa-
ratives and verbs containing the idea of a comparative, such as crescere,
augere.
It lastly denotes, in some phrases, the manner of an action; servilem,
hostilem, miserandum in modum ; minim, mirabilem, mirandum in modum ; in
universum, in general ; in commune, in common ; in vicem, alternately, or
instead of; in Bruti locum consulatum peter e, in the place or instead of.
[ 316.] In with the ablative, when it denotes place, most commonly ex-
presses " being in a place or in a thing," while with the accusative it indi-
cates a movement or direction towards it. It may sometimes be translated
by " on," or " upon," but always answers to the question Where ? e. g.
coronam in collo habere ; aliquid in humeris ferre ; in ripa fluminis ; in litore
maris urbs condita est; pans in flumine est. When a number or quantity is
indicated it answers to " among ;" e. g. esse, haberi, poni, numerari in bonis
civibus ; in magnis viris, in mediocribus oratoribus, in septem vagantibus,
among the seven planets, so that in is equal to inter. A particular phrase is
aliquid in manibus est, a thing is in hand, or has been commenced ; as in Livy :
kaec contentio minime idoneo tempore, quum tantum belli in manibus esset, oc-
cuparat cogitationes hominum. In manibus habere, to be engaged upon a
thing ; as in Cicero : Quam spem nunc habeat in manibus et quid moliatur,
breviter jam exponam. Aliquid in oculis est, a thing is obvious.
Now and then we find, in good authors, in with the accusative, where the
grammatical rule requires the ablative. See the commentators on Livy ii. 14. ;
but this is limited to a very few political and legal expressions, such as in
potestatem, in amicitiam dicionemque esse, manere (Cic. Divin. in Q. Caecil. 20.,
in Verr. v. 38), in vadimonium, in moram esse, and even these cases must
be considered only as exceptions. In the comic writers, however, we not
unfrequently find mihi in mentem est. See Bentley on Terent. Heaut. v. 2.
33.
[ 317.] The general signification of in with the ablative is " in," or " with,"
and without reference to locality it denotes a coincidence of certain circum-
stances and attributes ; e. g. in hoc homine, in hac re, hoc admiror, hoc laudo,
hoc displicet, in this man ; a phrase of this kind is quantum in eo or in me, te,
&c., fuil, as much as was in my power. In the following sentences it is our
" with," or " notwithstanding : " in summa copia oratorum, nemo tamen
Ciceronis laudem aequavit ; in summis tuis occupationibus, with all thy very
important engagements ; alter, uti dixit Isocrates in Ephoro et Theopompo,
frenis egit, alter calcaribus, as Isocrates said when speaking of Ephorus and
Theopompus.
[ 318.] When real expressions of time, such as saeculum, annus, mensis,
dies, nox, vesper are employed, the simple ablative denotes the time at which
(see 475.) ; but in is used with substantives, which by themselves do not
PREPOSITIONS. 253
denote time, but acquire that meaning by being connected with in ; as, in
consulatu, in praetura, in mco reditu, in primo conspectu, in principio, in bello,
although in these cases too the simple ablative is sometimes used ; but in
appears more especially in connection with a gerund, as in legendo and in
legendis libris, in urbe oppugnanda, in itinere faciendo all these expressions
in the first instance denoting time, but passing into kindred meanings. In
praesenti or praesentia, signifies " at the present moment," or " for the
present." The phrase, est in eo, ut aliquid fiat, signifies, something is on the
point of happening.
[ 319.] Sub, e. g. Romani sub jugum missi sunt ; se conjicere sub scalas, to
throw oneself under the stairs ; alicui scamnum sub pedem dare, and figu-
ratively, sub imperium tuum redeo, and so also aliquid cadit sub aspectum, " a
thing falls within the horizon," as well as cadit subjudicium et delectum sapi-
entis, sub intelligentiam, it belongs to the philosopher, is left to him. When
it denotes time, it signifies, 1 . " about," that is, shortly before, as sub ortum
solis, shortly before sunrise ; sub noctem, sub vesperam ; 2. more rarely,
" immediately after ;" e. g. sub eas litteras statim recitatae sunt tuae, Cic. ad
Fam. x. 16.; statim sub mentionem, Coelius in Cic. ad Fam. viii. 4.; Africa
bello, quod fuit sub recentem Romanam paccm, Liv. xxi. 11.; and sub haec
dicta, sub hanc vocem, are used by the same writer. The phrase sub idem
tempus contains only an approximate definition of time, and signifies " about
the same time."
Sub, with the ablative, is always " under ; " first, with regard to things
that strike our senses, and secondly, to denote inferiority in rank : sub divo,
or sub dio, under the sky, in the open air ; sub oculis, under, i. e. before our
eyes ; sub regibus esse, sub imperio, sub hoc Sacramento militari, sub magistro
esse : it rarely denotes a condition, and only in late writers ; e. g. sub lege,
sub poena. Sub specie, " under the appearance," and sub obtentu, " under the
pretext," are little used. Sometimes sub is found with the ablative to
denote time, but only where contemporaneity is to be indicated ; e. g.
Ovid. Fast. v. 491.: Haec tria sunt sub eodem tempore festa ; Caes. Sell.
Civ. i. 27. : ne sub ipsaprofectione milites oppidum irrumperent ; and in like
manner we may say sub adventu, e. g. Romanorum, while they were arriving.
Compare Drakenborch on Liv. ii. 55. ; who, however, gives to this sub too
great an extent.
[ 320.] Super has, in prose, the ablative only when used in the sense of
de, " concerning," or " in respect of," as in super aliqua re ad aliquem scribere,
but chiefly in writers of the silver age of the language.
With the accusative it signifies " over," " above," and answers to both
questions Whither ? and Where ? super aliquem sedere, accumbere, situs est
Aeneas super Numicium fiumen, Aeneas was buried above the river ; that is,
on its banks, but on an eminence of the bank. The phrase super coenam
signifies " during dinner." With numerals it is " above," or " more than ; "
e. g. Annulorum tantus acervus fuit, ut metientibus dimidium super tres modios
explesse sint quidam auctores, one half more than three modii, or three modii
and a half; and in other expressions, as res super vota fluunt, more than was
wished. In these two significations* of " above " (in its sense of place as well
as that of " more than "), super is the same as supra ; but it is used more fre-
quently than\he latter in the sense of "besides," or " in addition to : " super
bellum annona premit ; super morbum etiam fames affecit exercitum, super
cetera ; so also in the phrase alius super alium, one after the other.
254 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Subter is rarely used with the ablative, and only in poetry : Cicero uses
the accusative in the expression Plato iram in pectore, cvpiditatem subter
praecordia locavit. Otherwise it frequently occurs as an adverb, in the sense
of our " below."
[ 321.] 2. The adverbs clam, palam, simul and procul, are
sometimes connected by poets and late prose writers with an
ablative, and must then be regarded as prepositions : clam and
its diminutive clanculum, " without a person's knowledge, "
e. g. clam uxore mea et Jilio, are frequently found as prepositions
in the comic writers, but are joined also with the accusative;
palam is the opposite of clam, and the same as coram ; e. g.
palam populo, in the presence of the people ; simul is used by
poets, without the preposition cum, in the sense of "with;"
e. g. Sil. Ital. v. 418. : avulsa est protinus hosti ore simul cervix,
the neck together with the face : Horace uses simul his, together
with these, and Tacitus frequently ; e. g. Annal. iii. 64. : Sep-
temviris simul; procul, with the omission of ab, is frequent in
Livy and Tacitus, and signifies, " far from ; " e. g. procul urbe,
mari, voluptatibus, and in the phrase procul dubio or dubio
procul, instead of sine dubio.
[ 322.] Respecting usque as an adverb, see above, 286. It
is commonly accompanied by a preposition ab and ex, or ad, in
and sub, and expresses the idea of continuity from one point to
another ; e. g. vetus opinio est, usque ab heroicis ducta temporibus ;
usque ex ultima Syria atque Aegypto navigare ; similis plausus
me usque ad Capitolium celebravit ; usque in Pamphyliam legates
mittere ; usque sub extremum brumae imbrem, where usque is our
" until." It is only in poetry and late prose writers, that usque
alone is used for usque ad; e. g. Curtius, viii. 31., says of the
Indians: corpora usque pedes carbaso velant. This is inde-
pendent of the names of towns, where the prepositions ad and
ab are generally omitted.
[ 323.] 3. But many of the above-mentioned prepositions
are used as adverbs, that is, without a noun depending on
them. This is chiefly the case with those which denote place :
ante and post, adversum and exadversum (opposite), circa
(around), circumcirca (all around), contra (opposite), coram (in
the presence of), extra, infra, juxta, prope and propter (near),
pone (behind), supra, ultra, super and subter. Circiter also,
PREPOSITIONS. 255
and sometimes ad ( 296.), are used in the adverbial sense of
"about" or " nearly" with numbers, which are indefinitely
stated. Contra, when used without a case and for the purpose
of connecting sentences, is a conjunction, like our " but," or
" however."
Note. Instead of ante and post as adverbs, we have also the special
forms anted and posted (consequently the conjunctions antedquam, posted-
quam), see 276. Ante, however, is preferred as an adverb in combina-
tion with participles ; e. g. ante dicta, vita ante acta, and post is frequently
used to connect sentences.
Contra, as an adverb, occurs in the phrase of Plautus, auro contra, or
contra auro ; that is, gold being placed on the other side ; so that auro is
not a dative, but an ablative ; for which other authors, however, use the pre-
position contra aurum, for gold, when a price is indicated.
Juxta, as an adverb, commonly signifies " equally," or " in like manner," and
is the same as aeque , e. g. in Livy : aliaque castella (dedita sunt) juxta igno-
bilia ; Sallust : eorum ego vitam mortemque juxta aestimo, I deem of equal
importance ; margaritae a feminis juxta virisque gestantur, by women as well
as by men. It is frequently followed by ac or atque, in the sense of " as."
Procter is used as an adverb for praeterquam ; that is, not with the accu-
sative, but with the case required by the verb preceding, as in Sallust :
ceterae multitudini diem statait, ante quam sine fraude (without punishment)
liceret ab armis discedere, praeter rerum capitalium condemnatis. We thus
might say, hoc nemini, praeter tibi, videtur ; but it is better to say praeter te,
or praeterquam (nisi) tibi.
Prope and propter are very frequently used as adverbs ; prope, however,
is sometimes accompanied by the preposition ab, as in tarn prope a Sicilia bellum
gestum est, so near Sicily ; prope a meis aedibus sedebas, near my house.
Ultra, as an adverb, and accompanied by a negative particle, signifies " no
longer : " hand ultra pati possum ; bellum Latinum non ultra dilatum est.
When it denotes place or measure, it signifies " further " or " beyond."
[ 324.] 4. It was remarked above, that the prepositions
versus and tenus are placed after their case. Some other pre-
positions also may take the same place, but not indiscriminately.
Thus, the four prepositions ante, contra, inter and propter,
are sometimes placed after the relative pronoun (occasionally
after the demonstrative hie also) ; e. g. diem statuunt, quam
ante ab armis discederet, quern contra venit, quos inter, quern
propter ; other prepositions of two or more syllables, as circa,
circum, penes, ultra, and adversus, are more rarely used hi
this way ; the monosyllabic prepositions, post, per, ad and de,
are thus used only in isolated cases or phrases, and de rarely
in any other than legal formulae ; e. g. quo de agitur, res qua de
judicatum est. Further, those same four dissyllabic prepositions
256 LATIN GRAMMAR.
ante, contra, inter and propter, together with the monosyllabic
ob, post, de, ex and in, when they govern a substantive accom-
panied by an adjective or pronoun, are frequently placed between
the adjective and substantive ; e. g. medios inter hostes, certis de
causis, magna ex parte, aliquot post menses, and still more fre-
quently between the relative pronoun and the substantive ; e. g.
quod propter studium, qua in re, quam ob rem, quam ob causam.
Per, ab, and ad are but rarely placed in this way. The prepo-
sition cum is always placed after or rather appended to the
ablative of the personal pronouns me, te, se, nobis and vobis.
The same is commonly the case with the ablatives of the
relative pronoun, quo, qua, and quibus, but we may also say,
cum quo, cum qua, and cum quibus. This preposition also
prefers the middle place between the adjective or pronoun and
the substantive. (See 472.) What has been said here applies
to ordinary prose ; and the practice of those prose writers,
who place the above-mentioned prepositions and others even
after substantives, must be regarded as a peculiarity. In
Tacitus, for example, we often find such arrangements as, Mise-
num apud, viam propter, Scythas inter, Euphratem ultra, cubi-
culum Caesaris juxta, litora Calabriae contra, ripam ad Araxis,
verbera inter ac contumelias, and the like. The place of coram
after its noun seems, comparatively speaking, to be established
by better authority than that of any other. Poets go still fur-
ther, and separate a preposition entirely from the case belonging
to it ; e. g. in Horace, Serm. i. 3. 70. : Amicus dulcis cum mea
compenset vitiis bona.
CHAP. LXVI.
PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.
[ 325.] THE majority of the prepositions are used also to
form compound words, especially verbs, modifying, naturally,
by their own meaning that of the words to which they are joined.
The prepositions themselves often undergo a change in their pro-
PREPOSITIONS. 257
nunciation and orthography, on account of the initial letter of
the verb to which they are prefixed. But the opinions of ancient
as well as modern grammarians differ on no point so much as
upon the detail of these changes, some taking into account
the facility of pronunciation, and assimilating the concur-
rent letters of the prepositions and the simple verb accord-
ingly, others preferring to leave the prepositions unchanged,
at least in writing, because the former method admits of much
that is arbitrary. Even in old MSS. and in the inscribed
monuments of antiquity the greatest inconsistency prevails, and
we find, e. g., existere along with exsistere, collega along with
conlega, and imperium along with inperium, in the same book.
In the following remarks, therefore, as we must have some-
thing certain and lasting, we can decide only according to
prevalent usage, but there are some points which we must
determine for ourselves as well as we can.
Ad remains unchanged before vowels, and before the con-
sonants d, j, v, m; before other consonants it undergoes an
assimilation, that is, the d is changed into the letter which
follows it, and before qu into the kindred c, as in acquiro,
acquiesco. Before gn the d is dropped, as in agnatus, agnosco.
But grammarians are not agreed as to whether d is to be re-
tained before /, n, r, s, and still less, as to whether it may stand
before f. Even the most ancient MSS. are not consistent, and
we find in them, e. g. adloquor, adfecto, adspiro, and on the
other hand, allicio, affligo, assuetus, aspectus, ascendo. Our
own opinion is in favour of the assimilation, and we make an
exception only in the case of adscribo, on account of the agree-
ment of the MSS. on this point. The signification of ad remains
the same as usual, as in adjungo, assumo, affero, appono, alloquor.
In approbo and affirmo it either expresses a direction towards,
or merely strengthens the meaning of the simple verb.
Ante remains unchanged ; in anticipare and antistare alone, the
e is changed into z, though antesto also is approved of. Its
meaning is " before," as in antepono, antefero.
Circum remains unchanged, and retains, in writing, its m
even before vowels, although in pronunciation (but without the
elision of the vowel preceding) it was lost. Only in circumeo
and its derivatives the m is often dropped, as circueo. Its
S
258 LATIN GRAMMAR.
meaning is " around," " about," as in circumaf/o, circumdo, cir-
cumfcro.
Inter remains unchanged, except in the word intclligo. Its
meaning is "between" or "among," as in interpono.
Ob remains generally unchanged, and undergoes the assi-
milation only before c, f, g, and p. In obsolesco, from the
simple verb oleo, and in ostendo from tendo, we must recognise
an ancient form obs, like abs for ab. Its meaning of " against"
or " before" appears in oppono, offero, occurro, oagannio.
[ 326.] Per remains unchanged even before /, though some
think otherwise ; in pellicio, however, it is universally assimi-
lated. The r is dropped only in the word pejero, I commit a per-
jurium. Its meaning is " through," as inperleao, perluceo, per ago.
When added to adjectives it strengthens their meaning ( 107.),
but in perfldus and perjurus, it has the power of a negative
particle.
Post remains unchanged, except in pomoermm and pomeri-
dianus, in which st is dropped ; its meaning is " after," as in
postpone.
Praeter remains unchanged, and signifies " passing by," as in
praetereo, praetermitto.
Trans remains unchanged before vowels, and for the most part
also before consonants. In the following words the ns is dropped :
trado, traduco, trajicio, trano, which forms are more frequent
than transdo, transduco, transjicio, transno, though the latter are
not to be rejected. When the verb begins with s, the s at the
end of trans is better omitted, and we should write transcribe,
transilio. Its meaning " through," " over," or " across," appears
in transeo, trajicio., and transmitto, I cross (a river) ; trado, sur-
render.
[ 327.] A, ab, abs, viz. : a before m and v ; ab before vowels
and most consonants, even before f, though afui exists along with
abfui ; in aufero (to distinguish it from affero) and aufugio., ab
is changed into av or au ; abs occurs only before c and t, but
appears mutilated in asporto and aspernor. Its meaning is
"from" or "away," as in amitto, avehor, abeo, abjicio, abrado,
aufero, abscondo, abstineo.
De, " down " or " away from," as in dejicio, descendo, detraho,
detero, rub off ; despicio, look down upon, despise. In some
PREPOSITIONS. 259
compounds, especially adjectives, it has a negative power, as in
decolor, deformis, dcmens, desipio, despero*; in demiror, dcamo,
and dejero, on the other hand, it seems to strengthen the meaning.
E and ex, viz. : ex before vowels, and before consonants some-
times e and sometimes ex : ex before c, p, q, s, t, except in
escendo and epoto ; before f it assimilates to it ; e is used before
all the other consonants, except in exlex. We, therefore, should
write exspecto, exsilium, exstinguo, but the ancient grammarians,
as Quintilian and Priscian, are for throwing out the s, and in
MSS. we usually find extinguo, extruxi, exequor, and expecto,
exul, exilium, notwithstanding the ambiguity which sometimes
may arise. Its meaning " out of or " from," appears in ejicio,
emineo, enato, eripio, effero (extiili), excello, expono, exquiro, ex-
tralio, exaudio, exigo, exulcero, &c. The idea of completion is
implied in several of these compounds, as in efficio, enarro, exoro.
[ 328.] In is changed into im, before b and p and another
m, and it is assimilated to I and r. Its meaning is " in " or
" into," as. in incurro, impono, illido, irrumpo. When prefixed
to adjectives and participles, which have the signification of
adjectives, it has a negative power, and does not appear to be
the preposition in, but equivalent to and identical with our in or
un, e. g. indoctus, incautus, ineptus (from aptus), insipiens, im-
providus, imprudens, imparatus, the negative of paratus, because
there is no verb imparo. Some other compounds of this kind
have a double meaning, since they may be either negative adjec-
tives, or participles of a compound verb : e. g. indictus, unsaid,
or announced ; infractus, unbroken or broken into ; invocatus,
uninvited, or accosted, called in. The participle perf. passive,
when compounded with in, often acquires the signification of
impossibility : e. g. invictus, unconquered and unconquerable ;
indefessus, indefatigable; infinitus, immeasurable.
Prae remains unchanged, but is shortened when a vowel fol-
lows. (See above, 15.) Its meaning is "before," as \npraef ero,
praecipio, praeripio. When prefixed to adjectives, it strengthens
their meaning. (See 107.)
Pro remains unchanged, but in many words it is shortened
even before consonants. (See above, 22.) For the purpose
of avoiding hiatus, a d is inserted in prodeo, prodigo, and in those
forms of the verb prosum in which the initial e would cause
8 2
260 LATIN GRAMMAR.
hiatus, as prodcs, prodest, proderam. (See above, 156.) Its
meaning, "forth" or "forward," appears in profero, procurro,
prodeo, projicio, prospicio.
[ 329.] Sub remains unchanged before vowels (but sumo
seems to be formed from subimo, as demo and promo are formed
from the same root), but undergoes assimilation before c, /,
g, m, p; not always before r, for we have surripio and yet
subrideo, where however the difference in meaning is to be
taken into account. In suscipio, suscito, suspendo, sustineo,
and the perfect sustuli, an s is inserted instead of the b,
whence an ancient form subs is supposed to have existed, ana-
logous to abs and obs. The b is dropped before sp, but before
sc and st it is retained. Its meaning is " under," as in sum-
mitto, suppono, sustineo ; or " from under," as in subduco, sum-
moveo, surripio ; an approach from below, is expressed in subeo,
succedo, suspicio, look up to, esteem ; and to do a thing instead
of another person, in subsortior. It weakens the meaning in
such verbs as subrideo, subvereor, and in adjectives, swch as sub-
absurdus, subtristis, subrusticus, subobscurus.
Super, "above," as in superimpono, supersto, supersedeo, set
myself above, or omit.
Subter, " from under," as in subterfugio.
Com for cum appears in this form only before b, p, m ; before
I, n, r, the final m is assimilated to these letters, and before all
other consonants it is changed into n. Before vowels the m Is
dropped, e. g. co'e'o, cohaereo, and in addition to this a contrac-
tion takes place in cogo and cogito (from coago, coagito). The
m is retained only in a few words, as comes, comitium, comitor,
comedo. It signifies "with" or "together," as in conjungo, con-
sero, compono, collido, colligo, corrado, co'e'o, coalesco, cohaereo.
In some verbs and participles it merely strengthens the mean-
ing, as corrumpo, concerpo, confringo, consceleratus.
[ 330.] Note. We must not -leave unnoticed here what are called the
inseparable prepositions (among which con is reckoned, although it is only
a different pronunciation for cum) ; that is, some little words, which are
never used by themselves, but occur only in compound verbs and adjectives,
where they modify the meaning in the same way as the above-mentioned
separable prepositions. The following is a list of them :
Amb (from the Greek a/*0i), " around," " about," as in ambio, amburo (am-
bustus), ambigo, ambiguus. In amplector, amputo, the b is dropped on account
of the p ; before palatals amb is changed into an ; e. g. anceps, anquiro, and
also before /, in the word anfractus.
CONJUNCTIONS. 261
Dis or rfi, denoting separation, as in digero, dirimo, dijudico, dispono, dis-
sero, distinguo, dimitto (to be distinguished from demitto). It strengthens the
meaning in discupio. Before c, p, q, t, dis is retained entire ; before ;', we
sometimes have dis, as in disjicio, disjungo ; and sometimes di, as in dijudico.
Before *, with a consonant after it, di is used, and dis when the * after it is
followed by a vowel : di-spergo, di-sto, dis-socio, dis-suadeo ; dtsertus, how-
ever, is formed from dissero. Before /, dis is changed into dif, as in differo.
Di is used before all other consonants.
Re signifies "back :" remitto, rejicio, revertor. Before a vowel or an h, a
d is inserted : redeo, redigo, redhibeo : this is neglected only in compounds
formed by late and unclassical writers ; e. g. reaedifico, reagens. The d in
reddo, I give back, is of a different kind. Re denotes separation in resolvo,
revello, retego, recingo, recludo, refringo, reseco ; and in relego, rebibo, and
others, it denotes repetition.
Se, "aside," "on one side" : seduco, sevoco, secubo, sepono, sejungo. In adjec-
tives it signifies " without :" securus, sobrius for sebrius (non ebrius), socors
for secors. Seorsum is contracted from sevorsum, aside. A d is inserted in
seditio, separation, sedition, from se and itio.
The prefixes ne and ve are of a somewhat different nature : ne has ne-
gative power, as in nefas, nemo (ne hemo, obsolete for homo), nescio. Ve is
likewise negative, but occurs in a much smaller number of words, viz. in
vesanus and vecors (vecordid), senseless. In vegrandis and vepallidus, it
seems to denote ugliness.
CHAP. LXVII.
CONJUNCTIONS.
*
[331.] 1. CONJUNCTIONS are those indeclinable parts of
speech which express the relations in which sentences stand
to one another. They therefore are, as it were, the links of
propositions, whence their name conjunctions.
Note 1. Some conjunctions, and more particularly all those which form
the first class in our division, connect not only sentences, but single
words. This, however, is in reality the case only when two propositions
are contracted into one, or when one is omitted, as in Mars sive Mavors
bettis praesidet : here sive Mavors is to be explained by the omission
of sive is Mavors appellandus est, which phrase is, in fact, not unfrequently
used. The propositions vine din ac feliciter and ratio et oratio homines
conjungit, again may be divided each into two propositions joined by the
conjunctions vive din et vive feliciter and ratio conjungit homines et oratio
conjvngit homines. The practice of language, however, did not stop short in
this contraction, but as we may say ratio et oratio conjungunt homines, and as
we must say pater etflius dormiunt, the language, by the plural of the pre-
8 3
262 LATIN GRAMMAR.
dicate, clearly indicates that the two nouns are united. Hence we may
say, that the (copulative) conjunctions et, que,ac, and atque join single words
also. With regard to the other, especially the disjunctive conjunctions (for
there can be no doubt about the conjunction " also,") we must have recourse
to the above explanation, that two propositions are contracted into one, for
in ego aut tu vincamus necesse est, the nos, which comprehends the two
persons, is the subject of vincamus, and not ego aut tu.
Note 2. Many of the conjunctions to be mentioned presently origi-
nally belonged to other parts of speech ; but they have lost their real sig-
nification, and as they serve to join propositions, they may at once be looked
upon as conjunctions ; e. g. ceterum, verum, vero, licet, quamvis, and such
compounds as quare, idcirco, quamdbrem. But there are also many adverbs
denoting time and place, respecting which it is doubtful, whether in conse-
quence of the mode of their application in language, they should not be
classed among conjunctions. Those denoting time (e. g. deinde, denique, pos-
tremmri) retain, indeed, their original signification, but when they are doubled,
as turn turn, nunc nunc, modo modo, they evidently serve only to con-
nect propositions ; the adverbs of place, on the other hand, are justly classed
among the conjunctions when they drop their meaning of place and express a
connection of propositions in respect of time, or the relation of cause and
effect, as is the case with ubi, ibi t and inde, and with eo and quando.
2. In regard to their form (Jigura), they are either simple or
compound. Of the former kind are, e. g. et, ac, at, sed, name and
of the latter atque, itaque, attamen, siquidem, enimvero, verum-
enimvero.
3. In reference to their signification, they may be divided into
the following classes. They denote :
[332.] 1. A union (conjunctiones copulativae), as et, ac,
atque, and the enclitic que, combined with the negation belonging
to the verb, neque or nee, or doubled so as to become an affirma-
tive, nee (neque) non, equivalent to et. Etiam and quoque also
belong to this class, together with the adverbial item and itidem.
As these particles unite things which are of a kind, so the dis-
junctive conjunctions, signifying " or," connect things, which are
distinct from each other. They are aut, vel, the suffix ve, and
sive or seu.
Note. Ac is never used before vowels (which, however, do not include,/)
or before an h; atque occurs most frequently before vowels, but before
consonants also. Hence the two forms in the same sentence of Cicero
p. Balb. 3. : non contra ac liceret, sed contra atque oporteret, and it is pro-
bable that in prose as well as in poetry the hiatus was avoided by elision.
The rule here given is not invalidated by the fact of ac being found here
and there before vowels, in editions of Latin authors, as is the case, for
example, in two passages of Ernesti's edition of Cicero, ad Quint. Frat. ii. 6.,
and ad Alt. xiii. 48. For as this difference in the use of ac and atque was not
CONJUNCTIONS. 263
noticed till recently * (in the schools of the Dutch philologers, Buvmann and
Drakenborch), and as the MSS. have not yet been collated in all cases of
this kind, such isolated remnants of former carelessness cannot be taken
into account. Drakenborch (on Liv. x. 36. in fin.) observes, that where-
ever, before his time, ac was found in Livy before vowels, the MSS.
give either atque, aut, at, or something else, and that even those pas-
sages, in which he retained it, such as iii. 16., ac emergentibus malts,
should be corrected. We cannot, however, enter into the question, why
ac was not used before a vowel, while nee and neque are used indis-
criminately both before vowels and consonants. One language avoids a
sound as displeasing, which in another produces no such effect ; suffice it
to say, that the fact itself is beyond all doubt. Another remark, however,
which is made by many Grammarians, that ac is not used by good writers
before c and q, is unfounded, at least ac before con is frequent in Cicero,
and other authors do not even scruple to use ac before ca, which is other-
wise, and with justice, considered not euphonious.
[ 333.] The difference between et and que is correctly described by
Hermann in Elmsley's ed. of the Medea, p. 531., ed. Lips, in these
words : " et (*!) is a copulative particle, and que (ri) is an adjunc-
tive one." In other words, et connects things which are conceived as
different, and que adds what belongs to, or naturally flows from, things. In
an enumeration of words, therefore, que frequently forms the conclusion of
the series ; e. g. Cicero says : hi, qui solis et lunae reliquorumque siderum ortus,
obitus motusque cognorunt; and by means of que he extends the preceding
idea, without connecting with it any thing which is generically different, as in :
de ilia civitate totaque provincia optime meritus ; Dolabella quique ejusfacinoris
ministri fuerunt ; jus potestatemque habere; Pompejus pro patris majorumque
suorum animo studioque in rempublicam suaque pristina virtute fecit. In con-
necting propositions with one another, it denotes a consequence or result,
and is equivalent to " and therefore," which explains its peculiarly frequent
application in senatusconsulta (which are undoubtedly the most valid docu-
ments in determining the genuine usage of the Latin language), framed as
they were to prevent different points being mixed up in one enactment.
E. g. in Cic. Philip, ix. 7. : Quum Ser. Sulpicius salutem reip. vitae suae prae-
posuerit, contraque vim gravitatemque morbi contenderit, ut perveniret, isque
vitam amiserit, ejusque mors consentanea vitae fuerit : quum talis vir mortem
obierit, senatui placere, Ser. Sulpicio statuam aeneamstatui, circumque earn
locum liberos posterosque ejus habere, eamque causam in basi inscribi, utique
Coss. locent, quantique locaverint, tantam pecuniam attribuendam solvendam-
que curent.
Atque is formed from ad and que, and therefore properly signifies " and in
* Or, we should rather say, was not noticed again, for the observation was
first made in a brief but unequivocal manner by Gabriel Faernus, in his
note on Cic. pro Place. 3. in fin. ed. Rom. 1563. ; but it was disregarded. It
is still more remarkable, that none of the ancient grammarians, though they
carefully notice other .phenomena of a similar kind, have thought it necessary
to draw attention to this circumstance, which is by no means unimportant.
The passages in Ernesti's edition of Cicero, above referred to, have been-
corrected in Orelli's edition.
s 4
264 LATIN GRAMMAR.
addition," " and also," thus putting things on an equality, but at the same
time laying stress upon the connection. We express this by pronouncing
" and" more emphatically than usual. For example, socii et exterae nationes
simply indicates the combination of two things independent of each other ;
but in socii atque exterae nationes the latter part is more emphatic, " and also
the foreign," &c. In the beginning of a proposition which further explains
that which precedes, and where the simple connection is insufficient, the par-
ticles atque and ac introduce a thing with great weight, and may be rendered
in English by " now ;" e. g. atque haec quidem mea sententia est; atque de ipsis
Syracusanis cognoscite; also in answers : cognostine hos versus? Ac memoriter.
Num hie duae Bacchides habitant f Atque ambae sorores, i. e. yes, and that,
&c. Ac is the same as atque, but being an abridged form it loses somewhat
of its power in connecting single words ; but it retains that power which puts
the things connected by it on an equality, and its use alternates with that of
et; it is preferred in subdivisions, whereas the main propositions are con-
nected by et; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 15. : Cur tibi fasces ac secures, et tantam
vim imperil tantaque ornamenta data censes f Divin. 12. : Difficile est tantam
causam et diligentia consequi, et memoria complecti, et oratione expromere, et
voce ac viribus sustinere.
[ 334.] Neque is formed from the ancient negative particle and que, and
is used for et non. Et non itself is used, when the whole proposition is
affirmative and only one idea or one word in it is to be negatived ; e.g. Cic.
Brut. 91. : Athenis apud Demetrium Syrum, veterem et non ignobilem dicendi
magistrum, exerceri solcbam; in Verr. i. 1.: patior et non moleste fero; de
Orat. iii. 36. : videris mihi aliud quiddam el non id quod suscepisti disputasse,
and when our "and not" is used for " and not rather," to correct an improper
supposition; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 31. : si quam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine ac
non impulsu tuo fecisset. See 781. Et non is, besides, found in the second
part of a proposition, when et precedes, but neque may be and frequently is
used for et non in this case ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. xiii. 23. : Manlius et semper me
coluit, et a studiis nostris non abhorret; ad Att. ii. 4. : id et nobis crit perjucun-
dum, et tibi non sane devium. Nee (neque) non is not used in classical prose
in quite the same way as et to connect nouns, but only to join propositions
together (see Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 95.), and the two words are sepa-
rated ; e. g. Nepos, Att. 13. : Nemo Attico minus fuit aedijicator, neque tamen
non imprimis bene habitavit. Cicero several times uses nee vero non and the
like ; but in Varro and later writers, such as Quintilian, nee non are not se-
parated, and are in all essential points equivalent to et.
[ 335.] Etiam and quoque are in so far different in their meaning, that
etiam, in the first place, has a wider extent than quoque, for it contains also
the idea of our " even ;" and secondly etiam adds a new circumstance, whereas
quoque denotes the addition of a thing of a similar kind. Hence etiam is pro-
perly used to connect propositions. This difference seems to be correctly
expressed in stating that etiam is " and further," and quoque " and so also."
As in this manner quoque refers to a single word, it always follows that word ;
etiam in similar cases is usually placed before it, but when it connects pro-
positions, its place is arbitrary. Et too is sometimes used in the sense of
"also" in classical prose; e. g. Curt. iii. 31.: non errasti, mater, nam et hie
Alexander eat; Cic. de Legg. ii. 16. : quod et nunc multis infanisfct, for nunc
quoque', in Verr. iv. 61. : simul et verebar; and v. 1.: simul et de illo vulnere
multa dixit ; and often non modo sed et; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 1 . : non modo
Jtomae, sed et apud exteras nationes; Nepos, Thrasyb. 1. : non solum princeps,
sed et solus helium indixit. (See Bremi's remark on this passage, who states
CONJUNCTIONS. 265
that sed et is not merely " but also," but always " but even.") But passages
of this kind ar-e not very numerous, and not always certain, for the MSS.
usually have etiam, so that this use of et in prose (for poets cannot be taken
into account) must at least be very much limited, and it should not be used
to that extent in which modern Latinists apply it. It should also be re-
marked, that sometimes nee and neque are our not even, which is commonly
expressed by nequidem.
[ 336.] The disjunctive conjunctions differ thus far, that aut indicates a
difference of the object, and vel a difference of expression. Vel is connected
with the verb velle (vel vel, will you thus or will you thus?), and the single
vel is used by Cicero only to correct a preceding expression, commonly combined
with dicam or potius or etiam ; e.g. peteres velpotius rogares ; stuporem hominis
vel dicam pecudis videte (Philip, ii. 12.) ; laudanda est vel etiam amanda (p.
Plane. 9.) ; it very rarely occurs without such an addition, but even then its
meaning is corrective; e. g. Tusc. ii. 20. : summum bonum a virtute profectum,
vel (or rather) in ipsa virtute positum ; de Nat. Deor. ii. 15. : in ardore coelesti,
qui aether vel coelum nominatur, where it likewise denotes not so much the
equivalence of the terms, as the preference which is to be given to the
Latin word. (Concerning the use of vel to denote an increase, see
108. and 734., where also its signification of "for example," velut, is
explained. Both these significations are derivable from what has here been
said.) From this in later, though still good, prose, arose the use of vel in the
sense of " or," that is, that in point of fact one thing is equal to another, a
meaning which ve in connecting single words has even in Cicero ; e. g. Philip.
v. 19. : Consules alter ambove faciant, that is, in point of fact it is the same
whether both consuls or only one of them do a thing ; Top. 5. : Esse ea dico,
quae cerni tangive possunt, that is, either of the two is sufficient. Sive either
retains the meaning of the conjunction si (which is commonly the case) and
is then the same as vel si, or it loses it by an ellipsis (perhaps ofdicere mavis),
and is then the same as vel, denoting a difference of name, as in Quintilian:
nocabidum sive appellatio; Cic. : regie seu potius tyrannice. The form sen is
used by Cicero very rarely, and almost exclusively in the combination seu
potius ; but in poetry and later prose it occurs frequently.
[ 337.] The disjunctive conjunctions aut and ve serve to continue the
negation in negative sentences, where we use " nor ;" e. g. Verres non Honori
aut Virtuti vota debebat, sed Vencri et Cupidini; and we may say also mm Honori
neque Virtuti, and in other cases -we might use ve, analogous to the affirm-
ative que. See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 45., and the commentators on
Tacit. Ann. i. 32. in fin. Examples : Cic. p. Place. 5. : Itaque non optimus
quisque nee gravissimus, sed impudentissimus loquacissimusque deligitur;
Horat. Serm. \. 9. 31. : Hunc nee hosticus aitferet ensis, nee laterum dolor aut
tarda podagra; ibid. i. 4. 73. : Nee recito cuiquam nisi amicis, non ubivis
coramve quibu&libet; Cic. ad Fam. v. 13. : Nullum membrum reip. reperies,
quod non fractum debilitatumve sit; and in negative questions, Cic. Philip, v.
5. : Num leges nostras moresve novitf in Verr. v. 13. : Quid me attinet dicere
aut conjungere cum istius flagitio cvjusquam praeterea dedecus f or after com-
paratives, Cic. p. Mur. 29. : Accessit istuc doctrina non moderata nee mitis y
sed paulo asperior et durior, quam veritas aut natura patiatur. It is only in
those cases in which both words are to be united into one idea that a copu-
lative conjunction is used ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iii. 86. : nummos non exarat
orator, non aratro ac manu quaerit. Comp. the longer passage in Cic. De
Nat. Deor. ii. 62. in fin.
266 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 338.] The Latin language is fond of doubling the conjunctions of this
kind, whereby words and propositions are more emphatically brought under
one general idea. The English " as well as" is expressed by
et et, which is of very common occurrence ;
ct que, occurs not unfrequently in late writers, in Cicero by way of
exception only ;
que et, connects single word?, but not in Cicero ;
que que, is found only in poetry.
The only prose writer who uses it is Sallust, Cat. 9. : seque remque publicam
curabant; Jug. 10. : mcque regnumque mewn gloria honoravisti ; but it is not
uncommon in the case of the conjunction being appended to the* relative
pronoun ; e. g. quique exissent, quique ibi mansissent; captivi, quique Campa-
norum, quique Hannibalis militum erant, in Livy ; or junctis exercitibus, quique
sub Caesare fuerant, quique ad eum venerant, in Vellejus. The latest critics
have removed similar passages from the works of Cicero; see the comment,
on de Orat. i. 26., and de Fin. v. 21. ; noctesque diesque, in de Fin. i. 16., is
an allusion to a passage in a poem. Negative propositions are connected in
English by " neither nor," and in Latin by
neque neque, or nee nee;
neque nee, which is not unfrequent, and by
nee neque, which seldom occurs.
Propositions, one of which is negative and the other affirmative, " on the one
hand, but not on the other," or " not on the one hand, but on the other,"
are connected by
et neque (nee) \. ., f f
/ \ * r both of very frequent occurrence.
neque (nee) etj J
nee (neque) que, occurs occasionally.
[ 339.] Our " either or," is expressed by out aut, denoting an oppo-
sition between two things, one of which excludes the other, or by vel vel,
denoting that the opposition between two things is immaterial in respect of
the result, so that the one need not exclude the other. E. g. Catiline, in
Sallust, says to his comrades, vel imperatore vel milite me utimini, that is, it is
indifferent to me in which capacity you may make use of me, only do make
use of me. A similar idea is described more in detail by Terence, Eun. ii.
3. 28. : Hanc tu mihi vel vi, vel clam, vel precario fac tradas: mea nihil refert,
dum potiar modo; i. e. you may effect it even in a fourth way, if you like.
Sive sive is the same as vel si vel si, and therefore transfers the meaning
of vel vel to the cases in which it is applied ; e. g. Cicero : Hlo loco liben-
tissime soleo uti, sive quid mecum cogito, sive aliquid scribo aut lego. If there
is no verb, and nouns only are mentioned in opposition to each other, au
uncertainty is expressed as to how a thing is to be called ; c. g. Cic. Tusc.
ii. 14. : Cretum leges, quas sive Juppiter sive Minos sanxit, laboribus erudiunt
juventutcm, i. e. I do not know, whether I am to say Juppiter or Minos ; ad
Quint. Frat. i. 2. : His in rebus si apud te plus auctoritas mea, quam tua sive
natura paulo acrior, sive quaedam dulcedo iracundiae, sive dicendi sal face-
tiaeque valuissent, nihil sane esset, quod nos poeniteret.
[ 340.] 2. The following express a comparison, "as," "like,"
"than as if" (conjunctiones comparativae) : ut or uti, sicut, velut,
prout, praeut, the poetical ecu, quam, tamquam (with and with-
CONJUNCTIONS. 267
out si), quasi, ut si, ac si, together with ac and atfjue, when they
signify " as."
Note. Ac and atque are used in the sense of " as" or " than" after the ad-
verbs and adjectives which denote similarity or dissimilarity : aeque, juxta, par
and pariter, perinde and proinde, pro eo, similis, dissimilis and similiter, talis,
totidem, alius and aliter, contra, secus, contrarim; e. g. non aliter scribo ac
sentio; aliud mihi ac tibi videtur; saepe aliud fit atque exutimamus ; simile
fecit atque alii; cum totidem navibus rediit atque erat profectus. Quam after
these words (as in Tacit. Ann. vi. 30. : perinde se quam Tiberium falli potu-
isse) is not often used, except in the case of a negative particle being
joined with alius; e. g. Cicero : virtus nihil aliud est, quam in se perfecta et
ad summum perducta natura, where nisi might be used instead of quam.
Respecting proinde ac, instead of the more frequent perinde ac, see above,
282. Et and que do not occur in this connection like ac and atque; and
wherever this might appear to be the case, from the position of the words, as
in Sallust, juxta bonos et malos interficere; suae hostiumque vitae juxta peper-
cerant; and in Cicero : nisi aeque amicos et nosmetipsos diligimus, the et and
que retain their original signification "and ;" but where the words compared
are separated, as in reip. juxta ac sibi consuluerunt ; or where propositions are
compared, as in Cic. de Fin. iv. 12., similem habeat vultum ac si ampullam
perdidisset, the ac or ut has justly been restored in the passages in which
formerly et was read.
Ac is used for quam, after comparatives in poetry, in Horace generally,
and in a few passages also of late prose writers ; but never in Cicero ; e. g.
Horat. Epod. xv. 5. : artius atque hedera; Serm. i. 2. 22 : ut non se pejus cru-
ciaverit atque hie; i. 10. 34. : In silvam non lignaferas insanius ac si, &c.
[ 341.] 3. The following express a concession with the gene-
ral signification " although " (conjunctiones concessivae) : etsi,
etiamsi, tametsi (or tamenetsi), quamquam, quamvis, quantumvis,
quamlibet, licet, together with ut in the sense of " even if," " sup-
posing that," " granting that," or " although," and quum, when
it signifies " although," which is not unfrequently the case.
Note. Those particles which signify "yet," especially tamen, form the
correlatives of the concessive conjunctions ; e. g. ut desint vires, tamen est
laudanda voluntas. Tametsi is a combination of the two correlatives ; and
in its application we not unfrequently meet with a repetition of the same
particle ; e. g. Cic. : tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam ; tametsi
enim verissimum esse intelligebam, tamen credibile fore non arbitrabar. The
adverb quidem also belongs to thw class of conjunctions, when it is used to
connect propositions, and is followed by sed. See 278.
A difference in the use of these conjunctions might be observed : some
might be used to denote real concessions, and others to denote such as are
merely conceived or imagined ; and this would, at the same time, determine
their construction, either the indicative or the subjunctive. But such a dif-
ference is clearly perceptible only between quamquam and quamvis. (See
574.) We shall here add only the remark, that quamquam has a peculiar
place in absolute sentences, referring to something preceding, but limiting
and partly nullifying it ; e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 9. : Quamquam quid loquor ?
2C8 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Yet why do I speak ? p. Murcn. 38. in fin. : quamquam hujusce rei potestas
omnis in vobis sita est, judices; that is : and yet, judges, why should I say
more ? for surely you have the decision entirely in your own hands.
[ 342.] 4. The following express a condition, the funda-
mental signification being "if" (conjunctiones condicionales) : si,
sin, nisi or ni, simodo, dummodo, if only, if but (for which dum,
and modo are also used alone), dummodo ne, or simply modo ne
or dumne.
Note. In order to indicate the connection with a preceding proposition,
the relative pronoun quod (which, however, loses its signification as a pro-
noun) is frequently put before si, and sometimes also before nisi and etsi, so
that quodsi may be regarded as one word. Comp. 806.
Sin signifies " if however," and therefore stands for si autem or si vero ;
not unfrequently, however, autem is added, and sometimes vero (sin vero in
Columella, vii. 3., and Justin).
[ 343.] Ni and nisi have the same meaning, except that ni is especially
applied in judicial sponsiones ; e. g. centum dare spondeo, ni dixisti, &c. In-
stead of nisi, we sometimes find the form nisi si. Both particles limit a
statement by introducing an exception, and thus differ from si non, which
introduces a negative case, for si alone has the character of a conjunction,
and non, the negative particle, belongs to the verb or some other word of the
proposition. It is often immaterial whether nisi or sinon is used ; e. g. Nep.
Con. 2. : fuit apertum, si Conon non fuisset, Agesilaum Asiam Tauro tenus
regi fuisse erepturum ; and the same author, Ages. 6. says : talem se impera-
torem praebuit, ut omnibus opponent nisi ille fuisset, Spartam futuram non
fuisse. And thus Cicero, Cat. Maj. 6., might have said : memoriz minuitur,
si earn non exerceas, instead of nisi earn exerceas ; .and m>?, on the other hand,
might have been used instead of *i non, in Cie. in Verr. iii. 18. : glcbam com-
mosset in agro decumano Siciliae nemo, si Metellus hanc epistolam non misisset.
But the difference is nevertheless essential ; e. g. if I say impune erit, sipecu-
niam promissam non dederitis, I mean to express that, in this case, the ordi-
nary punishment will not be inflicted ; but if I say, impune erit, nisi pecuniam
dederitis, the meaning is, " it shall remain unpunished, except in the case of
your having paid the money ; " which implies, " but you shall be punished,
if you have paid the money." Si non, therefore, can be used only when one
of the sentences is not complete ; as in Horace : Quo mihi fortunam, si non
conceditur uti ? What is the good of having property, if I am not allowed
to make use of it ? If we express the former sentence by nullius pretiifor-
tunae sunt, we may continue in the form of an exception, nisi concedatur Us
uti, or in the form of a negative case, si non concedatur uti. Si non is further
used only when single words are opposed to one another, as is particularly
frequent in such expressions as dolorem, si non potero frangere, occullabo ;
disiderium amicorum, si non aequo animo, at forti feras ; cum spe, si non op-
tima, at aliqua tamen vivere. In this case si minus may be used instead of si
non ; e. g. Tu si minus ad nos, nos accurremus ad te. If after an affirmative
proposition its negative opposite is added without a verb, our " but if not"
is commonly expressed (in prose) by *i (or sin) minus, sin aliter; e. g. Cic.
in Cat. i. 5. : educ tecum etiam omnes tuos : si minus, quam plurimos ; de Orat.
it. 75. : omnis euro mca solet in hoc versari semper, si passim, ut boni aliquid
CONJUNCTIONS. 269
efficiam : sin id minus, ut ccrte nequid mail ; but rarely by si non, which occurs
in Cicero only once (ad Fam. vii. 3. in fin.).
[ 344.] 5. The following express a conclusion or inference
with the general signification of "therefore;" consequently
(conjunctiones conclusivae) : ergo, igitur, itaque, eo, ideo, iccirco,
proinde, propterea, and the relative conjunctions, signifying
" wherefore; " quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde.
Note. Ergo and igitur denote a logical inference, like " therefore." Itaque
expresses the relation of cause in facts ; it properly signifies " and thus," in
which sense it not unfrequently occurs ; e. g. itdque fecit. Respecting its
accent, see 32. Ideo, iccirco, and propterea express the agreement between
intention and action, and may be rendered by " on this account." Eo is
more frequently an adverb of place, " thither ; " but it is found in several
passages of Cicero in the sense of " on this account," or " for this purpose ;
e. g. in Verr. i. 14. : ut hoc pacto rationem referre liceret, eo Sullanus repente
factus est ; Liv. ii. 48. : muris se tenebant, eo nulla pugna memorabilis fuit.
Proinde, in the sense of " consequently," is not to be confounded with pe-
rinde ; both words, however, are used in the sense of " like," so that we
cannot venture to adopt the one to the exclusion of the other. (See 282,)
But as we are speaking here of conclusive conjunctions, we have to consider
only proinde, which, implies an exhortation ; e. g. Cicero : Proinde, si sapis,
vide quid tibi faciendum sit; and so also in other writers, as proinde fac
magno animo sis, " consequently, be of good courage ! " Unde is properly
an adverb " whence," but is used also as a conjunction in a similar sense,
alluding to a starting point. Hinc and inde cannot properly be considered
as conjunctions, as they retain their real signification of "Uence." But adeo
may be classed among the conjunctions, since the authors of the silver age
use it as denoting a general inference from what precedes, like our " so
that," or simply " so ;" e. g. Quintil. i. 12. 7. : Adeofacilius est multa facere
diu.
[ 345.] 6. The following expresses a cause, or reason, with
the demonstrative meaning of " for," and the relative of
" because " (conjunctiones causales) : nam, namque, enim, etenim,
quia, quod, quoniam, quippe, quum, quando, quandoquidem,
siquidem. The adverbs nimirum, nempe, scilicet and videlicet,
are likewise used to connect propositions.
Note. Between nam and enim there is this practical difference, that nam
is used at the beginning of a proposition, and enim after the first or second
word of a proposition. The difference in meaning seems to consist in this,
that nam introduces a conclusive reason, and enim merely a confirming cir-
cumstance, the consideration of which depends upon the inclination of the
speaker. Nam, therefore, denotes an objective reason, and enim merely a
subjective one. Namque and etenim, in respect of their signification, do not
essentially differ from nam and enim, for the copulative conjunction, at least
as far as we can judge, is as superfluous as in neque enim, respecting which,
see 808. But at the same time they indicate a closer connection with the
270 LATIN GRAMMAR.
sentence preceding, and the proper place for etenim, therefore, is in an ex-
planatory parenthesis. Namque, in Cicero and Nepos, occurs only at the
beginning of a proposition, and usually (in Nepos almost exclusively) before
vowels ; but even as early as the time of Livy, we find it after the beginning
of a proposition just as frequently as at the beginning itself. We may add
the remark, that enim is sometimes put at the beginning by comic writers
in the sense of at enim or sed enim. Drakenborch on Livy, xxxiv. 32. 13.,
denies that Livy ever used it in this way.
Nam, enim, and etenim are often used in Latin in the sense of our
" namely," to introduce an explanation which was announced ; e. g. Cic.
Partit. 11.: Rerum bonarum et malarum trio, sunt genera : nam out in animis,
out in corporibus, out extra esse possunt. Nimirum, videlicet, and scilicet
likewise answer to our "namely," or "viz." Nimirum is originally an
adverb signifying "undoubtedly," or "surely;" e.g. Cic. p. Mur. 15.: Si
diligenter quid Mithridates potuerit consideraris, omnibus regibus hunc
regcm nimirum antepones. As a conjunction it introduces the reason of an
assertion, suggesting that it was looked for with some impatience ; e. g. Cic.
in Verr. ii. 63. : is est nimirum soter, qui salutem dedit. Videlicet and scilicet
introduce an explanation, and generally in such a manner that videlicet in-
dicates the true, and scilicet a wrong explanation, the latter being introduced
only for the purpose of deriving a refutation from it ; e. g. Cic. p. Mil. 21. :
Cur igitur eos manwnisit ? Metuebat scilicet, ne indicarent, but he was not
afraid of it, as is shown afterwards. However, the words nam, enim, etenim,
nimirum, videlicet are sometimes used in an ironical sense, and scilicet
(though rarely in classical prose) sometimes introduces a true reason without
any irony. Nempe signifies " namely," only when another person's con-
cession is taken for granted and emphatically dwelt upon ; it may then be
rendered by " surely." Comp. above, 278.
[ 346.] Quia and quod differ from quoniam (properly quum jam) in this :
the former indicate a definite and conclusive reason, and the latter a motive
consisting in the concurrence of circumstances; the same difference is observed
in the French parceque and puisque. Ideo, iccirco, propterea quod, and quia
are used without any essential difference, except that quia introduces a more
strict and logical reason, whereas quoniam introduces circumstances which are
of importance, and properly signifies " now as." Quando, quandoquidein, and
siquidem approach nearer to quoniam than to quia, inasmuch as they intro-
duce only subjective reasons. Quandoquidem denotes a reason implied in a
circumstance previously mentioned, and siquidem a reason implied in a con-
cession which has been made. Siquidem is composed of si and quidem, but
must be regarded as one word, as it has lost its original meaning and as si has
become short. Cic. p. Mur. 11. : Summa etiam utilitas est in iis, qui militari
laude anteceiiunt, siquidem eorum consilio et periculo quum re publica turn etiam
nostris rebus pcrfrui possumus ; Tusc.i. 1.: antiquissimum e doctis genus est
poetarum, siquidem (since it is admitted, for no doubt is to be expressed
here) Homerus fuit et Hcsiodus ante Romam conditam. Sometimes, how-
ever, it is still used in the sense of " if indeed ;" e. g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 34. :
Nos vero, si quidem in voluptate sunt omnia (if, indeed, all happiness consists
in enjoyment), longe multumque superamur a bestiis ; in Cat. ii. 4. : o fortu-
natam remp., si quidem hanc sentinam ejecerit. In these cases si and quidem
should be written as two separate words.
Quippe, when combined with the relative pronoun or quum, is used to
CONJUNCTIONS. 271
introduce a subjective reason. When it occurs in an elliptical way, without
a verb, it is equivalent to " forsooth," or " indeed ;" e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 6. :
sol Democrito, magnus videtur, quippe homini erudito ; sometimes it is fol-
lowed by a sentence with enim ; as in Cic. de. Fin. iv. 3. : a te quidcm apte et
rotunde (dicta sunt) ; quippe ; habes enim a rhetoribus. And in this way
quippe gradually acquires the signification of nam.
[ 347.] 7. The following express a purpose or object, with
the signification of " in order that," or, " in order that not " (con-
junctiones finales) : ut or uti, quo, ne or ut ne, neve or neu, quin,
quominus.
Note. Ut as & conjunction indicates both a result and a purpose, " so
that," and " in order that ;" when a negative is added to it, in the former
sense, it becomes ut non ; in the latter ne or ut ne. UL non is very rarely
Bed--fep--e; e.g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 20.: ut non conferam vitam neque cxisti-
mationem tuam cum illius hoc ipsum conferam, quo tu te superiorem fmgis ;
p. Leg. Manil. 15.: Itaque ut plura non dicam neque aliorum exemplis con-
firmem, &c. instead of ne plura dicam, neve confirmem. For neve which is
formed from vel ne, is " or in order that not," and frequently also " and in
order that not." See 535. Ut ne is a pleonasm, not differing perceptibly
from ne, except that it chiefly occurs in solemn discourse, and hence es-
pecially in. laws. The two particles occur together as well as separately,
e. g. operam dant, utjudicia nefiant; and still more separated in Cic. de Nat.
Deor. i. 17. : Sed ut hie, qui intervenit, me intuens, ne ignoret quae res agatur :
de natura agebamus deorum ; Div. in Q. Caec. 4. : qui praesentes vos orant,
lit in actore causae suae deligendo vestrum judicium ab suo judicio ne discrepet.
It must however be observed that ut no is very frequently used by Cicero,
but rarely by other and later writers ; in Livy it occurs only in two pas-
sages, and in Valerius Maximus and Tacitus never. See Drakenborch on
Liv. x. 27. The pleonasm quo ne for ne occurs in a single passage of Horace,
Serm. ii. 1 . 37.
[ 348.] 8. The following express an opposition, with the sig-
nification of " but " (conjunctlones adversativae) : sed, autem,
verum, vero, at (poetical asf), at enim, atqui, tamen, attamen, sed-
tdmen, veruntamen, at vero (enimvero), verumenimvero, ceterum.
Note. Sed denotes a direct opposition ; autem marks a transition in a
narrative or argument and denotes at once a connection and an opposition,
whereas sed 'interrupts the narrative or argument. The adverb porro,
further, is likewise used to express such a progression and transition, but
does not denote opposition, except in later authors, such as Quintilian. See
Spalding on Quintilian, ii. 3. 5. Vcrum and vero stand in a similar relation
to each other. Verum with its primary meaning " in truth," denotes an
opposition, which at the same time contains an explanation, and thus brings
a thing nearer its decision, as our " but rather." Non ego, sed tu, is a
strong, but simple opposition ; but non ego, verum tu, contains an assuranca
and explanation. Cic. in Verr. iv. 10. says, that the inhabitants of Messana
had formerly acted 'as enemies to every kind of injustice, but that they
favoured Verres, and he then continues : Verum haec civitas isti praedoni ac
piratae Siciliae Phasdis (receptaculum furtorum) fuit, i. e. but I will ex-
272 LATIN GRAMMAR.
plain the matter to you, for the fact is, that this town was the repository of
his plunder and shared in it. Vero bears to verum the same relation as
autem to sed: it connects things which are different, but denotes the point
in favour of which the decision should be, e. g. Cic. p. Arch. 8. : Homerum
Colophonii civem csse dicunt suum, Chit suum vindicant, Salaminii repetunt,
Smyrnaei vero suum esse confirmant ; in Verr. iii. 4* : Odistis hominum no-
vorum industriam, despicitis eorum frugalitatem, pudorem contemnitis, inge-
nium vero et virtutem depressum extinctamque cupitis. It thus forms the
transition to something more important and significant in the phrase : Ulud
vero plane non est ferendum, i. e. that which I am now going to mention.
Respecting the use of vero in answers, in the sense of "yes," see 716.
Enimvero is only confirming " yes, truly," " in truth," and does not denote
opposition. See the whole passage in Cic. in Verr. i. 26. : enimvero hoc
ferendum non est ; and Terent. Andr. 1. 3. init. : Enimvero, Dave, nil loci est
segnitiae neque socordiae, i. e. now truly, Davus, there is no time for delay
here. Comp. Gronovius on Livy, xxvii. 30. Enimvero, further, forms the
transition to that which is most important, like vero ; as in Tac. Ann. xii. 64. :
Enimvero certamen acerrimum, amita potius an mater apud Neronem prae-
valerct, which is the same as acerrimum vero certamen. The compound
verum enimvero denotes an emphatic opposition which, as it were, surpasses
everything else in importance, as in Cic. in Verr. iii. 84. : Si ullo in loco ejus
provinciae frumentum tantifuit, quanti iste aestimavit, hoc crimen in istum reum
valere oportere non arbitror. Verum enimvero cum esset HS. binis out etiam
temis quibusvis in locis provinciae, duodenos sestertios exegisti.
[ 349.] At denotes an opposition as equivalent to that which precedes ; e. g.
non ego, at tu vidisti, I have not seen it, but you have, and that is just as good;
homo etsi non sapientissimus, at amidssimus; and so we frequently find it after
si in the sense of " yet," or " at least," and denoting a limitation with which,
for the time, we are satisfied ; e. g. Cic. p. Quint. 31 .: Quintius Naevium obse-
cravit, ut aliquam, si non propinquitatis, at aetatis suae; si non hominis, at
humanitatis rationem haberet. Hence it is especially used to denote objec-
tions, even such as the speaker makes himself for the purpose of upsetting or
weakening that which was said before ; Cic. p. Flac. 14. : At enim negas, &c. ;
p. Mur. 17. : At enim in praeturae petitions prior renuntiatus est Servius. By
atqui we admit that which precedes, but oppose something else to it, as by
the English "but still," "but yet," or "nevertheless;" e.g. in Terent.
Phorm. i. 4. 26. : Non sum apud me. Atqui opus est nunc cum maxime ut sis;
Horat. Serm. i. 9. 52 : Magnum narras, vix credibile. Atqui sic habet; Cic.
ad Att. viii. 3. : O rem difficilem, inquis, et inexplicabilem. Atqui explicanda
est And so also in the connection of sentences, when that which is admitted
is made use of to prove the contrary, as in Cic. Cat. Maj. 22. : Videtis nihil
esse morti tarn simile quam somnum. Atqui dormientium animi maxime de-
clarant divinitatem suam, and yet the souls of sleeping persons show their
divine nature. Atqui is used, lastly, in syllogisms, when a thing is assumed
which had before been left undecided, as in Cic. Parad. iii. 1. : Quodsi vir-
tutes sunt pares inter se, paria etiam vitia esse necesse est. Atqui pares esse
virtutes facile potest perspici. Atqui thus frequently occurs as a syllogistic
particle in replies in disputations, but it does not denote a direct opposition
of facts. Ceterum properly signifies " as for the rest," but is often used,
especially by Curtius, in the same sense as sed. Contra ea, in the sense of
" on the other hand," may be classed among the conjunctions, as in Livy :
CONJUNCTIONS. 273
Superbe a Samnitibus legati prohibiti commercio sunt, contra ea benigne ab
Siculorum tyrannis adjuti. So also adeo, in as much as this adverb is used in
a peculiar way to form a transition to something essential, on which par-
ticular attention is to be bestowed ; e. g. when Cicero, in Verr. iv. 64., has
told us that he prefers introducing the witnesses and documents themselves,
he forms the transition : Id adeo ex ipso Senatusconsulto cognoscite; and so
frequently, ibid. iv. 63. : id adeo ut mild ex illis demonstratum est, sic vos ex
me cognoscite; p. Caec. 3. : id adeo, si placet, considerate. The pronoun
always accompanies it. Autem may be used in its place ; in English it may
be rendered by " and," but the pronoun must be pronounced with emphasis.
[ 350.] 9. Time is expressed by the conjunctiones temporales:
quum, quum primum, ut, ut primum, ubi, postquam, antequam
and priusquam, quando, simulac or simulatque or simul alone,
dum, usque dum, donee, quoad.
Note. Ut as a particle of time signifies " when." Ubi, properly an adverb
of place, is used in the same sense. Simulatque answers to our " as soon as,"
in which sense simul alone jf also used. Quando instead of quum is rare, as
in Cic. in Bull. ii. 16.: auctoritatem Senalus extare hereditatis aditae sentio,
turn, quando, rege Aegyptio mortuo, legates Tyrum misimus. The words dum,
donee (donicum is obsolete), and quoad have the double meaning of " as long
as," and " until ;" e. g. donee erisfelix, mvltos numerabis amicos, " as long as
you are in good circumstances ;" and foris expectavit, donee or dum exiit,
" until he came out." Donee never occurs in Caesar, and in Cicero only
once, in Verr. i. 6. : usque eo timui, ne quis de mea fide dubitaret, donee ad
rejiciendos judices venimus, but it is frequently used in poetry and in Livy.
The conjunction dum often precedes the adverb inter ea (or interim) ; and the
two conjuctions dum and donee are often preceded by the adverbs usque,
usque eo, usque adeo, the conjunction either following immediately after the
adverb, or being separated from it by some words, as in Cicero : mihi usque
curae erit, quid agas, dum quid egeris sciero.
[ 351.] 10. The following interrogative particles likewise be-
long to the conjunctions : num., utrum, an, and the suffix ne, which
is attached also to the three preceding particles, without altering
their meaning, numne, utrumne, anne, and which forms with
non a special interrogative particle nonne ; also ec and en, as they
appear in ccquis, ecquando and enumquam, and numquid, ecquid,
when used as pure interrogative particles.
Note. The interrogative particles here mentioned must not be confounded
with the interrogative adjectives and adverbs, such as quis? uter? ubi?
The latter, by reason of their signification, may likewise connect sen-
tences, in what are called indirect questions. (See 552.) The inter-
rogative particles have no distinct meaning by themselves, but serve only to
give to a proposition the form of a question. This interrogative meaning
may, in direct speech, be given to a proposition by the mere mode of accentu-
ating it, viz.Nvhen a question at the same time conveys the idea of surprise or
astonishment; but in indirect questions those interrogative particles are
absolutely necessary (the only exception occurs in the case of a double ques-
tion, see 554.). Numquid and ecquid can be reckoned among them only
T
274 LATIN GRAMMAR.
in so far as they are sometimes signs of a question, like num, but quid in
this case expresses a doubt of something and renders the question more
emphatic.; e. g. Cic. de Leg. ii. 2. : Numquid vos duos habetis patrias, an est
ilia una patria communis ? have you perhaps two native countries, or, &c. ;
ecquid (whether) in Ttaliam venturi sitis hoc hieme, fac plane sciam. This
is very different from another passage in the same writer : ecquid in tuam
statuam contulit f has he contributed anything ? rogavit me, numquid vellem,
he asked me whether I wanted anything : in these latter sentences the pro-
noun quid retains it signification. For en or (when followed by a q) ec is
(like num, ne, and an) a purely interrogative particle, probably formed in
imitation of the natural interrogative sound, and must be distinguished from
en, "behold!" See 132. It never appears alone, but is always prefixed
to some other interrogative word. Enunquam is the only word in which the
en is used differently ; e. g. enumquam audisti f didst thou ever hear ? enum-
quamfuturum est? will it ever happen ?
But there are differences in the use of these particles themselves. Num
(together with numne, numnam, numquid, numquidnam) and ec (en) in its
compounds, give a negative meaning to direct questions, that is, they are
used in the supposition that the answer will be "no;" e. g. num putas me tarn
dementem fuisse ? you surely do not believe that, &c. Ecquid alone is some-
times used also in an affirmative sense, that is, in the expectation of an af-
firmative answer ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. ii. 2. : sed heus tu, ecquid vides calendas
venire? in Catil. i. 8.: ecquid attendis, ecquid animadvertis horum silentium ?
do you not observe their silence ? It must however be borne in mind, that
in general the negative sense of these particles appears only in direct and
not in indirect questions, for in the latter num and ec are simply inter-
rogative particles without implying negation ; e. g. quaesivi ex eo, mini in
senatum exset venturus, whether he would come to the senate, or ecquis esset
venturus, whether any body would come.
[ 352.] Ne which is always appended to some other word, properly denotes
simply a question ; e. g. putasne me istudfacere potuisse f Do you believe that,
&c. But the Latin writers use such questions indicated by ne also in a more
definite sense, so that they are sometimes affirmative and sometimes negative
interrogations. (Respecting the former, see Heusinger on Cic. de Off. iii. 17.)
The negative sense is produced by the accent, when ne is attached to an-
other word, and not to the principal verb ; e. g. mene istud potuisse facere putas f
Do you believe that I would have done that ? or hocine credibile est f Is that
credible ? The answer expected in these cases is " no." So also in a question
referring to the past; e.g. Cic. in Verr. i. 18. : Apollinemne tu Delium spoliare
ausus es f where the answer is : " that is impossible." But when attached to
the principal verb, ne very often gives an affirmative meaning to the question,
so that we expect the answer " yes," e. g. Cic. Acad. ii. 18. : videsne, ut inpro-
verbio sit ovorum inter se similitudo f Do you not see that the resemblance
among egjjs has become proverbial ? Cat. Maj. 10.: videtisne, ut apud Ho-
merum saepissime Nestor de virtutibus suis praedicet ? Do you not see, &c.
In the same sense we mi^ht also say : nonne videtis f for nonne is the sign of
an affirmative interrogation ; e. g. Nonne poetae post mortem nobilitari volunt f
Canis nonne lupo similis est ? Utrum in accordance with its derivation (from
uter, which of two) is used only in double questions, and it is immaterial
whether there are two or three ; e. g. Jep. Iph. 3. : quum interrogaretur utrum
pluris patrem matremne faceret ; Cic. Cat. Maj. 10.: Utrum has (Milonis)
curporis, an Pythagorae tiln malts vires ingcnii dari f ad Att. ix. 2. : Utrum
CONJUNCTIONS. 275
%oc tu parum commeministi, an ego non satis intellexi, an mutasti sententiam ?
Senec. Ep. 56. : Si sitis (if you are thirsty), nihtt interest, utrum aqua sit,
an vinum ; nee refert, utrum sit aureum poculum, an vitreum, an manus con-
cava. Utrum is sometimes accompanied by the interrogative particle ne,
which however is usually separated from it by one or more other words ; e. g.
Terent. Eun. iv. 4. 54. ; Utrum taceamne an praedicem ? Cic. de Nat. Dear.
ii. 34. : Videamus utrum ea fortuitane sint, an eo statu, Sfc. In later writers,
however, we find utrumne united as one word. Ne is rarely appended to
adjective interrogatives, though instances are found in poetry, as in Horat.
Sat. ii. 2. 107. : uterne ; ii. 3. 295. : quone malo; and 317. : quantane. It is
still more surprising to find it attached to the relative pronoun, merely to
form an interrogation. Ibid. i. 10. 2.: Terent. Adelph. ii. 3. 9.
[ 353.] An as a sign of an indirect interrogation occurs only in the writers
of the silver age (beginning with Curtius). It then answers to " whether,"
e.g. consulit deinde (Alexander), an totius orbis imperium fatis sibi destinaret
pater. In its proper sense it is used only, and by Cicero exclusively *, in a
second or opposite question, where we use " or," as in the passage of Seneca
quoted above. A sentence like quaero an argentum ei dederis cannot there-
fore be unconditionally recommended as good Latin (though it is frequently
done), and, according to Cicero, who must be regarded as our model in all mat-
ters of grammar, we ought to say num pecuniam ei dederis, or dederisne eipecu-
niam. In direct interrogations, when no interrogative sentence precedes,
an, anne, an vero can likewise be used only in the sense of our " or," that is^
in such a manner that a preceding interrogation is supplied by the mind.
E. g. when we say : "I did not intentionally offend you, or do you believe that
I take pleasure in hurting a person?" we supply before " or" the sentence :
"Do you believe this ?" and connect with it another question which contains
that which ought to be the case, if the assertion were not true. The Latin
is : invitus te offendi, an putas me delectari laedendis hominibus f Examples
are numerous. Cic. Philip, i. 6. : Quodsi scisset, quam sententiam dicturus essem,
remisisset aliquidprofecto de severitate cogendi (in senatum). An me censetit
decreturum fuisse, &c., that is, he would certainly not have obliged me to go
to the senate, or do you believe that I should have voted for him ? p. Mil.
23. : Causa Milonis semper a senatu probata est: videbant enim sapientissimi
homines facti rationem, praesentiam animi, defensionis constantiam. An vero
obliti estis, &c.; de Fin. i. 8. : Sed ad haec, nisi molestum est, habeo quae velim.
An me, inquam, nisi te audire vellem, censes haec dicturum fuisse ? In this
sentence we have to supply before an : dicesne f An after a preceding ques-
tion is rendered by " not ? " and it then indicates that the answer cannot be
doubtful; e.g. Cic. in Verr. v. 2. : Quid dicisf An bello fugitivorum Siciliam
virtute tua liberatam ? Do you not say that Sicily, &c. (In Latin we must
evidently supply utrum aliud ?) So also Cat. Maj. 6. : A rebus gerendis senec-
tus abstrahit. Quibus f An his, quae geruntur juventute ac viribus f Supply
* The passages which formerly occurred here and there in Cicero, with an
in the sense of "whether" in simple indirect questions, are corrected in the
latest editions. See p. Cluent. 19. 52. ; in Catil. ii. 6. 13. ; in Verr. iv. 12.
27. There remain's only quaesivi an misisset in the last passage, of which
no certain correction is found in MSS., although the fault itself is obvious,
and Topic. 21. 81., where quum an sit, out quid sit, aut quale sit quaeritur,
must be corrected according to MSS. into aut sitne, aut quid sit, &c.
T 2
276 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Aliisne? de Off. i. 15.: Quiduam bencficio provocati facere debemun? An
iinitari agros fertiles, qui multo plus efferunt quam acccperunt? Must we not
imitate ? Hence such questions may also be introduced by nonne, but with-
out allusion to an opposite question which is implied in an.
[ 354.] There is, however, one great exception to the rule that an is used
only to indicate a second or opposite question, for an is employed after the
expressions dubito, dubium est, incertum est, and several similar ones, such as
delibero, haesito, and more especially after nescio or haud scio, all of which
denote uncertainty, but with an inclination in favour of the affirmative.
Examples are numerous. Nep. Thrasyb. 1. : Si per se virtus sine fortuna
ponderanda sit, dubito an hunc primum omnium ponam, if virtue is to be es-
timated without any regard as to its success, I am not certain whether I
should not prefer this man to all others. Comp. Heusinger's note on that
passage. Curt. iv. 59. : Dicitur acinace stricto Dareus dubitasse, an fugae
dedecus honesta morte vitaret, that is, he was considering as to whether he
should not make away with himself. It is not Latin to say Dubito annon for
dubito an, for the passage of Cicero, de Off. iii. 12., dubitat an turpe non sit,
signifies, he is inclined to believe that it is not bad, putat noiiiwpe esse, sed
honestum. Respecting incertum est, see Cic Cat. Maj. 20. : Moriendum enim
certe est, et id incertum, an eo ipso die, and this is uncertain, as to whether we
are not to die on this very day. Nescio an, or haud scio an, are therefore
used quite in the sense of " perhaps," so that they are followed by the nega-
tives mdlus, nemo, nunquam, instead of which we might be inclined to use
ullus, quisquam, unquam, if we translate nescio an by "I do not know
whether." See 721. The inclination towards the affirmative in these
expressions is so universal, that such exceptions as hi Curtius, ix. 7., et in-
terdum dubitabat, an Macedones per tot naturae obstantes difficultates secuturi
essent, even in later writers, although in other connections they use an in
the sense of " whether," must be looked upon as rare peculiarities. We must
further observe, that when the principal verb is omitted, an is often used in
precisely the same sense as out ; this is very frequently the case in Tacitus,
but occurs also in Cicero, de Fin. ii. 32. : Themistocles, quum ei Simonides,
an quis alius, artem memoriae polliceretur, &c. ; ad Att. i. 2. : nos hie te ad
mensem Januarium expectamus, ex quodam rumore, an ex litteris tuis ad olios
missis. There can be no doubt but that the expression incertum est is under-
stood in such cases ; in Tacitus it is often added. Comp. Cic. ad Fam. vii. 9. ;
ad Att. ii. 7. 3. ; Brut. 23. 89. Cicero, however, could not go as far as
Tacitus, who connects an with a verb in the indicative : Ann. xiv. 7. : Igitur
longum utriusque silentium, ne irriti dissuaderent, an eo descensum credebant,
instead of incertum est factumne sit earn ob causam, ne irriti dissuaderent, an
quia credebant.
The conjunction si is sometimes used in indirect interrogations instead of
num, like the Greek tl ; e. g. Liv. xxxix. 50. : nihil aliud (Philopoemenem)
locutum ferunt, quam quaesisse, si incolumis Lycortas evasisset. After the verb
experior, I try, it is used also by Cicero, Philip, ix. 1. : non recusavit, quo-
minus vel extremo spiritu, si quam opem reip. ferre posset, experiretur. Re-
specting expectare si, see Schneider on Caes. Sell. Gall. ii. 9.
[ 355.] 11. Most conjunctions are placed at the beginning of
the proposition, which they introduce; only these few, enim,
autem, vero, are placed after the first word of a proposition, or
CONJUNCTIONS. 277
after the second, when the first two belong together, or when
one of them is the auxiliary verb esse, as in Cicero (de Orat. i. 44 ) :
incredibile est enim, quam sit omne jus civile, praeter hoc nostrum,
inconditum ac paene ridiculum ; but rarely after several words,
as in Cic. p. Cluent. 60 : Per quern porro datum venenum ? unde
sumptum ? quae dein.de interceptio poculi ? cur non de integro
autem datum ? Comp. Ellendt on Cic. Brut. 49. Quidem an.d
quoque, when belonging to single words, may take any place in
a proposition, but they are always placed after the word, which
has the emphasis. Itaque and igitur are used by Cicero and
Caesar with this distinction, that itaque, according to its compo-
sition, stands first, while igitur is placed after the first, and
sometimes even after several words of a proposition ; e. g. in Verr.
i. 32. : Huic homini parcetis igitur, judices ? de Nat. Deor. iii.
17.: Ne Orcus quidem deus igitur? But other authors, espe-
cially later ones, place both indiscriminately either at the begin-
ning of a proposition, or after it. In like manner, tamen is put
either at the beginning of a proposition, or after the first word.
[ 356<] Note. All the other conjunctions stand at the beginning : with
some this is the case exclusively ; viz. with et, etenim, ac, at, atque, atqui,
neque, nee, aut, vel, sive, sin, sed, nam, verum, and the relatives quare, quo-
circa, quamobrem; others are generally placed at the beginning, but when a
particular word is to be pronounced with peculiar emphasis, this word (and
all that belongs to it) stands first, and the conjunction follows it, as in
Cicero : Tantum moneo, hoc tempus si amiseris, te esse nullum unquam magis
idoneum reperturum; valere ut malis, quam dives esse; nullum injustitia parturn
praemium tantum est, semper ut timeas, semper ut adesse, semper ut impendere
aliquam poenam putes. The same is not unfrequently the case in combi-
nations of conjunctions with pronouns, especially with the relative pronoun ;
e. g. Hoc quum dicit, illud vult intettigi; qui quoniam quid dicer et intelligi
noluit, omittamus, Cic. It must be observed as a peculiarity, that ut, even
without there being any particular emphasis, is commonly placed after the
words vix, paene, and prope, and also after the negatives nullus, nemo, nihil,
and the word tantum; e. g. vix ut arma retinere posset; nihil ut de commodis
suis cogitarcnt. The conjunctions que, ve, and ne are appended to other words,
and stand with them at the beginning of a proposition ; but when a mono-
syllabic preposition stands at the beginning, they often attach themselves to
the case governed by those prepositions ; e. g. Romam Cato (Tusculo) demi-
gravit, in foroque esse coepit; legatum miserunt, ut is apud eum causam ara-
torum ageret, db eoque peteret ; and so also ad populum ad plebemve ferre ; in
nostrane potestate est quid meminerimusf We never find adque, obque, aque;
whereas proque summa benevolentia, and the like, are used exclusively ; and
in other combinations- either method may be adopted : cumque his copiis and
cum firmisque praesidiis; exque his and ex Usque; eque republica, deque uni-
versa rep. and de provinciaque decessit. Apud quosque in Cic. de Off. i. 35.
T 3
278 LATIN GRAMMAR.
is an excusable peculiarity, because apudque quos would be against all
euphony.
[ 357.] What was said above concerning the different positions of itaque
and igiiur in Cicero is well known and generally correct ; but it is not so
well known that igitur is nevertheless placed by that author now and then at
the beginning of a proposition, and that not only in philosophic reason-
ings, as Bremi states on Cic. de Fin. i. 18., and as we find it in de Fin. iv.
19. : si illud, hoc : non autem hoc, igitur ne illud quidem; but in the ordinary
connection of sentences : in Rull. ii. 27. : igitur pecuniam omnem Decemviri
tenebunt; de Prov. Cons. 4. : igitur in Syria nihil aliud actum est ; Lael. 11. ;
igitur ne suspicari quidem possumus; Philip, ii. 16. in fin. : igitur fratrem
exheredans te faciebat heredem; Philip, x. 8. : igitur illi certissimi Caesaris
actorum patroni pro D. Bruti salute bellum gerunt ; de Leg. i. 6. : Igitur doc-
tissimis viris proficisci placuit a lege; fid Att. vi. 1. 22. : Igitur tu quoque
salutem utique adscribito. Sallust too frequently places igitur at the be-
ginning. But itaque in the second place does not occur in Cicero, for in
Philip, vii. 3. we must read, according to the best MS., igitur instead of
itaque in the sentence, ego itaque pacis, ut ita dicam, alumnus, and in Partit.
Orat. 7. quidem is more correct. In Curtius itaque appears in the second
place only once (vii. 39.), but in Livy oftener. In like manner, the rule
cannot be upset by the few passages in which Cicero places vero, in answers,
at the beginning (just as enim is used by the comic writers). See de RP-
publ. i. 37. 43. ; de Leg. i. 24. ; in Rull. ii. 25. ; p. Mur. 31. 65.
[ 358.] All this applies only to the practice of prose writers. Poets, accord-
ing to the necessity of the verse, place even the prepositive conjunctions
after one or more words of a proposition ; e. g. Horat. Epod. 17. 45. : et tu,
potes nam, solve me dementiae; Serm. i. 5. 86. : quattuor hinc rapimur viginti
et milia rhedis; ibid. i. 10. 71. : vivos et roderet ungues. They separate et
from the word belonging to it ; as Horat. Carm. iii. 4. 6. : audire et videor
pios errare per lucos; Serm. ii. 6. 3. : Auctius atque dii melius fecere : and
they append que and ve neither to the first word of a proposition, nor to
their proper words in other connections ; e. g. Tibull. i. 3. 55. :
Hicjacet immiti consumptus morte Tibullus,
Messallam terra dum sequiturque mari,
instead of the prose form terra marique; and in Horat. Serm. ii. 3. 139. :
Non Pyladenferro molar e aususve sororem.
But it is to be observed, that those conjunctions in such arbitrary posi-
tions are joined only to verbs. Isolated exceptions, such as in Horat.
Carm. ii. 19. 28. : pacis eras mediusque belli; and iii. 1. 12. : Moribus hie
meliorque fama contendat; Ovid. Met. ii. 89. : dum resque sinit ; and Pedo
Albin. de Morte Drusi, 20., cannot be taken into account.
INTERJECTIONS. 279
CHAP. LXVIII.
INTERJECTIONS.
[ 359.] 1. INTERJECTIONS are sounds uttered under the in-
fluence of strong emotions. They are indeclinable, and stand
in no close connection with the rest of the sentence ; for the
dative and accusative, which are joined with some of them, are
easily explained by an ellipsis. See 402. and 403.
2. The number of interjections in any language cannot be
fixed. Those which occur most frequently in Latin authors
are the following.
) Of joy: io, iu, ha, he, hahahe, euoe, euax.
5) Of grief: vae, heu, eheu, ohe, au, hei, pro.
c) Of astonishment : o, en or ecce, hui, hem, ehem, aha, atat,
papae, vah ; and of disgust : phui, apage. (See 222.)
d) Of calling : heus, o, eho, ehodum ; of attestation : pro, also
written proh.
e) Of praise or flattery : eia, euge.
[ 360.] 3. Other parts of speech, especially nouns substan-
tive and adjective, adverbs and verbs, and even complex ex-
pressions, such as oaths and invocations, must in particular con-
nections be regarded as interjections. Such nouns are: pax
(be still !) ; malum, indignum, nefandum, miserum, miser abile to
express astonishment and indignation ; made, and with a plural
macti, is expressive of approbation. (See 103.) Adverbs:
nae, profecto, cito, bene, belle! Verbs used as interjections are,
quaeso, precor, oro, obsecro, amabo (to all of which te or vos may
be added), used in imploring and requesting. So also age, agite,
cedo, sodes (for si audes), sis, sultis (for si vis, si vullis), and
agesis, agedum, agitedum.
Note. Nae in the best writers is joined only with pronouns : nae ego, nae
illi vehementer errant, nae ista gloriosa sapientia non magni aestimanda est.
Pyrrhus, after the battle of Heraclea, said : Nae ego, si iterum eodem modo
vicero, sine ullo milite in Epirum revertar, Oros. iv. 1.
[ 361.] 4. Among the invocations of the gods, the following
are particularly frequent : mehercule, mehercle, hercule, hercle, or
mehercules, hercules, medius jidius, mecastor, ecastor, pol, edepol,
per deum, per deum immortalem, per deos, per Jbvem, pro (or
T 4
280 LATIN GRAMMAR.
profi) Juppitcr, pro sancte (supreme^) Juppiter, pro dii immortales,
pro deumjidem, pro deum atque hominum fidem, pro deum or pro
deum immortalium (sell, jidem), and several others of this kind.
Note. Me before the names of gods must be explained by an ellipsis : the
complete expression was : ita me (e. g. Hercules) juvet ; or with the vocative :
ita me Hercule juves. The interjection medlus fidius arose, in all probability,
from me dius (Aioe) fidius, which is archaic fovjilius, and is thus equivalent to
meherctdes, for Hercules is the son of that god. Mehercule is the form which
Cicero (Orat. 47.) approves, and which, along with hercule, occurs most fre-
quently in his writings. See my note on in Verr. iii. 62. The oath by
Pollux (pol) is a very light one, and hence it is given especially to women in
the comic writers. In edepol and edecastor the e is either the same as me, or
it is a mere sound of interjection ; de is deus.
SYNTAX.
I. CONNECTION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
CHAP. LXIX.
[ 362.] 1. THE subject of a proposition is that concerning
which anything is declared, and the predicate that which is de-
clared concerning the subject. The subject appears eithe'r in
the form of a substantive, or in that of an adjective or pronoun,
supplying the place of a substantive. Whenever there is no
such grammatical subject, the indeclinable part of speech or
proposition which takes its place, is treated as a substantive of
the neuter gender. (Comp. 43.)
[ 3&3.] Note 1. The manner in which a pronoun supplies the place of a
substantive requires no explanation. An adjective can be used as a substan-
tive only when a real substantive is understood. The substantive most fre-
quently and easily understood is homo, and many Latin words which are
properly adjectives have thus acquired the meaning of substantives, e.g.amicus,
familiaris, aequalis, vicinus, &c. (see 410. foil.), and others, such as socius,
servus, libertinus, reus, candidatus, although most frequently used as substan-
tives, nevertheless occur also as adjectives. But upon this point the dictionary
must be consulted, and we only remark that ordinary adjectives are used as
substantives with the ellipsis of homo, as bonus, nocens, innocens. But an ad-
jective in the singular is not commonly used in this way, and we scarcely
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 281
ever find such a phrase as probus neminem laedit, instead of homo probus
neminem laedit. Sapiens, a sage, or a philosopher, and liber, a free man, alone
are used as substantives in the singular. In the plural however the omission
of the substantive homines, denoting general classes of men, is much more
frequent, and we find, e. g. pauperes, divites, boni, improbi, docti, and indocti,
just as we say the rich, the-poor, &c. It must however be observed that very
few adjectives, when used as substantives, can be accompanied by other ad-
jectives, and we cannot say, e. g. multi docti for multi homines (viri) docti.
The neuters of adjectives of the second declension however are used very
frequently as substantives, both in the singular and plural. Thus we read
bonum, a good thing ; contrarium, the contrary, ; verum, that which is true ;
malum, evil ; honestum in the sense of virtus, and bona, mala, contraria, &c.
In the plural neuter adjectives of the third declension are used in the same
way, as turpia, levia, coelestia. But the Latins, in general, preferred adding
the substantive res to an adjective, to using the neuter of it as a substantive,
as res contrariae, res midtae, res leviores, just as we do in English.
[ 364.] Note 2. It is worth noticing that the word miles is frequently used
in Latin in the singular, where we should have expected the plural; e.g.
in Curtius, iii. init. : Alexander ad conducendum ex Peloponneso militem Clean-
drum cum pecunia mittit; Tac. Ann. ii. 31.: cingebatur interim milite domus,
strepebant etiam in vestibulo. Similar words, such as eques, pedes, remex, are
used in the same way, and the instances are very numerous. Romanus, Poe-
nus, and others are likewise used for Romani and Poeni in the sense of Roman,
Punian soldiers.
[ 365.] 2. The predicate appears either in the form of a
verb, or of the auxiliary combined with a noun.
The predicate accommodates itself as much as possible to its
subject. When the predicate is a verb, it must be in the same
number as the subject ; e. g. arbor viret, the tree is green ; ar-
bores virent, the trees are green ; deus est, god is ; dii sunt, the
gods are or exist. When the predicate is an adjective, par-
ticiple, or adjective pronoun, combined with the auxiliary
esse, it takes the number and gender of the subject, e. g. puer
est modestus, libri sunt met, prata sunt secta. When the predi-
cate is a substantive with the auxiliary esse, it is independent of
the subject both in regard to number and gender ; e. g. captivi
militum praeda fuerant ; amidtia vinculum quoddam est homi-
num inter se. But when a substantive has two forms, one mas-
culine and the other feminine, as rex, regina ; magister, magistra ;
inventor, inventrix ; indagator, indagatrix ; corruptor, corruptrix ;
praeceptor, praeceptrix, the predicate must appear in the same
gender as the subject ; e. g. licentia corruptrix est morum ; stilus
optimus est dicendi effector et magister. When the subject is a
neuter the predicate takes the masculine form, the latter being
more nearly allied to the neuter than the feminine ; e. g. tempus
282 LATIN GRAMMAR.
vitae magister est. When the subject is a noun epicene (see
42.), the predicate follows its grammatical gender; as aquila
volucrum regina, fida ministra Jovis, though it would not be
wrong to say aquila rex volucrum.
It is only by way of exception that esse is sometimes con-
nected with adverbs of place, such as aliquis or aliquid prope,
propter, longe, procul est, or when esse signifies "to be in a
condition ; " e. g. Cic. ad Fam. ix. 9. : praeterea rectissime sunt
apud te omnia, everything with you is in a very good state or
condition; de Leg. i. 17.: quod est longe aliter ; Liv. viii. 19.:
(dicebant) se sub imperio populi Romani fideliter atque obedienter
futures. Sallust and Tacitus connect esse also with the adverbs
abunde, impune, and frustra, and use them as indeclinable ad-
jectives ; e. g. omnia mala abunde erant ; ea res frustra fuit ;
dicta impune erant.
[ see.] Note 1. Collective nouns, that is, such as denote a multitude of
individual persons or things, e. g. multitudo, turbo, vis, exercitus, juventus,
nobilitas, gens, plebs, vulgus, frequently occur in poetry with a plural verb
for their predicate ; e. g. Ovid. Metam. xii. 53. : Atria turba tenent, veniunt
lege vulgus euntque ; Fast. ii. 507. : Tura f erant placentque novum pia turba
Qmrinum. As for the practice of prose writers, there is no passage in Cicero
to prove that he used this construction (see my note on Cic. in Verr. i. 31.
80.), and in Caesar and Sallust it occurs either in some solitary instance, as
Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 6. : quum tanta multitudo lapides ac tela conjicerent, or the
passages are not critically certain. (See Oudendorp on Caes. Sell. Gall. ill.
17., and Corte on Sallust, Jugurth. 28.) But Livy takes greater liberty, and
connects collective substantives with the plural, as ii. 5. : Desectam segetem
magna vis hominum immissa corbibus fudere in Tiberim; xxiv. 3. : Locros
omnis multitudo abeunt; xxxii. 12.: Cetera omnis multitudo, velut signum
aliquod secuta, in unum quum convenisset, frequenti agmine petunt Thessaliam.
(Comp. Drakenborch on xxxv. 26.). He even expresses the plurality of a
collective noun by using the noun standing by its side in the plural, as in
xxvi. 35. : Haec non in occulto, sed propalam in foro atque oculis ipsorum
Consulum ingens turba circumfusi fremebant; xxv. 34. : . Cuneus is hostium,
qui in confertos circa ducem impetum fecerat, ut exanimem labentem ex equo
Scipionem vidit, alacres gaudio cum clamore per totam aciem nuntiantes discur-
runt; xxvii. 51.: turn enimvero omnis aetas currere obvii; so also in i. 41. :
clamor inde concursusque populi, mirantium quid rei esset. But such instances
are after all rare and surprising. The case is different when the notion of a
plurality is derived from a collective noun of a preceding proposition, and
made the subject of a proposition which follows. Instances of this kind occur
now and then in Cicero : de Nat. Deor. ii. 6. : ut hoc idem generi humano
evenerit, quod in terra coUocaii sint, because they (viz. homines) live on earth ;
p. Arch. 12. : qui est ex eo numero, qui semper apud omnes sancti sunt habiti;
and with the same collective noun, p. Marc. !.;/. Quint. 23. They are still
more frequent in Livy ; iv. 56. : Ita omnium populorum juaentus Antium con-
tracta: ibi castris positis hostem opperiebantur ; vi. 17. : Jam ne nocte quidem
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 283
turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosque carcerem minabantur. See the pas-
sages in Drakenborch on xxi. 7. 7.
[ 367.] A plural verb is sometimes used by classical prose writers (though
not by Cicero) after uterque, quisque (especially pro se quisque), pars
pars (for alii alii), alius alium, and alter alterum (one another or each
other), siquis and nemo, for these partitive expressions contain the idea of
plurality ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Civ. iii. 30. : Eodem die uterque eorum ex castris
stativis exercitum educunt: Liv. ii. 15. : missi honoratissimus quisque ex patribus;
ii. 59. : cetera multitudo decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti. Sometimes the
plural of a participle is added; as Curt. iii. 16. : pro se quisque dextram ejus
amplexi grates habebant velut praesenti deo ; Liv. ix. 14. : Pro se quisque non
haec Furculas, nee Caudium, nee saltus invios esse memorantes, caedunt pariter
resistentes fusosque ; Tacit. Ann. ii. 24. : pars navium haustae sujit, plures
ejectae (instead of pars pars, the place of one of them being frequently
supplied by pauci, nonnulli, plerique, or plures, as in our case) ; Liv. ii. 10. :
dum alius alium ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant. Comp. Liv. iii. 40., iv.
60., v. 39. Expressions like these may derive their explanation from propo-
sitions in which the comprehensive plural is used in the first part, and after-
wards the partitive singular; e. g. Sallust, Jug. 58. : At nostri repentino metu
perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt : alii fugere, alii arma capere,
magna pars vulnerati aut occisi ; and in Livy : Ceteri suo quisque tempore
aderunt, or Decemviri perturbati alius in aliam partem castrorum discurrunt,
[ 368.] Note 2. The natural rule, according to which the adjective parts
of speech take the gender of the substantives to which they belong, seems
to be sometimes neglected, inasmuch as we find neuter adjectives joined
with substantives of other genders : Triste lupus stabulis ; varium et mu-
tabile semper femina in Virgil, and Omnium rerum mors est extremum, even in
Cicero. But in these cases the adjective is used as a substantive, and triste,
for example, is the same as "something sad," or "a sad thing," and we
might use res tristis instead ; as Livy, ii. 3. says : leges rem surdam, inex-
orabilem esse. A real exception occurs in what is called constructio ad
synesim, that is, when substantives, which only in their figurative sense de-
note human beings, have a predicate in the true gender of the person spoken
of, without regard to the grammatical gender; e. g. Liv. x. 1.: capita conjura-
tionis ejus, quaestione ab Consulibus ex senatusconsulto habita, virgis caesi ac
securi percussi sunt. So also auxilia (auxiliary troops) irati, Liv. xxix. 12.,
where Gronovius' note must be consulted. The relative pronoun (see
371.), when referring to such substantives, frequently takes the gender of
the persons understood by them. Thus mancipium, animal, furia, scelus,
monstrum, prodigium, may be followed by the relative qui or quae, according
as either a man or a woman is meant ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. ii. 32. : Quod un-
quam hujusmodi monstrum aut prodigium audivimus aut vidimus, qui cum reo
transigat, post cum accusatore decidat ? ad Fam. i. 9. : Primum ilia furia
muliebrium religionum (Clodius), qui non pluris fecerat Bonam Deam quam
tres sorores, impunitatem est assecutus. See Drakenborch on Liv. xxix. 12.
After milia the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the persons, whose
number is denoted by milia; e.g. Curt. iv. 19.: duo milia Tyriorum, cru-
cibus affixi, per ingens litoris spatium pependerunt; Liv. xl. 41.: ad septem
milia hominum in naves impositos praeter oram Etrusci maris Neapolim trans-
misit. Usually, however, the neuter is used. See the collection of ex-
amples in Drakenborch on Liv. xxxvii. 39. in fin. As to other cases ol
284 LATIN GRAMMAR.
construct ad synesim, which do not belong to grammar, but are irregularities
of expression, see Corte on Sallust, Cat. 18.
[ 369.] Note 3. When the substantive forming the subject has a different
number from that which is its predicate, the verb esse (and all other -verbs
of existence) follows the subject, as ' in the above quoted passage of
Livy, xxi. 15. : Quamquam captivi militum pracda fuerant. So also, Cic. de
Fin. v. 10. : quae (omnia) sine dubio vitae sunt eversio ; Ovid, Met. viii. 636. :
tota domus duo sunt; Tac. Ann. iv. 5.: praecipuum robur Rhenum juxta octo
legiones erant, for legiones is the subject ; Plin. Hist. Nat. iv. 5. : angustiae,
unde procedit Peloponnesus, Isthmos appellantur. But we also find, and
perhaps even more frequently, that the verb takes the number of the sub-
stantive which is properly the predicate ; e. g. Cic. in Pis. 4. : aude nunc, o
furia, de tuo consulatu dicere, cujus fuit initium ludi Compitalicii ; Sallust,
Jug. 21.: possedere ea loca, quae proxuma Carthaginem Numidia appellatur;
Terent. Andr. iii. 2. 23. : amantium irae amoris integratio est ; Liv. i. 34. :
cm Tarquinii materna tantum patria esset; ii. 54. : Manlio Vejentes provincia
evenit ; xlv. 39. : pars non minima triumphi est victimae praecedentes. In
propositions like that of Seneca, Epist. 4. : Magnae divitiae sunt lege na-
turae composita paupertas ; and Cicero, Parad. in fin. : Contentum vero suis
rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque divitiae, the plural is less surprising.
But it is clear, that where the subject and predicate may be exchanged or
transposed, the verb takes the number of the substantive nearest to it. When
the predicate is a participle combined with esse or videri, the participle takes
the gender of the substantive which is nearest to it, according to the rule
explained in 376. Thus we find in Cicero, de Divin. ii. 43.: non omnis
error stultitia est dicenda ; de Leg. i. 7. : unde etiam universus hie mundus una
civitas communis deorum atque hominum existimanda (est) ; Terent. Phorm. i.
2. 44. : paupertas mihi onus visum est miserum et grave. If we transpose non
est omnis stultitia error dicendus, and visa mihi semper est paupertas grave onus
et miserum, the propositions are just as correct. But in Justin, i. 2. : Se-
miramis, sexum mentita, puer esse credita est, the feminine would be necessary
for the sake of clearness, even if there were no verb esse.
[ 370.] 3. When nouns are combined with one another,
without being connected by the verb esse, or by a relative
pronoun and esse, in such a manner as to form only one idea, as
in " a good man," the adjective, participle, or pronoun follows
the substantive in gender, number, and case ; e. g. huic modesto
puero credo, hanc modestam virginem diligo.
When two substantives are united with each other in this way,
they are said, in grammatical language, to stand in apposition to
each other, and the one substantive explains and defines the
other ; e. g. oppidum Paestum, arbor laurus, Taurus mons, lupus
piscis, Socrates vir sapientissimus. The explanatory substantive
(substantivum appositum) takes the same case as the one which
is explained ; e. g. Socratem, sapientissimum virum, Athenienses
interfecerunt (an exception occurs in names of towns, see 399.).
They may differ in number and gender, as urbs Athenae, pisces
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 285
signum ; Virg. Eclog. ii. 1. : F.ormosum pastor Corydon ardebat
Alexin, delicias domini ; but when the substantive in appo-
sition has two genders, it takes the one which answers to that
of the other substantive. (Comp. above, 365.) The predicate
likewise follows the substantive which is to be explained, as in
Cicero : Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, tuum munusculum flagitat ;
Quum duo fidmina nostri imperil subito in Hispania, Cn. et
P. Scipiones, extincti occidissent, for the words duo fulmina,
though placed first, are only in apposition. When plural names
of places are explained by the apposition urbs, oppidum, civitas,
the predicate generally agrees with the apposition ; e. g. Pliny :
Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum, concrematum est
fulmine.
O vitae philosophia dux (magistra), virtutis indagatrix expultrixque
vitiorum ! Cic. Tusc. v. 2. Pythagoras velut genitricem virtutum
frugalitatem omnibus ingerebat (commendabat), Justin, xx. 4.
Note. Occasionally however the predicate follows the substantive in ap-
position ; e. g. Sallust, Hist. i. Orat. Phil. : Qui videmini intenta mala, quasi
fidmen, optare se quisque ne attingat, although the construction is : optare ne
mala se attingant. It arises from the position of the words, the verb accom-
modating itself to the subject which is nearest. Hence it not unfrequently
happens, 1. that the verb, contrary to the grammatical rule, agrees with
the nearest noun of a subordinate sentence ; as in Sallust, Cat. 25. : Sed ei
cariora semper omnta, quam decus atque pudicitia fuit ; Cic. Phil. iv. 4. : Quis
igitur ilium consulem, nisi latrones, putantf and 2. that the adjective parts of
speech take the gender and number of the noun in apposition or of the sub-
ordinate sentence; e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 5. : Corinthum patres vestri, totius
Graeciae lumen, extinctum esse voluerunt; Nep. Them. 7.: illorum urbem ut
propugnaculum oppositum esse barbaris.
[ 371.] 4. When a relative or demonstrative pronoun refers
to a noun in another sentence, the pronoun agrees with it in
gender and number ; e. g. tarn modestus ills puer est, quern vi-
disti, de quo audivisti, cujus tutor es, ut omnes eum diligant.
When the verb itself or a whole proposition is referred to, it is
treated as a neuter substantive, and in this case id quod is ge-
nerally used instead of quod; e. g. Nep. Timol. 1 : Timoleon,
id quod difficilius putatur, multo sapientius tulit secundam, quam
adversam fortunam.
[ 372.] Note. Exception to this rule : when a word of a preceding pro-
position or this proposition itself, is explained by a substantive with the verbs
esse, dicere, vocare, appellare, nominare, habere, putare, &c. or their passives,
the relative pronoun usually takes the gender and number of the expla-
natory substantive which follows ; e. g. Liv. xlii, 44. : Thebae ipsae, quod
286 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Boeotiae caput est, in magno turmdtu erant. (A great many instances of the
same kind are collected by Drakenborch on Liv. xxxii. 30.) Cues. Bell. Civ.
iii. 80. : Caesar Gomphos pervenit, quod est oppidum Thessaliae ; Cic. Brut.
33. : extat (jus peroratio, qui epilogus dicitur ; de Leg. i. 7. : animal plenum
rationis, quern vocamus hominem ; p. Sext. 40. : domicilia conjuncta, quas urbes
dicimus, moenibus saepserunt; Phil. v. 14. : Pompejo, quod imperil Romani
lumen fuit, extincto; in Pis. 39. : P. Rutilio, quod specimen habuit haec civitas
innocentiae; Liv. i. 45.: JRomae fanum Dianae populi Latini cum populo
Romano fecerunt : ea erat confessio, caput rerum Romam esse ; Cic. de Off.
iii. 10. : Si omnia facienda sunt, quae amid velint, non amicitiae tales, sed con-
jurationes putandae sunt, i. e. such things or connections cannot be looked
upon as friendships, but are conspiracies. So also : ista quidem vis, surely
this is force ; haecfuga est, non prof ectio ; ea ipsa causa belli fuit, for idipsum,
&c. This explains the frequent forms of such explanatory sentences, as qui
tuus est amor erga me ; quae tua est humanitas, for with the demonstrative
pronoun it would likewise be ea tua humanitas est, this or such is thy
kindness.
Levis est animi lucem splendoremque fugientis, justam gloriam, qui est fructus
verae virtutis honestissimus, repudiare, Cic. in Pis. 24.
Omnium artium, quae ad rectam vivendi mam pertinent, ratio et disciplina studio
sapientiae, quae philosophia dicitur, continetur, Cic. Tusc. i. 1 .
Idem velle et idem nolle, ea demumfirma amicitia est, Sallust, Cat. 20.
It must however be observed, that when a noun is to be explained and to
be distinguished from another of the same kind, the relative pronoun follows
the general rule, agreeing in gender and number with the substantive to be
explained ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. y. 1 1. : flumen, quod appellatur Tamesis, i. e.
that particular river ; Nep. Paus. 3. : genus est quoddam hominum, quod Ilotae
vocatur ; especially when a demonstrative pronoun is added, as in Curt. iii.
20. : Darius ad eum locum, quern Amanicas pylas vacant, pervenit. But when
the noun following is a foreign word, the pronoun agrees with the preceding
one, as in Cic. de Off. ii. 5. : cohibere motus animi turbafos, quos Graeci vaQi\
nominant; Quintil. viii. 3.16.: quumidemfrequentissimepluraverbasignificent,
quad ovvtvvji,ia vocatur. Comp. Gronov. on Senec. Consol. ad Marc. 19., and
Drakenborch on Livy, ii. 38., with the commentators there mentioned.
[ 373.] 5. When the subject consists of several nouns in
the singular, the predicate is generally in the plural, if either all
or some of those nouns denote persons; but if they denote
things, either the singular or plural may be used. If, however,
one of the nouns is in the plural, the predicate must likewise be
in the plural, unless it attach itself more especially to the
nearest substantive in the singular.
Apud Regillum bello Latinorum in nostra acie Castor et Pollux
ex equis pugnare visi sunt, Cic. De Nat. Deor. ii. 2.
Cum tempus necessitasque postulat, decertandum manu est, et
mors servituti turpitudinique anteponenda, Cic. De Off. i. 23.
Benejicium et gratia homines inter se conjungunt.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 287
Vita, mors, divitiae, paupertas omnes homines vehementissime
permanent, Cic. De Off. ii. 10.
Note 1. When the subject consists of two nouns denoting things in the-
singular, the predicate varies between the singular and plural, according as
the two nouns constitute, as it were, only one idea, or two different or op-
posite ones. It may be remarked here that the subject Senatus populusque
Romanus (but also Syracusanus, Cic. in Verr. ii. 21. ; Centuripinus, ibid. iii.
45. ; Saguntinus, Liv. xxviii. 39.) is always followed by the predicate in the
singular. A relative pronoun, referring to two singular nouns, is always in
the plural, unless it be intended to refer only to the last.
Even when the subject consists of the names of two or more persons, the
predicate is not unfrequently found in the singular, and that not only in cases
where it may seem that the writer at first thought only of one person and
afterwards the other, as in Cic. Oral. 12. : nam quum concisusei Thrasymachus
minutis numeris videretur et Gorgias; or Tusc. i. 1. : siquidem Homerusfuit et
Hesiodus ante Romam conditam; comp. Brut. 11. init. but also without this
excuse, as Cic. Brut. 8. : Sed ut intellectum est, quantum vim haberet accurata
etfacta quodammodo oratio, turn etiam magistri dicendi multi subito extiterunt.
Nam Leontinus Gorgias, Thrasymachus Chalcedonius, Protagoras Abderites,
Prodicus Ceus, Hippias Eleus in honore magno fuit, aliique multi temporibus
iisdem ; de Orat. ii. 12. : Qaalis apud Graecos Pherecydes, Hellanicus, Acusilas
fuit aliique permulti, talis noster Cato et Pictor et Piso ; de Divin. i. 38. : hac
ratione et Chrysippus et Diogenes et Antipater utitur ; de Fat. 17. : in qua sen-
tentia Democritus, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Aristoteles fuit ; in Verr. i. 30.
condemnatur enim perpaucis sententiis Philodamus et ejusfilius ; ibid. iv. 42.
dixit hoc apud vos Zosippus et fsmenias, homines nobilissimi ; de Orat. i. 62.
haec quum Antonius dixisset, sane dubitare visus est Sulpicius et Cotta ; Caes.
Bell. Civ. i. 2. : intercedit M. Antonius, Q. Cassius, tribuni plebis. It is un-
necessary to add passages from the poets, who, especially Horace, frequently
use the predicate in the singular, when the subject consists of several nouns
denoting persons; e.g. Horat. Carm. ii. 13. in fin. : Quin et Prometheus et
Pelopis parens dulci laborum decipitur sono. Comp. Bentley on Carm. i. 24. 8.
The plural, however, must be considered as the rule in prose. Only the
words unus et alter have invariably the predicate in the singular. When the
subject consists of nouns denoting persons and things, the plural of the pre-
dicate is preferable to the singular; e. g. Cic. ad Att. iv. 15. : coitio consulum
et Pompejus obsunt; Liv. xxviii. 18. : nee dubitare quin Syphax regnumque
ejusjam in Romanorum essent potestate, and so in xxxix. 51.: Prusiam sus-
pectum Romanis et receptus Hannibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motumfa-
ciebant, is more probable than faciebat.
[ 37*.] Note 2. When the subject consists of nouns connected by the disjunc-
tive conjunction out, the predicate is found in the plural as well as in the sin-
gular, though it would be more in accordance with our feeling to use the sin-
gular ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 9. : Si Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret; de Off. i. 28. : si
Aeacus aut Minos dicer et; but de Off. i. 41. : nee quemquam hoc errore duci
oportet, ut, si quid Socrates aut Aristippus contra morem consuetudinemque
civilem fecerint locutive sint, idem sibi arbitretur licere ; Liv. v. 8. : ut quosque
stadium privatim aut- gratia occupaverunt. In Cicero, de Orat. ii. 4., the
reading is uncertain : ne Sulpicius aut Cotta plus quam ego apud te valere vide-
antur. Ernesti, who approves of videatur exclusively, was not struck by the
same peculiarity in the preceding passage. With aut aut, the singular is un-
288 LATIN GRAMMAR.
questionably preferable, as in Cic. Philip, xi. 11.: ncc enim mine prirmnn ant
Brutus out Cassius salutcm libertatemque patriae legem sanctissimam et morem
optimum judicavit ; with ncc nee we likewise prefer the singular, with Bentley
on Horace, Carm. i. 13. 6., but the plural occurs in Pliny, Panegyr. 75. :
erant enim (acclamationes) quibus nee senatus gloriari nee princeps possent,
where posset would certainly be just as good. Comp. Liv. xxvi. 5. in fin.
The plural seems to be necessary only when the subject does not consist of
two nouns of the third person, but contains a first or second person, as in
Terence, Adelpli. i. 2. 23. : haec si neque ego neque tufecimus; D.Brutus in
Cic. ad Fam. xi. 20. : quod in Decemviris neque ego nego Caesar habiti esse-
mys. With sen sen and tarn quam, the predicate is in the plural : Frontin.
de Aquaed. Praef. and 128. (ut proprium jus tarn res publica quamprivata
haberent..')
[ 375.] Note 3. When the subject is a singular noun joined to another
(either plural or singular) by the preposition cum, the grammatical con-
struction demands that the predicate should be in the singular, as in Cic. ad
Att. vii. 14. : tu ipse cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites; ad Quint. Frat. iii.
2. : Domitius cum Messala certus esse videbatur; Ovid, Fast. i. 12. : tu quoque
cum Druso praemia fratre feres. But the plural is more frequent, the sub-
ject being conceived to consist of more than one person ; Liv. xxi. 60. : ipse
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur ; Sallust, Cat. 43. : Lentulus cum ceteris
constituerant ; Jug. 101. : Bocchus cum peditibus invadunt; Nep. Phoc. 2. :
ejus consilio Demosthenes cum ceteris, qui bene de rep. mereri existimabantur,
populiscito in exilium erant expulsi; and to judge from these and other in-
stances, quoted by Corte on the passages of Sallust, it seems that the plural
is preferred, when the main subject is separated from the predicate by inter-
mediate sentences, so that the plurality spoken of is more strongly impressed
on the writer's mind than the grammatical subject. Even in reference to
gender (of which we shall speak hereafter) nouns connected with each other
by cum, are treated as if they were connected by et. Ovid, Fast. iv. 55. :
Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati ; Liv. xlv. 28. : filiam cum filio accitos ;
Justin, xiv. 16. : filium Alexandri cum matre in arcem Amphipolitanam custo-
diendos mittit.
[376.] 6. With regard to the gender, which the predicate
(an adjective, participle, or pronoun), takes, when it belongs to
several nouns, the following rules must be observed :
) When the nouns are of one gender, the predicate (ad-
jective, participle, or pronoun) takes the same.
) When they are of different genders, the masculine (in case
of their denoting living beings) is preferred to the feminine,
and the predicate accordingly takes the masculine. When the
nouns denote things, the predicate takes the neuter, and when
they denote both living beings and things mixed together, it
takes either the gender of the living beings, or the neuter.
Jam pridem pater mihi et mater mortui sunt, Ter.
Labor voluptasque, dissimilia natura, societate quadam inter se
naturali juncta sunt, Liv. v. 4.
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 289
Jane, fac aetcrnos pacem pacisque ministros ! Ovid, Fast.
Romani, si me scelus fratris, te senectus absumpserit, regem reg-
numque Macedoniae sua futura sciunt, Liv. xl. 10.
Or the predicate (adjective, participle, or pronoun), agrees
only with one of the nouns, and is supplied by the mind for
the others ; this is the case especially, when the subject consists
of nouns denoting living beings and things.
Thrasybulus contemptus est primo a tyrannis atque ejus soli-
tudo, Nep. Thras. 2.
L. Brutus exulem et regem ipsum, et liberos ejus, et gentcm
Tarquiniorum esse jussit, Cic. De Re Publ. ii.
Hominis utilitati agri omnes et maria parent, Cic.
Nunc emergit amor, nunc desiderium ferre non possum, nunc mild
nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest : ita dies et noctes
tamquam avis ilia, mari prospecto, evolare cupio, Cic. ad Att.
ix. 10. 2.
[ 377.] Note. We have not mentioned the case of a subject consisting
of living beings of the feminine and neuter genders ; e. g. soror tua et ejus
mancipium. No instance of such a combination occurs, but we should be
obliged to make the predicate ; e. g. inventae or inventi sunt, according as
mancipium may denote a male or female slave. The grammatical preference
of the masculine gender to the feminine is clear also from the fact of the
mascul. words Jttii, fratres, soceri, reges, comprising persons of both sexes ;
as in Livy : legati missi sunt ad Ptolemaeum Cleopatramque reges; Tac. Ann.
xii. 4. : fratrum incustoditum amorem, in speaking of a brother and his sister.
The following examples of the predicate being in the neuter gender, when
the subject consists of nouns denoting things, may be added to those already
quoted. Sallust : divitiae, decus, gloria in oculis sita sunt; Livy : Formiis
portam murumque de coelo tacta esse; Merico urbs et ager in Sicilia jussa
dari; and so also with the relative pronoun; Sallust: otiutn atque divitiae,
quae prima mortales putant. The neuter is further not unfrequently used
when the two nouns of the subject (denoting things) are of the same gender ;
e. g. Liv. xxxvii. 32. : postquam ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant; Cic.
de Nat. Dear. iii. 24. : fortunam nemo ab inconstantia et temeritate sejunget,
quae digna certe non sunt deo. Those passages, on the other hand, in which
the subject consists of names of things of different gender, and the predicate
agrees in gender with a more distant masc. or femin., must be considered as
exceptions ; but in such cases the noun with which the predicate agrees is
usually the more prominent, the other or others being considered as depend-
ent or subordinate ; e. g. Plancus in Cic. ad Fam. x. 24. : Amor tuus ac
judicium de me utrum mihi plus dignitatis an voluptatis sit attaturus, non facile
dixerim ; i. e. thy love, and thy favourable opinion of me, which is the result
of it ; Cic. de Leg. i. 1 . : Lucus ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscitur,
saepe a me lectus in Mario, the oak being only a part of the grove. See the
commentators (Wesenberg) on Cic. p. Sext. 53., and on Suet. Caes. 75.
[ 378.] 7. When the personal pronouns ego, tu, nos, vos,
u
290 LATIN GRAMMAR.
combined with one or more other nouns form the subject of
proposition, the predicate follows the first person in preference t
the second and third, and the second in preference to the third.
Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valetis, ego et suavissimus Cicero
valemusy Cic. Ad Fam. xiv. 5.
Quid est quod tu aut ilia cum Fortuna hoc nomine queri
possitis, Sulpic. in Cic. Ad Fam. iv. 5.
Note. So also Cic. in Verr. i. 45. : hoc jure et majores nostri et nos semper
usi sumus; in Rull. i. 7. : Errastis, Rulle, vehementcr et tu et nonnutti collegae
tui. But in this case also the predicate frequently agrees with one of the
subjects, and is supplied by the mind for the others ; e. g. Cicero : Vos ipsi
et senatus frequens restitit; et ego et Cicero meus Jlagitabit. With regard to
the relative pronoun, the above rule remains in force, and we must accord-
ingly say : tu et pater, qui in convioio eratis; ego et tu, qui eramus.
II. ON THE USE OF CASES.
CHAP. LXX.
NOMINATIVE CASE,
[379.] 1. THE subject of a proposition is in the nominative
(see 362.), and the noun of the predicate only when it is con-
nected with the subject by the verb esse and similar verbs:
apparere, appear; existere, fieri, evadere, come into existence,
become ; videri, seem, appear ; manere, remain ; or the passives
of the actives mentioned in 394 ; viz. did, appellari, existimari,
liaberi, &c. ; e. g. Justus videbatur, he appeared just ; rex appel-
labatur, he was called king. The personal pronouns ego, tu,
tile, nos, vos, and illi are implied in the terminations of the verb,
and are expressed only when they denote emphasis or opposition.
(In) rebus angustis animosus atque fortis appdre, Horat.
Carm. ii. 10. 21.
Appius adeo novum xibi ingenium induerat, ut plebicola repente
omnisque aurae popularis captator evaderet, Liv. iii. 33.
Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis ; ego libertatem, quae
non erat, peperi, vos partam servare non vultis, says L. Brutus
in the Auct. ad Herenn. iv. 53.
Note 1. The construction of the accusative with the infinitive is the only
case in which the subject is not in the nominative, but in the accusative.
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 291
fee 599.) In this case the predicate, with the above-mentioned verbs, la
kewise in the accusative.
[ 380.] Note 2. Videri is used throughout as a personal verb, as (ego)
videor, (tu) videris, &c. ; vir bonus esse; videmur, videmini viri boni esse,
or hoc fecisse. The impersonal construction is sometimes found, as in
Cic. Tusc. v. 5. : Non mihi videtur, ad beats vivendum satis posse virtutem
(comp. Davis' remark), but much more rarely than the personal one. When
connected with the dative of a person, it is equivalent to the English " to
think or fancy ;" e. g. amens mihifuisse videor ; fortunatus sibi Damocles vide-
batur (esse) ; si hoc tibi intellexisse videris, or even in connection with videre;
e. g. videor mihi videre imminences reipublicae tempestates, &c. It should how-
ever be observed that the dative of the first person is sometimes omitted ;
e. g. Cic. de Nat. Dear. ii. 61. : satis docuisse videor; ibid. i. 21. : saepe de L.
Crasso videor audisse; de Fin. ii. 5. : cum Graece, ut videor, luculenter sciam,
i. e. as it seems to me, or as I think.
[ 381.] 2. The nominative is sometimes not expressed in
Latin. Thus the word homines is understood with a verb in
the third person plural active, in such phrases as laudant hunc
regem, they, or people praise this king ; dicunt, tradunt, ferunt
hunc regem esse justum, people say that this king is just.
CHAP. LXXL
ACCUSATIVE CASE.
[ 382.] 1. THE accusative denotes the object of an action, and
is therefore joined to all transitive verbs, whether active or de-
ponent, to express the person or thing affected by the action
implied in such verbs ; e. g. pater amat (tuetur) filium. When
the verb is active, the same proposition may be expressed without
change of meaning in the passive voice, the object or accusative
becoming the subject or nominative ; thus instead of pater amat
Jilium, we may say Jilius amatur a patre.
The transitive or intransitive nature of a verb depends en-
tirely upon its meaning (see 142.), which must be learned from
the dictionary. It must however be observed that many Latin
verbs may acquire a transitive meaning, besides the original
intransitive one, and accordingly govern the accusative.
[383.] Note 1. Some verbs are called transitive and others intransitive,
according as they occur more frequently in the one sense or the other. All
particulars must be learned from the Dictionary. Ludere, to play, for ex-
ample, is naturally an intransitive, but has a transitive meaning in the sense
u 2
292 LATIN GRAMMAR.
of "play the part of;" e.g. luilit bonum civem, he plays the good citizen,
affects to be a good citizen, llorrere properly signifies " to feel a shudder,"
and fastidire " to be disgusted with," but both are frequently used as tran-
sitives : horrere dolorem, fastidire preces or mores alicujus, to dread pain, to
reject a person's petition, to be disgusted with his manners. There are several
other such verbs, as dolere, gemere, lamentari, lugere, maerere, lacrimare, plo-
rare, queri; e. g. casum hunc. Festinare and properare, moreover, signify not
only " to hasten," but " to accelerate ;" e. g. mortem suam; mancre not only
" to wait," but " to expect ;" e. g. hostium adventum; rider e, to laugh and to
ridicule (like irridere). Such examples being sanctioned by usage, the
Latin writers, in some cases, extended the principle still further, and Cicero
(de Fin. ii. 34.) has the bold, but beautiful and expressive, phrase : Qmun
Xerxes, Hellesponto juncto, Athone perfosso, mare ambulavisset, terrain navi-
gasset, instead of the ordinary expression in mari ambulavisset, in terra navi-
gasset. In such phrases as dormio totam hiemem, tertiam aetatem vivo, nodes
vigilo, the accusative might seem to express only duration of time ( 395.),
but as the passive forms also occur, tota mihi dormitur hiems, jam tertia
vivitur aetas, nodes vigilantur amarae, it will be more judicious to consider
the verbs dormire, vivere, vigilare, in those cases as transitives, equivalent to
" spend in sleeping, living, waking."
The words which denote "to smell" or "taste of any thing," viz. olere,
redolere, sapere, resipere, are ill the same manner used as transitive verbs,
and joined with an accusative (instead of the ablative which they would require
as intransitive verbs). Their meaning in this case is "to give back the smell
or taste of any thing ;" e. g. olet unguenta; piscis ipsum mare sapit; unguenta
gratiora sunt, quae terram, quam quae crocum sapiant; uva picem resipiens,
and in a figurative sense : olet peregrinum, redolet antiquitatem; together with
such expressions as, anhelat crudelitatem, pingue quiddam et peregrinum sonat,
sanguinem nostrum sitiebat. The poets go still further, and use, e. g., pallere,
pavere, trernere, trepidare aliquid, instead of timere; ardere, calere, tepere, pe-
rire, deperire mulierem, instead of amare midierem. Such expressions should
not be imitated in prose, any more than the use of a neuter adjective instead
of an adverb ; as in : torvum clamare, tremendum sonare, lucidum fulgent oculi,
concerning which see 266. Tacitus however says, Ann. iv. 60. : Tiberius
falsum renidens zndtu; and vi. ST.. : Euphraten nulla imbrium vi sponte et im-
mensum attolli.
[ 384.] We must here mention a peculiar mode of joining an accusative
with intransitive verbs, which is of frequent occurrence in Greek and also in
English. It consists of a substantive of the same root as the verb, or at least one
of the same meaning, being added in the accusative ; but this substantive is
usually qualified by an adjective or a pronoun ; e. g. vitam jucundam vivere ,
longam viam ire, hoc bellum bellare, graven pugnam (proelium) pugjiarc,
alterius gaudium gaudere, bonas preces precari, risum Sardonium rider e, con-
similem ludum ludere, servitutem servire durissimam, somnium somniare.
(Odi) qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt. Juven. ii. 3.
[ 385.] But even without any change or modification of meaning, intran-
sitive verbs may have the accusative of pronouns and adjective pronouns
in the neuter gender, in order to express, in a general way, the direction in
which a feeling or condition is manifested ; if this tendency were expressed
more definitely by a substantive, the accusative could not be used. We thus
frequently find such phrases as : hoc laetor, I rejoice at this ; hoc non dubito,
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 293
I do not doubt this ; hoc laboro, illud tibi non assentior, aliquid tibi succenseo,
non possum idem gloriari, unum omnes student, where the accusative of a de-
finite substantive, such as, hanc unam rem omnes student, could not have been
used. So Terence says : id operam do, I strive after this ; Cicero, ad Fam.
vi. 8. : consilium petis, quid tibi sim auctor; and Livy often uses the phrase
quod quidam auctores sunt, which is attested by some authors.
Dolores autem nunquam tantam vim habent, ut non plus habeat sapiens quod
gaudeat quam quod angatur, Cic. de Fin. i. 14.
Utrumque laetor, el sine dolore corporis te fuisse et animo valuisse, Cic. ad
Fam. vii. 1.
Note 2. The rule that in the change of a proposition from the active into
the passive form the accusative of the object becomes the nominative of the
subject, remains in force even when after the verbs denoting "to say" or
" command" the accusative does not depend upon these verbs, but belongs
to the construction of the accusative with an infinitive ; e. g. dico regem esse
justum, jubeo te redire (see 607.); in the passive : rex dicitur Justus esse, ju-
beris redire, as though dico regem or jubeo te belonged to each other.
[ 386.] 2. Intransitive verbs which imply motion, as ire,
vadere, volare, and some also which imply " being in a place,"
as jacere, stare and sedere, acquire a transitive meaning by
being compounded with a preposition, and accordingly govern
the accusative. This, however, is generally the case only in verbs
compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter, trans,
and super, and in those compound verbs which have acquired a
figurative meaning. Such verbs become perfect transitives, and
the accusative which they take in the active form of a propo-
sition as their object, becomes the nominative of the subject,
when the proposition is changed into the passive form ; e. g.
Jlumen transitur, societas initur, mors pro republica obitur. With
other compounds the accusative is only tolerated, for generally
the preposition is repeated, or the dative is used instead of the
preposition with its case (415.).
Amicitia nonnunquam praecurrit judicium, Cic. Lael. 17.
Nihil est turpius quam ccgnitioni et praeceptioni assensionem prae-
currere, Cic. Acad. i. 12.
Note. The rule here given applies to a great number of verbs, for there are
many which imply motion, as, ire, ambulare, cedere, currere, equitare, fluere,
gradi, labi, nare, and nature, repere, salire, scandere, vadere, vehi, volare, and
perhaps also venire, and their compounds are very numerous. The fol-
lowing is a list of them : adire, accedere, adequitare, adnare, aggredi, allabi,
ascendere, assilire and assultare, advenire and adventure, advehi, advolare,
advolvi, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere, antegredi, antevenire, circunifluere,
circumire, circumvenire, circumvolare, coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, enmipere,
evadere, excedere, exire, inire, incedere, incnrrere and incursare, ingrcdi, illabi,
innare and innatare, imilire, insultare, invent, intcrflucre, intervenire, invader e
u 3
294 LATIN GRAMMAR.
(irrumpere), irrepere, obambulare, obequitare, obire, perambulare, percwrere,
permeare, pervadere, pervagari, pervolare, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere,
praegredi, praevenire, praeterire, praeterfluere, praetergredi, praetervehi,
praetervolare, subire, succedere, subrepere, supergredi, supervadere, super-
venire, transire, transnare, transilire, tratisvolare. To these we must add
some compound verbs, which do not imply motion, but in general " being
in a place," as adjacere, assidere, accumbere and accubare, adstare, antestare,
circumsidere, circumstare, and circumsistere, incubare, insidere, instare, inter-
jacere, obsidere, praesidere, praejacere, praestare, superstore. All these verbs
may be joined with an accusative of the place to which the action implied in
the verb refers ; in poetical language many more verbs are joined with an
accusative, partly from a resemblance with those mentioned above, and
partly because a transitive meaning and construction are, in general, well
suited to a lively description. Tacitus, Hist. iii. 29., for example, says : ba-
lista obruit quos inciderat, where quos is not governed by the preposition in
(for he uses the accus. also with prepositions which otherwise require the
ablative : praesidebat exercitum, praejacet castra, elapsus est vincula), but is the
real accusat. of the object. We must not however forget, that, with the
exception of verbs compounded with the prepositions circum, per, praeter,
trans, and super, we are speaking only of what may be, and what frequently
occurs in modern Latin prose ; for the ancient Romans seldom used the ac-
cusative with such verbs ; they preferred them in their intransitive sense
either with a preposition or the dative. The verbs compounded with ante
alone are construed indifferently either with the accusative or the dative,
and antegredi occurs only with the accusative. Cicero, in the case of verbs
compounded with ex, repeats the preposition ex or ab; Sallust and Livy use
the ablative alone, which is governed by the preposition understood. It is
not till the time of Tacitus that we find these verbs construed with the ac-
cusative; e.g. evado amnem, silvas, sententias judicum.
[ 387.] We must especially notice those verbs which acquire a transitive
meaning by a modification of their original signification, i. e. by being used in a
figurative sense. Such verbs either lose their intransitive meaning altogether,
or retain it along with the transitive one, and accordingly govern the
accusative either exclusively, or only in their particular transitive meaning.
Of this kind are adeo and convenio in the sense of " I step up to a person for
the purpose of speaking to him ;" aggredior (and adorior), invado and incedo,
I attack, where especially the perfect incessit aliquem, e. g. cupido, cara,
metus, must be observed ; alluo, wash, in speaking of the sea or a river ;
anteeo, antecedo, antevenio, praecedo, praegredior, praevenio, all in the sense of
" I excel " (the principle of which is followed also by praemineo, praesto, ante-
cello, excello, and praecello) ; coeo, I conclude, e. g. an alliance ; excedo and
egredior, I transgress, e. g. the bounds ; ineo and ingredior, I begin a thing ;
obeo, I visit, undertake ; occumbo (mortem, which is much more frequent
than morti or morte), I suffer death, or die ; obsideo and circumsideo, I be-
siege ; subeo, I undertake. But even among these verbs there are some,
such as incedere and invadere, which are preferred in the more ancient prose
with a preposition or with the dative. Livy, for example, frequently says
patres incessit cura, and Sallust uses metus invasit populares ; but Cicero, An-
tonius isvasit in Gallium, or furor invasit improbis ; Terence, quae nova religio
nunc in te incessit ; Caesar, dolor incessit omni exercitui. Anteire is the only
one among the verbs signifying " to excel," that is used by Cicero with the
accusative, though not exclusively, and antecedere, praestare, anteccllere, and
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 295
excellere are used by him only with the dative ; the others do not occur in
his works in this sense.
There are, on the other hand, some verbs which, according to the above
rule, might be joined with the accusative, but never are so, and take either the
dative or a preposition, viz. arrepere, obrepere, incumbere ( 416.). Lastly,
verbs compounded with the prepositions ab, de, and ex, which imply motion,
are construed with the ablative, the idea of separation being predominant
the few verbs mentioned above only form an exception to the rule.
[ 388.] 3. The verbs deficio, juvo, adjuvo, defugio, effugio,
profugio, refugio, and subterfugio, and the deponents imttor,
sequor, and sector govern the accusative. They are real tran-
sitives and have a personal passive.
Fortes fortuna adjuvat, Ter. Phorm. i. 4. 26.
Nemo mortem effugere potest, Cic. Philip, viii. 10.
Gloria virtutem tanquam umbra sequitur, Cic. Tusc.
Note 1. The compounds of sequor and sector: assequor, assector, consequor,
consector, insequor, insector, persequor, prosequor, likewise govern the accu-
sative ; obsequor, I comply with, alone governs the dative. Comitor, I accom-
pany, may be classed with sequor; for it usually governs the accusative ; but
Cicero in some passages (de Re PubL ii. 24., Tusc. v. 24. and 35.), uses it
with the dative, in accordance with its original meaning " to be a companion
to a person" ( 235.). The few passages in which deficio occurs with the
dative cannot affect the rule ; thus we read : vires, tela nastros defecerunt;
tempus me deficit; and in the passive : quum miles a viribus deficeretur; aqua
ciboque defectus. The frequentative adjuto is used with the dative only by
unclassical writers ; otherwise it has the accusative like juvo. The passive
forms of defugio, refugio, and effugio are rare ; but always in accordance
with the rule ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 36. : haec incommoda morte effugiuntur; p-
Plane. 32. : nullas sibi dimicationes pro me defugiendas putavit; Quintil. iv.
5. : Interim refugienda est distinctio quaestionum. Of the other compounds
the passive cannot be proved to have been used.
[ 389.] Note 2. The verb aequare and its compounds have likewise their
object in the accusative. Aequare properly signifies " to make equal," rem cum
re or rem rei, one thing to another ; e. g. urbem soln aequare, turrim moenibus ;
and without a dative, " to attain ; " e. g. gloriam alicujus, superiores regcs,
cursum equorum. The accusative of the person may be joined, without any
difference in meaning, by the ablative of the thing in which I equal any
ope ; e g. Curt. ix. 26. : Nondum feminam aequavimus gloria, et jam nos
laudis satietas cepit ? The same is the case with the compound adaequare ;
and the dative with this verb, in the sense of " attain " or " equal," is doubt-
ful or unclassical. (See Caes. Bell. Gall. viii. 41.) Exaequare commonly
signifies "to make equal," or "equalise;" and aequiparare " to attain;" and
both govern the accusative.
Note 3. Aemulari, emulate, commonly takes the accusative of the thing
in which, and the dative of the person whom we emulate : aemulor pruden-
tiam, virtutes majorum, and aemulor alicui homini, although some authors use
it in both connections with the accusative like imitari. Adulari, properly
Used of dogs, signifies " to creep " or " sneak up to a person," and figu-
ratively, like the Greek TrpoaKvvtiv, the servile veneration paid to Asiatic
u 4
296 LATIN GRAMMAR.
kings, and hence in general " to flatter." In its proper sense it occurs only
with the accusative, e. g. Colum. vii. 12. : Canes mitissimi furem quoque adu-
lantur; in its figurative sense also it is found only with the accusative : Valer.
Maxim, vi. 3. extr. : Athenienses Timagoram inter officium salutationis Darium
regem more gentis illius adulatum capitali supplicio affecerunt. In its most
common sense of " servile flattery," it is used by Cicero likewise with the
accusative : in Pis. 41.: adulans omnes; by Nepos with the dative; Attic. 8. :
neque eo magis potenti adulatus est Antonio; by Livy with both cases, see
xxxvi. 7. and xlv. 31. (for in xxiii. 4. there is no reason for giving up the
old reading plebem affari), and Quintilian (ix. 3.) states that in his time the
dative was commonly used. Tacitus and other late writers, however, re-
turned to the ancient practice and used the accusative. It should be re-
marked that the active form adulo was not uncommon, as in Valer. Maxim.
iv. 3. in fin. : Cum olera lavanti (Diogeni) Aristippus dixisset, si Dionysium
adulare veUes, ita non esses : Immo, inquit, si tu ita esse vettes, non adidares
Dionysium. Comp. the commentators on Cic. Tusc. ii. 10. 24.
[ 390.] 4. Five impersonal verbs ( 225.), which express
certain feelings, viz. piget (I am) vexed ; pudet (I am)
ashamed ; poenitet, (I) repent ; taedet (I am) disgusted, and mi"
seret, (I) pity, take an accusative of the person affected. As to
the case by which the thing exciting such a feeling is expressed,
see 441.
Note. On the principle ofpuditum est, Cicero (de Fin. ii. 13.) uses verititm
est as an impersonal verb with the accusative of the person : Cyrenaici, quos
-non est veritum in voluptate summum bonum ponere.
Decet, it is becoming, and its compounds condecet, dedecet, and
indecet likewise govern the accusative of the person, but they
differ from the above-mentioned impersonal verbs, inasmuch as
they may have a nominative as their subject, though not a
personal one.
Candida pax homines, trux decet iraferas, Ovid, A. A.
Note. In the early language (especially in Plautus) decet is found also
with the dative. We may here notice some other verbs which, when used
as impersonals, govern the accusative, this case being suited to their original
meaning : juvat and delectat me, I am rejoiced ; fallit, fugit, praeterit me, it
escapes me, that is, I have forgotten, or do not know. Latet me occurs more
frequently than latet mihi, but the impersonal character of this verb is not
founded on good authority, for the passage of Cicero, in Cat. i. 6., is cor-
rupt. Cicero uses this verb without any case : lateo, I am concealed or
keep out of sight.
[ 391.] 5. The verbs docere (teach) with its compounds edo-
cere anddedocere and celare (conceal), have two accusatives of the
object, one of the thing, and another of the person, as in
Nepos, Eum, 8. : Antigonus iter, quod habebat adversus Eu-
menem, omnes celat.
Fortuna belli artem victos quoque docet, Curt. vii. 30. (7.)
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 2[)7
Catilina juventutem, quam illexerat, midtis modis mala facinora
edocebat, Sallust, Cat. 16.
Note 1 . When such a proposition takes the passive form, the accusative of
the person becomes the nominative, as omnes celabantur ab Antigono ; but the
thing may remain in the accusative, e. g. Liv. vi. 32. : Latinae legiones longa
societate militiam Romanam edoctae; and: omnes belli artes edoctus. But it
rarely occurs with doctus and edoctus, and with celari scarcely ever, except
when the thing is expressed by the neuter of a pronoun, e. g. hoc or id cela-
bar, I was kept in ignorance of it, for celare and especially its passive
generally has the preposition de, as in Cic. : non est profecto de illo veneno
celata mater; debes existimare te maximis de rebus afratre esse celatum. The
construction aliqua res mihi celatur in Nep. Alcib. 5. is very singular. Docere
and edocere with their passive forms are likewise used with de, but only in
the sense of " to inform," as in Cicero : judices de injuriis alicujus docere ;
Sulla de his rebus docetur ; Sallust : de itinere hostium senatum edocet.
It must, however, be observed, that although any word expressing an art
may be joined to doceo and doceor (doceo te artem, doceor te Latins loqui, do-
ceor artem, doceor (commonly disco) Latine loqui), the instrument on which
the art is practised, is expressed by the ablative, e. g. Cic. ad Fam. ix. 22. :
Socratem fidibus docuit nobilissimus Jidicen ; Liv. xxix. 1 . : quern docendum
cures equo armisque, and in a passive signification Cic. Cat. Maj. 8. : discebant
Jidibus antiqui. Litterae may be used either in the accus. or ablat. : Cic. in
Pis. 30. : Quidnunc te, asine, litteras doceam ; Brut. 45. : doctus Graecis litteris,
doctus et Graecis litteris et Latinis.
[ 392.] Note 2. The verbs compounded with trans : transduco, transjicio,
transporto, take a double accusative, on account of the omission of the pre-
position, which however is often added, e. g. Agesilaus Hellespontum capias
trajecit ; Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum, duodecim milia equitum Iberum
transduxit; Caesar exercitum Rhenum transportavit, Ligerim transducit, but also
multitudinem hominum trans Rhenum in Gattiam transducere. In the passive
construction the accusative dependent upon trans is retained, as in Caesar :
ne major multitudo Germanorum Rhenum transducatur ; Belgae Rhenum anti-
quitus transducti. Transjicere and transmittere are also used intransitively,
the pronouns me, te, se, &c. being understood. The participles transjectus
and transmissus may be used both of that which crosses a river, and of the
river which is crossed : amnis trajectus, transmissus, and classis transmissa,
Marius in Africam trajectus, and the name of the water may be added in the
ablative : mari, freto.
[ 393.] 6. The verbs posco, reposco,flagito, I demand; oro, rogo,
I entreat ; interrogo and percontor, I ask or inquire, also admit a
double accusative, one of the person, and another of the thing,
but the verbs which denote demanding or entreating also take
the ablative of the person with the preposition ab, and those
denoting inquiring may take the ablative of the thing with de.
Peto, postulo and quaero are never used with a double accusa-
tive, but the first two have always the ablative of the person
with ab, and quaero with ab, de and ex.
Nulla salus bello, pacem te poscimus omnes, Virg. Aen. xi. 362.
298 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Legati Hennenses ad Verrem adeunt eumque simulacrum CV-
reris et Victorias reposcunt, Cic. in Verr. iv. 51.
Pusionem quendam Socrates apud Platonem interrogat quaedam
Geometrica, Cic. Tusc. i. 24.
Note 1. A double accusative is used most commonly, when the thing is
expressed indefinitely by the neuter of a pronoun or an adjective ; e. g. hoc
te vehementer rogo; illud te et oro et hortor; sine te hoc exorem, let me entreat
this of you ; nihtt aliud vos orat atque obsecrat; hoc quod te interrogo responde.
The accusat. with the passive is rare, but in accordance with the rule ; thus
we say : rogatus sententiam, asked for his opinion (for rogo may mean the
same as interrogo), interrogates testimonium.
Note 2. Respecting what is called the Greek accusative, which only supplies
the place of the Latin ablative, see 458.
[ 394.] 7. The following verbs (which in the passive voice
have two nominatives), have in the active two accusatives, one
of the object and the other of the predicate : dicer e, vocare,
appellare, nominare, nuncupare, also scribere and inscribere ; du-
cere, habere, judicare, existimare, numerare, putare (arbitrarily
also intelligere, agnoscere, reperire, invenire, facere (pass.jm),
reddere, instituere, constituere, creare, deligere, designare, declarare,
renuntiare, and others ; se praebere, se praestare. Thus we say
in the active, Ciceronem universus populus adversus Catilinam
consulem declaravit (Cic. in Pis. 1.), and in the passive Cicero
ab universo populo consul declaratus est.
Romulus urbem, quam condidit, Romam vocavit.
Socrates totius mundi se incolam et civem arbitrabatur t Cic.
Tusc. v. 37.
Bene de me meritis gratum me praebeo, Cic. p. Plane. 38.
Scytharum gens antiquissima semper habita est.
Note 1. Hence we say : facio te certiorem, I inform thee, with the genitive ;
e. g. consilii met, or with the preposition de: de consilio meo, and in the passive
voice : certior factus sum. With other adjectives reddere is preferable to
facere; e. g. reddere aliquem placidum et mollem, meliorem, iratum, &c. ; ho-
mines coecos reddit cupiditas; loca tuta ab hostibus reddebat. In the passive
we rarely find reddi for fieri.
Utor, in a similar sense, is used with a double ablative : utor aliquo ma-
gistro, I have a person for my teacher ; vtor aliquo aequo, benigno, I find a
person just, kind towards myself. Terent. Heaut. ii. 1.5.: Mihi si unquam filius
erit, nae illefacili me utetur patre, he shall have in me an indulgent father.
Note 2. With regard to the participle passive the rule respecting the
agreement of the predicate with the cases of the subject rarely applies to any
other cases than the nominative and accusative, at least in ordinary language.
There are however a few instances of the ablative in the construction of the
ablative absolute : Nep. Hann. 3. : Hasdrubale imperatore suffecto; Liv. iv.
46. : magistro equitum create filio suo profectus est ad bellum; ibid. xlv. 21. :
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 299
Consulibus certioribus factis ; Flor. Hi. 21. : ex senatusconsulto udversariis hos-
tibus judicatis. There are no instances of other oblique cases. It is not how-
ever improbable that a Roman might have said : Dareus Scytharum getiti,
quamquam justissimae habitae, bellum intulit.
Note 3. The verbs putare, ducere, and habere may have the preposition
pro instead of the accusative of the predicate, but not quite in the same
sense, pro expressing rather an approximation ; e. g. habere pro hoste, to
deem a person equal to an enemy; aliquid pro non dicto habere, to consider a
thing as though it had not been said ; aliquid pro certo putare, to regard a
thing as though it were certain ; pro nihilo, as though it were nothing. We
may here notice also the phrases aliquem numero or in numero ; e. g. impera-
torum, sapientium, and aliquem loco or in loco parentis ducere or habere.
[395.] 8. The accusative is used with verbs and adjectives
to express the extent of time and space, in answer to the ques-
tions : how far ? how long ? how broad ? how deep ? how
tliick ? how heavy ? e. g. nunquam pedem a me discessit, he never
moved one step from me; a recta conscientia non transversum
unguem (or digitum) oportet discedere, not one finger's breadth ;
fossa duos pedes lata or longa ; cogitationem sobrii hominis pun-
ctum temporis suscipe, take, for one moment, the thought of a
rational man ; so also: Mithridates annum jam tertium et vicesi-
mum regnat ; tres annos mecum habitavit, or per tres annos, which
however implies that the period was a long one.
Campus Marathon ab Athenis circiter milia passuum decem
abest, Nep. Milt. 4.
Quaedam bestiolae unum tantum diem vivunt, Cic.
Decem quondam annos urbs oppugnata est ob unum mulierem
ab universa Graecia, Liv. v. 4.
Lacrimans in carcere mater noctes diesque assidebat, Cic. in
Verr. v. 43.
[ 396.] Note 1. The ablative is rarely used by Cicero to express the dura-
tion of time ; e. g. de Off", iii. 2. : Scriptum est a Posidonio triginta annis vixisse
Panaetium, posteaquam libros de officiis edidisset; but it is more frequent in the
authors of the silver age : Tac. Ann. i. 53. : quattuordecim annis exilium toleravit;
Suet. Calig. 59. : vixit annis undetriginta. The ablative of distance must in
general be regarded as an exception, although it occurs not only in later
writers, but in Caesar and Livy : abest, distat quinque milibus passuum, or spa-
tio aliquot milium; Tac. Ann. xii. 17. : Exercitus Romanus tridui itinere
abfuit ab amne Tanai; but Cicero and others, in accordance with the rule,
say Her quinque, decem dierum, or biduum, triduum, or bidui, tridui (scil. spa-
tium) abest ab aliquo loco. If however not the distance is to be expressed,
but only a place to be designated by the circumstance of its distance from
another, the ablative should be used, though the accusative sometimes occurs ;
e. g. Liv. xxvii. 41. : millefere et quingentos passus castra ab hoste local; xxv.
1 3. : tria passunm milia ab ipsa urbe loco edito castra posuit, and in other pas-
sages. Spatio and intervallo are the only words in which the ablative is used
300 LATIN GHATUMAR.
exclusively ; e. g. Liv. xxv. 9. : qiiindecim fermn milium spatio custra tib
Turento posuit, but the ablative is found also in many other cases agreeably
to the rule ; e. g. Caes. Sell. Gall. i. 48. : Eodem die castra promovit ct
milibus passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub monte consedit. When the place
from which the distance is calculated is not mentioned, but understood from
what precedes, dl) is placed at the beginning, as if the ablative of the distance
depended on it ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 7. : a milibus passuum duobus castra
posuerunt, i. e. at a distance of 2000 paces from the spot, or 2000 paces otY,
duo inde milia (for more instances from Caesar see Schneider on Caes. I. c.) ;
Liv. xxiv. 46. : a quingentis fere passibus castra posuit; Flor. ii. 6. 56. : rum
jam a tertio lapide (i. e. at a distance of three miles), sed ipsas Carthaginis
portas obsidione quatiebat. (Comp. Matthiae, Greek Grammar, 573. p. 994.
5th edit.)
[ 397.J Note 2. Old, in reference to the years which a person has lived, is
expressed in Latin by natus, with an accusative of the time ; e. g. Decessit
Alexander mensem unum, annos tres et triginta natus (Justin, xii. 16.). Alexander
therefore died quarto et trigesimo anno, or aetatis anno. A person's age, how-
ever, may be expressed without natus, by the genitive, if his name is closely
joined to the words denoting the time (see 426.) ; e. g. Alexander annorum
trium et triginta decessit, i. e. as a man of thirty-three years. The expressions
" older " or " younger than thirty-three years," are accordingly rendered in
Latin by plus or minus (see 485.) tres et triginta annos natus ; but also by
major or minor, either without quam, as major (minor) annos tres et triginta
natus, and major (minor) annorum trium et triginta; or with quam : major
(minor) quam annos tres et triginta natus, and major (minor) quam annorum
trium et triginta. Natu may be joined to annorum as anno is to aetatis in
the case of ordinal numerals. Lastly, the ablative is made to depend upon
the comparative : major (minor) tribus et triginta annis ; and in the llomaii
laws we frequently find the expression minor viginti quinque annis.
[ 398.] 9. The names of towns, and not unfrequently of
gniall islands, are put in the accusative with verbs implying
motion, without the preposition in or ad, which are required
with the names of countries; e. g. Juvenes Romani Athenas stu-
diorum causa proficisci solebant. We may here mention at once
all the rules relating to the construction of the names of towns.
If they denote the place whence, they are in the ablative ; if the
place where ? singular nouns of the first and second declensions.
are put in the genitive, all plurals, all nouns of the third declen-
sion, and the Greek names in e of the first declension in the
ablative.* When we have to express " through a town," the
\ reposition per is required.
* This rule, varying as it does with the number and declension of a name
of a town, is obviously quite arbitrary, and not traceable to any principle.
The first (at least in this country) proper explanation of this apparent pe-
culiarity of the Latin language is given by a writer in the Journal of Edu-
cation (vol. i. p. 107.), from which we extract the following passage :
" We are usually directed to translate at Rome by the genitive, at Athens by
the ablative, &c., giving different rules according as the number or the
gender differs, while, in fact, they are all datives. With Romae, Athenis,
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 301
Demaratus quidam, Tarquinii regis pater, tyrannum Cypselum
quod ferre non poterat, Tarquinios Corintho fugit, et ibi suas
fortunas constitute, Cic. Tusc. v. 37.
Dionysius tyrannus Syracusis expulsus Corinthi pueros docebat,
Cic. Tusc. iii. 12.
Romae Consulcs, Athenis Archontes, Carthagine* Suffices, sive
judices, quotannis creabantur, Nep. Hann.
Note 1. The use of names of countries without a preposition, like the
names of towns, and of names of towns with the prepositions in, ab, ex, is
an irregularity which should not be imitated. Of these prepositions ab is
found most frequently, especially in Livy, though sometimes also in Cicero :
ab Epidauro Piraeeum advectus, ab Epheso in Syriam profectus, a Brundisio
nulla adhuc fama venerat ; and cases may occur in which the preposition is
absolutely necessary, as in Cic. in Verr. iv. 33. : Segesta est oppidum in
Sicilia, quod ab Aenea, fugiente a Troja, conditum esse demonstrant. Ad is
joined with names of towns when only the direction towards a place is to be
expressed, and not the place itself; e. g. in Cicero : iter dirigere ad Mutinam ;
tres viae sunt ad Mutinam : further, when the vicinity of a place is to be
denoted ( 296.) ; in this sense, the elder Cato says in Cic. Cat, Maj. 5. :
adolescentulus miles profectus sum ad Capuam, quintoque anno post ad Taren-
tum Qtiaestor; that is, t'n castra, ad Capuam, ad Tarentum. So ad is also
used to denote the approach of a fleet to a maritime town ; e. g. Caes. Bell.
Civ. iii. 100. : Laelius cum classe ad Brundisium venit.
What has been said above in reference to islands applies not only to those
which have towns of the same name, such as Delos, Rhodus, Samos, Cor-
cyra, but to others also, as in Cicero : Ithacae vivere otiose ; in Nepos : Conon
plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timotheus Lesbi; Pausaniam
cum classe Cyprian atque Hellespontum miserunt ; so also Chersonesum colonos
mittere, Chersonesi habitare ; but Cicero, de Divin. i. 25. says : in Cyprum
redire. The larger islands, as Sardinia* Britannia, Creta, Euboea, Sicilia,
are subject to the same rules as names of countries; and the few exceptions
there is no difficulty. As to Beneventi, domi, &c., an earlier form of the
dative of the second declension was oi (ounu), whence arose the double form
nullo and nuttl. In the plural the two languages exhibit the same analogy :
SovXoi, SovXoig, in Greek, and in Latin puerl, puerls. In the third declension
a common occurrence has taken place." This explanation is confirmed by
the fact that in most cases we find Carthagini, Anxuri, Tiburi, and also
Lacedaemoni, when the place where ? is to be expressed. See above, 63.
in fin. TBANSL.
* The writer above quoted justly remarks : " Our editions often present
Carthagine, Lacedaemone, where the MSS. have the correct dative. If is
true that authority exists for the other form ; but the change of Carthagini
into Carthagine is precisely similar to the change of heri into here, pictai
into pictae, and not unlike the absorption of the i in the datives of so many
declensions, Greek and Latin : gradui gradu, fidei fide. In the third de-
clension, the precedfng consonant saved it from total extinction. The com-
monest effect of time upon language is to soften away the final letters.
Hence miraris, mirare ; agier, agi ; ipsus, ipse ; quis, qui ; fuerunt, fuere ;
homo, homo; tyw, fyw ; ego, ego, &c." TKANSL.
302 LATIN GRAMMAR.
which occur cannot be taken into account ; e. g. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 12. : inde
Sardiniam cum classe venit ; Liv. xxxii. 16. : Euboeam trajecerunt ; Flor. iii.
10. : Britanniam transit; and some others.
Names of countries, also, are not unfrequently used in the accusative
without the preposition in when motion is expressed. This is most fre-
quently the case with Aegyptus (once even in Cic. de Nat. Dear. iii. 22.),
and other Greek names of countries in us, as Epirus, Peloponnesus, Chcr-
sonesus, Bosporus, perhaps owing to their resemblance to names of towns ;
but also with others ; e. g. Caes. Bell. Gall. iii. 7. : Illyricum profectus ; Bell.
Civ. iii. 41.: Macedonian! pervenit ; Liv. x. 37. : Etruriam transducto exer-
citu ; xxx. 24. : Africam transiturus. All these expressions, however, are
only exceptions, rarely used by the earlier writers, and somewhat more fre-
quently by the later ones. Even names of nations, when used for those of
countries, are construed in -this way by Tacitus, Ann. xii. 32. : ductus inde
Cangos exercitus; xii. 15. : Ipse praeceps Iberos ad patrium regnum pervadit.
The genitive of names of countries in answer to the question where f is much
more rare, and is confined to Aegypti in Caesar, Bell. Civ. iii. 106. ; Cherso-
nesi in Nep. Milt. 1.; Florus, i. 18. 11. uses Lucaniae in the same way ; in
Sallust the combination Romae Numidiaeque is easily accounted for.*
The grammatical explanation of this genitive, however, is connected with
difficulties. Formerly grammarians accounted for it by the ellipsis in loco ;
modern comparative philology has called in the aid of the locative singular
in t of the Sanscrit language, which is akin to the Latin. (See Bopp,
Vergleich. Grammatik, p. 229.) This would account for the ae in the first
declension, the ancient form being ai (see 45.), and for the i in some
nouns of the third declension ; e. g. Tiburi, Carthagini, ruri. (See 62. foil.)
The use of the accusative to denote " motion to," and of the ablative to denote
the place where or whence, is perfectly in accordance with the syntactical
system of the Latin language ; and this accounts for the fact of later writers,
especially Justin, frequently putting names of towns of the second declension
in the ablative to denote the place where ; e. g. Abydo, Corintho ; Liv. v. 52. :
in monte Albano Lavinioque, for et Lavinii.^
[ 399.] Note 2. With regard to adjectives and nouns of apposition joined
with names of towns, the following rules must be observed. When a name of a
town is qualified by an adjective, the answer to the question where f is not ex-
pressed by the genitive, but by the preposition I'M with the ablative ; e. g. Cic.
ad Alt. xi. 16. : in ipsa Alexandria ; Plin. Hist. Nat. xiv. 3. : in Narbonensis
provinciae Alba Helvia ; and consequently not Albae Longae, but rather the
simple ablative Alba Longa, as in Virgil, Aen. vi. 766. In Cicero, however,
we find Team Apuli (p. Cluent. 9.), in the Apulian Teanum. When a name
of a town answers to the question where f in the ablative, the addition of
an adjective produces no change ; e. g. Cic. ad Att. xvi. 6. : Malo vel
cum timore domi esse, quam sine timore Athenis tuis ; Liv. i. 18. : Numa Pom-
pilius Curibus Sabinis habitabat ; ibid, xxviii. 17. : Carthagine nova reliquit;
and hence the reading in the epitome of the same book should be Cartha-
gini nova, and not novae. In answer to the questions whither f and whence f
* According to the remark made above, Aegypti, Chersonesi, Lucaniae,
&c., are all datives, answering to the Sanscrit locative, and not genitives.
TRANSL. '
f According to what was said above, these are not exceptions ; Abydo, Co-
rintho, being datives, and not ablatives. TRANSL.
ACCUSATIVE CASE. 303
the accus. and ablat. are used both with and without prepositions ; e. g. Ovid,
Heroid. ii. 83. : Aliquis doctas jam mine eat, inquit, Athenas ; Cic. in Verr. i.
19.: quae ipsa Samo sublata sunt ; but Propert. iii. 20.: magnum Her ad
doctas proficisci cogor Athenas ; and Martial, xiii. 107. : de vitifera venisse
Vienna.
When the words urbs, oppidum, locus, &c. follow the names of towns as
appositions, they generally take a preposition ; e. g. Demaratus Corinthius
se contulit Tarquinios, in urbem Etruriae florentissimam ; Cic. in Verr, v. 51.:
Cleomenes dicit, sese in terram esse egressum, ut Pachyno, e terrestri praesidio,
milites colligeret. In answer to the question where ? however, the simple
ablative may be used, but never the genitive ; e. g. Cic. p. Arch, 3. : Archias
Antiochiae natus est, celebri quondam urbe et copiosa ; p. Rob. Post. 10. : De-
liciarum causa et voluptatis cives Romanos Neapoli, in celeberrimo oppido, cum
mitella saepe vidimus. When these words, with their prepositions, precede
the names of towns, the latter are invariably put in the same case ; e. g. ad
urbem Ancyram, ex urbe Roma, ex oppido Thermis, in oppido Athenis ; Nep.
Cim. 3. : in oppido Citio : Tac. Ann. xi. 21.: in oppido Adrumeto. Excep-
tions are rare : Vitruv. Praef. lib. x. : nobili Graecorum et ampla civitate
Ephesi ; and in Cic. ad Att. v. 18. : Cassius in oppido Antiochiae cum omni
exercitu est, where Antiochiae depends upon oppido, just as we say " in the
town of Antioch."
[ *.] Note 3. The words domus and rus are treated like the names of
towns, consequently domum (also domos in the plur.) and rus, home, into
the country ; domo and rure, from home, from the country ; domi, ruri (more
frequent than rure), at home, in the country. But although the rule re-
quires, e. g. domo abesse, to be absent from home, Livy uses esse ab domo ;
and besides domi se tenere, to keep at home, we also find domo se tenere.
(See the comment, on Nep. Epam. 10.) Domi also takes the genitives
meae, tuae, suae, nostrae, vestrae, and alienae ; but if any other adjective is
joined with it, a preposition must be used ; e. g. in ilia domo, in domo publica,
in privata domo ; though Sallust, Jug. 76., has domum rcgiam. When the
name of the possessor is added in the genitive, both forms, domi and in domo
are used ; e. g. domi or in domo Caesaris or ipsius. In the case of domum
and domo, the rule is on the whole the same : we say, e. g., domum meam
venit, nihil domum suam intulit, domos suas invitant, domo sua egredi ; but in
domum meretriciam induci ; in domum veterem remigrare e nova ; Livy : in
domum Maelii tela inferuntur ; Cicero : e domo Caesaris multa ad te delata
sunt ; Cicero, however, very commonly says : domum alicujus venire, convenire*
domos omnium concursare.
Humus, bellum, and militia are, to some extent, construed in a similar way,
their genitives being used to denote the place where f humi, on the ground
(but not humum, (I throw) upon the ground, and rarely humo, from the
ground, prepositions being required to express these relations ; hence humo
is often used as an ablative of place for humi) ; belli and militiae, always in
combination with, or in opposition to, domi : belli domique, or domi bellique,
domi militiaeque, at home and in the camp ; nee ducem belli, nee principem
domi desideramus ; nihil domi, nihil militiae gestum. But we also find in bello,
in war. Viciniae for in vicinia, occurs in Terence in such connections, as hic y
hue viciniae, where, however, the genitive might be regarded as dependent
upon the adverb (see 434.), but Plautus (Bacch. ii. 2. 27.) uses it without
the adverb : proximae viciniae habitat. Foras (out through the door) and
foris (out at the door) have become adverbs, but the one is properly an
accusat., and the other an ablat.
304 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 401.] The poets may express by the accusative any lo-
cality answering to the question whither ? as in Virgil : Italiam
fato profugus Lavinaque venit litora ; Speluncam Dido dux et
Trojanus eandem deveniunt ; Ovid : Vcrba refers aures non per-'
venientia nostras.
[ 402.] 10. In exclamations the accusative of the person or
thing wondered at is used, either with the interjections o, heu,
eheu, or without them. The accusative may be explained by
supplying some verb of emotion or declaration ; e. g. Heu me
miserum ! O wretched man that I am ! heu dementiam existi-
mantium ! O the folly of those who believe, &c. ! or without
heu : me miserum ! Beatos quondam duces Romanos ! exclaims
Corbulo in Tacit. Ann. xi. 20. ; Cic. in Verr. v. 25. : Huncine
hominem ! hancine impudentiam, judices ! hanc audaciam ! and
in an ironical sense, p. Coel. 26.: In balneis delituerunt: testes
egregios ! de Orat. iii. 2. : O fallacem hominum spem fragi-
lemque fortunam et inanes nostras contentiones !
[ MS.] Note 1. With these as with all other interjections the vocative also
is used, when the person or thing itself is invoked ; e. g. Cic. Philip, xiii. 17. :
o miser, quum re, him hoc ipso quod non sentis, quam miser sis! Y.ae and hci
are usually joined with the dative, as vae misero mihi! vae victis! hei mihi,
qiialis eratl
Note 2. Eccc and en (Greek jjj>, fivi) are preferred with the nominative ;
as Ecce tuae litterae! Ecce nova turba atque rixal En ego I En memoria
mortui socialist en metus vivorum existimationis ! Ecce with the accusative
occurs only in comedy, in the expression ecce me! and in the contracted
forms eccum, eccos, ccciUum, eccillam, eccistam.
[ 404.] 1 1 . The following prepositions govern the accu-
sative : ad, apud, ante, adversus and adversum, cis and citra, circa
and circum, circiter, contra, erg a, extra, infra, inter, intra, juxta,
ob, penes, per, pone, post, praeter, prope, propter, secundum, supra,
trans, versus, ultra, and in and sub when joined with verbs of
motion. Respecting super and subter see 320.
CHAP. LXXIL
DATIVE CASE.
[ 405.] 1. THE dative is the case of reference, or if we
compare it with the accusative, the case denoting the remoter
object ; for as the accusative serves to denote the effect or that
which is acted upon, in contrast to the agent or active subject,
DATIVE CASE. 305
so the dative denotes that with reference to which the subject
acts, or in reference to which it possesses this or that quality ;
e. g. scribo vobis hunc librum, I write this book (the agent and
effect, or cause and effect) for you (with reference to you, for
our advantage) ; prosum tibi, I am useful to you (in reference
to you). Hence the dative is used
) With all transitive verbs, besides the accusative, either ex-
pressed or understood, to denote the person in reference to whom
or for whom a thing is done ; e. g. date panem pauperibus, com-
mendo tibi liberos meos, mitto tibi librum, rex mihi domum aedifi-
cavit ; in the following sentences the accusative is understood, or
its place is supplied by the sentences which follow : suadeo tibi,
persuadeo tibi, nuntiavit imperatori, promisit militibus. This rule
implies that the person for whose benefit or loss anything is
done, is expressed by the dative (dativus commodi et incommodi) ;
e. g. Pisistratus sibi, non patriae, Megarenses vicit, Justin ; Non
scholae, sed vitae discimus, Senec. Epist. 106.
[ 406.] b) With intransitive verbs, which though they
usually do not govern any case, may yet express that the action
is done with reference to something or somebody. We mention
here especially vacare, nubere, and supplicare. Vaco signifies
" I am free," hence vaco alicui rei, I have leisure for a thing or
occupy myself with it, as vaco philosophiae. Nubo originally
signifies " I cover ; " and as according to an ancient custom the
bride on her wedding-day covered her face, she was said nubere
alicui viro, " to cover herself for a man," that is, " to marry."
(In the passive, however, we find nupta cum viro.} Supplico
signifies"! am a suppliant" (supplex), hence supplico alicui,
I implore a person. Homo non sibi se soli natum meminerit, sed
patriae, sed suis, Cic. De Fin. ii. 14.
Civitas Romana inter bellorum strepitum parum olim vacabat
liberalibus disciplinis. Sueton. De Grammat.
Plures in Asia mulieres singulis viris solent nubere, Cic.
Neque Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis ejus omnibus pro te,
sicut adhuc fed, libentissime supplicabo. Cic. Ad Fam. vi. 14.
[ 407.] Note 1. Suadeo tibi hanc rem, has nothing that is strange to us,
as we use the same construction in English. Persuadeo denotes the comple-
tion of suadeo, and must be noticed here because its construction differs
from that of our verb " to persuade." We use the passive form " I am per-
suaded," but in Latin we must say hoc (or any other neuter pronoun) mihi
persuadetur, as the construction is managed in such a way as to make the
X
306 LATIN GRAMMAR.
clause which follows the subject : persuadetur miki, persmsum mihi est, miki
persuasum habeo (this occurs only in Caes. Bell. Gall. iii. 2.) esse aliquid, but
also de aliqua re. Persuadeo te has been found in a fragment of Cicero,
p. Tull. 39. ed. Peyron, but is otherwise altogether unclassical ; it explains
however the personal participle persuasus which occurs now and then.
Mihi quidem nunquam persuaderi potuit, animos, dum in corporibus essent
mortalibus, vivere, quum exigsent ex his, emori, Cic. Cat. Maj. 22.
[ 408.] Note 2. The free application of the dative, or what is termed
the dativus commodi et incommodi, enabled the Romans to speak with great
nicety and conciseness. Compare, for example, the following passages,
whose number might be greatly increased, Cic. in Verr. ii. 8. : (Verres) hunc
hominem Veneri dbsolvit, sibi condemnat, to the loss of Venus (whose temple
was to have received a bequest) he acquits him, but for his own benefit he
condemns him ; Terent. Adelph. i. 2. 35. : quod peccat,'Demea, miki peccat.
In Plautus (Capt. iv. 2. 86.), a person answers to the impertinent remark
esurire mihi videris: mihi quidem esurio, non tibi; i. e. it does not concern
lyou. The. dative of personal pronouns is very often used where it is super-
filuous as far as the meaning is concerned, but it always conveys the expres-
'sion of a lively feeling, and is therefore termed dativus.. ethicu^; e. g. Liv.
Praef. Ad ilia mihi pro se quisque acriter intendat animum; Horat. Epist. i.
3. 15. : Quid mihi Celsus agit? What is my old friend Celsus doing? In
some cases the pronoun gives to the expression an almost personal shade of
meaning, Sallust, Cat. 52. : hie mihi quisquam misericordiam nominat! Let
no one talk to me of mercy ! Cic. Philip, viii. 4. : hie mihi etiam Q. Fufius
pads commoda commemorat! The following phrases also should be observed :
quid tibi vis? what do you want? quid sibi iste vult? what does he want?
quid vult sibi haec oratio ? what does this speech mean ? quid haec sibi dona
volunt? what is the meaning of these presents ? or what is their object ?
[ 409.] 2. The dative is joined with all adjectives (and
adverbs) whose meaning is incomplete, unless a person or an
object is mentioned for or against whom, for whose benefit
or loss the quality exists. Of this kind are those which ex-
press utility or injury, pleasantness or unpleasantness, inclination
or disinclination, ease or difficulty, suitableness or unsuitableness,
similarity or dissimilarity, equality or inequality.
Adjectives expressing a friendly or hostile disposition towards
a person, may take the prepositions in, erga, adversus, instead of
the dative ; and utilis, inutilis, aptus, incptus generally take the
preposition ad to express the thing for which any thing is useful
or fit ; e. g. homo ad nullam rern utilis ; locus aptus ad insidias ;
but the person to or for whom a thing is useful or fit, is always
expressed by the dative.
Canis nonne similis lupo ? atque, ut Ennius, " slmia quam
similis, turpissima bestia, nobis!" Cic. De Nat. Deor. i. 35.
Fidelissimi ante omnia homini canis et equus, PI in.
Invia virtuti nulla cst via. Ovid, Met. xiv. 113.
DATIVE CASE. 307
Cunctis esto benignus, nulli blandus, panels familiaris, omnibus
aequus, Seneca.
[ 4io.] Note 1. Amicus, inimicus, familiaris, are properly adjectives, and
as such have their degrees of comparison and are joined with the dative, as
in Nepos : Miltiades amicior omnium libertati, qva.ni suaefuit dominationi; and
homo mihi amicissimus, mihi familiarissimus, are very common expressions.
When used as substantives they are joined with a genitive or an adjective,
as amicus patris mei, amicus meus; and it is owing to their character of sub-
stantives that even in the superlative we find amicissimus, familiarissimus, ini-
micissimus (and on the same principle iniquissimus) meus. Cicero, in Verr. i.
26., uses the genitive : amicissimus nostrorum hominum. Invidus, envious, and
intimus, intimate, when used as adjectives, take the dative, as in Cicero : in-
timus erat Clodio, but as substantives they take the genitive or a possessive
pronoun ; e. g. ab invidis tuis, ex intimis meis, invidus laudis. Hostis, on the
other hand, though a real substantive, sometimes takes a dative according to
the analogy of inimicus; e. g. dis hominibusque hostis.
[ 4ii.] Note 2. The dative is also joined with adjectives and adverbs de-
noting affinity and propinquity, as conterminus, propinquus, vicinus, Jinitimus,
qffinis. As prope, the preposition, governs the accusative, its degrees of com-
parison ( 266.) propior and propius, proximus and proxime, take both the
dative and accusative, e.g. Curt. ix. 12.: propius tribunal accedere, and in
Sallust : Libyes propius mare Africum agitabant, proxime Hispaniam Mauri
sunt. (Comp. Gronovius on Livy, xxii. 40.) Affinis, in the sense of " par-
taking," sometimes takes the genitive, as in Cicero : qffinis hujus suspicionis ;
affinis rei capitalis, together with affinis huic sceleri, ei turpitudini. Vicinus
and vicina are both adjectives and substantives, and in the latter -sense they
take the genitive.
The following adjectives govern both the dative and the genitive : aequalis,
cognominis, contrarius, communis, peculiaris, proprius, superstes. The geni-
tive is very frequent with proprius, e.g. Cic.: Imprimis hominis estpropria vert
investigatio ; Aliae nationes servitutem pati possunt, populi Romani estpropria
libertas, especially when the neuter proprium is used as a substantive in the
sense of " property," or " peculiarity," e. g. Proprium est oratoris ornate
dicere. The same is the case with communis, as in Cic. de Fin. v. 23. : Haec
justitiae ita propria sunt, ut sint reliquarum virtutum communia. Hence a pos-
sessive pronoun is frequently joined to proprius, as ademit nobis omnia, quae
nostra erant propria ; both constructions are combined in Cic. p. Sulla, 3. :
Nulla est enim in re publica causa mea propria : tempus agendi fuit magis
mihi proprium, quam ceteris. Aequalis governs the genitive only in the
sense of " contemporary," in which it occurs also as a substantive, whence
meus aequvlis but the dative is not unusual in this sense. Superstes occurs
in Plautus and Terence with the dative, but in later writers the genitive is
more prevalent. Even Cicero (ad Quint. Frat. i. 3.) says : Utinam te non
solum vitae, sed etiam dignitatis supcrstitem reliquissem, and Tacitus often
uses the genitive, e. g. Agr. 3. : pauci, ut ita dixerim, non modo aliorum sed
etiam nostri superstites sumus.
The adjectives similis,' as.vimilis, consimilis, dissimilis, par and dispar, take
the genitive, when an internal resemblance, or a resemblance in character
and disposition, is to be expressed. Thus we always find mei, tui, sui, nostri,
vestri similis; Liv. i. 20. : quia in civitate bellieosa plures Romuli, quam Numae
similes reges pntabat fore ; iii. 64. : collaudatis consvlibus, quod perseverarent
x 2
308 LATIN GRAMMAR.
ad ultimum dissindles decemvirorum esse ; Cic. Cat. My. 10. : Dux ille Grae-
ciae nusquam optat, ut Ajacis similes Jiabeat decem, at ut Nestoris. And
Cicero may therefore say both mors somni and somno similis. Par and
dispar are joined with the genitives of pronouns, like similis, e. g. Cic. in
Pis. 4.: Q. Metellum, cujus paucos pares haec civitas tulit; Cat. Maj. 21.c
Simplex animi natura est, neque habet in se quicquam admixtum dispar siri
atque dissimile.
[ 412.] 3. Hence the dative is joined with those intransitive
verbs which express the same ideas as the adjectives mentioned
in 409., and also with those denoting, to command, serve, trust,
mistrust, approach, threaten, and to be angry. They are com-
prised in the following list : prosum, auxilior, adminiculor, opi-
tulor, patrocinor, subvenio, succurro, medeor ; noceo, obsum, desum,
officio, incommodo, insulto, insidior ; faveo, placeo, gratrficor, in-
dulgeo, ignosco, studeo, parco, adulor, blandior, lenocinor, palpor,
assentior, assentor, respondeo ; adversor, refragor, obsto, renitor^
repugno, resisto, invideo, aemulor, obtrecto, convicior, maledico ;
placeo, arrideo displiceo ; impero (may be used also as a tran-
sitive), pareo, cedo, ausculto, obedio, obsequor, obtempero, mori-
geror (morem gero), alicui dicto audiens sum, servio, inservio, mi-
nistro, famulor, ancillor, praestolor ; credo (is used also in a
transitive sense), fido, confido, diffido ; immineo, propinquo, ap~
propinquo, impendeo, occurro ; minor, commmor (both are used
also in a transitive sense), irascor, stomachor, succenseo. To
these must be added the impersonals convenit, it suits ; conducit
and expedit, it is conducive, expedient ; dolet, it grieves. The
beginner must take especial care not to use the passive of these
verbs personally, to which he might easily be tempted by the
English equivalents ; e. g. / am envied, I am molested, I am
scolded, I am spared, and the like. In Latin the passive is
impersonal : mihi invidetur, obtrectatur, incommodatur, mihi ma-
ledicitur, parcitur. Jubeo, I command, forms an exception,
requiring the accusative with the infinitive.
Probus invidet nemini, Cic. Timaeus, 3.
Efficit hoc philosophia : medetur animis, inanes soUicitudincs
detrahit, cupiditatibus liberat, pellit timores. Cic. Tusc. ii. 4.
Antiochus se nee impensae, nee labori, nee periculo parsurum pol-
licebatur, donee liberam vere Graeciam atque in ea principes
Aetolos fecisset, Liv. xxxv. 44.
Demosthenes ejus ipsius artis, cui studebat, primam litteram non
peterat dicere, Cic. De Orat. i. 6 1 .
DATIVE CASE. 309
[ 413.] Note 1 . Medicor, like medeor, takes the dative, but also the
accusative. Medico, in the sense of, " to mix substances in an artificial
manner," governs the accusative. Benedico, like maledico (I speak well or ill
of a person, and hence, I praise or blame), governs the dative ; but benedico,
in this sense, is very rare : in the sense of " blessing," with the accusative,
it occurs only in the ecclesiastical writers. Obtrectare alicui and alicui
rei, to detract, is sometimes joined with the accusative ; but not in Cicero,
as obtrectare numen deorum, libellum. Invideo is commonly used intransi-
tively with one dative, either of the person or the thing ; but sometimes
the accusative of the thing is added to the dative of the person ; e. g. Cic.
Tusc. iii. 2. : invident nobis optimum magistram (naturam) ; Horat. Serrn.
i. 6. 50. : honorem mihi invidet. Quintilian (ix. 3.), however, observes that
his contemporaries used the ablat. instead of the accusat. of the earlier
writers, but only when invidere is equivalent to privare : this construction
first occurs in Livy, ii. 40. : non inviderunt laude sua mulieribus Romani (ac-
cording to the best MSS.) ; very frequently in the younger Pliny, and some-
times in Tacitus ; e. g. Plin. Epist. ii. 10. : Quousque et tibi et nobis invidebis,
tibi maxima laude, nobis voluptate ? (See Corte on Epist. i. 10.) Tac. Ann.
i. 22. : ne hostes quidem sepulturd invident, sell, occisis ; German. 33. : ne spec-
taculo quidem proelii invidere, scil. nobis. The genitive instead of this abla-
tive or ancient accusative, in Horace, Serm. ii. 6. 84., neque ille sepositi
ciceris nee longae invidit avenae, is a mere Grecism ; and the personal
passive in the same poet (Ars Poet. 56.), cur ego invideor, is a gram-
matical innovation, which the poet tried intentionally, and as an ex-
ample. Respecting adulor and aemulor with the dative and accusative
see 389. Praestolor, I wait upon a person, and ausculto, I listen or obey,
are used by equally good authorities both with a dative and accusative,
though Cicero prefers the dative. Dominor, I rule, is joined with a dative
or genitive only in the latest Latin writers ; in the classical language it does
not govern any case, but according to its proper meaning, " I am master,"
is joined with in aliquem or in aliqua re ; e. g. dominatur in cetera animalia,
or IK civitate. Fido and confido take the dative ; e. g. confido mihi, causae
meae, virtuti constantiaeque militum; the thing which produces the confi-
dence is put in the ablative (ablativus causae, see 452.) ; e. g. confido arte,
natura loci, celeritate navium, propinquitate castrorum, and this ablative oc-
curs, on the whole, more frequently than the dative. The adjective fretus,
which has the same meaning, occurs with the dative only in Livy, iv. 37. :
fortnnae fretus ; vi. 13.: nutti rei; vi. 31.: discordiae hostium, and usually has
the ablative. Cedo, I yield, give up, when used transitively, takes a dative of
the person and an accusative of the thing : cedo tibi locum, regnum, mulierem ;
sometimes, however, the thing is expressed by the ablative, as cedo tibi horto-
rum possessione. So also concedo : concedo tibi locum, praemia, libertatem, or
concede tibi loco, de victoria. Convenit aliquid mihi, something suits me ;
convenit mihi tecum is used impersonally in the sense of " we agree," and
equivalent to convenimus de aliqua re. The verbs denoting similarity or
dissimilarity should be construed with the dative, like the adjectives similis
and dissimilis, but in prose they are commonly joined with the prepositions
cum and ab ; e. g. congruo, consentio, abhorreo, dissideo. Comp. 468. foil.
[ 414.] Note 2. Several verbs have a different meaning according as they
take the accus. or dat.
Metuo, timeo, and vereor te, I fear thee ; tibi, I am alarmed on thy account,
which is also expressed by tud causa.
x 3
310 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Consulo te, I consult thee ; tibi, I provide for thy interests.
Prospicio and provideo te, I see thee at a distance ; tibi, I provide for thy
interests.
Caveo, without any case, " I am on my guard ;" a te, against thee, and in
a legal sense, " I make thee give security to me for something," de aliquot
re. Caveo te, I avoid thee : caveo tibi, I provide or am concerned for thy
safety, and hence in a legal sense " I give thee security."
Tempero and moderor aliquid, I regulate or arrange a thing ; mihi, animo,
irae, lacrimis (scil. meis), I set bounds to, or check. Tempero mihi ab
aliqua re, I abstain from a thing, and tempera (scil. mihi) tibi, I am sparing
in regard to thee, or I spare thee, equivalent to parco tibi.
*
[ 415.] 4. Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad,
ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, sub, and super, retaining, as
compounds, the meaning of the prepositions, may be joined with
a dative instead of repeating the preposition or an equivalent
one with the case it requires. They are either transitives, and
as such have an accusative besides, or intransitives without an
accusative of the object.
The following are the most important transitive verbs of this
kind: addo, affero, affigo, adhibeo, adjicio, adjungo, admoveo,
alllgo, applico; circumjicio; comparo, compono, confer o, conjungo ;
immisceo, impono, imprimo, incldo, includo, infero, ingero, injicio,
insero, inuro; interjicio, interpono ; objicio, offundo, oppono; post-
habeo, postpone; praefero, praeficio, praepono; subjicio, suppono,
substerno.
The following are intransitive: accedo, acquiesco, adhaereo,
alludo, annuo, arrepo, assideo, asplro ; antecello ; cohaereo, col-
ludo, congruo, consentio, consono; excello; incido, incubo and in-
Gumbo, indormio, inkaereo, inhio, immorior, immoror, innascor,
insisto; interjaceo, intervenio; obrepo, obstrepo, obversor; praemineo,
praesideo, praevaleo ; succumbo, supersto, supervivo, and the
compounds of esse: adsum, insum, intersum, praesum, subsum,
supersum.
Note. We must pay particular attention to the difference between
the dative joined with these verbs, and the dative governed by those men-
tioned in 412. With the latter it is necessary and dependent upon the
signification of the verbs ; but with those just enumerated, it is to be re-
garded as a short mode of speaking, in which the dat. supplies the place of a
preposition with its case ; e. g. leges axibus ligneis incisae, and leges in aes
incisae, or Senatusconxidtum in aere incisum. The beginner must further
observe, that we are speaking of those compounded verbs only, in which the
prepositions retain their meaning of place, for in some compounded with ad
DATIVE CASE. 311
and cum, this is not the case ; e.g. confugere, to take refuge, cannot take either
the preposition cum or a dative, the meaning of the preposition con being
lost in this compound. This is still more apparent in confringere, corrum-
pere, where con (cum) only strengthens the sense of the simple verb. Af-
firmare and approbare may indeed be joined with a dative, but only because
they are transitive verbs, and not on account of the preposition they contain.
We have not been able above to mention all those compound verbs, in
which the preposition retains its meaning, and which, instead of repeating
the preposition, take the dative, for their number, especially that of tran-
sitives, is unlimited ; we have given those only with which, comparatively
speaking, the dative occurs most frequently. There are some with which
the dative is used exclusively, and the repetition of the preposition would
be offensive, the reason being the signification of the verbs themselves :
praeficio and praepono, e. g. might have been mentioned among the verbs
in 412., being joined exclusively with the dative. But there can be no
fear of mistakes in these words.
[ 416.] It must be remarked in general thai in the early
and unpolished prose, the preposition or one equivalent to
it, is usually repeated ; more especially in verbs compounded
with ad, con, and in ? e. g. adhibeo, confero, conjungo, com-
munico, comparo, imprlmo, inscribe, insum, and also interest in
the sense of " there is a difference ; " e. g. Cicero : studium ad-
hibere ad disciplinas ; conferte (comparate, contendite) lianc pacem
cum illo bello ; hospitio et amicitia mecum conjunxi, or, cum aliquo
conjunclus sum; consilia sua mecum communicavit ; in omnium
animis dei notionem impressit ipsa natura ; in liac vita nihil inest
nisi miseria. The dative, however, is not to be rejected, being
used sometimes by Cicero, and more frequently by later writers.
Illacrimare, to weep over, e. g. morti Socratis, is generally
used with the dative only; the preposition at least is never
repeated.
The following verbs require some further explanation. In-
cumbo, I lean or press upon, and figuratively, " I apply to or
study a thing ; " in the former sense alone it is joined with the
dative, though sometimes also with the preposition super ; in its
figurative sense, it is construed in prose with ad, and still more
frequently with in with the accusative. The verbs assuescere,
consuescere, and insuescere, to accustom a person or one's self (se
however is omitted) to a thing, are sometimes construed with
the dative and sometimes with the ablative ; acquiescere, to ac-
quiesce, likewise takes either the dative or ablative; e.g.
Cic. pro Mil. 37 : Qui maxime P. Clodii morte acquierunt, but
x 4
312 LATIN GRAMMAR.
more frequently in with the ablative, in the sense of " to find
peace or satisfaction ; " e. g. in tuis litteris, in juvenum caritate.
Supersedere likewise takes the ablative, and indeed more fre-
quently than the dative, probably because its sense is equivalent
to dbstinere ; e. g. supersedere labore itineris.
It is not difficult to determine which prepositions may be
used for others, in case of repetition being necessary, for it
always depends upon the sense : in is used for ad : e. g. ac-
cedere in oppidum, aspirare in curiam ; db for ex ; e. g. eripere ex
miseriis and a miseria; ad for in; e. g. incumbere ad studia; in,
ad } ante, and contra for ob ; e. g. aliquid obrepit in animum, ob-
repere ad honores, obversari ante oculos, vallum objicere contra
impetum hostium ; ad and ante for pro ; e. g. procumbere ante
pedes, ad genua.
[ 417.] The compounds of verbs of motion are construed
with both cases, either the dative or the accusative, and some
compounds of jacere, stare and sedere, follow their analogy.
(See 386.) Hence the verbs of excelling, if their simple verbs
denote motion, are construed chiefly with the accusative, and
antecello, praecello and praemineo, which at least admit the accu-
sative, follow their example. (See 386.) The following must be
noticed separately on account of their twofold construction :
allatro, I bark at, address in a coarse manner ; attendo, I attend
to (the same as animum attendo ad aliquid or ad aliquem) ;
obumbro, I overshadow, all these occur most frequently with
the accusative, whence they have a personal passive ; but illudo >
I ridicule, is found with the dative as often as with the accusa-
tive ; e. g. illudo memoriae, existimationi alicujus, signis et aquilis
Romanis, and praecepta rhetorum, corpus Vari. Despero, I de-
spair of a thing, is used as an intransitive verb with de or with
the dative ; e. g. desperat de re publica, sibi, fortunis suis ; as a
transitive verb (I give up) it takes the accusative ; e. g. despero
rem publicam, pacem.
Praeverto, in the transitive sense of " I prefer," takes an ac-
cusative of the object and a dative, instead of which however
the preposition prae may be repeated ; e. g. uxorem praeverto
prae republica or reipublicae ; in the intransitive sense of " I go
before," " precede," or " anticipate," it may take either the ac-
cusative or dative, praeverto te, fata, pietas praevertit amort; in
DATIVE CASE. 313
a reflective sense, praeverto, sell, me, or praevertor, it takes either
the preposition ad or the dative, praeverto ad interna, praeverto
rei mandatae. The deponent again takes the meaning of " I '
prefer," aliquant rem alicui rei, Liv. viii. 13. : consules coacti
omnibus earn rem praeverti.
[ 418.] 5. The verbs aspergo and inspergo, circumdo and cir-
cumfundo, dono and impertio, exuo and induo are used, like the
above-mentioned transitives, with an accusative of the thing
and a dative of the person, or with an accusative of the person
and an ablative of the thing ; e. g. circumdo alicui custodias, or
circumdo aliquem custodiis, and consequently in the passive
voice custodiae tibi circumdantur or (tu) circumdaris custodiis.
So also : maculas aspergo vitae tuae, or maculis vitam tuam as-
pergo ; dono tibi pccuniam, or pecunia te dono ; impertio tibi
laudes, or laudibus te impertio, &c. We find exuo tibi clipeum,
induit sibi torquem, or still more frequently exuo and induo
vestem, the dative expressing my own person being omitted.
Exuo te aliqua re occurs only in the figurative sense of " I rob
thee of a thing." Induo, I betake myself into some place, is
commonly joined with the preposition in or with a dative. In-
tercludo, I cut off, alicui aliquid, e. g. hostibus fugam, or as a
verb implying distance, aliquem aliqua re and ab aliqua re, e. g.
milites itinere, or ab exercitu. Intcrdico tibi aliquid', I forbid
thee something ; the construction interdico te aliqua re does not
occur, but a mixture of both interdico tibi aliqua re (e. g. in the
Roman form of outlawry aqua et igni\ I forbid thee the use of
a thing. The double construction of mactare does not belong to
this place, as it arises from two different meanings of the word :
the original one " to honour," requires the accusative and abla-
tive ; e. g. Cic. in Vatin. 6. : puerorum extis deos manes mactare
soles; the derivative meaning "to slaughter" is the ordinary
one, victimas diis mactare.
[ 419.] 6. With passive verbs the dative is sometimes used
instead of ab with the ablative.
Quidquid in hac causa mild susceptum est, Quirites, id omne me
rei publicae causa suscepisse confirmo, Cic. p. Leg. Man. 24.
Barbarus hie ego sum, quia non intelligor ulli, Ovid, Trist.
Note. It is a rule of the Latin language to join the dative instead of ab
with the ablat. to the participle future passive ; e. g. moriendum mihi est.
See 649. If this were not the case, we should consider the dative with
passive verbs as a Grecism, for it rarely occurs in the earlier Latin prose
314 LATIN GRAMMAR.
(especially in Cicero and Caesar), and with the exception of a few instances,
is confined to the participle perfect passive and the tenses formed from it. In
poetry and the later prose writers instances like the above quotation from
Ovid are extremely numerous, as poets, in general, were fond of introducing
Greek constructions. The following passages are the only ones in which Cicero
adopted the practice : de Invent, i. 46. : ilia nobis olio tempore explicabuntur ;
in Verr. iii. 16. : tibi consulatus quaerebatur; de Nat. Deor. ii. 48. : sic dissimil-
Kmis bestiolis communiter dims quaeritur; de OJff. iii. 9. : honesta bonis viris,
van occulta quaeruntur; Cat. Maj. 11. : semper in his studiis Idboribusque vivenli
non intelligitur, quando obrepat senectus; ad Att. i. 16. : in ea praesertim epis-
tola, quam nolo aliis legi, probably for ab aliis. I doubt whether there are
any other passages in Cicero, for the phrase mihi probatur is of a different
kind, since probo tibi is of quite common occurrence in the sense of " I make
a thing plausible to thee,"
[ 420.] 7. Esse with the dative of a person expresses the
English " to have," e. g. sunt mihi multi libri, I have many
books, the same as habeo multos libros.
Homini cum deo similitude est, Cic. de Leg. i. 8.
An nescis, longas regibus esse manus ? Ovid, Heroid. 17.
Note. "We must here notice a Grecism which occurs in Sallust and Tacitus :
aliquid mihi volcnti est, I like a thing. Sallust, Jug. 84. : quia neque plebi
militia volenti (esse) putabatur ; Tacit. Agr. 18. : quibus bellum volentibus erat;
Ann. i. 59. : ut quibusque bellum invitis out cupientibus erat, as in Greek TOVTO
fioi (3ov\ofisv<i> tariv. Comp. Tac. Hist. iii. 43. ; Ann. xv. 36. Abest and deest
mihi, as opposed to est mihi, therefore means " I have not," as in Cic. Brut.
80. : Hoc unum illi, si nihil utilitatis habebat, abfuit, si opus erat, defuit; de
Leg. i. 2. : abest enim historia litteris nostris.
[ 421.] Hence mihi est nomen or cognomen (also cognomentum,
and in Tacitus vocabulum) signifies " I have a name," that is,
" my name is" or " I am called." The name itself is put either
in the nominative or the dative, being attracted by the dative
of the person.
Syracusis est fons aquae dulcis, cui nomen Arethusa est, Cic. in
Verr. iv. 53.
Consules leges decemvirales, quibus tabulis duodecim est nomcn, in
aes incisas, in publico proposuerunt, Liv. iii. 57.
Note. The same is the case with the (passive) expressions datum, inditum,
factum est nomen; e. g. Tarquinius, cui cognomen Superbo ex moribus datum.
The name itself is commonly put in the dative also with the active verbs
dare, addere, indere, dicer e, ponere, imponere, tribuere alicui nomen; e. g. dare
alicui cognomen tardo ac pingui; desipiunt omnes aeque ac tu, qui tibi nomen
insano posuere, Horat. ; but it may also be put in the same case as nomen,
that is, in the accus., as in Livy : stirps virilis, cui Ascanium parentes dixere
nomen, and in the edict of the censors in Suetonius, de Clar. Rhet. I . : eos
gibi nomen imposuisse Latinos rhetores. The nominative in Ovid, Met. \.
DATIVE CASE. 315
169. : (via) luctea nomen habet, and xv. 96. : (aetas) cuifecimus aurea nomen,
is a purely poetical licence, where the names are taken, ungrammatically, as
mere sounds.
The name may be expressed also by the genitive, according to the general
rule that of two substantives joined to each other, one is put in the geni-
tive ; e. g. Plaut. Amphitr, Prol. 19. : nomen Mercurii est mihi; in prose,
Veil. Pat. i. 11. : Q. Metellus praetor, cui ex virtute Macedonici nomen inditum
erat; and ii. 11. : Q. Metello meritum virtute cognomen Numidici inditum est.
But this is not the ordinary practice in the case of real proper names, and
the dative must be regarded as the proper Latin case. See Ruhnken on
Veil. Pat. ii. 11.
[ 422.] 8. With the verbs esse, dare, mittere and venire, and
others of the same meaning, besides the dative of the person,
another is used to express the purpose, intention, and desti-
nation.
Dare belongs to this class both in its sense of " to give," and
in that of " to put to one's account." The following verbs have
a similar meaning : apponere, ducere, habere, tribuere and vertere.
Esse, in this respect, is equivalent to the English " to do," in
" it does him honour," and the passives fieri, dari, dud, haberi,
tribui, verti, have a similar meaning. Proficisci is sometimes
construed like venire.
Virtutes hominibus decori gloriaeque sunt, Seneca.
Attains, Asiae rex, regnum suum Romanis dono dedit.
Mille Plataeenses Athenicnsibus adversus Persas auxilio vene-
runt.
Quid in Graeco sermone tarn tritum atque celebratum est, quam
si quis despicatui ducitur, ut Mysorum ultimus esse dicatur ?
Cic. p. Place. 27.
Note. There is a great variety of datives of this kind ; e. g. dono aliquid
muneri, praemio; relinquo milites auxilio, subsidio, praesidio, custodiae; tri-
buitur or datur mihi vitio, crimini, odio, probro, opprobrio, laudi, sahiti, uti-
litati, emolumento, &c. The phrase cui bonofuitf signifies " to whom was it
an advantage ? We must especially notice such datives as esui, usui, quaestui,
derisui, cordi, curae aliquid est, and also canere receptui, to sound a retreat ;
doti dico, I set aside as a dowry ; appono pignori, I pawn. Instead of hoc
argumento est, we may also say hoc argumentum, documentum, indicium est; and
with dare and similar verbs we may also use the accusative in apposition;
e. g. Liv. ii. 22. : Latini coronam auream Jovi donum in. Capitolium mittvud.
Sometimes also the prepositions in or ad may be used ; e. g. reliquit ibi
exercitum ad praesidium, gloriam mihi in crimen vertis.
316 LATIN GRAMMAR.
CHAP. LXXIII.
GENITIVE CASE.
[ 423.] 1. WHEN two substantives are united with each other
so as to form the expression of one idea, one of them is in the
genitive ; but if one of the substantives serves to explain or de-
fine the other, they are said to be in apposition to each other,
and both are in the same case. This genitive, dependent upon
a substantive, is in Latin of a double kind, according as it ex-
presses either the subject or the object. The genitive is subjec-
tive, when it denotes that which does something or to which a
thing belongs ; e. g. hominum facta, liber pueri : it is objective
when it denotes that which is affected by the action or feeling
spoken of.
This objective genitive is used very extensively in Latin, for
it is not only joined with those substantives which are derived
from verbs governing the accusative e. g. expugnatio urbis,
the taking of the town ; indagatio veri, the investigation of
truth ; scientia linguae, the knowledge of a language ; amor pa~
triae, the love of one's country ; cupiditas pecuniae, desire for
money ; cura rerum alienarum, care of other men's affairs ;
odium hominum, hatred against men but with those also, the
corresponding verb of which requires either a different case, or
a preposition ; e. g. taedium laboris, disgust for work ; fiducia
virium suarum, confidence in his own strength ; contentio ho-
norum, a contest for honours; incitamentum periculorum, cog-
nitio orbis terrarum omniumque gentium, &c.
Nuper Gn. Domitium scimus M. Silano, consulari homini, diem
dixisse propter unius hominis, Aegritomari, paterni amici atque
hospitis, injurias, Cic. Divin. 20.
Est autem amicitia nihil aliud, nisi omnium dimnarum humana-
rumque rerum cum benivolentia et caritate summa consensio,
Cic. Lael. 6.
Initium et causa belli (civilis) inexplebilis honorum Marii fames,
Flor. iii. 21.
GENITIVE CASE. 317
Note 1. Something analogous to the Latin subjective and objective geni-
tive occurs in English in such expressions as " God's love," that is, the love
which God shows to men, and the "love of God," that is, the love which
men bear to God. The Latin language having no such means of distin-
guishing, is frequently ambiguous ; e. g. fuga hominum may be either " the
escape from men," or " the flight" or " escape of men," and in all such com-
binations as metus hostium, injuria mulierum, judicium Verris, triumphus
Bojorum, opinio deorum, the genitive may be either subjective (active) or
objective (passive), but the context generally shows what is meant, as in sine
metu hostium esse, magnus incesserat timor sagittarum, ex injuria mulierum
Sabinarum bellum ortum est; Empedocles in deorum opinione turpissime labitur,
Cic. de Nat. Dear, i. 12. But in case of any real ambiguity, a preposition
may be used in Latin instead of the genitive ; e. g. ex injuria in or adversus
mulieres, in opinione de diis. This is the case especially with substantives
denoting a disposition, either friendly or hostile towards any thing ; e. g.
amor (animus) meus erga te, odium (ira) adversus Carthaginienses, bellum in
Romanos, conspiratio contra dignitatem tuam; triumphus de Gallis, judicium de
te meum, liber de philosophia, in libra quinto de natura deorum. In general,
however, a preposition is much more rarely used in joining two substantives,
and it is a part of the conciseness of the Latin language to express the rela-
tion of the genitive, if possible, by the genitive itself. This however is im-
possible, for instance, when a place whence ? or whither ? is mentioned ; e. g.
transmissus (the passage) ex Gallia in Britanniam, reditus in coelum, Her ex
Italia in Macedoniam. Sometimes the two kinds of construction are com-
bined : Gic. de Off. i. 28. : Adhibenda est igitur quaedam reverentia adversus
homines et optimi cujusque et reliquorum. (See our note on this passage.)
Sometimes even a subjective and an objective genitive are found by the side
of each other, as in Cic. de Off. i. 14. : L. Suttae et G. Caesaris pecuniarum
translatio a justis dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri; ad Fam. x. 3 ;
orbitas reipublicae talium virorum; in Verr. v. 50. : nihil est quod multorum
naufragia fortunae colligas; Caes. Sell. Gall. i. 30. : pro veteribus Helvetia-
rum injuriis populi Romani; i. e. which the Helvetians had done to the
Roman people. Comp. Synt. ornat. 791.
[ 424.] Note 2. As a personal pronoun supplies the place of a substantive,
its genitive generally with an objective meaning may be joined with a substan-
tive; e.g.vestri causam gero, I take care of you; misericordiam nostri hale,
have pity upon us, especially with verbal substantives ending in or, ix, and
to ; e. g. Cicero : misitjilium non solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem
mei ; nimia aestimatio sui ; valet ad commendationem tui ; milites ad deditionem
sui incitare; rationem et sui et aliorum habere. The place of the subjective
genitive of personal pronouns is supplied by the possessive pronouns, whence
we do not say liber mei, but liber meus. Sometimes, however, the genitive of
personal pronouns has a subjective meaning, as in Curtius, iv. 45. : ad Cyrum
nobilissimum regem originem sui referens, and vi. 32. : conspectus vestri vene-
rabilis (see the comment, on Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 4.) ; and sometimes, on the
other hand, a possessive pronoun not unfrequently takes the place of an .ob-
jective genitive, and that not only when joined with verbal substantives in
or and ix, e.g. ipse suusfuit accusator, terra altrix nostra, but in other cases
also, as invidia tua, envy of thee ; Jiducia tua, confidence in thee ; familiaritas
tua; friendship for thee ; spes mea, the hope placed in me (Tac.^lnre. ii. 71.);
amori nostro pluscvlum largiare, from love towards us ; noluit rationem habere
svam, that notice was taken of him ; non sua solum ratio habenda est, sed etiam
318 LATIN GRAMMAR.
aliorum, Cic. de Off. i. 39. This is especially frequent in connection with the
substantive injuriac, c. g. injurias meets, tuas, pej-sequor, ulciscor, that is, tlie
wrong done to me, thee. The peculiar expressions mea, tud, sud, nostra,
vestrd, causa, for my, thy, his, &c., sake, must be especially noticed, for the
genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are never used in this connection with
causa. Sometimes the genitive of the person implied in such an adjective
pronoun is added, as in : tuwn hominis simplicis pectus vidimus ; juravi rem-
publicam mea unius opera esse salvam; tot homines med solius solliciti sunt
causa; ad tuam ipsius amicitiam aditum habuit; vestra ipsorum causa hoc fed.
The genitive of a participle in this connection occurs only in poetry, as in
Horat. Serm. i. 4. 23. : quum mea nemo scripta legat, vulgo recitare timentis.
See Heindorfs note on this passage.
[425.] NoteS. The immediate connection between two substantives, which
is expressed by the genitive of the substantive dependent upon the other, is
entirely different from the juxtaposition of two substantives in apposition to
each other. But there are cases where the construction of the genitive is
preferred, although the substantives are in reality in apposition. This is the
case especially with vox, nomen, verbum, and similar words to which the name
itself is joined in the genitive ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. ii. 2. : Epicurus non intelligit,
quid sonet haec vox voluptatis, that is, this word pleasure ; ii. 24 : ex amore
nomen amicitiae ductum est, i. e. the word amicitia; Sueton. Aug. 53. : dotniid
appellationem semper exhorruit. This is regularly done, when the genus is
denned by the species, as in arbor fici, a fig tree ; flos violae, a violet ; virtus
continentiae, the virtue of abstinence ; vitium ignorantiae, the defect called igno-
rance ; familia Scipionum, the family of the Scipios and also in geographical
names, as oppidum Antiochiae, promontorium Miseni, in which case however
it is more usual to put the name in apposition in the same case as the generic
term. There are some other cases in which one substantive intended as an
explanation of another is put in the genitive, instead of the case of the word to
be explained (genitivus epexegeticus) ; e.g. Curt. viii. 35. : Nocturnum frigus
vehementius quam alias horrore corpora affecit, opportunumque remediurn ignis
oblatum est, i. e. a convenient remedy, viz. fire. Cicero frequently uses genus
and causa in the same way ; e. g. in Cat. ii. 8. : unum genus est eorum qui ;
de Leg. Agr. ii. 14. : Duae sunt hujus obscuritatis causae, una pudoris, altera
sceleris, the one is shame and the other malice ; Philip, i. 11.: nee eritjustior
in senatum non veniendi causa morbi, quam mortis ; in Verr. iv. 5 1 . : omnia
propter earn causam sceleris istius evenire videntur, for this reason, -viz. his
crime. Comp. de Off. ii. 5. : collectis causis cluvionis, pestilentiae, &c., the
other causes, inundation, plague, &c. The genitive of gerunds is used in the
same way as that of substantives ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 36. : Triste est nomen
ipsum carendi, the very word to want is sad ; Senec. ad Polyb. 29. : Est
magna felicitas in ipsa felicitate moriendi. In such cases the construction of
apposition is very unusual in Latin ; see however 598.
Q. Metellus Macedonicus, quum sex liberos rclinquerct, undecim nepotes reliquit,
nurus vero generosque et omnes, qui se patris appellatione salutarent, viginti
septem, Plin. Hist. Nat. vii. 11.
[ 426.] 2. The genitive in the immediate connection of two
substantives also expresses the external condition or the internal
nature of a thing ; and if any of the tenses of esse, fieri, hdberi,
appears in such a combination, the genitive is not dependent
GENITIVE CASE. 319
upon these verbs, but must rather be explained by the omission
of a substantive as homo and res. This at the same time con-
stitutes the difference between the genitive of quality (genitivus
qualitatis) and the ablative of quality with the verb esse. But as
there is a special part of speech to express qualities, viz. the ad-
jective, the quality can be expressed by a substantive only when
this substantive itself is qualified by an adjective. We cannot
say, for axample, homo ingenii, a man of talent (which is ex-
pressed by homo ingeniosus), but we may say homo magni, summi,
excellentis ingenii. Again, we cannot say homo annorum, but
we may say homo viginti or quadraginta annorum:. "We must
notice also the genitive modi which joined with a pronoun sup-
plies the place of a pronoun of quality ; e. g. cujusmodi libri,
the same as quales libri, what kind of books ; hujusmodi libri,
that is, tales libri, such books. The genitive 'generis, which is
used, in the same sense, is less frequent,
Athenienses belli duos duces deligunt, Periclem, spectatae virtutis
virum, et Sophoclem, scriptorem tragoediarum, Justin, iii. 6.
Titus facilitatis tantae fu.it et liberalitatis, ut nemini quidquam
negarct, Eutrop. vii. 21.
Hamilcar secum in Hispaniam duxitjilium Hannibalem annorum
novcm, Nep. Ham. 3.
Spes unica populi Romani, L. Quinctius, trans Tiberim quattuor
jugerum colebat agrum, Liv. iii. 26.
[ 427.] Note. The genitive thus serves to express all the attributes of a
person or thing, relating to its extent, number, weight, duration, age, and the
like, provided such attributes are expressed by the immediate connection of
substantives. Thus we say colossus centum viginti pedum, a colossus of 120 feet
in height ; fossa quindecim pedum, a ditch of 15 feet (in length or breadth);
corona parvi ponderis, a crown of little weight ; Aristides exilio decem annorum
multatus est; frumentum dierum triginta in urbe erat; classis centum navium ; or
with esse, which however has no influence upon the construction, although we
sometimes translate it by " consist of," e. g. classis Persarum mille et ducentarum
navium longarum fuit, consisted of 1200 ships of war. With the genitive of
extent or measure, we may connect the ablatives which we express in English
by "with regard to," as longitudine,latitudine,crassitudine, altitudine,orin longi-
tudinem, &c. ; e.g. duo actus jugerum efficiunt longitudine pedum CCXL, lati-
tudine pedum CXX ; Inter Mbsam Khenumque trium ac viginti milium spatio
fossam perduxit, Tac. Ann. xi. 20. ; but the genitive does not depend upon
these words.
The fact of tliis genitive of condition or quality being limited to the im-
mediate connection of two substantives, must be strongly impressed upon the
mind of the beginner, in order that he may distinguish from it the accusative
denoting extent of space and time, which is joined to verbs and adjectives,
and the ablative of quality, which is governed by esss, or praeditus,instrucha,
320 LATIN GRAMMAR.
ornatus. For, without the influence of any other part of speech, we say :
fossa quindecim pcdum ; but when the adjective longus or latus is added, we
must say fossa quindecim pedes lata ; in like manner puer decem annorum, but
puer decem annos natus. ( 395. foil.) When the ablative of quality is closely
joined with another substantive, praeditus or the participle of esse being
understood, as in eximia forma pueri, this expression is quite the same as pueri
exitniae formae in meaning, but by no means in reference to the grammatical
construction of the words.
[ 428.] Lastly, we must notice some peculiar expressions, in which the
accusative is used adverbially instead of the genitive of quality : Secus (see
above 84. and 89.) joined to virile or muliebre signifies " of the male " or
" female sex," and is equivalent to sexus virilis ; e. g. Liv. xxvi. 47. : libe-
rorum capitum virile secus ad X milia capta. Genus, joined with a pronoun,
as hoc, id, illud, quod, or with omne, is used for hujus, ejus, omnis generis ;
e.g. Cic. ad Att. xiii. 12.: orationes aut aliquid id genus scribcre; Horat.
Serm. ii..6. 44. : concredere nugas hoc genus; it is more curious in connection
with other cases, as Varro, de L. L. x. in fin. : in verbis id genus, quae non
declinantur; de R. R. iii. 5. : portions avibus omne genus appletae ; Sueton.
Tit. 7. : uno die quinque milia omne genus ferarum dedit, for ferarum omnis
generis. Pondo (see 87.), joined quite as an indeclinable word to the
accusatives libram and libras, instead of the genitive, occurs frequently in
Livy ; e. g. iv. 20. : Dictator coronam auream libram pondo in Capitolio
Jovi donum posuit : and in the plural, xxvi. 47. : Paterae aureae fuerunt
CCLXXVI. libras ferme omnes pondo.
[ 429.] 3. The genitive is used to express the whole, of
which anything is a part, or to which it belongs as a part. This
is the case : a) with substantives denoting a certain measure of
things of the same kind ; e. g. modius, medimnum tritici, libra
farris, magna vis auri, jugerum agri, ala equitum. This geni-
tive may be termed genitivus generis. Z>) With all words which
denote a part of a whole (genitivus partitivus) where we often
use the preposition, " of or " among." All comparatives and
superlatives belong to this class ; e. g. doctior horum (duorum)
juvenum ; doctissimus omnium ; eloquentissimus Romanorum, fe-
rocissimi exulum, and also all words implying a number, whether
they are real numerals, or pronouns and adjectives, as quis, ali-
quis, quidam, liter, alter, neuter, alteruter, uterque, utervis, aliquot,
solus, nullus, nonnulli, multi,paud; or substantives, as nemo, pars,
numerus. The genitive belonging to the superlative of adjec-
tives is retained also with superlatives as adverbs. Thus we
say optimus omnium est, and also optime omnium vixit.
Graecorum oratorum praestantissimi sunt ii, qui fuerunt Athenis,
eorum autem princeps facile Demosthenes, Cic. de Opt. Gen.
Orat. 4.
Populus Romanus legem dedit, ut consulum utique alter ex plebe
crearetur, Liv. vi. 35.
GENITIVE CASE. 321
Duo sunt aditus in Ciliciam ex Syria, quorum uterque parvis
praesidiis propter angustias intercludi potest, Cic. ad Fam.
xv. 4.
[ 430.] Note 1. The poets use the genitive also with other adjectives
(in the positive), but this seldom occurs in prose. Livy frequently has the
expressions delecti equitum, expediti militum ; in Sallust (Catf. 53.) we find
cffoeta parentum, and in Veil. Pat. ii. 8. : veteres Romanorum ducum. (See
the remarks of Corte and Ruhnken on these passages.) The genitive, how-
ever, always denotes the whole, from which a part is taken. When, there-
fore, the above-mentioned adjectives are used in the same number and
case as the substantive denoting the whole, the case is different, although
the difference in meaning is sometimes very slight ; e. g. multi, aliquot,
pauci militum and milites ; Varro doctissimus fuit Romanorum and doctis-
simus Romanus; alter consulum and alter consul. Uterque, however, can-
not, like the English "both," be joined to a pronoun in the same case,
except when a substantive is added ; thus, " both these " or " these two "
cannot be translated into Latin by hie (or ille, qui~) uterque, but we must say
horum, illorum, quorum uterque, whereas uterque frater and quod utrumque
exemplum are quite common expressions.
The genitive, however, cannot be used, when the numeral contains the
same number of things as that of which the whole consists, that is, when there
is no relation of a part to a whole. We make this remark only because we
use the preposition " of" (the equivalent to the genitive), when we are not
speaking of a greater whole, but of an equal one. W T e say, for example :
" the people who served under Frederic the Great, and of whom few are
surviving," but in Latin we cannot say quorum admodum pauci supersunt, but
qui pauci supersunt, for these few are all. Cic. Philip, ii. 6. : Veniamus ad
vivos, qui duo de consularium numero supersunt ; Liv. i. 55. : Tarquinius
sacella exaugurare staluit, quae aliquot ibi a Tatio rege consecrata fuerant ;
Quihtil. v. 1 0. 63. : (Quaeritur) quot sint species rerum publicarum : quas
tres accepimus, quae populi, quae paucorum, quae unius potestate regerentur.
Instead of the genitive we may also use the prepositions ex and inter, and
sometimes de, but never ab. (Compare the passages quoted in Chap. LXV.)
[ 431.] Note 2. The words uter, alter, neuter, differ from quis, alius, nullus,
by their referring to a whole consisting of only two. (See 141.) The dif-
ference between nostri, vestri, and nostrum, vestrum is this : the forms ending
in urn are used as partitive genitives ; e. g. uterque nostrum, nostrum cujusque
vita ; nemo vestrum ignorat ; imperium summum Romae habebit ; qui vestrum
primus osculum matri tulerit ; but nostri melior pars animus est, miserere nostri,
immemor nostri, amor nostri, odium vestri, vestri similes. Vestrum, however,
occurs also without any partitive meaning ; e. g. frequentia vestrum incre-
dibilis, Cic. in Rull. ii. 21., and Philip, iv. 1. ; cornp. p. Plane. 6.; quis erit tarn
cupidus vestrum, Cic. in Verr. iii. 96. ; vestrum quoque non sum securus, Liv..
xxxix. 16. The forms nostrum, vestrum, moreover, are always used when
joined with omnium, even when the genitive is a subjective one ; e. g. Cic,
de Orat. iii. 55. : Voluntati vestrum omnium parui; in Cat. i. 7. : patria quae
communis est omnium nostrum parens.
[ 432.] 4. The neuters of pronouns and of some adjectives
used as pronouns, are joined with a genitive for two reasons :
Y
322 LATIN GRAMMAR.
first, because in meaning they have become substantives, and
secondly, because they express a part of a whole. Such neuters
are: hoc, id, illud, istud, idem, quid and quod with their com-
pounds (aliquid, quidquid, quippiam, quidquam, quodcunque),
aliud ; tantum, quantum, aliquantum, multum, plus, plurimum,
minus, minimum, paulum, plerumque, and nimium, with their
diminutives and compounds ; tantulum, tantundem, quantulum,'
quantulumcunque, &c. To these we must add nihil, nothing,
which is always used as a substantive ; and the adverbs, satis,
enough ; parum, too little ; abunde, affatim, and sometimes /r-
giter, abundantly, when they are used as substantives.
It is however to be observed that these neuters are used as
substantives only in the nominative and accusative, and that
they must not be dependent upon prepositions.
Quantum incrementi Nilus capit, tantum spei in annum est,
Senec. Nat. Quaest. iv. 6.
Potest quidquam esse absurdius, quam, quo minus viae restat,
tanto plus viatici quaerere, Cic. Cat. Maj. 18.
Procellae quanta plus habent virium, tanto minus temporis, Senec.
Nat. Quaest. vii. 9.
Pythagoras, quum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis
bovem immolasse dicitur, Cic. de Nat. Dear. iii. 36.
Justitia nihil expetit praemii, nihil pretii, Cic. de Leg. i. 18.
Satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum (in Catilina fuit), Sallust.
[433.] Note 1. The genitive joined with these neuters is often not a
real substantive, but the neuter of an adjective, which is used as a substan-
tive, as above quiddam novi. It must be observed here, that only adjectives
of the second declension (in urn) can be treated as substantives, and not
those of the third in e, nor the comparatives in us. We may therefore say
aliquid novum and aliquid novi, but only aliquid memorabile, and gravius
aliquid. Aliquid memorabilia cannot be used, except, perhaps, in connection
with neuters of the second declension ; e. g. aliquid novi ac memorabilia tibi
narrobo (as in Livy, v. 3. : si quidquam in vobis non dico civilis sed humani
essef) ; but even in this case it is preferable to say aliquid novum ac memora~
bile, as in Seneca : vide ne ista lectio multorum auctorum habeat aliquid vagum
et instabile. It must further be remarked, that when there is any case
dependent upon the neuter adjective, the latter can scarcely be put in the
genitive, and we must say : nihil expectatione vcstra dignum dico, as Cicera
(de Orat. i. 31.) does.
[ 4.] Note 2. The adverbs of place, ubi, ubique, ubicunque, usquam,
nusquam (longe), wide, hie, hue, eo, eodem, quo, quocunque, quoquo, aliquo are
joined with the genitives gentium, terrarum, loci, locorum, and by the addition
of such a genitive their meaning is strengthened; e.g. ubinam gentium
minus f abes longe gentium ; aliquo terrarum migrandum est ; ubi terrarum es f
The expressions hoc loci, quo loci sum, res eodem est loci, quo tu reliquisti, in
GENITIVE CASE. 323
Cicero and other writers are equivalent to quo, eodem loco, and the ablatives
quo, eodem, are used as if loco were to follow. The adverbs'/me, eo, qtto, when
used figuratively to express a degree, are joined also with other genitives ;
e. g. hue arrogantiae venerat, to this degree or pitch of arrogance ; eo inso-
lentiae furorisque processit ; scire videmini quo amentiae progressi sitis. In
the phrase minims gentium, by no means, the genitive merely strengthens
the meaning of minime.
In the following expressions denoting time the genitive appeal's to be
quite superfluous : posted loci, afterwards ; ad id locorum, up to this point ;
in Sallust and Livy : interea loci, in the meantime ; and adhuc locorum,
until now, in the comic writers ; turn temporis, at that time, occurs in late
writers and should not be imitated. In the phrase quantum or quoad ejus
facere possum, or in the passive form, fieri potest, the ejus refers to the pre-
ceding sentence, " as much of it," or " as far as this is possible."
[ 435.] 5. Poets and prose writers later than Cicero use the
neuters of adjectives in general, both in the singular and plural,
as substantives, and join them with a genitive, e. g. Curtius :
reliquum noctis acquievit, he slept the remainder of the night ;
Livy : exiguum campi ante castra erat, for which Cicero would
have said exiguus campus ; in ultima Celtiberiae penetrare, summa
tectorum obtinere, instead of in ultimam Celtiberiam penetrare,
and summa tecta obtinere.
Note. So also ultimum inopiae is equivalent to ultima inopia ; medium or ex*
tremum anni, aetatis, for which media aetas is the ordinary expression ; extrema
agminis, infima clivi ; saeva ventorum, opportuna locorum, avia itinerum, tacita
suspicionum ; and with a preposition : in immemum altitudinis dejecit, for in
immensam altitudinem ; ad ultimum vitae perseverare, in ultima Orientis re-
legare, cum pretiosissimis rerum fugere, where the ablat. must not be taken
for a feminine, although the expression is used for cum pretiosissimis rebus.
Ad multum diet or noctis is a peculiar phrase of the same kind, for a neuter
like midtum may indeed be joined with a genitive, but not with a prepo-
sition ; hence the ordinary construction is in midtam noctem scribere. Very
frequently there is a peculiar meaning in such a neuter plural : incerta,
subita belli ; i. e. the uncertain, sudden occurrences in war, or subitae occa-
siones belli ; quassata muri, the shaken parts of the wall ; infreqiientissima-
urbis, the most uninhabited part of the town ; plana urbis Tiberis stag-,
naverat. Livy has many expressions of this kind (Drakenborch on Liv.
xxxvii. 58.), and in Tacitus they are innumerable. Respecting the analogy
with the Greek language, see Vechner, Hellenolex. i. 2. 9. p. 202 foil., and
Heindorf on Horat. Sat. ii. 2. 25.
[ 436.] 6. Many adjectives denoting a relation to a thing
(adjectiva relativa), especially those which express partaking,
desiring, fullness, experience, capacity, or remembering, and their
contraries, are joined with the genitive of a substantive or
pronoun. Thus we say memor promissi, remembering a pro'-
mise ; compos mentis, in possession of his mind ; ignarm sermonis
T 2
324 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Latini, ignorant of the Latin language. Such relations are ex-
pressed in English by prepositions.
The following in particular are construed in this way : par-
ticeps, affinis (e. g. alicujus culpae, suspicionis, see however
411.), expcrs, inops, consors, exsors ; cupidus, studiosus, avidus,
avarus ; plenus, inanis, capax, insatiabilis, fecundus, fertilis,
ferax, sterilis ; perltus, imperitus, conscius, inscius, nescius, prae-
scius, gnarus, ignarus, rudis, insolens and insolitus, or insuetus,
onustus, prudens, providus, compos, impos, potens and impotens ;
memory immemor, tenax, curiosus, incuriosus.
Pythagoras sapientiae studiosos appellavit philosophos, Cic.
Tusc. v. 3.
Themistocles peritissimos belli navalis fecit Athenienses, Nep.
Them. 2.
Venturae memores jam nunc estate senectae, Ovid.
Conscia mens rectifamae mendacia ridet, Ovid, Fast.
Nescia mens hominumfati sortisque futurac, Virgil.
[437.] Note I. The poets and those prose writers who, deviating
from the ordinary mode of speaking, use poetical constructions, to give
animation to their style (especially Tacitus), extend the rule of joining
a genitive with adjectives very far. They construe in particular all ad-
jectives expressing mental emotion with the genitive of the thing to which
it is directed ; e. g. ambiguus consilii ; anxius futuri, securitatis ; benignus
vini ; certus sceleris ; dubins viae ; impiger militiae ; iMerritus leti ; incautus
futuri; incertus sententiae ; laetus laboris ; modicus voluptatum; pervicax
irae, recti ; piger periculi ; segnis occasionum ; socors futuri ; securus futuri ;
timidus lucis ; formidolosus hostium; oblatae occasionis propera ; ferox scclerum
Sejanus; atrox odii Agrippina, where in ordinary prose the prepositions de,
in or ad, would be required, and where we use "in respect of" or "in regard
to." In some cases the genitive is used, in imitation of the Greek, instead
of the Latin ablative ; e. g. integer vitae for integer vita ; diversus morum ;
lassus man's, viarum, militiae ; vetus operis ac laboris ; sacerdos scientiae ceri-
moniarumque vetus. In some cases, however, the adjective is only a bold ex-
pression and used in the same sense as one of those mentioned above ; e. g.
vetus operis equivalent to peritus operis. In the case of superlatives the
genitive is to be explained in a different way, as Tacit. Ann. vi. 6. : praes-
tantissimus sapientiae, for sapientum ; i. 46. : princeps severitatis et munificentiae
summus, for omnium qui et severi et muniflci sint. Comp. 470. We must
notice especially the use of the genitive animi (instead of the ablative)
which occurs so frequently in late prose writers, and is joined with all
adjectives. (See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 93.) We thus find aeger, anxius,
atrox, aversus, caecus, captus, confidens, confusus, incertus, territus, validus,
exiguus, ingens, modicus, immodicus, and nimius animi; and owing to this
frequent use of the genitive with adjectives, it is found also with verbs
denoting anxiety ; e. g. absurde fads, qui te angas animi ; discrucior animi,
GENITIVE CASE. 325
and even in Cicero we find more than once ego quidem vehementer animi
pendeo ; it occurs more rarely with verbs denoting joy, as recreabar animi.
Note 2. The adjectives plenus and inanis (full, empty), as well as fertilis
and dives, may be construed also with the ablative ( 457. foil.), and with
refertus (the participle of a verb denoting " to fill ") the ablative is com-
monly used ; plenus in the early prose is rarely joined with the ablative,
but in later times frequently : Cicero, e. g. Philip, ii. 27. says : domus
(Antonii) erat aleatoribus referta, plena ebriorum. We may use either case
in jurisperitus and jureperitus, jurisconsultus and jureconsultus (abridged
ICtus). Compos and expers are but rarely found with the ablative instead
of the genit., as Liv. iii. 71. : praeda ingenti compotem exercitum reducunt;
Sallust, Cat. 33. : omnes fama atque fortunis expertes sumus. Immunis (not
partaking) is commonly joined with the genitive, but when used in the sense
of " free from" in takes either ab or the simple ablat. (See 468.)
Conscim is construed with a genitive and a dative of the thing; e.g.
Sallust, Cat. 25. : caedis conscia fuerat ; Cic. p. Coel. 21. : huic facinori tanto
mens tua conscia esse non debuit. The person who is conscious of a thing is
always expressed by the dative, as sibi conscium esse alicujus ret.
[ 438.] 7. The participles present active are joined with a
genitive when they do not express a simple act or a moment-
ary condition, but, like adjectives, a permanent quality or con-
dition; hence most of them have degrees of comparison like
real adjectives. The following list contains those most in
use : amans, appetens, colens, fugiens, intelligens, metuens,
negligens, observans, retinens, tolerans, patiens, impatiens, tem-
perans, intemperans ; e. g. amans patriae, Gracchi amantissimi
plebis Romanae, appetens laudis, sancti et religionum colentes,
fugiens laboris, imminentium (futurC) intelligens, officii negligens,
miles patiens or impatiens soils, pulveris, tempestatum.
Epaminondas adeo fuit veritatis diligens, ut ne joco quidem men-
tiretur, Nep. Epam. 3.
Romani semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentes atque
avidi laudis fuerunt, Cic. p. Leg. Man. 3.
Note, The passage from Nepos shows that the participles admitting this
construction are not limited to such as have the meaning of the adjectives
mentioned above ( 436.), but they are used in this way throughout, pro-
vided they express a permanent quality ; miles patiens frigus, for example,
is a soldier who at a particular time bears the cold, but miles patiens frigoris
is one who bears cold well at all times. Hence cupiens, efficiens, experiens,
sciens, sitiens, timens, and a considerable number of others, are joined with a
genitive. Some participles perfect passive have been mentioned in 436.,
as their number is very limited ; and completes, expertus, inexperius, invictus^
and consultus, may be classed with the above-mentioned adjectives. If, in
poetical language, we find any other perfect participles joined with a.
genitive, we must regard them as adjectives.
T 3
326 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 439.] 8. With verbs of reminding, remembering and for-
getting (admoneo, commoneo, commonefacio aliquem ; memini, re-
miniscor, recordor, also in mentem mihi venit ; obliviscor), the
person or the thing, of which any one reminds another or him-
self, or which he forgets, is expressed by the genitive ; but
there are many instances also in which the thing is expressed
by the accusative.
Medicus, ut primum mentis compotem esse regem sensit, modo
matris sororumque, modo tantae victoriae appropinquantis ad-
monere non destitit, Curt. iii. 16.
Hannibal milites adhortatus est, ut reminiscerentur pristinae vir-
tutis suae, neve mulierum liberumque (for et liberorum) obli-
viscerentur,
Tu, C. Caesar, oblivisci nihil soles, nisi injurias, Cic. p. Leg. 1 2.
Non omnes (senes) possunt esse Scipiones aut Maximi, ut urbium
expugnationes, ut pedestres navalesque pugnas, ut bella a se
gesta triumphosque recordentur, Cic. Cat. Maj. 5.
[ 4io.] Note. "With regard to the accusative of the thing, it must be ob-
served that the neuters of pronouns, and the neuter adjectives used as sub-
stantives, are joined to the above-mentioned verbs only in the accusative ;
for their genitive would present no difference from the masc. gender. Hence
Cicero (de Off. ii. 8.) is obliged to say : Externa libentius in tali re quam
domestica recordor ; and the verbs of reminding are thus joined with two
accusatives, one of the person and the other of the thing ; e. g. ittud me
praeclare admones, unum te admoneo. (Comp. 393.) An accusative of the
thing, expressed by a real substantive, occurs only with verbs of remem-
bering and forgetting ; e. g. memini or oblitus sum mandata, beneficia, dicta
factaque tua ; pueritiae memoriam recordari ultimam. An accusative of the
person is very rarely used with these verbs ; but memini, in the sense of " I
remember a person who lived in my time," is invariably joined with an ac-
cusative of the person ; e. g. Cic. Philip, v. 6. : quod neque reges fecerunt,
neque ii, qui regibm exactis regnum occupare voluerunt : Cinnam memini, vidi
Sullam, modo Caesarem, &c. ; de Oral. iii. 50. : Antipater ille Sidonius, quern
tu probe meministi. Sometimes verbs of reminding and remembering take
the preposition de ; memini takes de more especially, when it signifies mentio-
nem facere ; but the genitive also may be used. With venit mihi in weniem,
the person or thing may be put in the nominat., so as to become the subject ;
e. g. aliquidy haec, ojnnia mihi in mentem vejierujjj;.
[ 441.] 9. The impersonal verbs pudet, piget, poenitet, taedet
and miseret, require the person in whom the feeling exists to
be in the accusative, and the thing which produces the feel-
ing in the genitive. The thing producing the feeling may
also be expressed by the infinitive, or by a sentence with quod
or with an interrogative particle, e. g. pudet me hoc fecisse,
GENITIVE CASE. 327
poenitet me quod te offendi, non poenitet me (I am not dissatisfied)
quantum profecerim. As to the forms of these verbs, see 225.
Malo, me fortunae poenitcat, quam victoriae pudeat, Curt. iv. 47.
Eorum nos magis miseret, qui nostrum misericordiam non requi-
runt, quam qui illam efflagitant, Cic. p. Mil. 34.
Non poenitet me vixisse, quoniam ita vixi, ut non frustra me na~
turn existimem, Cic. Cat. Maj. in fin.
Quern poenitet peccasse, paene est innocens, Senec. Agam. 243.
[ 442.] Note 1. The personal verbs misereor and miseresco, " I pity," are
joined with a genitive, like the impersonal verbs miseret (and miseretur) :
miseremini sociorum, misertus tanti viri, generis miseresce tui; but we also
find miserescit me tui, impersonally, in Terence (Heaut. v. 4. 3.) : inopis te
nunc miserescat mei. Miserari and commiserari (to pity), on the other hand,
require the accusative. The above-mentioned impersonal verbs are very
rarely used personally; as in Terence, Adelph. iv. 5. 36. : non te haec pudent.
In the passage of Cicero (Tusc. v. 18.) : sequitur ut nihil (sapientern) poeni-
teat, the word nihil must not be taken for a nominative : it is the accusative,
for both this particular word and the neuters of pronouns are thus used in
the accusative (see 385.) ; whereas real substantives would necessarily be
in a different case. So also in Cic. de Invent, ii. 13. : quaeri oportet, utrum id
f acinus sit, quod poenitere fuerit necesse, for cujus rei. The participle per-
taesus (belonging to taedef) governs the accusative, contrary to the rule
by which participles are joined with the same case as the verbs from which
they are formed ; e. g. Sueton. Jul. 7. : quasi pertaesus ignaviam suam ; but
it is also used with a genitive, as in Tacitus, Ann. xv. 51. : postremo lenti-
tudinis eorum pertaesa.
[ 443.] Note 2. Pudet requires a genit. also, in the sense of " being re-
strained by shame or respect for a person ;" e. g. Terent. Anelph. iv. 5. 49. :
et me tui pudet ; Cic. in Clod. : Nonne te hujus templi, non urbis, non vitae, non
lucis pudet f It is found more frequently without an accusat., as in Livy, iii.
19. : pudet deorum hominumque : Cic. Philip, xii. 3. : pudet hujus legionis,
pudet quartae, pudet optimi exercitus.
[ 444.] 10. The verbs of estimating or valuing and their pas-
sives (aestimare, ducere, facere, fieri, habere, pendere, putare,
taxare and esse) are joined with the genitive, when the value is
Expressed generally by an adjective, but with the ablative,
when it is expressed by a substantive. (Comp. 456.). Geni-
tives of this kind are : magni, permagni, pluris, plurimi, maximi,
parvi, minoris, minimi, tanti, quanti, and the compounds tantl-
dem, quantwis, quanticunque ; but never (or very rarely) multi
and majoris. The substantive to be understood with these
genitives is pretii, which is sometimes expressed (with esse).
Si prata et hortulos tanti aestimamus, quanti est aestimanda
virtus ? Cic. Parad. 6.
T 4
328 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Unum Hephaestionem Alexander plurimi fecerat, Nep. Eum. 2.
Ego a meis me amari et magni pendi postulo, Terent. Adelph. v.
4. 25.
Mea mihi conscientia pluris est, quam omnium sermo, Cic. ad
Att. xii. 28.
Note. Tanti est, " It is worth so much," signifies also absolutely, " it is
worth while ; " e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 9. : Video quanta tempestas invidiae nobis
impendent. Sed est mihi tanti : dummodo ista privata sit calumitas. In ad-
dition to the above genitives we must mention assis, flocci, nauci, pensi, piK
kabcre, or commonly non habere, ducere, aestimare ; further, the comic
phrase hujus non facto, " I do not care that for it," and nihili. But we find
also pro nihilo habere, putare, and ducere ; e. g. omnia, quae cadere in hominem
possint, despicere et pro nihilo putare. The phrase aequi boni, or aequi bonique
facio, consulo, and boni consulo, I consider a thing to be right, am satisfied
with it, must likewise be classed with these genitives. A genitive expressing
price is joined also to such words as coeno, habito, doceo ; e. g. quanti habi-
tas ? what price do you pay for your house or lodging ? quanti docet ? what
are his terms in teaching ?
{ 445.] The same rule applies to general statements of price
with the verbs of buying, selling, lending and hiring (emere, ven-
dere, the passive venire, conducere, locare, and as passives in
sense, stare and constare, prostare and licere, to be exposed for
sale). But the ablatives magno, permagno, plurimo, parvo,
minima, nihilo, are used very frequently instead of the genitives..
Mercatores non tantldem vendunt, quanti emerunt, Cic.
Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit, quam ira, Senec.
Non potest parvo res magna constare, Senec. Epist. 19.
Note. With verbs of buying therefore the genitive and ablative alternate
according to the particular words that are used. Cic. ad Fam. vii. 2. writes :
Parum acute ei mandasti potissimum, cui expediret illud venire quam plurimo :
s.ed eo vidisti multnm, quod praejinisti, quo ne pluris emerem nunc, quoniam
tuum pretium novi, illicitatorem, potiusponam, quam illud minoris veneat ; Plaut.
Epid. ii. 2. 112. : Quanti emere possum minima f What is the lowest price
I can buy at? Aestimare is sometimes joined with the ablatives magno,
permagno, nonnihilo, or with adverbs, instead of the regular genitives. The
adverbs care, bene, male, sometimes take the place of the ablative with tire
verbs of buying, though not very frequently. Instead of nihilo constat, it
costs me nothing, we find in Cicero gratis constat.
[446.] 11. The genitive is used to denote the crime or
offence, with the verbs accuso, incuso, arguo, interrogo, insimulo,
increpo, infamo ; convinco, coarguo ; judico, damno, condemno ;
absolvo, libero, purgo ; arcesso, cito, defero, postulo, reum facio,
alicui diem dico, cum aliquo ago. The genitive joined to these
verbs depends upon the substantive crimine or nomine, which is
understood, but sometimes also expressed.
GENITIVE CASE. 329
Genitives of this kind are: peccati, maleficii, sceleris, caedis, veneficii,
parricidii, furti, repetundarum, peculates, falsi, injuriarum, rei capitalis, pro~
ditionis, majestatis ; probri, stultitiae, avaritiae, audaciae, vanitatis, levitatis, te~
meritatis, ignaviae; timoris, impietatis, and others.
Miltiades proditionis est accusatus, quod, quum Parum expugnare
posset, e pugna discessisset, Nep. Milt.
Thrasybulus legem tulit, ne quis ante actarum rerum accusaretur
neve multaretur, Nep. Thras. 3.
Note 1. To these verbs we must add a few adjectives, which are used in-
stead of their participles : reus, compertus, noxius, innoxius, insons, manifestos.
Sometimes the preposition de is used, with the verbs of accusing and con-
demning, instead of the genitive, e. g. de vi condemnatus est, nomen alicujus de
parricidio deferre.
[ 447.] Note 2. The punishment, with the verbs of condemning, is com-
monly expressed by the genitive ; e. g. capitis, mortis, multae, pecuniae, quad-
rupli, octupli, and less frequently by the ablative, capite, morte, multa, pecunia.
The ablative, however, is used invariably when a definite sum is mentioned;
e. g. decem, quindecim milibus aeris. Sometimes we find the preposition ad or
in : ad poenam, ad bestias, ad metalla, in metallum, in expensas, and Tacitus
uses also : ad mortem. The meaning of capitis accusare, arcessere, absolvere\
and of capitis or capite damnare, condemnare must be explained by the signi-
fication of what the Romans called a causa capitis. Voti or votorum damnari,
to be condemned to fulfil one's vow, is thus equivalent to " to obtain what
one wishes."
[ 448.] 12. The genitive is used with the verbs esse and
fieri, in the sense of "it is a person's business, office, lot, or
property." The substantives res or negotium, which are com-
monly said to be understood, have nothing to do with the geni-
tive, which depends upon esse and fieri : e. g. hoc est praeceptoris,
this is the business of the teacher; non est mearum virium,\t is
beyond iny strength ; Asia Romanorum facta est, Asia became the
property of the Romans. The same genitive is found also with
gome of the verbs mentioned in 394., esse being understood.
But instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns mei, tui,
sui, nostri, vestri, the neuters of the possessives, meum^ tuum,
suum, nostrum, vestrum est, erat, &c., are used.
Ciijusvis hominis est errare, nullius nisi insipientis in errore per"
severare, Cic. Phil. xii. 2.
Sapientis judicis est, semper non quid ipse velit, sed quid lex et
religio cogat, cogitare, Cic. p. Cluent. 58.
Bello Gallico praeter Capitolium omnia hostium erant, Liv. vi. 40.
Tuum est, M. Cato, qui non mihi, non tibi, sed patriae natus es,
videre quid agatur, Cic. p. Muren. 38.
330 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Note 1. We have here followed Perizonius (on Sanctius, Minerva, in
many passages), in explaining the genitive by the ellipsis of negotiwn. This
opinion is confirmed by a passage in Cicero, ad Fam, iii. 12. : non horum tern-
porum, non horum hominum et morum negotium est; but we ought not to have
recourse to such an ellipsis, except for the purpose of illustrating the idiom
of a language, and we should not apply it to every particular case ; for, in
most instances, it would be better, and more consistent with the Latin idiom,
to supply proprius as an adjective and proprium as a substantive. (Comp.
411.) In the following sentences from Cicero, proprium est animi bene
constituti laetari bonis rebus, and sapientis est proprium, nihil quod poenitere
possit facere, we might omit proprium and use the genitive alone. In the
following sentences the words munus and officium might be omitted : Cic. p.
Mil. 8. : principum munus est resistere levitati multitudinis, and Terent. Andr.
ii. 1. 30. : neutiquam officium liberi esse hominis puto, quum is nil mereat, pos-
tulare id gratiae apponi sibi ; and hence we may also assume the ellipsis of
munus and officium for the purpose of illustrating- the Latin idiom.
Esse is joined with a genitive expressing quality, est stultitiae, est levitatis,
est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis, especially moris est, for which without dif-
ference in meaning, we may say stultitia est, levitas est, haec consuetudo est
Gallorum, mos est; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 26. : negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut
in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres, the same as morem esse Graecorum.
Note 2. As it is the rule to use the neuter of the possessive pronouns, in-
stead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, so in other cases, instead of a
genitive of a substantive, an adjective derived from the substantive may be
used, e. g. humanum est, imperdtorium est, regiumest; et facere etpatifortia
Romanum est, Liv. ii. 12.
[ 449.] 13. A similar ellipsis takes place with the imper-
sonal verbs interest and refert, it is of interest or importance (to
me), the person to whom any thing is of importance being ex-
pressed by the genitive ; but instead of the genitive of the
personal pronouns, the possessives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra,
are used. These possessives are commonly considered to be
accusatives neuter plural, commoda being understood ; but from
some verses in Terence, especially Phorm. iv. 5. 11. and v. 8. 47.,
we are obliged to consider them with Priscian (p. 1077.) as
ablatives feminine singular, and it is not impossible that causa
may be understood.* The thing which is of interest or im-
portance is not expressed by a substantive, but sometimes by
the neuter of a pronoun ; e. g. hoc mea interest, and usually by
an accusative with the infinitive, or by ut and the interroga-
* This explanation solves only half the difficulty, but both the use of the
genitive and the length of re in refert are sufficiently accounted for by what
has been said in a note at the foot of p. 16. We should add here that mea,
tua, sua, &c., are accusatives for meam, tuam, suam, &c. Comp. Key, The
Alphabet, p. 77.
ABLATIVE CASE. 331
live particles \vith the subjunctive : e. g. multum mea interest,
te esse diligentem, or ut diligens sis, (utrum) diligens sis nee ne.
Semper Milo, quantum interesset P. Clodii, se perire, cogitabat,
Cic. p. Mil. 21.
Caesar dicere solebat, non tarn sua, quam reipublicae interesse, uti
salvus esset, Suet. Caes. 86.
Inventae sunt epistolae, ut certiores faceremus absentes, si quid
essei, quos eos scire aut nostra aut ipsorum interesset, Cic.
ad Fam. ii. 4.
Quid refert, utrum voluerim fieri, an factum gaudeam ? Cic.
Philip, ii. 12.
Note 1. When an infinitive alone is joined to interesse, the preceding
subject is understood, e. g. omnium interest recte facer e, scil. se. The nomi-
native of the subject in Cicero, ad Aft. iii. 19., non qua mea interesset loci
natura, is very singular. It has been asserted that refert is not joined
with the genitive of the person ; in Cicero, it is true, it does not occur,
for he generally uses it with the pronouns mea, tua, sua, &c. ; but other
authors use the genitive; e.g. Sallust, Jug. 119.: faciendum aliquid, quod
illorum magis, quam sua rettulisse videretur, and Liv. xxxiv. 27. : ipsorum
referre, &c. Most frequently, however, refert is used without either a
genitive or any of the pronouns mea, tua, &c.: refert, quid refert? magni,
parvi, magnopcre refert. The dative of the person in Horace, Serm. i. 1. 50.:
vel die quid refer at infra naturae fines viventi, jugera centum an mitte aret, is a
singular peculiarity.
[ 450.] Note 2. The degree of importance is expressed by adverbs or
neuter adjectives, or by their genitives : magis, magnopere, vehementer,
parum, minime, tarn, tantopere; multum, plus, plurimum, permultum, infinitum,
mirum quantum, minus, nihil, aliquid, quiddam, tantum, quantum; tanti, quanti,
magni, permagni, parvi. The object for which a thing is of importance is
expressed by the preposition ad, as in Cicero : , magni interest ad honorem
nostrum; a dative used in the same sense occurs in Tacitus, Ann. xv. 65. :
non referre dedecori.
CHAP. LXXIV.
ABLATIVE CASE.
[ 451.] 1. THE Ablative serves to denote certain relations of
substantives, which are expressed in most other languages by
prepositions.
Note. This is an important difference between the ablative and the other
oblique cases; for the latter expressing necessary relations between nouns,
332 LATIN GRAMMAR.
occur in all languages which possess cases of inflection, and do not, like the
French or English, express those relations by prepositions. But the abla-
tive is a peculiarity of the Latin language, which might indeed be dispensed
with, but which contributes greatly to its expressive conciseness.
The ablative is used first with passive verbs to denote the
thing by which any thing is effected (ablativus efficientis), and
which in the active construction is expressed by the nominative :
e. g. sol mundum illustrat, and sole mundus illustratur ; fecundi-
tas arborum me delectat, and fecunditate arborum delector. If
that by which any thing is effected is a person, the preposition
ab is required with the ablative (see 382.), with the sole ex-
ception of the participles of the verbs denoting " to be born "
(jiatus, genitus, ortus, and in poetry also crctus, editus, satus), to
which the name of the father or family is generally joined in the
ablative without a preposition. Ab cannot be used with the
ablative of a thing by which any thing is effected, unless the
thing be personified.
Dei providentia mundus administratur, Cic.
Non est consentaneum, qui metu non frangatur, eum frangi cupi-
ditate ; nee qui invictum se a labore praestiterit, vinci a volup-
tate, Cic. De Off. i. 20.
Note. The words denoting " born" usually have the preposition ex or de
joined to the name of the mother, but the ablative alone is also found, and
there are a few passages in which ex or ab is joined to the name of the
father ; e. g. Terent. Adelph. i. 1. 15. : Atque ex me hie natus non est, sed ex
fratre; Caes. Bell. Gall. vi. 18. : prognati ab JJite patre. Ortus ab aliquo is
frequently used in speaking of a person's ancestors ; e. g. Cic. p. Muren. 21.:
qui ab illo ortus es; Caes. Bell. Gall. ii. 4. : plerosque Belgas esse ortos a
Germanis (the same as oriundos).
[ 452.] 2. An ablative expressing the cause (ablativus
causae) is joined with adjectives, which, if changed into a verb,
would require a passive construction : e. g. fessus, aeger, saucius
(equivalent to quifatigatus, morbo affectus, vulneratus est) and
with intransitive verbs, for which we may generally substitute
some passive verb, of at least a similar meaning, as interiit fame,
consumptus est fame ; expectatio rumore crevit, expectatio aucta
est rumore ; gaudeo honore tuo, delector honore tuo. Thus verbs
expressing feeling or emotion are construed with the ablative of
the thing which is the cause of the feeling or emotion, as doleo,
gaudeo, laetor ; exilio, exulto, triumpho, lacrimo, paene desipio
gaudioy ardeo cupiditate, desiderio. Sometimes the prepositions
ABLATIVE CASE. 333
propter and per are used instead of such an ablative, and when a
person is described as the cause of an emotion, they are just as
necessary as ab is with passive verbs.
We must notice in particular the construction of the follow-
ing verbs : Glorior, t boast, is joined with an ablative denot-
ing the cause : e. g. victoria mea, but is also construed with de,
and in the sense of " glory in a thing," with in : e. g. Cic.
De Nat. Deor. iii. 36. : propter virtutem recte laudamur, et in
virtute recte gloriamur. Laboro, I suffer from, e. g. morbo, ino-
pia, odio, is frequently joined also with ex, especially when the
part of the body, which is the seat of the pain, is mentioned : e. g
ex pedibus, ex intestinis. Nitor and innitor aliqua re, I lean upon,
is used, in a figurative sense, also with in ; e. g. Cicero : in vita
Pompeji nitebatur salus civitatis (in the sense of " strive after,"
with ad or in with the accus., as nitimur in vetituni). Sto aliqua
re, I depend upon a thing, asjudicio meo, auctore aliquo ; also in
the sense of " I persevere in or adhere to a thing," as foedere,
jurejurando, condicionibus, promissis ; it rarely takes in, as in
Cicero : stare oportet in eo, quod sit judicatum. (Respecting
acquiesco with the ablat. see 416.) Fido and conftdo, "I trust
in a thing," and the adjective/refas are joined with the ablat. of
the thing trusted in, but may also be used with the dative of
the person or thing trusted in. (See 413.) The verbs constare,
contineri, to consist of, are construed with the ablat. to denote
that of which a thing consists : e. g. domus amoenitas non aedificio,
sed silva constabat ; fama bella constant; tota honestas quattuor
virtutibus continetur ; but constare is joined more frequently with
ex or in, and contineri in the sense of " to be contained in a
thing," is generally used with in, but even then not unfrequently
with the ablative alone. (Consistere in the sense of " exist," is
construed, like positum esse, only Avith m.)
Concordid res parvae crescunt, discordia maximae dilabuntur,
Sallust, Jug. 10.
Est adolesccntis majores natu vereri exque his deligere optimos et
probatissimos, quorum .consilio atque auctoritate nitatur, Cic.
De Off. i. 34.
Virtute decet, non sanguine niti, Claud. Cons. Hon. iv. 219.
Diversis duobus vitiis, avaritia et luxuria, civitas Romana labo-
rabat, Liv. xxxiv. 4.
Delicto dolere, correctione gaudere nos oportet, Cic.
331 LATIN GRAMMAR.
\ 453.] Note 1. We must here mention also the ablat. virtute joined with
the defective adjective macte and macti, which, either with the imperative of
essc (esto, este, estate), or without it, is used as an exclamation of encourage-
ment or approbation.
- The use of the accusative vicem (with a genitive or possessive pronoun),
instead of the ablative vice (in accordance with the above rule) in connection
with intransitive verbs and adjectives denoting feelings, especially those of
care, grief, and sorrow, is a peculiarity which does not occur when vicem is
used in its ordinary sense of "change" or "turn" (as in Phaedr. v. 1. 6. :
tacite gementes tristem fortunae vicem), but only when it is equivalent to the
English "for;" e.g. Liv. ii. 31.: apparuit causa plebi, suam vicem indig-
nantem magistrate abisse; i. e. that for their sake he had indignantly resigned
his office ; xxxiv. 32. : Remittimus hoc tibi, ne nostrum vicem irascaris, that
you may not be angry on our account ; xl. 23. : Simplicitatem juveiiis incauti
assentando indignandoque et ipse vicem ejus captabat, by showing indignation
on his account. Comp. Plaut. True. 155. ; Tac. Hist. i. 29. In like manner
we must explain Cic. ad Fam. xii. 23. : Tuam vicem saepe doleo, quod nullum
partem per aetatem sanae et salvae rei publicae gustare potuisti, and in Verr. i.
44. : si alienam vicem pro nostra injuria doleremus, if we grieved for other
people, as though a wrong had been done to ourselves. Hence we should
read, with Bentley, in Horace Epod. xvii. 42. : infamis Hclenae Castor
offensus vicem, Castor offende'd on account of his ill-famed sister, where
Bentley quotes the following instances of this use of vicem with adjectives,
Liv. viii. 35. : suam vicem rnagis anxios, qua-m ejus, cui auxilium ab se pctc-
batiir ; xxviii. 43. : ut meam quoque, non solum rei publicae et exercitus vicem
videretur sollicitus ; Curt. vii. 6. : maestus non suam vicem, sed propter ipsum
periclitantium fratrum, not sad on his own account, but on account of his
brothers who ran into danger for his sake. The ablative in this sense
occurs only in late writers; e. g. Quintil. vi. 2. 35., and xi. 1. 42. But
it is difficult to decide whether the accusative vicem may be used also in
the sense of " like," more modoque, instead of vice, as is commonly read
in Cic. ad Att. x. 8. : Sardanapali vicem in suo lectulo mori, or whether
we should correct vicem into vice, as in Tacitus, Ann. vi. 21.: quae dixe-
rat oraculi vice accipicns. The difficult passage in Horace, Epod. v. 87. :
Venena magnum fas nefasque non valent convertere humanam vicem, must
undoubtedly be explained in the same manner, whether we retain the accu-
sative or read humana vice; the meaning is : " Poison cannot upset the eternal
laws like things human."
[ 454.] Note 2. With transitive verbs also, the cause or the thing in con-
sequence of which anything is done, is expressed by the ablative, but this is
the regular practice only with substantives ending in the ablat. in u ( 90.),
which have no other cases ; e. g.jussu, rogatu, admonitu tuo veni,feci, misi or
missus sum. With other substantives it is more rare ; e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am.
32. : ut omnes intelligant me non studio accusare, sed officio defender e; de Fin*
ii. 26. : sifructibus et emolumentis et utilitatibus amicitias colemus; de Off. i. 9. :
Suntetiam, qui aut studio rei familiaris tuendae out odio quodam horn mum suum
se negotium agere dicant; Sallust, Cat. 23. : inopid minus largiri poterat; Cic.
Divin. in Caec. 3. : judiciorum desiderio tribunicia potestas efflagitata est, ju-
diciorum levitate ordo alius postulatur, &c. ; de Leg. iii. 7. : Regale civitutis
genus non tarn regni, quam rcgis vitiis repudiatum est. The preposition propter
or a circumlocution with causa, however, is generally used instead of the
ablative; e.g. instead of joco dicer e, joco mentiri, we find joci causa; hoe
onus suscepi tud causa; honoris tui causa, propter amicitiam nostram. When
ABLATIVE CASE. 335
the cause is a state of feeling, the best Latin writers prefer a circumlocution
with the perfect participle of some verb denoting " to induce ; " e. g. to do
a thing from some desire, cupiditate ductus, inductus, incitatus, incensus, inflam-
matus, impulsus, motus, captus, &c. Livy is fond of using the preposition ab
in this sense, as ab ira, a spe, ab odio, from anger, hope, hatred. See 305.,
and Hand, I'ursellin. i. p. 33.
[ 455.] 3. An ablative is joined with verbs of every kind to
express the means or instrument by which a thing is done (ab-
lativus instrument?). Thus we say manu ducere aliquem, to lead
a person by the hand ; equo, curru, nave vehi, the horse, carriage,
and ships being the means of moving.
Benivolentiam civium llanditiis colligere turpe est, Cic.
Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leones, aliae fuga se, aliae
occultatione tutantur, Cic. De Nat. Deor. ii. 50.
Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret, Horat. Epist. i.
10. 24.
Male guaeritur herbis ; moribus et forma conciliandus amor,
Ovid. Ileroid. vi. 93.
Note. When a man is the instrument by which anything is effected, the
ablative is rarely used, but generally the preposition per, or the circum-
locution with opera, alicujus, which is so frequent, especially with possessive
pronouns, that med, tud, sud, &c. opera are exactly the same as per me, per
te, per se, &c. ; and are used to denote both good and bad services ; e. g. Cic.
Cat. Maj. 4. : mea opera Tarentum recepisti; Nep. Lys. 1. : Lysander sic sibi
indidsit, ut ejus opera in maximum odium Gracciae Lacedaemonii pervenerint;
that is, ejus culpa, through his fault. Beneficio is used in the more limited
sense of good results, as beneficio tuo salvus, incolumis sum, where it is the
same as per te. Per is sometimes used to express a means, but only when we
are speaking of external concurring circumstances rather than of that which,
is really done to attain a certain object. We always say, e. g., vi oppidum
cepit, but per vim ei bona eripuit. See 301. The material instrument is
always expressed by the ablative alone, and never with a preposition, such
as cum; hence conficere cervum sagittis, gladio aliquem vulnerare; conip.
473.
[ 456.] 4. Hence with verbs of buying and selling, of esti-
mation, value, and the like ( 444.), the price or value of a
thing is expressed by the ablative, provided it is indicated by a
definite sum or a substantive. (Respecting the genitive in
general expressions, see 444., where it is observed that, con-
trary to the general rule, the ablatives magno, permagno, plurimo,
parvo, minimo, are commonly joined to verbs denoting "to buy"
and "sell.")
Ego spem pretio non emo, Terent. Adelph. ii. 2. 11.
336 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Si quis aurum vendens putet se orichalcum vendere, iudicabitne ei
vir bonus aurum illyd esse, an emet denario, quod sit mi He
denarium? Cic. De Off. iii. 23.
Viginti talentis unam orationcm Isocrates vendidit, Plin. Hist.
Nat. vii. 31.
Denis in diem assibus anima et corpus (militum) aestimantur,
Tacit. Ann. i. 17.
Quod non opus est, asse carum est, Senec. Epist. 94.
Note. To the verbs of buying and selling we must add many others which
express an act or an enjoyment, for which a certain price is paid ; e. g. lavor
quadrante, habito triginta milibus HS, doceo talento, parvo aere mereo. Esse
in the sense of "to be worth" is therefore joined with the ablative of the
definite price ; e. g. Modius frumenti in Sicilia binis sestertiis, ad summum
ternis crat; sextante sal in Italia erat. We make this observation chiefly to
direct attention to the difference between this ablative and the genitive of
quality which occurs in the passage of Cicero quoted above. Est mitte
denarium there means, it is a thing of one thousand denarii (in value), and
may be bought for that sum.
Mutare and its compounds, commntare and permutare, are commonly con-
strued in the same way as the verbs of selling : e. g. fidem suam et religioncm
pecunid, stadium belli gerendi agriculturd, pellium tegmina vestibus, mantes ac
silvas urbibus, and in Virg. Georg. i. 8. : Chaoniam glandem pingui mutuvit
arista, alluding to the first husbandman, who exchanged corn for acorns. But
prose writers as well as poets reverse the expression, by putting that which
we receive in the accusat., and that which we give for it in the ablative,
either alone or with the preposition cum ; e. g. Horat. Carm. iii. 1 . 47. : cur
valle permutem Sabina divitias operosiores, why should I exchange my Sabine
valley for more wearisome riches ? Epod. ix. 27. : Terra marique victus
hostis Punico lugubre mutavit sagum; Curt. iii. 18.: exilium patria sede mu-
taverat; Ovid, Met. vii. 60. : Quemque ego cum rebus, quas totus possidet orbis,
Aesonidem mutasse velim ; Curt. iv. 4. : Habitus hie cum into squalore permu-
tandus tibi est; Sulpicius in Cic. ad Fain. iv. 5. : hisce temporibus non pessime
cum iis esse actum, quibus sine dolore licitum est mortem cum vita commutare.
Livy too uses both constructions, but the ablat. alone is better attested.
See Drakenborch on v. 20.
[ 457.] 5. The ablative is joined with nouns (both substan-
tive and adjective) and verbs to express a particular circumstance
or limitation, where in English the expressions " with regard
to," "as to," or "in" are used: e. g. Nemo Romanorum Ciceroni
parfuit, or Ciceronem aequavit eloquentia, in eloquence, or with
regard to eloquence. Hence a great number of expressions by
which a statement is modified or limited, as med sententia, mea
opinione, meo judicio, frequently with the addition of quidem ;
natione Syrus, a Syrian by birth; genere facile primus ; Hamil-
car cofjnmnme Barcas, &c.
ABLATIVE CASE. 337
Agesilaus claudus fuit (claudicabat) alter o pede, Nepos.
Sunt quidam homines, non re, sed nomine, Cicero.
[ 458.] Note 1. The Latin poets, and those prose writers who are fond of
poetical expressions, sometimes use the accusative instead of this ablative,
in imitation of the Greeks ; hence the accusative is termed accusativus
Graecus. It occurs most frequently with passive verbs, especially with per-
fect participles, to determine the part of the body to which a statement applies
or is limited ; e. g. vite caput tegitur, he is covered (or covers himself) with a
vine branch, but the covering is limited to the head : " his head is covered
with," &c. ; membra sub arbuto stratus, lying with his limbs stretched out ;
redimitus tempora lauro, his temples surrounded with a laurel wreath ; nube
candentes humeros amictus ; kumeros oleo perfusus ; miles fractus membra
labore. Such expressions are pleasing, especially when an ablative is joined
to the participle, as in Livy, xxi. 7. : adversum femur tragula graviter ictus;
Sueton. Octav. 20. : dexterumgenu lapide ictus; Ovid, Met. xii. 269. : Gryneus
eruitur ocvlos, appears rather harsh for Gryneo eruuntur oculi. This use of the
accus. may be compared with that explained in 393., edoctus artes and in-
terrogatus sententiam ; for an active verb may be joined with a twofold ac-
cusative, either of the person or of a part of the person, as redimio te victorem,
or redimio tempora, crines, and when such a sentence takes the passive
form, the accusative of the person becomes the nominative, but that of the
part remains. (Com. Buttmann's Greek Grammar, 131.)
But the poets go still further, and use this accusative of the part also with
neuter verbs and adjectives ; e. g. Virg. Georg. iii. 84. : tremit artus; Aen. i.
589.: os humerosque deo similis; Tacit. Germ. 17.: feminae Germanorum
nudae brachia et lacertos, and in the same writer we find clari genus, for the
usual clari genere, where genus is not an accusative of the part, but is com-
pletely a Greek construction.
The accusative expressing the articles of dress, used in poetical language
with the passive verbs induor, amicior, cingor, accingor, exuor, discingor, is of
a different kind ; but it may be compared to the accus. of the part. The
active admits two constructions : induo me veste and induo mihi vestem (see
above 418.), and in the passive the two constructions are combined into
one ; and instead of saying induor veste, the poets and those who imitate them,
say induor vestem. Instances of this occur in all the poets, but they are ex-
tremely frequent in Ovid ; e.g. protinus induitur faciem cultumque Dianae; in-
duiturque aures lente gradientis aselli; Virg. Aen. ii. 510. : inutile ferrum cingitur.
To this accusative, the Latin ablative is sometimes added, to denote the part
of the body which is dressed or adorned ; e.g. Ovid, Met. vii. 161. : inductaque
cornibus aurum Victima vota cadit, and x. 271. : pandis inductae cornibus aurum
juvencae. The accusative in Horace, Serm. i. 6. 74.: pueri laevo suspensi
loculos tdbulamque lacerto, is curious, but suspensi is here used according to
the analogy of accincti, like the Greek sl^/orij/ttf ot TJJV irivaica.
[ 459.] Note 2. Something of this Greek construction was adopted by the
Romans even in their ordinary language, and there are some cases where the
accusative is used in prose instead of the ablative. Magnam and maximam
partem are thus used adverbially for fere or magna (maxima') ex parte; e.g.
Cic. Oral. 56. : magnam partem ex iambis nostra constat oratio, consists to a
great extent of iambics ; 'de Off. i. 7. : maximam partem ad injuriam faciendam
aggrediuntur, ut adipiscantur ea, quae concupiverunt. (Comp. partim 271.)
In the same manner cetera and reliqua are joined to adjectives in the sense
Z
338 LATIN GUAMMAT1.
of ceteris; i.e. "for the rest," or "in other respects;" e.g. Liv. i. 32. :
Proximum regnum, cetera egregium, db una parte haud satis prosperum fuit, and
in many other passages, cetera similis, cetera laetus, cetera bonus. Further, id
temporis or id (lioc, idem) aetatis, for eo tempore, ea aetate; e.g. Liv. i. 50. :
purgavit se, quod id temporis vcnisset; xl. 9. : Quid hoc noctis venis? Cic. p.
Cluent.51.: non potuit honeste scribere in balneis se cum id aetatis filio fuisse ;
Tacit. Ann. xiii. 16. : cum ceteris idem aetatis nobilibus ; i.e. cum ceteris ejus-
dem aetatis nobilibus. On the same principle Tacitus, Ann. xii. 18., says:
Romanorum nemo id auctoritatis aderat, for ea auctoritate.
[ 460.] 6. The ablative is used with verbs denoting plenty
or want, and with the corresponding transitives of filling, en-
dowing, depriving. (Ablativus copiae aut inopiae.} Verbs of
this kind are: 1. abundare, redundare, affluere, circumfluere,
scatere, Jtorere, pollere, valere, vigere (in the figurative sense of
" being rich or strong in anything"); car ere, egere, indigere,
vacare ; 2. complere, explere, implere, opplere, cumulare, refer-
cire, obruere, imbuere, satiare, exatiare, saturare, stipare, consti-
pare ; afficere, donare, remnnerari, locupletare, ornare, augere ;
privare, spoliare, orbare, fraudare, defraudare, nudare, exuere,
and many others of a similar meaning. The adjective praeditus
takes the place of a perfect participle (in the sense of " en-
dowed"), and is likewise joined with an ablative.
Germania rivis Jluminibusque abundat, Seneca.
Quam Dionysio erat miserum, carere consuetudine amicornm,
societate victus, sermone omnino familiari ! Cic. Tusc. v. 22.
Arcesilas philosophus quum acumine ingenii Jloruit, turn admira-
bili quodam lepore dicendi, Cic. Acad. iv. 6.
Consilio et auctoritate non modo non orbari, sed etiam augeri
senectus solet, Cic. Cat. Maj. 6.
Mens est praedita motu sempiterno, Cic. Tusc. i. 27.
[46i.] Note 1. Afficere properly signifies to "endow with," but it is
used in a great many expressions, and may sometimes be translated by " to do
something to a person : " afficere aliquem honore, beneficio, Iqetitia, praemio,
ignominia, injuria, poena, morte, sepultura. Remunerari (the simple munerare
or munerari is not often used), properly " to make a present in return,"
hence " to remunerate." Respecting the different construction of the verbs
domare, exuere, and others with the accusat. of the thing, and the dative of
the person, see 418.
[ 462.] Note 2. The adjectives denoting full and empty are sometimes
joined with the ablative although as adjectiva relativa they take a genitive
(see 436). Refertus, filled, as a participle of the verb refercio has regu-
larly the ablative, and it is only by way of exception that, according to the
analogy of plenus, it takes the genitive ; e.g. Cic.^). Font. 1. : referta Gallia
negotiatorum est, plena civium Romanorum. Orbus, destitute ; creber and den-
sus in the sense of" thickly covered with," are found only with the ablative.
ABLATIVE CASE. 339
Vacuus, liber, immunis &n<lpunis are joined with the ablat. or the preposition
ab. See 468.
[ 463.] Note 3. A genitive is sometimes joined with egeo, and frequently
with indigeo ; e. g. Cic. : hoc bettum indiget celeritatis ; and following the
analogy of plenus the verbs complere and implere are joined with a genitive
not only by the poets, but by good prose writers ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. v. 57. :
quum completes jam mercatorum career esset; Cat. Maj. 14. : convivium vici-
norum quotidie compleo; ad Fam. ix. 18. : ollam denariorum implere, and in
Livy : spei animorumque implere, temeritatis implere.
It is obvious that with many of these verbs the ablative may justly be
regarded as an dblativus instrumenti. The verb valere in the sense of "being
healthy or well," takes the ablative of the part, as corpore, pedibus, stomacho ;
in the sense of " being strong," the ablat. joined to it is generally an ablat.
instrumenti ; e. g. valeo auctoritate, gratia, pecunia, armis ; but in many cases
it may be regarded also as an ablative of plenty, as in valere eloquentia,
equitatu valere.
[ 464.] 7. Opus est, there is need, is used either as an im-
personal verb, in which case it takes, like the verbs denoting
want, an ablative, e. g. duce (exemplis) nobis opus est, or per-
sonally, in which case the thing needed is expressed by the
nominative (just as aliquid mihi necessarium est), e. g. dux nobis
opus est, exempla nobis opus sunt. The latter construction is
most frequent with the neuters of pronouns and adjectives.
Athenienses Philippidem cursor em Lacedaemonem miserunt, 'ut
nuntiaret, quam celeri opus esset auxilio, Nep. Milt. 4.
Themistocles celeriter quae opus erant reperiebat, Nep. Them. 1.
Note 1 . The genitive of the thing needed in Livy, xxii. 51.: temporis
opus esse, and xxiii. 21.: quanti argenti opus fuit, is doubtful. But when
the thing cannot be expressed by a substantive, we find either the accusat.
with the infinitive, or the infinitive alone, the preceding subject being under-
stood : e. g. si quid erit, quod te scire opus sit, scribam, or quid opus est tarn
valde affirmare, scil. te ; or the ablat. of the perfect participle is used with
or without a substantive ; e. g. Tacito quum opus est, clamas ; Livy : maturato
opus est, quidquid statuere placet ; Cic. ad Aft. x. 4. : sed opus fuit Hirtio
convento ; Liv. vii. 5. : opus sibi esse domino ejus convento. The ablat. of
the supine (in M) is less frequent. Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, ubi con-
svlueris, mature facto opus est, Sallust, Cat. 1.
Note 2. Usus est, in the sense of opus est, is likewise used impersonally, as
in Livy : ut reduceret naves, quibus consuli usus non esset, of which the consul
was not in want.
[ 465.] 8. The ablative is joined with the deponent verbs
utor,fruor,fungor, potior and vescor, and their compounds abutor,
perfruor, defungor and perfungor. Pascor (to feed or graze) is
oftener joined with the ablative than with the accusative ; e. g.
oves pascuntur herbis, avium greges polenta pascebantur.
Hannibal quum victoria posset uti, frui rnaluit, Florus.
Qui adipisfii veram gloriam volet, justitiae fungatur officiis, Cic.
de Off. ii. 13.
Z 2
340 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina came vescebantur, Sallust,
Jug. 89.
[466.] Note. In early Latin these verbs were frequently joined with
the accusative, but in the best period of the language it seldom occurs, and
only in less correct writers. (In Nepos, Datum. 1. : militare munus fungens
is well established, but Eumcn. 3. : summam imperil potiri is doubtful, and
so are the passages quoted from Cicero with the accusat. See my note on
de Off. ii. 23.) This, however, is the reason why even classical writers use
the construction with the participle future passive, where otherwise the
gerund only could have been used. (See 657.) Potior occurs (in classical
writers) also with the genitive ; e. g. regni, imperil, but more especially
in the phrase rerum potiri, to assume the supremacy. Apiscor and adipiscor
are used by Tacitus in the same sense with a genitive (rerum, dominationis),
and Horace goes so far as to join regnare (which is otherwise an intransitive
verb) with a genitive, Carm. iii. 30. 12. : agrestium populorum. Utor often
signifies " I have," especially when the object (the ablat.) is accompanied by
another noun (substant. or adject.) in apposition; e.g. utor te amico, I
have you as a friend ; Nep. : Hannibal Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum
Graecarum usus est doctors ; Cic. : vide quam me sis usurus aequo, how fair I
shall be towards thee.
[ 467.] 9. The adjectives dignus, indignus and contentus are
joined with the ablative of the thing of which we are worthy,
unworthy, and with which we are satisfied. Dignari, to be
deemed worthy, or, as a deponent, to deem worthy, is construed
like dignus.
Si vere aestimare Macedonas, qui tune fuerunt, volumus, fate-
bimur, et regem talibus ministris, et illos tanto rege fuisse diy-
nissimos, Curt. iv. in fin.
Quam multi luce indigni sunt, et tam.cn dies oritur ! Senec.
Note. Dignari is used by Cicero only as the passive of the obsolete active
dignare, and that not only in the participle, but in the various tenses. The
writers of the silver age use it as a deponent ; e. g. Sueton. Vespas. 2. :
gratias egit ei, quod se honors coenae dignatus esset, that he had thought him
worthy. When joined with an infinitive, dignor with those writers signifies
" I think proper to do a thing." Dignus, in poetry and unclassical prose
writers, is sometimes joined with a genitive, like the Greek a?u>f. When it
is followed by a verb, the Latin language generally requires a distinct
sentence beginning with a relative pronoun, the verb being put in the sub-
junctive ; sometimes, however, the infinitive is used, as in English. (See
568.) Contentus is likewise joined with the infinitive of a verb, see
590. The ablat. with this adjective arises from the meaning of the verb
contineri, of which it is, properly speaking, the participle passive ; hence in a
reflective sense it signifies " confining one's self to," or " satisfying one's self
with a thing."
[ 468.] 10. The verbs of removing, preventing, delivering,
and others which denote separation, are construed with the ab-
lative of the thing, without any of the prepositions ab, de or ex ;
ABLATIVE CASE. 341
but when separation from a person is expressed the preposition
ab is always used. The principal verbs of this class are :
arcere, pellere, depellere, expellere, deturbare, dejicere, ejicere, ab-
sterrere, deterrere, movere, amovere, demovere, removere, prohibere,
excludere ; abire, exire, cedere, decedere, discedere, desistere, eva-
dere, abstinere ; liberare, expedire, laxare, solvere, together with
the adjectives liber, immunis, purus, vacuus and alienus, which
may be used either with the preposition ab or the ablative alone,
e. g. liber a delictis and liber omni metu, but the verbs exolvere,
exonerare and kvare, although implying liberation, are always,
construed with the ablative alone.
The verbs which denote " to distinguish " and " to differ," viz. distinguere,
discernere, secernere, differre, discrepare, dissidere, distare, abhorrere, together
with alienare and abalienare, are generally joined only with the preposition
ab, and the ablat. alone is rare and poetical ; e. g. Tacit. Ann. i. 55. : neque
ipse abhorrebat talibus studiis; Ovid, Met. iii. 145. : sol ex aequo metd distabat
utrdque. The verbs denoting " to differ " are construed also with the dative,
and not only in poetry, but sometimes even in prose; e.g. Horat. Epist.'i.
18. 4. : distal inftdo scurrae amicus; ibid. ii. 2. 193. : simplex hilarisque nepoti
discrepat; Quintil. xii. 10. : Graecis Tuscanicae statuae differunt. The same
principle is followed by the adjective diversus, as in Quintil. I. c. : Nihil tarn
est Lysiae diversion quam Isocrates ; Horat. Serm. i. 4. 48. : (Comoedia) nisi
quod pede certo Differt sermoni, sermo merus.
L. Brutus civitatem dominatu regio liberavit, Cic. p. Plane. 25.
Te a quartana liberatum gaudeo, Cic. ad Att. x. 15.
Esse pro cive, qui civis non sit, rectum est non licere, usu vero
urbis prohibere peregrines sane inhumanum est, Cic. de Off. iii.
11.
Apud veteres Germanos quemcunque mortalium arcere tecto ne-
fas habebatur, Tacit. Germ. 21.
Tu, Juppiter, hunc a tuis arts, a tectis urbis, a moenibus, a vita
fortunisque civium arcebis, Cic. in Cat. i. in fin.
[ 469.] Note 1. The verb separare itself is commonly construed with ab,
but the ablative alone is also admissible ; e.g. Ovid, Trist. i. 10. 28. : Seston
Abydena separat urbe fretvan. Evadere is joined by Cicero with ex and ab,
but Livy and Sallust use it with the ablat. alone ; it may take the accusat.
according to 386. ; e. g. evadere amnem, Jiammam, insidias, silvas, but this
occurs only in the silver age. Prohibere, to keep at a distance, prevent,
admits of a double construction : the most common is to put the hostile
thing or person in the accusative, as hastes prohibere populationibus or ab
oppidis ; Cic. p. Leg. Man. 7. : a quo periculo prohibete rejnpublicam, and in
the same chapter : erit humanitatis vestrae, magnum horum civium numerum
calamitate prohibere. In like manner defendere is joined with the accusative
of the thing to be warded off, or of the thing or person to be defended. In
z 3
342 LATIN GRAMMAR.
the former sense defenders is commonly used with the accusat. alone, as
defendere nimios ardores solis, but ab aliquo may also be added ; in the latter
sense ab is very frequently joined to it, as a periculo, a vi, ab injuria. After
the analogy of prohibere, the verb interdicere alicui is used almost more
frequently with the ablative, aliqua re, than with the accusat. aliquid ; e. g.
Caes. Bell. Gall. i. 46. : Ariovistus omni Gallia interdixit Romanis ; Quintil.
vi. 3. 79. : quod ei domo sua interdixisset, and hence the well known formula
alicui aqua et igni interdicere. See the excellent disquisition of Perizonius
on Sanctius, Minerv. p. 345. foil. ed. sexta ; comp. 418.
The dative with verbs denoting " to differ," is attested by a sufficient
number of passages ; but it is impossible to ascertain what was the practice
with the verbs denoting " to distinguish," for there are no decisive passages.
Horace says vero distinguere falsum, turpi secernere honestum, secernere pri-
vatis publica, but it is uncertain whether vero, turpi and privatis, are datives
or ablatives. The poets now and then use the dative instead of ab with the
ablat., with verbs denoting separation ; e. g. Virg. Eclog. vii. 47. : solstitium
pecori defendite; Georg.in. 155.: oestrum arcebis gravido pecori; Horat.
Carm. i. 9. 17. : donee virenti canities abest. For otherwise abesse is always
joined with ab. (Comp. however 420.) Dissentire, dissidere and discrepare,
are construed also with cum, and discordare cum aliquo is more frequent than
ab aliquo. The genitive, which is sometimes joined by poets to verbs of
separation, is entirely Greek ; e. g. Plaut. Rud. i. 4. 27. : me omnium jam
laborum levas; Horat. Carm. ii. 9. 17.: desine mollium tandem querelarum ;
ibid. iii. 27. 69. : abstineto irarum calidaeque rixae; ibid. iii. 17. in fin. : cum
famulis operum solutis ; Serm. ii. 3. 36. : morbi purgatus ; and according to this
analogy the genitive is used also with adjectives of the same meaning, Horat.
Serm. ii. 2. 119. : operum vacuus ; de Art. Poet. 212. : liber laborum; Carm,
i. 22. : purus sceleris. So Tacitus, Annul, i. 49., uses diversus with the
genitive instead of aft aliqua re.
[ 470.] Note 2. The adjective alienus (strange), in the sense of " unfit "
or " unsuited," is joined either with the ablative alone or with ab. ; e. g. Cic.
de Off. i. 13. : fraus quasi vulpeculae, vis leonis videtur, utrumque homine
alienissimum est ; non alienum putant dignitate, majestate sua, institutis suis ;
but Cicero just as often uses the preposition ab. In the sense of " disaf-
fected" or " hostile " alienus always takes ab; e.g. homo alienus a litteris,
animum alienum a causa nobilitatis habere. In the former sense of " unsuited,"
being the opposite of proprius (411.), it may also be joined with the
genitive ; e. g. Cic. de Fin. i. 4. : quis alienum putet ejus esse dignitatis, and in
the latter (after the analogy of inimicus) with the dative, as Cic. p. Caec. 9. :
id dicit quod itti causae maxime est alienum. Alius too is sometimes found
with the ablative, which may be regarded as an ablative of separation ; e. g.
Horat. Epist. i. 16. 20. : neve putes alium sapiente bonoque beatum; Epist. ii,
1. 239.: alius Lysippo; Phaedr. Prolog, lib. iii. 41.: alius Sejano ; Varroi
de R. R. iii. 16. : quod est aliud melle ; Cic. ad Fam. xi. 2., in speaking of
Brutus and Cassius, says : nee quidquam aliud libertate communi quaesisse.
But this ablat. may also be compared with the ablat. joined to comparatives.
[ 471.] 11. The ablative is used with esse (either expressed
or understood) to denote a quality of a person or a thing (abla-
tivus qualitatis). But the ablative is used only when the sub-
stantive denoting the quality does not stand alone (as in the
ABLATIVE CASE. 343
case of the genitive, see 426.), but is joined with an adjective
or pronoun-adjective. Hence we cannot say, e. g. Caesar fuit
ingenio, or homo ingenio, a man of talent (which would be ex-
pressed by an adjective), but we say Caesar magno, summo, or
excellenti ingenio, or homo summo ingenio.
Agesilaus staturafuit humili et corpore exiguo, Nepos.
Omnes habentur et dicuntur tyranni, qui potestate sunl perpetua
in ea civitate, quae libertate usa est, Nep. Milt.
L. Catilina, nobili genere natus,fuit magna vi et animi et corporis,
sed ingenio malo pravoque, Sallust, Cat. 5.
Prope (Hennam) est spelunca quaedam, infinita altitudine, qua
Ditem patrem ferunt repente cum curru extitisse, Cic. in Verr.
iv. 48.
Note. The explanation of the ablative of quality by the ellipsis of prae-
ditus is only intended to suggest some mode of accounting for the fact of a
substantive being joined with an ablative. With the same object in view
we prefer connecting the ablative with esse or its participle ens (though it
does not occur), in the absence of which a substantive enters into an imme-
diate connection with an ablative, without being grammatically dependent
upon it : Claris natalibus est, he is of noble birth ; vir claris natalibus, homo
antiqua virtute etfide. With regard to the difference between the ablative
and the genitive of quality, the genitive is more comprehensive, all ideas of
measure being expressed by this case alone ; but in other respects the dis-
tinction is not very clear. In general, however, it may be said, that the
genitive is used more particularly to express inherent qualities, and the
ablative both inherent and accidental qualities. Thus, in speaking of tran-
sitory qualities or conditions, the ablative is always used, as bono animo sum,
maxima dolore eram, and Cicero, ad Att. xii. 52., by using the genitive summi
animi es, suggests that he is speaking of something permanent, not merely
transitory. See Kriiger's Grammat. p. 532. The genitive of plural sub-
stantives is rare. Sometimes the two constructions, with the ablative and
the genitive, are found combined ; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. iv. 8. : neque monere te
aitdeo, praestanti pntdentia virum, nee confirmare maximi animi hominem ;
ibid. i. 7. : Lentulum eximia spe, summae virtutis adolescentem ; Nep. Datam. 3. :
Thyum, hominem maximi corporis terribilique facie optima veste texit.
[ 472.] 12. The ablative with the preposition cum is used
to express the manner in which any thing is done (usually indi-
cated by adverbs), provided the manner is expressed by a sub-
stantive ; e. g. cum fide amicitiam colere ; litterae cum cura dili-
gentiaque scriptae ; cum voluptate audire ; cum dignitate potius
cadere, quam cum ignominia servire, are equivalent to fideliter
colere ; diligenter scriptae, libenter audire, &c. If an adjective is
joined with the substantive, the ablative alone (ablativus modi)
is generally used, and the preposition cum is joined to it only
z 4
344 LATIN GRAMMAR.
when an additional circumstance, and not an essential charac-
teristic of the action, is to be expressed. The substantives im-
plying manner, as modus, ratio, mos, and others, never take the
preposition cum.
Thus we always read : hoc modo scripsi ; non uno modo rem tractavi ;
omni modo egi cum rege; aliqua rations tollere te volunt; constituerunt qua
ratione ageretur, and the like ; in the same way humano modo et usitato more
peccare, more bestiamim vagari, latronum ritu vivere, more institutoque omnium
defender e, the genitive in these cases supplying the place of an adjective.
We further say aequo animo fero; maxima fide amicitias coluit; summa
aequitate res constituit, and very frequently viam incredibili edentate confecit;
librum magna cura diligentiaque scripsit, the action of the verb being in in-
timate connection with the adverbial circumstance. But when the action and
the circumstance are considered separately, the preposition cum is used ; e. g.
majore cum fide auditur ; conclamant cum indecora exultatione (in Quintil.) ;
tanta multitude cum tanto studio adest (Cic. p. Leg. Man. 24.) ; Verres Lamp-
sacum venit cum magna calamitate civitatis (Cic. in Verr. i. 24.), the calamitas
being only the consequence of his presence. Hence cum is also used when,
the connection between the subject and the noun denoting the attribute is
only external ; e. g. procedere cum veste purpurea ; heus tu qui cum hirquina
astas barba (Plaut. Pseud, iv. 2. 12.) ; whereas procedere coma madenti, nudig
pedibus incedere, aperto capite sedere express circumstances or attributes in-
separable from the subject.
Quid est aliud gigantum modo bellare cum diis, nisi naturae re-
pugnare ? Cic. Cat. Maj. 2.
Legiones nostrae in eum saepe locum profectae sunt aJacri animo
et erecto, unde se nunquam redituras arbitrarentur, Cic. Cat.
Maj. 20.
Epaminondas a judicio capitis maxima discessit gloria, Nep.
Epam. 8.
Romani ovantes ac gratulantes Horatium accipiunt, eo majore cum
gaudio, quo prope metum res fuerat, Liv. i. 25.
Miltiades (quumParum expugnare non potuisset) Athenas magna
cum offensione civium suorum rcdiit, Nep. Milt. 7.
Note 1. The difference observed between the ablativus modi and cum, ir
the case of substantives joined with adjectives, is a nicety of the Latin lan-
guage, which it is difficult to explain by a rule, although it is based on
sound principles. Cicero, de Orat. i. 13., in speaking of the peculiar dif-
ference between the oratorical and philosophical style, combines the two
constructions : illi (the philosophers) tenui quodam exanguique sermone
disputant, hie (the orator) cum omni gravitate et jucunditate explicat: by
cum Cicero here denotes the additional things which the orator employs. If
he had alluded only to the mode of speaking, he would have said magna
gravitate rem explicat. But there are, nevertheless, some passages, in which
no difference is apparent, as Cic. de Invent, i. 39. : Quod enim^certius legis
scriptor testimonium voluntatis suae relinquere potuit, quam quod ipse ntagna
cum cura atque diligentia scripsit? de Nat. Deor. ii. 38.: impetus coeli cum
ABLATIVE CASE. 345
admirabili celeritate movetur. The beginner must observe that the ablativus
modi is more frequent than the use of cum, which, we hope, is explained in
an intelligible manner.
The ablativus modi occurs also in the words condicio or lex, in the sense
of " condition," or " term," and in pericidum, danger, risk ; e. g. nulla con-
dicione (like nullo pacto) fieri potest ; quavis condicione pacem facere ; aequa
condicione disceptare; hac, ea condicione or lege ut or ne ( 319.) ; meo, tuo,
vestro, alicujus periculo facere aliquid (but when the substantive stands alone,
we say cum periculo, that is, periculose) ; auspicio, auspiciis, ductu imperioque ali-
cujus rem gerere or militare. Some cases in which the ablative is used, and
which are commonly considered as ablativi modi, are in reality of a different
kind : hac mente, hoc consilio fed, for example, should rather be called ab-
lativi causae ; navi vehi, pedibus ire, pervenire aliquo, capite onera ferre, vi
urbes expugnare, on the other hand, are ablativi instrument], but they ac-
quire the nature of an ablativus modi, if the substantive is joined with an
adjective, as magna vi irruere, magna vi defendere aliquem, or they become
ablatives absolute, implying a description ; e. g. nudis pedibus ambulare, pro-
cessit madenti coma, composite capillo, gravibus oculis, Jluentibus buccis, pressa
voce et temulenta. (Pseud. Cic. post Red. in Sen. 6.) See 645. The ablat.
in Cic. Lael. 15. : miror (de Tarquinio) ilia superbia et importunitate si quem-
qiiam amicum habere potuit, must likewise be regarded as an ablative ab-
solute, being the same as quum tanta ejus superbia et imporhmitas fuerit. As
the preposition cum cannot be used in any of these cases, we may consider
it as a practical rule, that the manner in which a thing is done is expressed
by the ablativus modi.
In some expressions the ablative of substantives alone is found without
cum. Thus we say silentio praeterire, or facere aliquid (but also cum silen-
tio audire), lege agere; jure and injuria facere; magistratus vitio creatus is a
common expression, indicating that an election had not taken place in
due form. Cicero uses aliquid recte et ordine, modo et ratione, rations et
ordine fit, via et ratione disputare, and frequently also ratione alone ; e. g.
ratione facere, ratione voluptatem sequi (de Fin. i. 10.), with reason, i. e. in
a rational way ; sometimes also voluntate facere in the sense of sponte, volun-
tarily.
[ 473.] Note 2. If we compare the above rules with those given under
Nos. 1 . and 2., the ablative expressing company alone is excluded, for com-
pany is expressed by cum, even in such cases as servi cum telis comprehensi
sunt, cum ferro in aliquem invadere, when we are speaking of instruments
which a person has (if he uses them, it becomes an ablativus instrument!) ;
further, Romam veni cumfebri; cum nuntio exire, as soon as the news arrived;
cum occasu solis copias educere, as soon as the sun set. It must be observed
as an exception that the ancient writers, especially Caesar and Livy, in speak-
ing of military movements or operations, frequently use the ablat. alone ; e. g.
Liv. vii. 9.: Dictator ingenti exercitu, ab urbe profectus; xxx. 11.: exercitu
haud minor e, qnam quern prius habuerat, ire ad hostes pergit ; xli. 1 . : eodem
decem navibus C. Furius duumvir navalis venit; i. 14. : egressus omnibus copiis,
where Drakenborch gives a long list of similar expressions in Livy, with
which we may compare the commentators referred to by him and Oudendorp
on Caes. Bett. Gall. ii. 7. See also Kritz, ad Sallust. Cat. 21. This omission
of the preposition occurs also when accompanying circumstances are men-
tioned, and not persons ; e. g. Liv. vii. 20. : quum populatione peragrati fines
essent ; v. 45. : castra damore invadunt. The Greeks, especially Xenophon,
346 LATIN GRAMMAR.
use the dative in the same way ; comp. Matthiae, Greek Gram. 405., and
also Livy, x. 25. : majori mihi curae est, ut omnes locupletes reducam, quam ut
imdtis rent geram militibus, which is an ablativus instrument}, unless it be
explained by the analogy of the expressions mentioned above.
[ 47*-] W g ma y a( ld nere t ne remark that the participles junctus and con-
junchis are joined by Cicero with the ablative alone, instead of the dative
(according to 412. and 415.) or the preposition cum; e. g. ad Att. ix. 10. :
infinitum helium junctum miserrima fuga; p, Cluent. 6. : repente est exorta
mulieris importunae nefaria libido, non solum dedecore, verum etiam scelere
conjuncta; de Orat. i. 67. : dicendi vis egregia, summa festivitate et venustate
conjuncta. See Garatoni's note on Philip, v. 7. : hujus mendicitas aviditate
conjuncta in fortunas nostras imminebat. See also p. Plane. 10. ; Philip, iii.
14. ; Brut. 44. This construction is also found with implicatus in Cic. Phil.
ii. 32., and with admixtus in de Nat. Deor. ii. 10. Compare the construction
321.
[ 475.] 13. a) The ablative, without a preposition, is used
to express the point of tune at which any thing happens.
(Duration of time is expressed by the accusative, see 395.)
Qua node natus Alexander est, eddem Dianae Ephe'siae templum
deflagravit, Cic. De Nat. Dear. ii. 27.
Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo versus facere desierat, Cic. De
Divin. ii. 56.
Pompejus extrema pueritia miles fuit summi imperatoris, ineunte
adolescentia maximi ipse exercitus imperator, Cic. p. Leg.
Man. 10.
Note. Our expressions "by day" and " by night," are rendered in Latin
by the special words interdiu and noctu, but the ordinary ablatives die and
nocte also occur not unfrequently, as in the combination : die ac nocte, die
noctuque, nocte et interdiu. Vesper e or vesperi is " in the evening," see 98.
and 63. Ludis is also used to denote time, in the sense of tempore ludomim,
and on the same principle we find Saturnalibus, Latinis, gladiatoribus, for
ludis gladiatoriis. See Drakenborch on Livy, ii. 36. Other substantives
which properly speaking do not express time, are used in that sense either
with the preposition in (comp. 318.), or without it; e.g. initio and principio,
adventu and discessu alicujus, comitiis, tumultu, and bello; but of bello the ablat.
alone is more common, if it is joined with an adjective or genitive, as bello
Latinorum, Vejenti bello, bello Punico secundo, and after this analogy also
pugiw. Cannensi for in pugna Cannensi. Thus also we say in pueritia; but
when an adjective denoting time is joined to pueritia, the ablative alone is
used. It is in general very rare and unclassical to use in with substantives
expressing a certain space of tune, as hora, dies, annus, &c., for the purpose
of denoting the time when anything happens ; for in tempore is used only
when tempus signifies "distress" or "misery" (as it sometimes does in
Cicero : in illo tempore, hoc quidem in tempore, and in Livy : in tali tempore,
where we should say " under such circumstances"), and " in time," " at the
right time ;" but in both cases the ablative alone also occurs, and tempore in
the sense of "early" has even become an adverb. An earlier form of
this adverb is tempori or temperi, of which a comparative temperius is formed.
ABLATIVE CASE. 347
Livy (i. 18. and 57.) however has the expression in ilia aetate, at that period,
for which Cicero would have used the ablative alone.
[ 476.] i) The ablative is also used to express the time
before and the time after a thing happened, and ante and post
are in this case placed after the ablative. The meaning, how-
ever, is the same as when ante and post are joined with the
accusative in the usual order, just as we may sometimes say, in
the same sense, " three years after," and " after three years,"
post tres annos decessit, and tribus annis post decessit. In this
connection the ordinal numerals may be employed, as well as the
cardinal ones : post tertium annum, and tertio anno post, are the
same as tribus annis post; for by this, as by the former expres-
sions, the Romans did not imply that a period of three full
years had intervened, but they included in- the calculation the
beginning and the end (the terminus a quo and the terminus ad
quern). If we add the not unusual position of the preposition
between the adjective and the substantive (noticed above, 324.),
we obtain eight different modes of expression, all of which have
the same value.
(ante) post tres annos tribus annis post.
post tertium annum tertio anno post.
tres post annos tribus post annis.
tertium post annum tertio post anno.
When ante or post stands last (as in tribus annis post or tertio
anno post), it may be joined with an accusative following it to
denote the time after and before which any thing took place.
Themistocles fecit idem, quod viginti annis ante apud nos fecerat
Coriolanus (ut in exilium proficisceretur, B. c. 471), Cic.
Lael 12.
L. Sextius primus de plebe consul factus est annis post Romam
conditam trecentis duodenonaginta.
\ 477.] Note. Post and ante sometimes precede the ablatives : ante annis
octo, post paucis diebus (Liv. xl. 57., and elsewhere), and also before such
ablatives as are used a'dverbially : post aliquanto, post non multo, post paulo
(ante aliquanto, Cic. in Verr. ii. 18. ; ante paulo, de Re Publ. ii. 4.) ; but the
usual place of these prepositions is that mentioned above in the rule. Diu
post must be avoided, for it is only the ablatives in o that are used in this way.
When ante and post are joined with qva.ni and a verb, the expression admits
of great variety : we may say tribus annis postquam venerat, post tres annos
quam venerat, tertio anno postquam venerat,post annum tertium quam venerat, or
post may be omitted and the ablative used alone : tertio anno quam venerat,
and all these expressions have the same meaning, viz. " three years after he
had come."
348 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 478.] c) The length of time before the present moment
is expressed by abhinc, generally with the accusative, but also
with the ablative ; e. g. Demosthenes abhinc annos prope trecentos
fuit, and abhinc annis quattuor. The same is also expressed by
ante, with the pronoun hie, as in Phaedrus : ante hos sex menses
maledixisti mihi.
Demosthenes, qui abhinc annos prope trecentos fuit, jam turn
<f)i\,i7nri^iv Pi/thiam dicebat, id est quasi cum Philippo facer e,
Cic. De Divin. ii. 57.
Note. Abhinc without reference to the present moment, in the sense of
ante in general, occurs only in Cic. in Verr. ii. 52. ; ante, on the other hand,
is used more frequently instead of abhinc, Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 18.: vos mihi
praetori bicnnio ante personam hanc imposuistis ; comp. Tusc. i. 5. 9. Hand
(Tursellin. i. p. 63.) observes that no ancient writer ever used an ordinal
numeral with abhinc, and Pliny (Hist. Nat. xiv. 4.) alone says : septimo hinc
anno. Sometimes the length of time before is expressed by the ablat. alone
joined with hie or itte, as panels his diebus, or paucis illis diebus, a few days
ago. Respecting the difference between these pronouns, in reference to the
present or past time, see 703. ; comp. Cic. in Verr.iv. 18. 39. and c.63. init.
[ 479.] d) The length of time within which a thing happens
is expressed by the ablative alone as well as by in with the
ablative. Cicero uses the ablative alone, and introduces in only
in connection with numerals (in answer to the question, " how
often during a certain time ? ") ; e. g. bis in die saturum fieri, vix
ter in anno nuntium audire, sol binas in singulis annis conversiones
facit, but not exclusively so. Other good authors use in when
they wish to express more decidedly the idea of within, which is
generally expressed by intra. (See 300.)
Agamemnon cum universa Graecia vix decem annis unam cepit
urbem, Nep. Epam. 5.
Senatus decrevit, ut legati Jugurthae, nisi regnum ipsumque
deditum venissent, in diebus proximis decem Italia decederent,
Sallust, Jug. 28.
[ 480.] Note. The ablative expressing " within a time " often acquires the
signification of " after " a time, inasmuch as the period within which a thing is
to happen, is passed away. Thus Tarraconem paucis diebus peroenit, in Caesar
(Bell. Civ. ii. 21.), signifies " after a few days," and Sallust (Jug. 39. 4.) fol-
lows the same principle in saying : paucis diebus in Africam proficiscitur, and
(ibid. 13.) paucis diebus Romam legatos mittit, for paucis diebus post. (See
Kritz on Sallust, Jug. II.) Suetonius (Ner. 3., Tib. 69.) in the same sense
says in paucis diebus. This use of the ablative occurs in Cicero (and other
good authors), inasmuch as the ablative of time, when followed by a pre-
position with a relative pronoun, signifies " later than ;" e. g. Plancius in Cic,
ABLATIVE CASE. 349
ad Font. x. 18. : ipse octo diebus, quibus has litteras dabam, cum Lepidi copii*
me conjungam, that is, eight days after the date of this letter ; p. Rose. Am.
36. : Mors Sex. Itoscii quatriduo, quo is occisus est, Chrysogono nuntiutur, four
days after he had been killed ; Caes. Sell. Civ. i. 48. : accidit repentinum in-
commodum biduo, quo haec gesta sunt, two days after this had happened ; Bell.
Gall. v. 26. : diebus circiter xv., quibus in hiberna ventum est, defectio orta
est ; also with quum instead of a relative pronoun, Flancius in Cic. ad Fam.
x. 23. : quern triduo, quum has dabam litteras, expectabam, three days later
than the date of this letter. Sometimes in is joined with the abl., Terent.
Andr. i. 1. 77. : in diebus paucis, quibus haec acta sunt, moritur.
[ 481.] 14. The ablative without a preposition is used to
denote the place where? in some particular combinations, as
terra marique, by land and by sea. The names of towns follow
their own rules ( 398.). The preposition is omitted with the
word loco (and locis], when it is joined with an adjective, and has
the derivative meaning of " occasion ; " e. g. hoc loco, multis locis,
aliquot locis, certo loco, secundo loco, meliore loco res nostrae sunt ;
but this is done more rarely when locus has its proper meaning
of " spot " or " place." In loco, or simply loco, is equal to suo
loco, in its right place ; when joined with a genitive, loco signi-
fies " instead," and in this sense in loco is used as well as loco
( also numero) alicujus esse, ducere, habere. Libra joined with an
adjective or pronoun, as hoc, primo, tertio, is used without in,
when the whole book is meant, and with in when merely a
portion or passage is meant.
The poets know of no limits in the use of the ablative with-
out in to denote a place where? e.g. Ovid, Met. vii. 547.:
silvisque agrisque viisque corpora foeda jacent, any more than in
the use of the accusative to denote the place whither? (See
401.) They further use the ablative without ex or ab to
indicate the place whence ? without limiting themselves to the
verbs of separation ( 468.) ; e. g. cadere nubibus, descender e coelo,
labi equo, currus carceribus missi.
[ 482.] Note. The writers of the silver age imitated the poets, and began
more and more to use the ablative without a preposition to designate the
place where ? Livy, for example, says : aequo dimicatur campo, media alveo
concursum est, media Etruriae agro praedatum profectus, ad secundum lapidem
Gabina via considere jubet (ii. 11.), ad moenia ipsa Romae regions portae
Esquilinae accessere; in the special signification of regio, a division of the
city, Suetonius always uses it without in, e.g. regione campi Martii, and
others go still further. The ablative denoting the place whence ? likewise
appears in the prose of that time, e. g. Curt. iv. 12. : Arabia rcdiens; Tacit.
inn. xii. 38. . ni cito vicis et castellis proximis subventtim foret, for e vicis.
fith regard to ordinary prose, it only remains to observe, that the ablative
350 LATIN GRAMMAR.
joined with the adjective toto or Ma is generally used without in ; e. g. dr..
p. Hose. Am. 9. : urbe Ma gemitus fit ; in Verr. v. 35. : concursalat Ma urbe
maxima multitude; p. Leg. Man. 11., and very often Mo marl; Philip, xi. 2.
Ma Asia vagatur ; p. Leg. Man. 3. : iota Asia, tot in civitatibus ; in Verr. ii.
49. : tola Sicilia per triennium nemo uJla in civitate senator factus est gratis ; in
Verr. iv. 19. : conquiri hominem Ma provincia jubet ; sometimes, however, we
find in Ma provincia, and in toto orbe terrarum ; Caes. Bell. Civ. i. 6. : Ma
Italia delectus habentur ; Livy frequently uses toto campo dispersi, and Cur-
tius : ignes qui Mis campis collucerc coeperunt ; cadavera Mis campis jacentia ;
manabat toto vestibulo cruor paulo ante convivae.
[ 483.] 15. The ablative is used with adjectives in the com-
parative degree, instead of quam with the nominative, or in the
construction of the accusative with the infinitive, instead of
quam with the accusative of the subject ; e. g. Nemo Romanorum
fuit eloquentior Cicerone; neminem Romanorum eloquentiorem
fuisse veteres judicarunt Cicerone. The ablative instead of quam
with the accusative of the object occurs more rarely, but when
the object is a relative pronoun, the ablative is generally used.
Vilius argentum est auro, virtutibus aurum, Horat. Epist.
Sapiens humana omnia inferiora virtute ducit, Cic. Tusc.
Phidiae simulacris, quibus nihil in illo genere perfect'tus videmus,
cogitare tamen possumus pulchriora, Cic. Orat. 2.
[ 48*.] Note 1. The ablative, instead of quam, with the accusative of the
object, is found very frequently in poetry : e. g. Horat. Carm. i. 8. 9. : Cur
olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitatf i. 12. 13.: Quid prius dicam solitis
parentis laudibusf i. 18. 1.: Nullam, Vare, sacra vite prius severis arbor em,
&c. In prose it is much more uncommon,, though well established ; e. g.
Cic. de Re Publ. i. 10. : Quern auctorem de Soerate locupletiorem Platone
laudare possumus f p. Rob. 1 . : Est boni consulis suam salutem posteriorem
saluti communi ducere ; Caes. Sell. Gall. vii. 19. : nisi eorum vitam sua sa-
lute kabeat cariorem ; Val. Maxim, v. 3. ext. 2. : Neminem Lycurgo aut.
majorem aut utiliorem virum Lacedaemon genuit. This construction is more
frequent with pronouns; and Cicero often uses such phrases as hoc mihi
gratius nihil facere poles ; but it is necessary in the connection of a com-
parative with a relative pronoun, e. g. Liv. xxxviii. 53. : Scipio Africanus
Punici belli perpetrati, quo nullum neque majus neque periculosius Romani
gessere, unus praecipuam gloriam tulit ; Curt. vi. 34. : Hie Attalo, quo gravi-
orem inimicum non habui, sororem suam in matrimonium dedit. But the
ablat. instead of quam with any other case was never used by a Roman.
Quam with the noinin. or accusat., on the other hand, frequently occurs,
where the ablative might have been employed ; e. g. Livy : melior tutiorque
est certa pax, quam sperata victoria, which in the infinitive would be me-
liorem esse certam pacem putabat quam speratam victoriam. If the verb
cannot be supplied from the preceding sentence, as in the passages just
quoted (where est and esse are thus supplied), quam est or quam fuit must
be expressly added ; e. g. Gellius, x. 1 . : Haec verba sunt M. Varronis, quam
fuit Claudius, doctioris ; Cic. in Verr. iv. 20. : Argentum reddidisti L. Curidio,
homini non gratiosiori, quam Cn. Calidius est ; Senec. Consol ad Polyb. 34.
ABLATIVE CASE. 351
Drusum Germavicum minorem natu, quam ipse erat, fratrem amisit. But
when an accusative precedes, quam may follow with the same case, just as if
esse preceded; Terent. Phorm. iv. 2. 1. : Ego hominem callidiorem vidi ncmi-
nern quam Phormionem, instead of quam Phormio est. Cicero (ad Fam. v. 7.)
combines both constructions : Ut tibi multo majori quam Africamis fuit (he
could not have said quam Africano) me non multo minorem quam Laelium (he
might have said quam fuit Laelius) et in republica et in amicitia adjunctum
esse patiare. Comp. p. Plane. 12. 30. Hence, instead of the ablative in the
sentence quoted above, neminem Lycurgo majorem Lacedaemon genuit, we
may say quam Lycurgum or quam Lycurgus fuit, the latter of which con-
structions is more frequent.
The ablatives opinione, spe, aequo, justo, solito, dicto, are of a peculiar
kind, and must be explained by quam est or erat ; e. g. Cic. Brut. init. :
opinione omnium majorem animo cepi dolorem, greater than the opinion of all
men was that it would be ; Virgil : dicto citius tumida aequora placat, quicker
than the word was spoken. Quam pro, joined to a comparative, signifies
" than in proportion to ; " e. g. Liv. xxi. 29. : proelium atrocius quam pro
numero pugnantium editur.
In poetry alius, another, is sometimes treated like a comparative, and con-
strued with the ablative, instead of atque with the nomin. or accus. See
470. The poets further sometimes use atque instead of quam. See
340.
[ 485.] Note 2. Minus, plus, and amplius (or non minus, haud minus, &c.),
when joined to numerals and some other words denoting a certain measure
or portion of a thing, are xised with .and without quam, generally as inde-
clinable words, and without influence upon the construction, but merely to
modify the number; e.g. Liv. xxxix. 31.: non plus quam quattuor milia
effugerunL, not effugit ; Nep. Thras. 2. : non plus habuit secum quam triginta
de suis (jplures would rarely be used in such a case) ; Cic. Brut. 18. : pictores
antiqui non sunt usi plus quam quattuor coloribus, not pluribus ; Liv. xxvii. 25. :
negabant unam cellam amplius quam uni deo rite dedicari. Quam is omitted
very frequently, and with all cases ; e. g. Liv. xxiv. 16. : minus duo milia
hominum ex tanto exercitu effugerunt ; xxxvi. 40. : plus pars dimidia ex quin-
quaginta milibus hominum caesa sunt ; Cic. ad Att. v. 1. : quo magis erit tibi
videndum, ut hoc nostrum desiderium ne plus sit annuum ; Tusc. ii. 16. : milites
Romani saepe plus dimidiati mensis cibaria ferebant ; Terent. Adelph. ii. 1.
45. ; plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi ; Liv. iii. 64. : si vos minus hodie
decem tribunos plebis feceritis ; xl. 2. : quum plus annum aeger fuisset; xxx.
27. : sedecim non amplius eo anno legionibus defensum imperium est ; Cic. in
Verr. ii. 57. : minus triginta diebus Metellus totam triennii praeturam tuam
rescidit. These examples prove the omission of quam in connection with the
other cases. Its omission with the dative is attested by Propertius, ii. 19. 18.
(iii. 19. 32.) : et se plus. uni si qua parare potest ; i. e. for more than for one ;
and why should we not say mille amplius hominibus quotidie panem dedit ? It
must be observed that these comparatives are sometimes inserted between
the words which they modify ; e. g. Tacit. Hist. iv. 52. : deccm haud amplius
dierum frumentum in horreis fuit; Liv. i. 18. : centum amplius post annos;
and sometimes, when joined with a negative, they follow the words they
modify as a sort of apposition ; Liv. xl. 31. : quinque milium armatorum, non
amplius, relictum erat praesidium, a garrison of 5000 soldiers, not more.
Sometimes, however, the ablative is used with these comparatives as with
others, instead of quam with the uomin. or accus-; e. g. Liv. xxiv. 17. : eo
352 LATIN GRAMMAR.
die caesi sunt Romams minus quadringentis ; Cic. in Verr. iii. 48. : nemo minus
trjibus medinmis in jugcrum dedit; p. Rose. Com. 3. : quamobrem hoc nomen
trieimio amplius in adversariis relinquebas, instead of the more common am-
pliiLS triclinium, as above. Comp. also in Verr. iv. 43. : hora amplius molie-
bantur. Longius is used in the same way ; see Caes. Bell. Gall. v. 53. :
Gallorum copias non longius milia passuum octo ab hibernis suis afuisse ; but
vii. 9. : ne longius triduo ab castris absit ; iv. 1. : apud Suevos non longius
anno remanere uno in loco incolendi causa licet.
[ 48c.] Note 3. The English word " still," joined with comparatives, is
expressed by adhuc only in the later prose writers, as Senec. Epist. 49. :
Punctum est quod vivimus et adhuc puncto minus. In the classical language
etiam, and sometimes vel, are equivalent to the English " still."
[ 4?:.] 16. The ablative is used to express the measure or
amount by which one thing surpasses another, or is surpassed by
it. Paulo, multo, quo, eo, quanta, tanto, tantulo, aliquanto, hoc,
are to be considered as ablatives of this kind. Altero tanto
signifies " twice as much ; " multis partibus is the same as
multo.
Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia, Caes.
Homines quo plura habent, eo cupiunt ampliora, Just.
Diogenes disputare solebat, quanta regem Persarum vita fortuna-
que super aret, Cic. Tusc. v. 32.
[ 488.] Note 1. We thus perceive that these ablatives are joined not
only with comparatives, but with verbs which contain the idea of a compa-
rison with other things, as malle, praestare, superare, excellere, antecellere ante-
cedere, and others compounded with ante. Also with ante andpost, their mean-
ing being " earlier," and " later." Hence multo ante, much earlier ; non multo
post, not much later, or not long after. As to multo with a superlative,
see 108. In the case of plus there may be some ambiguity. The words
in Cicero (de Nat. Deor. i. 35.) uno digito plus hdbere might mean " to have
more than one finger," and Liv. ii. 7.: uno plus Etruscorum cecidit, more
than one man fell on the part of the Etruscans. But this is the reason why
in this sense (according to 485.) we usually say plus unum digitum habere,
plus unus Etruscorum ; and with the ablat. the meaning is, " to have one
finger more," viz. than we have, that is six ; and, " on the part of the
Etruscans one man more," viz. than on the part of their enemies. But still
it would be clearer to say uno plures digitos habere, uno plures Etrusc. ceci-
derunt, as in Liv. v. 30. : una plures tribus antiquarunt. Respecting the differ-
ence between aliquanto and paulo, see 108 : aliquanto has an affirmative
power, " considerably more," nearly the same as " much more ;" paulo like
pauci is of a negative nature, " a little more," where the " little" may imply
a great deal, and the word paulo may have been chosen with a view to repre-
sent it as little. An excellent passage to prove this is Cic.^. Quint. 12. :
Si debuisset, Sexte, pelisses statim ; si non statim, paulo quidem post ; si non
paulo, at aliquanto; sex quidem ittis mensibus profecto; anno vero vertente
sine conlroversia.
Note 2. Multum, tantum, quantum, paulum, and aliquantum are sometimes used
adverbially with a comparative, instead of the ublat. multo, tanto, quanta, and
ABLATIVE CASE. 353
uliquaiito ; e. g. Terent. Eunuch, i. 2. 51.: ejus frater aliquantum ad rem e'st
ucidior ; Val. Maxim, iv. 1. 1.: quantum domo inferior, tantum gloria superior
evasit. Sometimes they are used only to avoid ambiguity, Liv. iii. 15.:
quantum juniores patrum plebi se magis insinudbant, eo acrius contra tribuni
tendebant; Juven. x. 197.: multum hie robustior itto. Cicero uses tantum and
quantum in this way only in connection with antecedere, excettere, and prae-
stare; e. g. dc Off. i. 30.; Orat. 2. 6. ; p. Leg. Man. 13.; de Re Publ. ii. 2.:
but both multum and multo praestare. The adverb tarn quam with a com-
parative, instead of tanto quanta, is rare and poetical. Longe (far) alone
is frequently used for multo, in prose as well as in poetry.
[ 489.] 17. The ablative is governed by the prepositions ab
(, afo), absque, clam, cor am, cum, de, ex (e), prae, pro, sine,
tenus (is placed after its case) ; by in and sub when they an-
swer to the question where ? and by super in the sense of de,
" concerning," or " with regard to." Subter is joined indiffer-
ently either with the ablative or the accusative, though more
frequently with the latter.
The preposition in is generally joined with the ablative even
after the verbs of placing (jpono, loco, colloco, statuo, constituo,
and consido), although strictly speaking they express motion:
on the other hand, in is commonly used with the accusative
after the verbs advenire, adventure, convenire, commeare, although
we say, " to arrive at" or " in a place," and not " into." When
the place at which a person arrives is expressed by the name of
a town, the accusative alone is used, and when by an adverb,
we must use hue, quo, and not hie, ubi, &c. ; e. g. advenit in
Italiam, in provinciam, advenit Romam, Delphos, adventus hue
tuus.
In is used with either case after the verbs of assembling (con-
gregare, cogere, constipare, and others), concealing (abdere, con-
dere, abscondere, abstrudere), and including (includere, concludere).
It must however be observed, that the accusative is preferred
when an action is indicated, and the ablative, when a state or
condition (in the participle perfect passive). Sometimes these
verbs take an ablativus instrumenti, e. g. abdere se litteris, in-
cludere carcere, verba concludere versu, which is the case most
frequently with implicare.
Aegyptii ac Babylonii omnem curam in siderum cognitione posue-
runt, Cic. de Divin. i. 42.
Herculem hominumfama, beneficiorum memor, in concilia coelestium
collocavit, Cic. de Offt iii. 5.
A A
354 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 490.] Note. The compounds of pono sometimes have in with the ab-
lative and sometimes with the accusative, but more frequently the former ;
e. g. aliquem in numero deorum, spent in felicitate reponere. Imponere takes
in with the accnsat. (unless it is joined with the dative, according to 415.);
e. g. milites in naves, corpus in plaustrum ; sometimes, however, it h'as, like
pono, in with the ablat., e. g. Cic. de Nat. Dear. i. 20. : imposuistis in cervi-
cibus nostris sempiternum dominum. In like manner, defigere, insculpere,
inscribere, and inserere (unless they are joined with the dative) are usually
construed with in with the ablative ; e. g. natura insculpsit in mentibus nostris;
nomen suum inscribunt in basi ; legati in vulfri regis defixerunt oculos. This
and similar things arise from a mixture of two ideas, that of the action
implied in the verb, and that of the result, and hence in with the ablative is
preferable after the preterites of doubtful verbs. In with the accusative
after esse and habere occurs only in obsolete formulae, as esse (habere) in
potestatem, and others. See 316. In custodiam haberi, and in career em as-
servari in Livy, viii. 20. and xxii. 25., are irregularities.
[ 491.] " To do anything with a person," is expressed in Latin by facers
with de, and more frequently with the simple ablative or dative : quid facias
hoc Jtomine, or huic homini? and in the passive voice quid de me fietf what
will become of me ? quid pecuniae fiet ? what will become of the money ?
Cicero : quid illo myoparone factum sit. It is never expressed by cum, for
facere cum aliquo signifies " to be of a person's party."
CHAP. LXXV.
VOCATIVE CASE.
[ 492.] THE vocative is not in immediate connection with either
nouns or verbs, but is inserted to express the object to which
our words are addressed.
Note. It only remains to observe, that the vocative is usually placed after
one or two words of a sentence ; at least, it is not placed at the beginning
without some special reason, and the interjection O is used only when we
are speaking with great animation or emotion. The poets not uncommonly
adopt the Attic practice of using the nominative instead of the vocative ;
e. g. Terence : o virfortis atque amicus ! Horat. de Art. Poet. 292. : Vos o Pom-
pilius sanguis! In some instances the same practice occurs in prose, as
Liv. i. 24. : audi tu, populus Romanus ! viii. 9. : agedum pontifex publicus
populi Romani, praei verba, quibus me pro legionibus devoveam. The nominat.
in apposition to the vocat. occurs in Juvenal, iv. 24. : tu, succinctus patria
quondam, Crispine, papyro ; other poets, on the contrary, by a mixture
of two constructions, use the vocative of words which, belonging to the
verb, ought to be in the nominative ; e. g. Virg. Aen. ii. 283. : quibus, Hector,
ab oris expectate nerds? ix. 485.: Jieul canibus date jaces ; Pers. i. 123.:
Quicunque afflate Cratino aspice. Comp. iii. 28. The passage of Pliny
(Hist. Nat.-v'ii. 31.), in which Cicero is addressed: salve primus omnium
parens patriae appellate, primus in toga triumphum linguaeque lauream rnerite !
is of a different kind, primus signifying " being the first."
USE OF THE TENSES. 355
m. USE OF THE TENSES.
CHAP. LXXVI.
[ 493.] 1. THE tenses of the Latin verb are used on the whole
in the same way as those of the English verb, with the excep-
tion of one great peculiarity, which is explained in 498.
(Comp. 150.) The only general rule that can be laid down
is this : we must first determine whether the action or condition
to be expressed falls in the present, the past, or the future, and
in what relation it stands to other actions or conditions with
which it is connected. For example, / was writing, and / had
written, are both actions belonging to the past, but in regard
to their relation they differ, for in the sentence, " I was writing
when the shot was heard,' 1 '' the act of writing was not completed
when the shot was heard ; whereas in the sentence " / had
written, when my friend arrived," the act of writing was com-
pleted when the other (the arrival of my friend) occurred. The
same difference exists between, / shall write to-morrow, and /
shall have written to-morrow ; between / am writing to-day, i. e.
I am engaged in an act not yet terminated, and / have written
to-day, which expresses an act already terminated. This last is
the proper signification of the Latin perfect, as advenit pater,
the father has arrived, that is, he is here now. Horace, at the
close of a work says : exegi monumentum acre perennius ; and
Ovid : jamque opus exegi. An orator, at the conclusion of his
speech, says : dixi, that is, " I have done," and Virgil (Aen. ii.
325.), with great emphasis : fuimus Troes, fuit Ilium, i. e. we
are no longer Trojans, Ilium is no more.
Note. Other grammarians distinguish three relations of an action: 1.
an action is lasting, that is, incomplete; 2. it is completed; and 3. not yet com-
menced. But the distinction between a completed and a not completed
action excludes every thing else, for an action either is taking place or has
taken place : a third is impossible, and an action not yet commenced does
not exist as an action, except in the imagination. The tenses, for the sake
of which other grammarians have recourse to a third relation (scripturus sum,
eram, ero, fui, fueram, fuero), form in our opinion a distinct conjugation, in
which the action is described as intended (I am, was, have been, &c. intending
to write). Comp. 169.
AA 2
356 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 494.] 2. The Latin language therefore has two tenses for
each of the three great divisions of time, past, present, and
future ; one expressing a complete and the other an incomplete
action. And the six tenses of the Latin verb are thus the result
of a combination of time and relation.
f scribo, I write, or am writing present time," and action going on.
1 scripsi, I have written, present time, and action terminated.
f scribebam, I wrote, or was writing, past time, and action going on.
1 scripseram, I had written, past time, and action terminated.
f scribam, I shall write, or be writing, future time, and action not com-
pleted.
\scripsero, I shall have written, future time, and action completed.
Note. It is not difficult to see why in the conjugation of verbs we pre-
ferred that order of the tenses which is based upon the relation which they
bear to one another. (Comp. 150.) But in syntax, the above arrange-
ment and division is necessary for the purpose of presenting a clear view of
the kindred nature of the present and perfect (for both are presents, as far
as time is concerned), and of the use of the two futures.
3. The passive has the same tenses with the same meaning ;
but with this difference, that they do not express an action, but
a condition or suffering, as we may call it.
flaudor, I am praised, present time, and condition still going on.
! laudatus sum, I have been praised, present time, and condition termi-
L nated.
f laudabar, I was praised, past time, and condition going on.
\laudatus eram, I had been praised, past time, and condition terminated.
rlaudabor, I shall be praised, future time, and condition not completed.
-I laudatus ero, I shall have been praised, future time, and condition com-
L pleted.
[ 495.] Note. The participle perfect passive, however, is also used in
the sense of an adjective to express a lasting condition ; e. g. scripta epistola,
a written letter, and in this sense the participle may be joined with all the
six tenses of esse ; as, epistola scripta est, erat, erit, fuit, fuerat, fuerit. All
this may be said in Latin ; but the question here is only as to how the
tenses of the passive voice are formed by the combination of the participle
perfect passive with sum, eram, and ero. We here repeat (see 168.), that
laudatus fueram and laudatus fuero are sometimes used as passive tenses for
laudatus eram and laudatus ero, which arose from a desire to express by the
auxiliary verb esse the terminated condition already implied in the parti-
ciple perfect passive. Thus Livy (xxiv. 30.) says : ceterum Leontinorum
nemo violatus fuerat, nobody had been injured ; Pompey in Cic. ad Aft. viii.
12. (C.) : si copiae in unum locum fuerint coactae, when they shall have been
collected. In like manner the subjunctive laudatus fuissem is equivalent to
laudatus essem; e.g. Ovid, Metam. vi. 156.: si non sibi visa fuisset ; He-
roid. vii. 140.: si Punica non Teucris pressa fuisset humus, and laudatus
fuerim to laudatus sim. In the infinitive laudatum fuisse, the participle is
generally to be considered as an adjective.
USE OF THE TENSES. 357
[ 496.] 4. The tenses of the present and past time, that is,
the present, perfect, imperfect and pluperfect, have also a sub-
junctive mood, as scribam, scripserim, scribebam, scripsissem, and
in the passive, scribar, scriptus sim, scriberer, scriptus essem. For
the relations in which the subjunctive is required, see Chap.
LXXVIII. As tenses, these subjunctives do not differ from
the signification of the indicative.
5. Neither the active nor the passive voice has a subjunctive \
of the future, and the deficiency is supplied by other means. I
When the idea of futurity is already implied in another part of ^
the proposition, the other tenses of the subjunctive supply the
place of the future, viz. the present and imperfect supply the
place of the future subjunctive, and the perfect and pluperfect
that of the future perfect. The choice of one or other of these
four subjunctives is to be determined by the time expressed by
the leading verb of the proposition, and by the relation of the
action, being either completed or not completed, e. g. Affirmo
tibi, si hoc beneficium mihi tribuas, me magnopere gavisurum, and
affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium mihi tribueres, magnopere me
gavisurum. It is clear that tribuas and tribueres here supply
the place of the future subjunctive, for in the indicative we say
si mihi tribues magnopere gaudebo. Again, Affirmo tibi, si hoc
beneficium mihi tribueris, me quamcunque possim gratiam tibi re-
laturum, and affirmabat mihi, si illud beneficium ipsi tribuissem,
se quamcunque posset gratiam mihi relaturum, where tribueris
and tribuissem supply the place of the future perfect, for in the
indicative we should say si hoc beneficium mihi tribueris (from
tribuero), quamcunque potero gratiam tibi referam, when you
shall have shown me this kindness. The same is the case in the
s
passive voice: affirmo tibi, si hoc beneficium mihi tribuatur, me
magnopere gavisurum ; affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium mihi
tribueretur, magnopere me gavisurum ; affirmo tibi, me, si hoc
beneficium mihi tributum sit (or fuerif), quamcunque possim
gratiam tibi relaturum ; affirmabam tibi, si illud beneficium
mihi tributum esset (or fuisset), quamcunque possem gratiam
me tibi relaturum.
Note. This rule is not affected by the supposition (which was a subject of
dispute even in ancient times ; see Gellius, xviii. 2. ; Perizon. on Sanct.
Minerv. i. 13. note 6.), that tribuerim, which we called above a perfect sub-
A A 3
358 LATIN GKAMMAR.
junctive, is in these cases the subjunctive of the future perfect. It is quite
certain that this form is used wherever the subjunctive of the future perfect
is wanted ; e. g. Plaut. Pseud, i. 1 . 89. : Quis mi igitur drachmam reddet, si
dederim tibif Cic. ad Fam. i. 7. 9. : Haec profecto vides, quanta expressiora,
quantoque illustriora futura sint, quum aliquantum ex provincia atque ex im-
perio laudis accesserit; de Leg. Agr. ii. 20. : Putant, si quam spem exercitus
habeat, hanc non habiturum, quum viderit. That it is a perfect maj be inferred
even from the manner in which the pluperfect of the subjunctive is used
instead of the subjunctive of the future perfect, and in which the passive of
this tense is expressed. As the question is beyond all doubt, we shall quote,
in confirmation, only classical passages : Cic. p. Rose. Am. 38. : ostendit, si
sublata sit venditio bonorum, ilium pecuniam grandem amissurum esse; Horat.
Serm. i. 1. 32. : Hoc mente labor em sese ferre, senes ut in otia tuta recedant,
ajunt, quum sibi sint congesta cibaria; Tacit. Hist. iv. 57. : quum spoliati
fuerint quieturos. But Madvig (in the dissertation above referred to, p. 1 74.)
has proved that the form tribuerim is at the same time the subjunctive of the
future perfect, and other applications of this form thus receive their correct
explanation. We retain the designation of perfect subjunctive merely for the
sake of convenience.
[ 497.] If no future has gone before, and the construction
of the sentence requires the subjunctive, the participle future
active is employed for this purpose, with the appropriate tense
of the verb esse. This paraphrased conjugation (conjugatio peri"
phraslica), as it is called, properly expresses an intended action
(see 498.) ; but the subjunctives with sim and essern are used
also as regular subjunctives of the future, the idea of intention
passing over into that of futurity ; e. g. Non dubito quin redi-
turus sit) I do not doubt that he will return; non dubitabam
quin rediturus esset, I did not doubt that he would return. The
perfects rediturus fuerim and rediturus fuissem retain their
original meaning, implying intention; e. g. non dubito quin
rediturus fuerit, I do not doubt that he has had the intention to
return. (It is only in hypothetical sentences that this meaning
passes over into that of the pluperfect subjunctive, of which we
shall speak hereafter.) If we want simply to express futurity,
we must use the circumlocution with futurum sit and futurum
esset ; e. g. nescio num futurum sit, ut eras hoc ipso temporc
jam redierit, and nesciebam num futurum esset, ut postridie eo
ipso tempore jam redisset. This same circumlocution must be
employed in the passive of which the participle future implies
necessity, and cannot be used in the sense of a simple future ;
e. g. non dubito, quin futurum sit, ut laudetur, I do not doubt
that he will be praised ; multi non dubitabant, quin futurum esset,
USE OF THE TENSES. 359
tit Caesar a Pompcjo vinceretur, that Caesar would be conquered
by Pompey.
[ 498.] 6. The conjugatio periphrastica, which is formed by
means of the participle future active and the auxiliary verb esse,
is peculiar to the Latin language, and is used to express an
intended action, or, in the case of intransitive verbs, a state or
condition which is to come to pass (the Greek /*eXXf/). It has
its six tenses like the ordinary conjugation. The realization
depends either on the will of the subject or on that of others, or
upon circumstances. In the first case we say in English, " I
intend," or " am on the point of," and in the others, " I am to"
(be, or do a thing), i. e. others wish that I should do it ; e. g.
Sallust, Jug. 5. : Bellum scripturus sum, quod populus Romanus
cum Jugurtha gessit, I am on the point of writing, or intend to
write; Varro, De Re Rust. iii. 16.: Quum apes jam evoliturae
sunt, consonant vehementer, when they are on the point of flying
out ; Cic. De Fin. ii. 26 : Me ipsum igitur ames oportet, non
mea, si veri amid futuri sumus, if we are to be friends ; Cat.
Maj. 22. : Quare si haec ita sunt, sic me colitote, ut deum : sin
una est interiturus animus cum corpore, vos tamen memoriam
nostram pie servabitis, which is not equivalent to interibit, as
interiturus est intimates that it is the opinion of others ; Tacit.
Agr. 46. : Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus, manet mansurumque
est in animis hominum, i. e. is to remain. Imperfect : Liv. xxviii.
28. : llli sicut Mamertini, in Sicilia Messanam, sic Rhegium habi-
turi perpetuam sedem erant, they intended to keep Rhegium.
Future: Cic. De Invent, i. 16: Attentos faciemus auditores, si
demonstrabimus, ea, quae dicturi erimus, magna, nova, incredibilia
esse ; De Orat. ii. 24 : hoc ei primum praecipiemus, quascunque
causas erit acturus, ut eas diligenter penitusque cognoscat ; i. 52 :
(orator) eorum, apud quos aliquid aget aut erit acturus, mentes
sensusque degustet oportet. The future perfect occurs only in
one passage of Seneca, Epist. ix. 14 : Sapiens tamen non vivet, si
fuerit sine homine victurus, if he should be under the necessity
of living.
The perfect and pluperfect likewise occur in their proper
signification ; e. g.. Cic. p. Lig. 8. : Quid facturi fuistis ? I
ask, what did you intend doing there ? Liv. xxviii. 28. : Vos
cum Mandonio consilia communicastis et arma consociaturi fuistis,
you have had the intention of uniting your arms with theirs ;
A A 4
360 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Justin, xiii. 5. : Alexander excursurus fuerat cum valida manu
ad Aihenas delendas, had had the intention of marching, &c.
Scripturus fui, however, most frequently acquires the signi-
fication of a pluperfect subjunctive, when it occurs in a sentence
containing the result of, or inference from an hypothetical
sentence (which is either untrue or impossible), according to
the rule explained in 518, that the Latins commonly use the
indicative of a preterite w.ith verbs implying possibility, viz.
that in the time past something might have happened; e. g.
Liv. ii. 1 : Quid enim futurum fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset
tribuniciis procellis ? Curt. iv. 38. : Mazaeus, si transeuntibus
Jlumen supervenisset, hand dubie oppressurus fuit incompositos,
equivalent to accidisset and oppressisset.
The subjunctives of these tenses are used in the same way as
the corresponding tenses of the indicative, if the construction of
a sentence requires the subjunctive. Hence scripturus fucrim,
in hypothetical sentences, takes the place of a pluperfect sub-
junctive, and that not only after a present tense, as Liv. xxxi. 7. :
Quis enim dubitat, quin, si Saguntinis impigre tulissemus opem,
totum in Hispaniam aversuri bellum fuerimus ; but also after
preterites, as Liv. iv. 38. : nee dubium erat, quin, si tarn pauci
simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint ; xxii. 32. :
adeo est inopia coactus (Hannibal), ut, nisi turn fugae speciem
abeundo timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit ; Cic. Ad Att. ii.
16. : (Pompejus SCTO^I^TO) quid futurum fuerit, si Bibulus turn
in forum descendisset, se divinare non potuisse. The pluperfect
subjunctive itself, however, occurs in Livy, xxviii. 24. 2, and
xxxviii. 46. 6.
[ 499.] 7. The participle future passive in ndus, or the
participle of necessity (jparticipium necessitatis], in combination
with the tenses of the verb esse, forms another distinct con-
jugation denoting future necessity and not future suffering, for
epistola scribenda est, for example, does not signify " the letter
is about to be written," which is expressed by the simple
future epistola scribetur, but " the letter must be written," there
being either an internal or external necessity for its being
written, either of which is expressed in English by " the letter
is to be written." This conjugation may accordingly be re-
garded as the passive of the conjugatio periphrastica. The
tenses are the same as those of the auxiliary verb esse, and in
USE OF THE TENSES. 361
so far do not differ from the general rule ; e. g. the future :
Tibull. iv. 5. init : Qui mihi te, Cerinthe, dies dedit, hie mihi sanctus
atque inter festos semper habendus erit ; future perfect, in
Quintil. xi. 2.27: Si longior complectenda memorid fuerit oratio,
proderit per paries ediscere. But it is to be observed with
regard to these tenses of necessity, that, as in the active con-
jugatio periphrastica, the tenses of the past (imperfect, plu-
perfect, and the historical perfect) are used at the same time,
in hypothetical sentences, as the imperfect and pluperfect sub-
junctive of the verb debeo, I must ; e. g. Sulpicius in Cic. Ad
Fam. iv. 5 : Quae si hoc tempore non suum diem obisset, paucis
post annis tamen ei moriendum fuit, i. e. she would have been
obliged to die.
[ 500.] 8. The perfect indicative, both active and passive, has
in Latin, besides its signification of an action terminated at the
present time, that of an aorist, that is, it is used to relate events
of the past, which are simply conceived as facts, without
any regard to their being terminated or not terminated, in
respect to each other ; e. g. Itaque Caesar armis rem gerere con-
stituit, exercitum finibus Italiae admovit, Rubiconem transiit,
Romam et aerarium occupavit, Pompejum cedentem persecutus est t
eumque in campis Pharsalicis devicit. In English the imperfect
is used to relate events of the past, and hence we translate the
above passage : Caesar resolved to use armed force, he ad-
vanced with his army to the frontiers of Italy, passed the
Rubicon, took possession of Rome and the treasury, pursued
Pompey, and defeated him in the plain of Pharsalus. But the
Latin imperfect is never used in this sense; it always ex-
presses an incomplete or continuing action or condition of the
past time, the ancient correct rule being perfecto procedit, imper-
fecto insistit oratio.
Note 1. But even in historical narrative actions or conditions may be repre-
sented as continuing, and we may introduce, e. g., into the above narrative
things which are conceived as continuing, and are accordingly expressed by
the imperfect : Caesar armis rem gerere constituit: videbat enim inimicorum in
dies majorem fieri exercitum, suorum animos debilitari, reputdbatque appro-
pinquare hiememj itaque exercitum admovit, &c. Comp. the examples in
599. The Latin language observes this difference between the perfect and
imperfect indicative so strictly, that even the worst writers do not violate the
rule. An Englishman therefore must be very cautious not to transfer the
aoristic meaning of the English imperfect to the Latin language. In Latin
the perfect and imperfect are sometimes very significantly put in juxta-
362 LATIN GRAMMAR.
position ; c. g. Liv. ii. 48. : Aequi se in oppidu receperunt, murisque sc tene-
bant (receperunt describing the momentary act or simple fact, and tcnebant
the continued action) ; Cic. Tusc. i. 30. : Ita enim censebat, itaque disseruit
(the last word introducing the speech delivered upon a particular occasion).
The following passage of Cicero (Orat. 38.) is striking, but most strictly
correct : Dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius, for the imperfect makes us
think of the time during which he spoke, whereas the perfect expresses
simply an opinion as a sort of resume. Comp. de Divin. ii. 37. 78. It only
remains here to mention the use of the imperfect in historical narrative,
among perfects, to denote actions which remained incomplete. The expla-
nation is implied in the foregoing remarks. In Tacitus, e. g., we read, Ann.
ii. 34. : Inter qua L. Piso ambitumfori, corrupta judicia increpans, abire se
et cedere urbe testabatur, et simul curiam relinquebat. Commotus est Tiberius,
et quamquam Pisonem mitibus verbis permulsisset, propinquos quoque ejus im-
pulit, ut abeuntem auctoritate vel precibus tenerent. The imperfect relinquebat
is used here to indicate that his intention of leaving the curia was not carried
into effect, for he was repeatedly stopped, and at last he remained. This is
quite in accordance with the signification of the imperfect (see Pliny, Hist.
Nat. Praef. lib. i. 26., where he speaks of the signature of Greek artists
eiroiei), and also occurs elsewhere, even in Cicero (comp. Div. in Caec. 17.
55.), although otherwise he expresses the same meaning by a circumlo-
cution with coepit.
Conticuere omnes, intentique or a tenebant:
Inde toro pater Aeneas sic orsus ab alto (est), Virg. Aen. ii. init.
[ 501.] Note 2. In Latin, as in many modern languages, the present tense
is often used instead of the aorist of the past, when the writer or speaker in
his imagination transfers himself to the past, which thus becomes to him
present, as it were. Narrators by this figure frequently render their descrip-
tions very animated ; but in regard to dependent sentences, they often regard
such a present as a regular perfect, and accordingly use the imperfect or
pluperfect in the dependent sentence which follows. E. g. Cic. in Verr.
iv. 18. : Quod ubi Verres audivit, sic cupiditate inflammatus est non solum
inspiciendi, verum etiam auferendi, ut Diodorum ad se vocaret ac poscere
(pocula). file, qui ilia non invitus haberet, respondet se Lilybaci non habere :
Melitae apud quendam propinquum suum reliquisse. Turn iste (Verres) con-
tinuo mittit homines certos Melitam : scribit ad quosdam Melitenses, ut ea vasa
perquirant: rogat Diodorum, ut ad ilium suum propinquum det litteras: nihil
ei longius videbatur, quam dum illud videret argcntum. Diodorus, homofrugi
ac diligens, qui sua servare vellet, ad propinquum suum scribit, ut Us, qui a
Verre venissent, responderet, illud argentum se paucis illis diebus misisse Lily-
baeum. We here see how the historical present is followed both by the
present and the imperfect subjunctive, and on the whole, the imperfect is
perhaps the more frequent of the two. Cic. in Cat. iii. 6. : Deinde L. Flaccus
et C. Pomptinus, praetor es, quod eorum opera forti usus essem, laudantur ; Curt,
vii. 30. : Rex propius ipsum considere amicos JUBET, ne contentione vocis cica-
tricem infirmam adhuc RUMPERET.
[ 502.] 9. The peculiar character of the Latin imperf. there-
fore is to express a repeated action, manners, customs, and institu-
tions, which are described as continuing at some given period of
the past time, and is invariably used where in English the com-
pound tense, " I was writing," " he was waiting," is employed.
USE OF THE TENSES. 363
Socrates diccre sulebat (or dicebaf), omnes in eo, quod scirent,
satis esse eloquentes, Cic. De Orat. i. 14.
Anseres Romae publice alebantur in Capitolio.
Note 1. An action often repeated, however, may also be conceived as a
simple historical fact, and accordingly be expressed by the perfect. Hence
we may say, Socrates solitus est dicere, just as well as solebat ; but the idea
is different. Solebat reminds us of the whole period of his life ; whereas
solitus est describes the habit of Socrates simply as an historical fact.
[ 503.] Note 2. It is a peculiarity of the epistolary style in Latin that
the writer transfers himself to the time at which the letter is read by the
person to whom it is addressed ; and hence the writer speaks of actions and
conditions in the same terms as he would use if he were present at the
moment the letter is received. In consequence of this he frequently uses
the imperfect and perfect, where in English we should use the present ; e. g.
Haec scribebam media nocte, I write this at midnight (or scripsi haec media
nocte, when the action is to be described as a completed one, and not as
going on at the time) ; Novi nihil nunc erat apud nos, siquidem certa tibi af-
ferri vis, there are no news here ; Quae ad earn diem, quum haec scribebam,
audiveramus, inanis rumor videbatur. Dicebant tamen, &c., what we have
heard till the moment I write this, &c. ; but people say, &c. As these pre-
terites are only formal, they may be joined with the adverbs nunc, etiam-
nunc; instead of which real preterites would require tune and etiamtum.
Comp. Cic. ad Att. v. 16. 4. ; xvi. 3. 6. ; ad Quint. Frat. iii. 1. 2. But this
peculiarity is very frequently not observed.
[ 504.] 10. The perfect subjunctive has not this meaning
of an aorist, but is always used to express a terminated action
with reference to the present time, and thus completely answers
to the perfect in English. The imperfect subjunctive) on the
other hand, in historical narratives, has the aorist sense of the
perfect indicative, when past events are mentioned (with the
conjunction ut), without reference to the action or condition
being completed or not.
This difference is easily perceived ; e. g. puer de tecto decidit.,
ut crus fregerit, "the boy has fallen from the roof, so that he .
has broken his leg," is not a narrative, but the statement of an
event completed at the present time ; but puer de tecto decidit,
ut crus frangeret, "the boy fell from the roof, so that he broke
his leg," is a real historical narrative, for the perfect decidit is
here used in its aorist sense, and the imperfect subjunctive
supplies its place in the dependent sentence.
A comparison with the English language thus leads to this
conclusion, that the perfect and imperfect subjunctive are used
in Latin in the same sense as in English ; but the perfect indi-
cative in Latin, as an historical tense, answers to the English
364 LATIN GRAMMAR.
imperfect, and the Latin imperfect indicative to the English
paraphrased tense with " 1 was " and a participle.
Note. The principle of the Latin language relative to the use of the
perfect indicative and the imperfect subjunctive in historical narratives is
attested by so many passages that it is unnecessary here to mention any in
confirmation of it. But we must observe that Latin writers nevertheless
sometimes use the perfect subjunctive in the historical sense, which properly
belongs only to the indicative of this tense. This may have arisen from a
feeling that there ought to be a tense to express actions in their progress in
a dependent sentence (in the subjunctive), since the imperfect originally and
properly expressed a continued and incomplete action ; and in this manner
we account for the perfect subjunctive which now and then occurs in
Cicero after the historical forms inventus est or fuit; e. g. p. Muren. 11. : in-
ventus est scriba quidam, Gn. Flavins, qui cornicum oculos confixerit et singulis
diebus ediscendos fastos populo proposuerit, &c. ; in Verr. iv. 26. : Ntdla
damns in Sicilia locuples fuit, ubi ille non textrinum instituerit; for after all, if
the construction is altered so as to make the dependent sentence indepen-
dent, we are obliged to use the historical tense, i. e. the perfect indicative.
But the prevailing custom was to assign to the imperfect subjunctive the '
sense of an aorist; and the perfect subjunctive in an historical narrative
can only be regarded as an exception from the rule, however frequently it
may occur. Nepos uses the perfect subjunctive in this sense more fre-
quently than other writers ; and he thereby shows his desire, in his short
historical sketches, to put the facts one by the side of the other, rather than
to give a progressive historical narrative. For example, in his life of Han-
nibal, where he says : Hie autem velut hereditate relictum odium paternum
erga Romanos sic conservavit, ut prius animam, quam id, deposuerit Anti-
ochum tanta cupiditate incendit bellandi, ut usque a rubro mari arma conatus sit
inferre Italiae, we at once perceive this character of his style ; though in
other passages he uses the imperfect subjunctive, and gives to his narrative
a real historical character. In Livy, too, the perfect subjunctive is found in
this sense, but only now and then, and more for the sake of variety than on
any definite principle ; hence, when in i. 3. he says : Tantum tamen opes
creverant, ut movere arma nee Mezentius nee ulli alii accolae ausi sint, instead
of the more usual auderent, it cannot affect the general rule concerning the
consecutio temporum.
[505.] 11. The duration and completion of an action in
reference to another are expressed in Latin more accurately
than in English, by the imperfect and pluperfect. When one
action must be completed before another can begin, the former
is invariably expressed by the pluperfect ; e. g. quum domum
intrasset, quum in forum venisset, animadvertit ; quum amicum
conspexisset, dixit, &c., " when he had entered the house, he
perceived." We are less accurate in saying " when I entered
the house, I perceived," or " I entered the house, and perceived."
But this cannot be done in Latin, and the pluperfect is used
wherever the relation of the actions permits it. Examples are
extremely numerous.
USE OF THE TENSES. 365
Lysander quum per speculatores comperisset, vulgum Atheniensium
in terrain exisse navesque paene inanes relictas, tempus rei
gerendae non dimisit, Nep. Alcib. 8.
Note. Considering this general accuracy of the Latin language in express-
ing the natural succession of actions, which is evident also in the application
of the participle perfect (see 635.), it is the more surprising, that in inter-
rogative expressions the imperf. subjunct. is used so frequently, where we
should have expected the pluperfect ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 37. : Socrates
quum rogaretur (for rogatus essef) cujatem se esse diceret, Mundanum, in-
quit.
[ 506.] It must be observed here, 1) that the conjunction dum
(while, as) is generally joined with the present indicative, even
when events of the past time are spoken of, and when we should
consequently expect either the imperfect or perfect ; e. g. dum
paucas res refinere nolo, omnes fortunas perdidi, Cic. Divin. 17.;
dum expectat quidnam sibi certi afferatur, ante noctem non discessit;
dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua dejecta est, in Verr. ii. 66.
2) That in historical narratives the conjunctions postquam (or
posteaquam), ubi, ubi primum, ut, ut primum, quum primum,
simul ut, simul ac, simul atque, simul ubi (or simul alone), all of
which are equivalent to the English " as soon as," are generally
joined with the historical perfect, and not with the pluperfect,
as might be expected from the succession of the actions indicated
by these conjunctions. Hence we say, ubi illud audivit, nuntium
ad regem misit ; ut Lacedaemonem venit, adire ad magistratus
npluit ; simulatque provincia ei obvenit, statim quaerere coepit, &c.
Dum ea Romani parant consultantque, jam Saguntum summa vi
oppugnabatur, Liv. xxi. 7.
Unus ex captivis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra jure-
jurando se exsolvisset. Quod ubi innotuit relatumque ad sena-
tum est, omnes censuerunt comprehendendum et custodibus publice
datis deducendum ad Hannibalem esse, Liv. xxii. 61.
[ 507. a.] Note 1. Dum (while), with the present, occurs very frequently ;
but it is very surprising to find it sometimes used by Livy in transitions
from one event to another ; for example, at the beginning of the 38th book :
Dum in Asia bellum geritur, ne in Aetolis quidem quietae res' fuerant. Comp.
Drakenborch on Livy, i. 40. ; Heinrich on Cic. Part. ined. p. 75. ; Heindorf
on Horace, Sat. i. 5. 72. However, that the present is not absolutely neces-
sary, is proved by such passages as Cic. p. Rose. Am. 32. : Dum Sulla in
aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant interea, qui suis vulneribus mederentur ; Liv.
x. 36. : dum haec in Apulia gerebantur, Samnites non tenuerunt ; Nep.
Hann. 2. : Quae divina res dum conficiebatur, quaesivit a me. The perfect
also is sometimes joined with dum, as de Fin. ii. 13. : dum voluerunt sustu-
lerunt. Dum in the sense of quamdiu (as long as), however, when referring
to the past time, is regularly joined with the imperfect.
366 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ r>07. 1.] With regard to our rule respecting the conjunctions which
signify "as soon as," it is a remarkable point that the Latins, contrary to
their usual practice, here neglect to express that one action was completed
before the second began. The perfect is less necessary, for its place is
supplied not only by the historical present (which is easily explained from
501.), but frequently by the imperfect, at least in connection with the
principal conjunction postquam ; e. g. Liv. i. 54. : Itaque, post.qva.rn satis virium
collection videbat, e suis unum Romam ad pair em mittit ; iii. 46. : postquam
nemo adibat, domum se recepit ; and so in many other passages of Livy. But
the surprising point is, that the pluperfect is not used, even where the com-
pletion of the action introduced by those conjunctions is manifest ; e. g. Cic.
p. Rose. Am. 6. : posteaquam victoria (nobilitatis) constituta est ab armisque
recessimus crat ille Romae frequens. There are only few exceptions in
which the pluperfect is used ; as Cic. in Vcrr. iv. 24. : posteaquam tantam
multitudinem colleger at emblematum instituit officinam Syracusis ; and hence
the ordinary mode of explaining an ablative absolute by postquam with the
pluperfect cannot be approved of. It is only in descriptions of repeated
conditions in the past time that the pluperfect is indispensable, as Nep.
Alcib. 1. : Idem simulac se remiserat neque causa suberat, quare animi labor em
perferret, luxuriosus reperiebatur. Postquam is further joined with the plu-
perfect when a long or a definite space of time intervenes between a preced-
ing and a subsequent event, so that there is no connection between them ;
e. g. Nep. Hann. 8. : Hannibal anno tertio, postquam domo profugerat, cum
quinque navibus A/ricam accessit. It is remarkable to find also the imperfect
and pluperfect subjunctive joined with postquam^ as in Cicero, p. Leg, Man. 4. :
qui posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes legatos ac litteras
misit; and p. Cluent. 64. 181.; ad Fam. ii. 19. They may, however, be
explained from 570. The passage p. Reg. Dejot. 13. 36. is doubtful.
[ SOB.] Note 2. The pluperfect is sometimes used by historians instead
of the historical tense merely to express the rapidity with which actions
succeed one another, one being described as already completed before any
thing else could begin ; e. g. Curt. x. 17. : Nee muris urbis luctus contine-
batur, sed proximam regionem ab ea, deinde magnam partem Asiae cis Eu-
phraten tanti mali fama pervaserat. Here the pluperfect is used without
reference to a subsequent action, and is equivalent to the English " the
report immediately spread," &c.
[ 509.] 12. In the use of the two futures the Latin language
is likewise more accurate than the English. For when a future
action is spoken of, either in the future or in the imperative (or
in the subjunctive used imperatively), and another is joined with
it, which has not yet come to pass, the latter also is put in the
future if the actions are conceived as continuing together, and
in the future perfect, if the one must be completed before the
other can begin. This is perfectly in accordance with the ideas
expressed by these tenses ; but it must be specially mentioned,
because in English we often use the present instead of the
future, especially in the case of the verbs "lean" and "I
will ; " e. g. faciam si potero, I shall do it, if I can ; facito hoc,
ubi voles, do it when you will ; because owing to the awkward-
USE OF THE TENSES. 367
ness of the future perfect, we frequently supply its place either
by the simple future or by the present ; e. g. Cic. De Orat. ii. 65. :
nt sementem feceris, ita metes, as you sow, so will you reap. We
must here draw particular attention to the application of the
future perfect in hypothetical sentences, where the conclusion
depends upon the fulfilment of the preceding condition ; e. g.
si invenero, tecum communicabo, for which we very inaccurately
say, " when I find it," or " when I have found it."
Naturam si sequemur ducem, numquam aberrabimus, Cic. De
Off. i. 28.
Adolescentes quum relaxare animos et dare se jucunditati volcnt,
caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae, Cic. De Off.
i. 34.
De Carthagine vereri non ante desinam, qurnn illam excisam esse
coanovero, Cic. Cat. Maj. 6.
Malevolentiae hominum in me, si poteris, occurres, si non potueris,
hoc consolabere, quod me de statu meo nullis contumeliis deter-
rere possunt, Cic. ad Fam. xi. 11.
[ 510.] Note. When the leading sentence contains the present impera-
tive, si is often joined with the present, as defende si potes (Cic. Philip, ii.44.) ;
perfice si potes (Cic. Tusc. i. 8.) ; expone nisi molestum est (ibid. i. 12.) ; and
hardly ever with the future. (See Chap. LXXIX.) The present with si,
instead of the future, is sometimes found also in other connections ; e. g.
Cic. in Verr. i. 2. : Si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere, his judiciis
pecuniam plurimum posse, sin absolvitur, desinemus nos de judiciis transferendis
recusare ; and very frequently in the comic poets. The rule, however, is
that the future should be used. Attention was above directed to the prac-
tice of using the future of the verbs posse and velle with the conjunction si,
and with the same accuracy these verbs are used in the future perfect, when
the possibility or the intention of doing a thing must be proved before the
action relating to it can take place. Hence we say si voluero, si potuero, si
licuerit, si placuerit, si otium habuero, instead of which we should use either
the present or future ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. i. 43. : Veruntamcn, Crito, si me as-
sequi potueris, sepelito ; de Re Pull. i. 43. : Turn Jit illud, quod apud Plato-
nem est luculente dictum, si modo id exprimere Latins potuero ; de Leg. ii. 18. :
Plato, si modo interpretari potuero, his fere verlis utitur, for he must have
made the. attempt to translate Plato before he can make him speak. See
Heinrich on Cic. de Re Publ. p. 48. foil.
[ 5ii.] We add the following remarks on the further use of the future
perfect. As this tense expresses a future action as completed, it acquires the
meaning of the simple future, implying, however, the rapidity with which
the action will be completed. This occurs, in the first place, when another
future perfect, or any other tense supplying its place, is contained in the
leading sentence, so that the two actions are contemporaneous ; e. g. Cic.
ad Fam. x. 13. : Qui M. Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit; in Verr.
ii. 62. : Da mild hoc (i. e. *z hoc mihi dederis), jam tibi maximum partem de-
fensionis praecideris ; Liv. xxii. 54. : non aggrediar narrare, quae edissertando
308 LATIN GRAMMAR.
(i.e. si edissertaveroi) minora vero ftcero; Cic. ad Att. v. 1.: Tu invita
mulieres, ego accivero pueros. But the future perfect has the meaning of a
quickly completed future action also without any such express relation
to another action ; e. g. Cic. p. Plane. 33. : sed medius fidius, multo citius
meam salutem pro te abjecero, quam Cn. Plancii salutem tradidero ; ad Att. iii.
1 9. : Nusquam facilius hanc miserrimam vitam vel sustentabo, vel, quod est
melius, abjecero; ix. 7. : De triumpho tibi assentior : quern quidem totum facile
et libenter abjecero ; de Re Publ. i. 13. : Nihil est adhuc disputatum, et quoniam
ext integrum, libenter tibi, Laeli, ut de eo disseras, equidem concessero. This is
particularly frequent with the future perfect videro, because the act of seeing
is most easily accomplished ; e. g. Liv. viii. 33. : Videro cessurusne provo-
cations sis, cui rex Romanus Tullus Hostilius cessit, which is not irreconcilable
with the expressions mox, post, alias, olio loco videro, for a rapid completion
can only be spoken of at the moment when the action is beginning ; e. g. Cic.
de Fin. i. 10. 35. : quae fuerit causa, mox videro ; de Re Publ. ii. 9. : habuit
plebem in clienteles principum descriptam, quod quantae fuerit utilitati, post
videro ; Acad. ii. 44. : recte secusne, alias viderimus. Hence this mode of
speaking generally implies, that for the moment a thing is to be dismissed
from our thoughts, and can scarcely be taken into serious consideration. In
the comic writers the future perfect is still more frequently used instead of
the simple future.
[ 512.] 13. The tenses of the indicative may be connected in
any way which the intention of the speaker may require ; e. g.
I am writing now, but this time yesterday I took a walk ; I
know the person whom you will see to-morrow. But in depen-
dent sentences, that is, in the subjunctive, similar tenses alone
can be connected with one another, that is, the tenses of the
present (present and perfect) and the tenses of the past (imper-
fect and pluperfect). In the rules respecting what is usually
called the succession of tenses, but more correctly the dependence
of sentences upon one another, everything depends upon the
time, for the present time is suited only to the present, and the
past to the past ; the relation of an action depending only upon
itself, is never doubtful. Hence we have only to remember,
that the perfect naturally, and in the subjunctive always, ex-
presses the present time, and that consequently
The Present and Perfect are followed by a Present and
Perfect, and
The Imperfect and Pluperfect by an Imperfect and Plu-
perfect ;
E. g. scio quid agas and scio quid egeris ; audivi quid agas and
audivi quid egeris ; but sciebam quid ageres, and sciebam quid
egisses ; audiveram quid ageres, and audiveram quid egisses.
Note. The Latin language, however, is not so constrained as not to be
able, in cases where the sense requires it, to make presents dependent upon
preterites, and preterites upon presents. It is sometimes necessary that a
USE OF THE TENSES. 369
preterite should be followed by a present, viz. when the result of a past
action extends to the present time ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 88. : Ardebat autem Hor-
tensius cvpiditate dicendi sic, ut in nullo unquam flagrantius stadium viderim,
that is, that up to this time I have never seen ; Nep. Aristid. 1. : Quamquam
adeo excellebat Aristides abstinentia, ut unus post hominum memoriam cognomine
Justus sit appellatus : tamen a Themistocle coUabefactus testula ilia exilio
decem annorum multatus est. Here too the perfect subjunctive makes the
dependent sentence proceed from the past, or the time to which the
action of the leading verb belongs ; and the result combined with the
author's opinion is extended to the present time : " he was the only one in
the whole range of history, down to the present time, that was surnamed the
Just." Such variations must be admissible, although no special rule is given
on then- account, for they do not often occur. (Comp. my note on Cic. in
Verr. v. 10. in fin., and Cic. de Fin. ii. 20. init.) A preterite, on the other
hand, might follow a present, when the dependent sentence is to express a
continuing action in the past, as in Cic. in Verr. v. 11. : Scitote oppidum esse
in Sicilia nullum ex Us oppidis, in quibus consistere praetores et conventum
ttgere soleant, quo in oppido non isti delecta mulier ad libidinem esset (esset
here alludes to the whole period of the praetorship), but such sentences can
only be considered as exceptions, and fuerit would be more regular. There
are also passages in ancient writers, which cannot be explained, and must be
considered as irregularities ; see my note on Cic. in Verr. i. 30. 75., and thus
we sometimes find, especially in Caesar, an irregular transition from the
preterite of the leading verb to the present of the dependent one. We can-
not here enter upon the detail of such matters, and we shall only add the
remark that when the hypothetical imperfect subjunctive is followed by a
present or perfect subjunctive, the above rule is not violated, because the
imperfect of the subjunctive refers to the present time ; e. g. Sallust, Cat. 7. :
Memorare possem (differs from memorare possum only by the hypothetical
form of the expression), quibus in locis maximas hostium copias populus
Romanus parva manufuderit, quas urbes, natura munitas, pugnando ceperit,ni
ea res longius nos ab incepto traheret. (Fudisset would have continued the
hypothetical expression, but actual facts are here meant.) But even in
cases like this the imperfect is generally used in the dependent sentence for
the sake of the succession of tenses, as Cic. de Fin. i. 8. : Quid enim me pro-
hiberet Epicureum esse, si probarem quae ille diceret, quum praesertim ilia
perdiscere ludus esset, where we should have expected dicit and sit; ad Fam.
xiii. 66. : A. Caecinam non commendarem tibi, quum scirem, qua fide in tuos
xoleres esse, nisi me patris ejus memoria moveret, where we might say sciam
and soleas. Similar expressions occur frequently; comp. Cic. Philip, v. 18.
in fin. ; de Off. ii. 14. in fin. ; Tusc. i. 21. init.
[ sis.] The simple rule respecting the succession of tenses
becomes somewhat difficult through the double signification of
the perfect indicative. In the above rule it was treated only as
the present of a completed action (in which sense it is equivalent
to the English perfect) ; but as it is at the same time an aorist
of the past (see 500.), it is also connected with the tenses of
the past time, viz. with the imperfect and pluperfect. In this
sense the Latin perfect is translated by the English imperfect
B B
370 LATIN GRAMMAR.
The above rule therefore will be completed by the following
addition :
The historical perfect is followed by the imperfect and plu-
perfect.
E. g. Audivi quid ageres and audivi quid egisses. The two
meanings of the perfect and their influence upon the tense of
the dependent verb may be seen in the following sentences :
Verres Sicilian, per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, 'ut ea res-
titui in antiquum statum nullo modo possit, says Cicero (in
Verr. iv. init.) with reference to the actual state of Sicily.
Conon quum patriam obsideri audisset, non quaesivit, ubi ipse
tuto viveret, sed unde praesidio posset esse civibus suis, says
Nepos (Con. 2.) in speaking of past events.
[ 514.] Note 1. We may in general be guided by the English language,
as we translate the Latin historical perfect by our imperfect. It must, how-
ever, be observed that the Latins, owing to the very frequent use of the
perfect as an aorist of the past or an historical tense, became so accustomed
to its connection with the imperfect, that in many cases they used this tense
even where the Latin perfect is equivalent to the English perfect ; but this
occurs only when there is a possibility of conceiving the action in its progress,
and not merely its conclusion or result. Thus Cicero (in Verr. i. 1 .) says :
adduxi enim hominem, in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis, in whom
you may satisfy, &c. In the same manner Q. Cicero says at the close of an
explanation (de Petit. Cons. 4.) : quoniam quae subsidia novitatis haberes, et
habere posses, exposui, nunc de magnitudine petitionis dicam. In these sen-
tences we should require adduxi hominem, in quo satisfacere possitis, and
quoniam exposui, quae subsidia habeas et habere possis, which would not be
wrong by any means, but it would be against the usage of the Latin lan-
guage ; for the Latins conceived the action in its duration, while we describe
it together with its result by the perfect, and this is the case more especially
when the acting person had an intention accompanying him from the be-
ginning to the end of the action. We say, for example, " I have done this
that you may see," and the Latin fed hoc, ut intelligas, would not be wrong,
but as it was my intention from the beginning, it is preferable to say fed hoc, ut
intelligeres, although I am not relating events, but speaking with reference
to the present time. (Comp. Cic. Philip. 5x. 2. 5., where restaret is quite
correct.) Hence such sentences as : diu dubitavi num melius sit, saepe mecum
cogitavi quidnam causae sit, would sound strange to a Latin ear, and the more
correct mode of speaking is : diu dubitavi num melius esset and saepe cogitavi
quidnam causae esset, and the words diu and saepe indicate that the perfects
dubitavi and cogitavi are conceived, as it were, as an aggregate -of single
doubts and thoughts, which themselves belong to the past time, while the
conclusion extends to the present. But the rule is not upset by this remark,
for when the sentence following does not refer to the separate parts of the
action, but exclusively to the result, the perfect is followed by the present ;
e. g. Cic. ad Fam. v. 6. : Ego meis rebus gestis hoc sum asyecutus, ut bonum
nomen existimer; Eutrop. viii. 2. : Trajanus rempublicam ita administravit,
ut omnibus prindpibus merito praeferatur. These are the results of completed
USE OF THE TENSES. 371
actions, and not intentions continuing along with the actions. The present
may be used in subordinate and dependent sentences, even after an historical
perfect, if that which is to be expressed is universal, and not valid for that
time only which is indicated by the leading verb ; e. g. Justin, xxxi. 8. : An-
tiocho pacem petenti ad priores condiciones nihil additum, Africano praedi-
cante, neque Romanis, si vincantur, animos minui, neque, si vincant, secundis
rebus insolescere. Here the presents express the fact of the Romans not
losing their courage in misfortune and of their not being insolent in pros-
perity, as peculiar characteristics of the Romans, and as true at all times ;
if the imperfect had been used, it would not indeed have been implied that
at any other time the statement was not true, but the universality would
not have been so clearly expressed.
[ 515.] Note 2. The remaining question now is this : when the leading
verb is a present, or (according to 516.) a future, and the infinitive of a
completed action is dependent on it, is it necessary to put the verbs dependent
upon this infinitive in the present or the preterite, that is, the imperf. or
pluperf. subjunctive ? The answer to this question depends upon another,
viz. as to whether on changing the infinitive into the perfect indicative this
tense is the real perfect or the aorist ? When this is ascertained, the de-
cision is easy according to the two preceding paragraphs, and we may say,
e. g. satis mihi multas causas attulisse videor, quamobrem tibi in Italiam pro-
jficiscendum sit, I think I have mentioned to you sufficient reasons why you
should go to Italy ; and in this manner Cicero (j>. Cluent. 24.) says : nisi
docet, ita se possedisse (that he has taken possession), ut nee vi nee clam nee
precario possederit. But the usage of the Latin language is nevertheless dif-
ferent, the perfect infinitive being like the perfect indicative ( 514.), usually
followed either by the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. Hence the
above sentence should be quamobrem in Italiam tibi proficiscendum esset ;
comp. Cic. p. Leg. Man. 10. : satis mihi multa verbafecisse videor, quare esset
hoc bellum genere ipso necessarium, magnitudine periculosum, although reference
is here made to the present time, and although we should say : " why this war
is necessary;" in Verr. i. 12. : hoc me profiteor suscepisse magnum fortasse
onus et mihi periculosum, verumtamen dignum, in quo omnes nervos aetatis
industriaeque meae contenderem. Both tenses are found combined in Cic.
p. Caec. 13. : Quid proficies, quum illi hoc respondebunt tibi, quod tu nunc
mihi: armatos tibi obstitisse, ne in aedes accederes, dejici porro nullo modo
potuisse, qui non accesserit.
[ 516.] The futures are similar to the tenses of the present,
for only that which is past stands apart and by itself. Hence,
a future is followed by a present or a perfect, e. g. mox intelligam,
quantum me ames or amaveris, but not quantum me amares or
amasses. The same is the case with the future perfect : si cog-
novero, quemadmodum te geras or te gesseris. But as the four
subjunctives of the conjugatio periphrastica (formed by the fu-
ture participle and esse) are regarded as subjunctives of the
futures, we must add, that these paraphrased tenses may be
dependent upon preterites (see the examples in 497.), and
that a mutual dependence exists between the presents and futures,
B B 2
372 LATIN GRAMMAR.
but only a partial one between the preterites and futures, since
the futures only may depend upon preterites, but not vice
versa ; e. g. ignorabam quid dicturus esset, but not discam quid
herifaceres for discam quid herifeceris.
The complete rule respecting the succession of tenses there-
fore is this : the tenses of the present and future, i. e. the pre-
sent, perfect (in its proper sense), and the two futures are
followed by the tenses of the present, i. e. by the present and
the perfect subjunctive ; and the tenses of the past, i. e. the im-
perfect, pluperfect, and the historical perfect, are followed by
the tenses of the past, i. e, by the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive.
IV. OF THE MOODS.
CHAP. LXXVII.
r
INDICATIVE MOOD.
[ 517.] 1. THE indicative is used in every proposition the sub-
stance of which is expressed absolutely and as a fact, e. g. I
go, thou wrotest, he believed.
Hence the indicative is used even in the expression of con-
ditions and suppositions with the particles si, nisi, etsi and etiamsi,
if without that expression an event is supposed actually to take
place or (with nisi) not to take place.
Mors aut plane negligenda est, si omnino extinguit animum, aut
etiam optanda, si aliquo eum deducit, ubi sit futurus aeternus,
Cic. Cat. Maj. 19.
Si feceris id, quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam, si non fe-
ceris, ignoscam, Cic. ad Fam. v. 1 9.
Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute fiunt, Cic.
ad Att. vii. 10.
Ista veritas, etiamsi jucunda non est, mihi tamen grata est, Cic.
ad Att. iii. 24. in fin.
Note. The conjunctions si and nisi express nothing else but a relation of
one sentence to another ; that is, the relation of condition or exception : one
INDICATIVE MOOD. 373
thing is on condition that another is ; and one thing is, except in the case of
another being, &c. Sentences which stand in this relation to each other are
expressed by the indicative, i. e. objectively or in the form of reality. All
expression of our own opinion is avoided, for this would be expressed by
the subjunctive. In using the indicative, I donot express any opinion as to
the possibility or impossibility of a thing ; but, without any comment, I
suppose a thing as actual, or (with nm) I make an exception, which may be
or may not be, but which I take as actual for the sake of the inference.
[ sis.] 2. The following peculiarities deserve to be noticed
as differing from the English.
The verbs oportet, neqesse est, debeo, convenit, possum, licet,
and par, fas, aequum, justum, consentaneum est, or acquius, me-
lius, utilius, optabilius est, are put in the indicative of a preterite
(imperf., pluperf., and the Jhisloxical perfect), where we should
have expected the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive. The
imperfect indicative in this case expresses things which are not,
but the time for which is not yet passed ; and the perfect and
pluperfect indicative things which have not been, but the time
for which is passed; e. g. Cic. in Cat. i. 1. : Ad mortem te dud
jam pridem oportebat, i. e. thy execution was necessary and is
still so ; hence it ought to take place. In going back to the
beginning, however, the speaker might have used the pluper-
fect with this meaning : " thy execution ought to have taken
place long ago." Cic. de Fin. iii. 10. : perturbationes animorum
poteram ego morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia, I
might have called them, and might do so still ; Cic. ad Aft. ii.
1. : si mihi omnes, ut erat aequum, faverent, it was fair, and is
still fair, but it does not happen to be the case. The perfect
and pluperfect, on the other hand, clearly express that all is
over; e. g. Cic. ad Fam. iv. 16. : Volumnia debuit in te officio-
sior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit facer e diligentius ; p.
Muren. 25.: Catilina erupit e senatu triumphans g audio, quern
omnino vivum illinc exire non oportuerat ; Curt. iii. 9. : longe
utilius fuit angustias aditus occupare, it would have been much
better to occupy the pass. In the paraphrased conjugation
with the participle future active and passive, too, the preterites
of the indicative very frequently have the meaning of a sub-
junctive; e. g. Ovid, Her. xvi. 152. : tam bona constanter praeda
tenenda fuit, ought to have been kept. This is the case more
especially in hypothetical sentences. (519.) The subjunctive
in independent sentences is much less frequent than the indica-
B B 3
374 LATIN GRAMMAR.
live; e.g. Nep. Epam. 4.: Phirima quidem proferre possemus,
sed modus adhibendus est.
Chaldaei oculorum fallacissimo sensu judicant ea, quae ratione
atque animo videre debebant, Cic. de Divin. ii. 43.
Aut non suscipi bellum oportuit, aut geri pro dignitate populi
Romani, Liv. v. 4.
Is (Tib. Gracchus) fugiens decurrensque clivo Capitolino, f rag-
mine subsellii ictus, vitam, quam gloriosissime degere potuerat,
immature, mortefinwit, Veil. Pat. ii. 3.
[ 519. a.] Note 1. This indicative supplying the place of the subjunctive,
is frequently retained even when an hypothetical sentence with the imper-
fect or pluperfect subjunctive is added ; and it is here in particular that the
indicative of the preterites of the paraphrased conjugation is employed ;
e. g. Cic. Philip, ii. 38. : Omnibus eum contumeliis onerasti, quern patris loco,
si ulla in te pietas esset, colere debebas ; Sallust, Jug. 85. : quae si dubia aut
procul essent, tamen omnes bonos rei publicae consulere decebat ; Liv. xlii. 34. :
Quodsi mihi nee omnia stipendia emerita essent, necdum aetas vacationem daret,
tamen aequum erat me dimitti ; Cic. p. Leg. Man. 17. : Quodsi Gn. Pompejus
privates esset hoc tempore, tamen erat mittendus. With the perfect, Liv. xxxii.
12. : deleri totus exercitus potuit, si fugientes persecuti victores essent ; Cic. de
Re Publ. i. 6. : Consul esse qui potui, nisi eum vitae cursum tenuissem ; in
Vatin. 1. : Etenim debuisti, Vatini, etiamsi falso venisses in suspicionem P.
Sextio, tamen mihi ignoscere ; in Verr. iii. 61. : Quern hominem, si qui pudor
in te, atque adeo si qui metus fuisset, sine supplicio dimittere non debuisti, hunc
abs te sine praemio discedere noluisti , p. Milan. 11. : quodsi ita putasset, certe
optabilius Miloni fuit dare jugulum ; ibid. 22. : quos nisi manumisisset, tor-
mentis etiam dedendi fuerunt ; Petron. 94. : Si te non invenissem, periturus per
praecipitia fui. See also 498. and 499. But the subjunctive is also ad-
missible, as in Cic. in Cat. iii. 7. in fin. : dedendi fuissent ; and p. Lig. 7. in
fin. : periturus fuissem (according to the common reading) ; de Divin. ii. 8.
21.
Res publica poterat esse perpetua, si patriis viveretur institutis et moribus, Cic.
de Re Publ. iii. 29.
Nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum potuerunt, Tacit. Agr. 31.
[ 519. &.] Independent of this use of the indicative, instead of the subjunc-
tive, to express that which might or should have taken place, the historians
use the indicative of a preterite instead of the pluperfect subjunctive to ex-
press that which would actually have taken place, in sentences containing the
inference from an hypothetical sentence, although the premises are not true.
This figure (i. e. a mode of expression differing from the ordinary one) which
is only intended to render a description more animated, is used in the first
place when a part of the inference has already come to pass, and would have
been completely realised, if something else had occurred, or more frequently,
if some obstacle had not been thrown in the way, whence the adverb jam is
frequently added ; e. g. Liv. iv. 52. : jam fames quam pestilentia tristior erat,
ni annonae foret subventum ; Tacit. Hist. iii. 46. : jamque castra legionum ex-
cindere parabant, ni Mucianus sextam legionem opposuisset; the same is also
expressed by coepisse, in such passages as Tacit. Agr. 37. : Britanni degredi
INDICATIVE MOOD. 375
paidatim et circumire terga vincentium coeperant: ni id ipsum veritus Agricola
quattuor equitum alas venientibus opposuisset. Without the adverb jam; Q. g.
Tacit. Ann. i. 35. : Germanicus ferrum a later e deripuit, elatumque defer ebat
in pectus (thus much he actually did do, and he would have accomplished his
design), ni proximi prensam dextram vi attinuissent; Tacit. Ann. iii. 14. : ef-
figies Pisonis traxerant in Gemonias ac diveUebant (and would have entirely
destroyed them), ni jussu principis protectae forent. The perfect and plu-
perfect are likewise used in this sense, and a thing which was never accom-
plished is thus, in a lively manner, described as completed : Sueton. Caes.
52. : et eadem nave paene Aethiopia tenus Aegyptum penetravit, nisi exercitus
sequi recusasset; paene or prope is frequently added in such cases (even with-
out an hypothetical sentence, as prope oblitus sum, I had nearly forgotten) ;
Flor. iv. 1 . : et peructum erat bellum sine sanguine, si Pompejum opprimere
Brundisii (Caesar) potuisset; Plin. Paneg. 8. : temere fecerat Nerva, si ad-
optasset alium (non Trajanum). In Cieero however this use of the indicative
occurs only in a few passages, as in Verr. v. 49. : si per Metettum licitum esset,
matres illorum miserorum sororesque veniebant; de Leg. i. 19. : labebar longius,
nisi me retinuissem; ad Fam. xii. 10.: Praeclare viceramus, nisi spoliatum,
inermem, fugientem Lepidus recepisset Antonium. The imperfect indicative is
sometimes, though rarely, used also for the imperfect subjunctive when the
hypothetical part of the sentence does not contain a pluperfect, but an im-
perfect subjunctive ; e. g. Cic. de Off. ii. 19. : Admonebat me res, tit hoc
quoque loco intermissionem eloquentiae, ne dicam interitum, deplorarem, ni
vererer, ne de me ipso aliquid viderer queri; Quintil. ii. 8. 8. : nam et omnino
supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret; iv. 1. 11. : stultum erat monere,
nisi jieret.
Pans sublicius Her paene kostibus dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes,
qui, &c. Liv. ii. 10.
Actum erat de pvlcherrimo imperio, nisi ilia conjuratio (Catilinae) in Cice-
ronem consulem incidisset, Flor. iv. 1.
[ 520.] Note 2. When we in English use the expressions " I ought" or
" I should" without implying impossibility, the Latins express the same
meaning by the present indicative ; e. g. debes esse diligentior or diligentiorem
te esse oportet, you ought to be more diligent. The subjunctive in this case
would be quite foreign to the Latin idiom. In the same manner the present
indicative possum is frequently used for possem; e. g. Cic. in Verr. i. 47 :
Possum sexcenta decretaproferre; and it is the common custom to say diffi-
cile est, longum est, infinitum est; el g. narrare, for which we should say " it
would be difficult," " it would lead too far," " there would be no end," &c.
See Ruhnken on Veil. Pat. ii. 42.
[ 521.] 3. The Latins commonly use the indicative after
many general and relative expressions, some fact being implied.
This is the case after the pronouns and relative adverbs which
are either doubled or have the suffix cunque : quisquis, quotquot,
quicunque, quantuscunqzie, quantuluscunque, utut, utcunque, and
the others mentioned in 130 and 288. ; e. g. Utcunque sese
res hdbet, tua est culpa, however this may be, the fault is thine ;
quicunque is est, whoever he may be.
B B 4
376 LATIN GRAMMAR.
Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, Virg. Aen. ii. 49.
Quern sors dierum cunque dabit, lucro appone, Horat. Carm. i.
9. 14.
Note. Other examples are, Cic. p. Lig. 7. : sed quoquo modo sese illud
habet; haec querela vestra, Tuber o, quid valet? Parad. 2. : quocunque ad-
spexisti, utfuriae, sic tuae tibi occurrunt injuriae, and in the same manner we
must read in p. Milan, init. : tamen haec novijudicii nova forma ferret oculos,
qui, quocunque inciderunt, veterem consuetudinem fort requirunt, where Ernesti,
mistaking the usage of the Latin language, edited inciderint. See Heusinger,
Praef. ad Cic. de Off. p. Iv. (xl.). In de Orat. iii. 50. also we now read
versus debilitatur, in quacunque est parte titubatum, where formerly sit was
read. Later writers however join these general relatives and sive sive (of
which we shall speak presently) with the subjunctive.
[$522.] 4. In the same way sentences connected by sive
sive commonly have the verb in the indicative (unless there is a
special reason for using the subjunctive) ; e. g. sive tacebis, sive
loquere, mihi perinde est ; sive verum est, sive falsum, mihi quidem
ita renuntiatum est.
Nam illo loco libentissime uti soleo, sive quid mecum ipse cogito,
sive quid aut scribo, aut lego, Cic. De Leg. ii. 1.
CHAP. LXXVIII.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
[ 523.] 1. THE subjunctive is used in general, when a pro-
position is stated, not as a fact, but as a conception of the mind.
Note. The subjunctive is only a form which is given to a proposition; its
substance does not come into consideration. Hence "I believe," " I suspect,"
are expressed by the indicative, although these words indicate only certain
conceptions, but my belief and suspicion are stated as real facts. When, on
the other hand, I say " I should believe," " I should think," the acts of
believing and thinking are represented as mere conceptions, which perhaps
do not exist at all, or even cannot exist. Hence the Latins always use the
subjunctive when a sentence is to express an intention either that something
is to be effected or prevented, for the actions here exist only as conceptions ;
e. g. pecuniam homini do, ut me defendat, ne me accuset. The English lan-
guage, which has no subjunctive, avails itself of a variety of other verbs to
express the nature of the subjunctive, as may, might, could, should, would.
[ 524.] 2. We must here first notice the difference between
the four tenses of the subjunctive in hypothetical or con-
ditional sentences, both in that part of the sentence containing
the condition (beginning with the conjunctions si, nisi, etsi,
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 377
eliamsi, tametsi), and in the one containing the inference or
conclusion. The present and perfect subjunctive are used when
a conception is to be expressed together with the suggestion
that it does exist or may exist ; but the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive are used when a conception is expressed together
with the suggestion that it did not or could not exist ; and the
imperfect in this case implies present time as in English ; e. g. si
velit, " if he wishes,'' or. " should wish," implying that he either
actually wishes or at least may wish : in the consequent member
of the proposition (the apodosis), the present or perfect sub-
junctive or indicative may stand ; but si vellet, " if he wished,"
implies that he does not or cannot wish, and here the con-
sequent member of the proposition requires the imperfect or
pluperfect subjunctive. The subjunctive without si has the same
meaning as facer em, " I should do," implying that I do not or
cannot do ; vellem, " I should wish," implying that I might have
a wish, but that in fact I do not wish, seeing that it would be
of no avail. Velim and cupiam thus -do not much differ from
volo and cupio.
The imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive therefore are ne-
cessary in hypothetical sentences ; but the present and perfect
subjunctive differ only slightly from the indicative, and their
use cannot be fixed by grammatical rules. The indicative
gives to a sentence the form of reality, whereas the subjunc-
tive represents it as an arbitrary conception, which however
may at the same time be a reality ; e. g. etiamsi te non laudo or
laudabo, tamen, &c., even if I do not or shall not praise thee,
the reality is admitted : etiamsi te non laudem or laudaverim, if
(perhaps) I should not praise thee, or should not have praised
thee, the possibility is conceived. The use of the present and
perfect subjunctive in these cases arises in some measure from
the circumstance that an indefinite person is addressed in Latin
by the second person singular, but only in the subjunctive;
hence the subjunctive is used in such cases even where the
indicative would be used, if a definite person were addressed.
It must further be observed that these two subjunctives supply
the place of the subjunctive of the two futures. Comp. 496.
The difference between the tenses of the subjunctive in hy-
pothetical sentences is observed also in indirect speech (oratio
obliqua), when the leading verb is a present or a future ; but
378 LATIN GRAMMAR.
when it is a preterite or the historical perfect, the rule re-
specting the succession of tenses must be observed ( 512.), and
the difference between possibility and impossibility is not ex-
pressed ; e. g. we may say Gajus dicit se Latine loqui posse, si
pater jubeat (or jusserif), which may possibly happen ; and si
pater juberet (or jussissei), which however is not the case. But
we can say only Gajus dicebat se Latine loqui posse, si pater
juberet or jussisset.
Si Neptunus, quod Theseo promiserat, non fecisset, Theseus filio
Hippolyto non esset orbatus, Cic. De Off. i. 10.
Dies deficiat, si velim numerare, quibus bonis male evenerit, nee
minus si commemorem, quibus improbis optime, Cic. De Nat.
Deor. iii. 32.
I Si gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, repetat insaniens :
I reddere peccatum sit, officium non reddere, Cic. De Off. iii. 25.
Aequabilitatem vitae servare non possis, si aliorum virtutem imitans
omittas tuam, Cic. De Off. i. 31.
Memoria minuitur, nisi earn exerceas, aut si sis natura tardior,
Cic. Cat. Maj. 7.
Note 1. It cannot be sufficiently impressed upon the mind of the begin-
ner, that in hypothetical sentences, and when used alone, the imperfect and
pluperfect subjunctive are of a totally different nature from the present and
perfect, and that the two latter which express a conceived reality, approach
very near the actual reality expressed by the indicative. (See 523. note.)
Hence the future indicative is often used in the apodosis, when in the condi-
tional member or the protasis of a sentence si is joined with the present sub-
junctive ; e. g. Cic. Tusc. v. 35. : Dies deficiet, si velim paupertatis causam de-
fendere ; comp. Cic. de Nat. Deor. iii. 32., quoted above. Possible cases which
are devised to serve as examples, either for the purpose of judging of other
analogous cases, or of drawing conclusions from them, are expressed by *i
with the subjunctive, as in the passage of Cic. de Off. iii. 25., which was quoted
above. Compare de Off. i. 10. : Ut si constitueris (supposing you had agreed)
te cuipiam advocatum in rem praesentem esse venturum, atque interim graviter
aegrotare Jilius coeperit: non sit contra officium, non facer e quod dixeris. The
perfect subjunctive is at the same time the subjunctive of the future perfect,
for in speaking of an actual case we may use the perfect indicative as well
as the future perfect ; e. g. si tibi promisi me affuturum nee vent, contra officium
me fecisse fateor, and si tibi promisero nee venero, contra officium mefecisse
fatebor. In the subjunctive both tenses are alike, and as in the passage just
quoted we recognise the perfect subjunctive, so we look upon rogaverit,
scripserit, and dixerit in the following passage as future perfects : Cic. de Fin.
ii. 18.: si te amicus tuus moriens rogaverit, ut hereditatem reddas suaefiliae,
nee usquam id scripserit, nee cuiquam dixerit: quid fades f For practical pur-
poses the distinction is not necessary ; but the subjunctive is essential, since
the case was to be expressed merely as a conception. This signification of the
Latin subjunctive is clear, especially in its frequent occurrence when the sub-
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 379
ject is an indefinite person (si quis), and in the second person singular, which
implies an indefinite person (equivalent to the French on and the German
man).
With regard to the expression of possibility (by the present subjunctive)
or impossibility (by the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive), it must not
be overlooked, that it depends upon the speaker as to how he intends to re-
present a thing. For we are not speaking here of objective truth, but of
subjective conceptions. Cicero (Divin. in Caec. 5.) says : Si universa
~ provincia loqui posset, hac voce uteretur, implying that it cannot speak. But /
in another passage (in Cat. i. 8.) he says: Haec si tecwn patria loquatur,nonne\
impetrare debeat f personifying his country, and endowing it with speech, j
This may serve to explain several other passages of the same kind. Comp. \
Cic. p. Milan. 29. : Ejus igitur mortis sedetis ultores, cujus vitam si putetis per \
vos restitui posse, nolitis, where, without his rhetorical object, he would have j
said : si putaretis nolletis.
[ .K5.] Note 2. We must notice a peculiarity of the Latin language in
hypothetical sentences, which appears strange to us (though not to the Greeks),
for completed actions of the past time are often transferred, at least partly, to
the present, by using the imperfect instead of the pluperfect, either in the
protasis or in the apodosis ; e. g. Cic. Brut. 67. : Hujus si vita, si mores, si
vultus denique non omnem commendationem ingenii everteret, majus nomen in
patronis fuisset ; in Verr. v. 51.: quod certe non fecisset, si suum numerum
(nautarum) naves haberent; Lael. 4. : Mortuis tarn religiosa jura (inajores
nostri) tribuerunt, quod non fecissent prof ecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbitra-
rentur; Liv. xxxix. 42.: Longe gravissima (M. Catonis) in L. Quinctium
oratio est, qua si accusator ante notam usus esset, retinere Quinctium in senatu
ne f rater quidem T. Quinctius, si turn censor esset, potuisset. Numerous other
examples from Cicero, Sallust, and Livy, are quoted by Garatoni on Cic. in
Verr. ii. 1. in fin. ; p. Milon. 17. init. ; p. Sext. 67. in fin. In the following
passages, on the other hand, the imperfect is used for the pluperfect in the
apodosis. Cic. in Verr. i. 31. : Nam si quam Rubrius injuriam suo nomine ac
non impulsu tuo et tua cupiditate fecisset : de tui comitis injuria questum ad te
potius, quam te oppugnatum venirent, instead ofvenissent; Philip, iii. 5. : esset
enim ipsi (Antonio) certe statim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigne ac-
cipere voluisset, where Ernesti remarks, that the ordinary usage of the Latin
language requires fuisset for esset ; Flor. iii. 3. 13. : Cimbri si statim infesto
agmine urbem petissent, grande discrimen esset; sed in Venetia, quo fere tractu
Italia mollissima est, ipsa solis coelique dementia robur elanguit. For other
passages see Bentley on Horace, Serm. ii. 3. 94. Sometimes the imperfect
subjunctive instead of the pluperfect appears both in the protasis and apodosis,
although the actions spoken of are completed, and do not belong to the pre-
sent time ; e. g. Cic. Philip, viii. 4. : Num tu igitur eum, si turn esses, temera-
rium civem out crudelem putares ? instead offuisses andputasses. See Goerenz.
on Cic. de Leg. iii. 13. 30., and de Fin. v. 3. 8. It-is true that all this arises
from a lively and rhetorical mode of speaking, the past time being represented
as present ; but it must be observed, that it is more frequent in Latin, and
, especially in Greek, than in modern languages. Those hypothetical sentences,
in which either a case or a conclusion from it is represented as continuing
to .the present time,' afford no matter for special remark, for there the imper-
fect is in its proper place. Compare the learned and profound dissertation of
Fred. Ellendt, Dr.fonnin cnunciatornm conditionaliutn linguae Latinae, Regim.
Pruss. 1827.
380 LATIN GRAMMAR.
[ 526.] Note 3. Nisi, nisi vero, and nisi forte are joined with the indi-
cative when they introduce a correction of the sentence preceding. Nisi in
this case signifies "except;" e. g. Cic. p. Rose. Am. 35.: nescio : nisi hoc
video. Nisi vero, nisi forte (unless perhaps), introduce a case as an excep-
tion, and describe it at the same time as improbable ; e. g. Cic. p. Sull. 9. :
Plenum forum est eorum hominum nisi vero paucos fuisse arbitramini ; p.
Muren. 6. : Nemo fere saltat sobrius, nisi forte insanit; ad Att. ii. 14. : erat
autem nihil novi, quod aut scriberem, out ex te quaererem, nisi forte hoc ad te
putas pertinere, &c. Nisi forte is thus chiefly used in an ironical sense,
" unless you suppose," introducing a case which is in fact inadmissible, but
is intended to suggest to another person that he cannot differ from our
opinion, without admitting as true a thing which is improbable and ab-
surd.
[ 527.] 3. Hence the present subjunctive is used also in
independent propositions to soften an assertion or statement,
and without any essential difference from the present indicative
or the future. We generally express the same by " I may " or
" I might" (the subjunctive as a, potential mood)', e. g. Forsitan
quaeratis ; nemo istud tibi concedat ; quis dubitet ? velim (nolim,
malim) sic existimes. The perfect subjunctive may likewise be
used in the sense of a softened perfect indicative ; e. g. forsitan
temerefecerim, I may perhaps have acted inconsiderately ; fortasse
errore effectum sit, it may perhaps have been done by mistake ;
but this occurs very rarely, and the perfect subjunctive, when
used independently, usually has the meaning of a softened
future, and in so far is equivalent to the present, without regard
to the completion of the action. Hence Quintilian (x. 1. 101.)
combines the two tenses : At non historia cesserim Graecis, nee
opponere Thucydidi Sallustium verear.
Quid videatur ei magnum in rebus humanis, cui aeternitas omnis
totiusque mundi nota sit magnitude ? Cic. Tusc. iv. 17.
Hoc sine ulla dubitatione cmifirmaverim, eloquentiam rem esse
omnium difficillimam, Cic. Brut. 6.
Tu vero Platonem nee nimis valde unquam, nee nimis saepe lau-
daveris, Cic. De Leg. iii. 1.
Nil ego contulerim jucundo sanus amico, Horat. Serm.
[ 528.] Note 1. If the form which we usually call the perfect subjunctive
is only the perfect subjunctive, it is difficult to derive this potential significa-
tion, which belongs to the future, from the idea of an action completed at
the present time. And it can only be done in the manner described above,
511., where we have seen that the future perfect acquires the meaning of
a simple future, and by a certain liveliness of expression represents an in-
complete action as completed. But it is preferable to suppose (see . 496.
and 524. note) that the form which from its most usual meaning in dependent
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 381
sentences is called the perfect subjunctive active, is at the same time the
subjunctive of the future perfect (scripserim the subjunct. of scripsi and
scripserd), which future perfect frequently acquires the meaning of a simple
future. Hence the perfect subjunctive, in a potential sense, is generally
used only in the active voice, and very rarely in the passive ; as in Veil.
Pat. i. 18. : non ego hoc magis miratus sim ; and Livy, xxii. 59. : ne illi
quidem se nobis merito praetulerint gloriatigue sint ,' xxx. 14. : nidla virtus
est, qua ego aeque atque temperantia gloriatus fuerim. After it had once
become customary to use the perfect subjunctive in the potential sense of
the present subjunctive, the former was sometimes also employed in de-
pendent sentences (after tit and ne) instead of the present. Ut sic dixerim
occurs -in Quintilian, Tacitus (de Orat. 34. 40.), and the classical jurists ;
ne longius abierim (for abeam) is used by Tacitus (Ann. vi. 22.), and ne quis
sit admiralus for nequis admiretur by Cicero (de Off", ii. 10.).
It must, however, be observed that, on the whole, the subjunctive is
sparingly used by the earlier writers in the sense of a potential mood ; but
later writers, such as Quintilian, do not keep within the same limits.
Note 2. The first person of the imperfect subjunctive is used more rarely
without implying the falsity or impossibility of a condition; but vellem,
nollem, and mallem are used to express a wish, the non-reality and impossi-
bility of which we know, whence vellem becomes equivalent to " I should
have wished." But in the second person, when it. implies an indefinite
person, and in the third when the subject is an indefinite person, the imper-
fect subjunctive is used in independent propositions to express things which
might have happened, that is, in the sense of the pluperfect, and we can
easily supply the supposed condition, ".if you had been present." This is the
case especially with the verbs dicere, putare, credere ; e. g. Liv. ii. 43. :
maestique (crederes victos) redeunt in castra, one might have believed that
they were defeated; ii. 35. : quidquid erat Patrum, reos dicer es; Cic. in
Verr. iv. 13. : quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum (canes venaticos
diceres) ita odorabantur omnia et pervestigabant, ut, ubi quidque esset, aliqua
ratione invenirent ; Curt. vi. 6. : discurrunt milites et itineri sarcinas aptant :
signum datum crederes, ut vasa colligerent. Videre, cernere, and discernere
are used in the same way ; e. g. Cic. in Verr. iv. 40. : Vix hoc erat plane
imperatum, quum ilium spoliatum stipatumque lictoribus cerneres, one might
have seen him, scil. if one had been present ; Sallust, Cat. 25. : pecuniae an
famae minus parceret, hand facile discerneres. The third person is more
rarely used in this way, although it occurs in Cicero, in Verr. iv. 23. : qui
videret equum Trojanum introductum, urbem captam diceret ; but frequently
with the interrogative quis, as Cic. in Verr. i. 41. : quis unquam crederet?
p. Leg. Man. 11.: quis unquam arbitraretur ? p. Flacc. 40. : quis putaret ?
Juven. vii. 212. : Cui non tune eliceret risum citharoedi cauda magistri ?
[ 529.] 4. The subjunctive is further used in independent
sentences to express a wish or desire (optative). In the second
and third persons of the present (to some extent also of the
perfect) it supplies the place of the imperative ; e. g. dicas
equivalent to die, loquare to loquere, especially when the person
is indefinite ; further dicat, facial, loquatur. The present sub-
junctive is used in the first person to express an assurance;
382 LATIN GRAMMAR.
e. g. moriar, inteream, peream ; and in the plural a request, which
may be addressed to ourselves as well as others ; e. g. eamus,
moriamur, nunc revertamur ad propositum ! let us go ! let us
die ! let us return ! The imperfect and pluperfect are used to
express wishes belonging to the past time, when a thing ought
to have been or to have been done ; e. g. diceret, dixisset, he
should have said.
Connected with this is the use of the subjunctive (called
in this ca 
