GRAMMAR
OF THE
R(M..tl (LEPCHA) LANGUAGE,
AS IT EXISTS IN THE DORJELING AND SIKIM HILLS.
BY
COLONEL G^VMAINWARING,
BENGAL STAFF CORPS.
CALCUTTA :
PEINTED BY C. B. LEWTS, BAPTIST MISSION TEEiiS.
1876.
To
THE HON'BLE E. C. BAYLEY, C. S. I.
ot tyt dwmril at % (ftjofrmwr 6meral at
As a slight tribute of respect for his great attainments
in Philology and in general knowledge, and for the
advancement he renders both personally and by encou-
ragement to all literature and science, this book is
gratefully dedicated.
Calcutta, December 1875.
PREFACE AND INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
Before presenting to the public a grammar of a language, it may be considered
meet to give some information regarding the country and people, especially where,
as in the present instance, little is known respecting either. Relating to the
Lepchas and country, however, little information can be imparted. Sikim is in
Lat. 27 2' 53" N. Lon. 88 18' 41" E. and is bounded on the North by Tibet ; on
the East by Pru (Butan) ; on the West by Nepal ; and formerly extended on the South
to near Titalyah in the Plains.
It was not until the year 1814 that the first political connection with Sikim
commenced, and then only with reference to the affairs of Nepal. The first com-
munication of importance with the latter, commenced in 1767, when the reigning
Newah Rajah, harassed incessantly by the independent Gurkhas* who were now
threatening his capital (Kathniandah), became alarmed and besought the aid of the
British Government in India. It being considered politic to retain in peace the
great mercantile and agricultural commerce which existed between Bengal and Nepal,
and thence extended, through the latter country, to Tibet and China, his request
was acceded to, and a force, under Capt. Kinloch, was sent to his aid, but, unfortu-
nately, the troops despatched were totally inadequate for the occasion. They arrived
in Nepal in the commencement of the rains (1767) ; the malarious and deadly climate
of the Terai, and want of provisions soon prostrated the few and unseasoned natives
of the Plains, and Kinloch was obliged to retire. The Gurkhas relieved from
restraint, did not wait for a second force to be sent, but renewed the attack with un-
precedented vigor and shortly took Kathniandah. Wholesale and indiscriminate
slaughter ensued, all the ruling Newah chiefs were put to the sword, and midst
uncontrolled bloodshed and unheard of atrocities, the Gurkha chief, Prithwi Narayn,
became the ruler of the kingdom. Elated with their success, which added to their
hill territories the country of Nepal, comprising the vallies of Tirhut and Sarun,
* The Newahs were the Budhist inhabitants of Nepal. The Gurkhas were bigoted Hindus .- grasping
and rapacious, they, at first, gradually, and afterwards rapidly invaded and possessed themselves of the terri-
tories of the numerous independent chiefs who held sway in the Himalayas. The conquest of Nepal and of
Sikim, united their possessions, making them masters of all the Hill and Terai tract, from the rivers Sutlej
in the N. West, to the Euug-nyo (Teistah) in the S. East.
the Gurkhas aspired to the conquest of Tibet and China.* The former country they
invaded, reduced part to subjection and occupied it ; but were ignominiously driven
out by Chinese troops in 1792. They, however, still held in possession the country
of Sikim, which they had subjugated after the conquest of Nepal, and retained in
domination by a series of fortified intrenchments and barricades. I am not writing
a history of Nepal, it would therefore be foreign to the present subject to recount all
the events which succeeded that calamitous triumph of the Gilrkhas, which, for
many years, plunged a peaceful, prosperous and most flourishing country into a
state of anarchy, into constant civil broils and contentions, and rendered it a scene
of ungoverned passions and of appalling barbarities.f It was in vain the British
Government intermediated, in vain it strove to keep in check the violence that
convulsed the country. Treaties were made but to be broken by Nepal ; the British
Envoy was treated with duplicity and disrespect. Wearied with the constant dis-
cord and reiterated aggressions, the Government of India declared war in 1814 ;J
* The invasion of Tibet, and pillage of the Grand Lamasery of Degarchhe were also in a great measuiv
due to the influence of a Lama, known as, Samhur, (his true name and title were Sha-kar Khyem-bo ;
literally, Sha-kar, the learned), brother of the zj*]'.fl<V bkra-shis (Anglice, Tcshi) Lama, who, on the
death of the latter, fled from Lhasa. Having brought much plundered treasure with him, he was taken
into favor by the Nepal chief. Afterwards, on the peremptory demand of the Chinese authorities for his
surrender, to avoid being delivered over, he put an end to his life by poison.
f A graphic account is given of the state of Nepal during this early period by an eye-witness, a Roman
Catholic Priest (Father Guiseppe, Prefect to the Roman Mission), who was a resident at Nepal for four
years ; he states, to firmly secure the valley of Nepal, the Gurkha Chief hoped to effect this purpose by
causing a famine, that orders for this were issued and vigorously carried into effect " Every person who
" was found on the road carrying even a little salt or cotton was hung on a tree, and he caused all the inha-
" bitants of a neighbouring village to be put to death in a most cruel manner, even women and children did
" not escape, for having supplied a little cotton to the inhabitants of Nepal ; and when I arrived in that
" country in the beginning of 1769, it was a most horrible spectacle to behold so many people hanginc" on trees
"in the road." He relates that the besieged, in a fortress (Kliirtapur), submitted themselves prisoners under
a promise of general amnesty, but that after their surrender, Prithwi Xarayan sent instructions to his brother,
(whom he had placed in possession of the surrounding country), to cut off the lips and noses of every one, and that
all these (lips and noses) were to be preserved "that he might ascertain how many souls there were." Tlio
order was carried into execution with every cruelty and horror, none escaping, (neither women nor children),
except the players of wind instruments, who alone were spared. Many in despair put an end to their lives
"it was most shocking to see so many living people with their teeth and noses resembling the skulls of the
" deceased." With sarcastic and diabolical jocularity, Prithwi Narayn afterwards changed the name of the
town to Naskatpur, = the place of cut noses. He did not survive lo,ng to enjoy what fruits he may have
reaped ; he died two years after, in 1771.
J On the first threat of war by the British, in the early part of the year, the subject was referred, by the
Rajah, for the decision of the Chiefs. Though the recommendation of a temporizing and conciliating policy,
urged by prudent counsellors, was in the majority, the boast that the Gurkhas were invincible and their
country impregnable was paramount. War was determined on. Hostilities were immediately commenced by
a force proceeding and slaughtering almost all of the lew men that composed our Police outposts of Ulmtwal.
( vii )
and in the latter end of that year a force was sent under command of Sir David
Ochterlony. Having overcome the Nepal troops, the latter sued for peace. In fram-
ing conditions, one of the stipulations was, that the Gurkhas should relinquish all
claim to the territory, usurped by them, belonging to the Sikim Ruler. They
would not accede to all the terms. The campaign was therefore renewed, under the
same General. Instructions were also sent to Capt. Latter, the Political Agent on
the Eastern Nepal frontier, to render the Sikim king every assistance in his power
to expel the Giirkhas from his territories. Nepal being completely subdued, the
treaty of Segowlee, bearing date the 2nd December, 1815, was formally signed and
sealed, in which, by the 5th and 6th Articles, the Nepal Government renounced all
claim to the land east of the Mechi river, and further bound itself, never to molest
the king of Sikim, or invade his territories, that all differences should be referred to
the arbitration of the British Government " by whose award the Rajah of Nepal
engages to abide." It was not, however, until afterwards driven out by a force
under Captain Latter, that the Gurkhas eventually evacuated the Sikini territory.
Sikim was considered of special importance as affording an accessible approach
to Eastern Tibet, and, as such, was deemed advantageous to bo retained by a friendly
power. The following year, therefore, a covenant was entered into by Captain
Latter, on the part of the Governor-General Lord Moira, securing, to the king of
Sikim, the whole of his territories. This covenant was delivered to the deputies
of the king, at Tirhut, on the 10th day of February 1817. For some years after
this, nothing of importance took place between the British Government and Sikim.
In 1827, disputes, with regard to the boundaries, occurring between Nepal and Sikim,
Captain Lloyd, commanding the frontier force at Titalyah, and Mr. J. \V. Grant,
Commercial Resident at Maldah (who had before visited the hills), were ordered to
proceed to Sikim to amicably arrange matters. Both were charmed with the country
and the inhabitants (the Lepchas).* They selected the site of Dorjeling,f as a most
* I use the term Lepcha ; as it has been so long employed, it may be considered to have become Angli-
cised ; I do not know the origin of the word, but it is doubtless a denomination of the Gurkhas, from whom
most of the names of the neighbouring places &c., have been taken, instead of from the inhabitants of the
respective countries, e. g. Sikim, Butan, Tibet, &c. The proper name of the Lepchas, as they call them-
selves, is Kong.
t The Tibetans had before this time formed a settlement at Dorjeling, on the summit of which they
had built a Lamasery, (about 110 years ago). This the Gurkhas had, more than once, attacked and plundered,
and, at one time, had converted it into one of their guard posts. The ruin of the Lamasery remains to the
present day. The name, " Dorjeling" was given by the Tibetans ; it is compounded of three words ; viz. t,'
rdo a. stone, rje noble, and gjt; gling a place. The first two words compose a compound word, ^'-^
dor-rje a precious stone, a jewel, also a meteorite stone ; hence, an ecclesiastical sceptre, (emblematical of the
thunderbolt, Sanscrit T5B) ; so, *,''*]!; Dor-rje-yli>ty, pronounced Dorjeling, (corrupted, by Europeans, to
Darjeeling), may be translated the place of ecclesiastical sway.
( \
Vlll )
beautiful and convenient spot, for a sanatariura, and strongly urged on Government
the importance of securing it for that purpose. The then Governor-General Lord
Bentinck, and his successor Lord Auckland, both appreciated the advantage of hold-
ing such a position in the hills, and both earnestly commended it to the attention
of the Court of Directors. The latter, in the year 1830, forwarded directions that,
on the first favourable opportunity, overtures should be made to the Sikim Ruler for
the cession of the Hill of Dorjeling. In 1834, boundary disputes having again
risen between Nepal and Sikiin, Major Lloyd, as Governor-General's Agent, was
deputed to settle affairs, and to treat for the surrender of the Hill tract of Dorjeling.
The king consented to cede the land, on condition that the territory of Debgang, (with
one or two other minor stipulations), should be granted to him in exchange. In
reply, it was represented, that as this property had already been conferred on the
Rajah of Julpai-guri, it was impossible to accede to his desire. The answer return-
ed was, simply, an unconditional present of the c6veted land. The English version
of the transfer deed, as rendered by the Government translators, being short, I here
give it verbatim.
Translation of the Deed of Grant making over Dorjeling to the East India
Company, dated 29th Magh, Sambat 1891, = A. D. February, 1835.
' The Governor-General having expressed his desire for the possession of the
' Hill of Dorjeling, on account of its cool climate, for the purpose of enabling the
' servants of his Government, suffering from sickness, to avail themselves of its ad-
' vantages, I, the King of Dre-jong* (translated Sikimputti Rajah), out of friendship
' to the said Governor-General, hereby present Dorjeling to the East India Company,
' that is, all the land south of the Great Rung-nyit (translated Rungeet) River, east
' of the Ru-shi (translated Balasun), Kalyail and Little Rung-nyit (translated Run-
' geet) Rivers, and west of the (translated) Rungusf and Mahanuddi Rivers.'
Major Lloyd was commissioned to construct roads, and to make all arrange-
ments for establishing an European settlement. Under his administration all that
was undertaken succeeded, and entire harmony existed with Sikim. In 1839,
Colonel Lloyd left Dorjeling on active military employ, and Dr. Campbell who had
previously served at Kathmandah, was temporarily appointed in his room, and
afterwards permanently confirmed as Superintendent of Dorjeling. He was vested
with extraordinary and independent judicial powers.
M> ra *-1j n 9*, pronounced, as above, Drejong (literally, the country of rice), the name given
to the country by the Tibetans, called by Gurkhas, and, hence, improperly, by Europeans Sikim.
t Meaning the Rung-nyo ; (called by Gurkhas, and now improperly, as in the above note, by Europeans,
Teestah).
Having thus given an outline of the events which preceded and led to the
occupation of the British in Sikim, we may take a glance at the people and
country, of whom, and of which, the British Government took the charge. To-
wards showing in a slight degree the characteristics of the Lepchas, and the state in
which we found them, I shall, here, make a short extract from a letter I wrote, twenty
years ago, regarding them, to a gentleman high in Government administration.
" What or whersoever might have been their original source, they here appear-
ed in the most simple, primitive state, living in the midst of the vast, wild, magnifi-
cent forests, old as the hills themselves, and, as I think, I mentioned to you, each
family residing by itself, having no villages or communities, and but little inter-
course with each other ; thus they dwelt in pretty cottages, around which they
cultivated their plot of ground, which afforded them rice, their staple food ;
grain of different sorts ; cotton, from which they spun their cloth ; seeds from which
they expressed their oil, &c. From the forests they obtained fruits of numerous
descriptions, edible and otherwise useful ; thus all their wants were supplied. They
knew no care, and but little sorrow, cheerful as the birds, and sturdy as the trees
around them, they roamed through the forests inhaling health. They understood
little about medicines and had not much use for them, sickness being almost un-
known among them, but they possess some very efficacious roots, &c., with which
I believe Europeans are still unacquainted. Their religion was particularly simple ;
they .believed in one Good Spirit, and in innumerable evil spirits ; to the former
they conceived their worship was due, and to Him they offered their prayers and
thanksgivings ; the latter they considered prowled about, and haunted every spot ;
to them they attributed whatever sickness or misfortune befell, therefore deemed it
requisite to propitiate them, which they did by offerings of rice, &c. The first
fruits of the season were always offered to the Good Spirit. I may state that the
purity of their belief was, at a period antecedent to our arrival, somewhat perverted
by the introduction from Tibet of the Buddhist religion ; it had and still has, how-
ever, but little hold on them."
Having no written, or authentic traditional records regarding their migration
into this country, I have not yet been able to discover the exact period at which
they first arrived. That they are in no way allied to any of the aboriginals of this
country, is certain, nor can I find that they have any relationship with any of the
immigrant races. They are called M6n by the Tibetans, which circumstance and
a resemblance in physical conformation, might lead to the inference that consanguini-
ty would be found to exist between them and the Mun race, the early settlers in
Pegu,* but as far as I can judge from a comparison of their languages, the races are
* In the Asiatic Society's Journal, Major General Sir A. Phayn-, K. C. S. I., C. B., writing on the
perfectly distinct. The Lepchas are naturally fair, latterly the absence of all forest
shade, and intermarriage with the Yakthuuabha,* also, lately, with the Gurkha races,
have tended in a great measure, to alter the features and complexions of many
families.
The earliest veritable information I can acquire of their history, commences from
/\f
the time of their King Turve ($\Q ^$((3 Tiir-vc pa-no), who, apparently, reigned
about 450 years ago, and about this period, they, probably, entered the country.
Midst the extensive forests which covered the entire southern face of the Hima-
layahs, and which, in Sikim, from the firs and pines and scant verbage that skirts the
eternal snows, to the dense luxuriant tropical vegetation of the vallies, were then
totally uninhabited, the homeless Lepchas found what they sought, a place of
refuge. They gave to the country the appellation of ne tyimg (/^) *^JO> literally,
a place of caves, hence, of retreat, of shelter, (so, Tib. EIW^I a place, a residence
EWM*. gnas-jHtr, to dwell, to abide) ; and caves, (some of which, in Sikim, are very
extensive), may, for a space of time, have been their chief habitations. In
this land, they settled down, cultivating the soil in peace and tranquillity.
Whatever may have been their previous circumstances, adversities and troubles,
they, here, found a haven of rest. After the death of King Turve, three successive
Lepchas, j- sons of their Royal Fathers, ruled the land. In the meantime the people
had prospered and increased. But this halcyon state was not permitted to progress,
altogether, undisturbed.
On the demise of King Tur-ayck, the throne was usurped by a Tibetan, J from
History of Pegu, remarks, with reference to the connection of the Mon with other tribes, the fact, that,
' Csorna do Koros, in his Tibetan Dictionary, defines Mon as a general name for the hill people between
Tibet and the plains of India.' The Tibetans, at Dorjeling, apply the term to the Lepchas alone, they do
not call the Nepalese, or other tribes gfjj Mon.
* This race, generally known to Europeans as the Limbti, is a peculiar one. The people are Hindus in
religion, but less bigoted than the Gurkhas. Though some of the words in their language, are allied to Lepcha,
the tongues are altogether dissimilar ; and the people are darker and very inferior to the Lepchas. Formerly
they possessed a written character of their own, which Dr. Campbell, in 1850, informed me, had long died
out, and that he had, in vain, endeavoured to find traces of it. In 1853, while in the hills, I came across a
man who possessed some books and could read and write ; from, him I acquired a knowledge . of the caligra-
phy. At Dr. Campbell's request, I gave him a copy of the Alphabet. On my return from England in
1857, 1 found in an old number of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, published during my absence,
a description and lithograph of the Alphabet, but the latter rendered upside-down and otherwise incorrect.
// rv
t Their several names were, <\<**{ ^3 (ft Tur-sdng pa-no, $\tS$ ^5 (ft Tur-ageng pa-no, and
lur-ayek pa-no.
I His name and title were, ^'^K\^'^-^ pli&n-tsliog* rnam-ryyas, (Phun-tsho Nam-gyc), and those
of his successors, (in what may be termed the Tibeto-Lepcha dynasty), were. ^'JJC'^WiW rten-stinff main-
^ :
s, (Ten-suny yam-yi/ej; JB\'*ilS\tt'tyH phyag-rdor rnam-rgi/as, (Ghak-dor
which period a new era commences. He and his successors, however, married Lep-
chas, and the language and customs of the latter were retained. But other cir-
cumstances supervened to detract from the happy state of primitiveness in which
the Lepchas lived. After the Tibetan usurpation of the throne, the Buddhists of
Tibet began to enter Sikim, and to found lamaseries therein. In these, as usual,
they stocked and reared young neophites, and thence they disseminated their doctrines.
In essaying to proselytize the people, they were not at all scrupulous as to
their mode of conversion. They collected and destroyed the manuscript books of
the Lepchas ; and translated into Lepcha parts of their own mythological works,
under the name of Tashi-sung, (History of Tashi), thus giving the pure and
unsullied name of Tashi,* (which single and invisible God, the Lepchas had
hitherto worshipped with all the simplicity and purity of children), to a foul and
fabulous incarnation, whose pretended life, they published, and this, (with the indoc-
trination of a host of other deities), they preached to the Lepchas as gospel. Jeal-
ousy and rancour, also, rose between the rulers and chiefs, which by no means added
*. /
hgyur-met rnam-ryyas, ( Gyur-met Nam-gye); ^af|j<v ig,3j' J,E]<V rHam-rgyaspMn-tshogs, (Nam-gye Phun-tsho) ;
^ii'Q'pV*i*r|; i V Men-Mson rnam-rgyas, (Ten-son Nam-gye. It was in this king's reign that the lama-
sery at Dorjeling was built, he afterwards died at Lhasa) ; E^^'SY^f 'f)<V gtnug-plutt rnam-yyas, (Tsuk-
phut Nam-gye); and the 8th and present ruler, *JV|f /c; 'Sr c 13' i W s >'i^- s ^l/ on ff sku-gzhogs, (Sit-kyong Ku-
zho), His Majesty, the defender of the realm. Since writing the above I have heard of the death of this
king. Lately he had been acting with considerable independence the Lamas were, consequently, much
dissatisfied with him.
* His title is S^j $^(0 * )J ^- a ~ s ^ Tuk-bo Tiling, compounded of ^ ta, a prefixed particle,
here forming a substantive ; \ sM, to see ; this is also often, especially since the ingress of Tibetans
pronounced she, from 6, she, (Tib. jqsj'i^x s ^ es ~P ar ), to know; synonymous with, to see; \ J" shire,
A, / ^ *+
the sight, seire to know, to ken, (compare, Goth, kann, Tib. |gaj Lep. ^fy Khyen, to know, also Lep.
/to, to comprehend, to be cunning ; (whence also, English can, Lep. (J\ khu to be able, (. knit to
cause] ; Lith. zi-noti, Dutch zee, Tib. E[^K[^"HJ^ ffzigs-par, (si-par), Lep. ^\ zu, to see, to perceive, to know
i J
by seeing, &c.) ; tuk-bo, the agentive of ^\ Ink, to overspread, (compare, Heb. HD Arab. <3u= a covering, a cupola
&c.) ; and X Jo thing, a lord, (radically implying, an exalted flow from the First Cause, (see also, lord, in Powers
of Letters), relatively, being a reduced participial form of Mo thi, to reach, to arrive at, whence co-relatively
we have Sax. thincg,ihe thing emphatically, serving (\f( tclc-lian), progressing, from lowest to highest, the
thane ; the thoht, having its seat in JcJ;( tJiyak, the head, (hence thydk, also signifies, to know, (J^ thyo,
i /%/
to hear, to know, to know by hearing), leading to the (Jo thok, the highest point; the Jo( thdr, the goal,
the 1N.TI working ol1 to the SCIVOTOS, orto 0eo. See Th, in Powers of Letters). Hence, Ta-shi Tuk-lo Thing
Bes, the All-seeing, Omniscient and Omnipresent Lord.
to their tranquillity ; these fomented, and excited their passions, till, in 1825, these
latter burst forth with violence. The then ruler, Tsuk-phut Nam-gye, suspecting, with
reason or otherwise, his chief minister, a Lepcha, by name Ra-thup, of conspiring
with the Gurkhas to dethrone him, made a sudden onslaught and slew several of his
relatives. The Chief himself, with his adherents, succeeded in escaping to Ilain, a
district on the Eastern frontier of Nepal, where their descendants still form a set-
tlement.
All this, however, chiefly effected the Bar-fang-mo,* and the few chiefs about
the court ; it made little impression on the mass of the people, these still followed
their own habits and customs, still lived untrammelled in the vast forests, they yet
had their priests the bards; and the squabbles of the court, and the teachings of the
Buddhists were of little import. The advent of the Europeans was the first real blow
the Lepchas received ; their downfall quickly followed. Dr. Campbell, on obtaining
the government, used his influence to induce every foreign tribe, and people,
to come and settle in the country to the great detriment of the Lepchas. The
Gurkhas, whom the British had such trouble in expelling from the territory,
were particularly encouraged ; they, the Murmis,f and innumerable other tribes
flocked into the land, they settled whither they willed, they burned down the
forests, the country became filled with them. To avoid the odious association of
the Gurkhas, who were ever their enemies, and whose habits and customs, with their
narrow-minded cold-blooded dispositions, degrading and baneful caste prejudices
were totally at variance with the open warm-hearted spirits, and overflowing gener-
ous character of the Lepchas, J the latter fled from place to place, cultivation became
neglected, want and misery ensued. Ground-rent, in specie, was also demanded ; how
was this to be paid by those, who, until Europeans arrived, had never seen money,
never known what it was. Their happy and peaceful homes, (homes, which were most
hospitably and disinterestedly thrown open to all comers), were lost to them for ever.
Broken-hearted, many of the elders died. The younger resorted to the station of
Dorjeling, there, as the state of affairs was, their destruction became a matter of
certainty. They arrived artless innocent children, all they saw and heard was new
* The Lepchas observe two chief degrees of rank, (each of which has its own gradations), viz., the
IV .,* S3
(jU53"vo lar-fvng-mo; and the <\(^* a-den, (the power of letters implying, 'the flowing from on
*^
High;' and 'the created, fashioned, formed'), the aristocracy, and commoners; the patricians, and plebeians.
t The Mi'irmi, a low tribe inhabiting Eastern Nepal. They have a dialect of their own, and profess a
religion between Buddhism and Hinduism ; they are held in small esteem, both by the Buddhists of Tibet and
by the Hindus of Nepal; they bear a dreadful name of being murderers, they themselves hav<' a saying,
' before we steal we kill.'
J One ol ilicir many amiable traits, and one which I never found wanting, even in children, was, that
they never received anything without sharing it with a companion.
( \
xm )
to them, ignorant of the Hindustani language, here introduced, totally inexperienced,
unsuspecting, trusting, they at once fell a prey to the designing. Bereft of the few
articles they had brought with them, starvation stared them in the face. To obtain
food they were forced to perform work from which their spirit recoiled ; they were
reduced to become bearers of burdens, to take to working on the roads. They were
in manners and customs and in true civilization immeasurably superior to any of the
surrounding tribes, to the Gurkhas, or to the natives of the plains. The two latter
were set over them as task-masters. The Lepchas, the free sons of the forests, the
hearty yeoman of the land, the lords of the soil, became the servants of servants, the
very slaves of slaves. The lot of those who fell into household employment was
no better. Few good natives of the plains at this time ever ventured to Dorjeling ;
it was notorious as a place of refuge for the out-pouring of jails, as a resort of all the
most profligate and abandoned. These became the masters and teachers of the
Lepchas. With such tuition, is it surprising that the latter should have become learned
in all duplicity and every vice ? The women also, naturally exceedingly gentle and
modest, became^he victims of the licentious : the fall of the Lepchas was complete.
Other causes were, also, tending to the destruction of the Lepcha nationality.
The Lepcha language which had, hitherto, been the language of the whole country of
Sikim, which all Tibetans, Butias,* or others who entered the country acquired and
* All the Tibetan settlers, south of the Himalayahs from Ladak eastward, are denominated by Europeans,
\s
Butias, (derived from the Tibetan word ^^ Soil, the true name of Tibet). They are called by the Tibetans,
?J*W Lho-pa, southerners or southmen. There is a large settlement of them in the hills east of Sikim, the
country is called by Europeans, Butan. It is named by Lepchas <3)j Pru, (derived from Q^^'^f Jilruy-pa
a schismatic sect of the Buddhists, to which the Butias belong), and the settlers are designated <5( J~"( a-rat.
They are physically large and powerfully built, much more so than their progenitors the Tibetans, but in mental
qualities they have proportionately degenerated ; neither the people nor the Government have improved by time.
The first connection the Indian Government had with Butan, was in 1772, when Kuch ISobar being overrun
and devastated by the Butias, the Nazah Deo appealed to the British for protection. Troops consisting only of
two companies of Sipahis and two pieces of cannon, under command of a Captain Jones, was despatched. This
small force without any difficulty took the chief town of Kuch Behar then occupied by the Butias, reduced the
forts of Daling, &c., and clearing all before them, drove the Butias into their fastnesses. (This offers a grave
contrast with the management of later days, as exemplified when troops \\viv sent to cut"!- Sikim in the end of
1848, and in the expensive Butan campaign of 1805-66). The Butias applied to Tibet for assistance ; th . -
Tashi Lama forwarded a solicitation for peace, expressed in language so modest and superior, so free from the
obsequiousness or bombast peculiar to Oriental despatches, as immediately to attract the attention of W.
Hastings ; a treaty very favourable to Butan was drawn up and r the Governor-General in Council
on the 25th April, 177 1. By the first clause, all the lands, that belonged to the Butias before their a_n;ivs-
sions on Kuch Behar, were restored to them. On the following mouth Mr. George li.igle was de-;p:it.-!ieil on
a frii.-ndlv mission to the Tashi Lama, (who was at that time, also, Regent of Tibet). He without dilKculty
CN V
reached Tashi lhun-po, (^N'^W Q 9 !'^ McrM-sMt l!iun-j)o, corrupted by Europeans to Tashoo Loomboo),
spoke, in which under the rule of Colonel Lloyd, business was carried on, and justice
in the English Courts administered, in the character of which, decrees and documents
were written and recorded ; this language was completely set aside, and Hindustani
was made the chief language in Dorjeling. The Tibetans and the Biitias of Biitan were
patronized, to them were given the appointments in the administration of the coun-
try, and they were made the advisers and counsellors of the State ; their influx into
Sikim increased. This was playing into the hands of the crafty priests, who already
held the king in their thraldom ; their power and authority augmented. Oppressed
and crushed on all sides, the Lepcha race and language came to be considered
unfashionable. Many of the Lepchas intermarried with Butias, and, repudiating
their own race, denominated themselves Butias.* The Tibetan language became the
medium of communication between the Sikim and Dorjeling Governments. Dr.
Campbell was, and his successors in the administration of Dorjeling, also, have all
been, quite unacquainted witli the Tibetan or Lepcha languages. Who then were
the secretaries who wrote, and the interpreters who translated the correspondence ?
In Sikim communications were written by the authority of the Tibetan conclave that
surrounded the king, and in Dorjeling they were translated and answers sent by the
the cumulation of glory. He met with the most cordial reception from the Lama, and resided with him
for nearly a year, experiencing unremitting attention and friendliness. Before Mr. Bogle's return, the
Tashi Lama was exerting his influence for opening an unrestricted commerce between India and Tibet,
He afterwards, and unfortunately before this important project had been secured, died of small-pox at
Piking, where he had gone at the earnest request of the Emperor Kyen Lung to assist in the cele-
bration on the occasion of his, (the Emperor's,) birth-day. As being the most enlightened ruler that pro-
bably Butan or Tibet ever possessed, his title of SZm'^^fil\- dbang sM-zlioys, the Lord of Power,
deserves to be recorded. Since his death the country has by no means improved.' Other missions have pro-
ceeded to Biitan ; Capt. Turner's in 1783, Capt. Pemberton's in 1838, and the Hon'ble Ashley Eden's in
1863-64, none receiving the friendly reception accorded to Mr. Bogle, but each encountering increased diffi-
culties. Their reports have been published and may be referred to by those interested in the subject. The
occurrences of the Butan campaign of 1865-06, &c., must be known to those who review the events of the pass-
in"' day. But all these political acquisitions and military advances have in no ways tended to improve Butan.
In 1786, the Musalman Puringir Ghosain, who was the bearer of the letter from the Tashi Lama to Warren
Hastings, and who afterwards accompanied Capt. Turner in his mission, deposed, that many merchants from
Bengal had succeeded in reaching Tashi Lhunpo, and that there was no scarcity of English goods there in the
market. Though many Butias are, individually, very amiable, still he would be a rash trader who would
now (in 1874) venture, unprotected, to enter Butan.
The language of Butan is a corrupt Tibetan ; at least according to the pronunciation of the modern
Tibetan tongue. It has no separate written character, so in reading the Butias pronounce the same word quite
differently than when talking ; thus, lya, a bird, would in (speaking be pronounced, pya, but when reading
they give it the Tibetan pronunciation of clia.
* These are the people whom Europeans designate as the naturalized Butias of Sikim.
( xv )
official Tibetans and Butias, mere accomplices and creatures of the Sikim usurpers ;
or what was worse, by Lepcha apostates, traitors to their king and country, betray-
ers of their people, very Judases in spirit, worthy disciples of their Biitia and
Hindustani teachers.* Such was the sole medium of communication with Sikim. Into
the hands of these people were submitted for translation all the views, edicts and
wishes of the British Government. Even had these interpreters been willing, they
were quite incapable of performing the duties required. Possessed of the slightest
smattering of Hindustani, from, and into which language they were expected to
translate all communications, it was impossible they could translate correctly. Nor
if capable, would they have presumed to have forwarded to the Sikim authorities
a literal version of any documents offensive to them, directly authoritative, or in
which censure was conveyed. At all events the Tibetan documents have been
sealed books to the representatives of the British Government at Dorjeling. Under
such a system how could it be hoped that administration could be satisfactorily con-
ducted.
In 1849, Dr. Campbell, proceeding into Sikim, (to join Dr. Hooker, who was
then making a tour in that country), was seized by the Butias and severely
maltreated, nearly losing his life. He attributed this assault to revenge for his
having refused to return to the owners, the slavesf who had fled from Sikim to
the British territory of Dorjeling. Slaves of whom ? Of the Butias who attacked
him, of those whose settlement and influence in the country had been promoted
* This may appear an unnecessary effusion of epithets, but, if sentiments are to be expressed by words,
the language will not bo considered too strong when it is known, that, on expostulating with one of these per-
sons, (a Lepcha interpreter of the Court, the only interpreter of Lepcha, a man who can neither read nor write,
selected for this important and responsible employment, by the Superintendent of Dorjeling), for not endea-
vouring to support and preserve his own language and people, I was told by him, that his language and people
might go to perdition as long as he gained money. It may be truly said, that the man was ignorant, and his
words beneath notice ; but he should not therefore have been placed in the position he was, and in which he
is still retained.
t Two of Dr. C.'s (and I believe the sole) remarks condemnatory of the Lepchas were, that thev
had slaves, and that they did not speak the truth. Itegarding the first, the Lepchas, certainly
possessed people of their own race employed as /\J vyet, slaves or servants, and so have had all people, in all
Degree exists amongst all animate beings, inanimate matter finds its level. Our great dramatic
poet makes Agamemnon say, ' Take but degree away, remove that string, and hark what discord follows :'
we are, also, told in Scripture, that degree finds its order in Heaven. It is not the use, but the abuse of
slaves, as exempli lied in their treatment by the Eomans and in America, &c., that has brought odium on the
name. The Lepchas put themselves into voluntary bondage for a period, (as did the Patriarchs.) serving for
their wives. The friendless, t he orphans, the needy and helpless found shelter, food, and comfort in the houses
of the more prosperous ; there were no poor in the land. The so-called slaves of the Lepchas were far more
by the encouragement given, and by the policy pursued by Dr. Campbell himself?
To avenge the outrage committed, troops were sent to Dorjeling, but they never
entered Sikim. Government contented itself by confiscating the whole of the
Sikim territories south of the Rumani and west of the Rungnyit rivers, and by
stopping the annual allowance of Rs. 6,000, which was granted to the king, (3,000,
in 1841, and an additional 3,000, in 1846), as a slight compensation for his cession
of the territory in 1835.
For years after this, the entrance of travellers into Sikim was closed by the
Sikim Government. In 1860, Dr. Campbell, having reported to Government, a
case of kidnapping, and violence, committed by the Butias, recommended part of the
territories north of the river Rurnam to be taken possession of, until such time as the
offenders should be given up by the Sikim Government. With the object of carrying
this into effect, Dr. C. with a detachment of Sebundy Sappers and Miners, and a 61t>.
gun, crossed the Ruinam. The Butias, however, mustered a force and overpower-
ing the Sappers, who ran short of ammunition, obliged them to retreat. They
followed up their success, burning some police stations in British territory, and
even threatened Dorjeling. A force (consisting of a detachment of Royal Artillery
with 3 guns ; wings of H. M. 6th foot ; 73rd N. I. ; and 3rd Sikh Infantry ; also de-
tachments of the 1st, Bat. Bengal Police, and of the Sebundy Sappers and Miners),
free than the dependents or the mercenary hirelings of civilized countries ; they were treated in every respect
as one of the family, they and their masters worked, eat, and in all things shared alike, I never knew or
heard of any of these servitors who ever wished to leave their homes. The fate of the slaves of the more
imperious Butias (though I never witnessed any maltreatment), may perhaps have been different. But the
novelty and vanities of Dorjeling were the true causes of their Might thither. What protection, however, did
such Lepchas, who were supposed to seek refuge in Dorjeling, receive. Being initiated into the use of money,
taught to consider it the one thing needful, and finding it the only means of obtaining food, both masters and
dependents became slaves to one of the most exacting and oppressive of tyrants. Upon them were heaped
all the artificial wants, all the load of necessities and miseries emanating from a pseudo state of civilization.
They were taken from their calm flow of existence and plunged into a troubled sea of passions, in which,
before the eyes of heedless spectators, they have been allowed to sink and perish.
As to Dr. Campbell's second cause of censure, I can affirm I ever found the Lepchas most honest and
truthful. I do not speak for the veracity of those who were taught, and whose characters were moulded, in
Dorjeling, but of the Lepchas in their simple state. I would refer and recommend to the readers of this,
Hooker's most interesting journal in Sikirn. In it the learned Doctor enters with quite enthusiasm, into the
gentle honest character of the Lepchas. Speaking of them, he says, " In disposition they are amiable and
obliging, frank, humorous and polite, without the servility of the Hindoos, and their address is free and un-
constrained. Their intercourse with one another and with Europeans is scrupulously honest." ****#** " A
more interesting and attractive companion than the Lepcha I never lived with." ******* "Ever foremost
m the forest or in the bleak mountain, and ever ready to help to carry, to encamp, to collect, or to cook, they
cheer on the trau'lK-r by their unostentatious zeal, and are spurs to his progress." &c. General Lloyd and
all who formerly knew the Lepchas ever spoke of them with the highest esteem. The Hon'ble Ashley Eden,
who as Knu'v accompanied the force, in 1801, to Tamlung. in an able report does justice to the probity and
integrity of the Lepcha character.
( xvii )
was speedily assembled. This force entered Sikim, on the 2nd February, 18(51, and
without opposition, (except a slight skirmish on crossing the Rung-nyit, in which, on
our side, only one man was killed and two men wounded,) arrived, in March, at
Taip,-lung, the capital of Sikim. All that was demanded was acceded to, a treaty,
containing- 23 articles, being signed by the king. The causers of all this disturbance,
(the kidnappers,) however were never surrendered ; they had, or were said to have
escaped into Pru (Bdtan). The British Government has again conferred on the
Sikim Ruler an annual and larger allowance, to be enjoyed as long as order is
maintained in his dominions. Since then the country has become more tranquil
and, as far as the snows (but no farther), is again thrown open to visitors. Sikim,
however, is fast deteriorating. The influx of the Butians has increased, and the
power of the Budhists has become firmly established ; the Gurkhas have also com-
menced to settle in it, and the grandest and most glorious scenery in the world is
becoming completely destroyed.* With the destruction of the forests in Sikim, the
charm of the country will pass away, the climate will change, f and unless speedy
* Utterly reckless, for the sake of a small space of ground for cultivation, they set fire to, and burn
down all the surrounding forests.
f I cannot, here, refrain from quoting a passage from Hue and Gabet's Travels in Tartary, &c.,
as the description so exactly coincides with what Dorjeling was, and with what it is becoming ; though it
is to be hoped it will never be reduced to the exceeding calamitous state represented in the sketch.
Keferring to a district in the kingdom of Onniot, Hue says,
"Towards the middle of the 17th century, the Chinese began to penetrate into the district. At that
" period it was still one of rude grandeur ; the mountains were covered with tine forests, and the Mongol
" tents whitened the valleys, amid rich pasturages. For a vei-v mo lei-ate sum the Chinese obtained per-
" mission to cultivate the desert, and as cultivation advanced the Mongols were obliged to retreat, conducting
" their flocks and herds elsewhere.
" From that time forth the aspect of the country became enthvly changed. All the trees were grubbed
" up, the forests disappeared from the hills, the prairies were cleared bv means of lire, and the new culti.
" set busily to work in exhausting the fecundity of the soil. Almost the entire region is now in the hands
"of the Chinese, and it is probably to their system of devastation that we must attribute the extreme invgu-
" larity of the seasons which now desolate this unhappy land. Droughts are of almost annual oceun
" the spring winds setting in dry up the soil, ******. Next after these hurricanes conies the
" rain ; but so comes, that instead of being an object of desire, it is an object of dread, for it pours down
" in furious raging torrents. * * * * The torrent rushes on and in a few hours the earth reap;
" but the crops are gone, and worse even than that, the arable soil alao has gone with them. * * * * *
"The droughts and the inundations together sometimes occasion famines which well-niiih exterminate the
" inhabitants. That of 1S32 in the twelfth year of the reign of Tao-Kout'mtj, is the most terrible of these
"on record." After relating the apprehensions and forebodings of the people; he continues, " The fearful
" prognostic that had been so often repeated became accomplished. Thousands died upon the hills, * * *
" whole villages were depopulated * * *. It was in this dismal region that we awaited, Ao."
No one, who knew Dorjeling as it was, and who can comtemplate it as it is, on reading the above
narration, would fail to be most painfully impressed with the similarity in the state of the two countries.
( \
XV111 )
measures be taken to prevent it, the Lepchas will pine, and in time cease to exist.
Much more might be said, but enough has been represented to account for the
deplorable fall of the Lepchaa.
Of the language I cannot speak too highly. The simple and primitive state in
Not content with the numerous tribes that had flocked into the land and ruined the Lepchas, Govern-
ment, at the instance of Dr. C. issued an enactment whereby, the forest lands of Dorjeling were to be
conferred on all who might apply for them. The terms were most inviting, five years free, and afterwards
the lands to be retained on nominal rental ;- adventurers of all sorts, rich and poor cropped ip, who with
avidity accepted the terms, and seized on the lands. Tea-planting was introduced, the demand for land
gradually increasing, till tea-planting became a passion, a mania, which infectrd all classes. Wealthy
companies were formed, lands exchanged hands at exorbitant prices, the money not flowing into the Govern-
ment coffers, but enriching the speculators, who retired with large fortunes. The few forests, spared bv the
Gurkhas, &c., speedily disappeared. The effect on the Lepchas was most disastrous. The residents and
planters are also beginning to feel the results. In Dorjeling wood, for fuel and domestic purposes, can,
now, hardly be obtained, whence are planters to procure it to supply the large consumption necessary to
feed their furnaces, &c. ? The heavy tropical rains wash from the slopes of the hills the arable soil, unless
surrounding woods are left standing, where is fresh mould to come from ? The Dorjeling hills are already
becoming comparatively unproductive. Formerly Dorjeling was noted for the excellency of it's vegetable
productions, now those produced are very inferior. The forests being cleared, the land absorbs the hot
rays of the sun, rendering the soil arid. Snow, which used to be abundant at Dorjeling, now scarcely
ever falls. The salubrity of the climate, as a matter of course, has become much impaired. Besides
the ailments thereby induced, the country has been, also, subjected to the introduction of numerous maladies
consequent on an artificial and gregarious mode of existence. Even the common Asiatic disease of cholera,
was formerly unknown to the Lepchas. In 1872 the workmen on the gardens of the planters were nearly
decimated by it. The cattle disease, with which the Lepchas were also unacquainted, has likewise several
times made its appearance, brought up by the bullocks from the plains, almost exterminating the fine cattle
of the hills.
I cannot close this subject without saying a word, the result of my experience, in favour of trees, the
adornment of the earth, which occupies the rank, in the vegetable world, that man inherits in the animal
kingdom, which it is now the custom of Dendrophobists everywhere to fell. In damp and confined places,
where decomposition of vegetable matter, water, and earth abounds, giving rise to carbonic acid, and other
deleterious gases, more than the living vegetation can absorb, malaria will be generated. Sufficient living
vegetation, especially high trees, will inhale these gases, exhaling, in their room, particularly in the day, life-
giving oxygen. In the hills, where the forests are so thick as to be impervious to the penetrating rays of a
tropical sun, malarious fevers are unknown. Even Dr. Campbell, no friend of trees or forests, in a pub-
lished account of a journey in the hills, says, (I speak from memory, not having seen the article since it
was first published, upwards of 20 years ago,) that he was encamped in the forests where the effluvia
arising from decayed and rank vegetation were so excessive as to be suffocating, still, though very subject
to fever, he never experienced the slightest attack.
Sikim, after the Nepalese had been driven out, ought to have been restored to it's original and rightful
owners, the Lepchas. Their sway, and natural innocence and purity ought to have been beneficently upheld.
The magnificent forests of Magnolias, Rhododendrons, and rare and invaluable trees ought to have been
( xix )
which the Lepclms lived is admirably shown by it. It has no primary words
(beyond the words for gold and silver) to express money, merchants or merchan-
dise, fairs or markets. Their peaceful and gentle character is evinced by their
numerous terms of tenderness and compassion, and by the fact that not one word
of abuse exists in their language. Nevertheless the language itself is most copious,
abounding in synonyms and possessing words to express every slightest change,
every varying shade of meaning, it admits of a flow and power of speech which
i.s wonderful, and which renders it capable of giving expression to the highest
degree of eloquence. The language also attests the astonishing knowledge pos-
sessed by the Lepchas. I shall here again make an extract from the letter before
quoted : " Of all the almost inconceivable diversity of trees with which the hills
are covered ; of all the almost incalculable variety of plants and flowers with whicli
the forests are filled ; the Lepchas can tell you the names of all, they can distinguish
at a glance the difference in the species of each genus of plants, which would
require the skill of a practised botanist to perceive ; and this information and
nomenclature extends to beasts, to birds, to insects, and to everything around them,
animate and inanimate ; without instruction, they seem to acquire their knowledge
by intuition alone. The trees and the flowers, and the birds, and the insects have
heretofore been their friends and companions. But now, this simple knowledge, this
beautiful language, this once happy people are fast dying out. The Lepchas have
left their woods and innocence and have fallen into sin and misery, and is there no
one that will help them, no one that will save ?"
It is impossible that a people, with a language so comprehensive; with manners,
though primitive, so superior, as to entitle them to rank high among civilized
nations, could be engendered amidst the wilds and fastnesses of the Himalayahs.
They retain, in so marked a degree, all the simple ways and habits of the patriarchs
of old, as to lead to the conclusion, that they must have remained isolated ever since
most carefully guarded. For they, with mountains, compared with whose high altitude the Alps shrink into
insignificance, on whose lofty summits, towering above in everlasting snow, no human foot may ever tread,
their dazzling whiteness and unapproachable exaltation, sublimely representing the purity and power of
the Omnipotent, all formed a scene unrivalled in grandeur ; a scene, which a traveller, who had visited all
parts of the world, on arriving at Dorjeling and viewing, in rapture exclaimed, in the words of Simeon of
old, ' Now, let me die in peace, for I have seen the Glory of the Lord.' Dorjeling, in truth, was a very
garden of Eden, a spot which God had blessed with transcendent loveliness, and as such ought to
hiivr been most religiously preserved from the desecrating hand of man. It was a special spot, where the
care-worn, and those weary with the hollowness and vanities of the world might have turned to, and returned
refreshed and invigorated, ennobled, for the true duties of life ; a spot, on beholding whicli, the haughty and
tliscon tented alike, would have comprehended their own littleness and unworthiiiess, and would have bowed
down in homage to, and adoration of, the Almighty Creator.
such customs were in vogue.* The type of their features indicates, that be-
fore settling in the Himalayahs, they had probably, resided in Mongolia or Man-
churia, and in, or near one of these countries, the body of the people might still be
found. f The language is a monosyllabic one, (though not altogether an isolating
one, as it possess in a degree as all languages however primitive do an aggluti-
native structure), and is unquestionably far anterior to the Hebrew or Sanskrit. It
is preeminently an Ursprac/te, being probably, and I think, I may, without fear of
misrepresentation, state it to be, the oldest language extant. It is a most com-
prehensive and beautiful one ; and regarded alone, as a prolific source of the de-
rivations and etyina of words, it is invaluable to the philological world. It however
recommends itself to us on higher grounds ; it possesses and plainly evinces the
principle and motive on which all language is constructed. J But, like everything
really good in this world, it has been despised and rejected. To allow the Lepcha
race, and language to die out would indeed be most barbarous, and inexpressibly
sad.
* It may be noted, that the Lepchas, have legends, in common with divers other primitive races,
(which merit notice, as testifying to the truth of Sa.-ivd History), regarding the flood and the Tower of Babel.
The legends were, without doubt, brought with them from beyond the snows, but they have connected the
/ _
incidents with their present place of residence. There is a hill, visible from Dorjeling, (\ <(T"" tun-rony),
which, as the tale hath it, when all the country was under water, arose and supported a ship containing a
few persons, all other people being drowned. The hill rose up like a horn, (hence its name. &fa(T~~
a-r6ng, a horn), and afterwards subsided to its present form. It is known to Europeans as the Camel's
hack. On the top of the lofty t/**/N NM (X g ""3~I' ^> '* ^ s sa ^> a foolish class of Lepchas
(the /"} 4(3? na-onff), now extinct, endeavoured to raise a building high enough to reach the heavens.
Hock and blocks of stones, as the ruins, are shown on the place.
f The primitive Lepcha, probably, more comprehensive than we even at present find it, was in all likeli-
hood, at an early period, the one, sole spoken language; and though both the people and language have long
since been converted into different races and tongues; yet as we have found in the Sikim territory, one part
of the race still intact, it is reasonable to suppose we may elsewhere discover another portion. The Altaic
and Tungusiaii ranges, or even some of the yet unexplored districts of the Ilima!a\alis otter a not unhopeful
field of inquiry. There is in the Himalayahs, near Ladak, a tribe denominated Lapchas. Some years airo,
when travelling through the latter country, I passed near the district in which they are settled. 1 had not
time, however, to change my course, and 1 have not yet been able to obtain any information regarding the
people or their language, to enable me to make a comparison between them and the Lepchas of Dorjelini;.
J In the structure of the Lepcha language, I have discovered the system on which, I consider, all language
is based. By an exegesis which I have, in part, prepared, (combined with a diagram showing the rudimental
powers of letters), the roots and true significations of all words in all languages, are, at once, ren
apparent, liefcrcnce to this subject has several times been made in these pages, under the title of ' Powers of
Letters.' I have not been able to complete the svsleni, (us I wished) to accompany this Grammar, but
(as I remark with regard to the Dictionary), should circumstances permit, it shall follow.
( xxi )
By the favour of the British Government in India, the writer has been enabled
to present to the public a short Grammar of this language. (Should his health and
circumstances permit, a Dictionary will follow.) The Grammar itself is simply
written to assist the learner; it does not challenge the strictures of the critic; its
mission is alone, to be useful, and should it conduce to the employment of a language
and the amelioration of a people, both of which have been too long neglected, its
object will be fully gained.
Calcutta, 1875.
INDEX.
Page
Preface and Introductory Remarks, y xxi
Summary of the Alphabet, , t . . . . 1
The Consonants, 2
Vowels, 3
Finals, 3 4
Sign Kya, , 4
Era, 5
Ran, > ib.
Powers of the Letters, 6 11
Syllabic Scheme Monosyllables, 12 18
Dissyllables, 18 21
Trisyllables, 21
Summary of the Parts of Speech, c 22
Of the Articles, 23
Nouns ; 24
Gender, 2427
Numbers, , 2728
Declension of Nouns, : 2830
Adjectives, * 30 32
Degrees of Comparison, < 32 33
Pronouns Personal, '... 33 35
Possessive, 35 36
Reciprocal, 36 38
Emphatic Possessive, &e., ..../..... 39 42
Relative and Interrogative, 4243
Demonstrative 43
Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbial, 44
Distributive, Indefinite and Compound, ,-j.
( xxiv )
Page
Of Verbs Remarks on Tenses, 44 51
Verbal Particles, 5152
Substantive Verbs, 52 53
Conjugation, 53 65
Parts of Speech
Of Adverbs 6678
Postpositions, 78 85
Conjunctions, 85 89
Interjections, 8990
Verbal Affixes and diverse Formatives 91 95
Abstract Nouns, &c., 95 97
The Agentive, &c., 97102
Nouns of Magnitude, Diminutiveness, &c., , 102 105
Comparative Similitude, &o., 105 106
Negation, verbal formatives, 106 107
Negative Agentive, &c., 107 108
Adverbs of Negation 108110
Negative (Tibetan), , 110
Negative Imperative, ., ib.
Inflection, 110114
Numeration, Cardinal Numbers, k 115 117
The Ordinals, 117118
Multiplicative, Collective terms t J.
Syntax 1 19 130
Figurative Language, 130132
Honorific Language, 133 136
Expletives, 136137
The call to Animals ; and Infantine Language, 138
Prosody, 138139
Division of Time, 140141
Colloquial Sentences, 141 145
ERRATA.
Page x, line 9, from top, for verbage read herbage.
xvi, ,, 2, from bottom, for Tamlung, read Tamldng.
o <
6, 14, from top, for -^ read ^.
8 > )> 14, for ^ read F ; for (^ read
/9
8, ,, 7, from bottom, for ( read
9, ,, 2, from top, for ^^ read
14, for % read %.
~\
/9 /9
,, 16, for Y read f .
3, from bottom, for fowl, read cow.
2,
11, 3, from top, for I dra b dra, read hdra hdra.
for T((T read
16, 14, /or krah reaJ krak.
;> 23, 9, for ^3 ^arf ^\ ; for shu read shu.
24, ,, 2, from bottom, for \f read $\f (3\.
29, 12, from top, for jty read
29, 2, from bottom, for $fa/ read
35, " 18, from top, for tfQ read
( xxvi )
Page 38, line 13, from top, ^ is upside down.
,, 41, ,, 1, for le. Let read le, let.
,, 2, from bottom, for ^< read
,, 50, 6, from top, for ^C nyet read "$i nyat.
,, 50, ,, 7, ,, for IJkL nyet read <L nyat ; (twice).
52, ,, 3, from bottom, for (fo read
4 / ^*
57, 8, from top, for read .
63, 8, from bottom, for ft read /^
64, 4, for fi read
<
74, ,, 8, from top, for \ (tr ^ read
,, 75, ,, 9, from bottom, for ^(^ *? read
s.
,, 76, 3, from top, for ^Q read
>j j >? *? jj /"^ ^( /
A <<
78, 3, from bottom, for tense read sense.
H
81, 5, from top, erase *~ over Q[ (%.
84, 6, ,, erase ^ over bun.
84, 5, from bottom, for m t, read mat.
95, 14, from top, for }1\) ^(read $ty ^(; for
,, 99, ' 5, for man read man ; (twice).
,, 100, ,, 3, from bottom, for (^J read (^$.
,, 106, ,, 7, from top, for 3f> c/icn read z$ chan, for ^ read
t
,, 106, ,, 11, ,, for (^ clihoTc read (^, chko.
106, 5, from bottom, for ni read in.
( xxvii )
Page 109, line 14, from top, for Zfaf read
111, 14, ,, for Noun, read Noun, &c.
& &
114, 6, for C read (5^.
120, 8, from bottom, for fo( Q fa read
,, 128, ,, 4, ,, for tf\-(fa>\}o $ hu ka sa-thisaJc, read
\f\ .( jj( ^ ( [6*5?-tf ] ^ w *<* #<* m * (sa-thi saJc).
,, 129, ,, 7, ,, ybr succeeded raze? succeeded.
,, 133, 2, from top, /or ((^/ rmc? ^ (/U/.
<* A,
140, 13, for a week, read a week,).
** There are other minor typographical errors, which I have not considered it necessary to insert in the errata ;
as, page 7, lines 7, 8, 22, a should be affixed to Ch, Chh, and Tsh; page 119, last line, a comma should be after
Sakon. While the pages were passing through the Press, many errors occurred, a number of which were, through
unavoidable circumstances, overlooked.
A
GRAMMAR
OF THE
RO'NG (LEPCHA) LANGUAGE.
PART I.
THE ALPHABET, ((& T KAKHO RE.
The Rdng (Lepclia) Alphabet may be divided into two parts, vis., Letters
and Diacritical Marks, which latter include vowel, final, and other affixed signs.
These may be comprised, as follows :
Consonants, ................................................ 35
Vowels, ...................................................... 8
Finals, ...................................................... 9
Kya and Kra, (affixed y and r} ........................ 2
/*-
Ran (Circumflex sign), ................................. 1,
Total, 55
The Consonants 2((^> orno, literally mother, chief, or large (letters), with their
equivalents in Roman characters, are thus written.
THE CONSONANTS.
dmo re, 35.
Kh G Ng
(S (A >
Ch Clih J Ny
-0
T Th D N
S } ^ ft
P Ph F B M
^ & & =5
Ts Tsh Z Y
a
R L H
r co tf
S Sh W
**' ^
Kl Gl PI Fl
T5T" /% f _" i\0
Bl Ml HI
W 3F X
* All these consonants have the sound of the inherent short a affixed to them.
DIACRITICAL MARKS,
called in Lepcha }o( 5(V thambyn, (implying the vowel and final signs ,
dkup sa fhambyin kakyak gum,
the Vowel Signs are seven in number, viz. :
( 5 ( c 3 3
These are united to ^ a, the basis of all the vowels, as follows
2nd. THE EIGHT VOWELS.
*
A
i J
xc Sx ex
The vowel signs are similarly affixed to all the consonants.
1. THE NINE FINALS.
^ (0 6" ^(jOkJ (*v ((*) T" 2^ sa thambyn kakyot (9) re,
the Final Signs are nine in number, and are thus formed,
* This name X(*r\ <$p, lit. child or small (letters), was formerly applied by the Lepchas exclusively
to the Finals.
t This short a is inherent after all the consonants. The sound is effected by a simple (unaspirated)
ejaculation of the breath.
( 4 )
Uniting these with 3 a, the basis of all the vowels, they, with their several
names and pronunciations, stand thus
Finals. Names. Powers.
X ak ^ ( la kat k
M
am ^ 5^ la nyat m
A
2 al Q$ i*i( la sam 1
/*> /O
X an /3^ nun n
ab or ap Q \ ba kup b or p*
dar r
kat t
kang ng
nyindo ang
.OF THE SIGNS (>(5(V thdmlyin),
and
Like the Tibetan ('fl'znisiN ya-btags and X'qiiEi<v ra-btags), the Lepcha lano-ua^e
possesses an affixed y and r, thus
\)-6> Kya
is affixed to the following twenty-three letters :
Kya (j# Khya (^\j Gya ^V Tya }oy Thya
Dya ^JV Pya J5l Phya gy Fya (\; Bya
Mya fl> Rya (\Jp Lya -j^, Hya Qj Vya
Klya -^ Glya C^j Plya (}^j Flya ^ Blya
Mlya XV Hlya ^) Aya
Generally assumes the latter sound.
( 5 )
Is affixed to eight letters thus
&)Gra ^ Ngra ^ Pra
Fra ty Bra ^) Mra Hra
And both are thus conjoined :
-yjKrya (ty Grya ^, Ngrya
0)0Frya ty Brya ^ Mrya i^ Hrya
With these signs, single or conjoined, the vowel and final signs are united.
5th. OF THE SIGN (>( 5<V thambyin).
i** */f /**
f- RAN.
'ST /-
There is a sort of circumflex sign, inscribed thus / *" called J" Man, (pronounced
hard as if written dran*). This sign is supposed to be confined to the sole use of
the two vowels ^ a an d j^ *' ^ u ^ ^ naye seen ^ "written in books (though tliis is
far from being any criterion of correctness) over the 3( f '> an( i when necessary,
it ought to be so applied ; it would be useful in distinguishing the correct pronuncia-
*
tion, as for instance, in the words (^v( sdm, three, and *>( sdrn, to be sullen,
or /-
(which latter might be written (^*( sdm}. It is evidently the vowel sign ( inverted
over the vowel. Over j5 it gives a prolonged sound as may be perceived in the
difference between the words 3( jT" " r '^t a creeper (plant), and j^~ ri/c, to curse.
Over the ^ a i whether written or inherent, it induces also a guttural sound
T /^- *% f*-- 2E '"" *r *-
as ^ ak, yes; X an > * ^ on S ^ Or 5 * y earn a fter, -% man, meat, (^ gram, to
hasten, &c. In expressing it over the Roman character, I have adhered to its
original form.
* See under head of Ascititious Powers, page 10.
( 6 )
Before proceeding further, it may be necessary to give the powers of th
letters. I shall commence with J a, as being inherent after all the consonants,
for the comprehension of the pronunciation of these latter, it is requisite that the
powers of this vowel should be understood.
POWERS OF THE LETTERS.
A
Is the basis of the vowels, and is inherent after all the consonants, when the
latter are uncombined with any other vowel. It has the following sounds : .
/9 A
1. Of e in hen ; as, ^5" j'an, to be bad, ^5" jal, to have correct pronunciation,
/9
(5v fyan, a foeman, &c.
A _ A
2. Of u in rut ; as, ^ a ^> new > fresh, -^ mat, to blow (as fire), -^ mal, to
dibble, &c.
3. When succeeded by ' the final Jc, or by <^ the nyindb, it takes the sound
o t t
of o in mock, or in long ; as, -^ mak, a target, (^ lak, to pour, ^(3 tabak, the
stomach, XC*-)^- <qjlung, upon, fc)(ty tow^, a stone, 4)^ *t $& *t an 3 n 9 a m ff n 9 a i
bright, dazzling, &c.
^ /*-
When superscribed by 7~~ ran, it acquires a prolonged and guttural sound,
/*-
see under the head of Ran, page 5.
In Roman characters it may be represented by a.
Pronunciation of the Consonants.
Ka, is the first letter of the alphabet, equally with all the consonants when
uncombined with any other vowels, it inherits 2 the short a. In
writing the single consonants in Roman characters, I therefore affix
this a.
( 7 )
Ka, is sounded like its English equivalent K ; as V In, cotton.
(/ Kha, the second letter, is the same as the above aspirated ; as, (f( klid,
twenty.
( Ga, is the English hard G ; as, (( go, I.
*f Nga, a naso-guttural is sounded like the nge in singer ; as, ^(\) nya la,
truly, evidently.
Q Ch, is sounded as ch in chair ; thus, -Q che, to value, to have regard for.
^ Chh, is the same as the above aspirated ; as, (^ chho, a book.
^5" Ja, is pronounced like the French/; thus, QS\ju, a thorn.
3< Nya, is a palatal ny, and is sounded as nea in near ; thus, (<J nyo, to be
ominous.
^ Ta, is like the English T; thus, j ti, to be great.
)o Tha, is an aspirated dento-palatal th ; thus, ^}o thi, to arrive.
2^ Da, is the same as, the English D ; thus, J^cj du, to be white.
/^) Na, is like the English N; thus, /^) ne, a cave.
^J Pa, like the English P ; thus, J^J pi, to write.
*/*- /*-
JJ Pha, a labial ph ; thus, j$" pM } to be late.
^ Fa, like the English F ; thus, r( fd, to swim.
(3 Ba, like the English B ; thus, j() M, vegetable.
**" **T
^ Ma, like the English M ; thus, j ^ mi, fire.
o
Tsa, is a palatal ts ; thus, Q\ tsun, to bray, to pound.
Tsh, the above aspirated ; thus, (fasu tsho, colour.
Za, as s in zenith ;* thus, ^ ^e, gunpowder.
Ya, as y in year ; thus, ( y, to perish, to become extinct.
Ra, is like the English R ;* thus, y~\ rw, a cane.
* See under head of Ascititious Powers, page 10.
( 8 )
(\) La, like the English L; thus, j(\) li, a house.
\f Ha, like the English H ; thus, \f ( hd, wax.
^ Va, as the English V ; thus, Q( rd, to vibrate.
Sa, like the English S ; thus, *>( sd, to be clear, fair.
/<*" /*
Sha, same as the above aspirated ; thus, S j shi, to see.
Wa, should be pronounced with the full rounded sound of the English W ;*
thus, t$y wa, to be fit for, to be worthy of; as, (^"(^ wbmo, a fox.
JJT Kla, is a palatal kl, sounded as cl in clear ; thus, 5" kla, to cut through, or
divide with one stroke.
A 1 *"" /*"
b Gla, as gl in glow ; thus, $$ Q$ gli la, distinctly.
C. Pla, labial pi as in plan ; thus, C, pla, to issue out of.
A^"~ /^"
$ Fla, a dento-labial fl as in flat ; thus, ^^ jK, to divide, to separate.
C9 Bla, a labial bl as in bland ; thus, $)\ blu, a ridge.
-^ Mia, a labial nil ; as, (^ mlo, an article.
X Hla, a palatal hi ; as, (\ Mo, a high mountain.
Pronunciation of the Vo^vels.
A, as already explained in page 6.
A', has the long sound of a in far; as, ( kdn, to be excited,, (}( ^ an > a
knife, ^J ( par, to buy. It bears also a short pronunciation, like the o
in among, as, <$"( j'dng to be close (as basket work, &c.) (See remark
with reference to this, under j^ ran, page 5.)
I, is pronounced as the Latin or Italian i. It has both a long and short
accent, when bearing the former sound, it is distinguished by being sur-
* It is not pronounced so generally by the Lepchas, but should be taught so.
( 9 )
>*" A/"- f*^ /
mounted by f raw, thus, ^(\) &', to speak, j(V) (0 Knbo, a speaker,
A ftf 'T f ' ^ ^ T
^J^f rfz'wy, to stand, ^J" rit, to distribute, j() bik, a cow, j() fo'/r, to split or
*nr /*-;
burst open, j-^ ?'#, a female, &c.
has the sound of o in no, as: 3((^> a ' wo > mother, X((0 '^> father,
The Lepchas are apt to pronounce this letter as u, and hence when writing,
to confound it with 3j "> *kis error should be avoided, and corrected in the
Lepchas.
0', is the broad o, as, in nor, for, thus, (^ mor, butter.
U, is a short close u pronounced somewhat like the French eu in lieu, jeu,
thus, $\ su, to be striped ; ()\ bu, a load.
U', is a long broad u, as u in rule or oo in moon, thus : J~ j ra, to be old ;
%^ du, to dig ; f^)\ num, a debt.
E is pronounced as the Latin e or the English short a in day, may ; thus :
^5 pe, a pattern. It likewise takes the sound of the e in the French word
<v /O /9
mere ; as, flf j'er, gold, also as e in ten, thus, (V), Icn, than, ^ rcn, since.
Pronunciation of the Finals.
The Finals with their pronunciations, are given in note 3, page 4. They bear
the sound of the English letter as written opposite each Final, under the head of
Powers. They have not the inherent a attached, and can only be used at the
*< < ^
end of a word or syllable, thus : jO li/c, a fowl, (3\ num, oil, ^\ (^) ttiknol, a snail,
((^5 kolpot, a walnut, (J~~ rop, to adhere ; ^\j<^ rungnyit, name of a river in
Sikim (improperly pronounced by Europeans Runyect).
3
( 10 )
/"
The last two Finals kang and nyindb may be considered as one letter or sign.
The < kang is never affixed to a consonant, unless accompanied by some vowel or
^-
other sign, as by the Ran or by the curved sign in the nyindb, which sign appears
f~- /*-
to be merely a vehicle for the t, < kang.
The word 5^(^ nyindb is derived from q r q, nyi wa, the sun and |*q zla wa
the moon, from some fancied resemblance in form thereto.
The pronunciations of the affixed consonant signs \), # kya and ) kra
have been shown under note 4, pages 4 and 5. Like the regular consonants they
possess the inherent short a affixed. A few letters, however, sometimes bear
Ascititious Powers.
Thus :
& KRA, ^ ERA, Y RA and 4 ZA
Assume occasionally the following pronunciations :
Kra, takes sometimes the sound as of a hard rolling tr, thus,
Aj krii, a ship, pronounced as if written tru.
& Hra, sometimes is sounded like an aspirated tr, thus,
^" /"^
j^fi ^ n ? a couch, pronounced as if written thri.
J~ Ra, this consonant takes sometimes the sound of dr, thus,
T^((; rc * n r <> pronounced as if written drdn drb.
$ Za, in a few instances takes the sound of dz, or the pronunciation of what the
Italians call their soft z, as in the words mezso, sansara, &c., thus, the word
$ (OjO W ^ s pronounced as if spelt dzdm lu ling.
But in no pure Lepcha word do these letters take these pronunciations : it is
only in words derived from the Tibetan or some foreign source, that they are so
sounded, thus, for instance, in the examples just given :
II >
Kru, corresponds to the Tibetan ^ gru, a ship.
ff^
Hrij to R Jchri, a couch.
Tfcm ?, accords with QVQ5 b dra I dra r equal.
* s *k same as *ke Tibetan word cilw^'gc; h dsam lu gling,
corresponding to the Sanscrit I*J 0\V the central division of the earth.
I have introduced a sign (which the Lepchas, who have been taught it, have
at once adopted) to render the letters when bearing these pronunciations easily
distinguishable. A dot under the letter effects this, thus
<& Era A Era. ~ En Za
so the examples given, would be written
.^ 3 ^ 5^ J ? ri r^ ^T
Lepchas sometimes give these pronunciations to words that ought not to
possess them, the following of this error ought to be guarded against.
Gr. might have been advantageously introduced to represent sj yr, (hard aound)
in words derived from the Tibetan, which are now spelt with -fir, or J" R,
indefinitely. Not being, however, adopted by the Lepchas, I have not
brought it into use.
PART II.
SYLLABIC SCHEME.
The following is a synopsis of the Letters, Vowels, and Finals combined,
arranged in Alphabetical order, forming syllables, and comprehending all the forms
that words in the Lepcha Language can take.
1. Vowels and Finals combined.
ang
a
ak
am
al
an
ap
ar
at
t
M
A*
/9
/v
^
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
a
ak
am
3
an
ap
ar
at
^,
ff
<jj"
/ A"
^9
'5"
/-
fsr
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
a
ak
am
al
an
ap
ar
at
i
tf
A
/9
/\/
^^
X(
X(
X(
X(
X(
X(
X(
ik
im
il
in
ip
ir
it
5s
^
\ i^
5s
5x
jX
A "
C p
A ^'
5s
^
i
ik
/"
im
/*-
u
/*"
in
V
f
ir
>^
it
5s
5s
5s
si
5s
5s
55
5s
o
ok
om
ol
on
op
or
ot
i
*
A
/a
IV
^
(X
(X
(X
(X
(X
(X
(X
(X
6
<5k
(5m
61
<5n
6p
(5r
6t
&
(s
(1
(X
(X
(X
(X
(X
ang
ang
ng
ing
ong
<5ng
( 13 )
u uk um ul un up ur ut ung
53 s) S3 I) sj 83 $3 $3 j
ii uk lim ul vm lip ur lit ling
53
e ek em el en ep er et eng
i A/9 <
^P ^r> **o
^ ^ *%
2. Consonants with Voivels and Finals combined.
ka kak kam kal kan kap kar kat kang
< A / v
/^r ^w / ~ ' / f~~ '
ka kak kam kal kan kap kar kat kang
*r- T" ST ^ ^/S ^T fff ff >*-\
Jsr 3e 3e 3f ^f 3e *Gs *"
ka kak kam kal kan kap kar kat kang
4 ** ^ /o O /v
<( ^( ( <( ^( ^( <( ( ^C
ki kik kim kil kin kip kir kit king
' " " 5
ki kik kim kil kin kip kir kit king
ko kok kom kol kon kop kor kot kong
i A /O O pa
k<5 k6k k<5m kol k<5n k<5p k<5r k6t kdng
ft
ku kuk kum kul kun kup kur kut kung
A / o *, -
ku kiik kiim kill kiin klip kiir kiit kiing
rvj
^3
ke kek kem kel ken kep ker ket keng
< .. A /o o iv -
A AA AAAAAA
In like manner are combined, the Vowels and Finals to the remaining thirty-
four Consonants.
3. \) ii Kya affixed to the Vowels, with Finals combined.
aya ayak ayam ayal ayan ayap ayar ayat ayang
aya ayak ayam ayal ayan ayap ayar ayat ayang
ir 'A
aya ayak ayam ayal ayan ayap ayar ayat ayang
i A /9 O /v
2K
ayi ayik ayim ayil ayin ayip ayir ayit aying
w Ssv Ssv 5^ 5$
/^^ / ^*^
ayi ayik ayiin ayil ayin ayip ayir ayit aying
ayo ayok ayom ayol ayon ayop ayor ayot ayong
(&
ayd aydk aydm aydl aydn aydp aydr aydt aydng
ayu ayuk ayum ayul ayun ayup ayur ayut ayung
ayu ayiik ayum ayi'tl ayiin ayiip ayur ayiit ayiing
aye ayek ayem ayel ayen ayep ayer ayet ayeng
i A /O O /%/ _
4. "&> Ky a a ffi xea< to the Consonants, with Vowels and Finals combined.
kya kyak kyam kyal kyan kyap kyar kyat kyang
4 ** *** -."* m
kya kyak kyam kyal kyan kyap kyar kyat kyang
^"* <2 '* *# /^ d ^\T fa? 1 ^~
to
kya kyak kyam kyal kyan kyap kyar kyat kyang
( > A /9 O rv
6K
kyi kyik kyim kyil kyin kyip kyir kyit kying
5^
kyi kyik kyim kyil kyin kyip kyir kyit kying
5*u 5*^ 5*^ 5*^ 5*^ 5^ 5*^ 5*^ $"&
kyo kyok kyom kyol kyon kyop kyor kyot kyong
( A fo O
(-6? (*v (*^ C*v (^ ("v ("&> C*v i(^y
ky<5 kydk kydm kydl ky<5n kydp kyor kydt kydng
to
( 16 )
kyu kyuk kyum kyul kyun kyup kyur kyut kyung
kyu kyiik kyum kyiil kyrin kyiip kyiir kyiit kyiing
kye kyek kyem kyel kyen kyep kyer kyet kyeng
i .. A / o
Similarly the Kya and the Finals, &c., are affixed to the remaining twenty-one
Consonants. See page 4.
5. ) -A Era affixed, with Vowels and Finals combined.
kra krak kram kral kran krap krar krat krang
f^- /*~ t~~ ~ " " *~ *~
kra krak kram kral kran krap krar krat krang
/^ ff tf 'JT ^ 'S' fa- f*f f^
,-, ^ -Cj -fij -^ -j-,<<,
kra krah kram kral kran krap krar krat krang
kri krik krim kril krin krip Icrir krit kring
kri krik krim kril krin krip krir krit kring
"
/ * r
kro krok krom krol kron krop kror krot krong
( 17 )
kro kr<5k kr<5m krol kr<5n krdp kr<5r kr<5t krdng
kru kruk krum krul krun krup krur krut krung
fifl -4} 4) 43 ^ ^ ^ ^) *6Q
kru kruk krum krul krun krtip krur kr6t kr6ng
-43 ^3 ^3 -43 -43 -43
kre krek krem krel kren krep krer kret kreng
i #* A /O O /v/ ^
.
V A /,
And so on with the remaining seven letters (see page 5).
Y) -i; Icy a and ) A Aro united, and combined with Consonants, Vowels and Finals.
krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryang
t**- * ~ f^
krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryang
krya kryak kryam kryal kryan kryap kryar kryat kryang
kryi kryik kryim kryil kryin kr}'ip kryir kryit kryiug
S^ S^v S^ 54 54 54 54 54 <5^
f** **" T" ^~~. ^ i_ ^ i ^* ^T" '*'
kryi kryik kryim kryil kryin ki-yip kryir kryit kryiug
5^ 54 54 54 54 54 54 54 <54
kryo kryok kryom kryol kryon kryop kryor kryot kryong
(4 <4 ( 4 ^4 ^4 ( 4
5
( 18 )
kry6 kryo*k krydm kry<51 kryo*n kryo"p kry6"r kry<5t kry<5ng
(ly
kryu kryuk kryuru kryul kryun kryup kryur kryut kryung
^ 4) 4j 4} 4) 43 4) 4) *w
kryu krytik kryfina kryul kryun kryfip kryur kry6t kryung
*$ 43 43 43 43 43 43 43 ^3
krye kryek kryem kryel kryen kryep kryer kryet kryeng
In like manner are the remaining seven letters written.*
In this scheme may be seen every form that words of one syllable can take.
If each letter be carried out, with the vowels and finals affixed, it will give 7,290
monosyllabic words.
The Lepcha Language is essentially a monosyllabic language, for though it has
words of more than one syllable, these are words which are formed by compounds
of two different words ; or by the same word reduplicated, or connected by an
t
epenthesis; or by certain prefixed syllables common to many words, as, ^\ tuk,
i f9
*\ tung, $y\ Ink, ^5\pun, &c., which may be abscindable or inabscindable ; corn-
mutable or immutable ; according to the nature of the word. By the addition of
these particles, the sense of the word may be completely altered, or may remain
unchanged ; may be slightly modified, or may be transmuted from verb to substan-
tive or to adjective ; but the word itself retains the radical form of its syllable as laid
down in this scheme.
* The Lepchas when writing, used generally to affix the ) **fl to the ^J kya as a more speedy mode
of writing, and so it will be found in their manuscripts, thus ^^ for ^o krya.
( 19 )
The following are examples of,
DISSYLLABLES.
7. Compounded of two words.
*(c kong-yong, independence, (from SF skang, the foot ; and w ^w^, light, light-
footed, free).
Idk-chhb, a tool, an instrument, (from 01=1 lag the hand ; and s> eM an article).
$A phak-zu, a brush, (from sjq ^#, a hog, a pig ; and ^ zed, a bristle).
>-- ^
ngan-she, fore-knowledge, (from ^w sngon pa, before former ; and *j<v*VX shespar,
to know).
^t sa/c-dak, to be sorry, to be grieved, (from ^U/( sa/<r, the mind, or its state,
t
[in compos] ; and ^c dak, to be in pain).
, .. >
(C*V tam-btybk, a butterfly, (from Jo( tta?w, a thing ; and (C<V Wyo^j to be unsubstan-
tial, incorporeal), &c.
8. Formed ly reduplication, or connected I>y an epenthesis.
/a
dun dun.
drizzling (rain).
dun-na dun-na]
diir-ra dur-ra, full flowing, flaunting (robes).
hryap-pa hryop-pa, loose, ricketty.
^ lok-ka, unstable, fickle, vers
5^" ^ jin-na j'in-na, twinkling (as star), &c.
((X) W^ lok-ka, unstable, fickle, versatile.
9. Formed by prefixed Particles or Syllables common to many words.
ABSCINDABLE.
a-ka or ka, the hand.
&-fo (&f, a tooth.
i (
a-thydk ,, fa>( thyak, the head
a-dydng or <?^r( <fyrfj, the leg
< *
sa-tsuk O\ foM^r, the sun.
fa so, yesterday.
hum-dung, another.
-hap, a recess.
luk-ayeng, fetid.
mun -J l ' t > awkward.
-xir, a boat.
^ 5 W J *-^ a
(/D
i .,
pur-ay am, a mole.
-o, king.
ruk-nyam, prevarication.
sa-dyar, a thunderbolt.
iVj
(\f sa-hor, a star.
< ~
C*>\ 0^ suk-vyar, mud.
sung-hlyo, a spear.
-_/?o, string, cord, &c.
** **
10. Inubscinduble.
<$( Jca-ta, single, alone.
IV i
\ Jo( kur-thak, a king's minister.
(V) (0 fo-w, the moon.
/^
?w-n', dirt.
mung-kyelt, forked lightning.
num-prum, an old woman.
-ku, a reticule.
, a store.
mung-yung, a pea-fowl.
&
(63 sa-ff6r, a cliff.
<(7t) sa-ntmg, snow.
sum-pyar, tail of fish.
ta-lyang, the sky.
timg-kung, a rainbow.
.,
6"
11. Commutdble.
kum-byong, or ^J\ 4((\> pum-fyonff, a cloud.
Jmm-thybng, ^f\ <fa, pun-thybng, a kite (bird).
kut-mo, theft.
f m, an old man.
>', the day.
pur-fywn, a breeze.
pun-nyom,
( 21 )
But of the abscindable and commutable, the instances are comparatively not
numerous. With the exception of the 5( a particle, few of the prefixes can be
dropped, and not many changed, without altering the sense of the word.
If the order of this scheme be carried out to its full, with the syllables prefixed
to each word, it will give the large number of 53,144,100 words, dissyllables alone,
all of which, (though they do not really exist), may be expressed in the Lepcha
language.
12. TRISYLLABLES.
With the exceptions of the words to which the adjective and adverbial particles
(() lo, and ^ la, are affixed, there are only three or four Trisyllabic words in the
Lepcha language ; the following are examples,
num-shim-nyo, a man, human being.
nung-fyen-no, the guardian spirit of males.
ka-thang-fi, the guardian spirit of females.
_
The first, /^)\ N (^C num-shim-nyo, is compounded of fi)\ num, one of the prefix-
ed particles (here abscindable), common to many words, (the letters implying, a creat-
* .ft ^~ > fc "
ed thing) ; of S^j shim, a being, (from S shi, to be); and (%. nyo, a female, (literally
proceeding from). The derivation of the latter words are more complex ; the
former of the two implies, the leader to </7)( ncing, (literally, straight-forwardness)
sincerity. The latter signifies, the controller of (causing to fear) the will.
13. POLYSYLLABLES.
There are none.
6
PART III.
THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Formative. Etymology.
Equally with the Occidental languages, the Lepcha language may be divided
into
i
Article, .............................. $$) 0" Mang-jak.
Noun, ................................. X( $W d-llang.
Adjective, ................... ....... <,)09 v3 llang-gyu.
C" /
Pronoun, .............................. ^09 (\) llang-lam.
&
Verb, ................................. X((6 a-5%.
Adverb, .............................. ( (^ shbp-gyu.
Preposition,
or
Postposition,
Conjunction, <\J~ ( ring-shok.
Interjection, t\f $ (Q$ ring ta-lo.
also
* o
Verbal particles, (j ()fy shbp-hyop.*
Of which we will severally treat.
* Grammatical or Scientific terms do not form part of a primitive language : they are the offspring
of cultivation. I introduce the above, as appropriate equivalents of the English words ; I do not in this
work carry out this neological system, but I may hereafter compose a Grammar in Lepcha, (for the
benefit of the Lepchas), in which all Grammatical terms will be inserted.
1st. Of the Articles.
The English Indefinite Article, " ," or " an," is not ordinarily made use of in
the Lepcha, but when it is employed, it is expressed by, <( kdt, one, as, r<(VkJ *(
*%
fa-lyeng kdt, a young man, (^"(^ ( <.(& ( ^\ wb-mo kdt vbng kd muk,
a fox crept into a thicket.
The Definite Article " tlie" is represented by, J"" re, as, ^5(O T~ pa-no re,
*% ^%
the king, (^ J~ chho re, the book.
J" re, bears also an inflected form, and then becomes, J~* rem, as,
** A
1m pa-no rem shu, he petitioned the king.
Another form, but less definite than, J" re, for expressing the Article, " the,"
*/"- /fc-
is denoted by ^\ as, -^>(j -^N j(V) wa-ri OTM li, the person said. But it is
seldom if ever, unless preceded by a stated number, affixed to the governing
_ */*-' j^-
noun, thus, ( ^\ ( ( ^^ kdt mu kdt kd li, the one said to the other,
/%/ f
^(T' ^ 3s>\ *W^( (*^ <W\ ((V) ma-ro nyat mu lydng kor lung 16m, the two
men travelled round the country.
It is, however, in its oblique form, and in its office of showing distinction
between the governing and governed nouns, that ^J\ mu, is more particularly
serviceable. It then changes to -^JV and in this form may directly follow the
- * ~
noun, and may be used definitely or indefinitely, thus, ( ^\ ( ^N S^ kdt
T /- "
mu kdt mum li, the one said to the other, |f \ <^ <(y ^\ (TJ" hu tung-hbng mum klo,
he fell into the hole, ( fa> J~^ $fe ^\ ^ \^ ( to sa-re Ta-she mum den ri sho,
A * / t *
whosoever shall believe in Tashe.
( 24 )
2nd. Of Nouns.
Substantive nouns are expressed by simple words representing the thing,
_ t ..
thus, jy fat, earth ; fa,\ ?^\ suk-dum, the earth, world ; ^<flM ta-lydng, the
heavens, &c. Abstract and other formative nouns, will be hereafter discussed.
3rd. Of Gender.
Gender is confined to living beings, male and female, and words are uninflected
by either masculine or feminine. There is no expressed Neuter. Hence, strictly
speaking, nouns are, in the Lepcha language, without gender.
The terms to express the gender of human beings, are different from those
used to indicate the gender of inferior animals.
The male of human beings is distinguished by j^1 ta-gri ; the female is
denoted by X^N ta-ayu.
These follow the rule of adjectives, and succeed the substantive, thus, = %ft~'
ma-ro, a person, ^(f" 3j(3) ma-rb ta-gri, a male person, -^(f"" $3&\ ma-ro
ta-ayu, a female person.
/- /-
They may also be used substantively, as, ^A $j^ fo\ hu ta-gri gum, he
*/ o >~
is a male, \f\ ^S^\ (&\ hu ta-ayu gum, she is a female, }&) } ta-gri kup,
o
a little male, X^\*-^ t a - a !l u kup, a little female ; but they are of course still
adjectives, substantives in these cases being always understood.
The distinction between sexes of animals, inferior to man, is expressed, the
yf
male by ^(0^ d-bu, the female by X((^> <i-mbt. These, likewise, follow the sub-
stantive, and like almost all adjectives, commencing with ^( d, when affixed
to a noun, may, (and here euphonically do) drop the 3J( d, thus, \f Mk, a fowl,
< < 7^ * **
\\fhiklu, acock, SifC^ hik mot, a hen; (&on, a horse, (SO^ on 1> U J a stallion,
on m ^ a mare -
( 25 )
y
<*-bu and 3?((^ a ~ m ^ ar e sometimes affixed, emphatically, to the terms
A'"" '""".
for the male and female of human beings ; thus, j(A\ Q\ ta-gribu, a male (person) ;
2JU\ (^ ta-ayu mot, a female (person).
The males of some few animals, as of goats and pigs, are expressed by ^( Q\
< < & & J
d-tsu ; as, ^\ M, a sheep, ^\ Q\ M few, a ram ; (^ mow, a pig, (^ 0\ wow few,
/v /v
a boar; ^v <?( sa-dr, a goat, U/X(C5^ Sfl '^ r ^ su i a ma ^ e goat.
A term t(^) Wny, ( Tibetan m glang, a bull ), is used to denote the males of
some large animals ; as >() bik, a cow, j() <(^) i7f Wwy, a bull ; <(^v\ (^ sung-vo t
a bufFaloe, <^v\ (0 *((\) sung-vo long, a male buffaloe ; (^/ ij^ sa-ving, large deer
(cervus elephas), (^v i$& *(^) sa-mng long, a stag ; <^V( (-^ tyang-mo, an elephant,
^/ ^^
tyang-mo long, a male elephant ; U> ((\) sa-lok, a rhinoceros, (^v ((V)
-W/f W^, a male rhinoceros.
The female term in contradistinction both to ^( 0\ d-tsu, and <(^) Wwy, is
mit, a female, is also affixed to express the gender of superior beings ; thus,
a good spirit, a god, ^\ j^ rum-mit, a goddess; <$Vrjj-5 yet
/ ^ /
tung-kung mit, a water goddess ; t\ i-^j <\ (V( j^ tung-kung tung-ld mit, nymphs
and syrens. Like a-mot, it is sometimes emphatically added to the ordinary gender
term ; so, 3JJN \^ ta-ayu mit, a female, a woman.
There are some words which in themselves express the sex of the person, with-
out the aid of any gender term ; thus with regard to relationship,
X((0 <((^> a ''^> 6-} f atner > mother; 3&fi)\ d-nuin, an elder brother;
jl*
X( (fd d-nom, an elder sister, (not so with the younger, here the usual terms would
be affixed ; thus, 4$U ayeng, a child, a younger [brother or sister], ^y) $ ^(^\
^%
/*-
yeng ta-gri, a younger brother, <<^ $ 8&\ a U en 9 ta-ayu, a younger sister) ;
a-ku, a paternal uncle ; <( i(^5" d-jong, a maternal uncle; X(^-J <*- n y u , an
7
( 26 )
aunt ; ^( 0y d-fi/at, a father-in-law ; (^V myo/*:, a son-in-law ; (5^. wyowz, a daughter-
/-" ^
in-law ; X( *($ a-song, a (yonnger) brother-in-law ; ^( (^ d-ngbp, a (younger)
sister-in-law ; (^ <(>*A (-% w sung-mo, a female cousin, &c.
Likewise, in connection with age, the sex is rendered manifest ; thus,
f~-
r <MJ f a -fy en ff> a y un g man 5 /7)N <MJ num-fyeng, a young woman ; (^ </i)
mo-nang, an elderly woman ; ^J (^.pa-nyom, an old man; /^)\ ^3y num-prum, an old
" "1 .
woman. ^J (^ pa-nyom, and /^)\ ^3)^ num-prum, are sometimes, in familiar lan-
guage, applied to beasts ; thus, ^() ^)\ ^3$ ^ J (& ^ num-prum ngun non, the
cow has become old, (an old woman).
/s> -*- f-;
So also with respect to rank ; ^J (/^) pa-no, a king ; ^J\ j^t pun-di, a queen ;
X( ij) a-thing, a lord, master ; ^( (5^. a-^/o, a lady ; a gentle-woman, &c.
The term ^( <(^ d-lyeng, is applied to any young female,* rising to maturity ;
^^
< *<
thus, S(3 5^, a cow, jO iflju J'A ^ew^r, a young matured cow, that has not borne
A/ i^i
young ; v ^( <^\J 5-or ^ewy, a young female goat ; \\f <^J hik lyeng, a young
^* ^%
hen ; (^ <^7 /o ^ewy, a young female bird, &c.
'"~
^- mz; ^ s applied to a young (or until it has had young) female pig ; thus,
>*-
wzow ?rez, a sow, (that has not had young).
*~^ ^ s a wor( i implying maturity in female beasts, (having borne
young) ; thus, j() ^) lik gu, a matured cow ; (^ ($ mon gu, a matured sow ;
^C^\ (d C&J sung-vo gu, a matured female buffaloe, &c..
& - l y m 9-> is applicable only to females ; the word jy 4 ^p fa-lyeng, a young man, is
-s -S
exceptional, and may be considered a distinct word. /^)\ i^^J num-lyeng, a young woman, may be
likewise so considered ; neither K- /a, nor fo\ num., has a separate signification, each being merely one
of the prefixed particles, common to many words. Both words, however, obviously take their root
from
( 27 )
"-bom is applied to female fowls and birds, that have arrived at maturity
A ' *
(season of incubation), thus, jtf(0 hi& bom, a matured hen ; (r(0 f ^ om > a matured
female bird.
There are other words betokening qualities in sexes, consequently indicating
/ " + P~
the gender, thus, 3(i<$ a-tang denotes a corpulent male beast, as, $J if
/- & >- '*"
toy, a corpulent male dog ; (^ < man. tuny, a bulky boar, &c.
&
X((0 "'^ i g applied to an entire (non-emasculated) male beast, as, (^ (0
/o
o, a boar ; (^ (() ow 5o, a stallion, &c.
4. Of Numbers.
There are three numbers, vis., Singular, Dual, and Plural. The Singular may
be represented by the simple noun. The Dual is expressed by affixing to the noun,
the word <A nyum. And the Plural by affixing i)(v sang or <,)^J pang, thus
ma-ro, or -^(^"-( nia-ri> Mt, a person.
^Z.\ ma-ro nyum, two persons.
<< )C* v -^ saw ^) persons.
The difference between the two plural terms, is, $&* sang, is applied chiefly to
hman beings ; to/^S pang, to inferior animals, and to inanimate things.
^^5 P an fft ma y> however, be made to denote the plural of human, or inferior
beings, and of inanimate things, indifferently. fc)v sang, although it may be
applied to all living animals, human or inferior, can never be correctly affixed as a
plural sign to inanimate things ; thus,
nia ' r " san ff> or ^>(T~ O ma ~ r P m 9i people.
pang, or ^() $C">i ^ san ff> cows.
> ( uever J^ $6" li San 9i) Bouses.
( 28 )
These terms may be affixed to the pronoun, independently of the noun, or may
sometimes stand in room of the noun, thus
X(T" C*> ~ re san ffi these people, or animals.
<J^3 o-re pang, those things, animals, or people.
<)*' sa-kon sang, Sakons, i. e., Sakon and his people or companions.
5. Of Declension of Nouns.
Substantive nouns being uninflected by Cases, the latter may, be said to, be
limited to the Nominative and Objective.
There are, however, certain post-positive particles which may be used to form
a full Declension, thus
The Nominative is represented by the simple noun, or if the word be in the
Singular number and indefinite, ( kdt, one, a, or an, may be added to the
noun ; if definite, the particle J"" re, the, may be, either in the singular or plural,
affixed.
The Instrumental, is formed by affixing to the Nominative, the particle
/^)\ nun.
The Dative is denoted by the post-position ( ltd.
The Accusative may be distinguished by affixing to the noun, when definite
or indefinite, the particle ^\ mum, and when definite the particle ^ rem. (See
under head of Articles, page 23).
The Vocative is indicated by the prepositive particle Q e, and, if the final
letter of the word be a vowel by affixing, 2( d, or ($V( wd. If the word end with
a consonant, the final is re-duplicated in the particles, thus
X X((0 X( e (i to d, or X XUO W * Mo wd, Father, X ()
e a-kup pd, child.
( 29 )
But either the preposition or the post-position may bo, at pleasure, dropped,
thus, X S((0 e a-lo, father, (.A ^J( d-lcup pa, O child.
The following is an example of a noun so declined.
^5 (ft pa-no, a king.
SINGULAR.
Nona. ^$ (ft pa-no, a king.
/o
Inst. ^3 ((3 ft\ P a - no nun, a king, by a king.
Gen. ^J (ft U/ pa-no sa, of a king, a king's.
Dat. ^J (/^) ( jo-M0 #a, to a king.
_
Ace. ^J (/Q -^N ^-wo wwm, a, or the king.
Voc. ^ ^J (fo <J""( e j9-wo wa, king.
^^
H
Abl. ^5 (ft (d\ pa-no nun, from a king.
DUAL.
N
Nom. ^5 (ft "3~\ pa-no nyum, two kings.
/9
Inst. ^5 (ft "^~\ ft\ pa-no nyum nun, two kings, by two kings.
M
Gen. ^J (ft ^\ d" pa-no nyum sa, of two kings.
<
Dat. ^5 (ft ^-\ *( P a ~ n nyum Jed, to two kings.
Ace. ^J (ft "3\ 1&\ pa-no nyum mum, two kings.
**
Voc. 2 P5 (ft <.} ^( ^ pa-no nyum md, O two kings.
/O
Abl. ^5 (ft ^i\ ft\ pa-no nyum nun, from two kings.
PLURAL.
Nom. ^5 (ft fyC** pa-no sang, kings.
to
Inst. ^S (ft $C**> ft\ pa-no sang nun, kings, by kings.
Gen. ^5 (ft <)*' pa-no sang sa, of kings.
Dat. ^3 (ft $(*" ( pa-no sang led, to kings.
8
Ace. ^J (ft <^C*v^5N pa-no sang mum, kings.
Voc. X 5$ (ft $C> 7( e P a ' no sm( J n 9 {i > kings.
A
Abl. ^S(ft C> ft\ P a - no san ff nun i from kings.
In like manner, all Substantive nouns may be declined.
6. Of Adjectives.
Adjectives are primitive or compositive. The latter may be formed from verbs
by, in many instances, conjoining to the verb, ^( d, by prosthesis, thus
VERB.
L
chor, to be sour,
i krup, to be astringent.
klydm, to be sweet.
klyom, to be insipid.
*/)( ndny, to be straight.
Jcol, to be crooked.
/^^
fyang, to be light (not heavy).
nok, to be black.
ADJECTIVE.
> sour.
p, astringent.
&&&&*) sweet.
d-Myom, insipid.
</c)( a-ndttff, straight.
A
4-7w?, crooked.
d-fyang, cold.
>*-
a-Jcyang, light.
-wo*, black.
When the verb ends in a vowel, the adjective generally assumes a final in ; as,
yu, to be good.
,"-
kri, to be bitter.
K, to be heavy.
du, to be white.
/^
ti, to be large.
good.
d-krim, bitter.
/>^
^-&, heavy.
d-dum, white.
/ ^
a-^w, large.
chu, to be small.
shu, to be fat.
hru, to be hot.
2TM, to be alive.
A-c/tum, small.
'im, fat, corpulent.
-^wm, alive, living.
But all do not acquire this additional particle, for instance.
( r3 ', old.
, languid.
-) secret.
<( XV( a-A^i, unctuous.
ru, to be old.
JilUj to be languid.
ma, to be secret.
, to be unctuous.
The two latter formations however, are, not numerous, the examples given
being nearly all that could be cited.
The assumption of the paragogic m, has, doubtless for its cause, a regard to
euphony, but the rejection of it in homologous words, without any apparent reason,
(for the adoption of it in the rejected cases, would occasion no inconsonance), seems
anomalous.
It may bo remarked that all adjectives, derived from verbs whose final is a
vowel, if they do take a final consonant, it is always the final m.
\ <,)5^r Jcur-dang, ruddy, blooming ; and A t%3 kum-diiny, another, are
examples of primitive adjectives, derived from no verb, and having no adjective
particle affixed. Other formations of adjectives, primitive and derivative, will be
hereafter shown.
/9 M
Adjectives, as a rule, follow the substantives, as, (g X(%J on A-dinn a white
horse. They may be declined in the same manner, as described under head of
declension of nouns ; thus,
Singular.
Nom. -^ (T~ <( TT^J ma-ro A-ri/iim, a good person.
Gen. ^ (Y~ 3( Tin fa HM-r6 a-ryum sa, of a good person, &c.
( 32 )
Dual.
Dat. ^ (J- g( fx/^ ^ .( Wffl . ro ' fif.^zi^ w ^ Mm ^ to two good persons.
Ace. ^ (; <$( ^J^) "^ wa-ro d-ryum nyum mum, two good persons, &c.
Plural.
X ^> (j X( TT>3 ^*" ^( e w ^' -^w wy ?#', O good people.
Abl. and Inst. / - - > fr 011 ^ ^7 good
people.
7. O/" Degrees of Comparison.
Comparative.
to
The Comparative degree is expressed by the comparative conjunction (\) few,
A
than. This is placed after the noun, (substantive, adjective, pronoun or verb) with
which comparison is made ; thus, Jo( <-^ (^ ^)\ ^ (^C ^ fo\ thdm-chang len
p~-
num-shim-nyo ti gum, man is greater than the beasts, (literally, the beasts than, man
great is); 3( }"" ^ (&T~ ^IJa-re len o-re ryu, that is better than this, (lit. this
*\
so
than, that good [is]): (^ (\> Joj; ]T>^ hryop len thy an ryu, it is better to laugh,
than to cry, (lit. to cry than, to laugh good [is]).
Superlative.
The Superlative degree is formed by comprising a totality, and then drawing
/C* /9 "^
comparison ; thus, tf\ (\ ^> W hu gun len ryu, he is the best, (lit. he all than,
[is] good) ; (X 7"~ (^^ (^ X( "^^ 6)^ ' re 9 un ^ en <*-cHum gum, that is the least (lit.
that all than, small is).
The Superlative may also be formed, by affixing to the root of the adjective,
/% ^"" ^*" A ** ^^
the word (X chho ; thus, ^( -^'w, great, (X ^' ?w C ^J ^ e greatest ;
( 33 )
C$\ h u ti m c hh ff um > h Q i g the greatest. (This word (^ chho, corre-
sponds to the Tibetan *f* /E i mchhog, the chief, the best).
When the signification is distinct, the signs of comparison need merely be
understood, thus ^( F' <A "( C**'T"~ HO ^- ? ' e nyumk& sa-re ryu, of these two, which
is good, i. e., better, <( j 4 ^^ ^ ^ 5^ ^] "'^ l ' 1 n " n ^ ^ ^ ^ 9 um > who among
you is great, i. e., the greatest.
8. Of Pronouns.
Pronouns, like Substantive nouns, have three numbers, viz., Singular, Dual
and Plural. The words, representing the Personal Pronouns, differ in each of the
numbers, they also bear inflection in the Objective case, and may be declined
similarly to substantives, as follows :
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
IST PERSON.
(& 90, I.
Singular.
Dat.
Norn, (fo go, I.
Gen.
go nun, I, by me.
ka-su, of me, my.
Acc.
Abl.
Jca-su M, to me.
ka-sum, me.
/o
ka-su nun, from me.
Dual.
$/"" ^
5^ ka-nyi, we two
/'*""' / x^
Inst. S^C /^)\ ka-nyi nun, we two.
Gen. ^S^ {^v ka-nyi sa, of us two.
Dat. j5^- ^-C ^a-y* /t, to us two.
9
ka-nyim,
Acc. or
Abl.
us two.
ka-nyi nun, from us two.
Plural.
Nom. 3 ka-yu, we.*
Inst. ^J (*y\ ka-yu nun, we, by us.
Gen.
-^i sa, of us, our's.
Dat.
Ace.
SND PERSON.
(\f ho, thou.
Singular.
Nom. (\f ho, thou.
/
Inst. (\f fo\ ho nun, thou, by thee.
Gen.
Dat.
Nom.
Inst.
Gen.
Dat.
ho sa, of thee, thy.
w 7m', to thee.
y u
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
Dual.
a- n> ji nun, you two.
'-^ sa, of you two.
'-w^z M, to you two.
Ace.
Voc.
AW.
-?/ti #<i, to us.
ka-yiim, us.
-?/ nun, from us.
, thee.
i WMW, from thee.
you two.
two>
y u
two.
Plural.
Nom.
Inst.
Gen.
Dat.
(-yu, you, or ye.
Dy you
you, your.
ci-yu kd, to you.
Ace. i( d-yum, you, or ye.
Voc. X ( 3 e a '^"' y u '
Abl.
d'y mn i from you.
* See also remark on
^a'-yi, and kd, p. 40.
The radical form was sometimes inelegantly used in the Dual, and Plural, thus,
(if j^- ho-nyi, for S(j^ <i-nyi ; fifty hb-yu, for '( 6j "'"#" but ^^ ^ orm would
be rarely met with now.
SED PERSON.
hu, he, she, or it.
Singular.
Nom. \f \ hu, he, she, or it.
*>
Inst. tf \ /7)N hu nun, he, she, or it.
Gen. tf\ fa/ hu sa, of him, her, or it ;
his, her's, or its.
Dat. tf\ "( hu M, to him, her, or it.
Ace. \f\ hum, him, her, or it.
J *>
Jf \ /7)\ hu nun, from him, her, or it.
Abl.
Dual.
*/" /*-
Nom. \f\ \%. liu-nyi, they two.
^
*<
Inst. -|f \ S
*
Gen. -JA S
Dat.
hu-nyi nun, they two.
^^
hu-nyi sa, of them (two).
Ace.
hu-nyim,
hu-nyum,
them (two).
Abl. ^f \ S^C (y\ hu-nyi nun, from them
i M) to them (two).
Plural.
two.
Nom. \f\ hu-yu, they.
Inst. ^f \ %\ (d\ hu-yu nun, they.
Gen. \f \ 3 fat hu-yu sa, of them.
Dat.
Jf \
, to them.
Ace. |f\ 3 hu-yum, tliem.
Abl. |A ^ /5\ /2<-yw WMW, from them.
Possessive Pronouns
May be formed from the Genitive of the Personal, thus,
IST PERSON.
Singular.
Nom. fa\ Jca-su, my, mine.
Inst. fa\ fi)\ ka su nun, my, by my.
( 36 )
Gen. fa>\ C*> k su sa > OI> m y> f mine.
Dat. fa/\ C"* *( h su sa & a ) to m y> to mine.
Ace. C*A C*** HJ^ ka su sa mum, my, mine.
/
Abl. UA fa /7)\ &# SM s nun, from my, from mine.
In like manner the particles of Declension may be affixed to the Dual and
S/*~ /*~ -
5^ C*v Jca-nyi sa, our two, ^iv Jca-yu sa, our : also to the three
Numbers of each of the 2nd and 3rd Persons, fiffa ho sa, thy, thine,
d-nyi sa, your (two), ^( ^ ^U/ a'-yzi 5, your, ^A fa hu sa, his, her, or*it's,
fa hu-nyi sa, their (two), \f\*j fa hu-yi'i sa, their.
Reciprocal Pronouns.
Corresponding to the English Pronouns compounded of self, are formed by the
emphatic particle (J^ do. They may be thus declined,
IST PERSON.
Singular.
Nom.
Inst.
Gen.
fai-do, I myself.
, I myself, by
myself.
> of myself.
Dat.
Ace.
Abl.
Jca-dom,
, to myself.
myself.
i )
nun, from myself.
Nom.
Inst.
Gen.
Dat.
Dual.
ka-nyi do, we two selves, we two ourselves.
ka-nyi do nun, we two selves, by our two selves.
ka-nyi do sa, of our two selves.
ka-nyi do kd, to our two selves.
( 37 )
ka-nyi dom,
> our two selves.
do mum,
*/- /o /-
Abl. 3^ (^ /^)N #-#' do nun, from our two selves.
Plural.
Nom. j (% ^-yw t?o, we ourselves.
^ /9
Inst. ^ ^ (^ /*)^ ^-y ^ WMW > we ourselves, by ourselves.
Gen. Q (^ C*v Aa-yi do sa, of ourselves.
Dat. (^ ^(, Ar-^M do Jed, to ourselves.
Ace. [ oui-selves.
.
Abl. ^ C 5 ^ /) ^-^ ^ nm > f rom ourselves.
2ND PERSON.
'-<*>> \
or > thou thyself.
Singular. .
Nora. C(^ d-do, thou thyself.
Inst. X( (^ /5\ -^ WMre ' tllou ^y 86 ^ ^7 thyself.
Gen. XC (^ (^ "'^ 5a ' of tn 7 self -
Dat. x( (* -^ A "' to th y self -
^,
Ace. I thyself.
/
Abl. X( (^ ^)\ -^ nun > f rom thyself.
10
( 38 )
In like manner may be declined, the Dual and Plural, also the 2nd and 3rd
persons, thus
Dual.
Nom. X(j^ (^ a-nyi do, your two selves, you two yourselves.
Obj. < ^ f~ } your two selves.
* do mum -
Plural.
Nom. 3( %\ (^ a-yu do, you yourselves.
Obj { * | yourselves.
t
BED PERSON.
Singular.
Nom. )f \ (ijz hu do, he himself, his self.
( tf\ & hu dom, }
Obj. j J himself.
I if \ (^ -5V" d mum ) }
Dual.
A-*^ >*-
Nom. -Jf \ ^5^ (5^ hu-nyi do, they two themselves.
A/*" /*"
/ ^f \ ^^C (^t AM-ny cZow, ^ their two selves.
* mum > > them (two) selve8 '
Plural.
Nom. tf\ 5j (^ ^w-yzi <7o, they themselves.
Obj. ( themselves, &c.
u -v u do mum > )
( 39 )
Emphatic Possessive Pronouns
Compounded of own, are formed from the Genitive of the Reciprocal, and may
be declined in the usual manner, thus
IST PERSON.
a-do su
,
my own.
sa,
Singular.
Nom. (zji C**\ lea-do su, my own.
/
Inst. (%i C*>\ ft\ Ita-do su nun, my own, by my own.
Gen. (% C>*\ G"> ku-do su sa, of my own.
Dat. (5^ C^\ *^-( ka-do su M, to my own.
ka-cto sum,
Ace. > my own.
lea-do su mum,
Abl. (^i &*>\ fi)\ ka-do su nun, from my own.
And so may be declined the Dual and Plural and 2nd and 3rd Persons, as,
Dual.
f '*"' ^
Nom. j5^ (^ C**'^ lia-nyi do su, our two own.
A -*" /W '
Gen. ^ 5^ (^ ^U/\ ^iv A"-wy do su sa, of our two own, &c.
Plural.
Nom. $ (% C^\ ka-yu do su, our own.
o sum >
Obj. 7 our own
Su mum '
( 40 )
2ND PERSON.
Singular. Dual.
, thy own. | %(fe (^ C^\ d -^ 1 do su > y our two own
Plural.
#" * 5M > y our own -
SRD PERSON.
Singular.
\f \ (^ C^\ h u do su, his, her, it's own.
Dual. Plural.
^f \ j$^ (% U>\ hu-nyi do su, their two own. | \f \ j (^f &v\ hu-yu do su, their own.
To the above the Particles of declension may be affixed when required.
-yu, the 1st person plural of the Personal Pronouns may be spelt
M-yu, which becomes converted by apocope to ( k&. This, "( M, is more
frequently used in the Nominative, Instrumental, Genitive, (or Possessive), and
Ablative cases, it is seldom employed in the two other Objective cases, for instance,
the Dative ( ( ka Jca, is altogether cacophonous. The Accusative ( Jcdm, though
formerly" very generally used, has become obsolete. ( Mm, means, " a little,"
therefore, ( (() Mm bo, would express, "give a little ;" few Lepchas would now
understand it to imply, " give us ;" ^( -^\ kd mum, however, is still quite intelli-
gible. The emphatic Particle, (^ do, is also affixed to, ( M.
^ j ka-yu is used in a general sense, and refers to a limited, or unlimited
number ; ( M, is more definite and usually denotes the number to be limited
or special, thus, ^ fo\ ft ( fI/3 $C> ^s>\ (Zb &<*-#& ff un na a-ryiim sang mum
go, we all love the good, ^ T^ XCH'J J ^ ^ t 7m '^" rum <*- } '!/ui nyi yang ya,
we know that God is good, ^( &( H/3 (0 5^ M <( <( (*
*? *- W M s< *m nun ryum bo nyi shang kd, kd do sa mat pang gyum lung
( 41 )
ngak ka le. Let we (us) three, that we may bo good, be guardful of our a<-t>.
y"* ^f ^\ ' num-shim-nyo thdm-cli/niij lln'iiii-lilk re zany
we, human beings, are but as the creatures of the earth, < /^)\ -^( ()( ,
/5\ j C*v */( j-^ J~\ ( $( Q$ <j-^) (*^ C&( dr nun mat bd ka-yu nun ka-yu sa
sdk-chin rum kbn tdl la ching kbn gat, therefore, we should constrain our thoughts
to aspire heaven-wards.
i
The 3rd Person, dual and plural of the personal, consequently, also of the
Possesive, and Reciprocal Pronouns, including the singular number of the latter are
frequently elided by syncope, and are written ifj^- ^ a ' n y^> f r tf\ j^ hu-nyt ';
'.-yu, for |f \ j hu yu ; \f (^ ha-do, for \f \ (^ hu do, &c.
(5^ ho do, the 2nd Person singular of the Reciprocal Pronouns, is usually used,
when it is required to give particular emphasis to the person, thus, (\f (^ (\ ho
do gum, it is thou thyself, thou art the very person, (\f (5ft ^j ho do siik ka, do
it thyself.
g((? d-do bears less significance, and is generally used in the objective case.
It is also, by euallage, employed for the corresponding persons and numbers of the
Personal and Possessive Pronouns, for instance, the following sentences would be
rendered, (( <5((^ (0 (6 9 o-dom lo sho, for (( (\f ^\ (0 ( go ho mum bo
sho, I will give thee ; X((% (X 0^ 5^ "'^ cjljl ^ u ^> ^ or (& 6" (X 0^ 5^
ho sa chho lu di, bring thy book. <?((^* j(\) (^5 (/7) ( ' l ~d ^ Pk n ^ n j for (\f +>
$M C^3 ^/D ho sa li pok non, thy house has fallen, &c.
I \ \s \f^^ \' f * I ti
Among the Pronouns, it is only in these persons and numbers, that such commut-
ations take place. The other persons and numbers, are used in their simple forms,
thus, tf\ X( 3A (0 ( ftu u - n l]um bo sho, he will give you (two), \f\tj R( ^3 ^\
/A Ife hu-yu d-y/'nn dun bo sho, they will tell you, \f\ iv (j^ j$ (^t)> ^ u sa n til
nbn, his horse has fallen, X(j C**' j^^^j ^^^J 4 "'M 1 ' 1 S(l Mu-kuHy nyi -ku,itj,
your ancestors.
11
( 42 )
The inflected form C**A ka-sum, X((^ d-dom, &c, may be considered,
J
as the Particle -^N mum, abbreviated and embodied in the Pronoun, thus, \f\
/non, instead of tf\ -^ \ Jm mum, &c.
Relative and Interrogative Pronouns.
The Pronouns, who, which and what, are severally expressed by ( to,
sa-re, and (Q shu.
As the Old English, who, and which, were formerly used for either persons
or things, so in Lepcha, the ( to, and fa>V sa-re, are sometimes applied indiscri-
^%
minately, thus, <UA%\ ^$\i ((V(<$ <(-^ ft\ X sung-mut pum-lybng to chbng nyung
a, the clouds or the winds, who (for fa J"~ sa-re, which,) is the swifter, but the
^%
intermutation of these terms may be considered heterocletical. The distinction
between ( to and C^T^ $ a - re -, ma y be assumed to be the same as that which is
at present observed between the English, who and which, or similar to the difference
between the number signs, fa sang, and <,)^J pang. faT^ sa-re, may be applied to
things, animate or inanimate ; (^ to, can only be applied correctly to persons.
The above Pronouns, may be declined, the same as Substantives, thus.
($ to, who.
Singular.
Nom. ( to, who.
Inst. ( (d\ to nun, who, by whom.
Gen. ( fa> to sa, of whom, whose.
Dat. ( ( to kd, to whom.
_
Ace. ( -^N to mum, whom.
/
Abl. (^ /7)\ to nun, from whom.
To this the Dual and Plural signs, and Particles of Declension may, when nrrc.>-
/9 >
sary be affixed, as, (( ft\ ( 5^A ^( jQj (& go nun to nyum Jed lyi sho, to whom
(two) I shall give it, ( $fa ^( $fo to sang mat gang, if any persons do it.
( to, who, and (^>^" sa-re, which, are both Relative and Interrogative.
A,
/-* ** 'l
S/IH, what, is almost confined to the Interrogative, thus, -^(7" ( (3\ $j T ' md-ro
to nun zuk re, the person who did it ; ( fi)\ <(5' ^ to nun klong , who sent it ?
* /9 %
OT' C*>V ((& f*)\ 3*( j ^\ "^ rin il sa ~ re 9 nun d-yum bu ma, the words which
I have impressed upon you. 2( V "^\ *( C**> V (^f (& &- re nyum kd sa-re dim sho,
J A
of these two which will you select ?
^0 ^( s ^" thdm, what thing, fc\ -^( <^\ (^ /i mat tung go, what are you
doing ? &S ^( 2J *^" y^^ shang a, what do you want ?
Demonstrative Pronouns.
o-re, this, and (^ J"" o-re, that, may be declined the same way as the
A A
Relative Pronouns, thus,
<f-rc, this.
T"
d- re nyum, these two.
&~ re San 9i these persons.
^' re J ""^? these people or
things.
o-re, those.
1 ' 5^ ' re
those two.
' ? ' e * aw y? those persons.
' re P an ffi those persons or
things.
To these, the Emphatic Particle (^ do, may be added, thus,
X( T" (^ ' r<? do, this very.
^ <^L\ &-re do nyum, these very
two.
(% ^C**' a '" re ^ sang, these very
persons.
T"
> that very.
those very
two.
o-re do pang, those very
things.
To all of the above, the Particles of declension may be affixed, as also to
( 44 )
The Pronominal Adjectives, and Adverbial Pronouns.
sa-tet, how much, how many, %($ d-tet, this much, (g$^ o-tet, tlmt
much, (^t ta-do, one's own^ -^(^ (% ma-ro do, one's self, itself. Likewise to
The Distributive and Indefinite Pronouns.
e re, each,
another, &c.
7" T~ re re, each, (\ gun, all, every, <( jOP '-/*, some, \<j^ kum-duny,
Compound Pronouns
composed in English of, " ever, soever," are expressed by (&<Tj ff" rt ' in !J^ or
$ ff an ff I""* thus, ( (&<J"j fo go-rung, or ( <,)$ ^ ^o yy Z, whoever, who-
soever ; faT' (&<Tj sa ' re ff- r ^ n ff> or t**'^ $(& 0$ sa ' re gang la, whichever
*\
Avhichsoever, whatsoever ; ((A*T'j s ^ go-rung, or $( (\) 5/m gang la, what-
ever, whatsoever ; U/4? (&*Tj sa " fe# go-rung, or U>^ (^(^ (\) s-fc^ gang la, how
much soever, &c.
All may be declined, as already shown.
9. Of Verbs.
In Lepcha, the form of verbs is unaltered by Number or Gender of the
governing Noun, and their roots (with one or two exceptions) remain unchanged
by Tense.
The Conjugation, is like the Declension of Substantives, performed by Post-
* >
positive Particles, or by the aid of an Auxiliary verb, ( ( (^ shop tybl ).
The root of the verb may be taken for the Infinitire, thus, ^ shi, to see ; ^\>
lik, to call ; -^( mat, to do, to which root the Particles indicative of tense may be
affixed. These Particles are sometimes very indefinite. Some of them may, at
( 45 )
times, be made to denote different tenses, or they may often altogether be dispensed
with, the sense being shown by the context.
The following exemplification, however, may be taken as a guide for the for-
mation of tenses.
The Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
The Present Tense may be formed by affixing, to the root, the auxiliary verb
/O
0( bum, (literally to remain) ; also sometimes by, *?( ngdn, (literally to sit,) thus,
(( S(\) (3( go lik Mm, I call, or am calling.
The Past
may be denoted by the Particle (3( bd, as \fy (}( lik Id, called, or have called,
but in general the simple root stands for the past, thus, (j ^fl) i( ft (\f
ft go lik ydng na ho ma tJiyo ne, I called, but you did not hear me ;
*%
go ayo d-re li, I said this before.
The Pluperfect
may be indicated by the addition of the word, ( fdt, either, in combination
< - * < -
with, or without the past particle ()( l>d, thus, S^ ^( lik fat, or (\) ^( Q( lik
_ f*" / 'l ~ / *T
fdt l>d, had called ; (\f yf; ^^\ C> (3 \f( \f\ 4j r( &<> <& wun ff sa na-hdn hu ziik
fdt, before you came, he had done it ; ( gr( fdt, is a verb itself, signifying to lose, to
be lost, hence by an hyperphrasis, implying what is gone, past).
The Future
is expressed by the affixed particle, ( s/io, thus, (\) ( lik sho, I shall call.
The Future Perfect
may be rendered by a conjunction of the Past and Future terms ; thus,
&( (6 lik f dt sho > sha11 have called ' (9 S? ^J ^ ft9(> (& ^3 J?( (6
viuny sa na-hdn go zukfdt sho, before you return, I shall have finished it.
12
( 46 )
The Subjunctive Mood
expressing contingency is formed in the
Present Tense
_ /
by affixing, to the root of the verb, the particle ^3 Pi $ms, jQd <^3 ^ -?" mav
perhaps call.
The Imperfect.
This tense is indefinite. It may equally with the Future Indicative, be represented
by the particle ( sho, and sometimes by the participle particle $& shany, or
it may simply be understood by the context. Might, could, would, and should, imply
permission, power, obligation, and desire, so may be expressed by verbs or words
bearing these significations.
The Past Tense
may be formed by affixing the particle of contingency to the root of the verb, or to
the past sign, thus, $fl) ^3 *% P A > or 5^ f^( ^3 lijc f^ P^ ma J> would, (might,
& * *
&c.,) perhaps have called; (\f^(ft ft $( (( X( (^ (0 ^3 h ma n " n m 9 an ff
go &-dom bo pu, if you had not gone, I might have given you it.
The Future
may be expressed by the particle $ shang, combined with the particle of contin-
gency, thus, ^^ $ ^3 ^ s ^ an ff PU, shall perhaps call.
The Imperative.
2nd Person. Singular and Plural
is rendered by the affixed particle (g o ; or, should the verb end in a consonant, by
the reduplication of the final consonant with, or without the addition of the particle
/<*"" /fc ~ f> '**" / *" t
(% o, thus, 5(^ (X li > s P eak 5 J 5 ^ (K di o, come, (thou or ye) ; Joi ^ M &a,
or 5<\) * (& Hk ka o, call ; ^( $ mat ta, or ^( ^ (g mat ta o, do, perform ; i^V
Jang nga, or t% ^ (X <* an ff n ff a , run> (thou or ye). The particle a, may,
{ 47 )
though rarely employed, be affixed to the verb terminating in a vowel, thus,
<*"* * ^" *~"
li a, or >(\> g (% li a o, speak thou (or ye).
With reference to the Persons in the Objective case, the Imperative is express-
j> ^
ed by ( kon, and may be declined in the Persons; thus, (^fY 3^Y ifV *j'
tf\ j 5^ (""> ka-sum, ka-nyum, hum, ka-yiim, hu-yiim lik kon, let me, us two, him
(her or it), us, them call.
P
The word ( kon, is a verb implying to let, to permit, the above form is
t &
therefore merely putting the verb, j(\) lik, in the Infinitive, and ( kon, in the 2nd
Person Imperative, and so it will be apparent when written in full ; thus, (\f ^)\ tf\
&
(*" /O (& M nun h um tik kon na o, let, or permit thou him to call.
When a verb, ending in a vowel, is succeeded by ( kon, the final is amplified
by the euphonic consonant termination appertaining to it ; thus,
to have, to possess. 5*^ ^ ** let him ( her or '^>
possess.
_
Az, to see. j (^ Mw ^ow, let him, &c., see.
u*i to live. ^ (^ gum kon, let him, &c., live.
y*> to
^
', to speak. ^(\) (^ lin kon, let him, &c., speak.
/*r A / * r ^ ^
di, to come. S^; (-^ rf/7 /row, let him, &c., come.
But, as shown under the head of adjectives, all words do not admit of paragoge ;
in this case, such verbs would of course retain their final vowel ; thus,
P
m&, to be secret. -^( ( ma kon, let it be secret.
da, to lie. ( (^ da kirn, let him, &c., lie.
C3 po, to flit, to migrate. fe g po M n> i et h imj &C-j flit>
( 48 )
The 2nd Person Imperative is also sometimes expressed, by prefixing the
particle ta, and affixing lea, or fa sa, to the verb ; thus, \f \ <$ %( fa or
^j( hum ta mat sa, or, ta mat ka, let him do it.
There is also a Particle "( ka, which, when succeeding a verb, gives a plural
hortative or a postulate signification. It is evidently composed of the substantive
verb ka, and the optative particle J( a. Verbs, ending in a vowel, when
A '*" T
preceding it, are not inflected ; thus, >(\) ( li (not tin) kd, let us speak.
Participles.
The Present (and Gerund)
is formed, if the verb ends in a vowel, by affixing the particle <3\ un ff> or *&*"} wung,
or, if ending in a consonant, by reduplicating in the Participle sign, the final con-
A / *" *" ^* / *"~ ^T
sonant ; thus, S< ii^N shi wung, seeing ; ^^ t^*"N ^ wung, speaking ; -^( <\ mat
t f~ f~
tung, doing; (J" <^\ rok kung, reading; 4^ ft\ dang, ngung, running, &c.
The Past
t
is formed by affixing, to the root of the verb, the particle 0( Ian ; thus,
<-. /S> x^
5d, having called; \f\ $y (3(, (/^) /<M ZM^ 5a'w, wore, having done it, he went.
()( ban, may be considered to be a synasreses of the particle (3( la, and
/a < -. /o .5-
the conjunction g^ un thus, ^f N ^ ()(, XN (^) ' iM z ^ ^ rt '> un non, he did it, and
/ /a
went. ()( fo'w, is often abbreviated to ban.
The Future Indefinite (and Gerund)
is indicated by the particle <,) shang ; thus, ^(^ <,) fo'A sA?zy, calling, about calling.
(Gerund) (tf fa, f ^ ( <,)^ f ((/ (() ^ (^ /^ 5.re md^ s/iawy re *Ao do
^ *%
thou shalt be responsible for all thy doings (deeds).
( 49 )
The Future Definite
is denoted by affixing, to the Present Participle sign, the particle fai sa, thus,
jM **rN C*> tik ^ un ff sa > when, or on calling ; and a
Future Exact
may be formed by affixing, to the above, the particle (\) la, thus, j(\) <\ fa/
Q$ lik kuny sa la, immediately on calling.
The Future Perfect
/ * i <*
may be expressed by the particle shen, thus, j(V) & ^ s ^ en > when having
<o
called. shen, is, however, often used indefinitely.
*^
The Conjunctive Participle
is formed by the particle i(\)\ lung, thus, \Q$ *^N Mb lung, calling.
An Emphatic Participle
f i ~
may be rendered by the particle, % det, thus, j(\) ^ lik det, calling or just
about to call. To this particle, the signs of the Tenses may be affixed, thus,
< - * < -
j W ^ C( ^ ^ ^ a ' m > am calling? r j ug t about calling ; j(\) ?( ()( Hk det l&, was
y
calling, or just about to call ; j^ ^ ^3j lik det pu, may perhaps be calling, &c.
Before ^ t?e^, verbs, ending in a vowel ; assume their final consonant, thus,
tin det) about speaking; Ssft ^ dit det, coming, just about to come.
** ^%
Passive Voice.
The passive voice is formed by the aid of an auxiliary verb ; or more com-
monly expressed through the medium of the Instrumental case, thus, the sentence,
/ 'i
\f\ (y\ -&J ? tu nun z ^i ma y ^ e rendered, he did it, or it was done by him.
The Active, or Passive signification of a verb, is generally sufficiently indicat-
ed by the sense of the context. But when it is requisite to make use of the passive
voice, it may be formed by affixing to the verb, with a substantive verb combined,
13
( 50 )
> &
(J (0> ^w fo> the adjective, or agentive form of (Jo tho, to place ; or (ft non,
the preterite of <(7t) W( ^ w y> to go.
>
The former (Jo (0 thorn bo, denotes a local relation, and represents the seat
of the object or action, and when combined with a substantive verb, renders the
pi*" **" f j *~' 2* '*"".
active verb to which it is affixed, passive, thus, ^^J pi, to write, ^^$ (Jo (Q pi
A/^- /S' /^-
iww 00, written, S^J (Jo (() ^\ jtn tf/jowz bo gum, it is written ; 5^ nyet, to show,
*
^ (Jo (0 n y e t tiu m b) shown, 3C (Jo (() (\ nyet thorn bo gum, it is shown ; -^ ( md,
to hide, -^( (Jo (0 w rf ^ow io, hidden, ^( (Jo (() (M ?a thorn bo gum, it is hid-
den, &c.
The latter (/^) wow, implies an absolute transition, and infers directly, or
inversely, the object to have gone, past, or been, and may be affixed to all verbs
to which that sense is desired to be conveyed ; combined with a substantive verb, it
> > &
forms a passive voice, thus, (^ niok, to expend, (^ (fo mok non, expended, to be
^ & < t &
expended, (^ (($ fo\ mok non gum, is expended ; ^( male, to die, ^( (fi) mdk
J t & .. >
wow, dead, to be dead, -^ ( (^) (^\ mdk non gum, is dead ; (^ W/c, to injure,
w gum, is injured ; 5^ nyaJc, to shake, 5^ (/c) (t$\ nyak non gum,
is shaken.
The agentive (/^) (0 wore 50, may be affixed instead of the simple preterite,
wow, but this form is unnecessary.
Some verbs are, in themselves, Intransitive or Passive, thus, >A kri, to be
& . o
bitter, (-^ chor, to be sour ; ^V( Idydm, to be sweet ; 4^\ nyung, to be deep ; v( sAp,
to be shallow, &c. These verbs may be conjugated similarly to the active voice of
transitive verbs.
,
Some verbs may have both an Active and Passive signification, thus, (^ IbJc,
i > ..
to injure, or be injured ; Zfc dak, to hurt, to be hurt, to be sick ; (( ((\) ()( go Ibk
t t /9
lam, I am injuring, or am injured ; \f\ -^j 2fc \ hum ma dak kun, do not hurt
( 51 )
i
him ; ^A ^ Q( 1m dak lam, he is ill, &c. The addition of the substantive verb,
gum, would, however, render the Passive voice of these verbs unmistakable, as,
(W C$\ ff Mk gum, I am injured, &c.
J &
To the above, as also to all Passive verbs, the affixing of (ft non, imparts
to the verb an acquisitive condition, thus, tf\ % (ft hu dak non, he has become
t f~ % * f- J
ill ; \f \ S-A (ft hu kri non, it has become bitter.
&
(ft non, when affixed to some active transitive verbs, occasionally retains its
* < &
literal sense of "to go" thus, S^ (ft lik nun, though it may imply, " called," would
t &
be more commonly understood to signify, " gone to call," so, tA j^ (ft (&\ hu Hk
non gum, he has gone to call ; but this is merely an elliptical form of S^ <,)
&
(ft lilt sliang ka non, therefore in its entirety the sentence would be written,
&
(/c) fa* nm ? ium tih s ? ian </ kd non, he has gone for the purpose
*<
\f\ j
of calling him.
Verbal Particles.
There are numerous particles, affixed to verbs, which are for the most part of
indefinite meaning, such are -^ ma, ^(^.ma o, (% yam o, (^i (<g
pa-ro, t.Q tung, &c.
The first three, generally, represent the Present or Past tenses, thus,
/ /> / ^' /fc *
go pi ma, I am writing or have written ; )f\ ^)o ^(% hu thi ma o, he has arrived ;
<
\f \~%( (& hu mdk yam o, he is dead. U/ (^ sa o, applies more to the present or
future, thus, (> <(7) C> (& ff n( ' m ff sa ) I s ^ ia ^ S- ^(T"^ pa-ro, generally, implies a
doubt, as (3 ^ ^(T' 3 shi pa-ro, I may possibly see him. ^j timg is used,
especially, in the Imperfect Subjunctive, thus, (^(& ft <,)& ((& /5) X(E3 5^
<^ j l/ ma ff na ff an ff 9 nun &~y um tt t&ng, if it were not so, I would have told you.
But when, through the context, the meaning is evident, these particles are
( 52 )
*
sometimes used, independent of tense, merely to give fulness and completion to the
sentence. Rules, however, only require to be laid down to render these and such
relative particles, definite and absolute.
^J( pa, is a verbal affix, giving a slight degree of emphasis, thus, )Tj *5( r yu P^t
H
it is good ; \ ^$( urn pd, it is nice ; (it corresponds to the Tibetan verbal termina-
tion v pa).
&
ft ne, is a particle attached to (ft non, giving emphasis to the past,
& < & _< &
thus, (ft ft non ne, gone, \f\ ^( (ft ft hu mdk non ne, he has expired, ( C. (ft ft
ko pla non ne, the order hath gone forth. (This ft ne, is identical with w nas, the
Tibetan Pluperfect sign.)
2fc( da, and -0 ft che na, are Adverbial Particles, giving emphasis to the verb,
whether the latter be expressed or understood, thus %( ((\) J^( d-lo dd, it is certainly
so ; (fa ^(fy -C ft 90 nong che na, I shall positively go.
Of Substantive Verbs.
The Substantive Verb, to be, may be expressed by fo\ gum, (fo $6, (fo go,
A*^"" ^*"
f") - k a > an( ^ J^- n yi) which all represent, am, art, is, are, were, &c. Each,
however, in a degree bear separate applications, thus,
(/urn, is, generally, used relatively with all the Numbers and Persons, so,
I am > tf\ ty hw gum, he is, X(j^- (\ d-nyi gum, you two are,
9 um > y u are> ^* ^ s a ^ so use( ^ ^ n ^ erro & a ^ ye ^y> where the subject, in the
_- ^
Objective case, is expressed, thus, (\f &JY' M C^> ^(; ' (\ ? l sa ' re san g sa ma-ru
gum, what kind of person art thou ?
(fo go, is more usually employed in the 2nd Person, and especially interroga-
tively, thus, (f (fa ho go, thou art ; (ft ($ (fo ho to g6, who art thou ? ( ^ 3 C"
OC <(?D $6 (& & -y* sa ' M n n 9 shan 99<>i where art thou going ? \f\ ^J ^( t< $\
hu shu mat tung go, what is he doing ?
( 53 )
9i i g used more relatively, and in negation, and without regard to person,
thus, (& ^ (fo ft go ma go ne, it is not I ; (fo ^( go pd, it is ; ( (^ (^ ^ (fo ft
** *%
d-lo la ma go ne, it is not even this. When unconnected with person, it is used
interrogatively in preference to (fo go; thus, g( (W 6j^5( ^ ^ <5 "~^ OT s ^"
w7 #0 shang a, why should it be so ? <( ?~~ (&$ (( $ d^re shu go te, what can
^* *%
this be ?
j( ^/d, is almost wholly confined to the negative, thus, -^ (( ft ma yd ne, it
^%
is not.
A", is almost invariably combined with a particle, and generally refers
relatively to a neuter subject, thus, ^( J" Q^ ^ d-re shu Jca te, what may this be ;
^% ^*
^ ^ a ff' r ^ n ff) whatever it may be, -Q ft Jca che na, it certainly
k 9 an 9 l a > even ^ ^ were,
and ^ 7ra, are seldom, if ever, used with the negative particles affixed.
Of Conjugation.
yum, and (^ go, am, art, is, are, were, represent the present and some-
times the past, they are not/ capable of being conjugated, not admitting of the
Particles of conjugation being affixed to them.
ka, may have emphatic, and adverbial, particles affixed, but does not bear
conjugation.
((& 9i ma y ^ e conjugated in the Active voice, it is chiefly used, irrelative of
person, thus, RCf (Cb (& a-re go sho, this shall be, this will do ; (<($ (6> 0(
** *
M
o-lom <jo Id, it was so ; v ((\) (( $ 2 sa-lom go shang a, how shall it be ?
(( yd, may be conjugated similarly to (( ffo, but chiefly in the negative form,
thus, ^ ((ft(& ma gd na sho, it shall not be ; (>( (\> ^&( ft 0( sa-thd la
ma yd na ba, it never was.
14
( 54 )
AM mm suk
nyi, may be conjugated in all the tenses, and when affixed to other verbs,
f*~" ** ""T
forms a past tense, and sometimes a passive voice, thus, \f\ S^C 0( hu nyi l&m,
f"" / "T
he is ; \f \ ()( j5^ hu 1dm nyi, he was, he was present ;
^*
nyi, it was done by him.
The following are examples of verbs conjugated.
M
, am, art, &c.
if ^
(\f
Singular.
ff ff um > I am -
or ((& h 9 um or
h u ff um ) he is.
5
if
Dual.
ka nyi gum, we two are.
d-nyi gum, you two are.
, they two are.
Plural.
are -
or
or gi ye are.
are.
s, am, was, were, have, &c.
S?^ 5^ ka-nyi nyi, we two were.
z, thou wast.
~.
hu nyi, he was.
*tf
'-w^' nyi, you two were.
* wyz, they two were.
Plural.
nyi, we were.
nyi Mm, am being.
nyi fat, was, have, has been, had been.
^?C fy( (3( nyi fat Id, had, had been.
( 55 )
/'*"' ~ '""T
S^. r( (& nyi fat sho, shall have been.
S/*-" ^ /*^
^C ^$\ nyipu, may be, may have, may have been.
~" 1 / ^"
r( ^5 nyi fat pu, may have been, had perhaps been.
? /fc ~
<)^ ^5j y* sA#wr JOM, may, might, would perhaps have been.
& f~
( nyim Mn } let me, us, be ; let us have.
t~~
nyi o, be thou or ye; have thou or ye.
*~
nyi fed, let we be ; let we have.
^"
nyi wuny, being, having.
f~
nyi ban, having, having been.
n !ji shang, about being ; about having.
S/* t*"
5^ <^r\ ^U/ nyi wung sa, when being, or when having.
^
^ w ^' "'"^ sa l a > immediately on being, or having.
,
i l un ff) being, having.
im detj being, or just about being, or having.
As the root of the verb is uninflected by number or person, it will in the
following paradigma, be sufficient to show the 1st person of each tense.
I
^ shak, to advise.
Active Voice.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
9 s hak, I advise.
I am advising.
m
Past Tense.
<
6 9 shaJc, I advised.
t
& C( 9 s h a k ^ a 'j ^ advised, or was advising.
< r( 9 shuk fat) I nave advised.
< _
6 &( C( y shakfdt Id, I had advised.
( 56 )
Future Tense.
l
(& ff shak s ho, I shall advise.
Future Perfect.
t _
(& &C ( 9 shok fat slto, I shall have advised.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
(& 5$J ff shakp) I ma 7 perhaps advise.
Imperfect, Past, and Future Perfect.
t
<& (& 9 shak sfto, I may, might, would advise or have
ff sjiajc shm ff> advised.
go shak pii, I may, might, would perhaps ad-
go shakshangpu, ? vise, or may, might, &c. per-
< - haps have advised.
at pu,
Imperative Mood.
(\f 6> (. ho shak kon, advise thou.
I I' V-' V W '
t & *-
you two.
w ' advise ye.
Hortative.
kd, let we (us) two advise.
^ J ^ *r( ^^-y" 5 ^ a ^ ^ a '> let we (us) advise.
Participles.
Present and Gerund.
**A shuk fa' 11 */) advising.
Past.
/
CC *^ a ^" ^" W J having advised.
( 37 )
Future, Indefinite and Gerund.
shak shang, advising, about advising.
Future, Definite.
(^/ shak Tnrng sa, when or on advising.
Future Exact.
fa> (^ shak kung sa la, immediately on advising.
Future Perfect.
t t
fa fe shak shen, when having advised.
Conjunctive.
t
& t$$\ s ^ ia ^ lung, advising.
Emphatic.
t -
*fc shak det, advising, or just about advising.
Passive Voice.
The Passive voice, as already explained (in pages 49 and 50) may, when neces-
& &
sary, be conjugated by aid of the verb (^) non, or the Agentive (}o (() thorn bo, and
a substantive verb affixed, thus,
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
n " n
t > ^ I am advised.
(0
Past Tense.
t 2>
i
(0
t > c ^ ^
6 (0 J<*- O(ff sjia k { h m b nyibd,
15
I was, or have been advised.
( 58 )
Future Tense.
9 shak n n
< > */ /-;
(X* (0 j?*~ (&9 shuk thorn lo nyisho,
I shall have been advised.
And so on, the Particles indicative of the tenses, may be affixed to the Passive
signs.
Deponent Verbs.
May be conjugated, thus.
^ e gd.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
C( 9 r y^ bdm, I am good.
Past Tense.
1
l was, have been, had been good.
i M,
Future Tense.
(6 9 r yu s h> I stall be good.
Future Perfect Tense.
I shall have been good.
0( 9 ri Ju nyi s/io bd,
( 59 )
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
9 r y u ^ am P u > I ma y perhaps be good.
Imperfect.
go ryu sho,
I might, would be good.
9
9 r y u S ^ ian 9 P u ) ^ flight would perhaps be good.
Perfect.
I may have been good.
9
Pluperfect.
^ P' i ^ a( ^ p erna p s ^ een good.
Future Perfect.
* " s ^ a ^ p erna P s nave ^ een good.
Imperative Mood.
&
(- ka-sum ryiim kon, let me be good.
(\f Tbj (X h r yu ) ^ e * nou good.
.. &
\f\ tl/j (-^ /M?W ryum kon, let him be good.
X( 5^- TT>3 (X v-nyi ry* 1 ) be y u tw gd, &c.
. ^S-
^ Ej TT'j (~ ka-yum ryum kon, let us be good.
-y ^ > b e ye good.
hu-yum ryum km, let them be good.
Hortative.
" "
let we (us) be good.
( 60 )
Participles.
Present.
^ wun y> being good.
Past and Conjunctive.
0( r yu b ( ' n > having been good.
Future Indefinite.
S ^ ian 3i about being good.
Future Definite.
C**' r y wun 9 sa > when, or on being good.
Future Exact.
T&J <^"^ CA*' W r y mm g sa l a t immediately on bein g good.
Future Perfect.
& r yu s ^ ien ) when having been good.
Conjunctive.
Emphatic.
ryiim det, being, or just about being good.
Irregular Verbs.
*(7) w <>#, to go ; <(^ hrong, to rise ; and t(ffifron(f, to point out, to indicate ;
inasmuch as they differ from other verbs, by bearing an inflected form in the Past
Tenses ; may be said to be irregular. They may be thus conjugated.
<(70 n <> n ff> to go.
Active Voice.
Indicative Mood.
Present Tense.
0( ff n " n ff Ww > I am
( 61 )
Imperfect.
> * was s in g-
Perfect.
&
(ft) ff n " n ) I went, I have gone.
Pluperfect.
&
n " n MJ I had ne -
Future.
9 n " nf J s/l > T sha11 g-.
Future Perfect.
Subjunctive Mood.
Present Tense.
Imperfect.
I would go.
Perfect.
Future.
*(?) ^ ^3 ^ 1l " H 9 sfian y ^ ^ would, or, perhaps shall go.
Future Perfect.
& i
(ft <)& ^5j 9 nlm sftan ff P"> * would, or, shall perhaps have gone.
Imperative.
& &
(ft C*" ^ a -sum nbn kun, let me go.
(ft (<S 7i(i no > S thou -
x^
(ft
16
( 62 )
2< &
(/) (* ka-nyum n6n k6n, let us two go.
>-
' W F wo j g y u two -
Im-nyum nbn kon, let them (those) two go.
(/) (*r ka-yiim nbn kon, let us go.
wo o, go ye.
7 /
if \ ^J (/O (*^ hu-yiim nbn Icon, let them go.
Hortative.
let we (us) go.
Postulate.
Let we (us) go, come along, do come along.
Present (and Gerund).
going.
Past.
& <*
(fd 0( n ^ n ^ n ) Caving gone.
Future Indefinite (and Gerund).
nbng shang, about going.
Future Definite.
G*> n n ff nyung sa, when, or, on going.
Future Exact.
*(7c) ft\ C** ^ w w ^ wyw^ sa la, immediately on going.
Future Perfect Tense.
& *>
> when having gone.
( 6.3 )
Conjunctive.
nong lung, going.
Emphatic.
non det, just about going.
Passive Voice.
As in English, Intransitive Verbs are not considered to bear a Passive Voice, so
in Lepcha, the tenses of these verbs in the Indicative, and Subjunctive Moods, for
& & A/ /*-; &./**
instance, (fo (ft fo\ go nbn gum ; (fo (ft ^ Q(go nbn nyi M ; (fo (ft ^ ( go
T
non nyi sho ; &c., may be regarded as only the Preterite Tense, Indicative Mood,
with an auxiliary verb conjugated and affixed. Moreover, " I am gone," " I have
been gone," " I shall have been gone," &c., may, perhaps, be looked on as question-
able orthology.
This form of speech, however, is in Lepcha seldom used, but the Imperative
and some of the Participles are employed in the Passive, and being expressed with-
out the aid of an Auxiliary verb, may be deemed to be a true conjugation, and in
locution, to be logically correct, thus
Imperative Mood.
(ft ft (3 nan na o, be thou (you two, or ye) gone.
^
Hortative.
&
(ft ( non M, let we (us) be gone.
Postulate.
(ft Q$ non ka lc, do let we (us) be gone.
Participles.
Present Tense.
(ft ift\ non nuncf, being gone.
( 64 )
Future Tense.
C**> nolt nun y sa > when, or, on being gone.
Future Exact.
C*> 0$ n n nm d sa l a ) immediately on being gone.
Conjunctive.
n " n t un ff> being gone.
The Past Participles would necessitate the addition of an auxiliary verb, thus,
/ f*^
C( n " n nyibdn, having been gone. This form, as, has been already stated,
would be seldom resorted to.
In like manner may be conjugated the verb, t(\fa /irony, to rise, to ascend ;
>
Past, (}fy /iron, ascended ; Imperative, (\ hro, ascend (thou, or, ye). Also, <($)
& y-'
frony, to point out, to indicate ; Past, (jj fron, indicated. (j frtitff, has, however,
no inflected form of Imperative, nor has, either of these two verbs, a separate form
for the Hortative, corresponding to /^)( nd.
Neuter Verbs,
to be conjugated, require the aid of an Auxiliary verb, thus,
(Jo thai, to be
near.
Present Tense.
ff<> MM Um , }
A f~ I am near.
0( ff tm n &* Um > i
Past Tense..
/
9 tm ni J { >
t>, ^ ^ I was, have been, or, had been near.
( 9 thol nyi b&, '
( 65 )
Future Tense.
^".
& ff thbl nyi sho, I shall be near.
Future Perfect Tense.
>*. -- /-
(^ ^ ^- iy( ( # ^ w #* / rt '^ s ^> I sna U nave been near.
Subjunctive Mood.
(> 5*" ^3 ^ * M W^ ) I may, might, would, perhaps be, or,
z shang pu, } perhaps have been, near.
Imperative Mood.
*> it,**" ?~~
(\f (}o S^C (X &> ^o? wy/ o, be thou near.
^ e e near>
Participles.
z wwwy, being near.
f"~ ^T
And so on, affixing the participle signs to, ^5<- F> as shown in page 55.
Common Verbs
having both an Active and Passive signification, may have the Passive Voice
rendered more definite by affixing to the root of the verb, an Auxiliary verb, thus,
> > .. >
(^ lok, to injure or be injured ; (( (Q$ Q( go lok lam, I am injuring ; (( (ty ()( yo
^
luk bd, I was injuring, or was injured ; (( (^ ( go lok sho, I shall injure, or shall
^ / ' >/*- /*^
be injured; ((&($$ (\ go Ibk gum, I am injured; (^ ((tyj^JF WA yi, I am,
J > */ ^
was, or, have been injured ; (fo (^ ^)^C 0( ^ ^* ^ ^> I n ^ve been, or, had been
injured, &c.
17
PART IV.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
Derivative, and Primitive. Etymology.
thus,
/
Of Adverbs.
Adverbs may be formed, from verbs, by affixing to the root the Particle (ty to,
TT>j (V) r 2/u fa) goodly, well.
^5" (\) j'an la, badly.
M
mi la, cautiously.
strongly, firmly.
la, rightly, correctly.
yam la, handsomely.
son la, dryly.
(\) slid la, wetly.
z, swiftly.
jel to, pronouncing correctly.
(JS" Jan, to be bad.
(/yum, to be cautious.
torn, to be strong, to be firm.
sak, to be right.
rydm, to be handsome.
s<>w, to be dry.
sM, to be wet.
owy, to be swift.
A . .
^5 /e, to have correct pronunciation.
&
Some Adverbs thus formed, may take a prefixed Particle or Syllable, thus
(\) & a fa)
} full, brimful.
^0
la, to be full.
A /-
( gal, to disappear.
disappearingly.
A to separate, to be separate.
distinct.
to be black.
</c)( wy> to be straight.
$9 to
(ft (\>
> separately.
> distinctly, clearly.
blackly.
Jstraightly.
i nung-nang la,
The last two are examples of words that may be adverbially expressed by
means of the Substantive or Adjective prefixed particle 3( a > thus,
mat, or, (ft Q$ ^( nbk la mat, to make black, to blacken ; 3J( ^ft( (Jo
or
unpolished, roughly.
#A, to place straight.
But many Adverbs, though thus formed, possess no verbal root, the following
are examples :
(^ pur-shii la, untidy, slovenly.
tot la,
pur-tot la,
ta-d&r la, curved outwards.
^5 ((&\ 0$ pa-grbk la, slightly apart.
C**' Sr" CO *-^' fa> convulsively, spasmodically.
*^
^\ (f ^ rum-rom la, bulging out in centre, ventricose.
^ 0V ^ fuk-fyelc la, worn by friction.
ra - r * fe standing on end, bristling up (as hair), &c.
sa-du la, slowly.
turn-torn la, swollen out.
( 68 )
Adverbs may also be formed by reduplication, or, by the addition of a chime
word, with or without an epenthesis, thus,
Sm 9 n ff a Son 9 n ff a j reverberating, resonantly.
f\>
(} T~ th&r ra thor ra, scattered about, here and there.
( ( Mr Mr,
curling, twistingly.
ra r ra,
t
f
iJ'v *r i/V Ay a ^ # a hydk & a i pointed, tapering to a point.
> >
(-o (*o toy am kryom, unitedly, concordantly.
''_'"'/*- x^-
i/V ^ ift^ h)jam ma hyam, quietly, smoothly, gently and noiselessly.
>
(\) (^ (V S ^^ 1 s hM ^ a i confusedly, higgledy-piggledy, hurley-burley.
Adverbs may likewise be sometimes expressed by the reduplication of a sub-
i t t ..
stantive, thus, * $$( sa-aydk, a day, (^u JU( */ ^)( sa-ayak sa-ayak, daily ;
*, , t.
nam, a year, /^)( /i)( warn ndm, yearly ; (^ tok, a drop, ( (^ tbk tbk, drop by drop,
guttatim.
Sometimes verbs in the Participle form may be made to qualify other verbs ;
hence performing the duty of Adverbs, thus
T / *>>-
^ nc/ak, to look, to observe, ^ <(\^ ((\) w^a/c fe?z^ 16m, to walk circumspectly ;
> > <i
(*^J kryom, to agree, to accord with, (-Aj t(M ^fA kryum lung suk, to act in concert,
unanimously; <^-() c/w^, to think, to consider, 4^-^ <(V>\ ^(V) c ^ n ff ^ Un 9 &i to
speak with reflection ; (fo go, to rejoice, to be glad, (> ^\ 1s( 9" Iun 9 m&t i to ^
& & +/~ " /^
joyfully, gladly; ft ngon, to grudge, (V*(V)^ ^)(V n $" n Iun 9 ^i, to give begrudg-
ingly ; (^ ro, to fear, ()^<(\)N <(7i) ro ^ un ff nbng, to go in fear, tremblingly.
A Substantive with a postposition, may also qualify the verb, thus
<5( Ej *( 0( <i-yut M b<* >H , to live in sloth, sluggishly.
t\> /S> <
((/ ^f (3\ -Hkj khor-de nun suk, to act with prudence, prudently.
,-:. <
fd\ $V\ sdk-ryut nun tyuk, to jump through joy, joyously.
3^
( 69 )
'** /fc " > *7"
S(\) d-thang nun li, to speak with truth, truly, truthfully.
* >"
(0 sdn-lat nun tsoJc, to bear with patience, patiently.
t**' ^^ 5^ d-nyen sa dun lyi, to inform with gentleness, gently.
The particle (^ la, affixed to an adverb, gives intensity, thus
}o( sa-t/id, when, fa }( (V sa-thd la, always, ever.
fa (3( sa-la, where, fa Q( (V sa -bd la, everywhere.
c hd t X( ^- 6- n !/ e ) X(^)W a-lang, &c., are examples of Primitive Adverbs,
having no verbal root, and no adverbial particle affixed. The following is a list of
Adverbs, Primitive and Formative.
Adverbs of Time.
fa }o( sa-thd, when. fa}( (& *)j sa-thd go-rung, whenever, whensoever.
fa, Jo( ^ sa-thd la, always, ever.
cha, just, just past. -Q( ( (,)^ e/a c-feH/7, just now (past).
&-lang, now. ^( *.)(V^ (% a'-fcwjr </o, even now, this moment.
<~r *-
^' n y e i presently. ^ ^ to/f la, immediately.
f5j (\) /" fa) shortly, in a few days. ^"" rew, since.
^
/& /o
\f( hun, before, first, fa tf( na-han, before, ] reviously.
ayo, before, some time ago. 2SV( a H^i before, formerly, a long time ago.
**
/c) <$U ^c) ayan-na ayan-na, long long ago, in former times, anciently.
/ /*-/-
^ ow > after, afterwards. 2?( -(f ( ^-^ ^> in future.
0( a '-^ ^ a '> these times, now a days.
^ fc *'
a ' r nun pyil la, henceforth, henceforward.
fat <(&>' sa-tshbny, when.
)
in a short time, ere long, presently.
la, )
18
( 70 )
> occasionally.
sometimes.
1, often. (( C(
* * }
OC OC ft *<"> by turns, over and over again, repeatedly.
OC to & to ldl la Ul la > '
S3 to na ^ a )
shuk-na,
always, ever.
no, never.
4,
< ' /O W shulc-na la,
tct, till, until. (y w^o^, early, betimes.
**" **".
to M h ( ) l^e, behind hand, too late, ^fj (^ phi la, late, too late.
The following may be considered more as nouns expressed, adverbially by re-
duplication, or, by the addition, of another adverb, or, of an adjective or post-posi-
tion.
&-thyin a-thyin, at times, time by time.
kat-thyin, once, once on a time, some time.
yfa hat-thyin, sometimes.
z ' re > seldom. ({0) jM/ grop-thyin, frequently.
o * /
* 1 *) many times, oft times.
*
** ~~^
kam-pdt kd, in a short time, shortly, for a short time.
^
J"~ k ( ' m -ptt rcn > a s^ort time since, lately.
XC (J3" -^ 7 ^ -P^ )
at times, sometimesv
CJ3" pho pho,
A
5^" (^ _/?Ao re? fo, each time.
, time by time.
) f r a moment, momentarily.
6* 2j C* 8 ' chhu-tshat chhu-ts/tat. houi'ly, horaly
( 71 )
a-aydk sa-ayalc, daily, diurnally.
(^ dun-hrbk dun-hrbk, weekly, hebdomadally.
(\> (^ (\) (Q fo-po fo-t>0, monthly.
<&, yearly. /7)( (. .( warn /for , by cycles of years.
namgyo ka, by centuries.
_
ta-ayan, last year. v\ (^; sum-by at, next year.
by day. (fat ft( ( so-ndp ka, by night.
sa-nyum ka,
o o
/)( (C** /X so-nap so-nap, nightly.
Q ,
( nap-mo ka, in the evening, (fat l(fa> ( so-sung kd, at dawn.
sa-rbng, to day. fat i^^" ()o sa-rbng thok, now-a-days.
to-morrow. Q$ ( luk ka, on the morrow.
kat-tshbng kd, the day after to-morrow.
- ^
kdt-chham, three days hence. ( (^ kdt-chhbt, four days hence.
> yesterday. (<U trS^ ayo-tshong, the day before yesterday.
^
ayo-chhdm. three days ago. (JU (^2C ayo-ehhbt, four days ago.
Adverbs of Place.
C** 0( Sfl -^) where.
/^^
sa-bi, where, (nearer and more definite than, fa> ()( sa-bd).
*)~j 5a "^" go-rung, wherever, wheresoever.
i9
fat OC ^) sa ^* l a t everywhere, fat Q( f^\ sa-ba nun, whence.
\^* "* /*' *
X( 0( *'^> ^ ere - X( ^)0 ^*) here, just here.
(<50( "^"> there. ($0 o-bi, there, just there.
X( 0( /^ -^ M> ^ence. X( 0( *^( ' w H hither.
( 72 )
(
(X 0( /3J -* WMW thence, (g 0( ( o-W A-d, thither.
*& here ' ( near ) in this direction, (g $ 0-% tliere (near), in that direc-
, /*- /-
tion. ( jr #o7-/, somewhere, in some direction.
sa-lem, whether, in what way, in what direction.
X( (V) -^ m > hither, in this way. (g (\> o-fem, thither, in that way.
** ^%
& m, p
C* (0 sa-Ww, on what side. ( (0 o-W, on this side. (^ (0 o-&6n, that side.
f
a-pyin, on the other side, beyond.
a-^awy, above, up, hero. (g <)( o-tt%, above, up there.
< i ' #M ' above > U P above here< (X >3 ^ 7i "' above U P above there.
zi, below, down here. (gX} o-cM, below, down there.
fo> whither, which way.
X( ((V> W - fe *i hither, this way. ( ((\) (\) o-lo la, thither, that way.
5 x ^ e ' a ' ? x ^-e, 5 oc /-w, ^ 5^ ? e -fi> 5 (^ (\) ^fo &, ^
W ^'^ to, ^()(V) ^-^ to, ^J() pe-lon, />-n , j pe-
A ^ >=, -S
^?e, there, thither, that way, there in that direction, &c.
f_ *<*- f^ tv
P*> J^5 0( pi'M, there, thither. ^ j^ar, there, just there.
there, thither, yonder.
* A /
J^ 7 Q(pyil-vdn, there, yonder, in that direction.
py op-pa, there, away yonder.
>, ^ 0( mc - la > % 50 -**> ^ (to to m ^-lo la, %
A A ^* ^
me-lon, down there, below yonder, there below (distant).
s
A
below, down, under. A ^ | downwards.
*i k n > J
( 73 )
(\) m yM I m !/tt l (t ) down, far far down below.
ti> ^( X t<*~ a > ( <& ta-a, ( 0( ^<*> ( <}( td-tkany, above there, up there.
A / i-
(V) ^ ^> U P above. ( Q( tal-van, upwards, aloft, on high.
to, (<$ (S ^-> (^ 0( t-M) U P there up, above (high).
1 /o
Jo\ to-thu, up above, over above. ($ (^) fe-fow, upwards, straight upwards.
A A
\ till, \ (\) ^M^ fo, up above, (high or far).
$ till la till la, above, high (or far away) above.
A /s> A &
tul-van, $\ ( ttil-kon, upwards, upward direction.
cho, (-0 (X c/o-o, (-^ 0( cho-bd, down there.
/w ' c ^"j (-0 X3 cho-ch/iu, (-Q X3 W cho-chhu la (-0 ^3 ^ cho-chhiil la,
down there below, low down, far below.
d-thol, near. (X()( thol-ba, near, nigh unto, at hand.
ma-rum, far. -^ )^\ -^ J^\ ma-rum ma-rum, far far, far away.
*'"' ^
( yywn ka, to the right. ^Q ^( vim ka, to the left.
The following are Postpositions as well as Adverbs.
*^T /*~-
d-planff, above, on, upon. J( j^5 -"**> below, under, underneath.
^ t
S( (<$ '^> above, over above, over-head. ^\ ^( tuk-dam, above, over against.
s -^ r ^??z, below, beneath, underneath.
sa-gang, within, inside. <(X^( ^'^> ou * outside, &c.
Adverbs of Quality and Manner.
M
(CO 5a -^ C** (^ sa-lom, how, in what manner.
XC (CO ( ' 1 -^ WZ J *^i s Wa 7> ^^ s manner, thus, so. (< (^ o-lom, that manner, that way.
manner > every way.
19
( 74 )
sa ' l
any way whatsoever.
((\) <)& (V) sa-lo gang la,
(V) ?w/n y ^> evenly, straightly. 2 uprightly, straightforwardly, fairly,
^"*
V #* ^ divergingly, obliquely. 2 dishonestly, basely. [honestly.
(\) Z/y Z, slopingly, inclinedly. 2 favouringly, partially, unfairly.
>
0( (V) ^ ^j across, athwart. (QvQbfl/vk la, transversely, intersectingly.
|V
J"" dyar-ra, parallel with, along side of. ^S] (\) pro, la, abreast.
ojt? la, \ \ (^(\) tuk-fyon la, horizontally.
opposite, vis-a-vis. ^
la, vertically.
(V sa -b r u l> a i obliquely, sideways. ^( ^ 7i/a fo, straightway, directly.
r* &
thung-kbn, length-wise. i(^5V (-^ pybng-Mn, breadth-wise.
it
(*v (V) k<*-tyok fa> crookedly, winding. C^\ $ (V) sulc-jale la, taperingly.
)( /D X 3 !' /7) than-na thyan-na, unevenly, irregularly. t(C. (^ />W?zy la, evenly.
>
(^ ^ torn la, strongly, stoutly. \\ ^ hlu la, weakly, feebly.
* ^5 %htly. <^A\ <(^A; ^ Jifung-hryong la, loosely.
nur-ra nur-ra, gently, mildly, calmly.
<^ ^ nyen la, gently, meekly, good-naturedly, fa tfo (^ sa-gang la, gently,
smoothly, softly, slowly. /^)\ -^ /^)\ -^ num-ma num-ma, softly, velvety.
W (V) ^ ^ a ^ ^ a > so ^ sleeky, silky. ^J\ /^)( Qftpur-nat la, knotty, rugged.
^\ ^\ **
(6 y yeng-nga yeng-nga, leisurely. X (^ ^ # ^j deliberately.
^
lyblnybl, slowly, lazily, sluggishly. fa^\Q$ sa-du la, slowly, gently.
N
v( (^ sa-ltyam la, gently, quietly, silently, tacitly.
! quickly, ^ ^ \f ^ hat-ta hat-ta,
( hastily, passionately,
speedily. ^5 *i ^ pa-kret la,
J A
( 75 )
-ft" /
(\) /rare fe, excitedly, nervously. jj (\) /;/ fo, anxiously, apprehensively.
^5 On (\) pa-brut la, roughly, ruggedly. ((fl ft yrybn-na, harshly, gratingly.
/o
-$( /^) zan-na, harshly, oppressively. (-Q (\) c/w? /#, oppressively, tyrannically.
<
rM fo, conformably. ^J ^ /ya/ fo, contrary to, reversely.
fl) sa-Z-ar la, suddenly, abruptly. (^ ^ pb la, becomingly, befittingly.
/&
(**> ($& (V) sa-lyon la, suddenly, unexpectedly, startingly.
i
sdk-ta-lo la, unconsciously, absently. 2 by chance, accidentally.
la, easily, with facility, (^"j^ (V)/"*^' ^ a i conveniently, opportunely.
t ,9
duk mm, \ f^\ ka-tuk nun, with difficulty, laboriously, trouble-
somely. ^\j (\) tyap la, with difficulty, embarrassingly. . [dubiously.
, bewilderingly, perplexingly. ((^ ()o (^ go-iliom la, doubtfully,
I sol la mbl la, fickly, changeably, shilly-shally.
ty jem la, neatly, tidily. -^ \ Q$j C*f mun-jii sa, awkwardly, clumsily.
myong la, skilfully, masterly. ^V( ^ mya la, diligently, devotedly.
iong la, by practice, through experience. 4(pr ^ fybny-nya, superficially.
(j? (\) Jchcr la, skilfully, dextrously, adroitly, expertly, aptly.
-Q (\) sa-chen la, spontaneously. $"ZS) (^ prany la, simultaneously.
,
dom la, concordantly, unanimously. (^ ^ kbp la, unitedly.
a-ro do, naturally, of one's self.
ta-do but tun, of one's own will, through one's own accord.
ii, \ only, simply, merely, ^( $ jxl-ta, vainly, fruitlessly,
ft) ^ ^*> ) gratuitously. uselessly, profitlessly.
liny-jblc, at length, at last. ^( (^V ( 6.-tybJ; kci, in conclusion, finally.
**
( 76 )
Adverbs of Degree.
& o &
team, a little. ( ($ Mm son, only a little. -Q\ ( ($ chup Mm son, only
a very little. >< ik, more, yet. j ?^( $ c?<i, more again, yet more.
^ ^ ^' more ant ^ more > again and again.
pur-tset. ^3\ (j& pur-tshet, partially, moderately.
ft) ron la, middling, moderately, (^sy ft dybm la, comparatively.
ft ti la, greatly, largely. -Q\ ft chu la, smally, minutely.
chd, -Q( -Q( chd chd, t(QRC wong, t^*" *((?"" wong wong, enough, sufficient,
plenty, stop, that will do, hold hand. ^( (X &-hl6k, more, over, above.
}o( ft thak la, ((J$ ft khybp la, (<JF ft) jot la, sufficiently, satisfyingly, amply,
adequately, plentifully. ft kam la, additively, supplementarily.
I pa-po la, proportionately. ^3A ((\ ft pum-lrwn la, disproportionately.
A ^ A
ft thyil la, '%.( jM/ 3( j^-V o,~thyil a-thyil, successively, consecutively.
" re re, f^ ft rel la, each, respectively, specifically.
/*f ^- f~*
fe ^ shat-ta shat-ta, one by one, drop by drop.
ft) man la, <()( ft bdng la, less, decreasingly, abatingly, attenuatingly.
iy6n la, decreasingly, collapsingly, defectively.
ft lat la, increasingly, augmentingly, developingly. ft ft chop la, in ad-
dition, over, above, in excess. <(^ ft) v 6ng la, abundantly, plentifully, profusely.
(X to (X to MJc la M6k la, t$ft ft ling la, superabundantly, redundantly.
ft nam, ft -^ nam-ma, ft ft nam nam, 5^( -^ nyak-ka, much, very, very
much, exceedingly, excessively, extremely. (ft ^ no-met, too much.
< A
^J -Q(pa-chak, almost, nearly, (-^j ft Icnjol la, almost, nearly all, about.
<i-t" m , more, mostly, chiefly, principally, especially.
o o
X-V *5 X 3 ^ ^5 thycp-pa, thycp-pa, perfectly, effectually, consummately, thoroughly.
< */ < A
5 phafc-/ca, SpJ J^;( phin-daJc-Jca, ^JV (^ py? to, altogether, completely, entirely,
absolutely, utterly, downright, outright.
om-ma, wholly, entirely, completely, integrally, bodily, en masse.
/9 *
/) gun-na, all, every, whole, entirely. >\ $( (\) gun-jam la, fa\ QS ( (^
^* * ^^ *
/dm fo, all, wholly, totally. <^V ^ tyang-nga, altogether, entirely, completely.
(jo ^ ^o/c fo, perfectly, the utmost, cuhninatingly, to an acme, to a climax.
A
l la, completely, perfectly, completively, finally.
Adverbs of Interrogation,
as, has already been shown, are expressed by ^ shu, what ? fa) ((\) sa-lom, how ?
/9
( sa-M, where ? ^U/ ^ sa-lcm, fa> (^\) s-/o??, whither ? U> )o( sa-thd, when ?
And compound, by, j ^( shu-mdt^vfliy, wherefore? <>v((V) (( sa-logo, how is it?
-^ ^ /s> ^ /a
^ " -$ (( sa-rc sang go, in what way ? \ \ (^ /QN s/i tw-dbk nun,
, for what reason, for what purpose, for what cause ? &c.
2* /
Adverbs of Affirmation and Allegation
are chiefly formative, thus, ^ ak, yes, ay, yea. ^ -^ ak ma
*
che na, yes, it is so, it certainly is so, &c.
' 9t ((\) (C$ ^ 9i 5^ ~& (X n y* ma 'i ^ ^ s so > ^ e ^ so ' so ^ e ^) & c -
s~ ** "
*5 ( or (^ C3 ffOfo)) S^ 0( {/ y ewz *> ( or S^^ 0( a y um W), certainly,
truly, it is so, it is certainly, &c. ((\) fo, certainly, surely, undoubtedly.
^ ftf f~~ _ fS? /*
(J ^C M ^* c ^^ fej (O ^C (V^ ^ ^A/ to, certainly, surely, assuredly, positively,
indubitably. 2.\ un, exactly, precisely, what else.
40
( 78 )
t)o a-thang, <)o > thang-nga, X(<) X(<( -^# ^-yawy, >( (^ nyA la, truly,
verily, really, indeed, actually, in fact, in good truth.
The Negative Adverb
/9 19/9
No, is expressed by ^( f^ ma-ne, ^(mdn, or -^/O man-ne. Other forms of
*% **
negation will be hereafter given.
The qualifying term may be often expressed in the verb, thus
^
$3V( pty&) to break asunder, to tear apart, (^y dyfo, to lean against.
& *f f~ >
(^sy ffyore, to swell out. Q vat, to meet round, to cz'rcwmvent. (^ nyol, to put
^ *
to put ow o/ the way. ( #<5r, to ward off, to guard against. ^ tek, to knock against,
*%
to stumble against. ((j& tsho, to take correct aim, to shoot weW.
?&
($5 phut) to burst ow. C pla, to issue /o?-^.
/ ^
c/iz, to cut open, to J/ssect. (}o ^^ to separate from, to detach.
cfow, to be drawn together, to be compressed. 0\ few, to meet together, to cowjoin.
', to cut through ^vith one stroke. < teng, to cut smoothly, evenly.
^
^
, to spring upwards. (T?V klyot, to leap oiw. }o thet, to jump down, 6fc., -c.
2. Of Postpositions.
The Part of Speech, which in European languages is generally represented by
Prepositions, is in Lepcha chiefly expressed by Postpositive particles or words.
These may be simple or compound, may be formed by the aid of adverbs, substan-
tives, or verbs, or may be unexpressed, the tense being inherent in the verb.
Under the head of the Declension of nouns, some of the simple Postpositions
/a
have already been shown. But fa su, -(kd, /^)\ nun, besides bearing various appli-
cations, possess in their quality of Postpositions, other significations than merely
those indicating the cases of nouns, for instance
sa, of, implies also for, with, along with, in, belonging to, regarding, con-
cerning, with respect to, &c, thus.,
^3 ((3 C> (R <(T" P a - no sapho-rong, the palace o/the king.
,)}o <,) (A* 6 fl mn 9 sfian ff sa sflcr > a ffl ass / 0? ' drinking out of.
^
^- ft zo so sa ma ni J ne > tuere ' ls no f 0( i/ or eating.
ra sa ngot, to cut wzY7 a knife.
C**' ^3( (6 s ^" Sft P<* r 5 ^> Wi '^ what shall I buy it ?
\f \ (^v <(7) (: ^ M 5 * w w ^ s ^ w ) I shall go w#A (along with} him.
/
if ^ C**' 2?(^V( S5^ ^ iM sa a-ffi/ap nyi, he has much belonging (appertaining] to him.
/
^ (E C*** "5 0( ^^ ?-yo ma Mm mun, live not in (in connection with, or, in
performance of) sin.
0^ C**' X( 5^ ^ M sa &-ffl/tt) a generation o/ {related fa) vipers.
> > /2>
X( Ej (O* (^ if ^ (A\ ft (^ : V (6 '^" **^* sa ' iw gun-no, thyo sho, ho will listen
to all respecting (or concerning} your affairs.
** A^""
(X T' C**' (A*' T' (6i X( (^ jiXl r" d - re sa sa - re 3 h-dom U re, with reference
j% ^% ^\
to {with regard to) that which I spoke to you of.
^t> ^ /a
( (6$) & CT C> (& fc m f J 1 J^f a ~ n 9 sa on > a torse worth (worthy of) five hundred
rupees.
M, to, also, on, upon, over, in, at, for, for the purpose of, in case of, in the
event of, in order that, &c., thus,
A
\f\ *j^ *^C (ft h u ti"y ^ n ' jn > ne nas ff ne t the plains.
s hing-te lea tho, place it upon the table.
^^ (*) *^C ^H^C tung-Jcrum lea dt/a, lay it ore the floor.
( 80 )
^( (Jo a-lcup M (him rlmg tho, spread the cloth over the child.
Jo( rom /cd t/tap, put it in (or, zfo^ the box.
\f\ X( (4 SC X 3 S( 6V( "( 6'( lm A - s < m "-Man a-gydp l:a lam, he lives in (or,
in the midst of) plenty.
shit M, for what ? for what purpose ?
^
"( (/^) zo par IM non, gone fo buy (/or the purpose of buying) rice.
> A
?;za ^ ^"^ ^^" ^ un 9 "Pi * a ^ e a ^ m an( l fi re a t ^ ne target.
/*-
o-re to-tshat M, at that time.
/9
A
-re sa-ayak kd, on this day.
^ /^-^
(V <(A) O"N ^ M wa ^* nung M ho nbng khu, in case of (or, in
the event of) his not coming you can go.
( (-{ &( ^" ^ 2" w * ffdt) t fi n order toj live, you must eat.
nun, from, by, also, with, out, out of, and sometimes, through, on account of.
^ /*)N ()((& *( P a t nun ff!/a-nok ka, from Tibet to China.
*WK /t)^ (^3 ty^7 nun po, to depart />ww the place.
/9
X'C ON /DN X( T^ }( tham-lu nun d-rc thd, this is eaten ly insects.
/ /o
(tT ^ C**>\ ^)N (X> Ao 7c-5M zm thop, you obtained it ^o??z me.
(d\ X( Wi * WMW f 'k> pl uc ^ it OM^ o/the fire.
5ft f /QN % 0( ff a-renundak Mm, through (on account of, otving to) this, I
am sick.
These Particles, though capable of giving expression to the above extended sig-
nifications, are by no means the sole mode whereby such terms may bo expressed.
As Particles of Declension, however, they necessarily form an important part of
speech, and are generally brought into conjunction with other words formin^
compound Postpositions.
( 81 )
The following are some examples of Postpositions (with applications^.
d-plang, on, upon. t\( C& X( ^^- hlang-ko d-plang, upon the shelf.
o-plang Jed, on, over, above, moreover, besides. [gave clothes
' *"
tf\ ^\ j(V a-som d-plang kd 1m dum lyi, besides food, he
^ (>/ X( $ c ( r % '^ wz fo ' re sa a-plang kd, over
and above, the words which I spoke to you.
& *% /-
d-ton, over, above. (\Xi(X S(($ ifil () ^-^^ a-^w % tho, hang it over
< &
the lamp. ^( }c^( 3(( a-thyak d-ton, above the head, over-head.
tuk-ddm, above, over against. <($" f ^ ($C ^( 5^ 4 ^ ^ ^3^^
/^ ^"
jong re jang a-plang M li kyong sa tuk-ddm ding nyi, the fortress stood
on a hill, over against the town.
a-min, under, underneath. \j( ^^ X(j^ ff!/6~fy'i ^~ m ^ n ) below the chair.
f^g ^_-
X(j""5 c ^ l Q-- m i n -> underneath the book.
_
sa-grdm, below, under. ^ (^> ^( /^ sa-grdm, below the ground.
-^ ^"^^ / ^"
(X C^* 1 C**' 6d^( ^Xj^ ^( j5^ ^^ sa sa-gram ung-da dd nyi, a lake lay at the
base of the hill.
na-Mn, before. ^C (^ a-^ ra , after. X( f X( <S^ <>" /D if ( -^ d-tyan sa
/-
na-hdn, before this event. (& <(^*v X( (A) s -song a-lon, after day-break.
^"*^ ** T"
d-zut, $\ zut, beside. ^^5 -ft\ *T( (3 m ^ zu ^ nydn-na, sit beside the fire.
dyap, along with. tf\ ^sj; (/^) (J /' M %/? wo o, go along with him.
<*^ , A -
#, to, till, until. X( E fd\ ?($ $ d-yuk nun a-tel tet, from top to bottom.
i - /- x^-
(63 <( (^ C**' j5^ m ^ c fat 9 a ~d sa n yi) ^ death I am yours.
j throughout. U/ S^ ^ (\) sa-nyi fak la, throughout the day.
/ Jt' /
#, without, void of. ^((^ C^> ^\ X(6>J ***" sa ^ MWl -^, with-
out food or clothes.
21
( 82 )
man-pb, ^( m&t, except, besides, save. f\ ^((^ X(fi>3
(0 ( 0$ "5 j^"- /t) rMOT mdn-pb a-ryumsiik bo to la ma nyin ne, except God,
^%
there is no one that doeth good. [I have nothing.
f *t A'
> ~^>( 6j (V) 3s j?^ ^c) 9 dum-klok mat shu la ma nyin ne, except a rag
1 &
on ^ s s ide, cis. i2j *(-v <5((0 ung-kyong d-bon, on this side of
the river.
f^ * *%
a-pyin, on the other side, beyond, trans. C$j(((>& <?( j*3^ gyam-tsho d-
/^~
pyin, beyond the ocean.
*^ *,
^^ /9 ^^
^5 (XV pa-htyblc, astride. (^ ^5()0^ onpa-hli/ok, astride the horse.
(\) ^>rd^ fe, across, t^-j ((^ ^!F)( (\) 5^( M^7 Ibm prat la da, the tree lay across
the road. ^Q^ ^3)( ^ ((\ vyeng prat la brol, bar it across the door.
< /9
$( sa-gang, within, inside, amongst, amidst. X((r C*v *.)^J /i)^ a-fok sa-gang
nun, from amidst the debris, j^ C**"?^i ^ sa-gang, inside the house.
t > <
ng-i ou *j outside. \ (^J i^V( O tuk-pbl lydng tsak, erect it outside the fence.
J t
tyek) between, betwixt. J3^VO S((V phu-lo d-byck, between the rails.
/*" ^ A / ^'
A towards, in the direction of. (5^ j^ ( nybtfikd, in the direction of the
(cultivated) fields, ^j^ 5^ P a -Hk fi, towards the open grounds.
kun, towards, in the direction of, for, on account of, regarding, respecting, with
., & & .^ ^
reference to, &c. /7)( ( (\fi (^ (^ j^ (V^ ?z ^ ^ row ^ ^* <?*' ^, come
1 & -
let us walk towards the market. <( ^ (^ ((^ ^( J~~ ^( 0( '-^ ^owyo d-?-e
^%
d^ Jaw, for you I am doing this, (fo ty %(Q tf\ fe^( <)( $ $ft 0(
< & */ /^
(A*' ^5( (^ j(V) ^ WMW -y^j '*" mik-krdp lam yang li bd go hu sa mdk
/*-
kbn li, when I said to you that he sleepeth, I spoke with regard to his death.
ewe & ^3 (&( (V) ^ 5^/3 <>r ^v3 ( ^ w w
( 83 )
kon shu gom-thom la ma nyin ne sa-re gyu lea sa-thd la ma mat tun, with reference to
sin there can be no doubt under (( kd,) any circumstances never commit it.
The above examples are likewise adverbs, and may be directly conjoined, or
<
with the exception of such as have the adverbial Particles affixed, (as, jy fl) fait laj,
* ^^~
or are affixes in themselves, (as, Sr fij may be connected to the noun by a relative
/ >
Particle, thus, ^$ N(^A SW^- () pun-hrop d-plang t/to, or, fa> '( <.); (Jo sa a-plang
*-< < /
tho, place it on the mantel-piece, jty $\ 3fc( or, fa $\ ^s.( li tuk-dam, or, sa tuk-
dam, over against the house, &c.
%[$\ a-zut, is an adverb, adjective, or postposition, and literally means, close, near to,
/*- f^ * F*~ f^ *>*-' ^ : -
so, ^^ 8k-$\ mi ^' 3ut > J^> ^ ^^\ m ' sa u-sut, ^^ $\ ( mi gut M, all
imply beside, close to, nigh to the fire.
The following are examples of Postpositions formed from nouns :
-" f~- tf '-
lam M, (from J( ^ a-lam, a substitute) in room of, in place of, instead of.
/*-
(() d-re lam ka o-re bo, instead of this, give me that.
kur-vong M, (^\tfy kur-vbng, front, presence), before, in front of.
^ Ma-gong kur-vvng ka, in front of the temple.
Aa, (honorary presence), before, in presence of.
/ s
(^) *^;\ ^( 4(7^) (3( ^ /" a -wo C?MW ^ nbng bam, I am going before (into
the presence of) the king.
6$ *X faffti M} (^ ^5j ta '9 iim i tne l> a ck), behind, at the back of, in the rear of.
-jy ^^
(& CO ^ (^J *^( g am ~b ta-gum ka, behind the monastery.
o, (4(7) MOW^, the interior), inside, within, among, amongst, amidst.
some among you.
wowy ^"d, in the midst of this tumult.
( 84 )
nun i ( fr m <?(* ( ' l ~* a > the h and )> through, by means of.
/ /o o /
tf^ C**' *r /<)^ (> 9 I M sa k a nun thP> I obtained it by means of him (through
his patronage, power, authority).
& */^- & *
l m nun > (((\) ti m > a road), through, by means of. ^^J (Q C*v \) ft\
pi bo sa 16m nun kha-chhet thik sho, the contract will be executed,
/9
through the medium of an agent. ()\ ((y) -^ S^L /3 bun loin ma nyin nc, there
is no mode (way) of carrying it.
19
l>/any, (a place), of, the object of, the means of. ^( *Mj( ngan lyang, a place
for sitting, a sitting place. ( H? 5) /^ <( ty $6 (^ X( 0V} *(VlK ^
^^^
tham-chany gun-no, ka num-shim-nyo u-fijum lydng yum, to all animals, man is an
object of awe.
ren, snce.
(S3
gur non ne, since I saw you a long time has elapsed.
This word is evidently a synizesis of the article, J~ re, and the postposi-
/9 A
tion, /^)\ nun ; so, the above sentence may be written ; ' from the time I saw
you.' &c. It is also a Conjunction (see page 87).
IVj
Also the Postposition may be affixed to the verb, thus (Jo thor, to be free ;
& A *9
() ^WlK "5 j^- f^ thur ly^ng ma nyin ne, there is no means (way) of escaping.
^%
The verb -^( mat, is productive of numerous compound terms, thus
/o _ /o
dt la, fi)\ia( 0( nun m <*t *; 6" -^( 0( sa mat bd, ^( 0( mci t ban,
*> J
7"m tren, through, by means of, by reason of, &c., (literally, through being
^*
done). ^ C*>\ fd\ ^>( 0( ka ' su nun m<it l<i i through me. fa ^fa n( 0(
1 ^
\f\ iXj 4 ("v (i/V sa-pu sa mat bd 1m ung-Ttyong hyo/c, by means of a raft he crossed
/9 /9 _ /9
the river. ^^ (^ /^)\ ^( Q( (or, -^( y^) /-s/<e (/<? ?ZMK mat bun, (or,
through, by means of Tashe himself.
( 85 )
The following are a few examples of postpositional terms, conveyed in the sense
of the verb. [to transfer.
'*"' ^
chim, to pour over anything. 3fs( dal, to pour from one vessel into another.
tot, to hold between the teeth. i(s$ tuny, to be covered toith dirt.
sel, to stick z'wfo, to t#0ert. fT> >ym, to exult over, to triumph cm* another.
3. O/" Conjunctions.
Conjunctions are expressed simply or compositively. They may be primitives,
or verbal formatives, or they may be rendered by Adverbs or Postpositions,
and may be Co-ordinatives or Subordinatives, according to the relation they bear in
the sentence.
The Copulative Conjunction, and is expressed by the Particle fat sa, thus,
(\f C**> (( (3C '(7t) (& h sa ff c ^ l n< ' m ff s ? l ) y u an d I w iH go together. <*jV((^>
^ /*- *'>' Jtr /*- /**
C* C">($b M^ X( J<$ C"> & J^ ^ ^^ tt/Any-mo sa sa-lbk tham-cliancj d-tim sa
/*-
shet nyim lo yum, the elephant and rhinoceros are great and strong animals.
The Conjunctive Particle is often repeated after the connected word, this may
have been affixed to effect a distinction between U> sa, the Postposition, and ^/ sa,
the Conjunction ; the two conjunctively also represent the co-relatives, both and,
thus, ()f (jutt (fo ho sa go ya, might be understood to mean I know you (about
concerning you) but the repetition of the fat sa, removes all ambiguity, so, (tf
(**> (C$ C"> 'h sa ff sa V a -> y u anc ^ I both know ; hence, the above examples may
be written, <<\K(^ C* <XW C^ A<^ &(j$ C^ 6^ (0 ty ty&ng-mo sa
/ * ?*-
sa-lok sa tham-chany a-tim sa shet ni/lm bo gum, both tlie elephant, and rhinoceros are
animals great and strong; or, <\>((^ fa fa (V\) H*-<) &($k C> 6 $$ (0
'*"' , *r~ *r
fa, (\ tyany-mo sa sa-lok tham-chany a-tim sa shet ni/int, bo sa yum, the elephant and
rhinoceros are animals, both great and strong.
22
( 86 )
n, is a co-ordinative conjunction chiefly connecting clauses and sentences.
^ > & *>
It bears also an additive sense and implies, yet, still, &c., thus 4(g (} (fd %\
ft? ^S/o I 'o* & *~ <~-
($(j& <^d^( ( C**> ^S$\ (0 Vj (/D n ff thok non un to-tshat glyang ka yan-tan
sa phyuk bo ngun non, the child grew up, and in the course of time, became learned
/o />
and wealthy ; 2\ X( T~ ^ *> <?((W un o-re pang sa-d-lon, and after these things ;
/
^\ (0 un 50, y^, w give (give more).
The Comparative Conjunction, $ len, than, has already been explained under
head of Degrees of Comparison (page 32).
The Conditional Conjunction, if, provided is expressed by the verbal Particle
< &
<)& 9 m 9i ttus (9 *5"^ ^ C^U/t) (^ ho ching gang sak non sho, if you think,
you will remember.
Its Correlative, also, likewise is represented by the emphatic Particle (^ fo,
or, by the word, (Jj gun, thus, (tf %( Qfo (fo ft (or, (fo ^) ^( ( A
yo la, (or, #0 ^wn,) ma'^ sho, /you die, I shall die also.
The Disjunctive Conjunction, except, unless, is expressed also by
with the verb in the negative, thus, (^3 ) W 5? W ^ ^ /O
o / ^- /^-
C**'T' W y^V ^ O"^ /i) -J/^ / M> * ^ *Az'r la ma pyet na gang ayok ke-chhi sa-re la thyep
*\ A J *\
ma khun ne, unless you diligently and perseveringly strive, you cannot accomplish
any great work.
jr ren, since, as. ($ ^ r %(& ^ (0 te $ (5( <^J ^ $Z~ ft ho ta ya
ren a-dom dun bo shong shu gat tuny ma nyin ne, since you know already (or, from, the
fact or circumstance of your knowing, &c., see page 84), there is no necessity
to tell you.
$( W 9 an gl> a i (C&tfj go-rung, are expressive Conjunctions, they imply though,
although, but, however, yet, albeit, nevertheless, notwithstanding, &c. They at the
" ^ 1
same time include their co-relative terms, thus rC**A (C**' (^0*Tj ( or >
( 87 )
Is ^( ft (& ka-sum sot go-rung, (or, gang la,) go ma mat na sho, although, even if
you kill me, yet I shall not do it.
The latter Conjunction, ( yo, and the verb ng( mat, to do, in connection with
9 an 9i 6$ (V) 9 an 9 l a ) & c -> form a number of compound conjunctive terms, thus
y 9 an 9i if s j i n that case, then, &c.
^ #0 gang la, although, be it so, nevertheless, &c.
(6$ ft )& y ma 9 na 9 an 3i if ^ were not so, else, elsewise, otherwise.
19
0( y Mn, it being so, this being the case, &c.
{O
7" y ren ) since it is so, in that case, &c.
%( C( WMW w ^ M > '& ft(( <*r nu "> mat ban. ft\ (
/ /sr _ /*-
aV WMW wd^ lung. Q ^( ^( aV mat Jca, on this account, hence, then, therefore, &c.
/o
^
"" sa mat ren, since, hence, inasmuch as, forasmuch as.
^^
The following are also Simple and Compound Conjunctions.
> ^ u ^j s ^i^ y e *> however, nevertheless, notwithstanding.
, either, or. <( /O S( f <E( ft (&T V yang-na a-re y&ng-na o-re
*% **
^ya, take either this or that.
s/ww to, is a significant conjunction, implying then, but, yet, still, however,
moreover, &c.
gan, is a simple and an expressive conjunction, signifying, then, after that,
thereupon, if so, in that case, since, therefore, &c.
* / fc -
)""" V w, since then, in that case, &c.
.
<)C1 ( <rf jotowy ^-a, 2^ <^j(-<~( V ^/aw^ /f, on this, thereupon, consequently, &c.
&, j^~
*( V ^OM ^ra, for this reason, on this account, hence, therefore.
i
dok la, */ (fe (\) sa dok la, $$ sang, as, so, thus, accordingly, in like manner.
( 88 )
& -yu P& dok la ayek sho, as you sow, so shall you reap.
O
() (6 <*'#" m( *^ 2flw ^ thP s h> according as you act, so shall you
receive, &c.
The Compound Conjunction for, in order that, for the purpose of, as already
stated under the head of Postpositions, may be expressed by affixing the Particle
( ka, to the root of the verb ; or it is more fully represented by combining the
Postposition to the Future Participle, thus, ^(f" fa ffi O $& ( <C\M <(70 ma ~
i^-
ro sa chit tsak sliang kd lydng nbng, to go out for the purpose of inquiring after a per-
'O >
son's health. It may also be rendered by the nominal postposition <$V^f ( tun-dok
, -
ka, for the purpose of, for the sake of, on account of so, tf\ fa, (Q$ ^/7)( ^( $\
^ *- ^ J
(^f ( \f\ j\fo ^( hu sa 16m pa-nap mat tun-dok ka hum hryim mat, to punish him, for
the purpose of improving his ways. It may likewise be expressed by the verbal Part-
icle $ fat $ ta sa yang, the first word preceding the verb, the two latter words suc-
^ IV < ^
ceeding, thus, ^(T'^ ^5( fa $ X( XCH'C -tfj ma ~ r <> ta par sa yang tham a-ryam
** * /^T
suk, to ornate an article, in order to induce a person to buy it, /^)N J(s(3<. $ $ fa
-- y *"*
*) C^^ (0 <(^ num-shim-nyo ta tat sa yang Jum-lo tbng, to give alms, in order to obtain
praise of man.
The adverbial Ordinals may be considered to be numerical conjunctions. These
may be expressed by affixing to the cardinal numbers the Agentive Particle (0 bo,
, ,
or any one of the following nominal suffixes, <^j( ly&nff, (- Aon, (Q$ 16m, combined
with the postposition ( ka, thus, ( (0 <( kdt bo ka, in the first place, firstly,
- & - &
^ (0 ( n 'J at bo IcA > ^ ^VM( ( J at l !/ dn 9 *> 5^ (^ ^( Jat M* M, "^ ((\) ^(
nyat lorn ka, in the second place, secondly. This form may be also rendered simply,
by aid of the Postposition fa sa, expressed as a conjunction, thus, ( fa kat sa,
with reference to the first, firstly, &c. t5$ ($" ( tiny-jok ka, ^((<V *( u-tyok ka,
at length, at last, may be also considered to be Adverbial Conjunctions.
( 89 )
Conjunction may bo effected by rneans of the Conjunctive Participles, present,
past or future ; thus, tf\ t( <(\)\ (\) hu nong lung zuk lei, he finished it, as he
went along, (literally, he going, along finished it) ; tH (/^) 0( $3 hu n " n ^ n eilk >
he went and did it, (literally, having gone, he did it); tf\(^ (\) (}o tQ*V\ fa,
\f \ <5(($ (-$ (& hu-do li M thi ivung sa hu d-som so sho, on arriving at his home, he
A/ < /-
will eat his food ; }<v <<Jft*N fa (^ \f\ (*> i^>\ =( shi wung sa la hu Mo lung mdk,
immediately on seeing it, he fell down dead, (fell down and died, or literally, falling,
died).
The Particles of Declension may be combined with the Participles in forming
Conjunction, thus, tfj (* fa, ((0 fa %( ~ (fa, <^ <( ifj ^5V (V) (^) hu-do
sa A-lo sa maJc re thijo wung fed, hu pya la non, on hearing of the death of his father, he
/9
fainted; (" /^)\ nun," might here also be put in room of ( kd, to imply, ' through
/9
hearing, &c.' but it would generally be expressed in full, ^)\ -^( ()( nun mat M, &c.)*
The sign of the past tense, 0( Id, when followed by a connecting clause, con-
junctively defines the time, and corresponds to the English conjunction, when, thus,
A 1 *" ^" * -^7 *-"
(63 tf\ 6" jQ& J^ 9 0( tf\ ^ 0( (3 ff h u sa H thi la hu ma lam ne, when I arrived
at his house, he was not at home ; and similarly in the future, fyo ( 0( -^ C( /c)
thi sho l& ma lam na pu, when I shall arrive, he may, perhaps, not be at home.
4. Of Interjections.
The following are some of the Interjections.
( ( d-tsa d-yo ; ( Q( d-tsd ; ( Q( ( ( d-tsd d-yd ;
d-tso ; XCE <*-ya, are exclamations of vexation, pain, &c. ah ! oh ! &c.
* The sign of the future Participle Definite fat, sa, may be, in fact, considered to be the particle
of Declension affixed to the Participle Noun, and as a Conjuiiction bearing an extended meaning, as
exemplified under head of Postpositions (Pages 79, 80).
( 90 )
St. a > *-#<* ; XI ( ( <*-2"<> ; S( O " ; X( S( - fae ;
^ ^*
^^
z, are exclamations denoting surprise, wonder, also pain, &c.
n-cJiu, an exclamation expressive of cold.
(& ^(^ ot-ta-dt/61, an exclamation of fright, on being startled.
. r . . . .. . p .
exclamations of wonder, astonishment ; Uramercy 1
Q-chhik-k**) an exclamation of disgust ; fie ! tush ! faugh !
(3( J, is an ejaculation betokening vivacity, impatience, &c., thus, 0(
^"
go ngak sho, hold ! bah ! I'll look to it, I'll do it.
ha, a respond on being called ; eh ! hullo !
^ i(f" *f rong-nga rbng-nga, an expression of grief, sorrow, lamentation ; alas !
alack ! woe ! &c.
<
- m a Ttliyen no, an exclamation implying grief, wonder, amazement,
&c. (It is derived from the Tibetan i'arsniv^ lla-ma mkliyen no, the Priest
knows.)
o-she. ('? ('?. Tco-cWie Jco-chhe, are deprecatory exclamations,
^% ^
do not, pray do not, forbear, mercy, &c.
$ a-chhu-le, is an exclamation of admiration, praise, joy, &c. hurrah ! bravo !
well done ! &c.
( 91 )
PART V.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
Formative and Derivative. Etymology.
Numeration, &c.
1st. of Formatives and Derivatives.
T he verb is the most simple form of the Parts of Speech, and is the root from
which very many of the Nouns, and most of the Adjectives and Adverbs are formed.
The Conjugation of verbs has already been shown ; it may be here meet to
connote some of the
Verbal affixes and diverse Formatives.
The Conditional
is formed, by the affixed Particle <,)> gang, thus, (fo fa Qfo go li gang, if I speak,
/ >/ *~" / *"7
\f\ J^ (6 <)& Jlu thi s ? 10 3 an 9> # h e should arrive. Both the protasis and apodosis,
of a Conditional sentence, may be connected by means of the above suffix, with the
addition of the emphatic Particle ^ la, thus, ty( (\) gang la, even if; also by
go-rung, though, however; so, X) (& (* <^>^-#) <,) (
ma-sufan shang Jca lyi gang la (or go-rung} a-gu ma nyin na gang, shu phdn-to la ma nyin
ne, and though I give my body to be burned, and (yet) have not charity, it profiteth
me nothing.
Contingency
is expressed by the Particle ^J^ pu, as explained under head of Conjugation, so,
*(?) Z\ ^$J so-nonff yupu, it may, perhaps, snow. Forms of
( 92 )
Precatives
have also been given under the same head, thus, (Q ^ lo le, please give me ;
^J -Q d-bd nun po che, prithee depart hence ; ft( ( nd yd, do let us go ;
suk ka che, pray let it be done.
Optatives
may be formed, by affixing the Particle 2( j with, or without the reduplication of
t
the final consonant of the verb, thus, tf\ ^( <g( hu mdk a, or, -^( . <g( male ka a,
may he die. An Optative may also be rendered by the Imperative sign, thus,
^5 (ft )" 0( -^> (<5 P a - no re bdw> ma ) let, or may the king live.
Interrogatives
may be expressed by the Particle X a > so > (tf <?(((V jQ& X ? l &-^om li a, did you
say so ? ((**> %\ <^""\ X so y u wun ff a ) ^ s i& raining ? (^ C^^C C/l? ^6 X ^ sa-tha
Tiluja shang a, when will you arrive ? (See also under head of (fo go, and (fo go,
pages 52, 53).
Dubiousness,
or ignorance of a circumstance, may be implied, generally, in the form of Interroga-
tion, by the affixed Particle ^ te, thus, ^ -$j $ shu suk ka te, what can be done ;
A A
O /O O
^5 (^) .\ ^U/0( /^)\ () < pa-no kup sa-bd nun mop te, whence can we obtain a
prince ?
Potentials
may be formed by such verbs as, (J\ khu, implying, to be able, so, fy (J\ suk khu,
to be able to do ; (( (J\ $( $3 (6 go khu gang suk sho, if I could, I would.
Desideratives
may be expressed by the verb, fo( gdt, to wish, as, () t(ft fo( go nong gat, I want
to go.
Obligatory Verbs
^. f^^.
may be rendered, by adding to the Desiderative, the Substantive verb j$C nyi, thus,
( 93 )
gat nyi, it is necessary, \( C$( j5^ ^P 9 a ^ n Vh ** is necessary to learn ;
o o **-- / > ^~ / ~~
& X( C3J &( J$^ ( or > &( *3j J-? 1 ) ****> ^ shang Map puny gat nyi,
/~- .
(or, gat tung nyi), to obtain wisdom, learning is necessary.
Causal Verbs
are formed, in some instances, by the addition of \) la/a, to the simple verb, thus,
& & > *,
thor, to escape, Qoy thybr, to cause to escape ; ()> thop, to knock down, (Jo^
<
ojo, to cause to knock down ; ("^ pok, to cast down, to depose, (XJV P!/k> to
cause to cast down, to cause to depose.
/o
When a verb ending in < M0r, takes this causal, the final is changed to ; thus,
_. ^ <*- /*- ^/5 /^*
i(fy /irony, to ascend, (-^A; hrym, to cause to ascend ; 4^; dang, to run, ^fqj <fyra, to
fling away, (literally, to cause to flee).
When a verb, composed of the consonant ft na, assumes this causal form, the
& t
ft na, is changed to 5^ nya, thus, ^(ft nong, to go, (,;C nyon, to cause to go ; ft t ndk,
t
to straighten, ^L( nt/ak, to cause to straighten, to rectify.
But this form is not common. The usual mode, of expressing the causal, is by
&
affixing the verb ( kon, to permit, to cause, (as stated under head of conjugation)
< < & <. *,
thus, (3\ luk, to beat, ()\ ( buk kon, to cause to beat; ^ (- guk kon, to cause
to work, &c.
A Causal may also be expressed by means of
Transitive Verbs,
formed by adding, -^( mat, to make, to do, -- to an Intransitive verb rendered
_
adverbially, thus, ^V( Myam, to be sweet, TjU( (\) ^( Jclyam la mat, to sweeten ;
> 2> -
(^ torn, to be strong, to be firm, (<$ (\) ^( torn la mat, to strengthen ; C> #o, to be
glad, (( Q$ T^( ^o la mat, to gladden, &c.
S> ^ &
Some verbs such as, (^C wyo?i, causal of t(ft none/, to go ; (\fa try on, causal of
/>'*' ^ ^ / *"
hrong, to rise, ascend ; ^Qj byi, to give ; ^sy %w, to cast away ; and such like,
24
( 94 )
are often affixed to other verbs, giving an emphatic Transitive sense, thus, (g op, to
^ ^ f \ /0 \
discharge, (as, arrow, gun), ( ($L op nyon, to fire off; Q^ tsun, to lift, Q^
/o / /"'""""' '*"'
tsun hrybn, to lift up ; % W, to tell, 2fsA j(V^ Mn %*> to tell to, to relate;
< /- ^ /-- ^ ^ vS"
ny'&, to expel, )T/( S(\J ?ya/c %', to cast out ; <(^J jtwwy, to renounce, <(^5 3fsy
dyan, to renounce altogether, to cast off, &c.
Some Compound verbs, bearing the sense of each verb, convey a modified signi-
A / *"~ / *" '"^ '"T
fication, thus, ()N Sj^c JM rf, to bring, from ()\ JM, to carry, and j^ rf, to come, to
** o o *^- /^
proceed, ()\ <(7) iw ?owy, to take away ; \( hfy } > ^ learn, \( ^()^ Map byi, to
teach. The last is, an example of, a neuter verb, changed to a (compound) transitive.
Acquisatives
may be formed by combining, with a verb, the verb <(7*) nbng, to go, or, ^ ngun,
to become, thus, \ffi hru, to be hot, ?\ffl <(7t) ^ ri ' t n< m ff, to become hot ; t)fy hyang,
/^ /S>.| /*- *- 'Ol /^ f~
to be cold, i-^y ^^ %??y w^z, to become cold, t-ftv /"^) (^) %wy ngiin non, it has
become cold.
Inceptives
are formed by words implying, to commence, such as, ^JU ayit, <Q jeng, n tsun,
* /&}
$(tsdm, &c. j2^ a ^j means to create; i^S" /e;?y, to found; Qj ^ w > to lift;
^
and all imply to begin. These generally precede the principal verb, thus, $>& ("J"
o i*
X( ayit rob Map, to commence to learn to read ; 4$" -$\j$ng ziilt, to begin to work ;
this is, however, merely an elliptical form of the Conjunctive Particle, and may
< ^l '
be expressed in full, thus, ( 4 U Oj ^W\ $$ a yk tsun lung suk, to commence work,
/o / b/ ^"" '*"
O( 4 ^^ j^J a-lang ren tsdm lung pi, commencing, from the present time,
,, A ftf /*
to write, <)^ (^ X( O( *^ D t5 ^J r "^ c ^ l ^ ^ m ^ Un 9 fcdt-di'mg, to take up and
propound a new thesis.
Frequentatives
may be expressed by the repetition of the verb, thus, ^ ^ zuk zuJc, to work and
work, to work often, also continuously.
( 95 )
Continuatives
may, likewise, be formed by the Compound verb QN <(70 bu nbnrj, to carry on,
< t - J
thus, <V\ tyu/c, to jump, $\A Q\ <(70 ty bu nong, to go jumping along,
/''-; < f
to write, ^^J 0^ (.(3 /"' ^ M H0 > continue, follow on the writing, (^ ^\ (}\
bu no, carry on the work. Persistence may also be rendered by the reduplica-
tion of the verb, expressed adverbially and with the aid of another verb, thus,
> > >
(VA> ^^j * C1 7> (i/AJ (V Ci^V) (V ~?>( hrybp la hrybp la mat, to weep much and
long or similarly, by the Conjunctive Participle, thus, v^ *(V)\ J^* 4 ^^ X'^ ^
ft/.^ dik lung thuk, to effect by continuous striving.
Habitude
~ f""~ / *T
may be expressed by the addition of the verb, -^T( Ja#, thus, j-^ chi, any fermented
A/^- / y^-
or spiritous liquor, <5}o thany, to drink, S-^ )o -^( chi than mat, to be in the
o ^- A-*" /*y
habit of drinking be'er or spirits; {/(*("C J^ klidp-clibng li, to tell lies,
J^~
khap-chong li mat, to be in the habit of lying.
Completives
may be expressed by the verb, (V) Id* * be finished, S^J (\) pi lei, to finish writing.
Of Abstract Nouns.
Abstract Nouns may be formed, by affixing to the verb, the Particle (^ lat,
thus, (ft nbk, to be black, (ft ty nbk lat, blackness ; (^ torn, to be firm, ( (^ torn
/A A /*- / ^
/atf, firmness ; <^( a/, to be new, to be fresh, 3?( (\) ^> newness, freshness ; ( s/^w,
/tt' rsr /*~ * 't n=- /
to be stale, (^ ^ s/Jm fo^, staleness ; J""^ rw, to be old, worn, J~\ Q$ ru lat, old-
ness, wear; (Q jon, to be young, (^T (^/ow lat, youth ; (( gan, to be old, (( ty
gan lat, oldncss, old age; ft\ nu, to dare, to presume, ft\ ^) nu lat, presumption.
((\> 16m, (literally, road, way), may be, sometimes, used to form nouns, thus, (\fy
hybk,iv have intercourse with, (#y ((\) hybk lam, intercourse ; ^( mat, to do, ^( ((\)
A
* ^ ?;, i 8 also a Potential, implying, to be able ; but in colloquy ia seldom used in this sense.
( 96 )
mat lorn, conduct. It may, also, be affixed to a Substantive, forming an abstract
/o / &
noun, thus, ^5\$\ pun-jum, an enemy, ^5\$A (ty pun-jum lorn, enmity. Like-
wise to a compound noun, thus, <JU a yeng> a younger brother, $-$ sang, like unto,
>
after the manner of, t<U <)$ ayeng sang, a friend, 4<U <,)$ (^ ai/eng zany lorn, friendship.
^% **
^)\ fe, an affix, implying, mode, way of, may also form such nouns as embrace
i ^ i
the above sense, for instance, j(\) lik, to call, ((\) Urn, to walk ; (fo tf\ (^ Q$
> <
(M C**' ((V (M MX # ^ M sa &* I H sa ^ m ^ M %a/i-, I recognised his voice and walk,
(mode of calling and walking) ; Jfsy di/am, to dress, ^fsy ^ \ (7y? ^<, mode of
dressing = fashion ; -^( mat, to do, -^( ^\ mat hi, mode of doing = way, habit,
custom, &c.
Some nouns may be formed from verbs, by prefixing the vowel 3( **> thus,
go, to love, ((& a-yo, love ; (^ gt/e, to conquer, ^(6V -^ e ' victory ; (>
^* ^*
o / y """" /fc ^ /* / * r -/ *^"
to obtain, X((^* -^oj, acquisition ; ^>o ^/, to arrive, X(j) a-thit, arrival, &c.
Sometimes other syllables are prefixed, thus, i(^J krybng, to praise, $t(^y ta-
** *'
kryong, praise, commendation ; }o^( t/iyam, to arrange, ^ Xv( pa-thydm, arrange-
ment, adjustment; (^v sa, to be well, &*> ta-sa, well, health ; -Q c/ia, to annoy, to
/~ ^- < <
vex, i/0\ {> nung-cha, annoyance, vexation ; TjX Hd^", to revolve, circumvent, ^^
J * *
ta-klak, a revolution, a cycle, a circuit; (% %, to be precipitous t^N (^ rung-dbp
a precipitous place.
In the conversion from verb to noun, the sense, sometimes, becomes modified, thus,
t*' n fft t lean, to rest upon, ^$i$\ pa-tung, a walking stick; ft ngo, to be old,
ta-ngot, grey hairs, (symbolical of old age), &c.
As may be perceived in the last example, some nouns, formed from verbs ending
in a vowel, assume a final consonant. Advertence, to this subject, will be hereafter
made.
The Participle form, both Present and Future, may be expressed as nouns, thus,
, to speak, ^(\) <^\ ti wung, the words, the speech; ^(mdt, to do,
( 97 )
i <
mat tuna, the deed ; -5J( wzd/r, to die, -5J( <)^ (J<= *OJM( v )5^ ^<) "*** shcmy thor lyang
A
?# wym ne, there is no escape from death.
This form may be rendered more definite, by the addition of the Article
7"~ re, or the Plural sign, thus, ((\) W/r, to expend, ((\) <-\ )~" W/c /CMWJT re, tlie
A,
expenditure ; (X /^, to be in excess, (X <*-^ F' '*^ ^MM^ re, the excess, the
i <
surplus ; -^( <A F~ &# #?z# re, the mortality, -^( <,) i.)^ w *'^ *& ^ w ^7> mortals.
It may be also observed, that -^( maJc slicing, which was, in the former example,
a Subjective noun, in the latter, changes to an Objective noun.
The Infinitive, (the root of the verb), alone, may often be used to represent the
A' 1 ^"' ^"
noun, especially in combination with the afore-mentioned Particles, thus, \)o thi,
to arrive, ^}o J~ thi re, the arrival ; ^^ nyi, to have, to possess, _^ $J nyi pang,
( y
the possessions ; ^^ lib, to call, (\f *6*/\ 5^) -^ (^ </D^ & M ^a-su lik ma thyo
mine/ a, did you not hear my call ?
There are other modes of expressing words substantively, thus,
Nouns may be formed from verbs by affixing the word ( shet, which implies,
strength, power, also ; for, on account of, thus, Q( tsdm, to hold, Q( (j tsdm shet,
the handle, the purchase ; S^ li, to speak, }fy lin shet, the means of speaking,
*
/9 /O *w
the tongue ; *f( nyan, to sit, ^( ^ w^d s/e#, an article for sitting on, the seat, &c.
Some verbs may, in themselves, represent Nouns, Adjectives and Adverbs; thus,
o o
(tfv tyPi * accompany (^ ^f N (^v (i/ir (^^ ^ M 5 tyop sho, I shall accompany him,
o - o
(i)v "^ ( hyP m< *t, to make accompaniment, to accompany, (^ (-j^y J"~" c///w 7^oj re,
o
the accompanying book ; \f\ (^ (^; (/^) (^ /m sa fyP no > S along with him.
The Agcntive
is expressed by the affix (0 bo, whereby may be formed, the English affixes er,
25
( 98 )
- 'l f "i
man, &c., thus, ^( mat, to do, ^( (0 mat lo, a doer ; $3 siifc, to work, ^ (() zzi
^ ^ < /
io, a worker ; (v so*, to kill, ((+*> (0 s <^ !*>, a slayer ; (^( gan, to be old, j( (Q
v^ /^^ ,% /^ ^~
gan bo, an old animal, (man or beast) ; S^S" Jin, to be mad, S^S" (() /w Jo, a mad-
< < > >
man ; ~~ rok, to read, ()"~ (() ?*o Jo, a reader ; ($V ptyM) to sweep, (J3V (0
phybk bo, a sweeper, &c.
Before (0 Jo, verbs, ending in a vowel, assume their final consonant, thus, V\)
f*~ / A/^- /^ '"' /^
Zz, to speak, jty (() fo' Jo, a speaker ; S S/M', to see, N(^ (0 s ^ /rt ^j a seer > a
/^ /"-^ /f x^-
beholder ; S^i rfi, to come, S^; (() dit bo, a comer, &c.
Nouns may also be formed from Adjectives, by affixing to the latter the particle
((3 Jo, thus, SCH'3 "-ry* 1 } S&> SCH'J (0 A-ryiim Jo, a good one ; ^(<,)C: d-plany,
above, X( < -)^- (0 o.-p^ an g t>> a higher one, a superior, &c.
N
(() Jo, may be affixed to the following Particles indicative of the Tense, Q( bdm,
the present ; ($\ shum, the euphonic alteration of the Future ( sho, or, ^\ s/< ; zfcdet,
'l **
the emphatic Present Participle sign ; thus, $y Q( (0 ^zi/f Jaw Jo, one who is work-
' "? " 'l ~
i n g > 4j &\ (0 ^"^" s ^ lum * one w ^ w ^l wor k 5 -^J ^ (0 ^"^ ^^ ^> on e who is
working or just about to work ; S(^) <> X((5),5^^( 5( (0 $6", ^( % (0 <^v
i _^' /^^ A 11 ^^
^( (/O (0 $C>i *&> ^3 ^3 ^( J^ a-fyut sa "'I, mik-Jcnq) bam bo sang, mak det
/~- /^-
Jo sa mdk nbn bo sang, tyang tluju lung da nyi, after the battle, the sleepers, the dying
and the dead, all lay co-mingled.
< >
It may also be affixed to all Auxiliary and Compound verbs, thus, $\ (^ (A
'1 A
giik kbn bo, one who causes work ; $ j (V> (0 ^"^ ^ e ^ ^? one who has finished work-
<< /XT ^~~
ing; {f'S (S (0 g "^ ^^ tt ^ ^ one capable of working.-
H
The Particle, M (() s/mz Jo, is, very generally, affixed to verbs, forming nouns
_ ^ _ ..
of age 'icy, thus, (f ngot, to cut, (^ \ ((} ngot shum bo, an instrument for cutting,
/ /^- j,/^- . /--;
a cutter ; j^5 pi, to write, j)^J \ (0 / * Jo, material fur writing, pens, &c ;
( 99 )
H
bu, to carry, Q\ \ (0 lu shum bo, means of carrying, a vehicle; 5^( da, to lie,
*
(0 <M s ^ um b> an article for lying on, a couch, &c.
All Agentive formatives may be expressed by affixing to a Substantive, a
verb in the Agentive form, thus, (<U ayok, work, ($tf ^( (Q ayok mat bo, a worker,
flf /- < C5" t /--
a workman ; -^ man, game, 1~V( rydk, to follow after, to pursue, -^ f!/( (() wza'w
r^a/c bo, a hunter ; (^ ngo, fish, J( fedm, to catch, ft j( (() #o &dm Jo, a fisher-
* 1 /**"' ^ A'"' A 1
man ; 2Q ^ to solicit, to beg, (^ ^<C. sa-nyim, alms, charity, (^v S^l ^^ (() sa-
. .
'm zi^ io, a beggar ; $$\ tt/u, to train, to discipline. (< on, a horse,
o ^M 5o, a horse-breaker; ()\ iw, a load, (M ^ M > to carry, ()\ (M (() JM JMW Jo,
& * ^ * */^- /
a porter; (^ ww/?, drugs, ^ M ^J to sell, (^ ^) (0 w " w w ^ ^ a druggist; ^(\) fo',
~* ^* / ^ -^ ^
a house, (% t?o^, to own, y^ (^ (() // Jo/c bo, a house owner ; (^ cMo, a book,
/^- > C^ /^- A
5 ^/, to know, (^C 5 (0 C M 10 y am b> a scholar ; q1~~ ring, a language, ^V( mya, to
<v/
be versed in, (j}"'?^ (0 n ff myb>> bo, a linguist; ( Q\ kdr-tsu, astronomy, (sfX
a star, Q\ fez<, calculation), <(^V m^ow^, to be skilled, ( $\ i(^V (0 A"(ir-
bo, an astronomer ; ^)( Q\ ??d^ few, (aii ?z^, black), black arts, divination,
' /*-
(0 HO/C /SM y bo, (or, ^gV( ((3 wy/iff bo, <( ! V (0 wzyow^ Jo, &c.), a diviner,
a necromancer, &c.
Adjectives
may, in like manner, be formed by the affix (Q bo, by which, either simply, or com-
bined with other formatives, the English Adjectives of quality and manner, &c,
terminating in able, ible, ful, &c, may be expressed, thus )"!/( ry&m, to be
* /9 /9
beautiful, }"!;( (0 ry&m bo, beautiful ; ^( g&n, to be old, fo( (() gan bo, old, aged ;
C5" ." ^9 f*~ I*? f~~
Cb) ff!/ un > * ^ e troublesome, \j (() gyan bo, troublesome ; (\) nut, to hurt, to be
fv r*~
injurious, /,) (0 nat bo, hurtful, baneful, &c.
>
And so compound formatives may be expressed, thus, (* kitrn, silver, money,
( 100 )
S'*" ^ ^ $Z ?"
^. nyi, to have, to possess, ( ^!$C (ft 7;w nytm Jo, a possessor of money, wealthy;
strength, fa ^$C (Q sA<?# nyim Jo, strong, vigorous ; ((J* kho, use, profit,
kho nyim bo, useful, profitable; /]" kher, skilfulness, dexterity, (f S<^(0
^ *
Jo, skilful, dextrous ; $J~~ rang, to watch, to guard, }T" (() raw Jo, watchful,
S3 ~ *~ *"~ '*" *~~
'ca-jUy a dog, (JJj ^ (ft ka-ju ran bo, a watch dog ; j^ li, to speak, ya,
to know, S^ (ft lin yam bo, talkative ; j^\) ^JV( (ft lin myam bo, eloquent ; ( on,
A -. ,9 A* ,
a horse, }o\ thul, to ride, (Q Joj (() ow thul bo, a rider, a horseman ; <(^5" /OH^, to
/ A- ^
be accustomed, to be practised in, (^ }o A 4(^5" (() ow <f/i^ jong bo, an experienced
equestrian, &c.
Passive Adjectives
may be formed, from Active verbs, by affixing ()o (ft thorn Jo, the agentive of the
verb (}o tho, to place ; thus, ^^ li, to speak, ^^ ()o (() / ^ow Jo, spoken ; ^^J pz,
to write, ^^5 (Jo (() pi thorn Jo, written ; ^ su/c, to make, ^ ()o (() ^i/^ jf/ /( J ?w J 0)
made, fashioned ; ^ /a^, earth, { ^ ()o (() fat zuk thorn bo, made of earth, ear-
~ t 1 ^
then, 0y\ ^w, a cooking vessel, gyN ^- ^ ()o (() ^M /a^ gw/c thorn bo, an earthen
cooking vessel ; (}o thok, to weave, (}o (}o (() ^o/^ thorn bo, woven, ( tor, silk,
( (} (X* (0 ^ r ^"^ ^"' OT ^j woven silk ; \ ?/M7., a letter, (}o tho, to register,
%\ (X* (X* (0 y w ^" ti w thorn bo, a registered letter, &c.
Adjectives may, also, be expressed by verbs in the Participle form, in conjunc-
tion with the relative Particle *> sa ; thus, (^""" ro, to fear, (^ 16m, a road,
ro ^vung sa lorn, a fearful road ; Jc^r thy an, to laugh,
thy an nung sa ay ok, a laughable affair ; -^( mak, to die, :% f7a/^, illness,
mak shang sa dak, a mortal disease ; <(J J^/o"^, to coax, <(g ^\ w^ ^, a child,
-, o J
V^ C*** 4 l5 ^ tying ngung sa ong kup, a coaxing, winsome child ; ($ so, to
^ . ^
; ^ ^ ( (^5 thdm-pot, a fruit, (-( ^\ ((3 */ X>( ()3 ^ S/<MW Jo sa tham-pot, an edible
fruit ; <(^ ^^C og-chhi, oppression, + (ft ka Jo, an overseer of work,
(>v - (0 ong-chhi mat tung sa ka bo, an oppressive task-master.
( 101 )
Nouns and Substantives may, in like manner, be rendered Adjectively ; thus,
t t <
\) \ yu-mulc, mourning, lamentation, \^ \ fa S( vV yu-muk sa a-tyan, a mournful,
lamentable occurrence ; f\ kung, wood, (T~ rom, a box, <> fa, (f^ kung sa rom,
^/9 A /&
a box of wood, a wooden box ; "ZSQS pun-jeng, iron, <$ (J~~ ta-rol, a bar, "3\i$ fa
A
^ (J" pun-jeng sa ta-rol, an iron bar; & fa> Q\)\ f a ^ sa fl/ u ) aa earthen cooking
vessel.
This form may be expressed elliptically, thus, <- (J~ kung rom, a wooden
/ A
box ; ^5VC^ <$ 0~" punjeng ta-rol, an iron bar; jy $S\)\fatfyu, an earthen cooking
A - A >
vessel, >( gAl, to break, f gy\ (^( ()o (() fat fyu gdl thorn bo, a broken earthen
cooking vessel, &c., &c.
Nouns and Verbs, &c.
are occasionally formed by a compound of two words, some of which may be used
**
separately, and some only in composition ; thus, )o( thdm, a thing, is prefixed to a
number of words. It generally gives a modified sense to the affixed word, though in
some instances, the latter, in a disconnected state, may bear altogether a different
.. ^
meaning, or may not be employed in Lepcha ; so, (^J pot, to fructify, }o( (^J tham-pot,
a fructified thing, ( <g( (^ &-pot], a fruit ; <,)() bang, ((.$0 bang), a foundation,
.4 /- /*~
a stem, }&( <,)0 tham-bang, a support, the produce of the earth, &c. ; 4-^ chang,
* ^" ^~
to foster, Jo( <-^ thdm-chang, a quadruped, animals inferior to (claiming the cherish-
< <
ment of) man ; ^(3 ^'/c, means a cow, but, )(jO tham-bik, implies, an insect.
(fa> so, rain, 2, the weather, 3, (in compos.) the state of the weather or atmosphere ;
*(**' 8 " n ffi ^0 be clear, to be pure, (fat *.(fa> so-sbng the murning dawn ;
,v ~ 3*
^JV myar, dim, obscurity, (fa> "^J so-myar, the shades of evening ; (^^ tybp.
& t
to flash, (fa (^ so-lybp, sheet-lightning. fa( sak (in compos.), the mind and its
< < 1 ^ < ^
state, HO r ^"' to be S 00(i ' C^CnO suk-ryu, to rejoice ; ($ ifp, to support, (^v( (
xdk-tbp, to uphold the mind, to encourage, to comfort. ((\> lot, to return ; prefixed
gives signification of repetition, corresponding to the English particle re; thus,
26
( 102 )
o
suk, to make, (^ $3 lot siik, to re-make ; ()o thop, to obtain, ((\) (Jo Jo fnop, to
/- /-; ^ A/ /^
recover; ^(^ %', to give, ((\) ^(\j Wtf lyi, to restore, &c., &c.
Nouns of Magnitude
may be expressed by the affixed Particle (^ mo, ( %( (^ d-mo, mother), so
'j a house, jftH^ T~ ^ mo re i ^ e l ar g e house; <f\ 5^ < X3 run ff~ n l/^ ung,
the river Rung-nyit, *T"^ j^" *Sj C^> rung-nyit ung mo, the great Rung-nyit
river, &c. Affixed to verbs of magnitude and quality, it forms
Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs of Intensity,
o / >/ ""~ T
thus Cb)(gydp, to be much, to be numerous; ^ ti, to be large, to be great;
O A-" *~-
99&P mo, very much, very numerous ; j (^ ti mo, very large, very great ;
^n-rot-pot d-tyum Mimosa gydp
o *>*-
mo tyul ngan, the grapes hung in large and numerous clusters; (( (j( (^ \(g go
/*- o *, /*~ /*-
gyap mo shi, I saw numbers ; )f\ (j( (-^ jftj hum gyap mo lyi, give him much,
plentifully ; abundance.
A Patrial
fSf /
is formed, by affixing (^ mo, to the name of the country, thus ^ pat, Tibet,
^J (^ pat mo, a Tibetan; ^5)jpru, Butan, ^S)j (^> prii-mo, a Butian, or, (as com-
monly called) a Butia ; 5^*5^ phi-ling, Europe, 5?^<5^ (^ phi-ling mo, an
European, &c.*
* Observe (-j ?reo, as a particle of magnitude, with the Latin suffix supre-mo, extre-mo, pri-mo, ulti-
mo, &c. ; also Sax. ma, more ; mcest, mo-est = most, &c., &c.
This (-^3 mo, is simply the basic creative m, (See m, and Diagram in Powers of Letters,) with the vowel
affixed. In Lepcha, -^j m, in itself forms one of the substantive verbs, is, am, was ; (it means also, to pray, syn-
onymous with, to create, to make ; " ask and ye shall receive;" whence Lep- (-^ mo, = XC (^ d-mo, =
Heb. ON am, a mother, ( Eng. am, [being] ) ; (so Lat. a-mo love, the flow that engenders [itself], produces,
makes). In Tib. m represents an indefinite article, a, an, (being, matter) ; likewise, the capital, the stock,
(the Source, whence all floweth) ; hence also, mother. In Sanskrit W ind, means, to create, to produce, also,
mother. Arabic I* ma, water, semen, a mother, (productive flow) ; Persian I* md, we, (beings) ; Lepcha
( 103 )
Nouns of Diminutiveness
o o
are formed, by the affix -\ kup, (%(} d-kup, a child, little); so,
li kup, a small house, a cottage ; gy\ A fyu kup, a pipkin ; <( " n ff> a child,
O /*- "? T
\ ong kup, a little child ; <)~"A ^ tg$ \ runy-ni/it ung kup, the little Rung-nyit
river. Like (^ wo, it may be affixed to a verb, implying minuteness, forming
and giving emphasis to
mo, a female, (sex) ; Chin, "t^f mo, mother ; Sax. moder, Lat. mater, (prfrpa. a womb) ; mulier &c. ; a
genitrix ; (so, milk, the flow and power of m, productive force flowing from the /j.a/j./j.a, the productive source ;
see I, k, &c. in P. of L.) The word man is compounded of above creative m with the basic formative n, flow-
ing with primitive force ; hence man (Chin, y^ min men,) simply signifies, the created being ; emphatically,
above all other ani-ma. It was formerly, like the Lepcha ^Q ( j^ ma-rd, applied to either sex ; so he-man,
she-man, &c. ; so also wo-man, (root, Lep. (g ic, to be worthy, worth ; Privative, Sax. wa, sorrow, woe, (" in
sorrow shalt thou bring forth children") ; Sansk. we, to weave ; Sax. we/an, to weave ; wef, wif, a woman,
a wife, = a weaver ; so Lep. (^""(^5 wo-mo, a spindle, a spinning-wheel, symbolical of the flow of the
life, and work of a woman. Sax. wer, a man (the primeval flow of w,) is applied to the male ; (see w, r, &c.
in Powers of Letters).
/9
The same word man is seen flowing with privative force in the Lep. ^( man, to wan, to want, to be
minus, adverb, no, not ; Sansk. ur md, no, not, non ; Heb. }NO man, to refuse, to deny ; Arab. ii)U> man,
to forbid ; Sax. man, sin, evil ; Lat. mal, malus, &c. &c. We have it again with primitive power in Sansk. *?T
man, the soul, the spirit, WT man, honor, (honor, literally, flowing with high, liviny spirit : privative, Fr. honi,
evil, dishonor). In Latin we find mo, as a suffix to ho, lio-mo, signifying man, (not radically, as has been
rendered, from humus earth-born; but simply bom of or created with h, (life). In Chinese ho, is a radical, and
frequent recurring word, implying a primitive flow, as, Tji ho, to breathe forth ; Cj Jio, air ; yC ho, fire ;
/3; ho, sound ; ^PJ ho, a river, (all flowing forth) ; Jft" ho, good, (primitive) ; & Jio, to unite, (the flow
round, the circular flow) ; 7N ' i0 > g ram > (t e f ue l> tne support of life) ; iflL ho, hue, blood = (the flow = life),
&c. So Heb. VI hi, Wjah, VP ja-lil, lit. existing, being, (the Being, I am) ; Arab. ^ ho, liu, he is, (the Being) ;
Heb. Nin hoa, he, the Being ; Arab. 1^ hoa, the air, (the spirit) ; Hind. iy> hoa, was ; >*> ho, art ; ,_,* hi, is,
(the Being), &c., &c. Take examples of h in the pronouns, (the pronouns, primitively, representing the First
Being) ; Lep. (\f ho thou, (the Being) ; Lep. \f\ hu, Sax. and Eng. he, (the Being) ; Lep. \f \ (*v hu-s,
(of he), Sax. and Eng. his, (the Being's) ; Inflection, Lep. tf\ hum, Sax. and Eng. him; (Arab. *f ham, a
mutual flow, [of the Persons]), Sansk. ^fl ham, wo (Sax. hicdm, whom;) Lep. 3^(fcj a-yu, Sax. eoio Eng.
( 104 )
Noun, Adjective, and Adverb,
o
thus -Q\ chu, to be small, -Q\ \ J~~ chu kup re, the small one, the little one;
O A/*" / *""
($ -Q\ *\ )5^-0( zo chu kup nyi bam, there is only a very little rice ; \f\ ~Q\ -
n^C ^3 (-& (3 h u c ^ u k u P ma t ma zo ne i ne on ly a ^ e very little.*
The Season, or Appropriate time
&
for anything, is expressed by the suffix (J~" ron, and may be affixed to Substantives,
ye, you; Lep. tf\j hu-yii, Sax. heo, Mi, &c. Eng. they; Inflect. )f\ %. J hu-yiim, Sax. heom, Jiem, Eng.
them ; Sax. Gen. hi-ra, of them, (relatively, of the being) ; comparatively, Sax. lieali, hiah, high ; hiara, higher.
(Gr. Upos, appertaining to [M, c.'/u the Being] the Gods, [the eternal flow], Lat. Jiares, the heir, the succes-
sor, [the flow on flow ] ), Ger. herr, man, (hon ) ; Sax. hurra, a lord, Gr. Tjpcos, Lat. Jieros, a hero, (emphatically,
a man, a being). So we have Arab ^l* mai, implying extension, Sans. Tf^r ma-ha, great, (high flow, life), &c.
In the Ho language, Jio, means a man. (For the root and the power of /*, in these, and in all other words,
see h, in Pov\ ers of Letters.)
The Lepcha woni ^3 () ma-ro, is seen flowing with primitive force in the Heb. N~!0 ward, erect (as man),
high, exalted, Chaldee ma-ra, a great man, (Arab.j** mir), a prince, a lord; (Sax. mere, Lat. mans, Fr. mer,
[mere, mother,] a lake, a sea, (whence the waters [the spirits] flow and return) ; Hind, [ft* mera, mine, (the
Lord's). Compare also Lep. -^5 ( /"" ma-ro, with tlie Latin word mas, (ma's, of or belonging to the being),
dropping the r and resuming it again in the inflection, ma-ris, whence, Mars, martial, &c., so also, nios, mo-ris,
of, or appertaining to the (primitive, the right) way of man = mo-ral, &c. The privative force is at once seen
in such words, as Lep. -^5 jT~~ ^to-ri, dirt, pollution, Sansk. ^ mri, SFKT ma-rd, Lat. mors, mortis, (/nop-ros,) of
or appertaining to the (fiopos) destiny of man = death ; Pc;rs &j*> mard, (prim.) a man ; Jf.^* mur-dah, (life
t
flown), dead, Eiiir. murder, &c. ; mor-tality. (Note also, -^ f \ ma-rum, the allotted period of life ; likewise,
^7~~ ma-ra, an evil spirit of great malignity [Sans. ^ Gr /xop/xii] whose influence is fatal ; so, Heb. ~1NO
a spreading evil, [Lev xiii. 51, J"nNQD translated, a fretting leprosy], "ID bitter, Sans. *?*s a desert, with-
out water, [without ^jj spirit, life] ; so, Gr. papaivta, /tapavo-is, a flow to naught, to death ; Eng. to mar, murr,
murrain, &c., &c. ; see, definition of primitive and privative letters in P. of L.). So also Lep. -^j m, nega-
tive, privative, not, without ; Tib. *f ma, not, Pers. l_y* mud, dead, (without a), Heb. J"li3 mat, dead, (without
at), Arab. &j*>mot. repose, death, (without of), &o. &c. ; (see m, Sfc. in Powers of Letters).
In making, here, these few desultory observations, it is not my object to give an exposition of the
powers of letters, nor would it be possible to do so within the limits of a foot-note ; but I hope, shortly, to
publish a work, with a diagram, showing the true Powers of Letters ; exponential of the basis of all language
and tongues.
o
Kup, a child, a eul, &c.
i
( 105 )
< & >
or verbs, thus, ffl) at/ok, work, (<U (J~~ at/ok ran, work time ; (^J It/on, play,
& - - & ^
(T"" ^ w ? '^ W J pl a y time; ^J(^>a^, to sow, ^J( ()"" jt?d row, sowing time; ^) ayek,
i & *
to reap, JU (y~~ ayclc rbn, reaping time, harvest, &c.
i
Nouns expressing time, the period of, may bo expressed by the word, (Jo
-, -, t ^
thole, thus, t(< bng, a child, t(^ (Jo bng thole, childhood ; ^(<^- pa-nybm, an old
> t */ /; A/ < /*7
man, ^(<C (Jo ^( pa-nyom thole M, in old age ; ^^ ???', a man, ^^ HM ^^> a
generation, a period of one generation. It is also affixed to verbs, in the form of
abstract nouns, thus, $j zu, to live, ^\ (Jo ( sum thole M, during lifetime, &c.
Adjectives
expressing worthy, deserving of, fit for, proper, may be formed from verbs by affix-
i /9 / t
ing the suffix (^ chhok, thus (\)\ /MW, to reprimand, ^\ (^C ^ Mre ch/iofc, fit to be
J A J ^ <
reprimanded, blameworthy, reprehensible ; (-y Aryora to praise,
chhok, deserving of praise, praiseworthy, commendable ; ($ so, to eat,
chhok, fit for eating, edible.
o
This form of speech may be also expressed, by the verb Jo\ thup, to be fitting
2> o
to be admissible, &c., thus, (-ft Jo\ s<>m thup, admissible food, food fit for eating,
J > -
&c. ; it likewise may be rendered by the particle j shet, for, on account of, so,
zbm shet, for eating, edible, (see also, > shet, p. 97).
2,
Comparative Similitude
may be expressed by the suffix, $$ sang, thus, X(T""" ^ "^'^ zang, like this ;
^
C)-^ o-re sang, like that; XC"0^ T" $& u-chu re sang, like tliat down there;
akup sang, like a child, childish ; 4^ $$ bng sang, boyish; 3^ <-)if ta-ayu sang,
womanish ; <$5^) ^ ta ~'J ri 2an ff> manly ; ^5 (ft $$ pa-no sang, king-like, kingly ;
(C**> $$ so-sang, cold, (\f (fa, $$ J~ $$ t(^ ho so-zang re sang nijbng, do you feel
cold, (literally, after the manner of cold).
27
( 106 )
External Resemblance
< <
may be indicated by the particle ^\ mu, thus, % dak, to be sick, % ^\ eM w,
< >
sickly ; ^( -^ \ z'A w, deatlilike ; (-$ ^ \ sum mu, an eatable appearance, palatable
looking, &c.
From Substantives, derived from the Tibetan, Adjectives of intensity, express-
19
ing possession, fulness, &c., may be formed by the addition of the particles, -Q chen,
*9 I\S
and 2fc den, (derived from the Tibetan adjective formatives, Zf> chen, <%$ Man), thus, (ft
~\
<v /O A / * / /^
nor, wealth, (ft ^r nor-den, rich, wealthy ; \J~~ -Q rin chen, valuable, costly ; i(/^) -Q
nbng chen, (^ '^j snang-chan, full of light) invaluable, very precious ; ^Q -0 u-chen,
headed character, (^g '^^ (7i?< chan, large Tibetan character). A superlative may be
t
formed by the suffix (^C chhok, as explained under head of Degrees of Comparison,
(page 32), &c.
2nd. Of Negation.
/9 19
The negative, no, is expressed by, -^( /^) md ne, -^( man, -^( ft man ne, as
** ^%
stated under head of Adverbs.
A verb is expressed negatively by prefixing the particle, -^ ma, and affixing ft
/*- /*- /^* ^^ * <*- /*- A'*^
ne; thus, ^ ya, to know, ^ i, ft ma ya ne, not to know ; j Ai, to see, -^J^ ^)
^2 &
ma shi ne, not to see ; (*> sow, to be dry, -^ ((^v /7) m(t s <> n ne > not to be dry.
~\
Verbs ending in a vowel, may generally have a negative n surposed ni addition
f>^~ **" A ^
to the one affixed, thus, ^^C nyi, to be, to have, ^ ^<^ ft ma nyin ne, not to be, not
/
to have ; (J\ khu, to be able, -^ (J"\ ft ma Jchun ne, not to be able.
When a verbal Particle forms part of the sentence, it follows the negative sign,
and the ft ne becomes chanired to ft nu, thus, (("% t(ft ft 0( go ma nung na
<%
( 107 )
bam, I am not going, \f \ ^ t(7t) ft ( hu ma n ^ n ff na 5 ^> I 10 will not go ; \f\ ^
J J
*\ft (u v X " M wa W(W # na s ' ian J a ) TO" he not go r &c.
In the employment however of the present participle, the negative particle is
incorporated in the participle sign ; thus, j^ <^"\ H wung, speaking, -^> jW */)^
ma li nung, not speaking ; ^( 4^\ mat tuny, doing, ^ ^( </7)\ ?wa mi *t nung, not
doing.
Another negative particle is expressed by, ft\ num. This appears to be a
coalesced form of the particles ^ ma, ft na ; thus, (^ S^ -^ (<$ </o jz za o, I ain
writing, (( ^ ^$ fi)\ (^ go ma pi num o, I am not writing, or, I shall not write,
(instead of -^ j*^ /) "?> (X wa P' 1 na ma > which would be long and inelegant) ;
(i; j^t ^ j^il ^(y\ -^ (^ /i)\ (^ Jet/on dit ma nyin nung ma go num o, it is not
that I am wanting in compassion. ft\ (<5 num o, may be affixed to the negative
H
Adverb, without the intervention of the verb, thus, -^( fo\ (< ma num o, not so, by
no means.
A Negative Agentive
may be rendered by affixing (() bo, to the preceding particle, f^\ num, united to a
verb ; this forms nouns and adjectives of negation, represented in English by the
prefixed particles un, in, ir, &c. ; thus, ^($$ Jong, to be experienced, -^ i(^S" ft\ (()
94
ma jung num bo, an inexperienced person, inexperienced ; r*^J ^> <(^5" /Q\ (() fa-
lyeng ma jung num bo, an inexperienced youth ; (J\ MM, to be able ; -^3 (j"\ /7)\ (0
o
ma khun num bo, unable, impracticable ; -^ }\ (3\ (0 ma ^ M P num *> improper ;
t t ..
-^ (^ ^i)^ (0 ? " ft ^^ num &i unlike ; -^ $ fi)\ (() ??? ^a/f num bo, incorrect ; 3(
s9 /9 ^ 4*
^> d-fyan, an occurrence, XC^ ^ TT'J /i)^ (0 &~t}l an ma r !/u nwn bo, an unlucky
event, an inauspicious, unpropitious occurrence ; \~ty chik, to measure, measurement,
JA^ "^ 0"^ /)^ ^0 c hik mu kh un num b> immeasurable ; j-A (^v /">'/ so, gratitude,
/^-~ #
(C*** ^ f3\ (0 ^''' so ma y a num bo, not to know gratitude, ungrateful ;
( 108 )
Jcriit, counsel, (^ chhbm, to agree, -A^ -^ (^C /3\ (0 ^'"^ ? " a c ^" ?w www > t>, not
' J
agreeing in counsel, dissentient, &c.
The English privative particle "less", &c., is particularly expressed by affixing to
A/O >
a noun, -^ j5^ ft\ (0 ma nyin num bo, one not possessing, without ; thus, <( ({} -^
SO .%/9 *
5^ ft\ (0 -^ wz n yin num bo, without a father, fatherless ; 2( *\ -is S<^ /^^ (0
J *> ^ .. J ^ J
ma nyin num bo, childless ; (<^v ^ <C /3\ (() yrow w ^m z<??z bo, hopeless ;
.
, strength, ^ -^ ^^C ^)\ (0 chhctmanyin num bo, without strength, feeble, &c.
An Adjective
signification may be given, by affixing the particle fat sa, to the Negative Partici-
pie, thus, (/ Mo, to be useful, -^ ((/ </c)^ C> )( ?Ka kho nung sa tham, or, ((/ ^
/o
j5^ </c)^ <j*^ ^ ^ ( ^ ?wa n y nun ff sa thdm, a worthless article.
Adverbs of Negation
S2-
^v. /7) ? wym ?e, to the affirmatives, thus, U/
< /*- /* /
Q$ sa-tha la, (fe ft (\) shoJc na la, ever, U/ Jo( (\) ^ J<>- /O 5-^d la ma nyin ne,
ft Q$ ^ 5^ /^ s/w/ir wa /a ma ^" z ne ' never 5 c^ oc ^ ^ 5^- ^ 5a " 5<i /a m
e, no where ', ($ fa 3 J& ft to la ma nyin ne, no one ] $) $$ 1Z> fc ft shu la ma
^
nyin ne, nothing; &*> T~ Q$ -%> j$*- S3 sa ' re ^ ma n l/" 1 ne j no way, no means, no
manner, &c.
Verbs in the negative form, may be used adverbially, thus, ^ chhet, to stop,
to cease, -^ ^ ft ma chhet ne, not to cease ; (&*/ \ so yu, to rain, ((v ^ -^C
*+ ** J A,
ma chhet na yu, to rain without ceasing, incessantly ; (J~ ro, to fear,
<(7b ma ro nft nony, to go along fearlessly ; this form may be more fully
expressed by adding the conjunctive participle sign ; or the Auxiliary verb, ^( mat,
may be introduced, thus, -^ t^-Q ft <^>N $$ ma ching na lung ziik, or, ^ X-fl /^)
( 109 )
~&( $J ma chiftff na m< *t suit) to work or do anything without thinking, thoughtlessly.
Negation is emphatically expressed, by the adverbial particle ^ la, affixed to the
>
verb, and a repetition of the latter in the negative ; thus, (( ()( (\) -^ (}( ft go lam
A,
la ma lam ne, I shall not remain at all ; (( t(ft ty ^*(7t) ft ff n ^ n ff la ma nong ne,
I shall certainly not go, nothing shall induce me to go, &c.
Verbs compounded of two syllables, when expressed negatively, the syllables are
separated by tmesis ; the negative particles being affixed to the final syllable ; thus,
* < O , < O & i
S-J5A( mik-krap, to sleep, V?> -& )( ft mik ma krdp ne, not to sleep ; (fa^fa) kyon-
dyak, to pity, (*ii IQ ^sy ft kyon ma dyak ne, not to pity ; 6vf( *5^ sak-ching, to think,
w( ^j * ){) ft sa k ma ching ne, not to think ; ^fcjT^ den-ri, to believe, 2J^ ^ \J~~ ft
den ma ri ne, not to believe.
But this disconnection does not take place, when the dissyllabic word is a sub-
stantive, or a verb rendered as a noun, and governed by another verb ; the negative
particles would, in this case, be affixed to the governing verb ; thus, (-y ^sy (or,
(*i; 5^-) "^ & kyon-dyak (or, kybn-dit) ma ya ne, not to know compassion, to be
heartless, pitiless, merciless ; fa>( Vfl ^ (j"\ ft\ (() salt-chin ma khun num bo, one
j J
unable to think, a fool, an idiot, &c.
The negative is, sometimes, expressed by either one of the two particles singly,
or, as before remarked, a negative particle may be surposed thus, -^ ^ ma ya, or,
^ ma yan, don't know ; -^ (JT\ ma khun, can't, impossible ; ^ ^ ma shin, can't
/ /
see ; -^( -^ -^( mat ma mat, doing or not doing; -^( ft -^(, -$j ft $y male na male,
su na zu, dying or not dying, living or dead.
A form of negation was expressed by affixing to the verb the particle (< ta-o ;
thus, (( &(T~ $& C"> }( *(--5 (^ ^(S ff "~ re mn 9 sa ^ m m < l ff n>!/vn ta-o, I would
*%
28
( no )
not dream of such a thing. This form, though sometimes found in books, would, now,
be very rarely used in colloquy.
The Tibetan Negative
particle -5J met, (^ med), is sometimes affixed to verbs derived from the Tibetan ; thus,
*(7) "^ nong-met, without value, valueless, (from TJV a^ snang med, destitute of light);
(^ ^ dole-met, (Z^ST^CS Mag med), without an owner, ownerless; 2j ~5 "-*
( i XQ^CULS^ dbu med, without a head, headless), the small Tibetan character.
The Negative Imperative
/
is formed, by changing the affixed particle ft ne, into ft\ nun ; thus, ^
ma li nun, do not speak ; -^ (T~/c)^ ma ro nun > do not
When the verb ends in a consonant, the final may be reduplicated and embodied
in the negative postposition, or it is optional not to do so ; thus, -^ -^( ^\ ma mat tun,
or > "^> "?( iy\ ma m ^ nun t d riot, don't ; -^ (^5" *^\ ma jukkun, do not make a noise ;
"13 (i/W ^^ ma h r y"P P un > ^ no ^ CI 7 ' "5 c )^ ^ ^^ ma t? ian ff ngun, do not drink, &c. ;
or, ft\ nun, may, at pleasure, be used with all ; the reduplication of the final, how-
ever, is in general to be preferred.
3rd. Of Inflection.
There is not much inflection in the Lepcha language, but some words, when
transmuted from verb to noun, or adjective, or before certain particles and auxiliary
verbs, undergo a degree of change.
Substantive nouns are uninflected by number or case. The form of inflection,
in the declension of pronouns, has been given under the head of pronouns.
Verbs, ending in a vowel, when changed to the simple form of adjectives, by
the addition of the prefix X( f '> invariably, (when capable of final inflection), assume
( in )
the final m; thus, fa) st'i, io beliot, to be pungent, X(C*O ^ s ^ m > hot, pungent;
(see also under head of adjectives, pages 30, 31).
All verbs are not inflected, (as exemplified in pages 31 and 47), but such as do
take inflection, take it before auxiliary verbs, (not indicative of tense), such as /\ Mu,
to be able ;
> to
M) to desire ; -^( mat, to make, to do, &c. Also
before particles and words forming adjectives and nouns of agency, manner, place, &c.,
as (0 to, W lot, ft] * u > <<M &% $'
Nouns or formative adjectives, formed from verbs ending in a vowel, when in-
/* _
fleeted, may assume either of the three (3) finals, m, n, or t, according as custom
or a regard to euphony may have prescribed. Nouns generally take the last men-
. tioned final, only a very few, formed with the prefixed 3( d, possess the final ,
(not including such as are derived from verbs ending in < ng).
The following are examples
Verb.
shu, to be fat,
ryu, to be good,
?*~
di, to come,
tsu, to boil,
r-"*
a, to be warm,
thi, to arrive,
dyu, to fight,
tu, to be ominous,
Adjective.
a-shum, fat,
a-ryum, good,
/
a-dim, coming,
easure
a-tsum, boiling,
^
X( X "- m j warm,
((3 ^ *o, Ag. arriver,
((3 %M# 5o, a fighter,
|c^(63
Noun.
i-skut, fat.
Fl/3 sa/c-ryut, pk
cheerfulness.
, a coming.
sdJc-a-dim, pleasure,
satisfaction.
, ebullition of
(0 turn bo, ominous,
spirits, gaiety, hilarity.
am, warmth.
d-thit, arrival.
a-dyut, war, battle.
\ A-tum, the evil effect of
the omen.
ru, to be far,
ma-rum, far, afar.
a-hrun, heat.
( 112 )
ma-rum, far,
_
sometimes %(7"\ d-rum,
u, to be hot, 3( ^jj a-hrum, hot,
Further inflection takes place, in the change from (< o, to (& 6, and from ^ ng,
to w. The following are examples :
Change from (Q o, to (g. 6.
//* (/^//x ' z Adj. eating, >
I It- yQ to OQ,L / 1 -rr ! XOJIT 00 ' 't?/ / if ' ' -C J
( Ag. eater, j
!\
, //vj?' I Adj. placing, \ K X. .,, ,""" location, in-
() (Qthomlo, \(}o ^ thom-lat,
Ag. placer. stallation.
(OHtogive, |^ rA ^, . Ad J^ ivi ^' )^^_ - thegivin ^ dona -
tion, gift.
~ conveyance,
vehicle.
^, fear, dread,
manner of
o, to convey,
ro, to fear, j (f- (ft ,-om bo,
Mo, to fall,
Exceptions.
(0 so bo, Ag. conveyer,
Adj. fearful,
so
/*r
(0
Ag. fearer,
>, a faller.
lu,
falling.
Change from < w^, to
, to drink, (ft than bo, a drinker,
to watch, f"' ((3 raw bo, a watcher,
, to run, ^ (() rfara #0 } a runner,
Jclong, to send,
y, to lead,
^
>o ti-^aw, drink.
ran lu, mode ofwatching.
.^^-*
dan lying, means of, or
place for running.
*, p,
(0 1dm lo, a sender, (ft ((\) JcUn 16m, way of sending.
(0 Ww $o, a leader,
&Att} to be ab , e to
lead.
' A^T " ^i \ <o A
A\./ ; ' J )"v W( (0 c ^ ? ^ aw ^j ( WVC (\) ^ rtw M) handed
<VW\ ty^ng, to hand round, \ > ' *JJ
cup-bearer, ) round, distributed.
dbng, to search, (% (0 don bo,a searcher, ) (^ 6 <& shet, means of
(. searching.
<W >*&*, to crow, (as a cock), J5* W (0 ** ** *, j X(W <^, the crow of
a cock that crows, ) a cock.
Exceptions.
myong, to be versed in, <(^V (0 myong bo, one versed in.
jbng, to be accustomed to, t^S" (Qjbng bo, one accustomed.
hong, to be low, i(3f (0 /^ow^ bo, hollow.
^> to be endowed with, <(*v (0 s ^9 ^i endowed with.
<(6 shong, to dry, &c <(^ <^( s/^oray ^dw^, a drying place.
All verbs, capable of final inflection, assume their special inflection, when prece-
ded by the adjective, and nominal particle 3[d; but all verbs that bear inflection, do
not necessarily take this prefixed X( ; thus, the verbs j(\) li, to speak; ^ ski, to see ;
()o tho, to place ; ^^ <7zi, to dig ; ^(V i^z, to give, &c. ; may all be inflected, as, 5^f
f~ &
(/\ shim Mu, to be able to- see ; ()o <^( thorn lyang, a place for placing on, a rest ;
^V*(C^ (0 dun jong bo, one accustomed to dig; Qj (() .byinbo, a giver, &c. In such
verbs, the a, could not be correctly prefixed, a-byin, a-shim, &c., would not be idioma-
tic. An exception occurs in li, to speak, for though a-lin, would not be accurate, 3(-
^(\> a-li, is so ; the sense, however, becomes modified to the instrument of speech
the tongue.
Inflection is not affected by the intervention of a word or words between the
*'*" ^~ f> /
inflected and inflecting verb ; thus, ^(\) li, to speak, ^^ (/\ Un khu, to be able to
speak, 'n CA /^) ?w ma khun ne, to be unable to speak ; Q$ -^ <$ /O Un ma fa
/s> o -
ne, not to dare to speak; ^(\) g( ^V( -^( (0 ^ n a-fft/ap mat bo, one who speaks much ;
-
<lang, to run, % t(-Q (/\ (() J t7o^ Mz io, one able to run swiftly, &c.
29
Inflection does not take place in verbs that are directly derived from the Tibe-
tan ; thus, ^j/w, to sit, Q$\ (O/" ^i a sitter, (never j'un bo"), &c.
No inflection takes place before verbs or particles indicative of tense, or voice,
or that bear merely a transitive sense, nor before the particles of declension, ordinary
f*~ /'*' >*- ^" > '
postpositive particles, or the adverbial particle (\) lu ; thus, ^(^ j(V ^ byi, t te ^ 5 *(*>
Tdmg nybn, to send off ; (Jo 2^ ^ y#, to place down, to leave off, to leave alone;
& t /
0(0 Sy ^ ^^ ^> the thing seen, the view ; Q~ /^)\ n> w?z, through fear ; ($ (^
y^
20 sa, for eating, &c. (Not, lin lyi ; klon nyon ; thorn aydt ; shim thorn bo ; rom nun ;
** /9
zom sa ; unless the two latter were altered to nouns, then, 5K (T" /t)^ d-rom nun ; %(-
2*
($ (*" d-zom sa, would be correct).
An exception to this rule is met with in the particle ^ det ; verbs, ending in a
^
*/o
vowel, are inflected before it; thus, j(\) % tin det, speaking, or just about to speak ;
^%
/*-
dit det, coming, or just about to come. (No other verb or particle, representa-
tive of the tense, such as Mm, ngdn, sho, fat, shany, lung, &c., occasions inflection. The
verb ( kbn, [before which inflection takes place], is indicative of the imperative
mood, and is an auxiliary verb similar to khu, lei, fyc).
a,
Also before the verb i(7jj nbng, to go, no inflection takes place ; (/^) nbn, form-
^ & ,*_
ing a past tense, as, \f \ S)o (^) hu thi non, he arrived, of course does not inflect,
and though sometimes acting apparently as an auxiliary verb ; as, (fo fy ^(fo (
/-- & ^
go zult nlmg sho, I shall go and do it; \f\ ^^ (/^) hum li nbn, went to speak to him;
it is in fact independent of the preceding verb, the sentence being elliptical, as ex-
plained in page 51.
The above are rules for inflection and non-inflection, as far as can be laid down.
A little observation and practice will soon enable the learner to acquire the knowledge
of what words do, or do not take inflection.
( 115 )
4 . Of Numeration.
The Lepcha Numerals are similar to the Tibetan. The figures, and the written
denominations, are as follows :
Cardinal Numbers.
_ i
6 ^
7 \)
8 <
9 (*
10 <)<
six.
ka-kyak, seven.
ka-ku, eight.
ka-kyot, nine.
#a*f, one.
2 ^ 51 y, two.
N
3 "5 *v( 5( * m 5 three.
4 ft J5>(^ /-&', four.
5 H f (V' f a ' n 9i fi ve -
Eleven, twelve and the 'teens are expressed by affixing }o( thdp, to the dibits
combined with ^j^ ka-ti, ten, thus, [twelve
11 99 *^j$ *i)[ ka-ti kdt thdp, eleven. | 12
13
15
16
*^~ /^~
This form is generally abbreviated, by leaving out j ka-ti, thus
t o
9 ft
S( * m thap, thirteen.
-^'^J t '> fourteen.
}<*(fa-ngo thdp, fifteen.
< o
ta-rak thdp, sixteen.
17
18 9 <
19
th&p, seventeen.
A-4"M^d/, eighteen.
o
-%o ^4/9, nineteen.
20 ^ (/( ^( ^<i kdt, twenty, one score.
and so on, adding one, two, &c., and then proceeding on by scores, (/(
khd kdtsa kdt, twenty-one ; (S('(C"'^- kha katsa nyat, twenty-two, &c. ;
/^- /- o />
khd kdt sa ka-ti, thirty ; (J( ( fa }$ ( }( khd kdt sa ka-ti kdt thdp, or,
thirty-two, &c. ;
_ _
t *MP) thirty-one ; (J( ( fa ^ >o( ^a & 5 ^^ ^^
a nyat, forty ; (JC^fa $$ khd wjat sa ka-'ti, fifty, & c .
* This form was of course very cumbersome and awkward, entirely preventing the teaching of
ordinary arithmetic. A decimal mode was necessary ; which the Lepchas, on being taught, at once saw
the advantage of, and learned with avidity. In a school which I established, during the short period I
had the opportunity of conducting it, the Lepchas made great progress in arithmetic ; and now, on all
occasions when counting, they adopt the decimal mode taught them.
( 116 )
For the reason mentioned in the foot note, I altered this mode of reckoning, b y
introducing a regular decimal system. ka, is an abbreviation of, and stands for
/**
ka-ti, ten, therefore from ten upwards, the notation may be expressed,
ka kdt sa kdt, eleven ; ( */ $C ha kdt sa nyat, twelve, &c ;
ha kdt sa ka-kyot, nineteen.
20 ^ ^1 ka nyat, twenty.
21 ^^ "^. fa> ( ka nyat sa kdt, twenty-one.
22 ^^ ^ U/ ^1 ka nyat sa nyat, twenty- two.
- ^
29 ^(l ^ <^ fat (i; ka nyat sa ka-kyot, twenty-nine.
30 -30 (>( /M 4m, thirty.
40 C:o ^ ^J(^ 7m /-^ forty.
50 H j5fG r kafa-nffo, fifty.
l
60 ^ ^<$T" ^ ^a-ra^", sixty.
<
70 \) ^ ^-11 ^ ca ka-kyak, seventy.
80 < *^- *^-^ ^" a ^a-^Mj eighty.
90 (* *^- ^- (*v ^ a ka-kyot, ninety.
100 ^ (^J ^i[ <7^/o ^"a^, one hundred.
101 ^ ^ (^V *^( C**' *^"( ^^ ^"^ sa ^"^' one nun( J re( i an<
102 ^ ^ (ZAJ*r( C*** ^ ^^ ^ sa w ^ a ^ one hundred and two.
110 ^ 4 (7\) ^( C**' *^ 5^ ^" ^"^ sa ^"^'j one hundred and ten. [eleven,
111 4 ^ ^ (^V *^( C**' *^ *^( C*** *( y^" ^"^ s * ^ a kdt sa Mt, one hundi-ed and
120 ^^ (^J ( C** 7 "^ ^ ^^ ^ 5 * ^* w ^ w ^j one hundred and twenty.
1 30 <) ^ (^V *^( C**' * (fi^df!/" k ( 't sa k a s< * m > one hundred and thirty.
200 ^ (^\J 5^- yyunyat, two hundred.
^"' **
300 ^ (6>V C^C #y" s * wz ? three hundred.
400 <^ (^J ^5^ gy"f a -ti> four hundred.
500 H (2*N) ^ ft ffl/^f ( '- n ff) nve hundred.
( 117 )
600 ^oo (^y $ )" ff>/o ta-rak six hundred.
700 \) (()'& S/y ka-kyak, seven hundred.
800 < o (^V ^ ^" #-^ M > eight hundred.
^
900 (? (^\) ("v yyo ka-kybt, nine hundred.
_, ^ ^ ^
999 ^ ^ ^ (6V -^ (*v (>" -^ (*v (A*' -^ (*^ yy A-a-%0^ sa ^ Jca-fajbt so, ka-
kybt, nine hundred and ninety-nine.
^ -
1000 ^o <(<$(\fi ( tong-hrok Icdt, one thousand.
1010 ^ ^ <(^(^i *^( Ci*** '^'^ hng-hrbkkatsalca-ti, one thousand and ten.
1011 9 9 9 <((^l *^( C**' *^()( tong-hrbk Teat sa kdtthdp, one thousand and
\, eleven.
1020 ^ ^ (<$ (^ ^( <v -^ ^1 tong-hrbk kdt sa ka nyat, one thousand and
^ _ twenty.
2000 ^oo <($ ( <^ tong-hrbk nyat, two thousand.
10,000 $ ^C6" -C ^-&Ao ^#, ten thousand, one myriad.
Oj ^^ *^( J " m ts ^ kt> or Oj *^( bum Mt, one hundred thousand, one lakh.
'^ ^^> one m iUi n -0 (&r*( che-wb kdi, ten millions, one kror.
**
tung-chhiir kdt, a hundred millions.
ther-liim Mt, a thousand millions.
ik fc&t) a hundred thousand millions.
sbsb-ya kdt, a billion.
The large numbers are taken from the Tibetan.
The Ordinals
are formed from the cardinals by affixing to the latter the particle (0 bo; thus,
A^" /^
kdt bo, the first; 5^ (0 W J^ b> ^ Q second ; fa( (0 sdm bo, the third j n(\) (0 fa-li
bo, the fourth, &c.
30
( 118 )
To this an adverbial signification may be given by adding (^ sa, or ( ka ; thus,
( (0 C*** k^t bo sa > or ( (0 *( kM bo ka, with reference to the first, firstly, or <^j(
lyang, may be prefixed, so, <^j( ( (() ( lyang kat bo ka, in the first place, firstly.
Multiplicative terms,
<
expressing times, fold, are effected by affixing to the cardinal numbers S^V ttyin, or
- A/** - &
ww ; or by prefixing ($ pho ; thus, ( >joj; &a #^m, ^( (^y Mtdyom, or (J3"
, /o / '
Mt, onetime, once; 5^Sjo^ nyat thyin, &c., twice; C^*'((^rV s ^ m dyvM) &c.,
thrice; (5&jWphofa-li } four times, (J3" ^(/- (() J" phofa-ngolore, the fifth time, &c.
Distributive Numerals
may be formed by reduplicating the cardinals with U/ sa, intervening; thus, ( #
( Jcatsak&tj one by one, ^L (**> 5^ n ll a ^ sa nyat, two by two, &c.
Collective Numbers
are denoted, by different words, according to their significations ; thus, the term to ex.
press two (persons or things), is expressed relatively (as shown under head of Pronouns)
Sf-~ f~ *^ /-^ ,
<L nyi, as, tf\ \^.hu-nyi, those two persons or things ; ^C\
nyum, the two, both. Double (joined together) is rendered by ((V bryok, &c., as
C^^^T^ ^0^ CO sa-dyar-mi bryok lo, a double barrelled gun. Numbers, crowds,
flocks, herds, &c., are expressed by <(% (0, mongbo, fy (0, sum bo, %(& d-dop,
/
d-nor, &c. ; thus, J^i(^$ mi-mong, a crowd of people, ^\ (% Ink dop, a flock
of sheep, 50 (/*) ^ n(>r > a ^ er(i of cows ' &c>
A time, a turn, is expressed by fe (\) po-len, (sometimes, (J Q$ pho-leri) ; thus,
^ ^*
ka-su po-len gum, it is my turn, &c., &c.
ft>
PART VI.
SYNTAX; FIGURATIVE AND HONORARY SPEECH;
EXPLETIVES, &c. } &c.
1. Of Syntax.
The simplicity of the Lepcha language ; the paucity of inflection, obviating the
necessity of forms of concord in gender, number or case, or in the government of verbs,
&c. ; and with what has already, in this work, been said on the subject, leave little
that needs explanation from syntax : a few remarks, however, may be deemed requisite.
In the formation of a sentence, the governing noun or the subject is, generally,
placed first, the predicate follows ; the object in the predicate clause precedes the verb
/ ^
thus, fa ( i^ (<V sa-Jcon kiing fyot, Sakon felled a tree, (literally, Sakon tree felled).
The Article is seldom expressed, but when required the numeral adjective ( Jcdt,
one, a ; or the particle ^ \ mu, may be used ; or, if definite, the particle J~~ re, (as
explained under head of Articles, page 23) ; when employed they follow the noun; as,
( chanff-ffu kdt, a wolf.
Adjectives formed with the prefixed 2( a, as a rule, follow the noun ; thus, <-()( (\
"' ^""
eh&ng-g& a-tim, a large wolf. Sometimes, however, the adjectives may precede
>
the noun ; thus, X(^( (W **** ^> a secret roa( l 5 but this may be considered to be
an hyperbaton, not the regular form.
When the article is employed with a noun in apposition, or with a noun and adjec-
/t> /^-* b *
tive, it follows the subsequent noun, or attribute; thus, C">(& ^(^ 0$ (0 T" sa-Jcon
f *\ **
ka-morjembore, Sakon the artist; <-0(jj X(j^ 1~* chang-gu a-tim re, the large wolf.
( 120 )
The objective case of a sentence, (either simple or compound), may be distinctly
rendered by the inflected form of the article; thus, 4-0(&3 %($$ V W\ ^\ <5(-
/T--
\ J~~ X*C ch&ng-g& d-tim re luk'kvp d-c/ium rem thd, the great wolf ate the small lamb,
/O A/* ''
(lit. wolf great the, lamb small the, ate); far ^ ft\ C^yQ C*><C$) &*'('$$
- . ^ ^~ f
T ' T" *" *-( ~&\ (C^ sa-thang nun sa-chi sa-gyeng sa-tyo sa-lur sa-ka
sa-pyuk re re sa kat mum sot, thar, choral, hog-deer, musk-deer, barking-deer, ibex,
one of each was killed by a tiger, (lit. a tiger, different animals, of each, one killed). But
in general, the articles are dispensed with altogether ; they however become useful in in-
dicating the objective case, in a sentence which might be ambiguous without inflection.
Adjectives commencing with %( a, when preceded by a noun, may sometimes
drop the ^( d; thus, X(Vj3 a-hrum, hot, <^J ^J n ff hrum, hot water; (i\fo
/*- **/*-' tr /*-
a-hyang, cold, <2J J *i^V ung hyang, cold water ; ^( \f &-ham, pure, unadulterated,
i
QS \f jer ham, pure, unalloyed gold; X(ifiA d-hyu, plain, simple, without its adjunct,
> plain rice, without the husk, *-;V\)jv\ ka-kyup hyu, a plain ring,
without its stone, &c.
But the retention or rejection of the a, is merely a matter of euphonic considera-
tion, it is in general more elegantly retained; thus, r<^J <?(*/c)( f a -fy en ff d-ndng,
*\
A'"" 'T' f*" ' ^"
a straightforward youth ; 0^ X( j(V) ^ w d-lim, a heavy load ; ^ ^( (*Q chi a-chor,
sour beer, &c.
Nouns, when qualified by participial* or other verbal formatives, or by nouns con-
nected with the relative participle fat sa, succeed their attributes ; thus,
* It may have been perceived that in former occasions I have spelt the word participle in its form of an
adjective the same as it is spelt when a noun ; this occurred in the first instance by an error of the compositor's
being overlooked : so, coi-sidering that one noun may be made to qualify another, also for uniformity's
sake, I continued to have the word thus printed. In the present instance the adjective being somewhat
separated from the noun, I have spelt it in its usual accepted way. It would, however, in my opinion, be
better, if not more correct, to spell and pronounce it participal, the same as principal, (from priaceps,
particeps) ; adverbial might likewise be improved by being shortened to adverbal.
( 121 )
C**' )( d^t sluing sa thdm, a desirable thing ; 2faj( <\ ^v j^ %<i/ /rMy sa z, a blaz-
ing fire ; (^ (^) (() U> j& (3C ^ n " w ^ sa ffi-chho, damaged goods ; &C3 C*v
f/^~ ^~
"r$ Mf sha-nyesa pa-hip, aleadenpipe, &c.; (see, also, remarks on this subject, page 101).
Two nouns may be united together in the form of a relative possessive case, or,
in regimine ; in this form, the order of the words is the same as the English. When
the affixed noun commences with 2( <*> the vowel is, invariably, dropped; thus,
an G SS) (&$f-tii a bi^'s egg, (instead of (^5 C* 3t(j$f sa "'^ tne
egg of a bird) ; <?(6( a-shdp, a nest, (r( fo-shap, a bird's nest ; XO d-thu, honey,
^T\ JoV 4^\(3\ )cy (^/S^ }o\ VO^-//ZM, hu-thu, tung-bum-thu, sa-im-thu, (dif-
ferent sorts of) bee's honey ; XU(T~ a-rong, a horn, () <(^ Mie-rong, a cow's horn ;
a'-j/M, an eye (of needle, &c.), tT' 6 \ryum-yu, a needle's eye ; 3ft}^( a-thyaJ:,
a head, $$}o\)(jat-thyak, a pin's head; ^(^Tj ( t-ruk, a young shoot,
a bamboo shoot ; ^((^ a-dot, the remnant, the balance, XCCifC^ -*Aa dot, the
remains of food, &c.
But when ownership or possession is directly implied, the genitive case is more
emphatic; it is also more dignified, and when significance is desired to be conveyed,
this case would be, judiciously, used ; should ^( '> be the first letter of the succeed-
t * t
ing noun, it would be correctly retained ; thus, ((\) ^J U/ X(j^ lo-pansa a-mik, the
eye of the master; /7)^j6 (5^ (>*/ X((\)\ num-shim-nyo sa d-lut, the heart of man ;
< ^
(C"> G"> ((&*' s k sad-som, the spirit of life, &c.
Possessive pronouns precede the noun ; when the latter commences with 2?( a,
the vowel may, or may not be dropped ; thus, -(n*>\ <( (0 &*> 5(V *^( *- '-&> 5a ^'
Arrf, or, ^ ^*vN (0 ^A*' j W *<;-( ^"-w ^^ sa /' kd, in the house of my father. The elliptical
form, UA X((0 j(V^ *^( ^-*w A-b H ^> m y father's house, is sometimes express-
ed, but this form, here, is slovenly, and rendering the sentence incomplete, it should
not be acknowledged.
31
( 122 )
Some nouns, commencing with 3J( ^> ma 7 ^ ear elision when standing simply,
/*~ p*'
but especially, when followed by some relative noun ; thus, 3(*- <*-^ a > the hand ;
f- 2* *~ t r~ o /^ *- 2* r
ka-jom, the fingers, -r\ ka-tup, the fist, (^ ka-dvm, the thumb, &c.
a-thong, the foot ; t(^(<JT thony-jbm, the toes, iO^i^N thong-tung, the heel,
< J i
thong py '61, a foot print, &c. <J( }v( A-thi/dk, the head ; fa)(^( thydk-ddm, the
< <
crown of head, }^V(<(<5 tliyak-ong, the skull, fa>( ( thyaJc-kam, a pillow, &c. 2J(-
> >
*^V( a-dyang, the leg ; <5^i>( (^J dyang-lyok, the sole of foot, <^sjj( (^5 rfya??^ p6k, to
f^ ^
kick forwards, <^sy( (^ (^U dyang gor ayok, to kick backwards, &c.
< j^ y
the eye ; ^% (-Q mik-chom, the eye-lash, ^% <(%V mik-myong, the eye-brow,
J^-
mik-grung t a tear, &c. ; X((^ a/ '/j a tooti 1 ) (^5^ /o-nyel, the gums, (& (( fo-gom,
A <
the molar teeth, (r -^ fo-zal, the incisors, (rj() fo'bik, the eye-tooth, a tusk, &c.
> > > <
X((O ci-tsom, the hair, (0 4^9 ^ ? J/ew^, a single hair, (Q ^)" ts6m-rik, a pig-tail,
>
(O *("^ tsom-chong, a hair-knot, &c., &c.
Postpositions, commencing with ^( > may, likewise, when affixed to a noun,
often drop the vowel, whereby the sense may in a degree become modified ; thus,
5^V) C**' S( $-> or ' J^ S(<-)^ li sa a-plang, or, li a-plang, upon the house,
/*7- fo
$C. ( li-plang ka, on the house-top ; (g &($C, on a-plang, upon the horse, tf\
}f>j hu on-plang thul, he rode on horseback. X(*3j &-pun, the side of,
^ /o^ ,^ /o T
' < Xj < ('v ^5j> C* (W ^5j *^( ffl/am-tsho-pun, ung-kyong-pitn, sa lorn-pun ka, on
the sea-shore, the river-bank, and road-side.
Other prefixed particles, besides 3( > are sometimes dropped, but chiefly when
in conjunction with a following word, forming a compound term ; thus, *> Jf\ sa-
i t\f 4 i t\f
tsuk, the sun ; 0\ i> tsuk-kyar, the west, 0N i/^)( tsuk-nang, the meridian,
tsuk-tsur, a sun-beam, &c. ^ (^iv ^-so, yesterday, (^v (^v so so, lately,
i '' /*--
J*-V((0 So rew thyakbo, an acquaintance of yesterday, &c. C^j?^- sa-nyim, the day,
~
( 123 )
J3V nyim-phyet, mid-day, ^5^ ] * ^ fai ($^ JWI ^ la sa ayo/c, daily work ;
*\ *%
o o _><
so-nap, the night, ^((^3 ndp-mo, the evening, /^)( ^J ^^ nap pa llik
lea, evening and morning, &c.
A word may, sometimes, assume a prefixed syllable without any change in the
19
part of speech ; thus, ('$) ayo, or, fat (S$) sa-ayo, before, formerly, (time) ; \f( Mn,
<
or, fi)\f( na-hdn, before, prior, antecedent, (time or space), &c.
Some prefixed syllables bear a legitimate degree of change ; thus,
*& *-r i */ ^ ' ^ ^
fS^dpwM} ^5\(4 puk-zolc, jungle ; ^ (^ pa-nybn, ^(^ pun-nyom,
nt/om, an old man; (^*v^5 s - ma t, (lit. the state of the weather), altered to
sung-mat, (commonly, but not so correctly spelt i*A^ sung-mut), the wind, &c.,
&c. ; (see, also, under head of commutable prefixed syllables, page 20).
Different local pronunciations, however, and often ignorance, &c., render the change, in the first
syllables of dissyllabic words, very common, and, sometimes, very irregular ; this disorganizing ten-
dency should be, altogether, discouraged ; and the proper prefixed syllable of each word, when de-
cided on, should be adhered to. This principle should be laid down as .a canon, and systematically
impressed on the Lepchas.
In the use of the Plural signs, when the noun is indefinite, the sign is affixed ;
thus, ^(^ $C>*> j(\) ma-rd sang li, the people spoke. But when the number is
^ * -'*" l T
defined, the sign is unnecessary ; thus, ^0 ^ )^ ^( bik fa-li mak, four cows died.
Where the plural may be inferred, through the aid of any connecting clause,
/o / , / ^
a single sign may be sufficient to pluralize several nouns ; thus, gy /^)\ ^(^, (^C, fa,
A * ~ T
* )6 ^*5 <\A r( fyan nun i ti> nyot, sa shingpang tyupfdt ; or by summing all to a climax,
/-
the sign may be dispensed with ; thus, * * 4j, <^j( <^V, <\A g-( * * * shing,
^^
li/imy tyang, tyup fat, the enemy laid waste the houses, fields and gardens ; or, the
houses, fields, and gardens, the whole country was laid waste by the enemy.
But where no inferential word or clause exists, it is better to attach the sign
to each noun ; thus, $A) 3, $ <.)^,v *5^ ^ & (& Upang, s/u pang, sa shing
( 124 )
pang dop wow, the houses, household goods, and gardens were burned.
When a noun, in the plural, is qualified by an adjective, the plural sign may suc-
ceed, or precede the adjective; thus, -^ (; 3?( TT'j ( -)(>* / ! or > ~%> (T" $6" X( TT'j
ma-rb a-ryum sang, or, ma-rb sang a-ryum, good people. The former is, perhaps, the
more idiomatic.
Pronominal adjectives, generally, precede the noun; thus, X(T" (^C a ' re
this book ; */}"'' ^(T' sa-re ma-rb, which man ? or, any man, &c.
The Postpositive Particles (( <)"~3 ff- run ff) $( Q& 9 an 9 ^> an ^ (V) ^ a i ma y be
separated from the Pronoun or Adverb by a word, or clause ; thus, (<$ (( tj"j to go-
rung, whosoever ;($%&'(( ^3 to ma-rb go-rung, what person, soever, ($ 5^ (fo
<y" \ to nyi go-rung, whosoever there may be. iv 7"~ <5& (V) sa ~ re ff an ff l a > whichso-
ever, /iv Y" &( $(& ^' Qto sa ' re ^ y an & ^' ^ a > whichsoever you please, take. (
** o ^ /*~-
$C$ (^ to gang la' whosoever; (( ($ *> %( *^N (( $(& fl)j (\f (^ 6j ((/ j-5^ **?*"^
g ^o #o sa a-Jcup go gang la, ho sa shu Jchbk nyi wung a, whosesoever cliild I may be,
what business is it of yours. $ M shu fa > whatever, whatsoever, every ; ( Q$ ^
hu la ma nyin ne, nothing, ((/ j5^ kho nyi, it is of use,
T. '^
ma nyin ne, it is of no use, &j (X^; ^ -^ (Jf\ ft shu tliyo la ma khun ne, I can
hear nothing. ( (V) to la, every one; ( 5&(f~-( (\) -^ 0( ft t ma-rb kat la ma
lam ne, there is not one single person remaining.
Dissyllabic verbs, compounded of two words, may be separated by a qualifying
word ; thus, ^ ^" den-ri, to believe, ^ ( ^f den kam ri, to have little faith,
J e of litt:i e faith ;
dyak, to pity, to feel compassion, (v ft "ty kybn nam dyak, to have exceeding
compassion, (see, also, the same construction in the negative form, page 109).
( 125 )
But this disseverance does not take place where the word is a substantive ; thus,
& ~ f^ C~ '
kybn-dit, compassion, pity ; (y ^^ X( j$ kybn-dit a-tim, great pity ; \.
( > ^ J
tuk-nbm, a nose, \(/D ^Vi^ (0 tuk-nbm Jcung-kbng bo, an acquiline nose, &c.
Pronominal adjectives and adverbs, when expressed relatively, may, abbreviated,
_^ _.
be repeated emphatically after the verb ; thus, (tf fa> Q$ t(ft $$ (( (\) i(fo ( hb
^ ^
- A**^ **
sa-lem nbng lem go la nbng sho, whither you go, thither will I go also ; ()f (^ S() Q(
/*- /-- /*~-
SO (63 (V) 0( (6 h sa ~bi b& m M go la bam sho, wheresoever you dwell, I shall also
dwell ; (tf (**> Jo( ^( Jo( (( (\) ^( (^ hb sa-thd mak tha go la mak sho, whenever you
die, I shall die also ; tf\ *v(^ -^3 (^' (Cb (V) ^J (& ^u sa-lo zuk to, go la zuk sho,
as he does, so shall I do ; JA (^ \ ^ <$ (^J (\) $y ( hu sa-tet zuk tet go la zuk sho,
I will do as much as he does ; 3(j G*>T^ <5"^ J"" ^"T" &( T~ (} (,< *-y u sa ~ re
*% ^% ^\ *%
ching re, sa-re gat re thop sho, whatever you think, whatever you desire, you shall
obtain, &c.
The preceding adverb may be omitted, and the succeeding verb and adverb
may, then, be expressed as a compound noun ; thus, (( \f\ t(fo <fo <(70 (& 9 ^ u
nbng lem nbng sho, I will go where he goes, I will go his whither-ward.
In speaking of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd persons, singly, the singular number (not as
^.^ * ^*
in some languages, the plural) is always employed ; thus, (( X((^ or > (\f -%\ jCV)
f^ - ' **" f ~'
goa-dom, or, hb mumli, I spoke to thee; (\f ft\ \f \ jftj ho nun hum bt/i, thoit gavest
him, &c ; (not even in honorary language does this form ever change).
The instrumental case, when the noun governs an active verb, may, generally, be
used instead of the Nominative ; thus, if\5(V or > }f\ /^5^ llu li i or > hunun li, he
said. But it cannot be, correctly, used in connection with an intransitive verb ;
thus, tf\ ^ hu dang, (not, hu nun dang ), he ran. It may often be, advantageously,
employed in indicating the governing noun, especially in a compound sentence,
where the word may happen to be far separated from the governed verb. It is
32
( 126 )
also, sometimes, made serviceable as an intervention between two symphonous 1ft-
/ A**"" ^", ft'*-' ^
ters ; thus, \f\ fi)\ \f\ ^Qj hu nun hum lyi, (instead of, tf \ tf\ ^(^ hu hum byi),
he gave him.
Words, capable of direct inflection, (as pronouns), may be inflected, when governed
by transitive verbs ; thus, (( <5(j5^ & ^-yum ^> I ^old 7 OU > or > I spoke to you.
Verbs signifying -sending and conveying- when governing nouns, referring to a
<*
second person, require the aid of a postposition ; thus, (( /QN \f N "( (or, ^fWVlX
or, ^A <^X^()N(V ff nun hu kd) ( or ) hu fydnff) or > ^ M lydngkdj, yuk lyat, I
/ *^ ' , ^ ' /^^
sent a letter to him, (not, him a letter); (( \f\ ^( ^\ T^t(*> hu ? ca IM yuk rem
felony, I sent the letter by his hands, or, in his charge, ( not him with the letter ),
&c.; ^C^\ *ftV( O^J 5 ^* ka-su lyang lu-di, bring it to me, &c.
The Substantive verbs (( go, (( go, fyc., do not inflect a noun ; thus,
\ go hu gum, I am he ; tfj %(j~ ^ ty, ($ ty X( ^ ^( ty &( /IU m
(not, remj gum, to nun d-dyut kd gye fat, he is the man who conquered in battle.
&
In the Imperative mood, the verb ( kon, inflects the noun ; thus, r(^v
(-^ ka-sum non kon, let me go ; not so in the Hortative mood, which is expressed by
means of the particle ( kd ; thus, ^) <(7b *( ka-yu nong kd, let we (not us) go.
Nouns are not inflected, by simple postpositions, ( as in English they, generally,
^ / ^i<
are by prepositions) ; thus, (tf *> ho sa, of thee, ( lit. of thou) ; \f \ $\ (^ ( hu
tun-dbk kd, on his account, (lit. on account of he) ; (( \f\ ( (^ go hu kon op, I fired
towards him (he). &c.
In referring to a subject, said, thought or done, &c., as usual the noun or pro-
noun, in general, comes first ; the verb, preceded by a relative adverb, the last ;
thus, tf ^ (,
A
/ **' 'T
hu-yu kd, ka-su d-mlem ik sa-thd la ma shi na sho, yang li. he said unto them, you shall
never see my face again ( lit. he uuto them, *****# J thus said ); (^J <-(, (% 0V
( 127 )
a '> ora *M-rf, y<7 <? > tell the groom to bring the horse, (lit.
/ -*-
to the groom, the horse bring, thus tell) ; ((^ /^)\ )f V (/Q (<, ( ^CV)/7 WM ' Z ^ MW > wo
*~ J J t
0, yo li, I told him to go, ( lit. I to him, go, thus said ) ; (fo, g( J~ ^C( . g\ ^(, t,)
tS-^ ^ ff> ~ re n y<*k ka um pa, yang ching ma, I thought that this was very nice, ( lit.
1, this very nice is, thus thought ).
Causive Conjunctions are, generally, affixed to the verb ; thus, ^(T" X( (0 )3^
/ /o / 'Jf /+
it)\ ~^( 0( ( or > (3\ ^C r" )j *^-^ 6 (0 6^ w ^-'* '*^ bo nyi nun mat la, (or, nun mat renj,
hum-yam bo gum, the man is clever, because he is learned. Illative conjunctions are,
usually, detached; thus, ^(f X( (0 S?' % ty ^ CM \f\ ^ T(0 ty ma-ro
s*-' f~* ?*-
UUp lo nyi, a'r nun mat lung hu kum-yam bo gum, the man is learned, therefore he is clever.
In the following sentence, I give examples of some conjunctions and adverbs,
by which it may be seen how they may be employed. They may be distinguished
in the transliteration, by being printed in Roman type, and in the translation, by
being printed in Italics, tfj ^( ty ^( 0(, (ft M * flj), ( /O X( ((V
a r, (v c^ /0 ^^ /o
nun m1 ^ n ' ff sa-a gum, yang na
d-lo do ryii pu, a'r nun mat ba yo ma go na gang, hu na su gang, hu-do sa ma-su sa
/*-
d-lut kd d-duk zak lo ka-ta z6n ma go na re, shen la hu sa num-nu sang gun na ka fram lyang
nyi tung, yang shu go-thom la ma nyin ne. I am sorry that he is dead, but, perhaps, it
is better as it is, for if it were otherwise, had he still lived, there can be no doubt, that not
only he would have been afflicted in body and mind, but would have been a source of
anxiety to all his friends.
A'*" T
The peculiarity, in the verb -to give -represented by ((3 bo, and ^Qj lyi, not
having been noticed before, may be here shown. The former is used, when gov-
( 128 )
erning the 1st and 2nd persons; the latter, when governing the 3rd person; thus,
/ *~ ^~~
6*^ (0 fa-sum to, give me ; 3J((^ (0 n-dom bo, g ive tnee 5 tf\ j(V Jlum ty*, give
him ; $ (0 ka-yiim bo, give us; (3 (0 '#* Jo > give ye ; iAJj35(V
>^ p '
iy, give them. It is the same, if the verb be used in a transitive sense ; thus,
f /- ^- /O A /*- >-
jW (0 ka-swn H to, speak to me ; tf\ ^\ }(\} hum dun lyi, tell him.
In speech the future particle ( sho, like the future sign in English, is generally
abbreviated ; thus, (( i(ft ( go nbng sho, would be pronounced (( ^(ft '^ go nbng
sK, I'll go; so, \f\ 5% ' hu di sK, he '11 come ; (\f ^( ' ho mat sK, thou 'It do it, &c.
Neither prescribed time nor space will admit a particularizing of every little point that may occur in
the formation and construction of sentences, enough, however, has been said to facilitate the learner in
acquiring the language, and this is the object of this work. I shall conclude this subject, by showing an
example of the diversity of significations, which a single word may possess, and the influence these exert
in modifying expressions of speech.
Though the language abounds in synonyms, yet numerous words bear many
various meanings, both simple and in combination with other words, effecting great
play and power of speech. I shall take, as an example, the "word -^( mat, giving some
of its significations.
mat, to do, to make, &c. 2, to become, to acquire ; (^C ^ ^( ft $fo, ^ V
& 4 ^M ^ 5^ ^ c]lll ma m(it na y an 9-> muk-nydm lyang mdn-po, vbn
lydng ma nyin nc, unless you become holy, except to the land of departed spirits (hades),
to no other place shall you go, ( $fe <vN Ta-she sung, Tashe's history). 3, to effect; \f \
^~-
s5 (ft "5( 0( hu pa-no mat l&m, he affects, assumes the king. 4, to suppose ; ^( }"" S^
" ~ T ^*
1~~ ^( d-re li rem mat ta, suppose, imagine, assume, (make out) this to be the house.
** */ < /*-_
5 , to befall ; \f\ ( &*> j X*. -^ ? m ^ sa-thi sak, misfortune has befallen him . 6 , to m ake
^ ' 1 ~
a custom, habit of ; tf\ (^ (Vv ^( h' u n 9"^ ^ m( *t) ^ e i g i n * ne habit of rising early.
7, used as a substantive, for the thing, or, action ; \f\ 2(C)C\) *<r( ^( jQ$ RC^ *^(
^ 'T'
d-lang kat mat li, a-nye kat mat It, he now says one thing, presently another.
( 129 )
> - .
8, except, only; 2((} 1$( ^ <(7i) (3 d-thbl mat ma nong ne, I shall go, only, a
short distance, ( lit. except near, I shall not go ) . 9, till, until ; \f\
f" T
^ jj ft nu t a ~ s ma t ma thi ne, he did not arrive till yesterday. 10, including,
.^ > -
along with, in addition to ; (^ (^ ^u 3^( -\ ^( kum mo sa a-kup mat, including
. _ ,,/- r-~-
the capital, and interest ; { (pv ^\ ^( j(\> k" m sa d um mc ^ lyi, to give clothes,
as well as money. 11, when affixed to substantives, it transmutes the sense to a
i t
verb ; thus, (3ftJ ay ok, work, (U ^( ay ok mat, to work ; also sometimes expresses,
emphatically, to do, or, effect ; thus, g( ^^ a-mik, the eye, y% i( & wa^, to spy, to
pry into ; $( Q$ %('( (V) ^ 1s( ft ( J an 3 ^ ^-y^ff fa ma mat ne, but it was, indeed,
of no effect, answered no purpose ; the sense is also sometimes modified ; thus, 3?(-
o ^
a-kup, a child, -^N -^( <(\\) /rwp wzd^ Ww^, to adopt, and bring up a child ; ((\) U/
._ _
?o? sa mat, to make preparations for the road ; 5(3""^( -^^^ w*d 3 to make a
^\
face, to be sulky, sullen, &c : ( see also its agency in forming a causal, page 93 ).
12, implies also, to have sexual intercourse, (,XU\ -&( ta-ayumdt) ; ^( $$ mat zany,
an assistant, an abettor; also a concubine. 13, preceded by ^ shang, intention is
inferred ; thus, (( t(ft $ ^(, <( SC^CV) ^ *(7c) /t) (6 ff n n ff sjian ff m <*t, #<%
d-lang ma none/ nasho, I intended to go, but I shall not go now. 14, when preceded by
***" ~ / ^"
^ sang, it signifies pretence ; thus, -^ S( /7) ^ ^5( shi na sang mat, to pretend
/9 /O
not to see. 15, succeeded by ()( la, ()( ia, <(^\ fe?zy, or )"" rere, gives signification of,
through, by means of, on account of, &c ; so, (-(f ^\ fat ^( <(M zo chhu sa mat lung,
provisions for (on account of) the road, (see pages, 84 and 87). 1 6, ^( ()( mat-Id, pre-
* /*-
ceded by U sa, implies comparison ; thus, (\ C*** ^( 0(> j(V) X("0^ 6>^ ^^ sa mat
la, li d-chum gum, compared with the hill, the house is small. 17, followed by ,)$ gang,
forms a conditional ; thus, (tf >^ (0 ^( $fo> (fa (( ^ 5"? ^ ^ /i(i A " a '
lo mat gang, go a-dom ma ki na sho, If, or, provided you give it to me I shall not
33
( 130 )
> _ >
prosecute you. 18, followed by (Q$ 16m, it expresses conduct ; so, {f \ fa ^(((^ <(-
hu sa mdt-lbm a-zuk gum, his conduct is excellent. 19, with Q$\ lu, affixed,
it signifies, mode of doing anything, fashion, rule; so, -^((M (% W ^( mat-ludok
la mat, to act according to fashion. 20, with the plural sign affixed, a substantive is
- - ^ o
formed ; thus, -^( i,)^ mat pang, actions, ^( ^ fa 2( (^ ^ (Jo ft mat pang sa
a-pbt ma thop ne, not to receive the fruits of one's labour. With the participle, present
and future, (Gerund), it also expresses nouns ; thus, ^A ^( 4^
/ T~ /o "
tung a-tim ziilc, he performed a great deed, XWW T~> X((^ ^( <),
f~- ^
(X &-lang ren, a-do mat slicing^ ryu la nyi ma o, from the present time let your deeds be
good. 21, with <,) ( shang Jca, affixed, it may refer to a period of time; thus, ((
t _ t-> *,
fa> $tf( fa>( -%( $&. ^( -ft J (V^ (j ffo sa-aydk sum mat shang kd siik lei s/to, in the space
of throe days, ( lit. in the work of three days ), I shall finish it. 22, with <,) shang,
and the article J"" re, affixed, it may be rendered emphatic and special, - what ought
*\
to be done, - so, -^( <,); J" (? (\ mat shang re chho gum, the necessary thing, is
religion. 23, with (\) la, affixed, it acts as an adverbial medium between the verb
and its subject or qualification ; thus, }Tj (^ ^( ^ -^J r ^ ^ m<>lt ^ ^"^"' ^ ^ we ^'
( after a goodly fashion ) ; it also acts the part of a postposition, ( or, English pre-
< <v T" **-~
position ) ; as, Q\ $ ^( (^ ^ tsuk-kyur mat la ngak, look towards the west, &c.
2. Of Figurative language.
ft*
AVhat, in Lepcha, may be considered a distinct part of the language, is, t\ (()
& * ^
tung-bor, (or, }((Q thdm-lbr), lit. a hint, an innuendo; therefore, <$\ (Q 4^^" tung-lbr
ring, may be called, a figurative language. It is formed of words, to which a figurative,
<
or metaphorical meaning is attached ; thus, S^ -^( mik cham, to close the eyes, hence,
^ ^
to die ; (JjT *^^, to be stiff, = to die, (^ (<) klbt bo, a stiff 'un, &c. In this language,
the Lepchas are fond of speaking, constantly interspersing their colloquy with it;
( 131 )
hence, it is necessary for the person desirous of being conversant with the Lepcha lan-
guage to acquaint himself with this mode of speech ; not only to the end, that he
may attain a thorough knowledge of the tongue ; but, also, to save himself from the
imputation of being considered dull of comprehension ; for as the Lepchas say,
~S(/ (0 /t)V *(0 $"& <i\A T"~, j^s ^)*v <\A T" j^J <^ r " l "y (^ nia-ro yam bo
/*- /-
mm, long kyang tyu ren, mik kyang tyu ren shi wung, ya sho, a man of wit will under-
stand, by seeing the corner of the mouth move, or the corner of the eye twinkle.
The following are some examples of words,
Tung -lor.
*
fur -jam mo.
tung-yal mo.
English.
Ordinary words.
Water,
t??\ unq
Fire,
5% t,
Rice,
(4*,
Do. boiled,
Milk,
(A ^ so men,
*+
5^ nt/cn,
Meat,
Spirit (liquor),
-^ man,
\-Q chi,
Fish,
(> ffo>
Dog,
Cow,
56 **,
Pig,
& ***>
Goat,
A cock,
Rat,
5^ 03 Mjc iu >
- (V^ ka-lokj
A bear,
^v(^ sa-mo,
I) &(
mo.
num-or mo.
tshong.
mo.
5^ ^3
"
pun-shal mo.
shim Ml bo.
ta-lommo.
("5 num-jiir mo.
(0 C^ (0
o
bo.
mo.
English.
Monkey,
Woman,
A Lepcha,
A Hindoo,
A priest,
An orphan,
A rupee,
An eight and piece,
A road,
A tree,
Fire wood,
A large basket,
A net,
To bite,
To be born,
Day to break,
Stolen goods,
The house is burned,
To part with,
( 132 )
Ordinary words.
sa-hu,
ta-ayu,
rung,
yuk-mun,
Ut,
tha-la Mt,
((\) lorn.
tung-c/rybng,
Tung-bur.
i ' i
3- ]Tj (0 m ^ em ryfan lo.
-2/
nwn-l&p mo.
^^
mo-tun-chi.
/
{f (0 *
(0
7-
^- tuk-dim.
4 (0 ser Jo.
/-*' J
/7)VlO (^ num-Mng lop.
num-ngal mo.
sa-bt.
*(** V J
ran.
ldya.lt.
tur-zut lim.
_ num-shal mo.
.. /v- &
0( j (ft bam tin- nun.
A &
vyal nybn.
so-sung ngun,
tuk-mo so, tham,
/^~
li dop nbn,
tham lybt,
C\f (^F $"0^ "( ^3\ <^V jO ($ C^~ ((& h<> dor-je-ling kapur-gyeng bi so nybn sho,
you will have to eat lentils (Ervum lens) in Dorjeling ; means, you will be put into
jail, if you go to Dorjeling.
&c. &c.
( 133 )
3. Of Honorific Language.
Honorific, or respectful language ( (C> tjj~ she-so ring), may also be considered
a distinct part of the Lepcha tongue. It is used by inferiors to superiors ; likewise,
among equals, when a polite and courteous mode of speech is desired to be employed.
It may be called the court language ; most of the words are derived from the Tibetan,
as may be seen by the following examples.
English, Ordinary,
To walk, to go, ((\) 16m, 4(7b nbng,
Honorary words.
"X /
chan.
shi,
li,
nyan,
lya,
To sit,
To rise,
To look, to see,
To speak,
To hear, to listen,
To accept, to eat,
To give, to grant, (Q bo,
To forget,
To remember,
To know,
Body,
Head,
Hair of ditto,
Head dress,
Turban,
Pillow,
Mouth,
84
20
byi,
my on,
(ft sak non,
ma-zu
&-tsom,
tuJc-tulc,
Jong,
zu.
sail.
nong.
bo sun.
khyen.
*&.
( 134 )
English,
Face,
Mustachios,
Beard, (Hair efface, &c),
Lips,
Spittle,
Blood,
Tongue,
Tooth,
Eye,
Eye-lash,
Eye-brow,
Tears,
Nose,
Ear,
Hand,
Finger,
Foot,
Heel,
Belly,
Clothes,
To weep,
To be angry,
In the presence of,
Ordinary,
u-mlem
long -mat,
f~~
ka-yat,
Honorary words,
she-dong.
she-gyan.
s/ie-chhoj).
3 A
(j&( ku-tshul.
ST (-0 mik-chom,
J W \ V
5% i(%V mik-mymg
tshem.
chan-shok.
tuk-nbm,
chan-chhbp.
shang.
chhbk-sor.
shop .
i(}o <^\ thong-tung,
shop-ting.
ta-bak,
00-1.
shum.
gong-lire.
*
/id,
( 135 )
English,
To enter presence,
Ordinary,
Honorary words.
((0
Father,
Mother,
To be born,
A son,
A name,
A letter,
A handkerchief,
Water,
Food,
To serve up ditto, 3( ($ ((j> d-so
To wash,
To be weary,
A dream,
To recline, to rest,
To sleep,
To be sick,
To grow old,
To die,
A corpse,
To burn ditto,
To bury ditto,
/o
A sepulchre, a tomb, (^ chbk,
&c.
(^ (/*) ^<
Civ se.
A.
chhbk-pi.
chhbp.
sa.
sapha.
nyil.
^
ft( ((\) ndl-lom.
>
(^)
-{f \
nyung,
(A ^
'
&c.
( 136 )
Letters and despatches always commence with, and are, generally, continued in
/9 s9 ^
a complimentary strain ; thus, fo\ ft (_fc ift\ <^v -tf\ i^"A <^v ^ (ft (-j (0
() & *&\ * 0^ ~&( *^Y \ ff un na kh>/en nuny s su wung sa pa-no krok bo ka,
vyet hi}), ka-bmn mat lung, yang shu, to the great king, the omniscient and all-seeing,
his humble slave, with folded hands, thus prefers his address, &c.
4. Of Expletives, (j\ (^sJ tsliuk-prylm.
Numerous words in the Lepcha language are found, to each of which a second
word is attached, the latter often bearing no apparent relative meaning. Some of
these may take their derivation from words in other tongues, or, like words in Tung-
lor ring, may have lost the peculiar signification they may once have possessed. A
- >
few admit of a degree of disconnection ; thus, -^( (( mat shop, to do, to act, -^( <J
>
( '^ mat pang shop pang, deeds, actions, &c; and some do bear a correlative
< < * <
meaning; as, C">5\ C*> J^5 sa-tsuJc sa-mik, (the latter formed from ^( ^-^ d-mik,
the eye, = most precious), the sun the most glorious orb. Many however undoubtr
edly have no distinct signification, corresponding to their preceding words, and may
be regarded as mere expletives. The following are examples, of words and their
expletives.
English, Substantive words, Expletives.
t **
The world, (^>\^\ suk-dttm,
fit
Stars, C^> (\f sa-hor, ^^ pur-du.
Water,
Earth, ^ fat, Qfr let.
Blood, ^d V1 'i & ni J'
'"75 /*-
]\Ieat, -^ man, < kit.
Flesh,
English,
Vegetables,
Weeds (rubbish),
Cloth,
Wood,
Iron,
An evil spirit,
A song,
A drum,
A year (time),
Hastily,
An article,
A tooth,
A bird,
A monkey,
Love (joy),
Head,
Prudent, thriftly,
A defeat,
Oppression,
Breath,
A door,
|
Ease, quietness,
To cherish,
35
( 137 )
Substantives words,
So
dum,
vam
,
hing-iUr,
mlo,
sa-/M,
ka-tsdm,
Expletives.
shbk.
m.
lung-ming,
tun-don.
Mang.
pa-lap.
( 138 )
5. Of the call to Animals ; and Infantine language.
The Lepchas have special terms for calling all descriptions of domestic animals ;
and the words used when addressing infants form, in themselves, quite a little dialect.
I shall not weary the learner with a detail of the above, but it behooves him, who
would master the Lepcha language, to make himself conversant in this parlance ;
otherwise he may incur the displeasure of the husbandman, and be disdainfully told,
_~ /*- /~- f*~ / /*~ <*~
(tf } (*'Q ~& ^> /t) h" thdm-chany ma ma ya ne, you do not know how to call ani-
^
mals ! or the indignant mother may reprehensively exclaim, (\f <XU<(() O^"""^ fa*^
ft ho ayeng-long ring ma thydk ne, you are not acquainted with infantile speech !
The terms may be found in their respective places in the Lepcha Dictionary.
6. Of Prosody.
The Monosyllabic form of the Lepcha language renders the pronunciation
very easy. The Lepchas are remarkably uniform in the pronunciation of words,
and to this we must look to obtain correct spelling. The orthography is governed
by the orthoepy.
In the pronunciation of dissyllables, whether the word be simple or compound,
&
the accent, as a rule, falls on the last syllable ; thus, U/ (JT> sa-rybm, an otter ;
. * /*- i f~~
num-vbm, united in the wedlock, married ; 0" Jca-jaJc, the fore-finger ;
- ^ f*r /
tan to, to know by experience, $((-Q ta-chblc, a whip, ( ^ to-dat, equality,
uniformity, -^^) ^ mu-tik, a pearl, &c.
In words compounded of the particle ((3 bo, and other suffixes, the accent necessa-
rily rests on the first syllable, the substantive part of the word ; thus, ^^ (() mi-bo,
2>
a trance, -^( (M (^ (\)\ mat lu shop lu, modes, fashions, &c., (<$(^ to-mo, trousers,
UV (0 M )n b) a walker, &c.
In an interrogative sentence the voice (as in English, &c.,) rises on the final
accentuation ; thus, v 0( *(?*) <-)6 & sa '^ a n ^ ]l ff slicing a, where are you going to ?
t c i what is it ?
( 139 )
The Lcpchas have no books written in verse. When reading prose they are
fond of reciting the subject in measured cadence, and the wandering Bards (their
priests), chaunt their tales and legends in sonorous and rhythmic strains. They
have numerous songs, but many are hardly intelligible, being chiefly composed of
2*
t\ (0 tung-b6r } the inference of which has been lost, and of expletives to complete
the numbers. The numbers run smoothly, in general from five to ten measures ;
they, however, are not always regularly sustained ; the verse is mostly iambic. The
following is a specimen of the commencement of one of their songs
sa - mi \ tung-gum \ a-nom \ sany
sa-mur \ nyo lu \ chhet non \ nc a.
which may be paraphrased ;
From behind the fire, sisters dear,
The flood has ceased to pour good cheer.
An allusion to the female cup-bearers, sitting behind the fire -hearth, to whom
the Bacchanalians are calling for more " good cheer." -%^(3< Q\ mur-nyo !ni, is in
mythology, the serpent that led the waters from ^; ^ tu-lya da, the profundity
(
of waters in ty$ % tany-de/c, the regions under the earth ; hence, running streams ;
IV ~s
(in contradistinction to -^N (5^ t(Q mur-nyo bony, still, standing waters, lakes). The
mythology is romantic in the extreme, and full of interest ; it has its abode in dream-
land, and teems with spirits good and evil, with fays and fairies, wraiths and gob-
lins. But since the Tibetans forced on them their barbarous Buddhist creed, and
especially since the influx of Europeans, and natives of the plains of India, they have
become contaminated; the Lepchas are losing all their simplicity and liveliness of
fancy their innocent and attractive idealism, their artless, guileless character are fast
dying out, and being replaced by that which has been taught them, duplicity, cal-
culatino- selfishness, and all that is vile and evil.
7. Of Division of time.
The Lepchas apportion the day into periods regulated by the rise and decline
^ < /%/
uf the sun; thus, (6vi(U> so-song, day -break; U/O\O( sa-tsuk tsar, the first rays
f > / ""~ A'*" / ~7 T"
of the sun, sun-rise ; CU'O^ j"C jiV 8a -te& c ^ H> when the sun has fully risen ; to
</*/- <
vj\ -(f( S^ sa-tsuk zan li, when the sun is in full power ; to ^U0\ </0( sa-tsuk
< *^-
<!#, when the sun is in the zenith, meridian, noon ; after which vON ^V j^ SY< -
/-vH/r gye li, when the sun commences its declination, afternoon, to about the end of the
t _ */- /- i
third quarter; when ^vQN (^ j^ sa-tsuk yo li, begins and continues; till
o
Jo sa-tsuk that, sun-set ; after which /7X(^3 nap-mo, the evening sets in.
sa-ayak, is a day of 24 hours ; including ^v^^C M-nyi, the day and
?, the night,
dun-hr&k) is a period of seven days, (derived from the Tibetan ^is^'y^i
bdun-phrag, a week, a se 'n-night. The following are the Lepcha days of the week ;
' ^~, 1 '
^C w ' sa-ayak, Sunday; tgj (^v^( uny sa-ayali, Monday; <,)
<
-ayak, Tuesday ; <<- (^v <$U( wyew sa-aydk, Wednesday ;
- < /9 <
/ sa-ayak, Thursday ; ^ ^v 3^( /a^ sa-aydk, Friday ; ^J\<C^ C**' <X^( pun-jeng sa-
c.f/ak, Saturday. But these are seldom employed now, and in fact are becoming
< ibsolete ; the Tibetan terms are almost invariably made use of, these take their names
from the planets (*IWQ gzali, a planet ; including the sun and moon) ; thus,
()zah-Mim, the seven planets.
^~
Sl ' 1 nyi-md, (the Sun) Sunday.
<i da-wa, (the Moon), Monday.
5% "5^ Z(>1 m tf c - m &i (Mars), Tuesday.
X((0 *<* Jilak-lo, (Mercury), Wednesday.
sap/iur-bo, (Jupiter), Thursday.
2(i pa-sang (Venus), Friday.
(0 ^ phcm-bo, (Saturn), Saturday.
( 141 )
The months are calculated by moons, of which they allot the usual twelve to
the year. The month or moon is called Q$ (Q la-vo, but the name of a month, as a
&
period, is (^C nyom. The following are the order and names of the months ;
2* <~ & *> * f 2* /*-
aijit nyom, Y ( (^ rA l/<>', ^( (5^ mar nyom, A ^ (3 kur-nyit nyom,
& > *r > / .. p
Icur-song nyom, (}o ($C thbn-nybm, (^ (^C sam nyom, f^\ J( ($i num-tsam
> & / f Qr > x
(5^ W M y ^^, /D^ *\ $. num-kum nyom, ^\ ^Q (5^ pur-vim nyom,
u nyom.
/7)( warn, is a year, in Lepcha. The new year ( /^)( 0^ nam-bu], varies according
to the date of the new moon, and according as the period is altered by the addition
of an intercallary month (^ (^ ( la-vo sho, or (\) (^ <1 fe-^o wyc^), which is added
about once in three years to regulate the lunar with the solar time.
Long periods are computed by cycles of 12 years (/^)( ( namkor, or (fl) (.
lo kor [oi'Sfx], lit. a cycle of years ), the following are the names and order ;
^ * '
1, ((V) /DC *-WA nam the rat year. 2, ^(Q$ ft( long nam, the ox year. 3, v<,)}o
*
/^)( sa-thany nam, the tiger year. 4, *\tCfaj /^)( kum-thy6ngnam, the eagle year.
<v
5, v2fa) /^)( sa-dyar nam, the thunder-bolt year. 6, ()\ /^)( bu nam, the serpent
- <
year. 7, (< /^)( o , the horse year. 8, fl)\ /Q( fe# waw, the sheep year. 9,
<
u nam, the ape year. 10, ^\f ft( hiJ: nam, the fowl year. 11, ^.
&
-/" wa ' ? "j tne dog year. 12, (-^ /^)( ?? ow, the hog year.
8. Colloquial Sentences.
How are you ; how is your health ? (tf U/(M (Z>> ^-tf) *(? 0(
^w, ma-zu song bam a.
What is your name ? ((* X(<C^( (>((V (Z>
sr<-fo go.
What are you doing ? (*Jf ^ ^( ^A (fo hb shu-mat tuny go
36
( 142 )
Where are you going ? (tf U/0( <(7c) *V^ X ho
Where do you wish to go ?
Where is your home ?
Is it far or near ?
When do you return ?
Give my compliments to your father ? 3J( (()
*j /9
What business is he employed in ? tf\ j fo Q\ i^'N X
^ < /v
a -
shang a.
xu* 6( <OM c~> So 5?
x^" y^*"
lam lyang sa-li nyi wung a.
>
X( fa* X ma-rum a-/tf a.
<(7t) ^ X sa-thd Ibtnong shang a.
^
am-ri mat.
^u ivung a.
a.
^o/c jt?a-& fo ?
i-??2a^
Are the crops flourishing ?
There is not likely to be a plentiful ()o ^JO ^ "
harvest. #0 w pu
Why do you think so ? (fjf
d-fom c/i/w^ ngung go.
It seems as if it would be so. X(((V ^J ^ *^ ^3 ^
/: pu lyok.
There has been little rain this year. /7)( ((**> <^V( ^( ^5^ ?za??z so-my&ng man
How far is it from Dorjeling to Tibet, via (2Jc ^<5^ ^J ^5 &f'*(ffi (^ (fo (S\
Sikim. 6**'^ T~\ X dor-je-ling nun pat M, ren-
/ J
You are hungry, have something to eat
and drink.
No thank you, (it is your graciousness), I
am not hungry ; I have no appetite.
s Zowz ?zzm, sa-tet ru a.
* ^ 'S
X()
krit-dak gum, a-sbm a-than sa-re lya.
/o,
! i-je chhi, go kritma
dak ne, tang-kb ma lu ne.
( 143 )
Drink some beer. VC *.)) (^ chi thang le.
**
It does not agree with me. \f\ UA X*( {(& ^ u ka-sum that sho.
Plain water and food alone agree with me. ig^ ($ ( (4 "C'\ 5^ ^ "
/
td son ka-sum jit sho. [ma.
jff^
Select whatever you like. fif <vf~ fo( f > ^ ho sa-re g&t re tham
w ** **
Cook the food. ( ( J ^f J a-^?? siik.
t ( P-~ *J p t * n* f /**
Boil the soup, boil the meat, and roast ^\<$ , ^ &>(**' j\f j& tuk-tak ka, man
* /^~
the fowl. ngo, sa hik il.
** > <-, /*-
Make a meat stew. -^ C^> X( C"0 -i^J Wflw 5a &-chbm zuk.
Toast the bread and infuse the tea. .(/^ 5^' &" (~Q C$ khu i, sa chbpot.
Bake the bread and bake the potatoes {/^ C**\ Oj (Vj> C**' <C**A S-A ^t>j Mzi
in the ashes, also the arums in ditto. su } luJc byup, sa sung-kri at/ur.
/* 2* /9 /*-
Eat slowly, do not gobble your food. fa> tfo ($, %( ($ -^ ^ -^\ sa-gang so,
a-sbm mafam mun.
P . > ">
Do not stuff your mouth with food. 2( (-{f ^3 ("^ ^3N ^-*<5 z mop pun.
Do not smoke, snuff, or chew tobacco ;
they are filthy and injurious habits. i)>o ^ V
(6 65^ t<> m -ku ma-thang ma fbm mun,
sa phi-ling ma tliang ngun, nybm mung sa
mu 16k kung sa Ibng-sho gum.
Wash your face. ((! Rtf & A-do a-mkmjlet.
Give me my shirt, coat, waistcoat, trow- *C>\ ^3(\f> ("^j^J^' ($(l& <(X*
> -T"
sers, socks, and shoes. (X (0 (X ka-supa-hok, ko, ta-li, tb-mo
thong-shuk, hlbm lo o.
( 144 )
Where is my comb and brush, I wish to fa S-^\ fa$( ^ ^^\ <S>
/^ fe? ^"
comb my hair ? X( (O ) &( ^ n ^ sa pak-zu sa-bd nyi
wung a, go a-tsum krat gat.
<</-<
I am going out, be so good as to give (fo <^( ^(ft (, C*'\ $\$\ "&\ 6"
me my hat, gloves, and stick. ^ i$j (0 W ff I l/ an 9 n " nr J sll i ka ~ su
T(
tuk-tuk, ka-s/mk, sa pa- tuny lo le.
Bring that box, bundle, and umbrella. (XT" 0"">0>C**' ^J 0^ j 5 ^ ' re rowl >
^>^-
sa dii l>u-di.
1 ^
Open and re-close the umbrella. :%^) <)"( (^v (^ ^\y\ dit rang sa lot hyup.
What is the price of this, at what do (T~ (?( <>|, (^ <^| t((^ <>\ (^
you value it ? d-re -/> sa-tet, ho sa-tet gong ngung go.
o +
It is very dear. X( (^V( *j ^ -^ f 'P * 7. [lam.
I think it cheap. (fo, < -^ ,C)5 <5"^ ^ ^ ^" e ww ' ^ aw ^ c ^ n( J
*\
It is not worth as much, I would not es- (%$ ^ <$*? ft, (& (g$ ^ 5^ ^ ' fe ^
/ /^ >
timate it so high. ma wa ne, go o-tet ma ri ne.
I spoke hyperbolically, without thinking, (fo ^ <$-Q ft -^(, -y Jfij ^(<^\>\ Q$ go
/ / J /-;-
?w c/iwz^ w ??zd#, Jcyam-liyat mat lung li.
What is the matter with him. \f N ^( ^ y^ i/^)\ (^ /< kd shu ngim
nunff go.
i ( *> t
He has fever and dysentry. \f \ ^\ ^ fa (\>\^( i-^J -{f /^w C?M Ja/c sa
luk-ma miing zak.
& ., */ >
Give him some medicine, he will recover. -JfN (^ ^\j( j(V>if^ (^7 (^ ^ KW mon ty am
b//i, fin JiroJc sho.
^ ' f <*" A' i
I am helpless, there is no remedy, he (& <(0 ^ Q& (d< fa? Is j&- ft, }f\ ^
/*-
will die. (^ yo bong ma lyeJc ne, thya ma nyin ne
1m mak sho.
( 145 )
You must contrive to do something to
enable him to recover, nurse him well.
\f A
<,),
7*o
I shall do all in my power.
I am happy to hear it.
It has become night, it is dangerous
in the hills groping about in the
dark.
You have no torch, we will wait here-
till the light of dawn.
hum sa la mat shang, sa-re la thdm-ju mat
gat, hum ryu la dak. \ziik sho.
, c^f cf\ $, -#3 (& y> sa ' re
sa, sak-di ma.
)Z(
*
W < (7) < yy (T~<OJU( C&\ so-ndp non
f^-
ne, rbk ka tyang ka thap yap la nbng
, rom lyang gum.
*.' A
nyin ne, a-ba so-bm let bam
(0-f)
(j S
sho.
t /
3J ho rok pi ya wung a.
/) (^ (V) X( ^> (0
Can you read and write?
I can do neither, no one ever taught me. ^C\ (V)
nyum la ma thyak ne, to la Map ma bo ne.
/o o ^_^
Induce your elders to teach you, exert ^T" ((3 ^**/ X( (0 4 )< <M^ ^ (tf (^ C***
^
<v "
yourself also to learn. ^ ( ^ ^C (^ ^( ran bo sang hlap
bo shang thycng nga, /to-do sa la ko shang
nyer la mat ta.
Whose land is this ? 2( T"~ ( C*" ^ j^" X ^~ rc ^ sa fat nyi a.
f\
/^^ // * * jSf
It belongs to the state, it is common ^(Q *vj^, ^(^(^V^jC^ (/7) ^'-
property ; it was confiscated by bo sa nyi, a-der gum, Jung je nbn.
Government.
37
( 146 )
& - /< * - O
What amount of wheat and barley do ( ( ( -0 C*> ("$ '(C*' C**"$
you get for the rupee ? <.) X ^"" z ^ ^ a/ ^ a ' cfier sa fy s < m ff sa '
tet thop sliang a.
You will obtain about eighty Ibs. 53j *$ ^ T^) (6 f ri ( a measure of about
8 Ibs.) ka-ti tsJiet rup sho.
&
When will we reach our resting place ? (( <(M C*>}( Ui) (6 9^ l V n 9 sa ~ m
sho.
Can you see the tents ?
We will arrive presently.
There is a poor man, give him some
charity.
Let no opportunity of doing good es-
cape, emulate each other in virtue
and purity, be humble, pray to
God and trust in Him; farewell.
a -
X(^ 5^
^
thi sho '
--
^ humjum-lo tbng.
(
"^ OC
/O W> X( ^3 (^
. n>3 c\> 6c ^ ex
r ka jo-tshong ma lybt tun, kat nun
/*-^
kat ka kum-yo kum-la tung-gli tung-sbng
ka gyan na le } d-yu-dom nyom-chhuny
/*~ /*"
mat ta, rum ka ma lung tat lyi; ryu la
lam ma o.
END OF GRAMMAR.
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