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GRAMMAR

TEXTILE DESIGN

HARRY NISBET

WEAVING AND DESIGNING MASTER, MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL, BOLTON

WITH 490 ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON

SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON
8 BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL, B.C.

CANADA : THE COPP CLARK CO., LTD., TORONTO

UNITED STATES : D. VAN NOSTRAND CO., NEW YORK

1906

[All rights remain with Scott, Greenwood b" Son'\

Uftassoa^-"-"*^

^ PREFACE.

The Grammar of Textile Design is a treatise upon the
Fundamental Principles of Structural Design in Woven
Fabrics, and the application of those principles in the
production of various types of cloth.

It has been chiefly prepared as a text-book for students
of v^eaving and designing in all branches of the v^eaving
trade, and contains much information of practical utiHty

V to designers, salesmen, manufacturers and others, to
v^hom a knov^ledge of the construction, characteristic

"^ features and uses of textile fabrics v^ill be helpful.
. In the descriptions of fabrics that are produced by the
"^ aid of special mechanical devices, these are briefly described
and illustrated by scale diagrams, and include descriptions
of three types of steel-wire doup harnesses for cross-
v^eaving ; a loom for weaving leno fabrics in which
warp ends are crossed by a system of douping in front
of the reed; and a loom for weaving ondule fabrics in
which warp ends, and sometimes picks of weft, are
caused to assume undulating or wavy Hues in the direc-
tion of warp, or weft, respectively.

HARRY NISBET.

Bolton, October, 1906.

SMT\

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CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Introduction.

General Principle of Fabric Structure (§§ 1-4) and the use of Design Paper
(§5) pages 1-5

CHAPTER II.

The Plain Weave and its Modifications.

Firmness of Texture (§ 7).
Variety of Texture (§ 8). Variety of Form : Ribbed Fabrics {§§ 9-13).
Corded Fabrics (§ 14). Matt Weaves (§§ 15, 16) - - pages 6-23

CHAPTER III.

Twill and Kindred Weaves.

Classification of Twill Weaves (§ 17). I. Continuous Twills (a) warp-
face Twills (§ 18). (6) Weft-face Twills (§ 19). (c) Warp and Weft-
face Twills (§ 20). The Angle of Twill (§ 21). Influences affecting
the Prominence of Twills and Kindred Weaves [a) Character of Weave,
(6) Character of Yarn, (c) Number of Threads per Inch, (d) Direction
of Twill in Relation to the Direction of Twist in Yarn (§§ 22-26).
2. Zigzag or Wavy Twills (§§ 27 29). 3. Rearranged Twillsl:
Satin Weaves (§§ 30-32). Table of Intervals of Selection for the
Construction of Satin Weaves (§ 32). Corkscrew Twills (§§ 33, 34).
Rearrangement of Twill Weaves on Satin and other Bases (§§ 35, 36).
4. Combined Twills (§37). 5. Broken Twills (§ 38). 6. Figured
or Ornamented Twills (§39) pages 24-76

VI CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.

Diamond and Kindred Weaves.

Diamond Weaves (§ 40). Honeycomb and Kindred Weaves (§ 41).
Brighton Weaves (§ 42). Sponge Weaves (§ 43). Huck-a-Back and
Kindred Weaves (§ 44). Grecian Weaves (§ 45). Linear Zigzag
Weaves (§46) pages 77-102

CHAPTER V.

Bedford Cords.

Plain Calico-ribbed Bedford Cords (§§ 47-49). Plain Twill-ribbed Bedford
Cords (§§ 50, 51). Figured Bedford Cords (§§ 52, 53). Tabulated
Data of Particulars relating to the Manufacture of Seventeen
Varieties of Bedford Cord Fabrics described in this Chapter (§ 54)

pages 103-118

CHAPTER VI.

Backed Fabrics.

Weft-backed Fabrics (§ 55). Warp-backed Fabrics (§ 56). Reversible or
Double-faced Fabrics (§57) pages 119-125

CHAPTER VII.

Fustians.

Varieties of Fustians (§ 58). Imperials or Swansdowns (§ 59). Can-
toons or Diagonals (§ 60). Moleskins (§ 61). Beaverteens (§ 62).
Velveteens and Velveteen Cutting (§§ 63-71). Ribbed or Corded
Velveteen (§ 72). Figured Velveteen (§§ 73, 74). Corduroy (§§ 75,
76). Figured Corduroy (§ 77). Corduroy Cutting Machines (§§ 78,
79) - - pages 126-161

CHAPTER VIII.

Terry Pile Fabrics.

Methods of producing Terry Pile on Textile Fabrics (§§ 80, 81). Terry-
forming Devices (§ 82). Varieties of Terry Fabrics (§§ 83-87). Action
of the Reed in Relation to Shedding (§ 84). Figured Terry Weaving
(§ 87). Practical Details of Terry Weaving (§ 88) - pages 162-177

CONTENTS. Vll

CHAPTER IX.
Gauze and Leno Fabrics.

Gauze, Net Leno, and Leno Brocade Varieties of Cross=Weaving

(§ 89). Plain Gauze, and a Heald Gauze or Leno Harness (§§ 90, 91).
Net Leno Fabrics (§§ 92-94). Gauze and Net Leno Figuring by
means of several Back Standard Healds to each Doup Heald (§§
95-103). Leno Specialities produced by a System of Crossing
Warp Ends in front of the Reed (§ 104). A Device for the Produc-
tion of Special Leno Effects (§ 105). Full-cross Leno Fabrics (§ 106).
Relative Merits of a Top and a Bottom-doup Harness (§ 107).
Relative Merits of Different Types of Dobbies for Gauze and Leno
Fabrics (§ 108). Shaking Devices for Leno Weaving (§§ 109-113).
Practical Details of Leno Weaving (§§ 114-116). Tempered Steel=
wire Doup Harnesses for Cross=weaving (§ 117). Mock or
Imitation Leno Fabrics (§ 118) pages 178-236

CHAPTER X.

Tissue, Lappet and Swivel Figuring ; also Ondule
Effects, and Looped Fabrics.

Tissue Figuring (§ 119). Madras Muslin Curtains (§§ 120, 121). Lappet
Figuring (§§ 122-126). Spot Lappet Figuring (§ 126). Swivel
Figuring (§ 127). Woven Ondul^ Effects (§§ 128-131). Loom
for Weaving Ondule Effects (§ 129). Weft Ondule Effects (§§ 130, 131).
Looped Fabrics (§ 132) pages 237-265

Index pages 267-276

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION.

General Principle of Fabric Structure and the Use of
Design Paper.

§ 1. All woven fabrics are composed of at least two distinct
series of threads respectively termed "warp" and "weft".
Warp threads lie lengthwise of the fabric, parallel with the
selvedges (self edges), and weft threads, also termed " picks "
of weft, traverse at right angles to warp threads. During the
operation of weaving, warp threads are simultaneously with-
drawn from their source as a continuous sheet or layer of
evenly distributed threads that are spread out to the required
width of cloth ; whereas weft is (with exceptional instances)
inserted only one thread or "pick" at a time, by means of a
shuttle which places a continuous thread in successive parallel
lengths, extending across the entire width of cloth between the
selvedges, around which the weft returns for each successive
" pick ".

§ 2. The interlacement of warp and weft threads is effected
by dividing or separating (in a prearranged order for each pick
of weft), the sheet of warp ends into two separate and distinct
layers, one above the other (seen thus -<=rZH2lI^:^=^=^' when
viewed from the end of a loom) to form an opening or division
termed a " shed". A shuttle, carrying a supply of weft in the
form of a "cop," or on a bobbin or quill, is then projected
through the "shed" to leave a trail of weft between the two
layers of warp ends. These subsequently close upon the
"pick" of weft which is " beaten up " or pushed by the reed
to its ultimate place in the fabric, of which it becomes an
integral part. Successive picks of weft are similarly inserted

'2 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

in successive " sheds " of different formation produced by separat-
ing warp ends in different orders, and according to a prearranged
scheme of interweaving warp and weft, as represented by the
design. After each pick is inserted, it is beaten up to its ap-
pointed place close to its predecessors, and thus is a textile
fabric evolved in accordance with some definite scheme or plan
of interweaving which constitutes the design.

§ 3. This mode of interlacing two distinct series of threads
constitutes the chief and essential principle governing the con-
struction of every type and variety of woven fabrics irrespec-
tive of the special division to which they belong. The particular
order or scheme of interweaving those threads constitutes a
minor principle of fabric structure that becomes the distinctive
and characteristic feature of the class of fabrics embodying it.
It is the diversity of schemes of interweaving warp and weft that
gives rise to an almost infinite variety of textile fabrics, an exact
classification of which would be an extremely difficult, if not
impossible, task. This difficulty is greater from the circum-
stance of many fabrics being each known by a variety of trade
names not only in different parts of the same country, but even
in the same locality.

Under these circumstances the value of such a classification
would be nullified, inasmuch as it could not be of general appli-
cation ; otherwise it would greatly facilitate reference by em-
ploying a definite term to signify a particular type or variety of
fabric. All these varieties, however, may be classified under
comparatively few chief divisions, each representing distinct
types of fabrics known by technical descriptions and names
more or less universally recognised. Each type is characterised
by some special constructive element which distinguishes it
from other types, and, as a rule, specially adapts it for particular
uses. The present treatise is devoted to describing the charac-
teristics of the principal types of fabrics and of their chief
varieties and modifications ; also the principles governing their
construction, and the preparation of designs for them ; the
chief purposes for which they are employed, and other helpful
information of a practical character relating to their inanu-
facture. •

INTRODUCTION. 6

§ 4. Textile design is of two kinds, namely (1) structural, and
(2) decorative. The first relates to the specific manner in which
warp and weft threads are interlaced, by which is evolved woveri
design, which constitutes the technique of fabric structure. The
second relates to the scheme of ornamentation by which a textile
fabric is decorated, which is also more or less dependent upon
woven design. It is the object of this book, however, to de-
monstrate the fundamental principles of structural or woven
design, which may be aptly described as the " Grammar of Tex-
tile Design ".

A textile fabric may contain only one element of woven design
and yet be profusely embellished without having recourse to
colour. Many white and grey linen and cotton, and also white
silk, damask and brocade fabrics, are good examples of that
class. The construction of such fabrics, and of damasks in
particular, is frequently based upon some simple elementary
weave which is simply reversed to develop the figure and
ground portions, thereby causing warp to preponderate on the
surface in some parts, and weft in others ; hence the contrasting
tones of light which enable the figure and ground portions to be
distinguished. The most elaborately decorated fabrics will often-
times be found to contain not more than three or four different
varieties of simple weaves effectively introduced in the scheme
of decoration ; whilst most fabrics employed for domestic pur-
poses, and many others, contain but one element of design of a
simple character and specially suited for a specific purpose. An
examination of such fabrics will show that w^arp and weft are
interwoven in some simple definite order or sequence that occurs
with perfect regularity throughout the entire fabric.

Excepting by the employment of colour, it w^ould frequently
be impossible to clearly distinguish the various forms and details
of an elaborate design, were it not that a designer has at his
command an almost unlimited choice of fundamental weaves by
which he may develop its various parts to obtain contrast and
variety of effect. Hence, it is equally if not more important that
a textile designer should be conversant with the principles of
fabric structure, as that he should be an artist and expert
draughtsman.

4 GEAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

It is important to observe that in all examples of designs
contained in this book, filled or shaded squares, or other sym-
bols, on design or point paper, signify that warp threads are
ove?' weft, wherever those marks are placed, and blank squares
signify weft passing over warp. This warning is given in con-
sequence of some writers observing the reverse practice ; but it is
quite immaterial whichever is adopted, so long as it is specified.

Use of Design Paper.

§ 5. It is also expedient, at this stage, to explain the use of
squared paper on which textile designs are prepared. This is
ruled with two sets of lines crossing at right angles to form a
series of rectangular spaces. At regular intervals apart thicker
lines, called "bar lines," are ruled in both directions to form
large squares termed ** bars ". These large squares, or *' bars,"
enclose a number of smaller rectangular spaces which may be
either in equal numbers in both directions, or there may be
more or less divisions in either direction, uniformly, according
to the ratio of warp ends to picks per inch in cloth. In one
direction, however, the thicker lines are ruled at regular intervals
of either eight or else twelve spaces, to conform to standard
conditions in the construction of Jacquard machines, in which
needles and hooks are (with exceptions) arranged in rows of
either eight or else twelve. The thicker lines also incidentally
facilitate the counting of spaces w^hen setting out a Jacquard
design ; and they also serve as an index or guide to a card-
cutter, as he "reads off" a design and records it by punching
holes in the pattern cards. For the present purpose, however,
it is sufficient to state that, excepting when employed for designs
for certain compound fabrics, the narrow divisions on design
paper correspond, in one direction, to warp ends, and in the
other direction to picks of weft. If the number of spaces be-
tween two bar lines are alike in both directions, as 8 x 8 or
12 X 12, either series of divisions may represent either series of
threads ; but if the number of divisions are not alike each way,
those of which there are either eight or twelve spaces in a
" bar " must represent warp ends, according to the index of the
Jacquard machine for which the design is intended. The ratio

INTRODUCTION. 5

of warp and weft spaces in a bar should, however, correspond
as nearly as practicable to the ratio of warp ends and picks per
inch in the fi^iished fabric, in order to ensure the correct shape
of figures in a pattern. For example, if a design is to be pre-
pared for a fabric that will contain eighty warp ends and sixty
picks per inch, to be produced by meaas of a 400's Jacquard
machine, the proper counts of design paper for it is that ruled
8x6 divisions to each " bar " : and for a 600's Jacquard ma-
chine, that ruled 12 x 9 is the proper counts. By placing a
dot in a small square, it signifies that the corresponding warp
end must be raised above the corresponding pick of weft in
cloth ; and a blank square signifies that weft must pass over
warp at the parts indicated.

CHAPTEE II.
THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS.

,§6. The "plain," "calico" or "tabby" weave, as it is
variously described, is the most simple and elementary com-
bination of tv^o series of threads employed in the construction
of textile fabrics ; albeit, it produces a relatively stronger fabric
than is obtained by any other simple combination of threads,
excepting that of " gauze " or " cross- weaving ".

The minor principle observed in the construction of plain
cloth is the interlacement of any two contiguous threads of
either warp or weft in an exactly contrary manner to each
other, with every thread in each series passing alternately
under and over consecutive threads of the other series uni-
formly throughout the fabric. By this plan of interlacement,,
every thread in each series interweaves with every thread in
the other series to the uttermost extent, thereby producing a
comparatively firm and strong texture of cloth. Also, a com-
plete unit of the plain weave occupies only two warp ends and
two picks of weft, as represented in Fig. 1, which is the design
(as indicated on design paper) for that weave. The rectangle
enclosing two shaded and two white squares indicates one unit
of the design, which is repeated sixteen times. The construc-
tion of plain cloth is clearly demonstrated by means of Figs.
2, 2a and 2b, which are diagrams representing a plan, a trans-
verse section (crosswise), and a longitudinal section (lengthwise)
respectively of that cloth.

Firmness of Texture.

§ 7. The degree of firmness of texture in woven fabrics is
largely determined by the manner of interweaving warp and
weft, and will be greater or less according as the two series

(6)

THE PLAIN OE CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 7

of threads interlace more frequently or less frequently, respec-
tively. Thus, if two pieces of cloth are woven from similar
warp and weft, and with the same number of warp ends and
picks per inch — [a] with the plain weave, in which threads
interlace to the uttermost extent, and {b) with any other weave
— the latter would be less firm, and therefore of weaker texture
than the former, because the threads composing it would be
bent in a lesser degree than those of the plain weave, thereby
causing them to be less firmly compacted. For this reason it is
important that the counts of warp and weft, the number of
warp ends and picks per inch, and the weave, should be pro-
perly proportioned, in order to obtain the best results. This

■

1
2

■

1
2
1

■

12 12 12 12

Fig. 1. — Plain or Tabby Weave.

Fig. 2.— Plan and Sections of the Tabby
Weave.

phase of fabric structure, however, does not come within the
scope of this treatise.

Notwithstanding the very simple character of the plain weave,
it is produced in a great variety of forms and textures, possess-
ing totally different characteristics, which adapt it for specific
purposes. Apart from those arising from the employment of
different textile materials, and also without in any way depart-
ing from the true principle of the plain weave, as defined in § 6,
the varieties of texture and form are produced (a) by the em-
ployment of different counts of yarn for different fabrics ; (b) by
the employment of warp of one counts and weft of another
counts in the same fabric ; (c) by the employment of warp or

GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

weft, or both warp and weft, of different counts in the same
fabric ; and (d) by subjecting some warp ends to a greater degree
of tension than others during weaving.

Variety of Texture.

§ 8. The term ''texture" is here used to signify the general
qualities of a fabric as regards material, counts of yarn, relative

Fig. 3.— Plain Calico Cloth.

density of threads, weight, bulk, how it feels when handled,
and other properties peculiar to woven fabrics. Plain cloth is
produced in a greater variety of textures than perhaps any other
weave, and varies from the tine, light, open and airy texture of
muslin, to that of coarse and heavy hempen sackcloth. When
produced from cotton yarn of counts ranging in different fabrics
from about 20's to 160 's for both warp and weft, and contain-
ing from about 40 to 160 warp ends and picks per inch, it is

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 9

known as calico — a fabric produced in great quantities, and
extensively used in both a grey {i.e., of the natural colour of
ootton) and a bleached state, for a variety of domestic purposes.
A true plain cloth is one in which the counts and qualities of
both warp and weft, and also the number of warp ends and
picks per inch, are similar. When these conditions exist either

Fig. 4.— Simple Warp-ribbed Cloth.

precisely or approximately, whether the texture is fine or coarse,
light or heavy, it will produce a general evenness of surface,
resulting from warp ends and picks each bending or yielding
to each other's influence in a corresponding degree. Fig. 3
illustrates an example of grey "calico" of medium quality,
containing seventy-two warp ends of 36's T., and sixty-two
picks of 30's W., per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square
inch of cloth.)

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Variety of Form : Ribbed Fabrics.

§ 9. The least variation of form in the plain weave is effected
by employing warp and weft of sufficient difference of counts
and density of threads to produce a ribbed or corded effect
throughout the fabric. The ribs or cords will he in the direction

c. — Plan and Sections of Simple Warp-ribbed Cloth.

of the coarsest threads, and will be more or less prominent
according as the difference in counts between the two series
of threads is greater or less, respectively. Fig. 4 illustrates an
example of cloth woven from comparatively fine w^arp and coarse
weft, which develop a series of ribs lying in the direction of
weft, and known as 2oarp ribs. By reversing these conditions,
the ribs would lie in the direction of warp, in which case, they

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 11

would be termed cords, or loeft ribs. In either case the rib
formation is entirely due to the non-yielding quality of the
coarser and stronger threads, and the yielding quality of the
finer and weaker threads, which perform all the bending under
and over the coarser threads. This is clearly illustrated by
diagrams. Figs. 5a, 5b and 5c, which are a plan, transverse

-..._ ^ ^ __ — __„ , ____ ..

■ - '■■

'z-%

Fig. 6.— A Third Example of Warp-ribbed Cloth.
section and longitudinal section, respectively, of

the

warp-

ribbed cloth. Fig. 4, which contains sixty-eight warp ends and
sixteen picks per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square inch
of cloth.)

Another variety of the plain weave is illustrated in Fig. 6. In
this example the rib formation results not entirely from any
great difference between the counts of warp and counts of weft.

« lOO

&rY,

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

as in the previous examples, but only partly from that circum-
stance, and, in a greater measure, in consequence of alternate
warp ends being held at a considerably greater degree of tension
than intermediate warp ends, during the operation of weaving.
This difference' of tension between what are virtually two
series of warp ends — although each series is of exactly the
same kind of yarn — necessitates the use of two warp beams
— one containing, say, all odd-numbered warp ends, and the
other all even-numbered warp ends. Only one system of weft,
which is of coarser counts and much softer than the warp, is
employed. In consequence of some warp ends being held taut
during weaving they are prevented from bending, and therefore
lie in an almost perfectly straight line throughout the length of
cloth. This causes picks of weft to lie perfectly straight and in

Fig. 6a. — Transverse Section of Cloth represented by Fig

two planes, above and below taut warp ends, and so form pro-
minent ribs on both sides of the cloth ; whilst slack warp ends
freely bend over and under picks of weft, to bind them firmly
in position, as indicated in transverse and longitudinal sections,
diagrams Figs. 6a and 6b.

The amount of contraction of warp during weaving, in cloth
of this description, will vary according to the counts of weft and
number of picks per inch, as well as according to the degree of
tension upon warp. The contraction will be greater or less in
proportion to the thickness of weft and the number of picks per
inch in cloth. In the example, Fig. 6, which contains eighty-four
warp ends of 30's T. and forty-six picks of 16 's W. per inch, the
amount of contraction is equal to 2t} per cent, for taut, and 33 ^^
per cent, for slack warp ends. (The rectangle encloses one
square inch of cloth.)

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 13

§ 10. One more variety of ribbed cloth, based on tbe principle
of the plain weave, will serve, along with the two previous
examples, to demonstrate its variation of form in the develop-
ment of ribbed fabrics. This is the well-known "repp" cloth,

Fig. 6b. — Longitudinal Section of Cloth represented by Fig. 6.

illustrated in Fig. 7, so extensively employed for window blinds in
railway carriages and other vehicles, and for the upholstering of
furniture. In general appearance it closely resembles the ribbed
cloth illustrated in Fig. 4 ; but a close inspection of both ex-
amples will reveal a great difference in their construction and

14 GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

texture — the repp cloth being much firmer and stronger than
the ribbed cloth.

In the production of repp cloth, as illustrated in Fig. 7, two dis-
tinct series of both warp and weft are employed — the counts
and character of each series being such as to develop a series
of very prominent and sharply defined ribs in the direction of
weft. The warp series comprise two counts of yarn — one fine

Fig. 7. — Repp (warp-ribbed) Cloth.

and strong, which is held at great tension during weaving, and
the other coarse and soft, w^hich is held at a less degree of
tension, to enable it to easily yield and bend over coarse and
under fine picks of weft. Each series of warp ends is wound
upon a separate warp beam to allow of a different rate of con-
traction during w^eaving. They may be arranged in the harness
and reed in the order of one fine and one coarse warp end

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 15

alternately ; but a superior rib will be produced by running two
mediu7n warp ends together, as in the example, Fig. 7, and as
indicated in plan, Fig. 8a. The weft series also comprise two
counts of yarn— one fine and strong, similar to the fine warp,
and the other very coarse and strong. These are inserted, one
fine and one coarse pick alternately, thereby requiring a loom

p n

A B

Fig. 8a, b.— Plan and Longitudinal Section of Repp Cloth.

with two shuttle boxes at each end of the sley, and a " pick-
and-pick " picking motion, i.e., one capable of picking twice,
or more than twice, in succession, from each side of a loom.
When coarse picks are inserted, all medium warp ends only
are raised to form ribs ; and when fine picks are inserted, all
fine warp ends only are raised, thereby forming deep furrows
by binding down all medium warp ends between the coarse

16 GBAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

picks, as seen in longitudinal section, diagram, Fig. 8b. The
sample of repp cloth illustrated in Fig. 7 contains 21 x 2 = 42
medium, and 21 fine warp ends per inch ; and 17 coarse and 17
fine picks per inch. (The rectangle encloses one square inch of
cloth.)

§ 11. In the foregoing examples of ribbed fabrics, the ribs of
the respective pieces are of uniform size, and occur in im-
mediate succession, thereby producing a general evenness of
effect and uniformity of texture throughout the entire piece of
cloth. Cords or ribs are, however, frequently employed as a
simple means of ornamenting what would otherwise have been
entirely plain fabrics, but which are made to assume a variety
of decorative effects of a very pleasing character. Such effects
are, of course, confined to stripes, running either up or across
the cloth, and to checks. Stripes may be formed in an upward
direction in a plain calico fabric by disposing comparatively
coarse warp ends or else groups of warp ends at either regular
or irregular intervals apart, according to the effect desired.
Such threads may be either of uniform counts, to produce plain
ribs, or of different counts, to produce variegated ribs. By
inserting coarse picks of weft instead of coarse warp ends in
the manner just described, stripes would be formed across the
piece ; and by introducing coarse threads in both series,
checks of great variety may be formed. A familiar example of
this method of embellishing a plain fabric is that of a cambric
pocket handkerchief, bordered either by a series of thick threads
or by placing two or more fine threads together side by side to
form cords.

§ 12. The development of ribs and cords is not dependent
upon the employment of coarser threads in one series than in
the other. They may be formed in fabrics composed of warp
and weft of uniform counts, by causing two or more threads
of one series (according to the required prominence of rib) to
lie closely side by side, so as to virtually constitute a coarse
thread composed of several strands not twisted together, and
interweaving such groups of threads with separate threads of
the other series. If threads are grouped in uniform quantities
throughout, the ribs will be of uniform size ; but if grouped in

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 17

irregular quantities, a series of variegated ribs will be produced.
By this method the rib formation is caused by the combined
resistance of the grouped threads, which lie straight, thereby

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Fig. 9.

Fig. 10.

compeUing the separate threads of the other series to yield
and bend under and over them, in accordance with the prin-
ciple of fabric structure which determines that the relative

Fig. 11.

Fig. 12.

prominence of threads diminishes in proportion to the amount
of bending performed by them in cloth.

J^ 13. Simple ribs of various sizes may be formed in the direc-
tion of weft by separating alternate warp ends (as in the plain
cahco weave) and inserting two or more picks of weft in the

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

same sheds of warp. Figs. 9 to 12 are designs for this class of
rib weaves containing two, three, four and six picks respectively,
in each shed. Each design repeats on two warp ends, and such
number of picks as are contained in two ribs, namely, four, six,
eight and twelve respectively. In the production of these or

1234^

Fig. 13

other weaves, in which several successive picks are inserted in
the same shed, it is necessary to furnish a loom with a selvedge
motion, to operate selvedge warp ends in a different order from
.that of warp ends forming the body of the fabric, and thereby

1 T : I : 1

■■■■■i

PP^HHH i I i 1 1 i

pWVVVV^ 1

^^^^

^ ^

1 1

^^_

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

prevent picks of weft from being pulled backward into the shed
when a shuttle passes through the same shed for several picks
in succession.

§ 14. Simple cords may be formed in the direction of warp by
raising warp ends in uniform groups of two or more threads
which may pass through heald eyes either separately or in

THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 19

groups. Figs. 13 to 16 are designs for cords in which two,
three, four and six warp ends respectively are grouped together.
Each design repeats on as many warp ends as are contained in
two cords, and two picks of weft. Since each pick is contained

Fig. 17.

in a separate shed, it is unnecessary to employ a special selvedge
motion when weaving those designs.

It was stated in § 12 that variegated cords or ribs may be
formed by an irregular system of grouping threads either warp
way or weft way respectively. It should be observed, however,

Fig. 18.

that much greater scope is afforded in this respect by grouping
warp ends, than by grouping picks of weft ; also that variegated
cords (warp way) may be more economically produced than
variegated ribs (weft way). This arises from the fact that cords
of any variety may be formed in a plain loom by simply varying
the drafting of warp ends through the healds ; whereas varie-
gated ribs would require to be woven in a loom mounted with a

CtRAmmae of textile design.

dobby or even a small Jacquard machine (for large patterns)
and furnished with a selvedge motion. Also, in addition to the
extra cost of such looms, a higher rate of wages would have to-
be paid to weavers engaged upon them. Figs. 17 to 20 ar&

Fig. 19.

designs for variegated cords, each repeating on twenty-four
warp ends and two picks. By turning those designs on their
side they become variegated ribs, repeating on two w^arp ends-
and twenty-four picks.

Fig. 20.

Matt Weaves.

§ 15. Simple matt weaves are those in which groups of two
or more contiguous warp ends and picks interlace with each
other so as to produce a chequered or dice effect, as represented
in designs, Figs. 21, 22 and 23. The simplest of these w^ eaves.

'THE PLAIN OR CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 21

is that known as a two-and-two or four-end matt weave indi-
cated in Fig. 21, in which warp ends and picks interweave in
pairs throughout the fabric, on the principle of the plain weave.
This matt weave is extensively adopted for a great variety of

1234

Fig. 21.

Fig. 22.

fabrics, of which dress materials, shirtings, sailcloth (for ships'
sails), and **duck" cloth are, perhaps, the more notable ex-
a-mples. Figs. 22 and 23 are designs for three-and-three (six-

K=gH

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^ ^^^ ^^^^H

^^^^^ ^^^^H

^i ^^ 1 ^^^^H

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lip

^■■H

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Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

•end) and four-and-four (eight-end) matt weaves respectively.
When these and larger matt weaves are employed, the number
•of warp ends and picks per inch in cloth should be proportion-
ately increased, otherwise they would produce fabrics of an
open and flimsy texture, in which the threads would become

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

easily displaced, in consequence of the very few intersections
made by them.

§ 16. Variegated matt weaves are developed by combining
irregular groups of warp and weft threads, after the manner

'^■■■~

■=

■

'^^^^^■~

^^^^1

■

JH^Hl

IB^^3

1 I 1 1 1

mT^

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• 12

. . .

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

indicated in Figs. 24 to 29, of which the first three are designs
repeating on twelve, and the last three, on sixteen warp ends
and picks. They may be formed with weft preponderating on

Fig. 27.

Fig. 28.

the face, as Figs. 24 and 27 ; with warp preponderating on the
face, as Figs. 25 and 28 ; or they may be designed as true
counterchange or diaper patterns, as Figs. 26 and 29, in which
warp and weft are exactly counter to each other and in equal
quantities on both the face and back of the fabric. It will be

THE PLAIN OE CALICO WEAVE AND ITS MODIFICATIONS. 23

observed that in these designs, as in all others of the same class,
there are only two orders in which warp ends interweave with
weft, thereby requiring not more than two healds for their pro-

■

1 1 1

■■ ■

HHU

■

—

■

■■

B HHHI

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Fig. 29.

duction in cloth, although the healds would require to be oper-
ated by a dobby or other shedding device, for designs repeating
on such number of picks as are beyond the reasonable scope of
tappets.

CHAPTER III.

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

§ 17. Twill weaves form a distinct departure from any of the
foregoing, and they constitute a most useful variety of weaves
extensively employed in the construction of numerous classes of
fabrics. They exist in endless varieties of form, and are based
on a simple principle of design ; but whatever particular appear-
ance they assume, they are generally characterised by a series
of more or less pronounced diagonal wales or ridges and furrows,
with either warp or weft preponderating, or in equal quantities, on
the face of the fabric. The twill may be produced continuously
either from right to left {i.e., sinistrally) , as in Fig. 30 ; or from
left to right {i.e., dextrally) ; or again, it may be produced in
reverse directions in the same fabric, as desired. The variety
of twill weaves is so considerable as to render an exact classifi-
cation of them impossible. For the present purpose, however,
they may be broadly divided into six chief varieties, namely:
(1) continuous twills ; (2) zigzag or wavy twills ; (3) rearranged
twills, including satin weaves and " corkscrew " twills ; (4)
combined twills ; (5) broken twills ; (6) figured and other twill
weaves of an indefinable character. Each of these divisions
may be subdivided into (a) warp-face twills ; {b) weft-face
twills ; and (c) warp and weft-face twills, in which warp and
weft are in either equal or unequal quantities on the face of the
fabric.

1. Continuous Twills.

§ 18. {a) Warp-face Twills. — These are formed by raising all
warp ends, excepting one, in each repeat of the pattern, for each
pick, and stepping one warp end in consecutive rotation (to the

(24)

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

Tight or left, according to the required direction of twill) as
successive picks are inserted. These will develop a series of
diagonal wales or ridges of warp, separated by furrows formed
by single stitches of weft. Twill weaves may be formed on any

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

number of warp ends and picks, from three upwards. Figs. 30
to 35 are designs for warp twills repeating on three to eight
warp ends and picks respectively, and will be sufficient to indi-
cate the principle of their construction.

§ 19. (b) Weft-face Tiuills. — These are produced by reversing
the conditions stated in ^5 18, by raising one warp end only, in
€ach repeat of the pattern, for each pick, and proceeding in a
similar manner to that described for warp-face twills. This will
produce a series of diagonal ridges of weft separated by single

^26

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

stitches of warp, as indicated in designs, Eigs. 36 to 41, which
are for weft twills repeating on three to eight warp ends and
picks respectively.

§ 20. (c) Warj) and Weft-face Tioills. — These may be formed
with either equal or unequal wales of warp and weft arranged

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

alternately. If the wales are equal, that is, if both warp ends,
and picks pass over and under the same number of threads
uniformly, warp and weft will necessarily be in equal quantities-

"fl

1 ■ i ■_

.__...

■■I

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■

■1

■ "

J nJ B_

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nil

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

on both the face and back of the fabric ; but if the wales are
unequal, warp and w^eft may be either in equal or unequal
quantities on the face and back of cloth. Equal wales are
formed by alternately raising and leaving down equal groups of
two or more warp ends for each pick, and stepping one warp

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

end in consecutive rotation as successive picks are inserted.
The least of this class is that variously known as the '' two-and-
two " {- — -), the '' Harvard " and the ''Cassimere " twill given in
Fig. 42, which repeats on four warp ends and picks. This is a

■

H 1 1

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H 1

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Fig. 38.

Fig. 39.

very useful weave, and one that is perhaps more extensively
employed than any other of its class. The principle on which
it is constructed is conducive to the production of firm and

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

strong cloth of comparatively light texture. These qualities
arise from warp and weft interlacing with such frequency and
in such a manner as to permit of the threads of each series
lying close together. On examining this weave, it will be seen
that alternate threads of warp or weft interweave in an opposite

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN

manner at the same time ; that is, when one is above, the other
is below, the same threads of the other series, although all
threads in both series interweave in a precisely similar manner
to each other. For these reasons, this simple twill weave is

Fig. 42

capable of producing a firm, close and compact texture, and is
one of the most useful weaves to a textile designer. Figs. 43 and
44 are two other examples of twill weaves having warp and

■

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■

{■

■

_■

I 1 1

^^B

^^^^1

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l^^l

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Fig. 44.

weft in equal quantities on both the face and back of cloth.
Fig. 43 is a six-end (^ — ~) twill, and Fig. 44 an eight-end {- — -)
twill. It will be observed in Fig. 43 that the first and fourth
threads in either series, counting from any thread, interweave
in an opposite manner to each other at the same time. Like-

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

wise with the first and fifth threads in Fig. 44. Knowledge of
these features is valuable to a designer in the development of
broken twills, and other designs having a twill foundation.

Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.

Figs. 45, 46 and 47 are designs for twill weaves to produce
unequal wales of warp and weft in equal quantities on both
face and back ; whilst Figs. 48, 49 and 50 are designs for twills

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

having unequal wales of warp and weft, but with warp pre-
ponderating on the face. The three designs of each of these
latter varieties repeat on eight, twelve and sixteen warp ends and
picks respectively.

Before proceeding to describe the second class of twill weaves,
as enumerated in "^

S 17, it wi

ill be both interesting and instructive

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

to indicate the main influences atfecting the angle, and also the
relative prominence, of twills in cloth.

The Angle of Twill.

§ 21. The angle of twill in any continuous twill weave in
which the progression is accomplished by advancing one thread

Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.

only at a time, with both warp and weft, is determined by the
ratio existing between the number of warp ends and picks in a
given measurement, say, one inch. If warp ends and picks are

Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.

in equal numbers per inch, the angle of twill must necessarily be
one of forty-five degrees, irrespective of any difference that may
exist between the counts of warp and weft ; but if the threads of
one series are more numerous than those of the other, the angle

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

of twill will assume an inclination towards those threads in
greater number. Thus, if there are more warp ends than picks
per inch, the angle of twill will incline in the direction of warp
ends in proportion to the excess of warp ends over picks ; but if
there are more picks than warp ends per inch, the angle of twill
will incline more in the direction of weft. High-angle or low-
angle twills may also be formed by advancing two or more
threads together in one series, and one thread only in the
other series, as in Figs. 51 to 54. If a high-angle twill is pro-
duced by this method, or if warp ends exceed picks per inch, the
twill should be developed with warp, as in Figs. 51 and 52. If

PF 1 ' '

PV" < '

■■■■ 1 1 1 1 1

-1

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....

^^^

Fig. 53.

Fig. 54.

a low-angle twill is required, or if picks exceed warp ends per
inch, the twill should be developed with weft, as in Figs. 53
and 54.

Influences Affecting the Prominence of Twills and
Kindred Weaves.

§ 22. A twill weave will assume either a more or a less pro-
nounced character in cloth, according to different circumstances.
The relative prominence of twills is chiefly determined by (a)
the character of weave ; (h) the character of yarn ; (c) the
number of warp ends and picks per inch ; and {d) the direction
of twill in relation to the direction of twist imparted to yarn
during spinning.

{a) Character of Weave. — A twill weave will be relatively
more pronounced if developed from longer than from shorter
floats of yarn ; but unless the freer interlacement of threads is

32 GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

counterbalanced by a proportionate increase in their number per
inch, the fabric will be relatively weaker, for reasons stated
in § 7. It is to obtain longer floats of yarn that high-angle twills
should be developed with warp, and low-angle twills with weft,
as explained in § 21. If those conditions were reversed, the
twill would lack fulness owing to the short flushes of yarn,
as may be readily observed on examining the reverse side of a
fabric of this class.

{b) Characte}- of Yam. — A more pronounced twill will result
from either coarse-spun or soft-spun yarn than from fine-spun or
hard-spun yarn; also from folded yarn {i.e., a thread consisting
of two or more single strands of yarn twisted together) than
from single yarn.

(c) Number of Threads per Inch. — A twill will be relatively
more or less pronounced in proportion to the number of threads
per inch.

{d) Direction of Twill in Belation to the Direction of Ttvist
in Yarn. — If the same twill weave is produced to the left in one
fabric, and to the right in another fabric of exactly similar tex-
ture, and woven from similar yarn, or (which amounts to the
same) if the same twill is produced in both directions in different
parts of the same fabric, it will appear to be more pronounced
in one direction than in the other, according to the direction of
twill in relation to the direction of twist in the yarn composing
it. This difference is also observable between the obverse and
reverse sides of the same fabric, especially if warp and weft are
in equal or in nearly equal quantities on both sides. For ex-
ample, if a twill inclines to the left (thus\) when viewed
obversely, it will incline to the right (thus /) when viewed on
the reverse side, albeit the direction of twist in both warp and
weft remains the same. Therefore the direction of twill in
relation to the direction of yarn twist is different on each side
of the fabric, with the result that the twill appears to be more
prominent on one side than on the other. In this case, however,,
the influence exerted by the deflection of the warp line out of
a straight course between the breast beam and back rest of a
loom (to spread the warp ends and thereby obtain what is
termed "cover" in cloth) will be a contributory factor affecting

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 33

Fig. 'y^. — yhowiDg tlie Face Side of -2-- Twill Cloth of Coarse Texture, produced
from Folded Warp and Weft twisted siuistrally, or Weft- way (when folded),
and with the Twill produced upward from left to right, or dextrally.
(Note the prominence of Twill.)

Fig. 56. — Showing the Reverse Side of the piece of Twill Cloth represented by
Fig 55. (Note the peculiar inclination of Warp Threads from a straight
course, and its effect in subduing the Twill.)

34 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

the relative prominence of twill on both sides of a fabric. This
circumstance, however, does not entirely account for the differ-
ence between the face and back of a twill cloth, otherwise no
difference would be manifest between the same twill produced
to the right and to the left in different parts of the same fabric.

What actually occurs, is that the series of ridges and furrows
in a twill fabric are more sharply defined and pronounced if they
incline in the opposite direction to the twist in yarn with which
the ridges of twill are formed ; and per contra, the twill will be
less prominent if the twill and yarn twist lie in the same
direction.

§ 23. This peculiar and interesting phenomenon in twill and
allied weaves has occasionally engaged the attention of textile
experts who have sought to discover its origin ; and although
various theories have been put forward as probable explanations
of it, its true cause is still a matter for conjecture, and cannot
therefore at present be definitely stated.

According to one theory, the phenomenon just referred to is
attributable to the effect produced by the reflection of light at
different angles from the fibres composing the threads, accord-
ing to the direction in which the fibres lie in relation to the
direction of twill. This may partly account for the different
effects, but it is apparently not the chief factor, as may be easily
demonstrated by taking a piece of cloth in which the same twill
is produced in both directions, in different parts, and viewing it
in a neutral or well-diffused light, when a decided difference
will be observed between the twill incHned to the right, and
that inclined to the left. The twill in the opposite direction to
the twist of yarn will be more distinct than that in the same
direction as yarn twist. It would appear, therefore, that the
difference is caused either partly or entirely by some influence
exerted by the direction of twill upon the twist of yarn. This
preconception forms the central feature of another theory based
on the assumption that since the spirality of a spun thread is an
artificial and not a natural property of such a thread, the fibres
composing it subsequently tend, under favourable conditions
to recover their original straight and free condition, thereby
causing the thread to untwist, especially when it is subjected to

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES. 35

tensile strain. Hence it is argued that during weaving, when
the respective threads are under tension, they tend to untwist in
cloth, and consequently roll slightly out of their original per-
fectly straight course, and assume a more or less oblique in-
clination between the points where they intersect with other
threads, unless means are adopted to prevent or check such
tendency by producing the twill in the opposite direction to that
of yarn twist.

Fig. 57.— Showing a Thread Spun Avith'ajRight-hand Twist, or " Twist- way ".

§ 24. The different effects of the same twill weave produced
in opposite directions in the same fabric are exemplified in a very
striking manner by Figs. 55 and 56, which represent portions
of the face and back, respectively, of an actual example of grey
cotton two-and-two twill cloth, containing thirty-five warp ends
per inch of 4/6's yarn ; and twenty-two picks per inch of 4/10's
yarn. The single strands of yarn composing the folded threads of
both warp and weft are spun " twist " way, i.e., dextrally, with the
twist or spirality extending upward from left to right, thus /

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

(when the thread is viewed either suspended vertically, or ex-
tending from the observer) and as indicated in Fig. 57 ; but the
doubling twist of the folded thread is in the opposite direction to
that of the single-yarn twist (in accordance with usual practice in
doubling spinning), namely " weft " way, i.e., sinistrally, with
the twist inclining from right to left, as indicated in Fig. 58.
The twill on the face of cloth incHnes to the right, and therefore
opposes the direction of twist in the warp ends, which are both

Fig. 58. — Showing a Thread Spun with a Left-hand Twist, or "Weft-way'

coarser and more numerous than picks of weft, and are con-
sequently more assertive than these ; hence, the twill is much
more prominent on the face than at the back of cloth, where it
inclines in the same direction as the warp twist.

§ 25. According to the second theory explained in ^ 23, a
twill will be more pronounced if it is produced in a direction
whereby the tendency of threads to untwist and roll out of their
straight course will be prevented or checked. Therefore, if the

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

■untwisting of threads that will form the ridges of twill causes
them to incline to the left, the twill should be produced to the
left also, so that the threads will support each other, at the
extremities of the float, on those sides towards which they tend
to roll. If, however, the threads are left unsupported at those
parts, as would occur if the twill were produced in the same
direction as the twist, their tendency to untwist and roll would
be unchecked, and the floats would assume a slight list in the
opposite direction to the twill, as clearly manifested in Fig. 56.

Fig. 59. — Showing the direction of Twill in a Warp- face Twill Fabric with Warp
Yarn Spun "Twist-way," to produce a prominent Twill.

§ 26. Whatever may be the influential factor in determining
the relative prominence of twills, it may be repeated that those
produced in the opposite direction to that of the twist in yarn
will be more pronounced than if both are in the same direction ;
and so long as this dictum is observed, it is immaterial in what
direction a twill may incline, or in which direction yarn is
twisted during spinning. Therefore, if a bold warp twill is
produced from yarn spun " twist " way (Fig. 57), the twill

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

should incline upward from right to left, as represented in Fig.
59. If a weft twill is required from yarn spun " weft " way
(Fig. 58) the twill should incline upward from right to left also,
as in Fig. 60. (This may at first appear inconsistent, until it is
observed that the direction or spirality of twist in a spun thread
inclines in opposite directions when placed at right angles to
itself, as indicated by arrows in Figs. 57 and 58). Again, if a
twill weave having warp and weft displayed in equal or nearly
equal quantities on both sides of cloth is produced from warp

Fig. 60, — Showing the direction of Twill in a Weft-face Twill Fabric with Weft
Yarn Spun "Weft-way," to produce a prominent Twill.

spun *' twist " way and weft spun " weft " way, the twill should,
in this case also, incline upward 'from right to left, as indicated
in Fig. 61. If, however, a weft twill is required from yarn
spun "twist" way, or a warp twill from yarn spun "weft"
way, the twill should incline upward from left to right, as in
Fig. 62.

2. Zigzag or Wavy Twills.

§ 27. This subdivision of twill weaves comprises those in
which the direction of twill is frequently reversed, to produce a

TWILL AND KINDKED WEAVES.

Fig. 61.— Showing the direction of Twill in a Fabric having a Warp and Weft
Face, and with Warp Yarn Spun " Twist- way," and Weft Yarn Spun
"Weft-way," to produce a prominent Twill.

Fig. 62.— Showing the direction of Twill in a Weft-face Twill Fabric with Weft
Yarn Spun " Twist-way," to produce a prominent Twill.

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

series of waves running horizontally, obliquely or vertically,
according to the particular manner in which the reversals are
made. Any regular twill weave may be employed in the de-
velopment of wavy twills ; also the twill may be reversed at
regular or irregular intervals on either warp ends or picks,
according to the effect desired. It should be observed, however,
that, as a rule, the best effects will be obtained by reversing the
twill on that series of threads which will be in greatest abund-
ance on the face of the fabric. Thus, if warp preponderates
over weft, the waves should reverse on warp ends ; and if weft
preponderates over warp, they should reverse on picks of weft,

Fig. 63.

Fig. 64.

provided of course that the preponderating threads are not in-
ferior in either numbers or quality. By adopting this course,
long floats, which would otherwise occur at all points where the
twill is reversed, and which look like imperfections in cloth, are
avoided, and sharper wave crests and furrows are produced.
The accompanying examples of wavy twills are uniformly based
on the regular twill weave represented in Fig. 63, which repeats
on eight warp ends and picks, and requires eight shafts of healds
to weave it, with warp ends drawn through them with a
"straight-over" draft, as indicated above the design. This
weave has warp preponderating over weft in the ratio of five of
warp to three of weft, thus -j-^ = i-

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

Figs. 64, 65 and 66 are horizontal wavy twills produced by
reversing weave Fig. 63 at regular intervals of eight, twelve and
sixteen warp ends, thereby causing them to repeat on sixteen,
twenty-four, and thirty-two warp ends, but only eight picks,
respectively. As indicated by the drafts immediately above
them, each design requires only eight shafts of healds (as does
the original weave) for its production ; but they would each
require a different set of healds in consequence of the different
methods of drafting warp ends through them. If the same
weave (Fig. 63) were employed to produce similar wavy effects
to those of Figs. 64, 65 and 66, but vertically instead of hori-

J 1 1 J t

Hh 1 rijfeH . 1 . ^Hicjli . hl -ftp 1 '' -t3tlP 1 ^ ■Hh- ' 1 'BE --r 4

.••jT yj^ •K-.mm .v .v ■«». "Sts

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Fig. 6f

Fig. 66.

zontally, the draft shown above Fig. 63 would answer, and the
healds would be raised in consecutive order, forward and back-
ward alternately, for eight, twelve, and sixteen picks, respectively,
thereby causing the designs to repeat on twice that number of
picks. This latter course would involve the use of dobbies or
other shedding devices capable of weaving designs repeating on
a large number of picks ; whereas, in the former case, the designs
could be woven by means of eight-pick tappets.

§ 28. Figs. 67, 68 and 69 are variegated wave effects produced
by reversing the twill at irregular intervals of warp ends, so as
to produce large and small waves in a horizontal direction. In
Fig. 67 the twill is reversed at intervals of four, eight, and four

GEAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

warp ends continuously. In Fig. 68 the intervals are eight,
four, and eight warp ends continuously : and in Fig. 69 they
are four, eight, four, eight, and four warp ends continuously.

Fig. 67.

By thus reversing for an equal number of warp ends in both
directions, the waves assume a horizontal course so far as one
or more than one repeat of the pattern is concerned. Only

'IG. 69.

eight healds are required to produce these designs ; but the
drafting of warp ends through them must be as indicated above
the respective designs. This causes the patterns to repeat
on thirty-two, forty, and fifty-six warp ends, and eight picks,
respectively.

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES,

§ 29. Figs. 70, 71 and 72 are wavy effects in which the
waves are produced obHquely by reversing the twill uniformly
at shorter intervals in one direction than in the other. The

Fig. 70.

Fig. 71.

obliquity of the waves may be more or less acute according to
the system of reversing, and the intervals at which the reversals

Fig. 72.

occur, as seen in the examples given. In Fig. 70 the intervals
are eight and four warp ends alternately, throughout. In Fig.
71, a more acute obliquity is obtained by reversing the twill at

44 GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

intervals of eight, four, eight, four, and four warp ends con-
tinuously ; and in Fig. 72 a still more acute slant is produced
by reversing the twill at intervals of eight, four, four, and four
warp ends continuously. These designs repeat on eight picks,
and require eight shafts of healds, with warp ends drafted as
shown, to produce them. In the development of wavy twill
designs, the relative sizes of waves are determined by the
number of threads on which the twill is produced in any
direction.

3. Rearranged Twills.

§ 30. Eearranged twills are those evolved by the rearrange-
ment of either warp ends or picks of any regular or continuous
twill weave, according to some definite plan. For example,
consecutive threads of a given weave may be redistributed at
regular intervals of two or more threads apart, as required ; or,
as an alternative method, threads of a given weave may be taken
at intervals of two or more, and arranged consecutively to form
a new design.

Satin Weaves.

The simplest application of this system of rearranging twill
weaves obtains in the development of what are known as '* satin "
weaves, produced by rearranging simple continuous warp-face
or weft-face twills (as represented in Figs. 31 to 35, and 37 to
41 respectively), according as warp-face or weft-face satin
w^eaves are required. Satin weaves are characterised by an
even and smooth surface, of either warp or weft, resulting from
a perfectly regular distribution of intersections of those threads.
They constitute one of the most useful varieties of weaves and
are extensively employed, in conjunction with other weaves, as
an element or component part of elaborately decorated fabrics,
as well as in the production of piece-good fabrics constructed
entirely on the basis of one of such weaves. Although satin
weaves are (for convenience of classification) generally regarded
as derivations or rearrangements of simple continuous twill
weaves, it will be seen that they bear no resemblance whatever
to that class, but are entirely different in respect of the distribu-
tion of intersections.

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

123456789 10

2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10

123456789 10 123456 739 10

■

Fig. 73. — Showing the Construction of Satin Fig. 74. — Showing an Alternative Method

Weaves. of Constructing Satin Weaves.

46 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

§ 31. In the production of satin weaves, the intersections or
binding points of warp and weft should be distributed as freely
and far apart as possible, on such number of threads as are to
constitute one repeat of the pattern. The more perfectly such
distribution is accomplished, the more perfect will be the even-
ness and smoothness of cloth. The rearrangement of any con-
tinuous twill w^eave, to produce either a simple satin weave, or
other design having a satin basis, may be made in accordance
wath an arithmetical formula to obtain the " interval of selection "
w^hich determines the positions of intersections or binding points
on consecutive threads of either series for any size of satin
weave, excepting those contained on four and six threads (which
are imperfect satin w^eaves). Having decided the number of
threads on which to construct a satin weave, the *' interval of
selection " may be either of two complementary numbers whose
sum equals the whole number, but which have no common
measure.

Exani]}le : It is required to construct a ten-end satin weave.
The only two complementary divisions of ten, which have no
common measure, are three and seven ; therefore either three or
seven may be taken as the " interval of selection," and the
intersections disposed at intervals of three or seven threads of
either series, on consecutive threads of the other series.

The application of this formula will be easily understood by
reference to Fig. 73, where a ten-end w^eft-face satin (B) is pro-
duced by transposing the threads of a ten-end weft-face twill (A)
in the manner indicated ; namely, by disposing say every third
warp end in A, in consecutive rotation to produce B. Or the
same result is virtually attained by the method shown at Fig.
74, where consecutive w^arp ends in A are redisposed at intervals
of three threads to produce B. The only difference between
Figs. 73 and 74 is in the reversed sequence of intersections.
Again, similar results would obtain by rearranging picks instead
of warp ends ; and also by adopting the complementary number,
seven, as the interval of selection.

Some numbers, as five, eight, ten, and twelve, each permit
of only two complementary numbers which have no- common
measure ; w^hilst some have four, and others more than four,

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

numbers which have no common measure. As regards those
which have four minor numbers, a similar distribution of inter-
sections will occur, whichever of the four is selected as the inter-
val ; but as regards those numbers which offer a greater choice
of intervals, the selection of the best interval is entirely a matter

emu

UWIUW

i:::::i:

Fig. 75. — 4-end.

Fig. 76.

-end.

Fig. 77. — 6-end.

of judgment and not of rule. In such cases it is better to con-
struct weaves based on each interval, and select that which gives
the most perfect and regular distribution of intersections.

^32. The following table shows the intervals of selection for
the construction of satin weaves on five, and seven to twenty-

i. I. I. .1.. I.. !

.1 — __i — ._■ — .-■ — ..__■ — .__■ — |..i_

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Fig. 78.— 6-end.

Fig. 79.— 7-end.

Fig. 80.— 8-end.

two threads. Instead of the numbers given, their complements
may be taken. Where two intervals are given, each of them
or their complements will produce similar results. Where more
than two intervals are given, the number or numbers shown in
heavy type (or their complements) will give the most perfect dis-
tribution of intersections ; and those weaves indicated in italics
are the only satin weaves (included in the following table) in
w^hich the distribution of intersections is absolutely perfect : —

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Table of Intervals of Selection for the Construction
OF Satin Weaves.

5-end satin — 2.

7-end satin — 2, 3.

8-end satin — 3.

9-end satin — 2, 4.
10-end satin — 3.
11-end satin— 2, 3, 4, 5.
12-end satin — 5.
13-end satin— 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
14end satin — 3, 5,

15-end satin — 2, 4, 7.
16-end satin — 3, 5, 7.
17-end satin— 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
18-end satin — 5, 7.
19-end satin— 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
20-end satin— 3, 7, 9.
21-end satin— 2, 4, 5, 8, 10.
22-end satin— 3, 5, 7, 9.

8,9.

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Fig. 81.— 9-end.

Fig. 82.— 10-end.

Fig. 88.— 11-end.

Figs, 76 and 79 to 94 are weft-satin weaves constructed in accordance
with the above table. Fig. 75 is the so-called four-end satin weave ; and
Figs, 77 and 78 are alternative arrangements of a six-end satin weave.
That shown in Fig. 77 is preferable to that shown in Fig. 78, as it gives
a more perfect distribution of intersections.

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Fig. 84.— 12-end.

Fig. 85.— 13-end.

Fig.

-14-eud.

" Corkscrew " Twills.

§ 33. Corkscrew twills constitute a variety of rearranged twills

largely employed in the production of worsted garment fabrics,

for which they are eminently suited, as they are capable of

producing firm and compact textures of great strength, warmth

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

and durability. Perfect corkscrew weaves are characterised by
a somewhat subdued twill formation, with either warp or weft

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;M;;:i;;:i:E!;;;!;:;::;EE;i::;;g:!;;EE;K:E;E:!;E:!;:EEjE::i;EE!

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Fig. 87.— 15-end.

Fig. 88.— 16-end.

Fig. 89.— 17-end.

only visible on the face of the fabric, and are usually constructed
on an odd number of warp ends and picks. The latter circum-

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n n M M u n

::±::::±:::±:::::::± :::::::: :::::i:::::::::::::::±:::::±:::::

Fig. 90.— 18-end.

Fig. 91.— 19-end.

Fig. 92.— 20-end.

stance arises from the particular method of constructing them,
namely, by rearranging either series of threads of any suitable

1 u H ti n u ti ffi

::::j::::!:J::::i::::::i::::::::j:::-::::::
::::::: :::!:: :: ::n:::: :::::::i:::::: iiji::'

Fig. 93.— 21-end.

Fig. 9J.— 22-end.

continuous twill weave at intervals of two, or alternately ; and
since two is not a measure of odd numbers, an odd number of

GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

threads are required for one repeat of the pattern, in accordance
with the principle governing the construction of satin weaves,
as explained in § 31.

Fig. 95. — Showing the Construction of Warp-face Corkscrew Weaves.

Warp-face corkscrew weaves may be produced by rearranging,
in the manner described, the warp ends of any continuous twill
that repeats on an odd number of threads, and in which warp

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

floats are one thread only longer than weft floats. For weft-
face corkscrews, the base pattern must have weft floating one
thread more than warp; but whichever series of threads are

required on the face, they should be of better quahty and in
greater abundance than the mother series.

Fig. 95 shows the method of constructing a warp-face cork-
screw weave B, by rearranging warp ends of the seven-end (^i)

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

continuous twill weave A, in the manner indicated. It will be
seen that B is produced by rearranging consecutive warp ends

Fig. 97. Fig. 98.

in A at intervals of two threads, or alternately, on the same

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100.

number of warp ends. In like manner, a weft-face corkscrew B

Fig. 101.
(Fig. 96) is produced by rearranging picks of the seven-end ,(^-^)
continuous twill A. Figs, 97 to 101 are examples of perfect
warp-face corkscrew weaves, and Figs, 102 to 106, of weft-face

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

corkscrew weaves, repeating on five, seven, nine, eleven, and
thirteen threads respectively. Judging from these weaves as
indicated on design paper, in which the threads are represented
as if spread out and lying parallel side by side without com-
pression, it would appear that lueft would be visible on the face
of the fabric in warp-face corkscrews, and loarp in weft-face

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Fig. 102.

Fig. 103.

Fig. 104.

corkscrews. This would actually occur if the floating threads
were not in considerably greater numbers and therefore more
densely crowded than the other series of threads. But by in-
creasing the numerical density of floating threads, over covered
threads, the latter will be quite obscured by the former closing
over and entirely covering them.

Fig. 105,

Fig. 106.

§ 34. Corkscrew weaves may be modified to a considerable
extent without departing from the general principle governing
their construction. They may also be made to assume varie-
gated and other decorative effects, as horizontal and obUque
waves, and many others ; but the necessity of having one series
of threads greatly in excess of the other series prevents the

i^tm ayfifi£ ceu:'-' ■■■■.;.;..

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

successful employment, in bulk, of the sparse threads. Simple
corkscrews may also be constructed on an even number of
threads ; but these will lack the perfect uniformity of surface
possessed by those constructed on an odd number of threads ; yet,
on the other hand, it opens out unlimited scope to a designer in
the productipn of new and varied effects. It should be pointed
out, however, that odd-thread warp-face corkscrews repeat on

Fig. 107.— Even-thread Corkscrew
Weave.

Fig. 108.

-Even-thread Corkscrew
Weave.

the same number of threads as their base weaves, and require
only that number of healds to weave them ; whereas even-thread
warp-face corkscrews occupy twice as many threads as their base
weaves, and sometimes require twice that number of healds to
weave them.

Fig. 107 is an example of an even-thread corkscrew weave,
based on an eight-end four-and-four twill, and requiring sixteen
warp ends and eight picks to complete the pattern. It is but

TWILL AND KINDKED WEAVES. 55

slightly removed from a perfect corkscrew weave, and virtually
consists of a double diagonal warp rib, separated by a single
diagonal cutting of weft which emphasises the twill formation in
cloth. Fig. 108 is another example of a corkscrew weave on
eight threads, but without a definite twill formation. It is pro-
duced by causing alternate warp ends to float over one pick
more than the others, thereby preventing weft from passing
over more than one warp end, as in perfect corkscrews. This
unequal floating of warp ends will, of course, produce diagonal
ribs of different widths ; but that feature will be scarcely, if at
all, discernible in the larger weaves, excepting where the varia-
tion in the length of float is considerable. It is worthy of note,
also, from an economical point of view, that the slight departure
in the construction of Fig. 108 involves the use of sixteen
shafts of healds, with a straight-over draft, whereas Fig. 107
could be woven with only eight shafts of healds, with a broken
draft, as indicated above the respective designs.

§ 35. It was explained in § 31 that satin weaves were evolved
by rearranging threads of warp-face or weft-face continuous
twill weaves in a prescribed manner. That system of re-
arrangement is equally applicable to other forms of continuous
twills, and is one that offers considerable scope to a designer in
the production of fancy weaves of great utility. Whatever form
of twill weave may be selected, its rearrangement on a satin
basis is governed by the same principle as that which operates
in the construction of simple satin weaves. The weave to be re-
arranged must, of course, repeat on the same number of threads
as that of the satin weave which forms the basis of rearrange-
ment ; otherwise the new design could not be completed on
that number. The rearrangement may also be made in respect
of either warp ends or picks of weft, with oftentimes very
different results, as will be seen in some of the following
examples. The best course to adopt, in the rearrangement of
twills, on a satin basis, is to indicate on design paper the par-
ticular satin weave required to form the basis of rearrangement,
and then proceed to rearrange either warp ends or picks of the
base twill weave, according to the disposition of the binding
points indicated, which serve as starting-points. In the follow-

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

ing examples, illustrating the development of designs by this
method, shaded squares in the base weaves indicate the twill
basis ; whilst in the re-formed designs, shaded squares indicate
the satin basis on which they are rearranged.

Fig. 109.

Fig. 110.

Fig. 111.

Fig. 112.

Fig. 109 is a twill weave contained on five threads, and
constitutes the base weaves for designs Figs. Ill and 112. Fig.

Fig. 113,

Fig. 115.

Ill is produced by rearranging ivarp ends of Fig. 109 on a
five-end satin basis, as indicated in Fig. 110. Fig. 112 is another

Fig. 116.

Fig. 117.

Fig. 118.

weave produced by rearranging, in the same order, j^ioks of lueft
of the same base weave. Figs. 115 and 116 are rearrange-
ments of warp and weft threads respectively of a six-end twill

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

(Fig. 113) on the six-end satin basis indicated in Fig. 114 ;
whilst Figs. 118 and 119 are rearrangements of warp and weft
threads respectively of the same base weave (Fig. 113), but on
the six-end satin basis indicated in Ficr, 117.

Fig. 119.

Fig. 120.

Fig. 121.

When a base weave is contained on such number of threads
as will permit of two or more intervals of selection that are not

Fig. 122.

Fig. 123.

Fig. 124.

complementary to each other, a proportionately greater diversity
of new* weaves may be produced from it by rearranging its

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Fig. 126.

threads on the respective intervals which that number gives.
For example, a base twill weave (Fig. 120) repeating on eleven
threads, may be rearranged so as to produce eight different

GRAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

weaves constructed on a satin basis, because eleven is a number
v^hich gives eight intervals of selection, namely, two, three, four,
and five, and their complements. Therefore, by rearranging
both warp and weft threads on each interval, eight new designs
may be made. Figs. 121 to 124 are produced by rearranging
warp ends, and Figs. 125 to 128 are produced by rearranging,

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Fig. 127.

Fig. 128.

picks of weft, at intervals of two, three, four, and five threads,,
respectively.

§ 36. Another method of rearranging either warp or weft
threads of a base pattern, to create new designs, is by adopting
a uniform interval of two threads irrespective of the number of
threads on which the original weave is contained. This system,,

however, offers considerably less scope to a designer than the
foregoing, and should only be employed for the production of
weaves in which a decided twill formation will not be displeas-
ing. By this system, a twill formation will almost inevitably
result in all cases, in consequence of laying alternate threads of
a base weave in consecutive rotation, or vice versa. If warp ends

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

are rearranged, the twill will approach the vertical, and if weft
threads are rearranged, the twill will approach the horizontal.
It should be observed that by this system, rearranged weaves
based on odd-thread weaves will repeat on the same number of
warp ends and picks as that of their base weaves ; whilst those
based on even-thread weaves will repeat on only one half the
number of threads in one direction, as that of their base weaves.
This is explained by the fact that tiuo (the interval used) is a
measure of even numbers, but not of odd numbers. Therefore^
designs repeating on an odd number of threads require them all
to be employed in order to complete the new design ; whilst only
one half are necessary in respect of even-thread designs.

Fig. 131.

Fig. 132.

Figs. 129 to 134 will serve to demonstrate the application of
this principle of rearrangement in the creation of new designs.
Fig. 129, a twill weave contained on fifteen warp ends and picks,
is selected as the base weave. By placing alternate warp ends
of the base weave in consecutive rotation until the pattern is
complete, a new design repeating on fifteen warp ends and picks,
as indicated in Fig. 130, is obtained. In like manner, if alter-
nate picks of weft of the base weave are placed in consecutive
rotation, the weave indicated in Fig. 131 is obtained. The only
difference between the two new designs is in respect of the
angle of twill, as just explained.

Figs. 133 and 134 are produced by rearranging, in a similar
manner, warp ends and picks of weft, respectively, of a base
weave (Fig. 132) contained on an even number of threads^

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

namely, sixteen. Since only one half the number of warp ends
in the base weave are required to produce Fig. 133, the latter is
complete on eight warp ends and sixteen picks. Also, for a
similar reason, but in respect of picks, Fig. 134 is complete on
sixtssn warp ends and eight picks, as indicated in both cases by
shaded squares.

4. Combined Twills.

§ 37. Combined twills are those produced by arranging the
threads of two continuous twill weaves alternately with each
other. Either warp ends or picks of weft of the two base weaves
may be alternated. If warp ends are combined, the angle of
twill in the resultant weave will be less than forty-five degrees ;

Fig. 133.

Fig. 134.

but if picks are combined the angle of twill will be greater than
forty-five degrees, to picks of weft. If it is desired to produce a
low-angle twill by this method, the best results will be achieved
by selecting two base weaves in which weft preponderates over
warp. For high-angle twills, the base weaves should have warp
preponderating over weft.

By this system of combination, there is practically no limita-
tion to the production of new weaves of great variety and
interest, and of great value to the textile designer. It obtains
almost exclusively in the worsted industry in the production of
garment fabrics, as it is capable of producing compact and firm
textures.

Any two weaves may be combined in the manner described,
irrespective of their relative sizes. The size of the resultant

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

weave, however, depends upon the number of 'threads occupied
by the respective base weaves employed. Thus, if two base
weaves, each occupying the same number of threads, are com-

■"

1 1 1

■"

■ fi\

■ ■ ■

■

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S8.V

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8. "1.

jim^fi^umm^xitriwmm

Fig. 135.

Fig. 136.

bined end and end {i.e., a warp end from one weave, and a warp
end from the other alternately), one repeat of the combined

uftiKVAhTnnummm

Fig. 137. ^Design evolved by
End-and-eiid combination
of Figs. 135 and 136.

Fig. 138.— Design evolved by
Pick-and-pick combination
of Figs. 135 and 136.

twill weave will occupy twice as many warp ends, and the same
number of picks, as those of the respective base weaves. If, on
the other hand, the base weaves are combined pick and pick, the

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

combined twill would occupy twice as many picks, and the same
number of w^arp ends, as either of the base weaves. For ex-
ample, Figs. 135 and 136 are two continuous twill weaves, each
repeating on six w^arp ends and picks. By combining them
end and end a new design is produced, repeating on 6 x 2 = 12
warp ends and six picks, as shown in Fig. 137. If picks instead
of warp ends of the same base weaves are alternated, a new
weave is produced, repeating on six warp ends, and 6 x 2 := 12
picks, as shown in Fig. 138.

Fig. 139.

Fig. 140.

Fig. 141. — Design evolved by End-and-end
combination of Fiars. 139 and 140.

If two weaves, each repeating on a different number of
threads, are combined end and end, the resultant weave will
repeat on such number of warp ends as equals the least com-
mon multiple of those numbers, multiplied by 2 ; and on such
number of picks as equals the least common multiple only of
those numbers. This rule also applies in a corresponding
manner if picks of weft are combined. Example : tw^o weaves.
Figs. 139 and 140, repeat on four and six warp ends and picks
respectively. If combined end and end, the resultant w^eave,

TWILL AND KINDEED WEAVES.

Pig. 141, will repeat on twenty-four warp ends and twelve picks,
because twelve is the least common multiple of the numbers
four and six. By combining the same base weaves pick and
pick, a design is produced, repeating on twelve warp ends and
twenty-four picks, as shown in Fig. 142. If two weaves repeat-

FiG. 142.— Design evolved by Pick-and-pick combination of Figs. 139 and 140.

ing on eight and five threads respectively are combined, the
resultant weave will occupy forty threads in one direction, and
eighty in the other direction, according to which series of
threads are combined. This is exemplified by Fig. 145, which
is produced by combining end and end the base weaves. Figs.
143 and 144, repeating on eight and five threads respectively.

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

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ti=flit

1:^"! S£S8 .3^1 ss .Ji.!--Xn-- ^i." bh.

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

It should be observed that although a combined twill weave
obtained by alternating warp ends of two base weaves may
occupy many times more warp ends than either of its base
weaves, it will only require, for its production, such number of
healds as equals the sum of those required to weave the respec-
tive base weaves ; whereas, if picks of weft of two base weaves
are alternated to produce a combined twill weave, the number
of healds required to weave it corresponds with the number of
warp ends occupied by the resultant weave. This is indicated
by the drafts placed above the respective designs. It will be

_ _ . ... _. _x - X 1

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: 1 " . . _..!__ — . ■- --

uWn UWil UMn

J - .

. Kr_. _ : : : . 1 ± . ' ~ t

_::±:!:±:i:::: ::::;:i :::::::: !":i:: ::::":;:!

:::±;-| _:::::: :::i:-:-: 1 ■ 1"

uwn LI w n u w n JHn

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.i.J 1 iJ-:__:+::i:' ::::::::

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^•^H^m^^

^'S^^'Jiffy^.'. iTp«1- -"fcLi.. 3

Fig. 146. Fig. 147.

Fig. 148.-

-Desigu evolved by End-and-eiKl combination of
Figs. 146 and 147.

seen that a design produced by combining picks may be woven
with a " straight," i.e., continuous, drafting ; whereas, one pro-
duced by combining warp ends will require what may be
termed a "compound" draft, i.e., in which the healds are
virtually in two sets — one set governing alternate warp ends in
accordance with one base weave, and the other set governing
the remaining warp ends in accordance with the other base
weave, and with each division of threads drawn "straight
through " on their respective sets of healds, as shown.

By this system of combining twill weaves, additional scope is

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

sometimes offered a designer in the production of varied effects,
even from the same base weaves, by the simple expedient of
placing the latter in different relative positions ; that is, by
placing the threads of one weave one thread, or more than one
thread, in advance or in rear of those of the other weave. This
is exemplified by Figs. 146 to 151. Figs. 146 and 147 are two
base weaves, repeating on eight and six threads respectively,
and combined end and end to produce design, Fig. 148. By
combining the same base weaves, but in the relative positions
shown in Figs. 149 and 150, a new design, Fig. 151, is produced.

lllllllllintiffllllllllllUUBIIIIIIII IUH4

:i :::::: II ■:::::::::::":i:-::::i=:::::::i:-:::±
::;:i:^:::::::::,:il': :::::::: ::,:i:': :::::::

i:;::::::::|::::i:„:::,::::::::i::j::::»»:::j

— ■ __■ --■ _-■

:i:? :::::::::i:_ :::::::: :i:-:::ii::::i:f ::::::::

i:-!:ii:i:i':i-:i!ii:iii:i"!!:iiil:ii:"!i:rii

mmm^^^^m

Fig. 149.

Fig. 150.

Fig. 151.

-Design evolved by Eud-and-end combination of
Fisfs 149 and 150.

5. Broken Twills.

§ 38. Broken twills comprise that class of weaves produced
by breaking the continuity of any continuous twill weave at
either regular or irregular intervals of threads. Such a course
somewhat tends to the formation of stripes, either in the direc-
tion of warp or of weft, according as the twill is broken length-
wise or crosswise respectively. If the twill is broken at regular
intervals of threads the stripes will be of uniform width ; but
if broken at irregular intervals the stripes will be variegated.

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

In either case the stripes will be more or less pronounced accord-
ing to the character of twill employed, and the manner in which
it is broken. The twill may incline in one direction throughout,
or it may be reversed in alternate stripes, or in any other
manner, to emphasise the striped effect. The stripe formation
may also be emphasised by the principle of counterchange,

i^ ■ I II

ETH

ESHS

JSLLTiM

Fig. 152.

Fig. 153.

Fig. 154.

effected by reversing the weave after each break, as in Figs. 155
to 162, and 165 and 166. The reversal of weave may also be
made in conjunction with a reversal of the direction of twill (to
obtain a still more pronounced stripe formation) as exemplified
in Figs. 170 to 176.

Fig. 155.

Fk;. 156.

Fig. 157.

Fig. 152 is one of the simplest examples of a broken twill
weave in which the twill inclines in the same direction through-
out. It is based on the four-end weft-face twill, broken at inter-
vals of two warp ends, and advanced one pick at a time after each
break. The pattern is complete on eight warp ends and four
picks, and may be woven with only four healds, drafted in the
manner indicated above the design. In the following examples,
shaded squares indicate one repeat of the pattern, and the drafts
are indicated above their respective designs.

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Figs. 153 to 166 are other examples of broken twill weaves,
based upon (a) simple, (b) even-sided, and (c) uneven-sided
twills, in all of which the twill inclines in the same direction
throughout. Fig. 153 is also based on the four-end weft-face-

Fig. 158.

Fig. 159.

twill, broken at intervals of four warp ends, and advanced one
pick after each break ; whilst Fig. 151 is produced by breaking
a five-end weft-face twill at intervals of three warp ends, with a
very different result.

Fig. 160.

Fig. 161.

Figs. 155 and 156 are produced by breaking a four-end two-
and-two twill at intervals of two and four warp ends respec-
tively ; whilst Fig. 157 is based on the same weave broken at
irregular intervals of five and three warp ends alternately.

Figs. 158 to 160 are all based on a six-end three-and-three
twill, broken at intervals of three, four, and five warp ends,

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

respectively. Fig. 161 is based on the same weave, broken at
irregalar intervals of eight, four, tv^o, four, two, and four warp
ends.

Fig. 162 is also based on an even-sided twill, but of different
construction to that employed for the last four designs. The

::i::q::ii

Fig. 162.

base weave is an eight-end -o-.t twill, broken at intervals of five
threads, with the weave entirely reversed, but with the twill
continued in the same direction. By reason of the foregoing

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Fig. 165

Fig. 164.

€ven-sided twills being broken in the manner indicated, they are
counterchanged in respect of the weave only, and not in respect
of the direction of twill, which remains the same throughout.

Figs. 163 and 164 are based on the uneven-sided five-end two-
and-three twill, broken at intervals of three and five threads
respectively ; whilst Fig. ^ 165 is based on the same weave,

GKAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

broken and counterchanged at irregular intervals of ten, two^
four, and two warp ends.

Fig. 166 is based on the six-end four-and-two twill, broken
and counterchanged at intervals of eight, four, two, four, two,,
and four warp ends.

Fig. 165.

Although the foregoing examples illustrate the development-
of broken twill weaves having the twill in one direction only^
they serve equally well to demonstrate the formation of those
in which the twill is reversed, i.e., produced to the right and left

Fig. 166.

alternately, or otherwise. The simplest example of this variety
is that shown in Fig. 167, based on the simple four-end weft
twill, and well known as the four-end satin or satinette weave.
It is produced by breaking and reversing either warp ends or
picks at intervals of two threads. Figs. 168 and 169, known

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

as " rice " weaves, are produced in a similar manner by break-
ing and reversing simple six-end and eight-end weft twills at
intervals of three and four threads respectively.

The next and last variety of weaves to be described under
this division comprises those in which the twill is broken and

Fig. 167.

Fio. 168.

Fig. 169.

reversed in counterchange — a plan largely adopted by designers
in the construction of garment and other fabrics requiring good
wearing properties, and capable of resisting tensile strain in all
directions.

tar" "■■■" "wKKT ■«■"

. ss ra&s. "!. "I JT .r:::;. % ■:. ■: .:■

Fig. 170.

Fk;. i;

Fig. 172.

One of the simplest examples of this variety is that shown
in Fig. 170, produced by breaking and reversing, in counter-
change, the four-end two-and-two (also known as the " Har-
vard ") twill, at intervals of two warp ends. This weave is
extensively employed in all classes of fabrics, as it produces a
comparatively firm and compact texture. As a neutral ground
filling of a subdued character, for light or medium brocade

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

fabrics figured by a Jacquard machine, it cannot be excelled. If
the twill of this or similar twill weaves is continued for a num-
ber of threads and then reversed, as in Fig. 171, it produces the
well-known *' herring-bone " effect, repeating, in this case, on

Fig. 173.

Fig. 174.

Fig. i;

sixteen warp ends and four picks. Other examples of this class
of weaves are given in Figs. 172 to 176, which are sufficient to
indicate the general lines on which they are constructed, and

the immense scope which this plan offers in the development of
new^ weaves of great variety and utility.

6. Figured or Ornamented Twills.

§ 39. This division of twills comprises that variety of weaves
produced by combining simple figuring, with a twill weave, as

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

.-a means' of embellishment. The amount of embellishment may-
vary from the least departure from a normal twill, to a degree
when there is little to identify it as a twill weave, beyond its
diagonal formation. It must not be assumed from this that all
patterns having a diagonal formation may be classed as figured
twills ; but only such as conform, in some measure, to the
^general principles governing the construction of twill weaves.

Fig. i;

Fig. 178.

Fig. 179.

The term " figured twills " is here used to signify only such
weaves of that class as may be produced by the aid of tappets
•and dobbies. The present examples will, therefore, be confined
to such as will require not more than twenty healds to weave
them. Notwithstanding this limitation, the construction of
figured twills virtually affords illimitable scope to a designer,

Fig. 180.

Fig. 181.

Fig. 182.

•since he is no longer restricted to twilled effects pure and
•simple, but may call to his aid all the elements of fabric
structure.

The additional scope which this class of designs offers to a
designer demands both greater technical and artistic ability
than is required for the simpler varieties of twill weaves. In the
latter, the perfect regularity of weave causes uniform tension
upon all warp ends, thereby producing a general evenness of
texture throughout ; whereas, in the former class, care must be
taken to ensure sufficient and uniform interlacement of threads ;

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

otherwise some portions of the fabric will be flimsy and weak,,
and some threads will be subjected to greater strain than others,
thereby causing a crimped or wrinkled appearance in cloth.
These precautions must be taken when producing designs for
any class of fabric whose warp ends, during weaving, are
delivered from one warp beam only.

Fig. 183.

Fig. 184.

The present examples are illustrative of figured twill weaves,,
repeating on eight, twelve, sixteen, and twenty warp ends and
picks. Little can be said regarding their construction, as they
are not conformable to any definite rules, but depend wholly
upon the imagination and technical ability of the designer. It.

Fig. 185.

Fig. 186.

should be observed, however, that whatever is introduced or com-
bined with a twill weave, as a recurring element, it must recur
on such number of threads (counting diagonally) as constitutes
a measure of the total number of threads on w^hich the pattern
is required to repeat, otherwise the continuity of the pattern
will be broken. For example, if a pattern is required to repeat

TWILL AND KINDRED WEAVES.

on twenty warp ends and picks, figuring elements may recm- at
intervals of two, four, five, or ten threads diagonally. This wiU
be better understood by reference to the accompanying designs.

■BIS ■"■"

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Fig. 187.

Fig. 188.

Fig. 189.

Figs. 177 to 182 are various forms of twill weaves, repeating on
eight warp ends and picks, to which are added simple figuring
devices, disposed at intervals of two threads diagonally, in Figs.

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Fig. 190.

Fig. 191.

Fig. 192.

177, 178, 180 and 182 ; whilst in Figs. 179 and 181 the devices
are four threads apart, counting from and to corresponding-
points.

Fig. 193.

Fig. 194.

Figs. 183 to 186 are designs repeating on twelve warp ends
and picks, with the figuring devices recurring at intervals of
two, three, four, and six threads respectively.

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Figs. 187 to 192 are designs repeating on sixteen threads each
way. In Fig. 188 the figuring units recur at intervals of two
threads ; in Figs. 187 and 189, at intervals of four ; in Fig. 191,

Fig. 195.

Fig. 196.

at intervals of eight ; whilst in Figs. 190 and 192, some devices

recur at intervals of two, and others at intervals of four threads.

Figs. 193 to 197 are designs repeating on twenty threads

•each way, with the figuring devices recurring at intervals of

Fig. 197.

five threads in Figs. 193, 194 and 195, and at intervals of two
threads in Figs. 196 and 197.

Although examples of figured twills could be multiplied ad
lihitum, the foregoing are sufficient to indicate the immense
scope they offer for the production of varied effects suitable for
all classes of fabrics.

CHAPTER IV.
DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

§ 40. Diamond weaves comprise all such weaves as ar&
characterised by a diamond or a lozenge general formation.
They may be produced in infinite variety, and constitute one of
the most valuable classes of weaves for almost any type of
fabric. They may be constructed with either warp or weft
preponderating on the face of the fabric, or with each developed
in equal quantities as required, and may be made to yield either
a comparatively smooth or else a very rough and open texture,
as exemplified in honeycomb and similar weaves. Their diamond
or lozenge formation may be more or less pronounced, or even
entirely obscured, as in honeycomb and similar weaves, which
are characterised by a more or less distinct rectangular cellular
formation.

The simplest example of a diamond weave is that contained
on four warp ends and picks, as shown in Fig. 198, formed by
producing a four-end w^eft twill to both the right and left. Larger
weft diamond weaves of a simple character are formed by cross-
ing larger twill weaves in a similar manner ; thus Figs. 199 and
200 are produced from six-end and eight-end weft twill weaves
respectively.

Although diamond weaves may be made on any number of
threads, those contained on an even number may be produced
with sharper definition than those based on an odd number, pro-
viding the opposing twills cross on a single warp end and pick^
as in Figs. 198 to 200, and not on two contiguous threads, as in
Figs. 201 to 203, which are contained on five, seven, and nine
threads respectively.

Figs. 204 to 213 are a few examples of diamond weaves-
repeating on twelve warp ends and picks uniformly, and are

(77)

GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

given merely as suggestions indicating general methods of pro-
cedure in their development. In all cases their diamond for-
mation is apparent, although they are not all actually based
upon twill weaves produced in opposite directions. A careful
examination will reveal the means by which the different results
are achieved, and students are urged to make original designs of

III-.':'.;.

kn ran i 1 1 m rw

fS":

Fig. 198.

Fig. 199.

Fig. 200.

a similar character and so develop the faculty of invention in
constructive textile design.

Honeycomb and Kindred Weaves.

§ 41. One of the most interesting varieties of weaves based, with
few exceptions, on the diamond, are what are technically termed
*' honeycomb " weaves, from their partial resemblance to the hexa-
gonal honeycomb cells of wax in which bees store their honey.

Fig. 201.

Fig. 202.

Fig. 203.

As previously stated, these weaves are characterised by a more
or less distinct cellular formation, which imparts to cloth a
somewhat rough and rugged appearance, as seen in Figs. 214
and 215, which are photographs of actual examples of cloth,
representing two of the best-known varieties of this class of
weaves, namely, " honeycomb " proper, and " Brighton " weaves,
respectively. The pecuHar character of texture resulting from
honeycomb weaves in general, and particularly from those just

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

named, renders them eminently suited for use as bathroom
towels, which require to be soft and absorbent, and for which
use they are extensively employed. They are also very largely

Fig. 204.

Fig. 205.

used ill the production of heavy cotton and woollen textures for
ladies' winter garments for both under and outer wear, and for

llii'

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ill

i;i!

i'-

ii!

li'ii

Fig. 206.

Fig. 207.

many domestic purposes. The well-known honeycomb counter-
panes and toilet covers are so named from the almost exclusive

s.^s-.s.-8sss.^s\:.-a8s

Fig. 208.

adoption of honeycomb weaves, as elements with which is
developed the ornamentation peculiar to those fabrics, which

GRAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

ornamentation is usually of an angular and linear geometrical
character.

Although the peculiar effects of honeycomb weaves are

Fig. 210.

primarily due to the particular methods of interlacement of
warp and weft, those effects are relatively more pronounced in

iiliiiill^HI

Fig. 211.

Fig. 212.

compact textures produced from coarse and folded yarns, than in
loose textures produced from fine and single yarns. For this

Fig. 213.

reason it is usual to weave them from folded yarn for warp, and
frequently for both warp and weft, iwith a high number of

DIAMOND AND KINDEED WEAVES. 81

threads per inch. The samples of cloth illustrated by Figs.
214 and 215 are very heavy textures made from threefold 8's
(equal to 8-^3 = 2|'s single) cotton yarn for both warp and
weft. The honeycomb sample contains 32 warp ends and 36
picks per inch, and the "Brighton" sample 11 threads of each
series per inch.

Whilst conformable to the same general conditions, true
honeycomb weaves may vary in detail of construction, but all

Fig. 214. — Cloth of Coarse Texture exemplifying a simple Houeycomb Weave

must repeat on an even number of both warp ends and picks.
Sometimes they are made to repeat on the same number of
threads each way, and sometimes on a less number one way
than the other, according to the ratio of warp ends and picks
required in the fabric. If w^arp and weft are to be in equal
quantities, the weave selected should repeat on the same num-
ber of threads of each series ; but if one series of threads is in
excess of the other, the pattern should repeat on such number of
threads each way as most nearly corresponds to the ratio of

82 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

warp ends and picks per inch, otherwise the honeycomb cells
would not be square in cloth.

Fig. 216 is the simplest example of a true honeycomb
weave. The pattern repeats on six warp ends and four picks,
with warp and weft on the face, and therefore at the back, in
equal quantities, thereby causing both sides of cloth to be
exactly alike — a feature not attainable in honeycomb weaves
repeating on the same number of threads each way, in which
either warp or weft must slightly preponderate. In the larger
weaves, however, the difference is scarcely, if at all, perceptible.

Fig. 215. — Cloth of Coarse Texture exemplifying a Honeycomb Weave of the
variety termed " Brighton " Weaves.

Figs. 217a and 217b are designs showing the obverse and
reverse sides, respectively, of the six-end honeycomb weave.
As seen at 217a it appears as a simple six-end diamond weave,
with alternate divisions, diagonally, filled in with a small
warp diamond. The pattern is contained on 6 x 6 = 36 small
squares, fifteen of which represent warp, and twenty-one repre-
sent weft. At 217b, however, which is the reverse of 217a, the
ratio of visible warp and weft is also reversed. This variation will
cause the cellular formation to be more pronounced, and there-
fore superior, on one side, according to the respective counts of
warp and weft and the ratio of warp ends and picks per inch.

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

which data should be known to a designer to enable him to
decide how to display the weave to the best advantage. For
example, if a fabric were to be made with the same number of
w^arp ends and picks per inch, from warp of slightly finer counts

t»«jKTtiiafeaB

Fig. 216.

Fig. 217a.

Fig. 217b.

than that of weft, the best results would obtain from the weave
shown at 217b, by reason of the longer float of finer warp com-
pensating for the shorter float of coarser weft. If, on the other

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Fig. 218.

Fig. 219.

hand, weft is to be a little finer than warp, the weave as given
at 217a would give the best results, for similar reasons.

All other varieties of simple honeycomb weaves are constructed

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Fig. 220.

Fig. 221.

in a similar manner to those given in Figs. 216, 217a and 217b,
the difference being one of magnitude only. For example, Figs.
218 to 223 are honeycomb weaves of all sizes, from that con-
tained on eight by six, to that contained on twelve by twelve

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

threads. It is rarely that the latter size of honeycomb weave is-
exceeded, excepting in fine textures containing a comparatively
high number of warp ends and picks per inch. As the weaves-
increase in size, the threads are proportionately less frequently
interlaced, thereby producing a weaker texture. It is advisable,
therefore, to construct the larger weaves on the basis of what is-

Fig. 222.

Fig. 223.

termed a double-stitch diamond, as shown in Fig. 224, which
forms the basis of the sixteen-end honeycomb weave given in
Fig. 225. By thus increasing the degree of interlacement of
threads, a fabric of firmer texture is produced without destroy-
ing the salient features of the honeycomb weave.

At the outset of these observations on the construction of
diamond weaves, it was stated that their diamond formation.

Fig. 224

may be more or less pronounced, or even entirely obscured, as-
in honeycomb and similar weaves, which are characterised by a
more or less distinct cellular formation. This is easily observed in
Figs. 214 and 215. In the former, which is a twelve-end honey-
comb weave proper, the rectangles are of uniform size, whilst ia
the latter, which is a twelve-end " Brighton " weave, the rectangles-
are of two sizes, a large and small one alternately, both longi-

DIAMOND AND KINDEED WEAVES.

tudiually and transversely. In neither case is their diamond
origin apparent, nor is there any I'esemblance between the
woven effects and their respective designs (as represented on
design paper), as is usual with most weaves. The cause of this
phenomenon will be understood on reflecting that warp and
weft cross at right angles to each other, and that threads are
more or less conspicuous according as they are interlaced in a
lesser or greater degree respectively. Thus it comes about that
the ridges of honeycomb cells are formed by the longer floats of
warp and weft, which lie uppermost, whilst the recesses are
caused by threads interlacing to a greater degree in those parts.

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Tig. 226.

-To demonstrate the Cellular Formation developed by Honeycomb

Weaves.

By reference to the eight-end honeycomb weave, Fig. 226, it will
be seen that the ridges of the cells are formed by the first warp
•end and first pick of weft — in each repeat of the pattern — which
are least interlaced, and therefore lie in a higher plane than the
threads on each side of them. The threads lie in a lower plane,
.^s their length of float diminishes, up to the fifth warp end and
pick, which lie in the lowest plane and form the recesses of the
cells.

"Brighton" Weaves.

Brighton" weaves are also constructed on a diamond
basis, yet they are quite different from simple honeycombs, and
more complex in structure. They are characterised by a cellular

§42.

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

formation comprising two sizes of cells, as seen in Fig. 215.
Unlike simple honeycomb weaves, " Brighton " weaves are not
reversible, but have a totally different appearance on each side of
the fabric. Instead of clearly defined cells, as on the face of th&
fabric, the reverse side presents a rough, indefinite appearance,
the caMse of which will be presently explained. This circumstance
requires to be carefully borne in mind by designers when employ-
ing " Brighton " weaves as elements in the development of orna-
mental designs, otherwise the designs are liable to be spoiled.
Examples of "Brighton" weaves are given in Figs. 228, 229'
and 230. It is noteworthy that they may only be constructed on
a multiple of four threads of warp and weft (the least size being
contained on eight warp ends and eight picks, as shown in Fig..

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Showing the construction of " Brighton " Weaves.

228). They are constructed on a diamond formed by producing:
a simple weft twill to the right or left (for such number of
threads as the weave is required to repeat on, say eight), and
then crossing it by a double-stitch weft twill, as in Fig. 227.
The next step is to put in a warp diamond spot inithe right and
left corners of each diamond, so as to form a weft diamond
spot in the upper and lower corners. The longer floats of warp
at the sides, and the longer floats of weft at the top and bottomi
of each diamond, form the ridges of the cells as explained in the
last paragraph of § 41. The two sizes of cells are caused by
the intervals between the ridges being greater and less, thereby
enclosing larger and smaller areas alternately. If the relative
positions of the w^arp and weft diamond spots are reversed, the
weave will be the wrong side up by reason of the longer floats.

DIAMOND AND KINDKED WEAVES.

forming a cross, instead of a square, within the diamonds. A par-
allel reference to Figs. 230 and 231 will enable this to be easily
understood. Fig. 230 is a perfect sixteen-end " Brighton " weave
with the warp and weft spots in their proper relative positions,

Fig. 230.— Showing the Correct
Method of constructing
"Brighton" Weaves.

Fig. 231. — Showing the Incorrect
Method of constructing
" Brighton " Weaves.

showing the squares formed by their longer floats. Fig. 231 has
the same diamond foundation, but the warp and weft diamond
spots are placed in the wrong relative positions, thereby causing
their longer floats to form a cross within each diamond, as shown.

" Sponge " Weaves.

§ 43. In addition to the true honeycomb and '' Brighton "
weaves there is a great variety of weaves termed * ' honeycomb

Fig. 232. — To demonstrate the Cellular Formation developed by " Sponge ' ' Weaves.

effects," that are closely allied to those weaves, and which pos-
sess, in varying degrees, many of their characteristics. They
are extensively employed as constructive elements in the de-

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN,

velopment of Jacquard designs for honeycomb counterpanes,
toilet covers and fancy woollen shawls, as well as in the produc-
tion of piece-goods of comparatively heavy and thick textures,
for use as ladies' winter underclothing, towels, and many other
domestic purposes. They are usually characterised by a cellular

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Fig. 234.

formation, but of a less pronounced character than that of a
perfect honeycomb. This chiefly arises from adopting a less
restricted basis than that of a diamond on which to construct
them, as, for example, a satin-weave basis, which gives a free
distribution ; broken diamonds ; and irregular bases that cannot
be exactlv defined.

Fjg. 235. Fig. 236.

One of the commonest examples of these honeycomb effects
is that known as the " sponge " weave (Fig. 232), contained on
ten warp ends and ten picks. It is produced by disposing a
small diamond figure or spot on a ten-end satin basis, as indi-
cated by the shaded squares in the portion lettered A. This

DIAMOND AND KINDKED WEAVES.

-causes the woven fabric to assume a very neat cellular formation
consisting of minute cells, the ridges of which are formed by
floats of warp and weft, whilst the recesses are formed where
the threads are most interlaced. This effect is illustrated in the

.-:■■■■ --sv- ■■'svbbI"S"'""S"":-s"'vs"''

Fig. 238

Fig. 239.

portion lettered B, where the warp and weft ridges are repre-
:sented by white and black lines respectively, and the recesses
.by the enclosed spaces.

Fig. 240.

Fig. 241.

Fig. 242.

Figs. 233 and 234 are other varieties of sponge weaves on a
larger scale than the previous one. They are produced by arranging
larger diamond spots on the basis of a twenty-six shaft, and a

Fig. 243.

Fig. 24 J.

thirty-four shaft satin weave, respectively, as indicated by the
.shaded squares. Their effect in cloth is similar to that of Fig.
:232, but with a more pronounced cellular formation, resulting

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

from longer floats and less frequent interlacing of yarn, which
enable heavier and thicker fabrics to be made by them. Figs.
235 to 244 are other examples of sponge and honeycomb effects,
and are but a few of many varieties of similar character to indi-

cate the general principles governing
class of weaves.

the construction of that.

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Fig. 245. — " Huck-a-back "
Weave.

Fig. 246.

" Huck-a-Back " and Kindred Weaves.

§ 44. There are many other varieties of weaves which, whilst
not bearing even the slightest resemblance to true honeycomb-
weaves, are generally associated with honeycomb fabrics, and.

Fig. 247.— Design for " Huek-a-back " Cloth represented by Fig. 248.

are, therefore, classed as honeycomb effects. Of this variety
that known as the " huck-a-back " weave, shown in Fig. 245,
and contained on ten warp ends and picks, is an example. This
familiar weave is also very largely employed in the manufacture-
of both linen and cotton towels for bathrooms, and also lineni

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

towels for use as glass-cloths. The principle of fabric structure
embodied in the huck-a-back weave forms the nucleus of a wide
range of interesting weaves capable of producing extremely thick
and heavy textures. For this reason, such weaves are generally
employed as constructive elements in the manufacture of the
class of heavy counterpanes commercially known as ** Grecians,"
usually woven from bleached twofold and threefold yarn of
coarse counts for both warp and weft, and ornamented with

Fig. 248. — "Huck-a-back" Fabric ul Cuar.se Texture, woven from Design Fig. 247,

designs of a strictly geometrical diaper character. Figs. 246 to
249 are three examples of weaves showing developments of the
"huck-a-back" principle to form plain, striped, and chequered
effects respectively. In a fabric produced from Fig. 246, which
repeats on twelve warp ends and picks, weft preponderates on
the face and warp at the back. On examining this weave it
will be seen that on the third and following odd-numbered picks-

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

to the eleventh, only the first warp end in each repeat of the
pattern is raised ; also that the third and following odd-numbered
warp ends to the eleventh, are raised for the first pick only in each
repeat of the pattern. This has the peculiar effect of causing
warp and w^eft threads (excepting the first of each series) to occupy

Fig. -249.

four distinct planes or strata without any interlacement what-
ever, after the manner indicated in the accompanying diagrams,
which show transverse and longitudinal sections of the weave
at A, A, and B, B, respectively. It is in consequence of causing
such disposition of warp and weft that weaves of this class pro-

ahhahhahh abbah hahhahb abb
Fig. 250. — Design for " Huck-a-back " Cloth represented by Fig. 251.

«duce bulky fabrics of great weight and warmth. Fig. 247 is a
design contained on twenty-four warp ends and twelve picks,
produced by counterchanging the warp and weft effects of Fig.
246 to form stripes ; whilst Fig. 248 is a photograph of a woven
example of the same weave produced from 3/12's warp and
weft, and containing thirty-two threads of each series per inch.

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

Fig. 249 is a design produced by counterchanging warp and weft
effects of the same weave to produce a check pattern repeating
on twenty -four warp ends and picks. The diagrams accompany-
ing Fig. 249 show transverse and longitudinal sections at A, A,
and B, B, of that design as it would appear in cloth. Fig. 250
is another good example of the huck-a-back variety of designs,.

€/

Fig. 251. — A second example of " Huck-a-l»ack " Cloth, woven from Design Fig. 250..

repeating on twenty-four warp ends and twelve picks. The photo-
graph, Fig. 251, showing the woven effect of that design, is
taken from cloth containing forty warp ends of 3/12's, and
twenty of 2/14's cotton, and forty picks of 18's single cotton
weft per inch. The different counts of warp are contained on
separate warp beams, with the 2/14' s (lettered a on the design)
held at greater tension, during weaving, than the 3/12's (lettered
b). Taut warp ends interweave with weft in plain or tabby

GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

order throughout ; whilst slack warp ends are more loosely
interwoven to form the figured effect.

"Grecian " Weaves.

§ 45. Another useful variety of weaves that are frequently
associated with honeycomb and ''Grecian" counterpanes, and

Fig. 252. Fig. 253. Fig. 254.

also largely employed in the manufacture of piece-goods, are
exemplified in Figs. 252 to 265. The most suitable designs for

Fig. 255. Fig. 256.

such fabrics are those based on the diaper or counterchange
principle, to produce chequered effects in which both warp and

Fig. 257.

Fic;. 25S.

Fig. 259.

weft are freely displayed on the face side of cloth. The con-
struction of weaves of this variety affords considerable scope for

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

the exercise of a student's ability ia fabric structure, which he
should put into practical effect, and carefully note the results.

Fig. 260. Fig. 261.

Little can be said respecting their construction, since they are

Fig. 262. Fig. 263.

conformable to no special conditions of fabric structure ; but, by

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■■iffi'i^^Hg"" +=■■■■■■■'■'■!■■ I'l'

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Fig. 264.

Fig. 265.

carefully analysing them, the' means by which they are obtained
will become manifest. For the general guidance of students,

GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

however, it should be observed that these effects are chiefly
dependent upon either a suitable combination of extreme
degrees of interlacement of threads, or else by causing warp
ends to float over a comparatively large number of picks ; and
picks of weft over a large number- of warp ends ; otherwise,
unsatisfactory results would obtain. If, for example, the pre-
sent weaves (excepting Fig. 255) were counterchanged, their
effects would be lost by reason of an insufficiency of floating

—^ ,<r -■=>

LfiMMh l-«i

Fig. 266. — A Fabric of Light Texture, exemplifying a "Linear Zigzag" effect
produced by Design Fig. 267.

threads. Fig. 255 is an exception to this condition, as that
weave would be equally effective whether counterchanged or
not, and would, therefore, appear the same on both sides of
cloth.

Linear Zigzag Weaves.

§ 46. An interesting variety of weaves of a totally different
character from any previously described under " honeycomb
effects," but closely related to them, are those in which some
threads, usually of weft, are pulled in opposite directions at

DIAMOND AND KINDKED WEAVES.

different points, thereby causing them to deviate from their
original straight line, and to assume sinuous Hues of a more or
less wavy or zigzag character, not unlike that of a '' net " leno
effect, produced by means of a " doup " or " leno " harness. The
threads required to perform that peculiar function may be waved
in the same direction uniformly, to produce a series of parallel
waves, or they may be waved in opposite directions to produce
diamond, lozenge, ogee, and other simple linear effects, as seen
in Figs. 266 and 274, which are reproduced from actual examples
of cloth. This phenomenon of fabric structure occurs in obedi-

FiG. 267. — The Design for the " Linear Zigzag " effect represented by Fig. 266.

ence to the law of bodies yielding in the direction of least re-
sistance, and forms an interesting and instructive study of the
behaviour of threads in textile fabrics. By taking advantage of
the opportunities it affords, a great variety of very pleasing
decorative effects may be developed in cloth, the character of
which effects is chiefly dependent upon the relative density or
compactness of different parts of a weave, and upon the par-
ticular manner of interlacing threads. Thus, by so developing a
weave that warp and weft are more thoroughly interwoven, and
therefore more compacted, in some parts than in others (and
by observing such other conditions as to the manner of inter-

98 GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

weaving as will contribute to the desired effect), it will cause
some threads to pass from the denser towards the less compact
portions, and so become more or less diverted from a straight line.

x.^-K.^

^'\i^'\

n .S.M. .:."j.»nB:;r.v. Wmwasa s.v.'

liilifi *■'■* s!:n!!ifiiii!is^!llsiSiSis:K!ssE ■■■"■'■

irrmTii mi i-mtf n h i ri ii ii ii fm i i-h+wi ! ii i ru i mi

Fig. 268.

Fig. 269.

Fig. 270.

in proportion to the relative density of threads in those parts.
These remarks will be easily comprehended after carefully study-

FiG. 271.

Fig. 272.

ing the present examples of these weaves, in conjunction with
their accompanying diagrams illustrating their effects in cloth.
Weaves of this character (which, as a means of identification,

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

the present writer ventures to suggest the name of "linear
zigzag" weaves) are sometimes produced on a small scale in
light cotton and silk textures for ladies' summer attire. They
assume a more vigorous character, however, when developed
with coarser material to produce heavier textures (as honeycomb
and ** Grecian" counterpane, and similar fabrics), and by
densely crowding that series of threads which are required to
perform the bending. Thus, if weft threads are required to

Fig. 273.— Design lor Fabric represented by Fig. 274.

assume a zigzag course, a more pronounced effect will result
from a high ratio of picks per inch, and from a high degree of
tension upon warp ends during weaving. If, on the contrary,
warp ends are required to bend out of a straight course, they
should be more numerous than picks, and held at less tension ;
whilst the tension of weft, as it leaves the shuttle, should be
increased. It should be observed, however, that better zigzag
effects are produced with weft than with warp, as warp ends

100 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

may be held at greater tension during weaving, which enables
a relatively greater number of picks to be inserted in cloth.

Figs. 266 to 276 are examples of " linear zigzag " weaves,
with diagrams showing their woven effects placed immediately
above them to facilitate comparison. Fig. 266 is a full-scale
photograph of a sample of light zephyr cotton dress fabric of
the plain or calico weave, on which are developed a series of

(*!.^f|#^. ^ '^

.-» „^^--^

•/"

Fig. 274. — A Fabric of Coarse Texture, exemplifying a "Linear Zigzag" effect
produced by Design Fig. 273.

linear figures of hexagonal formation similar to that above Fig.
268. The cloth is woven from the design Fig. 267, contained on
fourteen warp ends and sixteen picks, and has ninety warp
ends and seventy-six picks per inch. The floating warp threads,
numbered one and eight on the design, which pull at opposite
sides of the floating picks numbered four, five, twelve, and thirteen,
are of stronger yarn than the other warp ends ; the counts being

DIAMOND AND KINDRED WEAVES.

101

'2/60's and 40's T., respectively; whilst the weft is dO's counts
throughout. There is little or no resemblance between the
design and its woven effect ; but a little consideration will enable
those previously unacquainted with this class of weaves to
understand the cause of that difference. It will be observed
that picks numbered four, five, twelve, and thirteen never inter-
weave with warp ends, but simply lie above them all, excepting
those numbered one and eight, which always overlap those picks

i3.g.ii.'

ii.g.s: su a kv

iiixnnniiasiiniiiibiHiiiiiNiiiiwiiiiyiii

Fig. 275.

Fig. 276.

from opposite sides. The floating picks, therefore, form no in-
tegral part of the fabric ; for during weaving, the adjacent picks
close in, so that warp ends which appear to float over ten picks
in the design, float over only six picks in cloth. Thus, in conse-
quence of being overlapped by those warp ends, the floating
picks are pulled in opposite directions out of their previous
;straight line, and produce the linear zigzag effect seen in
cloth.

Figs. 268 to 276 are examples of hnear zigzag weaves based

102 GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

on this principle of weaving, and are sufficient to indicate the
variety of effects which it affords. Fig. 274 is, a full-scale photo-
graph of cloth woven from the design, Fig. 273, which repeats
on twenty-four warp ends and picks. The cloth contains thirty-
six warp ends and picks per inch of 3/16's yarn throughout,.
which produces a somewhat bold effect.

CHAPTER V.
BEDFORD CORDS.

§ 47. Bedford cords are a variety of fabrics characterised by
a series of more or less pronounced plain or twilled ribs or
cords, lying in the same direction as warp ends, with weft float-
ing somewhat freely at the back of the ribs, and usually with
one, two or more wadding threads (according to width of ribs)
lying loosely between. They are developed by causing either
alternate picks of weft, or alternate pairs of jjicks, to inter-
weave with the warp ends of one rib and then pass underneath
those of the next rib, alternately ; whilst the intermediate picks
or pairs of picks pass under the first rib, and interweave with
the second rib, alternately. Consequently, odd-numbered picks
or pairs of picks always interweave with warp ends of the same
(say odd) series of cords throughout, whilst the other picks
always interweave with the even series of cords. This circum-
stance is helpful for the purpose of producing stripes of solid
colours by picking with corresponding colours of weft in such
manner that they only interweave with warp ends of the same
colour, and float underneath those of the other colour. These
features are clearly discernible in the photograph (Fig. 277) which
shows the fac3 and back of the same cloth.

Bedford cords are produced in a variety of both cotton and
worsted textures, varying from light to relatively heavy cloths,
according to the particular use for which they are intended. The
lighter and medium fabrics are chiefly used as ladies' dress
materials ; whilst the heavier and coarser fabrics are generally
made up into men's clothing of a special character, as fancy
vests, breeches, sporting and riding suits, and such like. The
lighter cotton textures are usually bleached, or else dyed in tints

(103)

104

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

of some light and bright hue, for ladies' light summer and holi-
day clothing. Generally speaking, Bedford cords afford little
scope for variation of structure. This, however, is compensated
for by the fair scope they offer to simple decorative effects, either
by means of variegated cords, coloured threads of warp, or
Jacquard weft figuring of an elementary and bold character, and
consisting preferably of small detached sprigs or simple geome-

FlG. 277. — Bedford Cord Fabric, woven from Design Fig. 282.

trical forms evenly distributed in such manner as to ensure that
all warp ends shall bear the same degree of tension. Coloured
threads may be introduced either as extra or crammed warp
ends for figuring purposes, or in substitution for ordinary warp
ends for coloured effects only. When Jacquard figuring is
adopted in Bedford cords, it is virtually a system of brocade
weft figuring with a Bedford cord for a ground filling.

BEDFOKD CORDS. 105

For the purpose of giving the ribs or cords greater prominence
and also to increase the weight, bulk and strength of the fabric,
one, two or more extra warp ends are sometimes introduced in
each cord to serve as wadding. These extra threads never
interlace with weft, but lie perfectly straight between the ridges
of their respective cords and the floating weft at the back. In
addition to wadding threads, some of the heavier fabrics for
men's clothing contain backing warp ends that interweave with
weft at the back of the cloth only, thus forming a series of tubes
along which wadding threads lie straight, and which consider-
ably increase the stability and warmth of the fabric. With few
exceptions wadding threads are of considerably coarser counts
of yarn than the principal or face warp ends, and since they
never interlace with weft, but remain straight, their contraction
during weaving is nil. This circumstance necessitates their
being wound upon a separate warp beam, and held at greater
tension than face warp ends during weaving.

It may be observed, at this juncture, that Bedford cords of
low quality and somewhat open texture are usually woven face
downwards, so that fewer healds require to be raised ; thereby
requiring less motive power to drive the loom, and reducing the
wear and tear of healds and shedding mechanism. These con-
siderations, however, are sacrificed in the production of superior
qualities which are woven face side upward to permit of the
readier detection of broken warp ends, and other faults liable to
occur during weaving.

The present examples of Bedford cord weaves are of fabrics
selected as typical specimens of their class from those of
ordinary commerce. In all cases, both heald and reed drafting
are indicated above their respective designs, with such other
information as will be helpful to students ; and the present
chapter will conclude with an instructive table giving complete
data of the manufacture of each example.

§ 48. Fig. 278 is a design of a light Bedford cord of the most
elementary character devoid of wadding threads. Each rib con-
tains eight warp ends, which interweave on the plain or calico
principle with one-half of the picks of weft, thereby causing the
complete design (consisting of two cords) to repeat on sixteen

106 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

warp ends and four picks. The first and last warp ends of each
cord, termed "cutting" threads, interweave on the cahco
principle with all picks of weft, thereby forming a furrow or
"cutting," which sharply divides the cords; whilst the inter-
vening warp ends, termed "face" threads, interweave on the
calico principle with alternate pairs of picks only, and lie com-

FiG. 278,

Fig. 281.

pletely above the intermediate pairs of picks, as clearly indicated
in the diagram. Fig. 279, showing a transverse' section of cloth
woven from the design, Fig. 278. The production of this
cloth involves the employment of six heald shafts, namely, four
in the rear for face threads, and two at the front for cutting

;;;:;::;;;:;;;;:;;

-l-ai'ii'i':

III i' I'l'- -

:::::i :::i :::: ::

i]^::: ::::::::

;jj|:[j|i:i|j;i>

jj=iiiiiiiiii

jOoLQQLyOL J

^wfRfwJ

AJQ^Jirtr

Fig. 282.— Design for Bedford Cord Fabric Fig. 283.

represented by Fig. 277.

threads. Warp ends are drafted in the manner indicated above

the design, with four threads in each dent of the reed, and a

reed wire separating the cutting threads. Each cord, therefore,

occupies two dents of jthe reed.

Fig. 280 differs in construction from Fig. 278 chiefly by the-

introduction of a wadding thread (indicated by white dots) in

each cord. Wadding threads are drawn through two healds-

BEDFORD CORDS.

107

placed immediately in front of those
governing cutting and face threads re-
spectively, in accordance with usual
practice. Sometimes the healds govern-
ing cutting threads are placed in front,
followed by^ those governing wadding
and face threads respectively ; but this
is quite optional. It will be seen that
wadding threads are always raised along
with all face threads of the same cords
when it is required to place weft at the
back ; but they remain down when weft
interweaves with face threads, to form
the ridge of a cord, whereby they lie be-
tween the face of a cord and the floating
weft.

Fig. 281 is similar to Fig. 280, with
two additional face threads per cord, and
each cord occupying two dents of the
reed. Figs. 282 and 283 have two and
four wadding threads in each cord, and
occupy four and three dents per cord re-
spectively. Fig. 284 is a Bedford cord
occupying twenty warp ends, including
eight wadding and two cutting threads
drawn through five dents of the reed.
Fig. 285 is a variegated cord with one
broad and two narrow cords alternately.
The broad cord occupies twenty-six warp
ends, including four of wadding, drawn
through seven dents ; whilst the narrow
cords each occupy eleven warp ends, in-
cluding one of wadding, drawn through
three dents, making a total of forty-eight
warp ends for the series. Since three
cords constitute an odd series, the draft-
ing of warp ends for this design requires
to be extended to include two series of

108

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

■cords to make an even number, and so conform to the practice,
common to Bedford cords, of causing weft to interweave with
the warp ends of alternate cords, and float under those of
intermediate cords.

§ 49. Figs. 286 and 288 are slight deviations from the previous
examples, in that alternate picks of weft interweave with face
warp ends of alternate cords, and float behind the intermediate
cords ; whereas, in the former examples, two contiguous jjicks
either interweave or float at the same time. There is little
difference between the two systems, but slightly superior results
obtain with the alternate arrangement of picks, as they are more
perfectly distributed in cloth. It is also capable of producing a
closer texture, and forms a clearer cutting between the cords,
which appear more distinct. Fig. 286 is an uncommon variety

ililiii!:

iUWUBUHUW

Fig. 284.

of Bedford cord, inasmuch as there are no cutting warp ends.
The development of the ribs is, therefore, entirely dependent
upon each pick of weft interweaving with and floating under
alternate groups of warp ends. In the present example there
are eight face and two wadding threads per cord drawn through
three dents of the reed. Fig. 287 is a transverse section of cloth
woven from the design Fig. 286. Fig. 288 is a cord similar to
the previous one, but having cutting threads and a greater
number of face threads in each cord, which occupies sixteen
warp ends drawn through four dents of the reed.

§ 50. Figs. 289 to 292 are examples of Bedford cord weaves in
which the ribs or cords are developed with a three-end (^y) twill,
with alternate picks of weft interweaving with alternate cords,
and then floating beneath intermediate cords ; whilst the inter-

BEDFOKD CORDS.

109

mediate picks interweave with and then float beneath the
mediate series of cords. This alternate
disposition of picks appears to be uni-
formly observed in the production
of twilled Bedford cords, whereas it
obtains in a lesser degree than the
two-and-two disposition of picks in
the production of Bedford cords
having the ribs developed with the
plain or calico weave, as exemplified
in Figs. 278 to 284. It is in respect
of the twill weave and the uniform
alternate disposition of picks that
the present examples of Bedford
cords differ from those previously
described. These, like those, may
or may not be devoid of wadding
warp ends, according to the weight
and character of texture required.
As a rule, twilled Bedford cords are
more compact and comparatively
softer and more supple than the
calico - ribbed variety, consequent
upon a lesser degree of interlace-
ment of warp and weft.

Fig. 289 is an example of a twilled
Bedford cord devoid of wadding warp
ends. Each cord occupies nine
warp ends, including two cutting
threads, drafted on eight healds and
drawn through three dents of the
reed, as indicated above the design.
Fig. 290 is a twilled cord occupying
six face, two wadding and two cut-
ting warp ends per cord, drafted on
twelve healds and drawn through
three dents of the reed. Fig. 291
is a twilled cord occupying eighteen

inter-

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110 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

face, five wadding and two cutting
warp ends drawn through six dents
of the reed. The fabric from which
this design was obtained contained
six cords per inch (when in the loom),
equal to 120 warp ends (excluding
wadding threads) per inch. This
comparatively high number of threads
produces somewhat flattened ribs re-
sembling tucks, which slightly over-
lap each other.

§ 51. All the foregoing examples
of Bedford cords are of light and

Fig. 286.— Design for Bedford Cord Fabric, of
which a Transverse Section is represented
by Fig. 287.

medium textures suitable for ladies'
dress material. The two following
examples. Figs. 292 and 293, are of
heavy textures such as are employed
for men's sporting suits. Fig. 292
occupies thirteen face, seven wadding
and two cutting warp ends drawn
through five dents of the reed. Fig.
293 is a full-scale photograph of an
interesting variety of Bedford cord of
a specially heavy and strong texture,
and with wide prominent ribs. Its
construction is very different in many
respects to any of the previous ex-

BEDFOED COEDS.

Ill

amples. In addition to wadding threads, it contains " backing "
warp ends ; also picks of weft comprise two distinct series,
namely {a) face, and {h) back picks, inserted in the proportion
of one face and two back picks alternately. Face picks inter-
weave with face warp ends of sticcessive cords, whilst back
picks interweave with back warp ends of successive cords, thus

Fig. 288.

forming a series of tubes along which wadding threads lie
straight. As indicated in the design, Fig. 294, each cord occu-
pies a total of twenty-nine warp ends, of which eighteen are
*' face," three " cutting," four *' wadding " and four ** backing "
warp ends. Only two warp beams are necessary to con-

FiG. 289.

Fig. 290.

tain the four series of warp ends, namely, one for face and
cutting threads (whose rate of contraction during weaving is
equal), and one for wadding and back warp ends, which are held
at greater tension than face and cutting threads. Two counts
of yarn are employed in the production of this example, namely,
2/60's for cutting, and 2/16's for face, wadding and back warp

112

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

ends (the latter being sized) ; also 2/16's weft of similar yarn
to the warp ends for both face and back picks. Cutting threads
(represented by shaded squares) interweave in the plain or calico
order with successive picks of weft. Face warp ends (filled

Fig. 291.

squares) interweave with face picks only (every third pick) to
produce a three-end (^y) twill, and are raised when back picks are
inserted. Back warp ends (round black dots) interweave with
back picks (two out of three) on the calico principle, but with

INtiiiii-iHii-Ml-i

Fig. 292.

Fig. 294. — Design for
Bedford Cord Fabric
represented by Fig.
293.

the picks running together in pairs instead of separately.
Wadding threads (round white dots) never interweave with weft,
but are simply raised when back picks are inserted, and depressed
when face picks are inserted, to cause them to lie loosely between
the face and back of the fabric.

BEDFOED CORDS. 113

§ 52. All the examples of Bedford cords described above are
of a strictly plain or unfigured character. It now only remains,
to make their description more complete, to describe the usual
methods adopted for their embellishment. At the outset of these
observations, it was stated that Bedford cords were capable of
decorative treatment by means of coloured threads and by
simple Jacquard figuring. If coloured threads are merely sub-

FiG. 293.— Heavy Texture of Bedford Cord, woven from Design Fig. 294.

stituted for undyed threads, other conditions remain unchanged ;
but if they are additional threads for figuring purposes, they
require to be governed by extra healds. Coloured threads are
sometimes substituted for wadding threads in certain cords at
required intervals, and employed for the development of simple
figured effects. In such instances, figuring threads do duty for
wadding threads when not required on the face for figuring
purposes, with the result that they tend to impart a tinge of
colour to those cords containing them. A more satisfactory

114

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

method of introducing coloured threads is exempHfied in Figs.
295 and 296. In Fig. 295 a neat wave stripe is developed at
intervals by means of four coloured additional v^arp ends,
represented in the design (Fig. 296) by crosses. One unit of
the pattern comprises five cords, namely, a broad one contain-
ing the extra figuring warp ends, and four narrow plain ones,
thereby requiring two units of the pattern to complete one
repeat of the design, which must occupy an even number of

Flfi. 29r». — J^>.Mltor.l (_:or(l in wliicli C()l<

-ends are introduced for

eiubellisliiueut, as iiidit^ated by Design Fig. 29d.

cords. This circumstance does not prevent figuring threads in
each cord from being governed by the same healds. In the
present example, the extra figuring threads are governed by
four healds, making a total of twelve healds disposed as follows :
Four at the front governing extra figuring threads, followed by
two governing wadding, two governing cutting, and four in
the rear governing face threads. By drawing figuring threads
through healds placed in front, they are subjected to less strain
due to shedding, since each successive heald from the front

BEDFOED CORDS.

115

requires to be moved through a greater distance in order to
maintain the proper angle of warp shed. Warp ends are con-
tained on three separate warp beams containing figuring, face
and wadding threads respectively, with figuring threads lightly
tensioned to permit of their being easily withdrawn during
weaving. Another example of simple figuring by the employ-
ment of extra warp ends is illustrated in Fig. 297, showing the
face and back of the same cloth. The extra threads are em-
ployed at intervals of eight cords for the development of small
spots arranged alternately. To prevent figuring threads from
floating too far at the back of cloth, between any two spots, they

Twice Twice

Fig. 296.— Design for Bedford Cord Fabric represented by Fig. 295.

are raised over every twelfth floating pick as indicated in the
portion of design (Fig. 298).

Instead of lying at the back of cloth, as in the last two
examples, figuring threads may, as an alternative method, lie
with wadding threads, between the face of cloth and floating
picks at the back ; but if face and figuring threads are of con-
trasting colour, the latter will tend to impart a tinge of their
colour to the whole of the cord, as previously stated.

§ 53. Fig. 299 is an example of figured Bedford cord having
a simple floating weft figure developed by means of a Jacquard
machine. Surrounding the figures is a ground fiUing of an
ordinary plain-ribbed Bedford cord, each rib of which comprises
four face, two cutting and two wadding warp ends drawn

116 GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

through two dents of the reed. All warp ends are controlled

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Fig. 297. — Bedford Cord embellished by the introduction of Coloured Warp-ends,
as indicated by Design Fig. 298.

Fig. 298.— Design for Bedford Cord represented by Fig. 297.
by a Jacquard machine, but only face and cutting warp ends are

BEDFOKD COEDS. 117

utilised for the purpose of binding weft floats in the figure
portions ; whilst wadding threads are kept entirely at the back
in those parts. This necessitates an applied design being pre-
pared in two stages as follows : The design is first set out on
design paper of the proper counts (according to the ratio of face
and cutting threads and picks per inch) without regard to
wadding threads, and afterwards transferred to another sheet of
design paper on which wadding threads are indicated at their

: I 111 1 iij ! ^ ii!-t I n^iinent nil! HI 1141111

<\m-

i *

Fig. 299. — Bedford Cord, figured by means of a Jacquard Machine.

proper intervals. In the present case the third and sixth
vertical divisions would be marked in each bar of design paper
(assuming eight divisions in a bar) corresponding to the third
and sixth long rows of hooks in the Jacquard machine.

§ 54. The following table gives data of the manufacture of all
examples of Bedford cord fabrics described in the present chapter.
The character of warp and weft yarn employed in their produc-
tion is, in general, normal as regards both amount of twist and
■quality : —

118

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

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CHAPTER VI.

BACKED FABRICS.

§ 55. "Backed" fabrics are characterised by an additional
series of either warp or weft threads employed for the purpose
of increasing their strength, weight, bulk and warmth, or any
one of those properties, without affecting their surface appear-
ance. They are largely produced in worsted textures and
fustians intended for boys' and men's clothing, for which
purpose they are eminently adapted, as they are capable of
yielding firm and compact though soft and warm textures.
Backed fabrics occupy a position midway between " simple "
textures, which are composed of one series each of warp and
weft threads, and "compound " textures, which contain two or
more series each of warp and weft, as exemplified in all double
cloths. When properly constructed, they bear no indication
whatever on their surface, of these additional threads, which lie
entirely at the back and are, therefore, completely obscured by
the surface texture. The extra series of threads introduced
for •' backing " may be either of warp or weft, with " face " and
" back " threads arranged either alternately or in the proportion of
two " face " threads to one " back " thread. If " backing " threads
are of weft, it is generally coarser and of inferior quality to that
employed for " face " picks, thereby requiring a loom provided
with a checking motion for at least two shuttles, and a picking
motion that will permit of picking (i.e., propelling a shuttle),
twice in succession from either shuttle-box of the loom sley ; or
in such other manner as is determined by the particular dis-
position of "face" and " back " picks. If the extra series of
" backing " threads are of warp, a loom of ordinary construction
without any special device will serve all requirements ; also

(119)

120

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

production will be increased by reason of inserting fewer picks
per inch, and a weaver will be paid a lower rate of wages than
if employed on a check loom. Against these advantages, how-
ever, the extra warp ends will necessitate the use of a greater
number of healds, thereby impeding the progress of a weaver
when " drawing in " warp ends through healds and reed ; also,
in some circumstances it may be desirable to wind " backing "
warp ends upon a separate beam to permit of the tension of
each series of warp ends to be independently regulated to suit
their different rates of contraction during weaving.

Whether "backing" threads are of warp or weft, the chief
aim of a designer should be directed towards interweaving them
with the face texture so as to effectually conceal their attach-
ment when the fabric is viewed obversely. This can only be

Fig. 300.

U34SO78

Fig. 301.

I2345678U345678

Fig. 302.

successfully accomplished when due regard is paid to the charac-
ter of weave constituting the face texture, which should, so far
as is compatible with other requirements, conform to the con-
ditions imposed by this principle of fabric structure. If it is
desired to ** back " a fabric with extra weft, a design should be
selected in which each warp end passes beneath not less than
two contiguous jjicA;s of weft (but with each warp end under
different picks) at least once in each repeat of the design. If
extra warp ends are to constitute the " backing," the design
should be one in which each pick of weft passes beneath not
less than tivo contiguous icarp ends (but with each pick under
different warp ends) at least once in each repeat of the design.
By adopting this expedient, suitable places are provided at which
to bind or " tie " the extra series of threads to the face texture,
so that the "ties " or binding points will be effectually obscured.

BACKED FABRICS.

121

These remarks will be easily understood on consulting Figs. 300
to 303.

Fig. 300 is a design for a four-end {^^) twill, to constitute the
face weave of a fabric to be " backed " with weft in the proportion
of one " face " pick to one " back " pick — the *' back " picks to
interweave on the eight-end satin basis, Fig. 301. When the two
weaves are combined pick and pick, they produce a design re-
peating on eight warp ends and sixteen picks, as shown in Fig.
302, in which filled squares represent **face" picks, and shaded
squares ** back " picks. The points selected for binding *' back "
picks into the face cloth are where a warp end passes beneath
two contiguous picks (as indicated in Fig. 300), which by lying
close together above those points, entirely obscure the inter-
12 5 6 12 5 6

Fig. 303, — Transverse Section of a Weft- backed Fabric woven from Design
Fig. 302.

sections from view. It will now be perfectly clear that suitable
binding places (in weft-backed fabrics) occur only at such points
where the binding thread passes beneath at least two contiguous
face picks which serve to cover those points, and that if a design
is of such character that warp ends pass beneath only one face
pick at a time, the binding points are liable to show on the face,
in consequence of imperfect covering by face picks. It should
be observed that when a back pick is inserted, all warp ends are
raised excepting those which are required to pass under it for
the purpose of binding it to the fabric, as seen in Figs. 302 and
303.

Fig. 303 represents the "face" and "back" picks (Nos. 1
and la respectively), of design Fig. 302, as they would appear in
cloth when viewed transversely, and shows the " back " pick
passing over the third warp end as the latter passes beneath the
first and second "face" picks which close over and completely
cover the binding or " tie ".

122 GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

In order to obtain the best results, all warp ends should, if
possible, be utiUsed for binding " back " picks to the face texture,
and binding points should be uniformly distributed ; therefore,
the nearer such distribution approaches to that of a satin basis-
the better. Many designs, however, wdll not permit of the em-
ployment of every warp end for binding purposes ; nor of the
distribution of binding points on a satin basis. In such cases,.

Fig. 305.

a little skill is oftentimes required to make a selection of binding
places that will give the best results. Hence the necessity of
avoiding such impediments when preparing designs intended
for this class of fabrics.

Figs. 304 to 313 are examples of small figured weaves for
" backing " with extra weft, and show the face weaves or plans,
and completed designs, separately, with the most suitable places

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for binding " back " picks to the face texture indicated upon each
plan. Figs. 301 and 306 have the binding points arranged for
an alternate disposition of " face " and " back " picks, as observed
in the completed designs, Figs. 305 and 307 respectively. The
weave plans shown in Figs. 308, 310 and 312 have the binding
places indicated for the picks to be disposed in the order of tiva
" face " picks and " one " back pick alternately, as exemplified in
their respective completed designs. Figs. 309, 311 and 313.

BACKED FABEICS.

128

§ 56. The construction of warp- backed fabrics is governed by
the same principles as those which govern the construction of
weft-backed fabrics, as regards the method of securing the extra
series of threads to the face texture. Therefore, the binding
of " back " warp ends must occur at such places as will ensure

■

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Fig.

Fig. 309.

the binding points being properly covered by " face " warp ends.
In other words, a *' back " warp end should only be raised over
a pick when the latter is passing beneath two or more " face "
warp ends ; otherwise the binding points will be liable to show
on the face of the fabric. Fig. 314 represents the face weave of

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Fig. 310.

Fig. 311.

a fabric to be backed with warp on the one-and-one or alternate
disposition of threads, with the most suitable binding places in-
dicated on the design, which permits of a distribution of binding
points on an eight-end satin basis. Fig. 315 is the same design
with " back" warp ends added, and with the heald drafting of
warp ends shown above. Fig. 316 is another design for a warp
backed fabric with warp ends disposed in the proportion of two

124

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

^* face " threads and one " back " thread alternately, as shown in
the complete design, Fig. 317, with the draft shown above it.

Warp-backed textures are usually constructed with an alternate
disposition of warp ends to produce a superior back to those
constructed on the two " face " and one " back " arrangement of

■

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threads. '' Back " warp ends usually interweave wdth weft in a
much less degree than do the *' face " warp ends, thereby pro-
ducing - a softer back, arising from the greater length of floats.
This lesser degree of interlacement of " back " warp ends

Back Healds

Face Healds
Reed-

u H

Fig. 314. Fig. 315.

Design for Warp-backed Fabric.

results in a consequent lesser rate of contraction than "face "
threads during weaving, thereby requiring each series of warp
€nds to be contained on separate warp beams to permit of their
independent regulation for tension. " Back " warp ends should
be drawn through a set of healds apart from those governing
•''face'' threads, and should preferably be placed in the rear of

BACKED FABKICS.

125

face healds, as indicated in the drafts above Figs. 315 and 317.
Also, " back " warp ends should pass from the warp beam to
healds in a slightly loioer plane than " face " threads, and should
not be raised quite so high as the latter during shedding. By
observing these precautions, unnecessary abrasive friction and
chafing of warp ends will be avoided, and any tendency of
binding points to show on the face is thereby reduced.

§ 57. Another variety of backed fabrics, constructed on
exactly the same principles as the previous examples, are known
also as reversibles or double-faced fabrics, from the fact that it

Back Heald

Fig. 316. Fig. 317.

Design for Warp-backed Fabric.

is quite optional which side is exposed to wear. Eeversible
fabrics are exemplified in some ribbons (which usually have
both sides equally exposed when in wear), shawls, travelling
rugs, mantle cloths, coatings, and some fustians, which may be
made to present a similar appearance on both sides ; or each side
may be different both in respect of weave and colouring. This
opportunity is often seized upon to provide mantle cloths and
coatings with self-linings of quite a different character in both
colouring and texture to the face or outer texture, albeit the
lining forms an integral part of the fabric, which is thereby
rendered heavier, thicker and warmer.

CHAPTER VII.

FUSTIANS.

§ 58. Fustians are a well-known type of cotton fabrics com-
prising several varieties, the chief of which are known as
"imperial," " swansdown,'' " cantoon " or ''diagonal," "mole-
skin," " beaverteen," " velveteen " or cotton velvet formed with
a weft pile, and " corduroy ". With the exception of velveteens,
which simulate the real silk velvet formed with a warp pile,
they are comparatively firm, heavy and compact textures of
gi-eat strength and durability, chiefly employed in the produc-
tion of clothing. The first three varieties embody no special
constructive feature in their design, as they are based on some
simple weave that permits of an abnormally high rate of picks
being inserted so as to produce a compact fabric. Each of the
remaining varieties, however, is characterised by some peculiar
constructive element that distinguishes it from all other fabrics.
These are virtually " backed " fabrics, since they are constructed
with one series of warp ends and two series of weft, namely,
face and back, although both series of picks are of the same
kind of weft, thereby requiring a loom with only one shuttle-
box at each end of the sley, to produce them.

Unlike all other varieties of fustians, velveteens and corduroys
are characterised by a short and soft fur, closely resembling that
of silk velvet. This fur-like effect is obtained subsequent to weav-
ing by a process known as " fustian cutting," in which certain
floating picks of weft are cut or severed by specially constructed
knives, either manually or mechanically, thereby causing those
picks to become more or less vertical to their foundation, and to

(126)

FUSTIANS. 127

expose their transverse sections to the surface, which gradually
assumes the character of true velvet. In plain velveteens, a pile
of uniform length is uniformly distributed over the fabric,
thereby forming a perfectly level surface ; but in corduroys, the
pile is caused to develop a ribbed or corded formation, with the
cords produced lengthwise or parallel with warp ends. These
characteristics are clearly illustrated by Figs. 318 and 319, which

Fig. 318. — Velveteen (Cotton Velvet), before and after the operation of
Fustian Cutting.

are reproduced from actual examples of velveteen and corduroy
respectively. Each example shows a portion of cloth both
before and after the operation of cutting. It should be observed,
however, that velveteens are sometimes made to assume a
corded appearance resembling that of corduroys ; but their
different texture and construction enable them to be easily dis-
tinguished from the latter when the characteristics of each are
known.

128

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Imperials.

§ 59. The variety of fustians known to the trade as " im-
perials " comprises several modifications of what is perhaps
better known as " swansdown " cloth, so called from the soft
nap or downy surface produced, after weaving, by scratching up
or raising the fibres composing the threads of weft by an

Fig. 319. — Corduroy, before and after the operation of Fustian Cutting.

operation termed '' perching ". The nap thus formed resembles
the soft down of swans (hence its name) and greatly increases
the warming properties of the fabric. For this reason it is
largely employed as ladies' underclothing. Fig. 320 is a design
for swansdown repeating on five warp ends and five picks.
From the design, it would appear that weft preponderates on the
face in the ratio of three of weft to two of warp ; but, virtually,
it gives an all-weft surface by reason of the much greater

FUSTIANS.

129

density of picks, as compared with warp ends, which latter are
entirely obscured on the face. Also, to facilitate the develop-
ment of a nap by perching, a fairly soft weft of good quality is
used. A good quality of swansdown contains 60 warp ends of
18's T., and 120 picks of 20's soft weft per inch.

A heavier make of swansdown, known as " imperial sateen,"
is produced from the design Fig. 321, repeating on eight warp
ends and picks, and based on an eight-end satin weave, but with
two contiguous warp ends always raised together. This weave
produces relatively longer floats of weft, which latter preponder-
ates over warp in the ratio of six to two respectively. Imperial
sateens are sometimes dyed and finished to imitate light mole-
skins, with a short nap raised on the back ; but when imperials

Fig. 320.— Design for
' ' Swansdown ' ' Cloth.

Fig. 321.— Design lor
"Imperial Sateen "
and "Lambskin"
Cloth.

Fig. 322. — Design for
Reversible Sateen
Cloth.

are perched on the face they are named " lambskins," from their
long soft woolly nap. A medium quality of dyed imperial
sateen contains sixty-eight warp ends of 16's T. and 150 picks
of 16's weft per inch; whilst a good quality of "lambskin"
contains forty-six warp ends of 2/20's warp, and 450 picks of 20's
weft per inch. A design for what is termed a reversible " im-
perial " contained on eight warp ends and picks is given in Fig.
322. By densely crowding picks of weft, this weave produces a
very compact texture, with only weft visible on both surfaces
of cloth. A good quality of this cloth contains sixty-two warp
ends of 14's T. and 330 picks of 30's weft per inch.

" Cantoons " or " Diagonals ".

§ 60. Cantoon is a variety of fustian largely employed in the
production of men's riding and sporting suits, and occasionally

130

GEAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

of ladies' jackets. As with the previous examples of fustians,
its construction embodies no special feature of design, but merely
consists of a pick-and-pick combination of the two regular six-end
twill weaves, Figs. 323 and 324, to produce the design Fig. 325,
which repeats on six warp ends and twelve picks. A good ex-
ample of this cloth under present notice contains fifty-four warp
ends of 2/20's warp, and 400 picks of 20's weft per inch. This
abnormal density of picks produces a very strong and compact
fabric having a fine corded appearance, with the cords or wales
running obliquely at an angle of IS"" to the picks of weft. These
fabrics are usually dyed either a fawn or drab hue, and perched
on the back.

Fig. 323.

Fig. 324. Fig. 325.

Design for ' ' Cantoon ''
or "Diagonal" Cloth.

Moleskins.

§ 61. Moleskin is a smooth but thick leathery variety of
fustian of greater strength and weight than other varieties, and
is largely employed in the production of strong suits of clothing
for iron and brass-moulders, navvies and other workmen engaged
in rough occupations. Its thickness and compactness of texture,
combined with its smooth and even surface, make it well adapted
for moulders, as it is impervious to sand, and not so easily
penetrated as other fabrics by splashes of molten metal. Mole-
skins are produced from one series of warp ends and two
series of picks (of the same kind of weft), namely, face and
back picks, inserted in the proportion of two face picks to one
back pick. Face picks combine with alternate warp ends
only, to produce a modified satin weave repeating on six warp
ends and three picks ; whilst back picks interweave with all

FUSTIANS.

131

•warp ends to produce a three-end weft twill at the back, as indi-
■cated in design Fig. 326, which repeats on six warp ends and
nine picks. By causing only alternate warp ends to bind over
face picks, in addition to combining with back picks, there is a
slight tendency to impart a little more strain upon those threads
than upon intermediate threads which combine with back picks
vonly. The additional strain upon those warp ends tends to
develop a faint stripy formation in cloth, which is, however,
considered to be a point of excellence.

Moleskins permit of little or no structural modification with-
•out departing from their true character. The moleskin design
given in Fig. 327 shows a slight departure from the previous
.example, but one that would manifest no appreciable difference

Fig. 326.

Fig. 327.
Designs for Moleskin Fabrics.

Fig. 328.

in cloth, excepting to an experienced person. In Fig. 326 it will
be seen that at certain points alternate warp ends pass abruptly
from above a face pick and underneath a back pick, whereas in
Fig. 327 there is always an interval of one pick between the
bindings of a face and a back pick by the same warp end. For
•example, in Fig. 326 the third warp end is over the second face
pick and under the following, which is a back pick. The pas-
sage of warp ends over a face pick and then immediately under a
back pick increases their tension and thereby tends to slightly
•emphasise the stripy appearance just mentioned.

Moleskins are not well adapted to decorative treatment of a
structural character, but they, as well as heavy imperials, are
sometimes printed with simple decorative effects to imitate
worsted suitings, and employed in the production of men's
<3lothing. They are also sometimes woven with a simple stripe

132 GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

formation, as exemplified by the design, Fig. 328, which repeats
on fourteen warp ends and nine picks. A moleskin fabric of
good quality contains thirty-eight warp ends of 3/24:'s warp, and
400 picks of 14:'s weft per inch.

Beaverteens.

§ 62. Beaverteens are virtually moleskins produced in lighter
textures, that are afterwards dyed and printed and then perched
on the back, to produce a short and soft nap. Fig. 329 is a design
for a beaverteen contained on six warp ends and twelve picks,
with three face picks to oae back pick. The face weave is
almost similar to the swansdown weave given in Fig. 320, and
the back is a plain but not a true calico or tabby weave. All

Fig. 329. Fig. 3^0.

Designs for Beaverteen Fal>rics.

back picks interweave under and over consecutive warp ends, as
in the plain calico weave ; but alternate warp ends are raised for
two out of three back picks, and intermediate warp ends weave
in an opposite manner to those, namely, down for two picks and
up for one. Fig. 330 is another design for beaverteen, contained
on six warp ends and nine picks. It has the same face weave as
the previous example, but is backed with three-end weft twill
and contains only tw^o face picks to one back pick. A good
quality of beaverteen contains thirty-two warp ends of 2/18's
warp and 280 picks of 18' s weft per inch.

Velveteens.

§ 63. Velveteens constitute an important variety of fustians,
generally of much lighter texture than other varieties. As pre-

. FUSTIANS 133

yiously stated in § 58, their characteristic velvet appearance is
produced subsequent to v^eaving, by an operation of fustian cut-
ting (performed sometimes by machinery for low qualities only,
but more frequently by hand) which is usually conducted indepen-
dently as a kindred branch of fustian manufacturing. Previous
to being cut, a velveteen presents no unusual structural appear-
ance, but has a smooth level surface with weft floating abundantly
on the face, as if it were constructed on a simple satin basis.

Velveteens are produced from one kind of weft inserted so as
to constitute two series of picks, namely " pile " and " ground "
picks, corresponding to face and back picks respectively. Pile
picks are floated somewhat loosely on the surface, to be after-
wards cut to form pile ; whilst ground picks interweave more
frequently with warp, to build up a firm foundation texture to
sustain the pile. Indeed, the simplest definition of a velveteen
fabric is : A simple texture of calico, twill or other simple weave,
embodying a vast number of short tufts of w^eft (thus — U) evenly
distributed to produce a soft velvet-pile surface. Thus, if all the
tufts of pile were entirely withdrawn, there would still remain a
perfect foundation texture of a plain, twill or other simple weave
according to the basis adopted. For light and medium textures,
the latter is usually based on either the tabby or three-end twill
weave ; and for heavier textures, on the four-end (-=-^) twill weave.

It is important that pile picks should be securely attached to
the foundation texture to prevent the tufts of pile being accident-
ally withdrawn either during fustian cutting or when the fabric
is in use. This may be accomplished in two ways, namely (a)
by compression, caused by densely crowding picks of weft ; and
{b) by interweaving pile picks with several warp ends in succes-
sion, to produce what is termed a " fast "or *' lashed " pile ; or
by adopting both of these methods. Most velveteens, however,
are constructed on the former plan, in which pile picks are bound
into the foundation texture by only one warp end at regular inter-
vals of six, eight or ten threads according to length of pile required.
The second plan is usually adopted when it is required to float
pile picks for a greater distance, for the purpose of producing
longer pile, the tufts of which would be more liable to accidental
withdrawal. Whether pile picks are bound by only one or

134

GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

more than one warp end in each repeat of the pattern, it is im-
perative that the binding should occur at regular intervals on
each pick, to give uniform lengths of floats, and therefore, a uni-
form length of pile after cutting.

§ 64. Fig. 331a is a simple design, repeating on six warp ends-
and six picks, for a tabby back velveteen containing two pile

123456 I 23456 123 456

lif

Mf W

SFIi

f \

w m

W w

123456123466123466

Fig. 331.— (A) Design for Velveteen Fabric, of which B is a graphic representa-
tion of a Transverse Section, showing some Picks of Weft standing erect,
after being severed by the Fustian Knife to form tiifts of Pile.

picks to one ground pick, with pile picks bound at intervals of
six, to cause them to float over five, warp ends. In this example,
every third warp end only is utihsed for binding pile picks tO'
the ground texture, namely, the first and fourth in each repeat
of the pattern ; whilst all warp ends interweave with ground

FUSTIANS.

135

picks to produce the foundation texture.
threads causes the floats of pile
picks to develop a series of courses
or passages running lengthwise,
termed "races," which lie above
the ground cloth and along each
of which a fustian cutter passes
the fustian knife, so that the cut-
ting edge of the latter passes
under all floats of weft forming
a ** race," thereby severing them
in the centre and causing them
to become erect on each side of
a binding thread to produce the
characteristic short tufts of pile.
This is clearly illustrated in Fig.
331b, which represents a trans-
verse section of cloth (produced
from the design above it), both
before and after cutting. The
paths along which the fustian
knife takes its course, and also
the points at which pile picks are
severed, occur at intervals of
three warp ends, as indicated by
arrows.

§ 65. A fustian knife for cut-
ting by hand is illustrated in Fig.
332. It consists of a square steel
rod A, beaten out at one end to
form an extremely thin keen-
edged blade B, and is provided
with a handle C at the other end.
The knife blade is inserted in a
shaped and pointed sheath D, of
sheet iron or steel, which serves
the threefold purpose of (a) giving
firmness to the slender blade :

This combination of

--V

136 GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

(b) guiding the blade along its true course under the proper
floats ; and (c) tautening the floats of weft as it passes under
and brings them up to the exposed edge of the knife, to be
severed. Fustian knives are made in various lengths from
about 12 in. to 30 in. from steel rods varying from i in. to i in.
square, and each is provided with a sheath or guide specially
shaped and pointed to suit the particular kind of cloth for
which it is intended (as velveteen or corduroy), and also the
width of "race". A fustian knife handle is sometimes fur-
nished with a piece of wood E, to serve as a rest for the knife,
and maintain it at the proper angle as it traverses a "race ".
The rest E is fixed at the rear end of the haft when cutting
velveteen on a " short-run " frame (of two yards in length),
and in the centre of the haft (as indicated by dotted lines) when
cutting corduroy.

§ 66. Before being submitted to the operation of fustian
cutting, velveteens are first subjected to a process of liming, in
which a thin coating of lime paste is applied to the face side of
cloth by passing it over a roller revolving in slaked lime. From
the lime trough the cloth is immediately passed over a number
of steam-heated cylinders to be dried ; after which it is coated
on the back with flour paste and again dried for the purpose of
stiffening it and to prevent the withdrawal of tufts of pile during
cutting. After this preparation, the cloth is made taut by stretch-
ing in a suitable frame of either two or about ten yards in
length, when the cutter passes a knife smartly along successive
" races," taking each in turn from one selvedge to the other.
Subsequent lengths of cloth are then stretched and cut in a
similar manner until the whole piece is completed, after which
it is submitted to various finishing processes. The operation of
cutting velveteen by hand on short frames is illustrated in Fig.
333/ in which fustian cutters are shown standing at the side of
their frames ; but when cutting corduroy on a short frame the
cutter stands at one end.

The foregoing description of a simple example of velveteen,
and of fustian cutting, will enable a student to intelligently

^ The author is indebted to Messrs. Henry Bannerman & Sons, Limited,
for their kind permission to use this illustration.

138

GKAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

comprehend some of the circumstances affecting the production
of velveteens and corduroys, and thereby to better conform to
the conditions which their construction imposes upon a designer,
namely, the proper security of pile to the foundation texture,
and the distribution of binding places in such manner as to pro-
vide suitable "races" or passages at regular intervals for the
reception of the fustian knife.

§ 67. Fig. 334 is a design in extensive use for a tabby-back
velveteen repeating on six warp ends and eight picks, having
three pile picks to one ground pick, with consecutive pile picks
bound by alternate warp ends at intervals of six threads. It

1234561 23456

Fig. 334. — Design for Velveteen Fabric.

will be observed that pile picks are bound by the same alternate
warp ends that are raised for the first ground pick in each repeat
of the pattern ; whilst the intermediate threads are only raised
for the second ground pick, thereby causing the three pile picks
between each ground pick to become equivalent to, and sub-
sequently occupy the space of, only one pick of weft. Hence,
the eight picks constituting one repeat of the design are equivalent
to only four picks when in cloth.

The employment of alternate instead of consecutive warp ends
for the purpose of binding pile picks is a practice which, for
several reasons, is adopted in the construction of velveteens. In
the first place, it reduces the number of "races" by one-half,
by creating them along alternate warp ends only, instead of

FUSTIANS.

139

along all warp ends, thereby requiring less time for cutting and
reducing the cost of that operation. In the second place it
facilitates the operation of cutting by developing more clearly
defined " races " for the reception of a fustian knife. And, finally,
by causing tufts of pile to lie along alternate warp ends, instead
of being distributed on all warp ends, a more perfect simulation
of real velvet is produced, and one that makes the difference
between velvet and velveteen sometimes very difficult to detect.

■■■

Fig. 335.

Fig. 336.

Fig. 337.

The use of alternate threads of the same warp to bind over face-
picks as well as under back picks tends (as explained under the
heads of backed fabrics and moleskins, in §§ 56 and 61) to im-
part a little greater strain upon those threads ; but in con-
sequence of the sparseness of warp ends, and the considerable
degree of tension at which they are held during the weaving of
fustians, the difference in tension between binding and non-
binding threads is so small as to develop only the faintest

Fig. 338.

2 4 6 8 10
Fig. 339.

stripiness in the uncut cloth, which entirely disappears after
cutting ; nor is the difference in tension such as to necessitate-
the binding and non-binding warp ends being wound upon
separate warp beams. This is explained by the circumstance
of warp ends being held so taut during weaving that the softer,
finer and more supple weft exerts little or no influence upon
them, and so they remain perfectly straight.

§ 68. Figs. 335 to 364 are examples of designs showing
various modifications in the construction of velveteen fabrics-

140

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

A cursory examination will show that the essential points of
•difference in them are in respect of their foundation weaves,
and the method of securing pile picks thereto. Other points of
difference, not of a structural character, are the ratio of pile
picks to ground picks, and the length of float between the bind-
ing points of pile picks. Fig. ^335 is a design for a tabby- back
velveteen containing two pile picks to one ground pick, with pile

Fig. 340. Fig. 341.— Represented

in Transverse Section
by Fig. 344.

Fig. 342.— Represented
in Transverse Section
by Fig. 345.

weft floating over only three warp ends between each inter-
section, which would produce an exceedingly short and poor
pile. Figs. 336, 337 and 338 are three designs for tabby-back
velveteens, each containing four pile picks to one ground pick,
with pile weft floating over seven warp ends. Although pile
picks are bound in a different order in each design, they would

A B

Fig. 343.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 in

-(A) Transverse Section showing Ordinary Method of securing Tufts of
Pile to the Foundation Texture, in Velveteen Fabrics.

produce absolutely identical results in the finished fabric ; as the
four pile picks between two ground picks in each design would
constitute only one row of tufts disposed on alternate warp ends.
Fig. 339 is a design for a tabby-back velveteen containing five
pile picks to ong grouod pick, with pile picks floating over nine
warp ends to produce longer pile.

§ 69. Figs. 340, 341 and 342 are three examples of designs
for tabby-back velveteens with a "fast" or "lashed" pile, so

FUSTIANS.

141

called because the tufts of pile are more securely attached to the
foundation texture ; thus, instead of being looped under and
held by only one warp end, as in previous examples and as
illustrated in Fig. 343, each tuft of pile is secured by interlacing
with three consecutive warp ends, as shown in Figs. 344 and
345. Although the binding of pile picks in Figs. 341 and 342 is

A B

Fig. 344. — (A) I'ransverse Sectiou of Velveteen, woven from Design Fig. 341,
with Fast or Lashed Pile.

of a different arrangement in each, they will produce no material
difference in their ultimate results, as seen by comparison of
Figs. 344 A, and 345 A, which represent transverse sections of
cloth produced from designs Figs. 341 and 342 respectively. In
both examples, warp ends are raised over two out of the five pile
picks between two ground picks, so that the five pile picks will

A B

12345678') 10
Fig. 345. — (A) Transverse Section of Velveteen, woven from Design Fig. 342,
with Fast or Lashed Pile.

occupy the space of tiuo picks in cloth (as seen in end views of
sections at B). Hence, five tufts of pile will be formed over an
interval of ten warp ends, from what virtually constitutes two
picks of weft (whereas, by the method of binding shown in Fig.
343, five tufts of pile would be formed in the same interval, and
from the same number of picks, which would virtually constitute
only one pick of weft (as seen in end view of section at B) and

142

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

which would result, for example, from the design Fig. 339. It
is evident, therefore, that a " fast " pile can only be obtained in
fabrics of similar quality by sacrificing the density of tufts of pile.
§ 70. It may be observed at this juncture that the relative
density of pile in fabrics of similar quality may only be in-

FiG. 346.

Fig. 34;

Fig. 348.

creased |by additional rows of tufts between ground picks. Thus,
instead of warp ends binding over only one pile pick between
two ground picks to produce only one row of tufts (as in all
previous examples), they may bind over two or three pile picks
to produce a corresponding number of rows of tufts between two

Fig. 349.

Fig. 350.

Fig. 351.

ground picks, as exemplified in Figs. 346 and 347. Also, each
binding warp end should preferably contain the same number of
tufts between ground picks to ensure a more perfect distribution
of pile ; though this precept is not always observed in practice,
as will be seen presently. Density of pile is sometimes slightly
increased by causing additional tufts of pile to occur in certain

FUSTIANS.

143

places only, between two ground picks. Conversely, density of
pile may be slightly diminished by omitting tufts of pile in a
similar order. In either case, care should be taken to dispose
the additional tufts (or the spaces where they are omitted) so
that they will not tend to develop lines in any direction in the
finished fabric. Any such tendency is avoided in an ingenious
manner in Figs. 348 and 350, which are designed to increase
and diminish the density of pile respectively. In Fig. 348
the successive binding points on pile picks are produced in an
opposite direction at intervals of two ground picks, thereby dis-
posing the additional tufts of pile in the four-end satin order (as
indicated by bracketed squares). Had the successive binding

A A

-3

2
1

points been produced in the same direction throughout, as in
Fig. 349, the regular occurrence of the extra tufts would tend
to develop a series of lines running obliquely across the fabric.
In Fig. 350, which will give a less dense pile, the same practice
has been observed of reversing the direction in which binding
points are produced at intervals of two ground picks, so as to
dispose the gaps (caused by missing tufts, as indicated by
bracketed squares) in a four-end satin order, for reasons just
explained. Had the binding points in that design been pro-
duced in the same direction throughout (as indicated in Fig.
351), the vacant places would, in consequence of their regular
succession, tend to develop oblique lines across the fabric.

144

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

§ 71. Figs. 352 to 358 are designs for velveteens of a little
heavier texture than the tabby-backed variety. Their founda-
tion texture is based on the three-end twill weave, which permits of
a greater number of picks per inch being inserted to produce a
more compact fabric. In other respects their construction is
similar to the previous examples. Apart from the object of
increasing weight, a greater degree of compactness in twill-
backed velveteens is essential to hold the pile firmly ; otherwise
the freer character of the weave would produce a more open
texture, and thereby permit of the easier withdrawal of tufts of
pile. It is sometimes advocated that, when constructing twill-
backed velveteens, warp bindings on pile picks that immediately
either precede or succeed a ground pick should be placed counter
to a weft binding on that pick, so that such warp and weft

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Fig. 354.

Fig. 355.

Fig. 356. Fig. 357.

Fig. 358.

binding points will lock or check each other, and thus give
additional firmness to the fabric. A little reflection, however,
will show that whilst such precaution would conduce to better
results if the weft were not to be subsequently cut to form pile,
it is unnecessary to observe it in the construction of velveteen
in which the several picks between two ground picks virtually
occupy the space of only one pick, or sometimes two picks, in the
finished fabric. It may also be pointed out that, w^hether the
warp and weft bindings are or are not placed counter to each
other in the design, they automatically become so in the finished
fabric ; so that precisely similar results accrue whichever practice
is adopted. This is clearly demonstrated by means of diagrams-
Figs. 352b and 353b, representing transverse sections of cloth
(after cutting) woven from designs Figs. 352a and 353a respec-
tively, which designs are identical, excepting that warp bindings
on every second pile pick in Fig. 352a are placed counter to

FUSTIANS.

145

weft bindings of the contiguous ground pick ; whereas the
binding points are not so placed in Fig. 353a, yet their trans-
verse sections are virtually alike. (It will be observed that these
two designs are identical with the moleskin designs, Figs. 326
and 327, respectively.) Figs. 354 to 358 are other examples of
designs for velveteens with three-end twill backs, showing various
modifications ; whilst Figs. 359 to 364 are for velveteens having

■#li-;#;l,|;

IIII4-"'"I--

Fig. 359.

Fig. 360.

Fig. 361.

a foundation texture based on the two-and-two twill, and other
weaves, to produce still heavier textures.

Weft plushes are simply velveteens in which pile weft is
allowed to float over a considerable number of warp ends to
produce a longer pile, the tufts of which are more firmly inter-
laced by interweaving them under and over three or five con-

FiG. 362.

Fig. 363.

Fig. 364.

secutive warp ends, as described in § 69. In other respects
their construction is similar to that of ordinary velveteen having
short pile.

Ribbed or Corded Velveteen.

§ 72. Velveteen is sometimes made to assume a ribbed or
corded formation, resembling that of corduroys, with the ribs
or cords produced lengthwise or parallel with warp. There are

146 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

so-called " velvet cords " that are not velveteens, but simply

^ >

a o

c ^

- O)

en o

O a

o .~

light textures of corduroy, which will be described under that
head. So-called " ribbed velvet " or ribbed velveteen (also known

FUSTIANS. 147

as " hollow-cut " velveteen), however, is woven as ordinary plain
velveteen, and afterwards made to assume a corded appearance
by a special mode of fustian cutting, in which a cutter first passes
:a knife along certain " races " in each cord, with the blade
vertical, as in ordinary cutting, and then along intermediate
*' races," with the knife blade held at different angles, to sever
floats of weft out of the centre, and so form longer and shorter
tufts which develop rounded ribs of pile. For some " races "
the knife is inclined towards the cutter, and for others away
from the cutter; hence the terms " towart" and '\frowart " used
amongst that class of fustian cutters, whose work is regarded as
specially skilful. An example of ribbed velveteen under present
notice is produced from the design shown in Fig. 339, contain-
ing five pile picks to one ground pick, and with pile weft floating
over nine warp ends. A transverse section of this cloth (before
and after cutting) is represented in Fig, 365, in which arrows
indicate the various angles at which the knife blade is held as
it is passed along the different " races ". The width of cords is
not regulated by the number of warp ends on which the woven
design repeats, but is arbitrarily decided by the fustian cutter,
who may produce various widths of cords from exactly similar
fabrics. In the present example the ribs occur at intervals of
sixteen warp ends, although the w^oven design repeats on only
ten warp ends. The same fabric could have been cut to produce
broader or narrower ribs, as desired.

Figured Velveteen.

§ 73. The embellishment of velveteens is not confined to that
created by a simple ribbed or corded formation. They are fre-
quently rendered of a more or less ornate character by means of
designs printed in various colours, embossed designs, and de-
signs produced by Jacquard machines. Many woven designs
are of a somewhat elaborate character, as exemplified in the
specimen reproduced in Fig. 366.

The construction of Jacquard-figured velveteen is governed
by the same principles as those regulating the construction of
simple velveteen, so far as the development of pile in the figure

148 GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

portion is concerned ; but in the ground portion of the pattern^
which is without pile, some method must be adopted to effectu-
ally obscure pile weft from the face of the fabric. Various
methods are employed to achieve that object. By one — perhaps
the most generally satisfactory — when pile picks are not required
on the face for the development of figure, they are placed at the
back in the ground portion, and interwoven with binding warp

\^ • I. \ / { , \ y

Fig. 366. —Velveteen figured hy means of a Jacquard Machine.

ends in an exactly opposite manner to that which obtains in the
figure portion. By another method (of which the specimen
illustrated is an example), surplus pile weft is allowed to float
quite freely beneath the ground portion, and after the operation
of cutting, it is brushed off as waste material. A third practice is
to employ an extra fine warp to loosely interweave with surplus
pile weft at the back of cloth for the purpose of producing a
light gauzy and imperfect tissue, which, after the operation of

FUSTIANS.

149

cutting, is drawn bodily away from the principal texture, thereby
removing all surplus pile weft. This precaution, however, is
only necessary for designs containing comparatively large areas
of ground filHng, in which case the resulting masses of floating
weft at the back would be liable to be caught and pulled both
during and subsequent to weaving, thereby involving risk of
injury to the fabric and impeding the operation of cutting.

§ 74. When preparing an applied or working design for a
figured velveteen fabric, it must be first drawn to the required
dimensions on the proper counts of squared or point paper, and
painted in en bloc, as in Fig. 367. It may then be transposed

Fig. .367. — Block Sketch-design for Figured Velveteen.

to any other counts of point paper to be read off by the card
cutter. The proper counts of design paper for the block design
is determined according to the number of rows of tufts to be
contained in one inch, both horizontally and vertically, because
the margin of figure steps in intervals of tufts of pile each way ;
thus each small square of the block design corresponds to one
tuft. If, therefore, a design is to be prepared for a fabric con-
taining 88 warp ends and 420 picks per inch, with pile weft
bound by alternate warp ends, and having three pile picks
{which constitute only one row of tufts) to one ground pick (as
in the present example) the proper counts of point paper for the

150

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

block design is in the ratio of (88 -^ 2 = 44) to (420 -^ 4 = 105) ;
or (assuming a Jacquard machine has eight long rows of hooks)
the point paper should contain eight squares by nineteen squares
in each bar. If a fabric contains four pile picks, constituting
only one row of tufts, between two ground picks, the number
of horizontal rows of tufts per inch will be one-fifth of the actual
number of picks inserted. Again, if a fabric contains six pile
picks constituting tivo rows of tuffcs between two ground picks,
the number of horizontal rows of tufts per inch will be two-
sevenths of the actual number of picks inserted, and so on.

It is necessary to prepare the pattern eit bloc on the proper
counts of design paper in order to ensure that the correct forms

Fig.

368. — Part of Sketch, Fig. 367, prepared as an Applied Design for
Figured Velveteen.

and shapes of its component parts will be preserved when re-
produced in cloth ; but the counts of paper employed for the
working design, and from which pattern cards are read off by the
card-cutter, is quite immaterial. When preparing an applied
design from a block pattern, it must be remembered that all warp
ends are controlled by a Jacquard machine, and that a pattern
card is required for each pick of weft inserted. Therefore, since
each small square of the block pattern corresponds to one tuft of
pile, each vertical space on the former represents two, three or
four spaces on the working design (according as tufts of pile are

FUSTIANS. 151

contained on alternate warp ends, or on every third or fourth
warp end), and each horizontal space in the block pattern repre-
sents the number of pile picks inserted for each ground pick,
plus one ground pick. For these reasons, when setting out the
pattern for the working design, the margin where figure and
ground meet must change or step at intervals of two or more
warp ends in a horizontal direction, and at intervals of two,
three or more picks in a vertical direction, according to the
weave selected.

Fig. 367 is a portion of the pattern, en bloc, of the cloth repre-
sented in Fig. 366. A small portion of the block pattern (brack-
eted) is shown transposed in Fig. 368, and is developed for a
tabby-back velveteen containing four pile picks to one ground
pick, with pile weft bound by alternate warp ends, and in accord-
ance with the first-named method as described in § 73. By this
method pile picks are placed at the back in the ground portion
and interwoven with binding warp ends in an opposite manner
to that of the figure portion. The margin of figure in a vertical
direction in velveteens constructed in accordance with this method
is always formed with a half -tuft, i.e., one-half of a complete loop,
thus J. For this reason it is advisable to continue some short
marginal floats of weft to their full extent, and to stop others
that are very short (as indicated by white and black crosses re-
spectively), and thus jjrevent short marginal tufts of pile. This
object will be more easily achieved by forming the margin of
ground (in a vertical direction) with the binding warp ends only,
as observed in Fig. 368.

Fig. 369 is a portion of the same block pattern showing the
development of a working design for figured velveteen, in accord-
ance with the second method as described in § 73, by which
surplus pile weft floats loosely beneath the ground portion of the
fabric, to enable it to be readily brushed away after the operation
of cutting, and is a reproduction of a portion of the fabric repre-
sented in Fig. 366, which is a tabby-back velveteen containing
three pile picks to one ground pick, with alternate warp ends
employed for binding pile weft. The scheme of binding pile
picks in this example is the same as that given in Fig. 350, in
which tufts of pile are omitted in a certain order, for the twofold

152

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN

purpose of increasing the length, but reducing the density, of
pile. It should be observed that in velveteens constructed in ac-
cordance with this method the margin of figure in a vertical
direction is formed with entire tufts, as any half-tufts that may
be formed during the operation of cutting are withdrawn on re-

JFlG. 369. — An Alternative Method of developing an Applied Design for Figured

Velveteen.

moving surplus pile weft from the back. For this reason,
greater care is required on the part of a designer in order to
preserve a good margin of figure and ground. This may be
accomplished by extending certain marginal floats into the
ground portion, of sufficient length to enable the fustian knife
to pass underneath and cut them, and also by filling in the

FUSTIANS. 153

spaces to stop all floats of weft that are too short to be cut, as
indicated on the working design by white and black crosses re-
spectively. By carefully studying this design, the method of
preparing designs on this principle will become manifest.

As observed in § 73 velveteens are sometimes ornamented by
an operation of stamping, whereby plain velveteens are furnished
with embossed designs which closely simulate those produced
by Jacquard machines. The fabrics to be ornamented in this
way are subjected to considerable pressure against a roller matrix
of the required pattern, which depresses the pile to form the
ground portion, and leaves the pile erect in the figure portion,
which stands out in sharp relief as an embossed design. When
put into use, the pattern of an embossed velveteen becomes in-
distinct and finally obliterated, in consequence of the depressed
tufts of pile in the ground portion being disturbed by friction,
and thereby becoming partially erect. Thus, the difference be-
tween woven and stamped figured velveteen may be easily
detected by scratching the ground portion with a pointed instru-
ment, which will raise the depressed pile in that part of the
counterfeit fabric.

Corduroy.

§ 75. Corduroy fabrics are constructed on similar principles to
those governing the construction of velveteens, and, like those,
are submitted to an operation of fustian cutting for the develop-
ment of a pile surface. They are, however, produced in much
heavier and more durable textures than velveteens, in view of
the greater wearing properties required of them. They consist of
a foundation texture, usually based upon a three -end or four-end
twill or other simple weave, containing tufts of pile disposed at
regular intervals on from two to six contiguous warp ends (ac-
cording to the width and character of cord required) in such
manner as to develop a series of rounded pile ribs or cords in
the same direction as warp ends. The ribs are usually of uni-
form width in the same fabric, but sometimes they are variegated.
Most corduroy fabrics have pile and ground picks in the ratio of
two to one respectively, with a twill foundation weave ; but
some varieties known as " velvet cords " are produced in com-

154

GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

paratively light textures based on the plain or tabby weave, and
containing three, four and five pile picks to each ground pick, to
produce a denser pile. Fabrics of this description are usually
employed in the production of boys' and ladies' clothing. Figs.
370 and 371 are two designs for " velvet cords," each having a
foundation texture of plain cloth, and containing three and four
pile picks to each ground pick respectively. A transverse section

Fig. 370. — Design for Corduroy.

of cloth (before and after cutting) produced from design Fig. 371
is represented in a graphic manner in Fig. 372. As a fustian
knife is thrust along each successive "race," the floats of weft
are severed at or near the centre, thereby producing tufts of pile,
which rise on each side of binding warp ends and form the
characteristic rounded ribs of pile.

Fig. 371. — Design for Corduroy.

The rounded or convex formation of cords in corduroys i&
entirely due to floating weft being cut at unequal distances on
each side of binding points, thereby causing each complete tuft
to be formed with a long and short tuft (thus — J). This will be-
easily understood on examining Figs. 370 and 371, in which are
indicated the points at which floats of weft are severed by the
fustian knife. In Fig. 370 the binding points of pile picks occur
in the same order for each rib, thereby producing all floats of

FUSTIANS.

155

3 i-

<.2

■^ o

2 S 5?

the .s'a-77ie uniform lengthy
and causing each cord to
constitute one repeat of the
design : whereas in Fig.
371 the binding points of
any two contiguous ribs
are in reverse order, there-
by producing floats of ttoo
unequal lengths and caus-
ing tiDO cords to constitute
one repeat of the design.
In the first example all
floats will be cut a little
oiit of the centre, and in
the second example they
will all be cut exactly in
the centre ; yet, in both
instances, each complete
tuft will be formed with a
long and short tuft with
precisely similar results,
notwithstanding the two
different methods of bind-
ing pile weft.

§ 76. Fig. 373 is the
simplest and smallest de-
sign for a corduroy fabric,
commonly termed " thick-
set " cord. It repeats on
six warp ends and nine
picks, and has a founda-
tion texture based on the
three-end twill weave, with
two pile picks to one
ground pick. The floats
of weft are very short —
being over only three warp
ends — thereby producing

156

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

a short stubby pile, the tufts of which are firmly bound in the
ground cloth, after the manner of *' lashed " pile described under
the head of velveteens in § 69. Figs. 374 to 388 are other
designs for corduroys showing various modifications in their con-

FiG. 373. Fig. 374. Fig. 375. Fig. 376.

struction as regards their foundation weaves, widths of cords,
ratios of pile and ground picks, methods of binding pile weft, and
many other interesting features that will become manifest to ob-
servant students and which it will well repay them to investigate.

Fig. 377.

Fig. 378.

Fig. 379.

The irregular method of binding, exemplified in Figs. 385 to 388,
is for the purpose of producing a variety of different lengths of
floats, which, after cutting, will produce various lengths of pile,
and thereby develop cords having a much rounder formation.

Fig. 380.

Fig. .381.

Fig. 382.

Figured Corduroy.

§ 77. Fabrics of the variety of corduroys known as " velvet
cords " are sometimes figured on a similar principle to that
which obtains in some figured velveteens, namely, by causing
pile weft to float on the face in the usual manner where it is

FUSTIANS.

157

required to form figure, and to interweave it at the back, in the
ground portion, in an opposite manner. An example of figured
"velvet cord" constructed on this principle is reproduced in
Fig. 389, with the method of preparing a design for the same

■

■BT

.■

\\W

■

Fig. 384.

shown (in part) in Fig. ^390. This example has a foundation
texture of plain cloth, with four pile picks to one ground pick,
and with each rib extending over six warp ends. In consequence
of the ornamentation of these fabrics being developed by a series

L_SS_^_.I

S._ii -yf --" ' ^--S^S-j

y __ S !__■ I.^_.l

1 ^1 1 1 "

n i^ n

'^ ■■■ Br 1 1

1 n

!s 8 ^^n.^!^ '

($i! $S IB Ml ' '

m iiT 1" ' '1

[ 1 ^M

1 ■ 1 i , .. \ 1

Fig. 385.

Fig. 386.

of straight ribs occurring at regular intervals, it should be of a
very simple character, consisting entirely of straight lines, as it
would be impossible to satisfactorily develop curved lines upon
them.

■: J __

:-i:-s

~_pn Ln

.::-:n

"W-^

1 "r

ij M

31 J

w\ I 1

-ii

■

":i^

Id 1 H

1 ■

■J

--^T-

^^±

"i,

kMi

b. !: i§

■ 1 1

- - J

■

M ^ li _Mt

1 i

'^ ^ H

1 1

■ 1 1 1 J 1

y 1 ™

[

[■MM

■

Fig. 387.

Fig. 388.

Corduroy Cutting.

§ 78. The cutting of corduroy fabrics is performed, as previously
stated, sometimes by hand, similarly to that employed for vel-
veteens (as described in §§ 65 and 66) ; but perhaps more ex-
tensively by machinery, as their coarser and stronger texture

158

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

renders them better adapted than velveteens to mechanical
cutting. Fustian-cutting machines comprise various modifi-
cations of two distinct types, known as ''circular-knife" and
'* straight-knife " machines. A graphic full-scale diagram illus-
trating the operation of a " circular-knife " machine is shown in
Fig. 391. In this machine all cords across the entire width of
cloth are simultaneously cut by means of a corresponding number

Fig. 389.— Figured Corduroy, woven from Design Fig. 390.

of thin sharp-edged steel discs B, placed at regular intervals
(coinciding with the width of cords) upon a mandril A, which
extends across the machine and revolves with considerable
velocity in the direction indicated by an arrow, D. As the knives
revolve, cloth advances towards them in the direction indicated
by an arrow, F, to a point H, where it is sharply deflected over
the bevelled edge of a cross-rail G. At this point, floats of weft
forming each "race" are directed and presented by means of

FUSTIANS.

159

guide wires E to their respective knives, to be cut. A guide wire
B is inserted in each "race," with the lower portion of a knife
partially entering its long narrow slot. Guide wires E are pieces
of steel wire bent acutely to form a long loop. The extremities of
the wire are soldered together where they meet, whilst the curved

Fig. 390.— Design for Figured Corduroy represented by Fig. 389.

end is flattened and sHghtly bent as shown. They are inserted
in the ''races " of cloth with the point downward and pointing
in the opposite direction to that in which cloth approaches the
knives. Guide wires serve the functions of (a) guiding floats of
weft forming a "race" to the knives, and tautening them as
they are cut ; and (6) keeping the knives (which are not rigid,

160

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

but somewhat freely placed upon the mandril) in the centre of
each "race". A small segment is cut off each knife, as shown
at C, to reduce their diameter at that part. Thus, by turning
the mandril until the straight edges C of the knives are at the

cutting point H, it allows a little greater space between the
knives and the rail edge, thereby facilitating the insertion of
guide wires in the " races " at the commencement of cutting, or
subsequently for the replacement of wires that may become
injured.

FUSTIANS. 161

As the uncut cloth approaches the knives, guide wires are con-
veyed along by it, and consequently require to be pushed forward
again intermittently. This is accomplished by means of pushers
actuated at frequent and regular intervals by a series of spirally
arranged rotary cams. Each pusher acts upon three or more
guide wires (according to the width of cords) at their soldered
ends, so as to push them forward in groups instead of collec-
tively, thereby ensuring greater constancy of action by prevent-
ing extreme fluctuations of energy exerted by the machine, and
also of motive power required to drive it.

§ 79. Fustian-cutting machines of the second-named type are
constructed with either four stationary knives, or one stationary
knife, to cut four cords simultaneously, or only one cord at a
time, respectively. In either case, the extremities of cloth to be
cut are sewn together to form an endless band or web, which is
passed through the machine at a rapid pace as often as is re-
quired to complete cutting. After each complete circuit of cloth
the machine is stopped, and the knife or knives adjusted by
hand to cut the next "race" or "races". In a four-knife
machine, the knives (which are similar to those employed in
hand cutting) are fixed at intervals corresponding to one-quarter
of the width of fabric to be cut, and operate in a similar manner
to a hand fustian knife, excepting that cloth advances upon the
knives in the former, whilst in hand cutting a knife is thrust
along cloth which is held stationary. The adjustment of knives
in these machines is so contrived that, on their leaving a
" race," penetrating cloth, meeting with any obstruction, or from
any other irregularity, the machine automatically stops.

CHAPTER VIII.

TERRY PILE FABRICS.

§ 80. " Terry pile " is a terra used to distinguish a variety of
woven fabrics characterised by the formation of a series of loops
(thus f[) projecting from the main body of the fabric. These
loops are produced by an extra series of comparatively slack
warp ends, and may be uniformly distributed either on one side
or both sides of the fabric to form a perfectly even surface ; or
they may be developed in such manner as to create a figured
design upon a plain or bare ground. Or, again, a figured terry
fabric may contain an all-over pile surface on both sides, with
figure and ground developed in contrasting colours.

There are two distinct methods of developing a terry or looped
pile surface during the operation of weaving, namely : (1) by
means of wires that are inserted in the warp sheds at intervals
(as if they were picks of weft) and subsequently withdrawn, there-
by causing all warp ends that passed over them to form a corre-
sponding number of loops ; and (2) by means of what are known
as " terry " motions, whereby, during weaving, several picks of
weft are inserted a short distance from the " fell " of cloth (or
last pick inserted), to produce a short gap or " fret," and then
all are pushed forward together to take their final place in the
fabric. As each group of picks are thus pushed forward by the
reed, pile warp ends buckle or loop either on the face or back of
cloth as predetermined, and so develop the characteristic loops
of pile known as " terry," looped, or uncut pile.

Examples of looped pile fabrics produced by the aid of wires
are seen in Brussels and tapestry carpets, moquette, mohair
and other furniture upholsterings of heavy texture, as well as
in silk upholsterings of light texture and great beauty. In

(162)

TERRY PILE FABRICS. 163

fabrics of this description the pile is formed on one side only,
and (with the exception of tapestry pile carpets) pile warp ends
may sometimes lie perfectly straight or interweave as ordinary
warp ends, and then be required to form pile, all within a short
interval. Under these circumstances, pile warp ends are separ-
ately contained upon a corresponding number of bobbins that
.are separately weighted to permit of the independent withdrawal
-of their threads, and thus provide for their variable and irregular
contraction. If all pile warp ends were contained on the same
warp beam, they would necessarily have to either form pile or
■else lie straight uniformly at the same periods, in consequence
of their uniform and simultaneous delivery during weaving.

^ 81. Terry fabrics produced by means of terry motions are
•exemplified in so-called Turkish towels, bath mats, counter-
panes, antimacassars, toilet covers and mats, and many articles
for domestic purposes. The majority of these goods are produced
entirely from cotton, although terry towels are sometimes pro-
duced either entirely or in part from linen. Terry weaving is
a principle eminently adapted to the production of towels, as
the loops of pile give considerable bulk and impart good absorp-
tive properties to the fabric. The variety of terry fabrics under
present notice are produced from two series of warp ends,
namely : (a) ground, and (b) pile warp ends, each of which is
■contained on a separate warp beam. They are usually employed
in equal proportions, and arranged in the harness and reed either
alternately with each other or in alternate pairs of ground and
pile threads. The particular disposition of warp ends is arbitrary.
'Some advocate an alternate distribution of ground and pile warp
•ends, whilst others prefer to dispose them in alternate pairs of
each series of warp ends. In both cases the ultimate results
are virtually alike. During weaving ground warp ends are held
taut, whilst the beam containing pile warp ends is very lightly
weighted to enable the threads to be easily withdrawn for the
formation of pile. Terry fabrics are termed three, four, five or
six-pick terry s, according as there are three, four, five or six
picks inserted between each horizontal row of loops respectively.
Most of these fabrics are constructed with three picks for each
row of loops. The object of inserting a greater number of picks

164

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

for each row of loops is to produce a superior fabric and to bind
pile warp ends more firmly to the foundation texture.

§ 82, Before describing the construction of terry fabrics it will
be better to briefly describe the general features of terry-forming^
devices, as that will be helpful to a clearer understanding of the
essential conditions governing the construction of such fabrics.
Terry motions are usually based upon one or other of three
distinct mechanical principles. By far the greater number are
constructed on what is known as the "loose -reed" principle,
illustrated in Fig. 392. Devices based upon this principle ar&

Fig. 392. — Loose Eeed Action, for Terry Pile Weaving.

designed to act upon a reed in such manner that, as the sley
comes forward, the reed is caused to swing backwards at the
bottom from its normal vertical position to an inclined position
for two out of three or more picks, and is afterwards securely
fastened in its normal position for the following pick (or picks),
when all are pushed forward together to take their final place in
cloth. As picks are thus pushed forward from their temporary
to their final position, they slide along the tense ground warp
ends ; but the degree of frictional resistance between the three
picks and slack pile warp ends is sufficient to draw the latter
forward en masse, and thus cause them to bend and form a series

TERRY PILE FABRICS. 165

of loops. As the reed swings backward at the bottom, for the
two "loose" picks, it swivels on the upper ribs which are re-
tained in a mortise cut into the under side of the sley cap.
Therefore, since the line of contact made by the ''fell " of cloth
with the reed is situated approximately midway between the
upper and lower ribs of the latter, it follows that the bottom of
the reed will require to recede (for the two "loose " picks) for a
distance of not less than twice the length of gap or "fret " neces-
sary to yield the desired length of pile on the fabric. Such ex-
cessive backward movement of the reed creates a tendency to
•develop loops of pile of irregular lengths in different horizontal
rows of pile, but not in the individual rows. This tendency
arises in consequence of the abnormal inclination of the reed
from its vertical position, whereby it inclines forward at the top,
and therefore bears downward upon the "loose" picks as it
approaches the "fell" of cloth. Hence, those picks tend to
slide downward along the reed for a greater or less distance
{according to circumstances to be presently stated), and, thus
produce gaps or " frets " of different lengths, and, therefore,
different lengths of pile. This evil is more liable to manifest
itself m figured terry fabrics in which the number of pile warp
ends either raised or depressed is liable to fluctuate according to
the design. Thus, the '' fell " of cloth will occupy a higher or
lower plane during beating up, according to the preponderance
of warp ends in either the upper or lower half of the warp shed,
respectively; also, the strain upon the reed, as it approaches
the " fell " of cloth, will be greater or less in proportion to the
number of warp ends forming the bottom half of the warp shed,
because they bear against the reed farthest from the upper ribs
on which it swivels in the sley cap.

A modification of the "loose-reed " principle, for terry weav-
ing, is designed with the object of overcoming the disadvantages
of the system just described. This modification is effected by
mounting the reed in a case or frame carried at the upper ends
of two long vertical arms that extend downwards and are re-
spectively fulcrumed either upon studs secured to the sley swords,
or else upon the rocking shaft on which the sley oscillates. The
said arms are analogous to auxiliary sley swords for the sole

166 GKAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

purpose of supporting the reed only, so that the latter may be-
carried bodily backward, with the least deviation from its normal
vertical position, when beating up the two "loose" picks to
produce the desired length of gap or "fret" at the "fell" of
cloth.

A second type of terry motion causes the sley to oscillate for a
shorter distance for two consecutive picks, and for a greater dis-
tance for the third and following picks inserted for each hori-
zontal row of loops. By this means, two out of three or more-
picks are beaten up within a short distance from the "fell" of
cloth, and then after the third pick is inserted in the shed they
are all three pushed forward together as described.

A third type of terry motion (which is of little reputation)
operates in a contrary manner to either of the foregoing. Thus,
instead of causing the reed to recede for a short distance from-
the "fell" of cloth, the latter is drawn a short distance in ad-
vance of the reed for the two "loose" picks; whilst the reed
is fixedly mounted in the sley, as in a " fast-reed " loom. This-
is accomplished by moving the back rail and breast rail of a loom
' to and fro simultaneously, so as to carry the stretch of warp and
cloth bodily forward for two out of three or more picks, after
which, the back rail and breast rail return to their normal posi-
tion, thereby causing all picks to be pushed forward to their final
place in cloth.

§ 83. Fig. 393 is the design for a plain three-pick terry fabric
shaving pile formed on both sides, and with warp ends arranged
in the order of one ground and one pile warp end alternately.
(Shaded squares in the design represeat pile warp ends and black
squares ground warp ends.) In the production of terry piece-
goods, such as roller towelhng, not more than four healds are
necessary, namely, two for each series of warp ends ; but in the
production of separate towels, with "headings " or borders, it is
usual to erqploy five healds, namely, two (at the front) for pile
warp ends, and three (in the rear) for ground warp ends, drafted
in the manner indicated above the design. When pile and
ground warp ends are arranged alternately, one of each series
is drawn through each dent of the reed ; but when they ar&
drafted in pairs they are also passed through the reed in pairs,.

TERRY PILE FABRICS.

167

so that two warp ends of the same series are contained in the
same dent. In § 88 the relative merits of each system of drafting
and other practical considerations are stated. On examining
the design, Fig. 393, it will be seen that consecutive ground warp
ends interweave in an opposite manner to each other, as do also
consecutive pile warp ends. Pile warp ends that are over two
picks and under one pick form pile on the face, whilst those that
are under tivo picks and over one pick will form pile at the back
of cloth when in the loom.

§ 84. In the production of terry fabrics without the aid of wires
it is absolutely essential to observe a specific order of shedding in
relation to the action of the reed as governed by the terry motion.

GROUND HEALDS

PILE

RE ED
REED
REED
REED
REED
REED

HEALDS I

REED-H

FAST
LOOSE
LOOSE

FAST
LOOSE
LOOS E

4
3
2
1

•"T^

THIRD

PICK

SECOND

PICK

FIRST

PICK

THIRD
SECOND

PICK

m \

Fl RST

PICK

o o

Q Q

UJZlUZuJZUJZ

_I=J_I =J_I=5_J=3

_o_o_o_o

o-Cca.QaiQ-ct:ci.Q=

O O

Fig. 393.— Design for a 3-Pick Terry Pile Fabric.

otherwise the loops of pile will be imperfectly developed or may
not appear at all. This order is clearly indicated in the design
(Fig. 393) and also in the graphic diagram (Fig. 394) which re-
presents a longitudinal section of a three-pick terry fabric. On
examining these figures it will be seen that the reed is " loose "
for the first and second picks, termed " loose " picks, and "fast "
for the third pick, termed the "fast" pick. It will also be ob-
served that the "loose" picks are always inserted in opposite
pile warp sheds, but in the same ground ivarp sheds. With
this order of shedding in relation to the reed motion, pile warp
ends make two intersections, and ground warp ends only one
intersection with the picks, before the latter are beaten up to

168

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

the " fell " of cloth ; hence, the picks easily slide along ground
warp ends which are held taut, whereas their better grip of
pile warp ends which are slack causes the latter to be drawn
forward and form loops of pile.

tic
i3 bo

T«

§ 85. As stated in § 81, the number of picks inserted between
each horizontal row of loops in terry pile fabrics produced by
the aid of terry motions varies in different fabrics from three to
six picks. The number of picks selected does not, however.

TEKRY PILE FABRICS.

169

atfect the primary factor governing the construction of those
fabrics as regards the order of shedding in relation to the timing
of the reed motion as described in § 84. This is specially
emphasised because it constitutes one of the most essential
conditions in terry weaving, and the want of such information
sometimes proves a stumbling-block to the successful production
of terry cloth. It should also be observed that the relative
density of loops of pile is relatively greater or less in inverse
proportion to the number of picks inserted for each horizontal
row of loops.

Fig. 395 is the design for a four-pick terry fabric having pile
equally distributed on both surfaces. A longitudinal section of

Fig. 395.— Design for a 4-Pick Terry Pile Fabric.

cloth produced from that design is graphically represented in
Pig. 396. It differs from a three-pick terry fabric by having two
picks (the fourth and first that are contiguous) inserted in the same
warp shed, a circumstance which necessitates the use of a ** catch-
cord " for one of the selvedges. (A " catch-cord " is a device to
govern extreme outer selvedge warp ends, so that weft will be
caught by them and thereby prevented from being pulled back-
ward into the warp shed in the event of a shuttle passing through
the same shed for two or more picks in succession.) By insert-
ing four instead of three picks for each horizontal row of loops, a
firmer and heavier texture is produced. Also in the manufacture
of those fabrics in which differently coloured threads are em-
ployed to produce simple counterchange effects (as exemplified

170

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

TERKY PILE FABEICS.

171

in many terry towels and bath mats) jit enables a sharper and
more perfect definition to be made at the horizontal edges of
figure, where pile threads pass from face to back, and vice versa.
The starred numbers 1 and 2 in Fig. 396 and subsequent
diagrams of terry fabrics signify that the reed is loose for the
picks indicated, and fast for the intermediate picks, during
weaving.

v^ 86. Another modification in the construction of terry fabrics
is exemplified in the well-known Turkish towel, sold under the
trade name of " Osman," of which the design and longitudinal
section are given in Figs. 397 and 398 respectively. So far as

REED

FAST

lOr.

FAST

dff.

FAST

ob.

LOOSE

dff.

LOOSE

da.

<Lj

d/T

Fig. 397.— Design for " Osman" (6-Pick) Turkish Terry Fabric.

the structural design of this fabric is concerned, it is identical
with that of an ordinary three-pick terry fabric (Fig. 393), which
repeats on three picks. In the production of " Osman " Turkish
towels, however, the reed is governed so as to be loose for two
out of six picks (instead of for two out of three picks, as in a
three-pick terry fabric), thereby causing six picks to be inserted
for each horizontal row of loops, as shown in diagram Fig. 398.
Terry fabrics constructed on this principle are of relatively
stronger and firmer texture than either of the previous examples ;
also pile warp ends are more firmly interwoven with the foun-
dation texture, and therefore less liable to be accidentally or
otherwise withdrawn when the fabric is in use. In the pro-

172

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

TEERY PILE FABRICS. 173

duction of six-pick terry fabrics, the reed is loose for picks 1 and
2, and fast for picks 3, 4, 5 and 6.

§ 87. Figs. 399 and 400 are a design and longitudinal section
respectively of a five-pick terry fabric such as is frequently met
with in the form of counterpanes, toilet covers and antima-
cassars, on which more or less elaborate Jacquard designs are
produced in pile upon a plain or bare ground. These fabrics
are usually woven by means of specially constructed Jacquard
machines which greatly facilitate the preparation of designs.
Instead of indicating the actual working of each warp end and
pick on the design, the latter is prepared en bloc, as indicated at
A, Fig. 399. The actual working of the threads is indicated in
the same Fig. at B. Filled squares at A represent terry pile
figure, and blank squares represent ground. All pile warp ends
loop at the same time, either on the face or at the back of cloth ;
thus, where pile is formed on the face it is plain at the back and
vice versa. During weaving, the reed is loose for picks 1 and 2,
and fast for picks 3, 4 and 5.

It will be observed that in the three, four and six-pick terrys,
consecutive pile warp ends always intersect with weft in an en-
tirely opposite manner to each other ; whereas, in the present
example of five-pick terry weaving, when pile warp ends are
forming pile on the face they interweave in a different manner
from that when forming pile at the back. Thus, when forming
pile on the face, pile warp ends interweave over two picks, under
one, over one, and under one pick ; whereas, when forming pile
at the back, they interweave under four picks and over one pick.
The object of this arrangement is to cause pile warp ends to
intersect less frequently with picks of weft, and so permit of a
greater number of picks per inch to be inserted in cloth. Such
a course, however, involves a less secure interlacement of pile
warp ends with the foundation texture.

§ 88. In § 83 reference was made to different systems of
drafting warp ends through the harness and reed for the pro-
duction of terry fabrics. In that section it was stated that pile
and ground warp ends were sometimes disposed in the harness
and reed alternately, and sometimes in alternate pairs, with
practically similar results. Theoretically, it would appear that

174

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

an alternate disposition would ensure a more uniform distribu-
tion of each series of warp ends ; but on this point there is

PATTERN

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Fig. 399.— (B) Showing the manner in which Warp and Weft would inter-
weave in a 5-Pick Figured Terry Fabric, to develop the Pattern
indicated en bloc at A.

little, if any, appreciable difference between the two arrange-
ments. In practice, however, an advantage is afforded by the

TEREY PILE FABRICS.

175

176 GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

two-and-two over the alternate disposition of warp ends. This
arises from the fact that, with such a disposition of the two series
of threads, either consecutive pile warp ends or consecutive
ground warp ends always interweave in an opposite manner to
each other (excepting in the example of five-pick terry fabric just
described). Therefore, by placing two threads of the same series
in the same dent of the reed, they are never either up or down
together for the same picks of weft, but always occupy opposite
positions ; whilst a reed wire separates a pile and ground warp
end that are contiguous, and that are sometimes up or down
together at the same time. Hence, these two circumstances
conduce to the formation of a clearer warp shed for the passage
of a shuttle during weaving.

In the production of terry pile fabrics of strong and heavy
textures, such as linen Turkish towels, it is a common practice to
employ what is termed a double reed. Such a reed virtually
consists of two reeds placed one behind the other, with a space
of about i in. between them, and constructed in such manner that
the wires of one reed are placed exactly midway between those
of the other, thereby constituting a compound reed whose prac-
tical counts or sett equals twice that of the single reeds. The
objects of such a reed are to obtain greater resistance when beat-
ing up weft, and also to gain a little more space for yarn and
thereby diminish the abrasive frictional action of the reed upon
the warp ends.

Another practical point in terry weaving has reference to the
manufacture of those fabrics in which coloured threads are em-
ployed for the production of striped counterchange effects, as
seen in roller towelling and bordered towels. It is well known
to all practical men that however near to the reed the temples
are placed, there is a greater or lesser degree of contraction in
width at the fell of cloth. It follows, therefore, that the inward
pull of cloth will cause warp ends to bear on the outer sides of
reed wires around which they bend. For this reason it is
found advantageous (when pile and ground warp ends are
alternated with each other) to place pile warp ends on the left,
and ground warp ends on the right, through each dent towards
the left-hand selvedge, and in the reverse order through the dents

TEEEY PILE FABEICS. 177

towards the right-hand selvedge. The object of this arrange-
ment (which is particularly desirable where figured counter-
change stripes occur) is to cause ground warp ends, which are
taut, to bear against the reed wires, and to allow pile warp ends,
which are slack, to lie on that side of ground warp ends nearest
the selvedges, and so avoid the risk of pile warp ends being
impeded in their passage between reed wires and ground warp
ends ; an evil which is liable to occur if that course is not
adopted.

CHAPTER IX.
GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

§89. *' Gauze" and " leno " are terms which designate
different varieties of one of the most interesting types of woven
fabrics comprised under the generic term of *' cross-weaving ".
The distinctive characteristic feature of this type of fabrics is
the pecuHar crossing of warp ends ivith each other, caused by
puUing them out of their normal straight and parallel course,
first to one side and then to the other side, of other warp ends,
which cross and recross in some definite order.

Cross-weaving is a useful principle extensively adopted in the
production of silk, cotton, worsted and linen textures, for
almost every variety of purpose — as ladies' and children's wear-
ing apparel, cm'tains, antimacassars, and many others. It is
also frequently applied in combination with tissue, lappet and
swivel figuring (described in Chapter X.) piques, and many
other types of fabrics. When it is applied to fabrics of an ex-
tremely light, open and flimsy texture, and especially if pro-
duced from silk, they are usually described as " gauze " fabrics ;
but if applied decoratively to heavier textures of cotton and
linen, they are usually termed **leno" fabrics, of which there
are two distinct classes, namely, (1) '* net leno," and (2) " leno
brocade " fabrics, each comprising several varieties.

"Net lenos" are chiefly produced by means of healds, and
are usually characterised by a decidedly striped formation
developed by the introduction of comparatively coarse threads,
termed " net" warp ends, which usually assume a more or less
zigzag course, and produce a series of ''net" leno stripes.
Sometimes the vertical stripes are crossed by a series of hori-
zontal ones to produce a "check" pattern. Net leno fabrics

(178)

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 179

offer unlimited scope to a capable designer in the production of
decorative leno effects, which are frequently of a most interest-
ing and sometimes of a very beautiful and attractive character.
And it is, perhaps, not too much to say that no other principle
of weaving is capable of yielding such variety of exquisite de-
•corative effects for so small an expenditure of artistic or technical
effort.

** Leno " brocades are ordinary brocade fabrics in which the
gauze principle of weaving is introduced as an additional means
of embellishment. They are produced by means of a Jacquard
machine, and usually consist of a gauze or leno figure sur-
rounded by a ground of the plain or calico weave, or vice versa ;
and sometimes either warp, weft, or both are allowed to float
where required for the purpose of developing ordinary brocade
flguring. An interesting variety of leno brocade fabrics are
those in which both leno brocade and also net leno figuring
are employed for the development of stripes of each kind
arranged either alternately or otherwise. In the production of
this variety of fabrics it is usual to employ a compound harness
consisting of a Jacquard mounting for the leno brocade stripes,
and a heald harness for the net leno stripes.

Plain Gauze.

§ 90. The simplest example of gauze or cross- weaving is that
in which one or two warp ends in regular succession cross each
other on successive picks, or pairs of picks, so as to produce an
open net-like structure of uniform texture, as represented at C,
Fig. 401. This diagram indicates the method of drafting warp
ends through the healds and reed at A, and the order of
shedding at B, to produce the gauze structure represented at C.
By studying that diagram in conjunction with those given in
Figs. 402, 403 and 404, the principles of cross-weaving, which
are generally so puzzling to students, will be easily understood.

Shedding harnesses for cross-weaving, whether they consist of
healds or Jacquard mountings, may be constructed on either of
two systems known as a " bottom-doup " or a " top-doup "
arrangement, according to whether the " doups " are situated

180

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

beloiv or above warp ends respectively, as will be presently ex-
plained. A heald harness with a " bottom-doup " arrangement,

Draft
SDSDSDSD

Sheddin^i Plan

Slackener q
Back Rest C

liick Standard E
Regular HeaJd F

Front Standard G
Doup Heald H

Reed I

Cross Shed
Open Shed
Cross Siied
Open Shed
Cross Shed
Open Shed

i ^c

1 2
Picks

SDSDSDSD

Fig. 401.— Graphic Diagram representing a Plan of Simple Gauze Cloth, at C;
also the method of drawing-in Warp Ends through the Healds and Reed, at
A ; and the Shedding Plan, at B.

and also the formation of the sheds for the production of plain
gauze, are graphically represented by diagrams Figs. 402, 403

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

181

Easer or Slackener

Back Rest

Back Standard Heald

Regular Heald

Front Standard Heald
Doup Heald

Standard or Regular Warp End
Doup Warp End

EIG 402 -Graphic illustration of a Bottom-doup Heald Harness, with all Healds
down, and the Warp Shed closed.

182 GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

and 404. In those diagrams, the healds are shown perspec-
tively, and with the object of making their functions clear and
distinct only one heald eye is shown on each heald. Fig. 402
shows all parts in their normal or inoperative position. Warp
ends, all of which come from the same warp beam, are separated
into two divisions of alternate threads respectively termed
" standard " or " regular" warp ends S, and doup warp ends D.

The essential features of this harness are — a heald (G),
termed the "front standard," situated immediately in front of
all other healds, and a half -heald termed the "doup heald"
(H) placed in front of the front standard, and consisting of a
number of loops or slips (J), termed " doups," whose upper
parts pass over the eyes of the "front standard," and return
through them, to prevent their withdrawal. The doups are
attached to a single heald-stave (H), situated beloio w^arp ends ;
hence the term " bottom-doup" as distinguished from a " top-
doup " harness, in which the doups are attached to a stave
situated above warp ends.

Standard warp ends pass from the warp beam to cloth in a
perfectly straight course, first over the back rest (C), thence
through the respective eyes of a regular heald (F), and through a
dent of the reed (I). Doup warp ends pass over a bar variously
termed the "easer," "vibrator" or "slackener " (B), situated a
little to the rear of, and in a little higher plane than, the back
rest (C) ; thence through eyes of a heald (E) termed the " back
standard ". From here they pass in front of heald eyes govern-
ing standard warp ends, and then cross underneath the latter
from right to left, after which they pass through a loop (J)
attached to a single heald-stave (H) (situated below warp ends),
and finally they pass through the same dents of the reed (I) as
their fellowjstandard warp ends.

(In order to prevent confusion of terms, the attention of
students is specially directed to the apparent inconsistency in the
use o£ the^term "back standard" to describe those healds (E)
which govern doup warp ends when the latter are raised on the
normal side of their respective standard warp ends (to form
" open " sheds), instead of that term being used to describe the
regular healds (F) which govern standard or regular warp ends.

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS.

183

Easer or Slackener

Back Standard Heald

— Regular Heald

Doup Heald
Front Standard Heald

Standard or Regular Warp End
Doup Warp End
^^ — Open Shed
— Cross Shed

Open Shed
Cross Shed

Fig. 403.— Graphic Diagram of a Bottom-doup Heald Harness, showing the
Formation of an Open Shed.

184 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

The term ''hack standard," however, is that established by
custom to distinguish the healds that are complementary to,
and which govern doup threads in conjunction with, ''front
standard " healds).

§ 91. In the production of a simple gauze texture entirely de-
void of figuring, two distinct forms of shedding are required,
namely, a straight or "open " shed, and a "cross " shed. A
straight or open shed is one in which warp ends are separated
without being deviated from their normal parallel course. Its
formation with a bottom-doup harness (as illustrated in Fig.
403 and indicated in the shedding plan of Fig. 401) is effected by
raising both the back standard healdE (which controls "doup "
warp ends) and the "doup " heald stave, H. By raising the
half-heald stave, " doups " J become slackened, and thereby re-
lease their control of " doup " warp ends, which are quite free
to return from their crossed position on the left, to their open
or parallel position on the right of standard warp ends. Thus by
raising the "back standard" E, "doup" warp ends are raised
on that side of " standard " warp ends which they occupy before
being crossed underneath those threads, without being impeded
by the " doup " slips, which, being slack, are taken up by their
respective " doup " warp ends.

A " cross " shed is one in which " doup " warp ends are raised
on the opposite side of "standard" warp ends to that which
they occupy in the healds before being crossed — that is, on their
crossed side. Its formation, as illustrated in Fig. 404, is accom-
plished by raising both the " front standard " heald G and the
" doup " heald H together. Unless means were adopted for its
prevention, the formation of a " cross " shed would impart ab-
normal tension to "doup" warp ends, in consequence of the
short interval or " stretch " of warp between the " fell " of cloth
and the eyes of heald F, around which " doup " warp ends bend
on being raised. Such undue strain is prevented by passing
"doup" warp ends over an easing bar or "slackener" B,
situated in the rear of the back rest C. By that means " doup "
warp ends are allowed a little longer course or "stretch" be-
tween the warp beam and " fell " of cloth. Thus, when a
" cross " shed is formed the " easer " or " slackener " is brought

GAUZE AND LENO FABKICS.

185

Baser or Slackeuer - — ./
Back Rest -

Back Standard Heald

Regular Heald
Front Standard Heald
Doup Heald

Standard or Regular Warp End
Doup Warp End
Cross Shed

/- Open Shed

Cross Shed
Open Shed

Fig 404 -Graphic Diagram of a Bottoni-doup Heald Harness, showing the
Formation of a Cross Shed.

186 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

forward from its normal position (indicated by dotted lines) to
slacken the "doup" warp ends, and thereby prevent undue
tension being imparted to those threads. This function is
variously described as "easing," "slackening" and "vibrating".
An examination of the gauze structure represented in Fig. 401,
and also of Figs. 403 and 404 will show that "standard" warp
ends are never raised, and that "doup " warp ends are raised for
every pick of weft inserted — first on the right and then on the
left of "standard" warp ends alternately. That peculiarity,
however, is characteristic of plain gauze weaving only, and not
of cross weaving generally ; otherwise the development of figur-
ing (as exemplified in "net leno " and "leno brocade" fabrics)
could not be accomplished. In those fabrics all warp ends,
whether "standard" or "doup" threads, may be raised as
desired to produce any ordinary woven effect in combination
with cross weaving, and their construction is governed by the
same general principles as those underlying the construction of
simple gauze.

Net Leno Fabrics.

§ 92. In the production of typical net leno fabrics (as exem-
plified in the accompanying photographic reproductions), the
number of doup healds, front standard healds, back standard
healds, easers or slackeners, and extra warp beams containing
the net doup threads, must severally correspond with the number
of different schemes of douping in a single fabric. Thus, if all
doup warp ends in a piece of cloth cross their standard threads
either in the same direction or in opposite directions simul-
taneously, only one doup heald and one each of the other several
parts just enumerated would be required for its production.
The direction in which doup threads cross is quite arbitrary.
They may cross uniformly either in the same direction, or in
reverse directions (at the same time) as predetermined by the
manner in which they are crossed in the shedding harness before
being passed through their respective doups. If they are crossed
over (in the harness) in the same direction uniformly, they will
all cross in the same direction and at the same time in cloth, as

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS. 187

exemplified in the second net leno stripe B, Fig. 409 ; but if some
doup threads are crossed over to the right, and others to the left,
of their respective standard warp ends, they will always cross in
opposite directions in cloth. Thus, by drafting alternate doup
threads in one direction, and intermediate threads in the oppo-
site direction, a neat diamond formation may be produced, as
exemplified in the net leno stripe A, Fig. 405, which illustrates
an example of net leno weaving produced by means of only one

\ «r

* IT

* "
'4>i

, .1

?! "^

it 1|

«^«f.

:r^'*.ns

Fig. 405. — One-doup Net Leno Fabric, for which the Design, Draft and Shedding-
Plan are given in Fig. 406.

set of doups operating in conjunction with one back standard
heald.

For reasons subsequently stated in § 107 (in which the relative
merits of a tojj and a botto7n-d.ou^ harness are compared), it is
usual to weave net leno fabrics with a ^oj!?-doup harness. For this
reason, the "drafts " and shedding plans, for the samples of leno
fabrics represented in the accompanying illustrations, are adapted
for top-doup harnesses. With such a harness, the conditions of
shedding which obtain in respect of a bottom doup harness, as

188

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

explained in ^ 91, are simply reversed, just as if a bottom-doup
harness were inverted. By inverting the diagrams representing
a bottom-doup harness, given in Figs. 402, 403 and 404, and also
by reversing the shedding plan given in Fig. 401 (except that for
the easer), the conditions of a top-doup harness will be faithfully
represented (excepting that, being ink lines drawn on paper, and
not material threads, the relative positions of standard and doup
warp ends remain the same, whereas doup warp ends should
cross over the top of standard warp ends). Thus, an open shed

Design (A^

Picks

Easer

l^egular Healds
Back Standard

Plain Healds

Front Standard
Doup

Reed

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»ii

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Shedding Plan (C).

Fig. 406. — Design, Draft and Shedding Plan for Net Leno Fabric represented

by Fig. 405.

is formed with a top-doup harness by raising the heald govern-
ing standard warp ends, and also the front standard ; and a
cross shed is formed by raising the back standard controlling
doup warp ends, and also the heald governing standard warp
ends, and, at the same time, slackening doup warp ends to pre-
vent excessive strain upon them.

§ 93. Fig. 405 represents an example of net leno weaving
by means of only one set of doups. In that example, a net leno
stripe is developed at regular intervals, from four pairs of white
doup warp ends drafted alternately to the right and left of their

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

189

respective standard warp ends, which latter consist of fine
threads taped in pairs. The intervening stripes consist of the
plain or calico weave, on which a spotted effect is developed by
means of extra picks of coarse white weft. These float loosely
underneath the leno stripes, whence they are subsequently cut
away, as seen in the corner turned down. The design, with the
draft and shedding plan for that cloth, are respectively indicated
at A, B and C, in Fig. 406. (Horizontal lines in the drafts and

Fig. 407. — Two-doup Net Leno Fabric, for which the Design, Draft and Shedding
Plan are given in Fig. 408.

shedding plans represent healds ; vertical lines in the drafts
represent warp ends ; and a circle placed on an intersection of
a warp end and heald indicates that such warp end is drawn
through such heald. Vertical lines in the shedding plan represent
picks of weft ; and a black spot placed on an intersection of a
heald and pick signifies that such heald is raised for such pick.)
For simplification of the shedding plan, the spotting with extra
weft, in the present example, is left out of consideration. By
carefully studying the design, draft and shedding plan of each of

190

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

the accompanying examples of leno fabrics their construction
will not be very difficult to understand. The action of the

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healds for each pick of weft may be seen by tracing them in.
dividually from the design to the shedding plan.

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 191

For the general guidance of students it may be stated that
with a top-doup heald harness, a cross shed is formed (in respect
of any one series of doup threads) by raising standard and doup
warp ends together, by means of their respective regular
healds and back standards, whilst the same doup threads are
held down in front by means of their front standard and doup
healds ; at the same time, doup warp ends are slackened by

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■•••»"■ i^ 'I*;. ;i.»^;;qr-;is

Fig. 409. — Three-doup Net Leno Fabric, for which the Design, Draft and
Shedding Plan are given in Fig. 410.

means of their easers, to prevent undue strain upon them whilst
making a cross shed. An open shed is formed by raising front
standards (as indicated by shaded squares in the designs), with
such standard warp ends as are required, and, at the same time,
leaving doup healds down. (The object of raising a front stan-
dard heald without its corresponding doup heald is to liberate
doup warp ends so that they may return to the normal side of
their respective standard warp ends.) When a doup thread is

192

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

required at any time to pass over one or more than one pick of
weft, it must be raised for such pick or picks by means of the

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front standard and doup healds, as well as by the back standard
heald, both at the same time.

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 193

§ 94. On examining the accompanying drafts it will be ob-
served that the dents of the reed are not of uniform width, and
also that some dents are left empty. It frequently becomes
necessary to remove reed wires, to obtain wider dents to receive
doup and standard warp ends — when these are in such quantity
as to prevent their free movement or passage (during shedding)
within a dent of normal width, which would chafe and break
them as the sley oscillates to and fro. Also, dents of the reed

f^.f It *::.:*'?'.:■?•*•:■, '.-"-*,*;' :''■•':;-•■' -;::■>—• t, : ' -r- ;•-■?■■■ I^'T:

Fig. 411. — Three-doiip Compound Net Leno Fabric, for which the Design,
Draft and Shedding Plan are given in Fig. 412.

are sometimes left empty to permit of net doup threads spreading
in cloth, and also to accentuate the perforations characteristic
of many leno effects, as exemplified in stripes A, Fig. 407, and
stripes B, Fig. 411.

Fig. 407 illustrates an example of a two-doup net leno fabric,
of which the design, draft and shedding plan are given in Fig.
408. One set of doups are required to produce stripes A, and
another set to produce stripes B. Stripes A consist of a neat
open network, caused by the reverse drafting of six doup

194

GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

threads, each of which crosses two taped standard warp ends.
Stripes B consist of a pair of doup threads, which cross over
twelve standard threads (taped in threes) to produce a con-
tinuous wave Hne.

Dksign (A).

Picks <

Back Standard «
Regular Heald i
Back Standard i

Plain Healds
Back Standards

Front standard
Doup

Front SUndard
Doup

Front standard
Doup

Draft (B).

Picks.

Shedding Plan (C).

Fig. 412.— Design, Draft and Shedding Plan for Compound Net Leuo
Fabric represented by Fig. 411.

Figs. 409 and 411 illustrate examples of leno fabrics, each
requiring the use of three sets of doups to produce net stripes
A, B and C respectively. That number of doups is rarely ex-
ceeded in one loom, owing to the complications to which they
give rise by the addition of numerous accessories, and the diffi-

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS. 195

cultyiof obtaining good and clear warp sheds during weaving.
The construction of the fabric represented in Fig. 409 is clearly-
indicated in the accompanying design, draft and shedding plan
(Fig. 410), which it will well repay a student to carefully in-
vestigate.

Fig. 411 is a check leno fabric of special interest, inasmuch
ns it embodies an uncommon feature in leno weaving. This con-
sists of a compound leno effect produced by causing a thick net
doup thread to cross from side to side of other doup and standard
threads, which, combined, constitute the standard threads for
that net doup thread. By carefully examining the design, draft
and shedding plan (Fig. 412) for that cloth, and following the
operation of the healds for each pick of weft, its construction will
be easily understood. The same course should be pursued with
«ach of the preceding examples, paying special attention to the
method of drafting, and the operation of doup healds, front and
back standard healds, and easers.

Oauze and Net Leno Figuring by iVleans of Several Back
Standard Healds to each Doup Heald.

§ 95. In § 92 it was stated that, for the production of typical
net leno fabrics, as represented by the foregoing examples, the
number of doup healds, front standards and certain other es-
sential equipments of a leno loom, must necessarily correspond
with the number of different schemes of interweaving the
respective doup threads in the same fabric ; and, also, that the
number of doup healds in one loom rarely, if ever, exceeds
three. Under certain conditions, however, it is possible to
develop gauze and leno effects of a more or less ornate charac-
ter by means of only one doup heald, and one front standard,
that operate in conjunction with any practicable number of back
standard healds to govern doup warp ends, and with a corre-
sponding number of regular healds to govern standard or regular
warp ends. Or, the scope of this type of leno harness may
be increased by employing more than one doup heald, each
to operate in conjunction with a distinct set of back standard
healds of any practicable number. It is doubtful, however, if

196 GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

more than two doup healds could be satisfactorily eraployed
with this arrangement of doup harness. Patterns developed
by this system are frequently so elaborate as to give the im-
pression that they have been produced by a Jacquard machine,
or of a quite impracticable number of doup healds.

Of course this system of leno weaving imposes certain limita-
tions in respect of the style or character of " douping " that are
not existent with the use of independent doup healds. For
example, all doup loarp ends must necessarily cross from the
normal or open side to the crossed side of their respective
standard warp ends simuUmieously, since they are all controlled
by the same doup heald ; but they may be raised either on the
normal or open side of standard threads, or left down (on certain
picks only) in practically any pre-determined manner. The
system also virtually demands the crossing of warp ends in
some definite and uniform manner at regular intervals of picks.
Indeed, in one variety of this class, in which single threads cross
each other to form a true gauze figure on a ground of the plain
weave, or vice versa, such conditions are inevitable ; but in
another variety, in which comparatively thick net doup threads
are introduced solely as a means of embellishment, the restric-
tions are not quite so confined.

Leno fabrics of the class under present notice are of three
distinct varieties, namely : (1) those in which a gauze figure is
surrounded by the plain or tabby weave (or vice versa), and in
which warp ends cross each other as single threads, with one
pick in each shed, as illustrated at C, Fig. 413 ; (2) those in
which either warp or weft is allowed to float freely (for the
development of brocade figuring), but which in all other respects
are like (1) ; and (3) those in which net leno figuring is de-
veloped by means of thick net doup threads upon a comparatively
light ground texture, preferably of the plain calico weave.

Although it is for many reasons (as subsequently explained in
§ 107) more expedient to weave net leno fabrics of the ordinary
type by means of a top-doup harness, that arrangement is per-
haps not so well suited as a bottom-doup harness to the produc-
tion of the class of leno fabrics under present consideration,
chiefly because the formation of a cross shed with a harness of

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 197

this type would require all healds (excepting the front standard
and doup healds) to be raised. Still, when that course would
not involve excessive straining and risk of breakage of mechanical
parts, nor absorb an abnormal degree of motive power, it would
be advisable (if other circumstances were favourable), to employ
a top-doup harness in preference to a bottom-doup harness. It
should be carefully observed, however, that the accompanying
drafts and shedding plans for this variety of leno fabrics are all
arranged for bottom-doup harnesses.

§ 96. The construction of the first-named variety of this class
of fabrics is illustrated in Fig. 413, where A and B respectively
show the method of drafting and shedding to produce cloth re-
presented at C, in accordance with the design given in Fig. 414.
This is a simple pattern, repeating on twelve warp ends and picks,
developed by alternating diagonal bands of the gauze and calico
weaves, and will serve to demonstrate the principles on which
they are designed and woven.

As indicated in the draft at A (Fig. 413) warp ends are drawn
through twelve healds with a straight-over draft. After passing
through those healds in regular succession, alternate warp ends,
that are passed over an easer, are taken as doup threads (repre-
sented by white lines), which, after crossing under7ieath from
left to right of the intermediate warp ends (which become stan-
dard threads, represented by black lines), are passed through
the loose slips of the doup or half-heald which hang underneath
warp ends, as previously described and illustrated in § 90.
Thus : healds Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 become back standards to
govern doup threads ; whilst healds Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12
are regular healds to govern standard warp ends.

§ 97. It is characteristic of this particular variety (1) of leno
fabrics that all doup threads, and those only, are invariably
raised by the front standard and doup healds for alternate (say
even-numbered) picks to form cross sheds ; but both doup and
standard threads may be raised for intermediate (or odd-numbered
picks) to form open sheds, according to the pattern required ;
care being taken not to raise, at the same time, fellow doup and
standard threads that cross each other, and pass through the
same dent of the reed. Thus, where it is required to form

198

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Draft (A).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Shedding Plan (B).
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

ug Bar or Slackener t

Regular Heald 12

k Standard

Regular
k Standard

ont Standard Heald
Doup Heald

Reed nH

k No. 12 Cross Shed

11 Open „

10 Cross „

9 Open , ,

8 Cross , ,

7 Open „

6 Cross ,,

5 Open ,,

4 Cross ,,

3 Open ,,

2 Cross ,,

1 Open , ,

12 3 4 5 6

7 10 9 12 11

Fig. 413. — Graphic Diagram to demonstrate the Production of Figured Gauze and Leno Fabrics, by
means of One Doup and One Front Standard Heald operating in conjunction with more than
One Back Standard Heald. The Shedding Plan indicated at B, with the Draft A, would pro-
duce the Pattern represented in the Plan of Cloth, C, in accordance with Design Fig. 414.

GAUZE AND LENO FABKICS. 199

gauze, doup threads are raised by their respective back stan-
dards ; whilst in the calico portion standard threads are raised
by their respective healds for odd-niombered picks only. The
operation of healds in this manner gives rise to a peculiar pheno-
menon in cloth which is, at first, very puzzling to those who are
more or less intimately acquainted with leno fabrics constructed
in the usual manner. An examination of the plan of cloth will
show that doup threads appear to form an open shed when
raised on the I'ight of their respective standard threads, whereas
they are actually forming a cross shed, and vice versa. This
apparent anomaly arises in consequence of employing only one
doup heald lohich miost rise for alternate picks to develop the
plain weave in observance of the principles governing the con-
struction of these fabrics. It should also be observed (a) that
the easer must slacken doup threads whenever both front stan-
dard and doup healds are raised together to form a cross shed
— that is, on alternate picks ; and {h) that the doup heald must
lift luithout the front standard on intermediate picks. The
reason for raising the doup heald without the front standard,
when an open shed is formed, is to liberate all doup threads, and
permit of the required doup threads being raised on the normal
side of their respective standard threads by means of their back
standard healds. It will now be evident why a bottom doup
harness is preferable to a top-doup harness for weaving these
fabrics. If the latter were employed to weave design, Fig. 414,
the shedding plan B (Fig. 413), would have to be entirely re-
versed in all parts excepting the easer, and such a course would
necessitate much greater power for shedding.

The chief considerations affecting the construction of these
fabrics are clearly indicated in the plan of cloth at C, which
should be carefully studied in conjunction with the design (Fig.
414), draft at A, and shedding plan at B. This may best be
accomplished by comparing each pick in the design with the
corresponding picks in the shedding plan ; and by tracing the
lines (representing picks) from the shedding plan to the corre-
sponding picks in cloth, and thereby trace the cause to the
effect. The preparation of designs for these fabrics will be
greatly facilitated by using design or point paper on which the

200

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

narrow divisions, in one direction, are ruled off in pairs, with
lines of medium thickness, as seen in Fig. 414. The two narrow
divisions between two medium lines correspond to a doup warp
end and its fellow standard warp end that cross with each other
and pass through the same dent of the reed. Such a course
will reduce the risk of a designer inadvertently raising two
fellow warp ends at the same time, which would not be in strict

II.

Cross Shed
Open ,.

10.

Cross

Open

C/3

Cross „

Open

Cross .,

Open

A-

Cross „

Open

Cross .,

Open ,.

i ! j

Q -a Q -o

Fig. 414.— Design for Pattern represented in Graphic Plan of Cloth, C,
Fig. 413.

accordance with the principles governing this particular variety
(1) of the class of fabrics under present consideration.

§ 98. In §§ 95 and 96 it was described how the simple gauze
and plain calico weaves could be combined to develop simple
figured effects by means of only one doup heald and a front
standard heald, operating in conjunction with several back stan-
dard and regular healds, to produce the first-named variety (1)
of this class of leno fabrics, as illustrated in Fig, 413. The
second variety (2) of this class are characterised by tuaiy-float

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS. 201

figures on the obverse side, and weft-float figures on the re-
Terse side of cloth (when in the loom), either in combination
with the simple gauze weave only, or with both that and the
plain calico weave. It should be noted, however, that in ob-
servance of the principles governing the construction of these
fabrics, doup warp ends may only be allowed to float on that
side of their fellow standard warp ends to which they have
been crossed in the shedding harness, and not on the normal or
open side of those threads. The reason for this will be under-
stood when it is remembered that all doup warp ends must
necessarily be raised on their crossed side of standard warp ends
by means of the front standard and doup healds, for alternate
picks of weft, as required for the development of the gauze and
plain weaves ; but where warp figure is required, standard warp
ends also may be raised in those parts for the same picks. For
the intermediate picks, therefore, doup warp ends must be raised
in the float or brocade figure and gauze portions only, by means
of their respective back standard healds ; but they must be left
down in the plam weave ; also, standard warp ends must be
raised in the brocade figure and plain weave portions only, but
left doiun in the gauze portion, for the same picks. When those
picks are inserted, the doup heald is raised, in order to liberate
all doup warp ends, and permit such as are required up to be
raised by their respective back standard healds. It should be
explained, that, although doup warp ends may be raised (for the
intermediate picks) on the normal side of standard warp ends,
by means of their back standard healds, in order to develop
brocade figuring, they will not remain on that side in the cloth,
but will be pulled to the crossed side (when raised for the
alternate picks) by means of the front standard and doup healds,
and permanently remain there, as described in § 97. Doup
threads are enabled to return to their crossed side in the brocade
figure portions, in consequence of both standard and doup warp
ends being raised together in those portions, and not intersect-
ing with weft. When preparing designs for this variety of leno
fabrics, it is advisable, in order to obtain the best results, to
always separate warp figure from gauze by a margin of the
plain or cahco weave, as illustrated in the design. Fig. 415, in

202

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

which shaded squares represent the gauze weave. The shedding
plan for that design, given in Fig. 416, is adapted for a bottom -
doup harness similar to that represented in diagram Fig. 413,
but consisting of eight back standard and eight regular healds.
with a front standard and a doup heald, and an easing bar. By
studying Figs. 415 and 416 in conjunction with that diagram,
the foregoing description will be more easily comprehended. It
should be observed that these two varieties of leno fabrics impose
certain restrictions with regard tp the method of drafting warp
ends through the healds, namely : Doup and standard threads
must be arranged in the harness alternately with each other,,

Cross Shed

1,5

Open

Cross „

Open

12
II

Cross „
Open „

Cross „

Open

Cross „

Open

Cross „

Open „

Cross „

Open „

Cross ,,
Open „

12345678 9 10 II 12 131415 16

Fig. 415.— Design for Figured Gauze Fabric, for which the Shedding Plan
is given in Fig. 41(5.

and with doup threads crossing their fellow standard threads
uniformly in the same direction, when passing from their respec-
tive eyes in the back standard healds to their appointed doup
slips in the doup heald. These conditions are necessary in order
to effect the combination of true gauze with the plain or tabby
weave, which characterises these fabrics. Also, their constmc-
tion does not permit of the employment of " pointed ' or
" centred " drafts that are obtained by simply reversing in the
usual manner. This arises in consequence of w^arp ends being
in pairs, each of which consists of a doup and a standard thread
that are complementary to each other and operate in conjunction

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS.

203

in the gauze and calico portions of the fabric, and not as in-
dependent threads.

§ 99. By far the most useful and interesting variety of this
type of figured leno fabrics is that constituting the variety (3),
in which ** net leno " figuring is developed upon a comparatively
light muslin texture, as exemplified in the accompanying repro-
ductions of cloth (Figs. 417, 419, 421 and 422). This variety
(3) of leno fabrics is of a distinctly different character from any

x6. Cross Shed

15. Open

14. Cross „

13. Open „

12. Cross

II. Open

10. Cross

9. Open

8. Cross „

7. Open „

6. Cross „

5- Open .,

4. Cross „

3. Open

2 Cross „

I. Open

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Fig. 416.— Shedding Plan for Design given in Fig. 415.

that have been previously described, and affords much greater
scope to a designer in the production of decorative effects. Also,
it imposes fewer restrictions in the construction of designs than
are imposed by the varieties of one-doup leno fabrics (1 and 2).
This arises from the employment of comparatively thick " net "
doup warp ends for figuring purposes only. These work quite
independently from the fine ground warp ends, and play no part
whatever in the construction of the foundation texture. They

204

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

may, therefore, be employed in greater or lesser numbers in
relation to ground warp ends, and may be disposed either in
groups to produce stripes (as in Fig. 417), or at regular intervals
and short distances apart, for the development of all-over
patterns. All doup warp ends are controlled by one doup heald
and a front standard heald (for the formation of cross sheds)
and such number of back standard healds (to form open sheds)
as corresponds with the different orders of interweaving doup

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Fig. 417. — Net Leiio Fabric woven by means of One Doupund One Front Standard
Heald, and Four Back Standard Healds, for which the Design, Draft and
Shedding Plan are given in Fig. 418.

threads with the ground texture. It is imperative, therefore, that
doup warp ends must " doup," i.e., be raised on their crossed side
to form cross sheds, simultaneously, although they may be either
raised or left down by their respective back standards, for the
open sheds ; hence only one easing bar is required to slacken
all doup warp ends simultaneously during the formation of cross
sheds. Provided designs are constructed to ensure a uniform
rate of contraction by all doup threads, the latter may be con-
tained on one warp beam ; but if their rate of contraction varies,

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 205

they will require to be wound upon separate beams, according
to the different rates of contraction. Ground warp ends are
governed by healds placed in the rear of back standard healds,
and are contained upon a separate warp beam.

Doup threads may be crossed under their respective standard
or ground warp ends (in the shedding harness) in almost any
desired manner, either in the same direction, uniformly, or in
reverse directions, as required. In the example of cloth repre-
sented in Fig. 417, white mercerised doup threads of tw^ofold
yarn are arranged in groups to form stripes. Each group con-
sists of seven pairs of threads, all of which cross their standard
warp ends in the same direction in the harness, with each pair
of doup threads crossing three pairs of black ground warp ends
that are intersected with black weft to produce a light muslin
foundation texture. The leno stripes are separated by a white
stripe composed of four pairs of white mercerised threads of
the same material as doup threads.

The method of designing and drafting for this variety of leno
fabrics is demonstrated in Fig. 418, which shows the design,
draft and shedding plan at A, B and C respectively, for the
production of the example of cloth represented in Fig. 417. The
pattern repeats on sixty-three warp ends (counting each pair of
white mercerised threads as one) and sixty picks of weft. Warp
ends would require to be wound upon three warp beams,
namely, one for ground threads, one for doup threads, and one
for the white threads to form the narrow stripes. The shedding
harness comprises a doup and a front standard heald, four back
standard healds, two healds to govern ground warp ends, two
healds to govern black warp ends to weave plain cloth in the
narrow stripes, and one heald to control the threads forming the
narrow white stripes.

§ 100. It is important at this particular stage to remind
readers that if net leno fabrics are produced by means of a
hottom-doup harness, they will be woven face downward. This
warning is necessary to prevent confusion by the apparent in-
consistency between the cloths, as here represented, and their
respective designs, which latter, being prepared for bottom -doup
harnesses, represent the reverse side of cloth. The dotted lines

^06

GBAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

on the design (Fig. 418) are not essential to its construction,
but are merely introduced to indicate doup warp ends as they
will appear on the face side of cloth, so that their working may
be easily followed. On examining that design and shedding
plan, it will be seen that a cross shed is formed for two con-

Design (A).

Shedding
Plan ^C).

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Draft (B).

Fig. 418.— Design, Draft and Shedding Plan for Net Leno Fabric represented
by Fig. 417.

secutive picks out of every six, by raising the front standard
and doup healds, and slackening the easer ; whilst the ground
healds operate as indicated. The two consecutive picks midway
between those in the cross sheds are inserted in ojjen sheds, for
which doup warp ends may be either raised or left down by

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

207

their respective back standard healds, as required. When,
however, the single picks of weft, that intervene between those
in the cross and open sheds, are inserted, all doup ivarp ends
must remain down. The peculiarity of these fabrics (that was
referred to in §§ 97 and 98) of doup threads appearing to be on
the normal side of standard warp ends, when they are actually
on the crossed side of those threads, and vice versa, is also observ-
able in this variety of leno fabrics.

§ 101. Figs. 419 and 422 are reproductions of other examples
of figured "net leno " fabrics in which the figuring is developed
by means of only one doup and one front standard heald,

Fig. 419. — Net Leno Fabric, woven by means of One Doup and One Front
Standard Heald, and Five Back Standard Healds, for which the
Design, Draft and Shedding Plan are given in Fig. 420.

operating in conjunction with several back standard healds, and
two or more healds to govern ground warp ends to produce the
foundation texture. In these examples doup warp ends are
arranged in pairs disposed at regular intervals apart, for the
production of all-over designs. The threads of each pair cross
their respective standard ground warp ends in reverse directions,
so as to develop a neat diamond formation, excepting where
doup threads lie straight and parallel on their crossed side of
standard warp ends. The present examples will serve to in-
dicate the general character of designs suitable for these fabrics,
and also the fair scope they offer to a designer in the creation of

208 GRAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

effective patteras. The example of cloth represented in Fig. 4cl9
has a foundation texture of the plain weave, consisting of fine
ground warp ends (taped in pairs) picked with fine weft. Doup
warp ends, of two-fold yarn, each cross three pairs of standard
threads, and are governed by five back standard healds, in
addition to a front standard and a doup heald. It has required
a different drafting of doup threads through the back standards,
but not of ground warp ends, which are governed by two healds
that rise and fall alternately for consecutive picks throughout.

The design, draft and shedding plan (arranged for a bottom-
doup harness) required to weave the example of cloth (Fig. 419)
are given at A, B and C respectively (Fig. 420). The pattern
repeats on eighty-four pairs of ground warp ends (represented
in the design and draft as single threads) and twenty-eight doup
warp ends and sixty -four picks of weft. Doup warp ends are
drawn through the back standards so as to form a reversed
pointed draft. The method of drafting doup warp ends for
these examples of cloth marks a distinctive and important
feature of interest in their construction. As will be seen, on
consulting the draft (B, Fig. 420), doup warp ends are disposed
in pairs, with the two threads constituting a pair crossing from
their normal to their crossed side in reverse directions simul-
taneously, and drawn through heald eyes in the same back
standard. For example, the central pair of doup threads are
drawn through the fifth back standard heald, and constitute one
extreme point of the draft ; whilst the first and last doup threads
in the pattern, which cross in reverse directions, both pass
through the second back standard, and constitute a pair forming
another point in the draft.

This arrangement of the draft causes the threads of each pair
to converge and lie side by side, quite straight and parallel with
each other, luhen on their crossed side, but to diverge when
raised by their back standard healds. Thus, by forming cross
and open sheds at regular intervals (of picks) apart, the neat net
leno diamond formation, characteristic of the present examples, is
produced. On examining the design and shedding plan, it will
be observed that an open shed is formed for two contiguous
picks (the third and fourth) out of every eight picks, and a cross

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

209

igagasag^^^mg

210

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

shed for the intermediate pairs of picks (the seventh and eighth),
whilst the ground healds rise alternately for consecutive picks
throughout, to produce the foundation texture. Owing to the
different rates of contraction of doup warp ends, with this
design, those threads will require to be contained upon three
separate warp beams, in addition to one containing ground
warp ends.

"fill
- 1 i^pj f

Fig. 421. — Net Leuo Fabric, Avoveu by means of One Doup aud One Front
Standard Heald, and Eight Back Standard Healds.

§ 102. The cloth represented in Fig. 421 shows a slight varia-
tion from the previous examples in having doup w^arp ends
more widely dispersed upon a muslin ground texture of plain
cloth. In this example, each set of doup warp ends consists of
two pairs of threads of two-fold yarn, crossing their respective
standard w^arp ends in reverse directions. Tlie ground warp
ends, which serve as standard threads for each doup warp end,

GAUZE AND LENO FABKICS.

•211

consist of four threads taped in pairs, whilst the intervening
stripes of plain cloth consist of eleven single warp ends. This
example has required eight back standard healds to produce the
pattern which it contains, with consecutive pairs of doup
threads drawn through them in regular succession to form a
straight-through draft. The leno effect is developed by forming
two cross sheds in succession, for single picks, at intervals of six
picks, and by forming an open shed, where required, also for

Fig. 422. — Net Leuo Fabric, woven by nieaus of Two Doup and Two
Front Standard Healds, with Two Back Standard Healds operating
in conjunction with each Doup Heald, and its Front Standard Heald.

single picks, midway between two cross sheds, but only at
intervals of twelve picks ; thus : 1 [cross shed), 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
(cross shed), 8, 9, 10 (open shed), 11, 12, and so on. It is im-
perative, in order to create harmonious leno effects in fabrics of
this variety, that cross and open sheds should be formed in a
rhythmical order, and not at irregular intervals of picks apart.
It may also be observed that if doup warp ends cross their
standard threads in the same direction uniformly (as in Fig. 418),
it is advisable to draw them consecutively through successive

212 GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

back standard healds ; but if they cross in reverse directions (as
in Fig. 420), they should be drawn through the back standards
in pairs, as indicated in the draft (B).

§ 103. It was stated in § 95 that more than one doup heald,
each to operate in conjunction with several back standard healds,
may be employed to increase the scope of the type of leno har-
ness under present notice. The example of cloth represented by
Fig. 422 has required two doup healds, each operating with two
back standards. In this example doup threads lie straight when
on the normal side of their standard threads, as in ordinary leno
fabrics. This specimen was submitted for analysis at the City
and Guilds Second Year's Examination (1905) in Cotton Weaving.

Leno Specialities.

§ 104. In the production of gauze and leno fabrics by the
methods previously described in this chapter, it is impossible to
effect a crossing of any two or more warp ends with each other,
unless the crossing threads are severally contained in the same
dent of the reed : hence, a crossing may not be made with
warp ends that are separated by a reed wire. This restriction,
however, may be avoided by the use of specially adapted leno
weaving devices, whereby the crossing of warp ends is accom-
pHshed by means of doup healds situated between a disappearing
beating-up half-reed, or comb, and an ordinary deep stationary
reed, situated between the doup healds and regular healds, as
clearly represented in Fig. 430. Such arrangement of healds
and reeds enables warp ends to be crossed either separately, or
in groups, in almost any conceivable manner, irrespective of the
order in which they pass through the dents of the stationary
reed, during weaving. Thus, it is possible to effect a crossing
of threads, en masse, that extend over several dents, without
those threads crossing or douping loith the intermediate warp
ends which they simply pass over. The doup harness may be
either a top or bottom-doup harness, or it may be a combina-
tion of both these arrangements. Also, warp ends may be
passed through and governed by two separate and distinct doup
slips of the same or different lengths, to effect a crossing to the

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

213

right or left over a smaller or a greater number of threads, as
reqmred. This system of leno weaving affords almost illimit-
able opportunities to a capable designer in the creation of
decorative effects of a very ingenious and pleasing character,
as exemplified in Figs. 423 to 429, which are full-size photo-
graphic reproductions from actual pieces of cloth representing
a few typical examples of this particular variety of leno fabrics.
§ 105. The construction of these fabrics will be better un-

FiG. 423.

Fig. 424.

Special Leno Effects produced by a system of crossing Warp Ends in front
of the Reed.

derstood if the reader is informed of the mechanical devices
employed in their manufacture, of which there are several
modifications that differ chiefly in details of construction and
operation. With the object of conveying that information to
students, a diagram representing a part sectional elevation of a
loom equipped with Whitehead and Wood's modification of a
special leno weaving device is given in Fig. 430. With a view
to better demonstrating the operation of this device, the sley
and its appurtenances are represented at both the backward

214

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN .

and forward extremities of their movement by full lines and
dotted lines respectively. As indicated in the diagram, instead
of fixing a reed in its usual place in the sley, a reed 0, of un-
usual depth, is placed between the regular healds N, and the
doup healds P, and permanently fixed to brackets secured to
the loom framing. The function of the stationary reed is simply
to effect an even distribution of warp ends over the required

Fig. 425.

mi^b €i%M\t S^'^ ^m^M-L

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Fig. 426.

Special Leno Effects produced by a system of crossing Warp Ends in front
of the Reed.

width of cloth, and to retain them at that width. Fixed at each
end, and in the rear of the sley, are two iron brackets, each
formed with three vertical slots to freely receive the ends of
three staves extending from end to end of the sley. The fore-
most slot in each bracket contains a coarsely-pitched half-reed
or pin-stave G, situated immediately behind the shuttle race-
board, in place of the usual reed, for the purpose of guiding a

GAUZE AND LENO FABKICS.

215

Fig.

427.

Fig.

428.

Fig.

4211

Special Leno Elfects produced by a system of crossing Warp Ends in front of the Reed.

216 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

shuttle iu its transit through the warp sheds. To the rear of
the pin-stave is a half-reed or comb F, for the purpose of
beating up the picks of weft ; whilst above the half-reed is an
iron locking bar J, to securely lock the half-reed, and make it
rigid whilst beating up. All these parts alternately rise and fall
in unison with the movement of the sley, and in the following
manner, namely: As the sley advances, the half-reed rises to beat
up weft, and the locking bar falls, thereby passing immediately
behind the upper ends of the reed wires, to give them firmness
whilst beating up. As the sley recedes, the half-reed falls, and
the locking bar rises, so that both move clear of warp ends
during the formation of a shed, and warp ends are thereby free
to be crossed as required between the stationary reed and the
" fell " of cloth. The base of the half-reed is connected by rods
E, to the ends of levers C, and its upward and downward motion
is effected by means of two cams B, fixed one near each end
of the crank shaft A, of the loom. The cams act upon the
levers C, which are each fulcrumed upon studs D fixed in the
ends of arms that project from the sley swords, and, therefore,
oscillate with the sley. The motion of the pin-stave G is con-
trary to that of the half-reed F. Thus, as the sley recedes, the
pin-stave rises, to act as a guide for the shuttle as it passes
through the warp sheds, but falls clear of the warp ends, cloth,
and loom temples, as the sley advances to beat up weft. The
contrary action of the pin-stave and half-reed enables the first
to be actuated by the second, by attaching them to opposite
ends of cords H, w^hich pass over pulleys I. The upward and
downward motion of the locking bar J is obtained by means of
cords K, which pass over pulleys L, and have each one end
attached to fixed points M, on the loom framing. Thus, as the
sley advances, the cords diminish in length between the pulleys
L and the fixed ends M, thereby allowing the bar to fall by
gravitation ; but as the sley recedes, the cords increase in
length between the fixed points and pulleys, thereby raising-
the locking bar clear of warp ends. A similarity exists between
the sley of this type of loom and that of a lappet loom, as
represented in Fig. 448 (§ 123). Both are provided with pin-
staves for the guidance of a shuttle during picking ; but, instead

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

217

A:f.~tr«v^

>.y.

218

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

of a half-reed, a lappet loom is furnished with one or more
needle bars to control figuring or "whip" threads, and these
bars are moved laterally for figuring purposes, as well as verti-
cally, to insert figuring threads into the warp sheds.

Full-cross Leno Fabrics.

§ 106. In all the examples of leno fabrics herein described,
doup threads make only a partial or half turn around their
respective standard threads : that is, they pass from one side to

m¥

^■^'f»t

lis?

4 V }^

Fig. 431. — Full-cross Net Leno Fabric in which Doup Warp Ends are
twisted completely around Standard Warp Ends, at intervals of
four Picks to the Right and Left alternately.

the other side of those threads, and then return to the same
side, on different picks of weft, and do not completely twist
around them. Sometimes, however, leno fabrics are produced
in which doup threads are caused to completely encircle their
standard threads, and thereby produce a full crossing or twist
with them, as exemplified in an actual specimen of cloth illus-
trated by Fig. 431, in which pairs of black doup threads cross
or twist with pairs of whits standard threads, to develop the
striped leno effect shown at A. This unusual system of cross-
ing is accomplished by causing the doup slips to completely

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS. 219

wrap around the standard threads, as they pass from the doup
threads to the heald stave on which they are contamed. Thus,
whenever a shed is formed, whether it be an open or a cross
shed, the doup threads are either up or down always on the
same side of their respective standard threads ; thereby causing
them to make a full crossing, as described.

Relative Merits of a Top and a Bottom Doup Harness.

§ 107. Throughout this chapter frequent reference has been
made to the alternative methods of placing doup slips above or
beloio warp ends, for the production of gauze and leno fabrics,
both of which systems are described in ^ 90. Since the choice
of position is quite arbitrary, it is not surprising that the
opinions of practical men, respecting the relative advantages of
both systems, should vary according to their prejudices and
varied experiences, and that some advocate one system and
some the other. From this circumstance, it is quite evident that
oach method possesses some advantage over the other, at least
for certain classes of fabrics ; otherwise, one of the two would
long since have been discarded in favour of the better system.
It will, therefore, be both interesting and profitable to briefly
oompare the relative merits of each system, and to state which it
may be more expedient to adopt, under different circumstances.

For the production of net leno and similar fabrics containing
thick net doup threads or cords, that are chiefly displayed on
one side of cloth, it is more expedient to employ a top-doup
harness. By that arrangement, such fabrics are woven face side
upward, thereby enabling a weaver to more readily detect im-
perfections in cloth during weaving. Another great advantage
to a weaver, of doups being placed above warp ends, is that they
are more accessible and therefore more easily repaired, or else
replaced by new ones, which frequently becomes necessary, jn
consequence of doup slips rapidly wearing out. In the event of
breakages, however, top-doup slips are liable to prove a source of
serious trouble to a weaver by hanging dov/n and becoming en-
tangled with warp ends, thereby involving the risk of breaking
them, and causing faults in cloth. Another disadvantage of

220

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

top doups is in respect of shedding. If a negative acting dobby
and a spring under motion are employed to operate a top-doup
harness, it is more difficult to obtain a good lower half of
the warp shed, in consequence of healds being depressed and
held down negatively, by means of springs. This arises in
consequence of the abnormal tension of doup warp ends during
the formation of both cross and open sheds, whereby they tend
to rise a little above the surface of the shuttle race-board, in-
stead of lying well down upon it, as a shuttle is transmitted

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liillilWIIIIIIIIIIIIIiiiiiiiiaii

Fig. 432.— Check Gauze Fabric.

through the warp shed. If bottom doups are employed, cross-
sheds are formed by raising front standard and doup healds
positively by the dobby, whereby better and clearer warp sheds
are formed. In consequence, however, of the cloth being woven
face downward by them, as previously described in § 100, they
are not generally used for net leno and similar fabrics, but are
chiefly confined to the production of those fabrics not containing-
thick net doup threads, and of which both sides are exactly
similar, such as that illustrated in Fig. 432. Also, the renewal

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 221

of bottom-doup slips is much more difficult than the renewal of
top doups ; but if bottom doups break, they fall away from warp
■ends, and do not, therefore, become entangled with them.

Relative Merits of Different Types of Dobbies for
Gauze and Leno Fabrics.

§ 108. In the production of gauze or leno fabrics it is desir-
able to effect a crossing of warp ends with the least possible
straining or chafing of those threads. This desideratum is the
principal stumbling-block to the successful adoption of dobbies
that are unprovided with auxiliary attachments which specially
adapt them for leno weaving. To avoid excessive straining and
chafing of warp ends, whilst in the act of crossing each other,
one of two conditions must exist, namely, either the crossing
threads must be quite level at the commenGement of crossing,
that is, when rising and falling warp ends meet in the centre of
the warp shed ; or else doup threads must pass either from the
upper or else the lower part of the warp shed, when the crossing
takes place, according to whether a toj) or a hottom-diOVi^ har-
ness, respectively, is employed. It will now be manifest, there-
fore, that either a '' closed-shed " dobby, or one that will produce
the conditions just described, is better adapted than an " open-
shed " dobby for leno weaving. By reason, however, of open-
shed double-acting dobbies enabhng a loom to be worked at a
greater speed than is possible with " closed-shed " dobbies
(which are necessarily single-acting) it is a common practice to
employ an open-shed dobby for leno weaving. In such cases it
is expedient to equip either the dobby or else the loom with a
suitable auxiliary attachment known as a '* shaking " device, to
•enable the crossing of warp ends to take place as freely as
possible.

Shaking Devices.

§ 109. The function of a shaking device is to facilitate the
crossing of warp ends when forming both cross and open sheds ;
but since it is, under certain conditions, unnecessary to employ
a shaking motion for the reproduction of some leno designs, it

222 GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

will be useful to indicate when shaking is, and when it is not^
necessary. If either an open-shed dobby (like the " Keighley "
type) or a semi-open shed dobby (like the "Burnley" type) is
employed for leno weaving, with either a top or a bottom-doup
harness, it will be expedient to employ a shaking motion for
designs that require a cross shed to immediately succeed an open
shed, and vice versa ; but such a motion is not required for
designs in which one or more than one pick intervenes between
cross and open sheds as exemplihed in the net leno stripes A,
Fig. 405 ; B, Fig. 407 ; and B, C, Fig. i09 ; because for those
picks, doup threads would be raised by a top-doup harness, and
dejyressed by a bottom-doup harness, and would therefore pass
either from the upper or lower part of the warp shed, respec-
tively, as described in § 108. The reason for this will be mani-
fest after a little reflection upon the circumstances. With a
top-doup harness, cross sheds are formed by depressing doup
threads on the crossed side of their respective standard threads,
which are raised ; and open sheds by depressing doup threads
on their normal side. Therefore, either standard threads should
be lowered, or doup threads raised, at least half-way, to prevent
excessive chafing of crossing threads during the formation of
cross and open sheds. This operation is described as '' shaking ".
With a bottom - doup harness the conditions of shaking are
exactly contrary to those which obtain with a top-doup harness.
§ 110. " Shaking " is effected in a variety of ways, either by
auxiliary attachments fixed either to the loom, or else to the
dobby ; and, as just indicated, it may be accomplished with a
top-doup harness either by raising doup healds, or else by de-
pressing the healds governing standard or regular warp ends
half - way ; and with a bottom - doup harness in a contrary
manner, by depressing doup healds, or else raising standard
threads half-way — the choice being frequently arbitrary One
very simple and common method of shaking depressed healds,
without employing a special leno dobby, is to connect the
required heald stave or staves to one of the arms (which con-
nect the sley with the loom cranks) by means of a suitable
arrangement of levers and connecting rods, as graphically repre-
sented by Fig. 433, in which A represents the loom cranks ; B,

GADZE AND LEJJO FABRICS. 223

the connectincr arms • anri p o

arm D mounted uZa T. ''°'^"«<=*'°g rod to oscillate an

tealds, and upon «,T:r "°""'"- ^' P'-^^^ ^l^o- '^e

arms F, to whicht ^^i" —' '''"■"°°° ^"^^-"'

M'-iiiea nealds are connected. The

'"^^^-^^T^:.«^^^^^»r' device too.

,^P:"^^'^^';, Babbles employeTfor^Len^w"*'-"^ conjunction with
crossing of Warp Ends. "^ ^eno Weaving, to facilitate the

224 GRAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

which are being shaked, are raised to the centre of the warp
shed by the time the loom cranks arrive at the top centre of
their circuit. This is one-eighth of a revolution sooner than
the time usually selected for rising and faUing healds to meet in
the centre of the warp shed, when doup and standard warp
ends commence to cross each other. This is indicated in the
diagram by representing rising and falling dobby jacks G, a
short distance from the centre of their complete movement.
Still it has the advantage of being simple, and is found to give
satisfaction under some conditions.

§ 111. Another method of shaking depressed healds from the
loom is graphically represented by Pig. 434. By this method,
in addition to being connected to separats dobby jacks G, the
healds required to be shaked are also attached to half-moon
quadrant arms F, that are secured to a cross-bar E, placed
above the healds. This is caused to oscillate by connecting it,
by means of an arm D, and connecting rod G, to a lever H,
raounted upon a stud I, and fixed outside the loom framing.
Lever H is furnished with a bowl or runner J, and is alter-
nately depressed and raised by the combined actions of a double-
acting tappet K (fixed upon the picking shaft L), and a spring
M, respectively, which may be attached to any convenient part
of the loom framing. With this shaking device, shaking may
be timed to take place at exactly the right moment, by adjust-
ing tappet K to operate the required healds so that their
movement exactly synchronises with the movement of healds
controlled by the dobby. This is indicated in the diagram by
representing the dobby lifting-crank N in a horizontal position,
when rising and faUing healds meet midway (as indicated by
the three positions of dobby jacks G). At the same time the
front standard and doup healds have been raised to the centre
of the shed, when the crossing of doap and standard warp ends
commences. Also the loom cranks are half-way between the
top and front centres, and therefore one-eighth of a pick (forty-
five degrees) in advance of those represented in Fig. 433.

§ 112. When adapted to open-shed dobbies of the "Keighley"
type, shaking devices may only shake raised healds by first
lowering and then raising them. Some dobby makers furnish

GAUZE AND LENO FABEICS.
Dobby Jacks ~

225

Fig. 434. — A second type of "Shaking" Device to operate in conjunction with. Open
Shed Dobbies employed for Leno Weaving, to facilitate the crossing of Warp Ends.

226 GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

their dobbies with a shaking device of some kind, and style
them **leno" dobbies; but one of the most efficient and inex-
pensive methods of shaking with an open-shed double-acting
dobby is to connect tiuo contiguous jacks of the dobby to each
heald that requires shaking, and operate them from the pattern
lags as required. By this means a heald may be lowered by
one jack until it falls half-way, when it is caught and taken to
the top again by the ascending fellow-jack. By governing the
operation of shaking from the pattern lags, this arrangement is
superior to all other shaking devices, as it enables shaking to be
performed only when it is necessary, and at the exact moment
when it is most effective ; whereas other shaking devices operate
for every pick, whether shaking is required or not ; thereby vi-
brating healds and warp ends unnecessarily and detrimentally,
as explained in the following section.

When adapted to a semi-open shed dobby, like the "Burnley"
dobby, shaking must be effected with depressed healds. This
type of dobby is better adapted than an open-shed dobby for leno
weaving, because it allows all healds to fall half-way after each
pick ; therefore, by raising half-way those healds that require
shaking, standard and doup threads actually meet in the centre
of the shed, thereby achieving the same result (in respect of
crossing threads only) as that obtained by means of a closed-
shed dobby.

§ 113. Before dismissing the subject of shaking, it will be of
practical interest to indicate the circumstances under which it is
quite inadvisable to employ any kind of shaking device to shake
the front standard and doup healds (of a top-doup harness)
after every pick ; and also when it is more expedient to employ
either a closed- shed dobby or else a shaking motion that may
be made to operate only when required. For example, if a net
leno design requires doup threads to remain down for several
picks in succession, when on the open or normal side of their
respective standard warp ends, the doup slips and their warp
ends would rise half-way in the warp shed and return to the
bottom again for every pick of weft ; albeit those threads would
be held down by the back standard heald. This would involve
excessive straining and breakage of doup threads and rapid

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS. 227

wearing out of doup slips. For these reasons, therefore, it
would be better to employ either a closed-shed dobby, or else a
shaking motion that could be controlled from the pattern lags in
the manner described in § 112, whereby shaking may be effected
by depressing standard warp ends only when it is absolutely
necessary.

Practical Details of Leno Weaving.

§ 114. The position of back standard healds, which govern
doup threads, in relation to those governing standard or regular
warp ends, is arbitrary. Some advocate placing them to the
rear of regular healds, as indicated in Figs. 402, 403 and 404 ;
and others prefer to place them in front of regular healds, as
represented in Fig. 406, and subsequent charts of drafts for leno
designs. The advantage is probably in favour of the latter
course ; for, whilst it reduces the distance between the " fell " of
cloth and the back standard heald eyes (and thereby imparts a
little greater tension upon doup threads during the formation of
" open " sheds) it averts the chafing of doup threads against the
leashes of the regular healds, around which they would bend,
when forming " cross " sheds.

§ 115. In consequence of the additional tension imparted to
doup threads during the formation of cross sheds, and the con-
sequent rapid wear of doup slips and healds, it is expedient, for
reasons of economy, to make designs that will require as few
" cross " sheds as possible, consistent with the effect it is desired
to produce in cloth. Also, when one or more than one doup
thread crosses two or more standard warp ends, it will be better
"to raise (with a top-doup harness) all, in preference to a part, of
those threads, when forming cross sheds ; and thereby equally
distribute the strain of shedding upon them.

§ 116. In the production of some net leno fabrics in which
the doup threads are abnormally thick, or which have to cross
with a large number of standard warp ends, it is advisable in
such cases to remove one or more than one reed wire, if neces-
sary, to prevent excessive chafing of warp ends by being too
confined and by bearing hard against the reed wires, as described
in § 94. What is known as a " flexible " reed is well adapted

228 GEAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

for net leno fabrics. Such a reed is formed by wrapping the
reed ribs on one side with pitched banding, in the usual manner ;
and those on the other side with dry or unpitched banding. By
this means considerable flexibility is obtained in the reed, which
permits of the easy passage of knots or other obstructions, with
less risk of breaking warp ends. The dry banding allows a
limited amount of vertical movement by the reed wires, which
enables them to readily recover their original position after
being bent out of a straight line. Also a deeper reed than those
usually employed should be used for leno fabrics, to allow warp
ends more freedom, and also to enable it to be more easily dis-
placed, in the event of a shuttle failing to pass safely through
the shed.

Tempered Steel-wire Doup Harnesses for
Cross-weaving.

§ 117. The loops or slips, termed " doups," employed in con-
junction with either heald or Jacquard harnesses for the purpose
of effecting the crossing or douping of warp ends that charac-
terises gauze and leno fabrics produced by cross-weaving, are
usually made from worsted twine, which is more durable than
cotton twine, and more supple and elastic than linen twine.
Albeit, the rapidity with which worsted doup slips wear out and
break during weaving constitutes one of the chief difficulties
experienced in the manufacture of fabrics constructed by their
aid. The rapid wear of doup slips arises from the excessive
abrasive friction to which they are subjected, during weaving,
within their respective front '* standard " heald or mail eyes.
Their breakage not only incurs the risk of causing imperfections in
cloth by becoming entangled with and breaking warp ends, but
the difficulty usually experienced of repairing defective doups, or
replacing them with new ones, imposes a severe tax upon the
duties of a weaver; and by involving loss of time, curtails
production.

With the object of averting the disadvantages of worsted doup
slips, and securing greater efficiency and durability than they
afford, H. Kiihn & Co., Chemnitz, have substituted tempered
steel wire, in lieu of twine, in the construction of doup harnesses

GAUZE AND LENO FABKICS. 229

of various forms adapted to the special requirements of fabrics
of different texture, and applicable to either heald or Jacquard
harnesses for gauze or leno weaving. After being bent and
shaped into the desired forms, the v^ires composing the respec-
tive units of a harness are neatly soldered where it is necessary
to either fill up small interstices, or to effect a union between
two hitherto separate portions, to increase their stability. The
wires are subsequently tinned to prevent them from rusting, and
also to give them a highly smooth finish, to reduce frictional
resistance between them and warp ends to a minimum.

The simplest form of steel-wire doups referred to, as repre-
sented by Fig. 435, differs very little in construction from doup
harnesses made from twine. In this example, the upper half
only of the front standard S is open, to contain one side of the
doup slip D, in which is formed an eye to receive a doup warp
end (as shown) by coiling the wire at the bend. A modified
form of steel-wire doups suitable for finer warp yarn is repre-
sented by Fig. 436. In this example the doup slip D is a simple
loop of the usual form, without an eye being formed at the bend.
In the present case, however, the doup slip is inserted in both
the upper half of the front standard S which is open, and also in
loops formed at the bend of the lower half of the front standard,
as indicated in the diagram. A third modification of wire doups
is represented by Fig. 437, showing, at A, the constituent parts in
their initial position which they occupy when the warp shed is
closed ; and, at B and C, the positions they occupy during the
formation of open and cross sheds respectively. The special
feature of this device consists of a doup slip D acting in con-
junction with two separate front standards S^ and S^, each of
which is formed with a long central loop or eye to contain the
respective sides of the doup slip, as shown in the diagrams.
The doup slip used in this modification, like that shown in Fig.
435, has an eye formed at the bend for the reception of a doup
warp end, and is situated between the two front standards. With
this device an open shed is formed by raising the doup slip along
with either of the two front standards ; whilst a cross shed is
formed by raising the doup and the otlier front standard, whereby
doup warp ends will be raised first on one side and then on the

230

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Fig. 435. Fig. 436.

Units of two Types of Steel Wire Donp Harnesses for Cross- weaving.

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

231

Fig. 437 B.

Formation of

Open Shed.

Fig. 437 C.

Formation of

Cross Shed.

Units of a third Type of Steel Wire Doup Harness for Cross-weaving.

232 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

opposite side of their respective standard or regular warp ends,
as indicated by Figs. 437 B and C. This arrangement therefore
dispenses with the usual back standard heald.

As previously stated, the steel-wire doup harnesses under
present notice are applicable to both heald and Jacquard har-
nesses. If they are to constitute a heald harness, their looped
extremities are slid upon wires stretched along and secured
to heald staves ; but if they are to constitute a Jacquard harness,
the wire units composing the harness are attached to mounting
threads and lingoes, after the manner of ordinary twine coup-
lings. It should be observed, however, that whatever form the
harness may assume, the use of tempered steel-wire doups im-
poses certain restrictions and limitations in either the choice of
shedding apparatus by which they are to be actuated, or else in
the character of the designs that may be produced by their use,
for reasons to be presently stated. The tempered steel wire,
of which the units of the harnesses are made, is comparatively
rigid, and lacks the suppleness and pliability of twine, which is
capable of readily yielding and bending, and of freely adapting
itself to the conditions imposed by shedding with a doup or leno
harness. For this reason, steel-wire doups may only be em-
ployed in conjunction with single-acting Jacquard machines,
single-acting dobbies, or other shedding appliances that bring all
standard and doup warp ends parallel after each pick is inserted,
to facilitate their crossing from their normal or open position to
a crossed position or vice versa : otherwise, if they are employed
in conjunction with open-shed machines, designs produced by
them will have to be restricted to such as may be developed
without the necessity of bringing doup and standard warp ends
parallel after each pick, unless that object is achieved by means
of a ''shaking" device. For the same reason, they may
not be employed in the form of a half heald to operate in con-
junction with either a leno brocade (Jacquard) harness, or a leno
heald harness in which several back standard healds operate in
conjunction with one doup and one front standard heald (as de-
scribed in §§ 95 to 103). In either of these two circumstances, it
frequently occurs that some doup slips are taut, whilst others
are buckled, according to the different relative positions occupied

GAUZE AND LEND FABRICS.

233

by standard and doup warp ends in different parts of the har-
ness. Hence, if wire doup harnesses (which are not so pHable
as twine) are employed in such cases, each unit of the harness
will require to be under separate control.

Mock or Imitation Leno Fabrics.

§ 118. The term, " mock " leno, describes a variety of weaves
of ordinary construction, in which the scheme of interweaving
warp and weft is designed to produce open-work effects which
simulate, in a very realistic manner, the genuine gauze and leno

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effects produced by the principle of cross weaving, as described
in the previous sections of this chapter. Mock leno or open-
work effects are sometimes produced alone, but more frequently
in combination with the plain, a twill, satin or other simple
weave, and sometimes with brocade figuring, to produce striped
fabrics which oftentimes bear a very close resemblance to true
leno fabrics. They are also frequently used as ground fillings in
brocade fabrics containing elaborately figured Jacquard designs,
in imitation of leno brocade fabrics produced by a special gauze
or leno harness.

234

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Fig. 438 is a photographic reproduction of an example of
cloth woven with mock leno and warp satin stripes arranged alter-
nately, and will serve to illustrate the realistic leno effects that
may be obtained without employing a leno harness. Mock
leno weaves are of very simple construction, and are chiefly
dependent upon the frequent counterchanging of a suitable
weave, to produce the desired effects. A few examples of these
weaves are given in Figs. 439 to 442. Fig. 439 is a simple
pattern counterchanging on three warp ends and picks, and
therefore repeats on six threads of warp and weft. The counter-
change after the third and sixth warp ends and picks, combined
with the particular method of interweaving them, produces dis-

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Fig. 440.

Mock Leno Designs.

tinct gaps or " frets " both lengthwise and crosswise of the fabric^
and thereby creates a decided gauze or leno effect in cloth. The
warp ends may be passed in pairs through each dent of the
reed ; but the leno effect will be emphasised by passing them in
groups of three through each dent, commencing with the first
three warp ends in the design.

Another good mock leno effect is produced by the " canvas "
weave represented in Fig. 440, so extensively employed in the
manufacture of the well-known canvas cloth, usually produced
in coarse textures from strong folded warp and weft, and chiefly
used for the purpose of cross-stitching and other fancy needle-
work. This design is really a further development of that given

GAUZE AND LENO FABRICS.

235

in Fig. 439, and is made to counterchange after every four
threads in both warp and weft, so that the pattern repeats on
eight threads each way. The small perforations characteristic
of this fabric, and through which the needle is inserted (w^hen
employed for fancy needlework), result entirely from the coun-
terchange of the threads. The occurrence of the perforations is
quite incidental to that weave, and therefore unavoidable. If
it is required to introduce the canvas weave as a mock leno
effect, in conjunction with another weave, to form stripes, a
superior effect will result by passing warp ends in groups of four
through each dent of the reed.

A third example of a mock leno effect, which is very exten-
sively employed, is that illustrated by Fig. 438. The design for

Fig. 441.

Fig. 442.

Mock Leno Designs.

that example (as given in Fig. 441) repeats on six warp ends
and six picks, and is counterchanged after the fifth and sixth
threads in both directions, thereby causing the sixth thread of
warp and weft to become quite isolated from adjacent threads,
and so develop a leno effect of a very pronounced character. By
drawing the first five warp ends in the first dent, and the sixth
warp end in the third dent, with the second and fourth dents
left empty, a very realistic simulation of a genuine gauze or leno
effect is developed in cloth. A modification of this weave is given
in Fig. 442. With this weave warp and weft would be displayed
in equal quantities on both sides of cloth. This circumstance is
favourable to the effective introduction of coloured threads (say,
the second, fourth, seventh and ninth warp ends and picks) to
produce pleasing decorative effects. The mock leno designs

236 GBAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

given in Figs. 441 and 442 bear a close resemblance to the
sponge design given in Fig. 237 (§ 43) and also to the huck-a-back
weave, Fig. 245 ( § 44) to which they are closely allied ; and if
warp ends were suitably drawn through the reed, those weaves
would also develop good mock leno effects. Many other varieties
of mock leno designs could be given, but the present examples
are sufficient to demonstrate their general character

CHAPTEE X.

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING ; ALSO ONDULE
EFFECTS AND LOOPED FABRICS.

§119. The terms " tissue," "lappet," "swivel," "ondule"
and "looped" fabrics are used to designate certain varieties of
woven fabrics, each of which is distinguished by certain charac-
teristics. Such fabrics do not, as a rule, embody any special
feature of constructive design, but merely consist of light and
simple textures which, during weaving, are embellished with a
scheme of figuring developed by one or other of the systems just
named. Such fabrics, therefore, owe their chief interest to the
special mechanical devices employed in their production ; but
as that phase of fabric structure is only incidental to the main
purpose of this treatise, it is proposed to chiefly describe the
salient features of those fabrics, with only such description of
the mechanical devices employed in their production as will
enable students to more readily and intelligently comprehend
how the figuring is developed upon them. The chief advantages
of figuring textiles by means of tissue, lappet and swivel weaving
are to produce decorative effects without materially increasing
either the bulk or weight of a fabric, and to produce such effects
with a minimum amount of material.

Tissue Figuring.

Tissue figuring is a system chiefly employed in the production
of light cotton mushn textures intended for use as window
curtains, of which an example is illustrated in Fig. 443. Fabrics
of this class are frequently embellished with elaborate Jacquard
designs of great beauty. These are developed by means of an
extra series of picks which interweaves, with a foundation tex-

(237)

238

GKAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

ture of either the plain cahco weave, or, as in " Madras muslin,"
upon a texture of gauze produced on the principle of cross-
weaving, whereby the extra figuring weft is firmly secured to
the principal texture. The figuring weft is both softer and
coarser than that employed for the body of the fabric, with the
object of imparting prominence to the figure. These two
series of picks may be inserted in the order of two ground and

Fig. 443.— Light Muslin Fabric with Pattern developed by means of Tissue

Figuring.

two figuring picks, alternately ; or one of each alternately ; or
one ground pick, and two figuring picks alternately. The two-
and-two system of picking is, however, more economical, as
it may be accomplished in a loom equipped with an ordinary
picking motion, and with two shuttle boxes at only one end of
the sley. If either of the other two systems of picking were
adopted, they would involve the use of a loom provided with a
special picking motion, to permit of picking two shuttles in

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING.

239

succession from each end of the sley, which latter would require
two shuttle boxes at each end.

The example of tissue weaving, illustrated in Fig. 443, has a
foundation texture of muslin of the plain or tabby weave, woven
with two ground and two figuring picks alternately. In fabrics
of this class, the extra figuring weft interweaves only with warp
ends where it is required to produce figure, and (when in the
loom) floats loosely above all warp ends in the ground portion of
the fabric, from which it is subsequently cut away as superfluous
material. By weaving these fabrics face downward the work

Fig. 444. — Portion of the Design for Tissiie-figured Fabric represented by-
Fig. 443.

of shedding is made considerably easier, as all warp ends in the
ground portion are left down en masse. A portion of the design
showing the method of interweaving figuring weft with the
foundation texture is given in Fig. 444, in which it will be seen
that the first two and subsequent alternate pairs of picks
(which are fine ground picks) interweave separately with warp
ends on the tabby (plain calico) principle throughout, and
thereby develop a perfect texture, irrespective of figuring weft ;
whereas, the third and fourth, and subsequent alternate pairs of
picks (which are coarse figuring picks), interweave with warp

240 GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

ends, only where they are required to be retained in the fabric
for figuring purposes, and float above intervening warp ends. In
the figure portion, figuring picks He together in pairs (although
inserted separately during weaving) between odd-numbered and
even-numbered warp ends by which they are firmly secured to
the principal texture.

On examining the design it will be observed that figuring
picks always lie between the same series of warp ends ; that is,
say, with odd - numbered threads above, and even - numbered
threads below them. This circumstance permits of a more
economical production of these fabrics, as alternate warp ends
only require to be governed by means of a Jacquard machine,
and intermediate warp ends by means of a heald. Thus a
Jacquard machine with 408 hooks would serve to produce a
design extending over any number of warp ends up to 816.
Also, since two figuring picks are inserted between the same
series of warp ends, only one pattern card would be required for
four picks of weft, provided the card cylinder and griffes were
controlled independently. For example, when the first ground
pick is inserted, the heald only is raised ; when the second
ground pick is inserted, the griffes of the Jacquard machine are
raised with the card cylinder out : and for the third and fourth
picks, which are figuring picks, the griffes ascend and take up
only such hooks as govern alternate warp ends in the figure
portion of the fabric, in accordance with the selection made by
the pattern card for those picks.

Not only does the foregoing system effect a considerable saving
in the cost of harness threads, pattern cards and card cutting,
but it also greatly facilitates the preparation of designs, as the
latter may be prepared en bloc, instead of with the actual work-
ing of each thread of warp and weft being indicated as in Fig.
444. Therefore, since only alternate warp ends are governed
by the Jacquard machine, and only one pattern card is necessary
for four picks, the counts of design paper required for a design
is in the ratio of loarp ends per inch, divided by two, to the total
picks per inch, divided by four. Thus, assuming there are to be
forty-eight warp ends and eighty-four picks per inch, in the
finished ifabric, the required counts of design paper (for a 400's

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING.

241

Jacquard machine with eight rows of hooks from front to back)
would be in the ratio of (48 ^ 2) - 24, to (84 -f 4) = 21, or
ruled with eight squares by seven squares in each bar.

Madras Muslin.

§ 120. Fig. 445 is a diagram showing the structure of that
variety of tissue-figured fabrics known as "Madras muslin," of

Fig. 445.— Graphic Diagram sliowing the structure of
Fabrics.

Madras" Muslin

which the foundation texture is of gauze or cross-weaving. The
diagram represents a fabric in which ground and figuring picks
are inserted alternately, thereby requiring for its production a
loom having a " pick-and-pick " picking motion, and with two
shuttle boxes at each end of the sley.

The peculiar partial crossing of warp ends in these fabrics is
obtained by the use of a special kind of reed known as a gauze

242

GRAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

reed, which is auxiUary to the ordinary beating-up reed carried
by the sley. A gauze reed, as illustrated in Fig. 446, is con-
structed with wide dents or divisions A, in each of which is
centrally fixed a short pointed reed wire B, secured to the
bottom rib C, and extending about half-way between the bottom
and top ribs. The shorter reed wires are each provided with an
eye D, near the top, for the reception of alternate warp ends,

Fig. 446.— Gauze Reed, as employed in weaving " Madras" Muslin Fabrics.

termed "doup" threads. The intermediate warp ends, termed
*' standard" threads, which are controlled by the Jacquard har-
ness, pass separately through the wide dents of the reed. A
"doup" and a "standard" thread, contained in the same dent
of the gauze reed, are also passed together through the same
dent of the ordinary reed to permit of their crossing each other.
When in the loom, a gauze reed is placed a little in front of the
Jacquard figuring harness, as shown at E (Fig. 447), and is

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING.

243

raised to form a warp shed for the insertion of ground picks
only. Its function, therefore, is analogous to that of a " doup "
heald in an ordinary gauze loom. Previous to the ascent of the
gauze reed, the Jacquard harness is moved sideways for a short
distance, first to the right (when facing the loom) and then to
the left, for consecutive ground picks, thereby placing " stan-
dard " warp ends on opposite sides of " doup " warp ends for the

Fig. 447.— Part Sectional Eud Elevation of a Loom for weaving " Madras"
Muslin Fabrics.

purpose of crossing and recrossing them. The lateral side
movement of harness threads, and the consequent movement of
"standard" warp ends which they control, is accomplished by
means of an auxiliary comber board F, situated a few inches
below the ordinary comber board G. The auxiliary comber
board is virtually a coarse wire comb whose teeth are crossed at
right angles by three or four wires, so as to form compartments

244 GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

for the reception of several mounting threads to prevent the
latter from swinging. Comber board F receives its lateral
movement in one direction by means of a lever connected to it
at one end, and actuated by a cam ; whilst its return movement is
effected by means of a spring attached to the opposite end of the
comber board, and which is constantly pulling against the lever.
On referring to Fig. 445, it will be seen that all " doup " warp
ends only are raised for the insertion of ground picks, and that
" standard " warp ends are raised en masse in the figure portion
only, and left down en masse in the ground portion, for the inser-
tion of figuring picks. Thus, figuring weft lies between "doup "
and " standard " warp ends in the figure portion, and floats
loosely above all warp ends in the ground portion of the fabric,
from whence it is subsequently cut away as waste material.

Madras Muslin with Two and More Colours of Figuring-

Weft.

§ 121. Madras muslin fabrics are sometimes woven with two
different colours of figuring weft to increase their decorative
effect. In the production of this variety, three shuttles are re-
quired, namely, one to insert the fine ground picks, and one each
to insert the respective figuring picks of coloured weft. The
three shuttles are picked across the loom in succession; and
although it may not at first appear to be practicable, it will, upon
reflection, become manifest that a loom furnished with an ordi-
nary picking motion, and two shuttle boxes at each end of the sley,
will enable that order of picking to be achieved without having
recourse to a more complex and costly type of loom with a " pick-
and-pick " motion, and three shuttle boxes at each end of the sley.

A pick of each colour of figuring weft is inserted after every
ground pick ; and they may be displayed in any manner
according to the desired scheme of decoration. For example,
each colour of weft may be displayed alone, or picks of each
colour may be inserted alternately with each other in the same
part of the fabric, in order to produce a chintz or mingled
effect by blending the two colours together. In the figure por-
tions that are developed in such a manner, alternate standard

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 245

warp ends only are raised in those parts for picks of one colour,
and intermediate standard warp ends only for picks of the other
colour. In all other respects, this variety of Madras muslin
is similar to the two-shuttle variety described in § 120. Some
Madras muslins contain as many as three and four different
colours of figuring weft, which may be displayed either inde-
pendently, or in any combination with each other, as desired.

Lappet Figuring.

§ 122. Lappet figuring is usually confined to the ornamenta-
tion of light muslin textures of cotton, and sometimes of silk, of
the plain or calico weave ; and less frequently it is employed
in combination with gauze or leno and other woven effects. It
consists of the development of figured effects produced by a more
or less zigzag arrangement of extra warp threads, withdrawn
from one or more than one auxiliary small warp beam. These
extra warp ends are wrought into the foundation texture luithout
interweaving with warp ends, and are permanently held in posi-
tion by passing underneath jiicks of lueft (when cloth is viewed
obversely). The figuring warp threads, termed " whip " threads,
are thereby made to lie in the same direction as picks of weft,
which float quite freely on the face side of cloth only, between
the points of their intersection, as clearly indicated in the accom-
panying photographic reproductions of lappet-figured fabrics.
These characteristics are specially emphasised because they
constitute the essential principles of lappet figuring, which
sometimes bears a close resemblance to swivel figuring ; and
when once properly understood, they enable the difference be-
tween lappet and swivel figuring to be readily discriminated.

Lappet figuring is confined to the production of comparatively
simple decoration, as the system prohibits the development of
such elaborate designs as are frequently met with in tissue-
figured and swivel-figured fabrics, which varieties are usually
produced by means of a Jacquard machine. The examples of
cloth represented in Figs. 449 to 456 will serve, better than any
verbal description, to indicate the general character and scope of
lappet figuring ; whilst the following brief description of the

246

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

essential features of a lappet loom will enable the production of
these fabrics to be more easily comprehended.

§ 123. Lappet looms differ in details of construction, with
different loom makers ; but there are certain essential auxiliary-
parts common to all. These are represented in part sectional
elevation by Fig. 448, and comprise one or more needle-frames
B, B\ situated between a reed A of ordinary construction, and

Fig. 448.

-Part Sectional End Elevation of a Loom adapted for Lappet
Figuring.

a false reed or pin-stave C, all of which parts are supported by,.
and oscillate with, the loom sley, as indicated by representing
those parts at their rear and forward extremities of their move-
ment, by means of full and dotted lines respectively. The reed
A, which is situated several inches to the rear of the position a
reed usually occupies, serves the usual functions of maintaining-
an ev3n distribution of warp ends over the required width of

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 247

cloth, and of beating up picks of weft. The pin- stave C is a
stave containing a number of sharply-pointed pins, placed ver-
tically at intervals of about an inch to an inch and a [quarter.
This is placed immediately behind the rear edge of the shuttle
race- board, and alternately rises and falls in unison with the
backward and forward strokes of the sley. Its function is to
serve as a guide for the shuttle in its passage through the wai-p

Fig. 449,— Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by One Needle-frame.

sheds, after which it disappears below warp ends and cloth, as
the sley advances to beat up the picks of weft.

The needle-frames B, B^ are narrow staves, each containing a
series of sharply-pointed needles placed vertically, and having
eyes formed near the top, for the reception of whip or figuring
threads, which they control. In addition to their oscillation
with the sley, needle-frames receive a reciprocal compound
movement both vertically and laterally. These movements

248 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

synchronise with the backward and forward strokes of the sley
respectively. Thus, as the sley recedes, and just before picking
takes place, needles are raised to insert their whip threads
between the ordinary warp ends, to take their place with the
upper half of the warp shed. Then, after each pick of weft is
inserted in the shed, the needles descend, as the sley advances
to beat up the picks of weft, which, by passing underneath lohip
threads, prevent the withdrawal of these as needles descend,
and retain them at the points at which they were inserted
between ordinary warp ends. When the needles have descended

Fig. 450.— Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by Two Needle-frames.

a sufficient distance to be quite clear of warp ends and cloth,
they may be moved laterally, in either direction, for the purpose
of passing figuring threads from side to side of the figure, and
placing them in the required positions, according to the pattern,
ready for insertion into the warp shed for the next pick of weft.
The lateral movement of needle-frames may be effected in
various ways, either by means of lattices furnished with pegs of
different lengths, varying according to the amount of movement
required ; or by means of shaped pattern or "lappet " wheels, of
which there are several varieties. Perhaps the device known as
the " Scotch " lappet motion is that most generally applied to

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING.

249

lappet looms. This motion essentially consists of a wooden pat-
tern wheel or disc, freely mounted on a stud at one end of the loom,
and having such number of irregularly stepped concentric grooves
of uniform depth cut into the face side as corresponds with the
number of needle-frames to be actuated by it. The configuration
of each groove is in accordance with the particular movement to
be imparted to the respective needle-frames, for the develop-
ment of the required pattern.

Each groove receives and acts

451. — Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by Two Needle-frames.

upon a small bowl or runner mounted upon a short pin or stud
fixed in an extension of each needle-frame. These extensions
pass horizontally in front of the wheel, so as to place the axes of
the runners and pattern wheel in exactly the same horizontal
plane. The rim of the pattern wheel is also formed with such
number of saw or ratchet teeth as corresponds with the number
of picks (or half that number, according to special circumstances)
to be inserted in each repeat of the pattern. It will now be-

250 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

come manifest that by intermittently rotating the pattern wheel
one tooth for each pick (or for every two picks) the needle-frames-
will be moved sideways in accordance with the configuration of
the respective grooves, and thereby cause the whip threads to
assume a more or less zigzag course, and float freely between
the extreme edges of figiire tuithout intermediate intersections.
A separate needle-frame is required for each distinct order of
interweaving the figuring threads. If all figuring threads are re-
quired to interweave in the same manner, only one needle-frame,
operated by one groove in the lappet wheel, is required ; but, if
figuring threads are required to interweave in four different
orders, then four needle-frames operated by a figuring wheel

Fig, 452. — Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by Two Needle-frames.

w^ith four grooves will be required. It is rarely, however, that
more than three needle-frames are employed in one loom.

Since needle-frames are situated below^ w^arp ends, it follow^s
that the cloth will be woven face downward, and that the pattern
is thereby obscured from the observation of a weaver. This
circumstance is obviously to the disadvantage of a weaver, who
is unable to readily detect any imperfection in the pattern that
may arise during weaving : hence, in some lappet looms needle-
frames are situated above w^arp ends, w^ith the needles inverted,
so as to weave the cloth face upward, and with the pattern in
full view of a weaver. With this arrangement, however, the
small warp beams containing the figuring threads are conveni-

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGUHING.

251

ently placed above the healds ; and as those threads descend in
front to their respective needle eyes, they form an obstruction to
a weaver v^hen piecing and drawing in warp ends. Also, in con-
sequence of inserting " whip " threads from above, instead of from
below, regular warp ends, during shedding, they are more liable
to cause the lower half of the warp sh«d to become uneven, and
thereby impede the free passage of a shuttle during picking.
§ 124. Fig. 449 illustrates an example of lappet figuring pro-

FiG. 453. —Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced l)y Two Needle-frames.

duced by one needle-frame. In that example, groups of five
figuring threads, of two different colours, are made to assume
linear rounded waves or sinuous lines running lengthwise of the
fabric. Fig. 450 is a more typical example of lappet figuring in
which successive figuring threads are worked in opposite direc-
tions so as to produce a diamond formation, thereby requiring two
needle-frames operated by two grooves in the pattern wheel. Fig.
451 is of a similar character to Fig. 450, but with two figuring

252 GKAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

threads interweaving in opposite directions, to produce a double

;saf«*'5*'«£ ft?i .tf?" ■?*• i.^ -=%. jAa

Fig, 454.— Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by Three Needle-frames.
diamond effect, which would require two needle-frames. Fig.

Fig. 4.55,— Fabric with Lappet Figuring produced by Four Needle-frames.
452 is a stripe formation, produced by a pointed wave running

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGUEING.

253

lengthwise, alternating with a stripe of beads, and would require
two needle-frames. Fig. 453 is a peculiar all-over design which
at first appears somewhat complex ; but a close inspection will
show that only two needle-frames have been required for its
production. In addition to the lappet figuring, this specimen
has been additionally embellished by means of a printed pattern.
Fig. 454 is an unsuccessful attempt to represent foliage consist-

FiG. 456.— Fabric with Lappet Figuring of a Novel Character in which
pairs of Whip Threads cross and re-cross each other at regular
intervals, to develop a series of small circles, tor which Two Needle-
frames would be required.

ing of a running stem containing leaves and fruit. The pattern
would require three needle-frames for its formation — one for the
stem and two for the leaves and fruit on each side of it. Patterns
of this description are not suited to lappet figuring, and are rarely
achieved with success. Fig. 455 is a linear geometrical effect
consisting of a combination of circles and diamonds, and would
require four [needle-frames for its production.

254 GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Cross-thread Lappet Figuring.

§ 125. A specimen of lappet figuring of a novel and ingenious
character is illustrated by Fig. 456. In this example, figuring
threads are caused to actually cross each other in reverse direc-
tions, and thereby develop an effect closely resembling that of a
net leno produced by the principle of gauze or cross-weaving,
for which it might easily be mistaken. For the production of
such effects, it is only necessary to pass the figuring threads of
one or more than one needle-frame, entirely underneath the
needle-frame or frames that are in the rear of those, and thus
permit of figuring threads passing or crossing each other. For
example, if two needle-frames are employed, the figuring threads
of the first frame must pass entirely underneath the second
frame before passing through their respective needle eyes, as
represented in the diagram, Fig. 448. The usual method of
passing whip threads through the needle eyes is to take them
upward immediately after passing underneath the lower reed
case, and then insert them through their respective needle eyes,
as indicated in the diagram by means of a dotted line extending
from the lower reed case to a needle in the front frame B^.

Spot Lappet Figuring.

§ 126. Some lappet fabrics are woven with detached figures
arranged alternately, or otherwise, to evenly distribute them over
the surface of cloth. In the production of such examples it is
the usual practice, after weaving each horizontal row of figures,
to cause the needle-frame or frames to automatically become
inoperative until they are required for the next row of figures,
when they are "shunted" sideways for the required distance,
so as to dispose the figures of alternate rows either midway
between those of intermediate rows, or otherwise, in a similar
manner to the swivel-figured spots illustrated by Figs. 457a and
457b. Now, seeing that lappet fabrics are usually woven face
downward (as explained at the end of § 123), it follows that
whip threads will trail loosely between the intervals separating
the figures produced by the same whip thread. These loose

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 255

threads are subsequently cut away, thereby leaving a short rem-
nant or tail of thread exjjosed on the face side of cloth, at both
the initial and final extremities of each figure, and causing
blemishes of an objectionable character. This disfigurement,
however, may be averted by causing the needles to rise in exactly
the same position for all picks inserted between the end of one
row of figures and the beginning of those in the next row, there-
by inserting the respective whip threads uniformly between the
same warp ends, for those picks. The object of this procedure
is to cause the whip threads to trail or lie above the picks of weft
between the horizontal rows of figures (when in the loom) and
therefore to be on the reverse side or back of cloth, whence they
are subsequently cut away, leaving the severed tail ends exposed
on that side, and thus keeping the face of cloth free from such
blemishes. Lappet figures or spots developed in accordance with
this practice, and which are known in the trade as "tailless"
lappet spots, constitute a superior style of lappet figuring as
compared with those constructed in the usual manner.

Swivel Figuring.

§ 127. Swivel figuring is a system of ornamentation by means
of extra weft inserted by auxiliary shuttles specially designed for
the pui-pose. It is a method of figuring extensively adopted for
the decoration of silk fabrics for book-marks, ties, ribbons, ladies'
dress materials, and sometimes of light cotton fabrics for similar
uses. Being of a more refined and elegant character than either
*' tissue " or " lappet " figuring, it is capable of producing decor-
ative designs, figures, and pictorial representations of a floral and
scenic description, in a very effective manner. The extra figur-
ing weft is usually of silk, and, unlike "lappet " figuring, it may
interweave with warp ends in any conceivable manner, instead
of having to float loosely between the extreme edges of the
figures. The foundation texture upon which swivel figures are
formed is usually of the plain or tabby weave ; or else that of a
simple three-end or four-end twill weave. An example of swivel
figuring of a very simple character is illustrated in Figs. 457a
and 4:57b, which show both the face and back of the same fabric.

256

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Fig. 457.— Showing the Face and Back of a Twill Fabric embellished with
small detached figures produced by SAvivel Weaving.

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. '257

Swivel figuring is very easily distinguished from " lappet " figur-
ing, by the interlacement of the extra figuring weft with warp
ends, between the extreme edges of figure ; and also by that
weft bending around luarp ends when returning at the edges of
figure, and 7iot around picks of weft, as in "lappet" figuring.
During the operation of weaving, swivel-figured fabrics, like lap-
pet-figured fabrics (produced by means of bottom needle-frames)
are produced face downward, as represented in Fig. 457b. The
auxiliary shuttles containing the figuring weft are of very differ-
ent shape to that of ordinary loom shuttles ; and, unlike the latter,
they are not propelled separately and independently across the
entire width of the loom; but in the prevailing type of swivel
loom a number of them are carried simultaneously and positively
through a corresponding number of sectional warp sheds formed
at regular intervals apart across the width of cloth, for the pur-
pose of inserting the extra figuring weft for the development of
figure. The swivel shuttles, termed "poppets," are carried by,
and move to and fro with, the sley, as the latter oscillates.
They may be arranged in one, two, or more horizontal rows, or
tiers (according to the number of colours of figuring w^eft required
for the same figure) above the warp ends. Each tier may contain
any practicable number of "poppet" shuttles, but with a cor-
responding number in each row. They are supported at regular
intervals apart, in a frame termed the " poppet rack," w^hich is
capable of a vertical movement, to enable it to be alternately
depressed and raised in a prescribed manner, in order to place
any particular tier of " poppets " in a position to enter their
respective sectional warp sheds, and insert picks of figuring weft.
They are then passed simultaneously through the sheds, and
quickly raised clear of the cloth to permit of the reed coming for-
ward to beat up the short picks of weft which they have inserted.
A shed is then formed all across the warp for the passage of the
ordinary shuttle to insert an ordinary pick of weft for the founda-
tion texture ; after which, the sectional figuring sheds are again
formed for the reception of figuring weft from the same or
another tier of "poppets, " according to the colour of weft required.

258

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Woven Ondule Effects.

§ 128. The term ondule is used to distinguish an unusual and
interesting variety of woven fabrics in which either warp ends
or picks of weft are caused to assume undulating, wavy, or
sinuous lines. An example of warp ondule is represented by
Fig. 458, which is reproduced from a specimen of cloth of this
description. (It may be observed, incidentally, that the speci-

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Fig. 458. — Warp Ondule Fabric, with Net Leno and Cross-thread
Lappet Stripes.

men here represented also embodies the principles of cross-
weaving, in combination with lappet figuring, of the special
variety described in § 125, and illustrated by Fig. 456, in
which the whip or figuring threads cross each other in reverse
directions.) Apart from the features just indicated in paren-
theses, there is nothing of an unusual structural character in
the class of fabrics under consideration, which are generally

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 259

of simple construction. Their chief interest, therefore, Ues in
the special mechanical devices required for their production,
which are sometimes of a novel and very ingenious character.
When the undulations are required in the direction of warp
€nds, these devices consist essentially of some means whereby
warp ends may be gradually spread apart and then closed in
alternately, to produce contrary sinuous lines running lengthwise
of the fabric. This may be achieved by either of two distinct
methods. One method is to employ a reed, of which the dents
may be contracted in some parts and expanded in others according
iio the effect desired ; but a more approved and practical method
of obtaining warp ondule effects, however, is by means of what are
variously termed '' paqtoet," " 07idule," and inverted "fan" reeds,
in which some of the reed wires are permanently inclined at

Jllllllllll

Fig. 459. Fig. 460.

Ondule, Paquet, or Fan Reeds, for the production of Warp Ondule

Effects.

gradually varying angles, and in opposite directions ; albeit, they
are all in the same vertical plane when viewed from the ends
of the reed. Ondule or paquet reeds are made in a great variety
of forms according to the particular effect desired in cloth ; and,
during weaving, they are operated by auxiliary mechanism
which slowly raises and depresses them alternately, thereby
causing warp ends to gradually deviate from their normal straight
course, and assume the characteristic undulating or sinuous
lines. Three typical varieties of ondule reeds are represented by
Pigs. 459, 460, and at E, Fig. 461. That shown in Fig. 461 is
a common variety termed a double or inverted fan reed, for the
production of regular and contrary sinuous lines ; whilst those
represented by Figs. 459 and 460 are designed to produce per-
forations in cloth. The intervals at which the perforations will
occur both horizontally and vertically, in cloth, is determined

260

GEAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

Fig. 461. — Part Front Elevation of a Loom adapted for the development of Warp
Ondule Effects by means of specially-designed Reeds, of which an example
is represented at R.

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 261

Fig 462 —End Elevation of a Loom for the production of Warp Ondule

Effects.

262 GRAMMAK OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

by the distance between the gaps in the reed, and the velocity
with which it is reciprocated, respectively. Sorne ondule or
paquet reeds are of a variegated character, with vertical dents
alternated with dents inclined at various angles to the right and
left, on each side of the vertical dents. They are also made in
a variety of other forms according to requirements.

§ 129. A loom equipped with a device (invented by Mr. E.
Foulds) for the development of ondule effects, is represented in
front and end elevation by Figs. 461 and 462 respectively. In
this loom an inverted fan reed R is contained in a frame to which
is imparted a slow reciprocal vertical and intermittent move-
ment by means of a dobby acting through the medium of a.
train of wheels and suitable connections of rods and levers,
as indicated in the diagrams. Mounted freely upon a stud or
pin J, fixed in a wheel I, is a pendant arm K, from which is
suspended a long rod L, with its lower end attached to a lever
M, fixed to a cross bar N, on the opposite end of which is a
duplicate lever M. Resting upon the respective levers M are
two rods Q, which slide freely in brackets bolted to the sley
swords, and therefore oscillate with the sley. The sley cap S,
containing the upper ribs of the reed, is secured by means of
brackets to the upper ends of rods Q, which are supported (at
different times) by means of one or other of two arms, secured
to their lower ends, and furnished with bowls or runners O, P,
that rest upon their respective levers M. It will now be seen,
therefore, that as wheel I is slowly and intermittently rotated,
levers M will alternately rise and fall with a corresponding
velocity, whereby different parts of the reed wires are brought,
opposite the fell of cloth ivhen beating up the loeft. Thus, in
consequence of the angular disposition of reed wires, warp ends
are congested or expanded in width, according as they pass
through the congested or expanded extremities of the reed dents
respectively.

The object of employing two runners O, P, placed at the ends
of separate arms extending both forward and rearward of the
respective rods Q, to which they are secured, is to cause the reed
to assume a position midway between its highest and lowest
elevations, during the formation of warp sheds, and thereby

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 263

prevent excessive chafing of warp ends that would otherwise be
caused by their bearing hard and rubbing against the reed
wires at the upper and lower extremities of a fan reed. This
object is achieved in the following manner : As the sley oscil-
lates, runners O and P are alternately brought to bear upon
different parts of levers M, thereby causing the reed to either
descend or ascend to a neutral position as the sley recedes,
according to the upward or downward inclination (from the
cross bar N) of levers M, respectively.

Weft Ondule Effect.

§ 130. An exceptional and interesting specimen of cloth of
the ondule variety is photographically represented by Fig. 463-
This example may be described as a weft, or cross-over ondule
effect, since they are picks of loeft and not warp ends, that
assume a wavy character (as indicated by the selvedge, on the
left of the fabric). This example is produced from organzine silk
warp picked with genapped worsted, to produce a light musHn
texture of the plain or calico weave, suitable for a summer dress
material.

A weft ondul3 effect may be developed in a variety of ways,
either by means of shaped reeds expressly designed to produce
the required effect in cloth ; or by applying a constantly varying
degree of tension to alternate groups of warp ends. Eeeds,
styled "Erdmann " reeds (after their inventor), are either con-
structed of shaped wires placed vertically, so as to appear
curved on their front edge when the reed is viewed end- wise ;
or the wires may be straight and arranged at varying angles, so
that if the reed were viewed end-wise, they would appear to
cross each other like the letters V or X ; and if viewed in plan,
they would form a serpentine or undulating line from end to end
of the reed. By slowly and alternately raising and depressing
such reeds, the picks of weft will assume varying degrees of
undulation according to the velocity with which the reed is
vertically reciprocated. By keeping the reed stationary at any
given point, picks may be inserted uniformly parallel with each

264

GEAMMAE OF TEXTILE DESIGN.

other, either straight, or in raore or less undulating lines, as
required.

§ 131. Weft ondule effects may be produced in looms fur-
nished with ordinary reeds, by dividing warp ends (immediately
after leaving the warp beam) mto groups according to the length
of wave required, and by passing alternate groups of threads over
one bar, and intermediate groups over a second bar. By slowly

Fig. 463.— Weft Ondule Fabric.

oscillating both bars in contrary directions (by means of cams,
cranks or eccentiics) a gradually varying degree of tension will
be imparted to warp ends, whereby the two divisions of threads
will be alternately tautened and slackened. This will cause the
picks of weft to assume more or less wavy lines, according to the
disparity between the tension of the two divisions of threads.
An alternative, though less practical method of obtaining a

TISSUE, LAPPET AND SWIVEL FIGURING. 265

similar result would be to wind the two divisions of threads upon
separate warp beams, and, by any suitable means, apply varying
degrees of resistance to the withdrawal of yarn from them, and
thereby alternately increase and diminish the tension of the two
divisions of warp ends in a contrary manner.

Looped Fabrics.

§ 132. A variety of fabrics in vogue as dress materials are
formed with a series of loops either sparsely distributed, or
arranged in stripes, on the face side of the cloth only. The
loops are developed by means of extra warp ends, upon a founda-
tion texture of simple construction. The extra warp ends require
to be wound upon a separate warp beam, which is very lightly
weighted, to permit the threads to be freely withdrawn when
required to form loops. Fabrics of this class are but very
remotely, if at all,' related to the well-known type of terry pile
fabrics described in Chapter VIII., as they neither embody the
same principles of construction, nor is it essential to employ a
terry motion to produce the loops — although loops are some-
times formed in these fabrics by causing the reed to recede for
certain picks, and to be held fast in its normal position for
others, in a manner similar to that which obtains in terry
weaving (as described in ,§ 82), excepting that the liberation of
the reed is effected by means of the dobby (if such is employed),
or by other improvised contrivance, to save the expense of a
loom equipped with a special terry motion. The prevailing
method, however, of forming loops in this variety of fabrics is
to pass the required warp ends between two cloth-covered rollers
which are rotated intermittently, to deliver uniform lengths of
warp according to the size of loops required to be formed on
the fabric, and to weave without the reed being allowed to swing
backward at the bottom, from its normal position, as the sley
advances to beat up picks of weft.

INDEX.

Action of the loose reed in terry looms, 164.

Alternative dispositions of pile and ground warp ends in terry pile fabrics,

relative merits of, 163, 166, 173.
Angle of twill, 30.

Back standard healds, 182.

position of, in relation to regular healds in leno looms, 227.

Backed fabrics, 119.

reversible, 125.

warp-, 123.

weft-, 121.

what to bear in mind when preparing designs for, 120.

Beaverteen fabrics, 132.

Bedford cord fabrics, 103.

alternative methods of introducing extra coloured warp ends into,.

for figuring purposes, 113.
detailed specifications of all the examples of, herein described,

118.

plain-ribbed, 105.

twill-ribbed, 108.

usual means of embellishing, 104.

variegated, 107.

with Jacquard figuring, 115.

Bottom-doup harness for cross-weaving, 179.
" Brighton " weaves, 85.

construction of, 86.

Brocade fabrics, leno, 179.
Broken twills, 66.

Brussels carpets, formation of the looped pile in, 162.

(267)

268 INDEX.

Calico or plain weave, construction of the, 6.

definition of the, 6, 9.

methods of embellishing the, 16.

modifications of the, 6.

variety of form in the, 10.

variety of texture in the, 8.

Cantoon or " diagonal" fabrics, 129.

Canvas cloth, 234.

" Cassimere " or " Harvard " (o-) twill, 27.

Catch-cord, the function of a, 169.

Classification of twill weaves, 24.

Combination of two twill weaves, end-and-end, 61.

pick-and-pick, 63.

Combined twills, 60.
Compound net leno fabric, 195.
Corded and ribbed fabrics, simple, 10.

with variegated ribs, 19.

Corded or ribbed velveteen fabrics, 145.
Cords, velvet, 146, 158, 156.
Corduroy fabrics, 153.

figured, 156.

machines for cutting, to form pile, 157.

(circular knife), 158.

(straight knife), 161.

thickset, 155.

with variegated cords, 153.

Corkscrew twills, 48.

" Cover" in cloth, definition of, 32.

Cross shed, formation of a, with a bottom-doup harness, 184.

with a top-doup harness, 191.

Cross-weaving, different types of shedding harnesses for, 179.
steel-wire doup harnesses for, 228.

Density of pile in terry pile fabrics, circumstances affecting the, 169.
Design, chief divisions of textile, 3.

— definition of woven, 3.

— Grammar of Textile, definition of, 3.

— or point paper, counts of, 4.
• use of, 4.

Designs, leno, what to bear in mind when preparing, 227.
Details of leno weaving, practical, 227.

INDEX. 269

'• Diagonal " or cantoon fabrics, 129.

Diamond weaves, 77.

Direction of twist in yarn, and the influence it exercises upon the relative

prominence of twills, the, 32.
Dispositions of pile and ground warp ends in terry pile fabrics, relative

merits of alternative, 163, 166, 173.
Dobbies for gauze and leno weaving, relative merits of different types of,

221.
Double-faced or reversible fabrics, 125.
Double reeds for terry pile weaving, 170.
Doup harnesses, relative merits of top and of bottom, 219.
steel-wire, for cross-weaving, 228,

— healds, 182.

worsted, disadvantages of, 228.

steel-wire, disadvantages of, 232.

— warp ends, 182.
Doups, definition of, 182.

Easers, slackeners or vibrators in leno looms, the function of, 184.

Embossed designs in velveteen fabrics, 153.

" Erdmann " reeds, 263.

Essential factors in terry pile weaving, 169.

— parts of a gauze or leno harness for cross-weaving, 182.

Fan, ondule or paquet reeds, 259.

Figured Bedford cord fabrics, Jacquard, 115.

— corduroy fabrics, 156.

— or ornamented twills, 72.

— terry pile fabrics, 173.

— velveteen fabrics, Jacquard, 147.
Firmness of texture, influences affecting the, 6.
Flexible reeds, advantages of, 227.

Formula for the construction of satin weaves, 46.
Front standard healds in leno looms, 182.
Full-cross leno fabrics, 218.
Fustian fabrics, the chief varieties of, 126.

(beaverteen), 132.

(cantoon or "diagonal"), 129.

(corduroy, figured), 156.

(corduroy, plain), 153.

("imperial," reversible), 129.

270 INDEX.

JFustian fabrics ('• imperial " sateen), 129.

(" imperial " or swansdown), 128.

(lambskin), 129.

(moleskin), 130.

(moleskin, printed), 131,

(velveteen, Jacquard figured), 147.

(velveteen, plain), 132.

(velveteen, ribbed or corded), 145.

cutting, 126, 133, 135, 157.

by hand, 135.

by machinery, 157.

Gauze or leno fabrics, 178.

different types of shedding harnesses for weaving, 179.

heald harness, essential parts of a, 182.

— plain, 179.

— reed, construction of a, 242.
function of a, 243,

Grammar of Textile Design, definition of, 3.
" Grecian " weaves, 94.

Harness, essential parts of a gauze or leno heald, 182.
Harnesses, relative merits of top and of bottom doup, 219.

— steel-wire doup, for cross-weaving, 228.
" Harvard" or " Cassimere " twill, 27.
Herring-bone twills, 72.

Hollow-cut or ribbed velveteen fabrics, 147.
Honeycomb effects, how they are produced, 85.

— weaves, 78.

characteristics of, 78.

Huck-a-back weaves, 90.

^'Imperial " or swansdown fabrics, 128.

— reversible, 129,

— sateen, 129.

Influence exercised by the direction of twist in yarn upon the relative

prominence of twills, 32.
Intervals of selection, for the construction of satin weaves, 48.

INDEX. 271

Liambskin fabrics, 129.
Lappet figuring, 237, 245.

cross-thread, 254.

of a novel character, 254.

spot, 254.

— loom, essential parts of a, 246.

— looms, disadvantages of needle frames being situated below warp ends

in, 250.

— motion, Scotch, 249.

— wheel, description of a, 249.
Leno brocade fabrics, 179.

— designs, what to bear in mind when preparing, 229.

— device for douping or crossing warp ends in front of the reed, White-

head and Wood's, 213.

— effects, special, 212.

— fabric, compound net, 195.

— fabrics, full-cross, 218.
mock or imitation, 233.

— or gauze fabrics, 178.

heald harness, essential parts of a, 182.

— looms, position of back standard healds in relation to regular healds in,

227.

— weaving, practical details of, 227.

relative merits of different types of dobbies for, 222.

Linear zigzag weaves, 96.

Looped fabrics, 237, 265.

Loose reed action in terry looms, 164.

motion in relation to shedding, in terry looms, 167, 169.

Madras muslin fabrics, 238, 241.

with two or more colours of figuring weft, 244.

loom for weaving, 243.

Matt weaves, simple, 20.

variegated, 22.

Mock or imitation leno fabrics, 233.
INIoleskin fabrics, 130.

printed, 131.

Moquette fabrics, formation of the looped pile in, 162.

272 INDEX.

Net leno fabric, compound, 195.

fabrics, 178, 186.

figuring by means of several back standard healds to each doup

heald, 195.

Ondule fabric, weft, 263.

— fabrics, 237.
warp, 258.

— loom, 262.

— paquet, or fan reeds, 259.

Open shed, formation of an, with a bottom-doup harness, 184.

with a top-doup harness, 191.

Ornamented twills, figured or, 72.
" Osman " Turkish terry towels, 171.

Paquet, ondule, or fan reeds, 259.

Perching, to produce a "nap " or downy surface, 128.

Pick-and-pick motion, definition of a, 15,

Picks of weft, definition of, 1.

Plain-ribbed Bedford cord fabrics, 105.

Plain or calico weave, methods of embellishing the, 16.

and its modifications, the, 6.

variety of form in the, 10.

variety of texture in the, 8.

Plush fabrics, 145.

" Poppet " rack, in swivel looms, 257.

— shuttles, in swivel looms, 257.

Position of back standard healds in relation to regular healds, in leno

looms, 227.
Practical details of leno weaving, 227.
Principle of fabric structure, the general, 1.
Principles of fabric structure, minor, 2.
Prominence of twills, influences affecting the relative, 31.

Rearranged twills, 44.

Rearrangement of twills by alternation of threads, 58.

on a satin basis, 55.

Reed, gauze, construction of a, 242.
function of a, 243.

INDEX. 273

Reed, loose, action, in terry looms, 164.

— wires, removal of, to obtain wider dents, 193, 227.
Reeds, double, for terry weaving, 176.

— " Erdmann," 263.

— flexible, advantages of, 227.

— ondule, paquet, or fan, 259.

Relative merits of alternative methods of disposing pile and ground warp
ends in terry pile fabrics, 163, 166, 173.

different types of dobbies for gauze andjeno weaving, 221.

• top and of bottom-doup harnesses, 219.

Repp fabrics, 13.

Reversible or double-faced fabrics, 125.

— " imperial," 129.

Ribbed and corded fabrics, simple, 10.

variegated, 19.

Ribbed or corded velveteen, 145.

— fabrics, warp, 10.
weft, 11.

— or hollow-cut velveteen fabrics, 146.
Rice weaves, 71.

Satin basis, rearrangement of twills on a, 55.

— weaves, characteristics of, 44.
construction of, 46.

formula for the construction of, 46.

imperfect, 46.

Scotch lappet motion, 249.

Selvedge motions, when necessary, 18.

Selvedges (self-edges), 1.

Shaking devices, the function of, in leno looms, 221.

when necessary, 222.

— in leno looms, different methods of, 222.
Shed of warp (warp shed), 1.

Slackeners, easers, or vibrators in leno looms, the function of, 182, 184.
Specifications of Bedford cords, table of, 118.
Sponge weaves, 87.

characteristics of, 88.

Standard or regular warp ends, 182.

Steel-wire doup harnesses for cross-weaving, 228.

disadvantages of, 232.

Swivel figuring, 237, 255.

how to distinguish, from lappet figuring, 257.

— shuttles or "poppets," 257.

274 INDEX.

Tabby or plain calico weave, 6, 9.

Tapestry pile carpets, formation of looped pile in, 162.

Terry looms, loose reed action in, 164.

timing of the loose reed motion in relation to shedding in, 167, 169.

— motions, 162, 164.

— pile fabrics, 162.

circumstances affecting the relative density of pile in, 169.

figured, 173.

five-pick, 173.

four-pick, 169.

six-pick, 171.

three-pick, 166.

relative merits of alternative methods of disposing pile and

ground v^arp ends in, 163, 166, 173.

— towels, " Osman," 171.
Turkish, 163.

— weaving, practical considerations relating to, 173.
Texture, definition of, 8.

— influences affecting the firmness of, 6.

— variety of, 8.

Thickset corduroy fabric, 155.

Tissue figuring, 237.

Top-doup harness for cross-weaving, 179.

Twill, angle of, 30.

— "Harvard" or " Cassimere," 27.
Twill-ribbed Bedford cords, 108.
Twill weaves, classification of, 24.

end-and-end combination of, 61.

pick-and-pick combination of, 63.

Twills, broken, 66.

— combined, 60.

— continuous, 24.

— corkscrew, simple, 48.

warp-face, 50.

weft-face, 52.

— figured or ornamented, 72.

— influence exercised by the direction of twist in yarn, upon the relative

prominence of, 32.

— influences affecting the relative prominence of, 31.

— modifications of, 54.

— rearranged, 44.

— rearrangement of, by alternation of threads, 58.
on a satin basis, 55.

INDEX. 275

Twills, "wale" of, defined, 24.

— warp-face, 24.

— warp and weft-face, 26.

— wavy or zigzag, 38.

— weft-face, 25.

Twist in yam, influence of the direction of, upon the relative prominence
of twills, 32.

Variegated Bedford cord fabrics, 107.

— corduroy fabrics, 153.

Variety of form in the plain or calico weave, 10.

texture in the plain or calico weave, 7.

Velvet cords, 146, 153, 156.

— fabrics, 126.

— ribbed, 146.
Velveteen fabrics, 132.
definition of, 133.

embellished with embossed designs, 153.

forming the pile in, 126, 133, 135.

hollow-cut or ribbed, 146.

Jacquard figured, 147.

with " lashed " or fast pile, 133, 140.

— — ribbed or corded, 145.

how to distinguish between embossed and woven designs in, 153.

preparation of designs for figured, 149.

tabby-backed, 134.

twill-backed, 144.

Vibrators, easers or slackeners, the function of, 184.

" Wale" of twill weaves, definition of, 24.
Warp, definition of, 1.
Warp-ribbed fabrics, 10.
Warp shed, definition of, 1.
Wavy or zigzag twills, 38.
Weft, definition of, 1.
Weft-ribbed fabrics, 11.
*' Whip " threads for lappet figuring, 245.

Whitehead and Wood's special leno device for douping or crossing warp
ends in front of the reed, 213.

276 INDEX.

Worsted doup liealds, disadvantages of, 228.
Woven design, definition of, 3.

Yarn twist, its influence upon the relative prominence of twills, 32.

Zigzag or wavy twills, 38.
— weaves, linear, 96.

THE ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS LIMITED.

Hfiiiboc^ Catalooue

Special Weednieal Siooks.

PAGE
... 10

... 4

... 23
... 22
11, 12

Adhesives

Agricultural Chemistry .
Air, Industrial Use of
Alcohol, Industrial
Alum and its Sulphates .
Ammonia
Aniline Colours
Animal Fats
Anti-corrosive Paints
Architecture, Terms in .
Architectural Pottery
Artificial Lighting ...
Artificial Perfumes
Balsams

Bleaching Agents, etc. .
Bone Products
Bookbinding
Brick-making
Burnishing Brass...
Carpet Yarn Printing

Casein

Celluloid

Cement

Ceramic Books

Charcoal

Chemical Analysis 8

Chemical Essays ... ... 8

Chemical Reagents ... 8

Chemical Works 8

Clays 12

Coal dust Firing 19

Colliery Recovery Work... 18
Colour Matching (Textile) 16
Colour-mixing for Dyers... 16

Colour Recipes

Colour Theory

Combing Machines
Compounding Oils, etc. ..
Condensing Apparatus ..
Cosmetics ...

Cotton Dyeing

Cotton Spinning ...

Cotton Waste

Cranes and Hoists
Damask Weaving ...
Dampness in Buildings ..
Decorators' Books
Decorative Textiles

Dental Metallurgy

Disinfection

Driers

Drugs

Drying Oils ,

Drying with Air, etc.

Dyeing Marble

Dyeing Woollen Fabrics.,,

Dyers' Materials

Dye-stuffs

Edible Fats and Oils
Electric Lamp Develop
meat

Electric Wiring

Electricity in Collieries ..

Emery ...

Enamelling Metal

Enamels

Engineering Handbooks ..

INDEX TO SUBJECTS.

PAGE

Engraving 23

Essential Oils 7

Evaporating Apparatus ... 19
External Plumbing ... 20

Fats 6,7

Faults in Woollen Goods lo I
Flax Spinning ... ... 18

Food and Drugs 22

Foundry Machinery ... 20

Fruit Preser\ing ... ... 23

Gas and Oil Engines ... 19

Gas Firing 19

Glass-making Recipes ... 13

Glass Painting 13

Glue-making and Testing... 8
Greases ... ... ... 6

Gutta Percha 11

Hat Manufacturing ... 15

Hemp Spinning ... ... 18

Historyof Staffs Potteries 12

Hops 21

Hot-water Supply ... 21

India-rubber 11

India-rubber Substitutes 5

Inks 3, 4, 5, 9

Insecticides, etc 21

Iron-corrosion ... ... 4

Iron, Science of 19

Iron and Steel Work ... 19
Japanning ... ... ... 21

Jute Spinning ... ... 18

Lace-Making 15

Lacquering 21

Lake Pigments 3

Lead 10

Leather-working Mater'ls 6,11

Libraries 24

Linoleum ... ... ... 5

Lithographic Inks 5

Lithography ... ... 23

Lubricants 6

Manures 8, 9

Meat Preserving 23

Medicated Soaps 7

Metal Polishing Soaps ... 7

Mineral Pigments 3

Mineral Waxes 6

Mine Ventilation 18

Mine Haulage 18

Mining, Electricity ... 18

Motor Car Mechanism ... 20

Needlework 15

Oil and Colour Recipes ... 3

Oil Boiling ... 5

Oilmen's Sundries ... 3

Oil Merchants' Manual ... 6

Oils 5,6,7

Ozone, Industrial Use of... 10
Paint Manufacture ... 3

Paint Materials 3

Paint-material Testing ... 4
Paint Mixing ... 3, 4

Paper-Mill Chemistry ... 13
Paper-pulp Dyeing ... 13

Petroleum 6

Pigments 3, 9

Plumbers' Books ... 20, 21

PAOB

Pottery Clays 21

Pottery Decorating ... 11

Pottery Manufacture 11, 12

Pottery Marks 12

Power-loom Weaving ... 14

Preserved Foods 23

Printers' Ready Reckoner 23
Printing Inks ... 3, 4, 5

Recipes 3, 13

Reinforced Concrete ... 19

Resins 9

Ring Spinning Frame ... 18
Risks of Occupations ... 10
Riveting China, etc. ... 12

Scheele's Essays 8

Sealing Waxes 10

Shale Oils and Tars ... 9

Shoe Polishes 6

Silk Dyeing 17

Silk Throwing, etc. ... 17

Smoke Prevention 19

Soap Powders 7

Soaps 7

Spinning 15, 17, 18

Spirit Varnishes 5

Staining Marble, and Bone 23
Stain-removing Soaps ... 7
Steam Drying ... ... 10

Steam Turbines 20

Steel Hardening 19

Sugar Technology ... 24

Sweetmeats 23

Tallow 6

Technical Schools, List ... 24

Terra cotta 11

Testing Paint Materials ... 4

Textile Design 15

Textile Fabrics ... 14, 15

Textile Fibres 14

Textile Materials 14

Timber 22

Toilet Soapmaking ... 7

Tdothed Gearing 19

Varnishes 5

Vegetable Fats and Oils ... 7
Vegetable Preserving ... 23

Warp Sizing 16

Waste Utilisation 9

Water, Industrial Use ... 10
Water-proofing Fabrics ... 16

Waxes 8

Weaving Calculations ... 15
White Lead and Zinc ... 5
Wiring Calculations ... 21

Wood Distillation ... 22

Wood Extracts 22

Wood Waste Utilisation... 22

Wood-Dyeing 23-.

Wool-Dyeing 17

Woollen Goods ... 15, 16, 17

Woven Fabrics 16

Writing Inks 9

X-RayWork 11

Yarn Sizing 18.

Yarn Numbering and Test-
ing 14. 15;

Zinc White Paints ... 5,

PUBLISHED BY

SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,

8 BROADWAY, LUDQATE, LONDON, E.G.

FULL PARTICULARS OF CONTENTS

Of the Books mentioned in this ABRIDGED CATALOGUE
will be found in the following Catalogues of

CURRENT TECHNICAL BOOKS.

LIST I.

Artists' Colours— Bone Products— Butter and Margarine Manufacture— Casein-
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(Paints, Colours, Pigments and
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THE CHEMISTRY OF PIGMENTS. By Ernest J.
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THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINT. A Practical
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[Nerv Edition in Preparation.

DICTIONARY OF CHEMICALS AND RAW
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A HISTORY OF DECORATIVE ART. By W. Norman
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THE MANUFACTURE AND COMPARATIVE
MERITS OF WHITE LEAD AND ZINC WHITE
PAINTS. By G. Petit, Civil Engineer, etc. Trans-
lated from the French. Crown 8vo. 100 pp. Price 4s. net.
(Post free, 4s. 3d. home ; 4s. 4d. abroad.)

STUDENTS' HANDBOOK OF PAINTS, COLOURS,
OILS AND VARNISHES. By John Furnell.
Crown 8vo. 12 Illustrations. 96 pp. Price 2s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 2s. 9d. home and abroad.)

PREPARATION AND USES OF WHITE ZINC
PAINTS. Translated from the French of P. Fleury.
Crown 8vo. 280 pages. Price 6s. net. (Post free, 6s. 4d. home ;
6s. 6d. abroad.)

(Varnishes and Drying Oils.)

THE MANUFACTURE OF VARNISHES AND
KINDRED INDUSTRIES. By J. Geddes McIntosh.
Second, greatly enlarged, English Edition, in three Volumes,
based on and including the work of Ach. Livache.

Volume I.— OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND
BOILING, THE MANUFACTURE OF LINO-
LEUM, PRINTING AND LITHOGRAPHIC
INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER SUBSTITUTES.

Demy 8vo. 150 pp. 29 Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

Volume II.— VARNISH MATERIALS AND OIL-
VARNISH MAKING. DemySvo. 70 Illustrations.
220 pp. Price 10s. 6.1. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ;
lis. 3d. abroad.)

Volume HI.— SPIRIT VARNISHES AND SPIRIT
VARNISH MATERIALS. Demy 8vo. Illustrated.
464 pp. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home; 13s. 6d.
abroad.)

DRYING OILS, BOILED OIL AND SOLID AND
LIQUID DRIERS. By L. E. Andi^s. Expressly
Written for this Series of Special Technical Books, and the
Publishers hold the Copyright for English and Foreign Editions.
Forty-two Illustrations. 342 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 3d. abroad.)

{Analysis of Rcsifts, see page 9.)

(Oils, Fats, Waxes, Greases, Petroleum.)

LUBRICATING OILS, PATS AND GREASES:

Their Origin, Preparation, Properties, Uses and Analyses. A
Handbook for Oil Manufacturers, Refiners and Merchants, and
the Oil and Fat Industry in General. By George H. Hurst,
F.C.S. Third Revised and Enlarged Edition. Seventy-four
Illustrations. 384 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, lis. home ; lis. 3d. abroad.)

TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM : Oil Fields of the

World — Their History, Geography and Geology — Annual Pro-
duction and Development — Oil-well Drilling — Transport, By
Henry Neuberger and Henry Noalhat. Translated from the
French by J. G. McIntosh. 550 pp. 153 Illustrations. 26 Plates.
Super Royal Svo. Price 21s. net. (Post free, 21s. 9d. home;
23s. 6d. abroad.)

MINERAL WAXES: Their Preparation and Uses. By
Rudolf Gregorius. Translated from the German. Crown Svo.
250 pp. 32 Illustrations. Price 6s. net. (Post free, 6s. 4d.
home ; 6s. 6d. abroad.)

THE PRACTICAL COMPOUNDING OF OILS,
TALLOW AND GREASE FOR LUBRICA-
TION, ETC. By An Expert Oil Refiner. Second
Edition. 100 pp. Demy Svo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

THE MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICANTS, SHOE
POLISHES AND LEATHER DRESSINGS. By

Richard Brunner. Translated from the Sixth German Edition
by Chas. Salter. 10 Illustrations. Crown Svo. 170 pp. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

THE OIL MERCHANTS' MANUAL AND OIL
TRADE READY RECKONER. Compiled by

Frank F. Sherriff. Second Edition Revised and Enlarged.
Demy Svo. 214 pp. With Two Sheets of Tables. Price 7s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; Ss. 3d. abroad.)

ANIMAL FATS AND OILS: Their Practical Pro-
duction, Purification and Uses for a great Variety of Purposes.
Their Properties, Falsification and Examination. Translated
from the German of Louis Edgar Andes. Sixty-two Illustrations.
240 pp. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy Svo.
Price IDs. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home; lis. 3d. abroad.)

For contents of these books, see List I.

VEGETABLE FATS AND OILS: Their Practical

Preparation, Purification and Employment for Various Purposes,
their Properties, Adulteration and Examination. Translated
from the German of Louis Edgar Andes. Ninety-four Illus-
trations. 340 pp. Second Edition. Demy Svo. Price 10s. 6d.
net. (Post free, lis. home ; lis. 6d. abroad.)

EDIBLE FATS AND OILS : Their Composition, Manu-
facture and Analysis. By W. H. Simmons, B.Sc. (Lond.), and
C. A. Mitchell, B.A. (Oxon.). Demy Svo. 150 pp. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.)

(Essential Oils and Perfumes.)

THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND
ARTIFICIAL PERFUMES. By Ernest J. Parry,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., F.C.S. Second Edition, Revised and
Enlarged. 552 pp. 20 Illustrations. Demy Svo. Price 12s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

(Soap Manufacture.)

SOAPS. A Practical Manual of the Manufacture of
Domestic, Toilet and other Soaps. By George H. Hurst, F.C.S.
2nd edition. 390 pp. 66 Illustrations. Demy Svo. Price 12s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

TEXTILE SOAPS AND OILS. Handbook on the
Preparation, Properties and Analysis of the Soaps and Oils used
in Textile Manufacturing, Dyeing and Printing. By Georob
H. Hurst, F.C.S. Crown Svo. 195 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE HANDBOOK OF SOAP MANUFACTURE.

By Wm. H. Simmons, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S. and H. A. Appleton.
Demy Svo. 160 pp. 27 Illustrations. Price Ss. 6d. net. (Post
free, 8s. lOd. home ; 9s. abroad.)

MANUAL OF TOILET SOAPMAKING, including
Medicated Soaps, Stain-removing Soaps, Metal Polishing Soaps,.
Soap Powders and Detergents. Translated from the German
of Dr. C. Deite. Demy quarto. 150 pages. 79 Illustrations.
Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

(Cosmetical Preparations.)

COSMETICS : MANUFACTURE, EMPLOYMENT
AND TESTING OF ALL COSMETIC
MATERIALS AND COSMETIC SPECIALITIES.

Translated from the German of Dr. Theodor Roller. Crown,
Svo. 262 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home; 5s. 6d.
abroad.)

(Glue, Bone Products and Manures.)

GLUE AND GLUE TESTING. By Samuel Rideal,
D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. Fourteen Engravings. 144 pp. Demy
8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; lis. abroad.)

BONE PRODUCTS AND MANURES : An Account
of the most recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Fat,
Glue, Animal Charcoal, Size, Gelatine and Manures. By Thomas
Lambert, Technical and Consulting Chemist. Second Revised
Edition. Demy 8vo. 172 pages. 17 Illustrations, Price 7s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

{See also Chemical Manures, p. 9.)

(Chemicals, Waste Products, etc.)

REISSUE OF CHEMICAL ESSAYS OF C. W.
SCHEELE. First Published in English in 1786.
Translated from the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, with
Additions. 300 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 6d.
home ; 5s. 9d. abroad.)

THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUM AND THE SUL-
PHATES AND OTHER SALTS OF ALUMINA
AND IRON. Their Uses and Applications as Mordants
in Dyeing and Calico Printing, and their other Applications in
the Arts Manufactures, Sanitary Engineering, Agriculture and
Horticulture. Translated from the French of Lucien Gesch-
wiND. 195 Illustrations. 400 pp. Royal 8vo. Price 12s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

AMMONIA AND ITS COMPOUNDS : Their Manu-
facture and Uses. By Camille Vincent, Professor at the
Central School of Arts and Manufactures, Paris. Translated
from the French by M. J. Salter. Royal 8vo. 114 pp. Thirty-
two Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ;
5s. 6d. abroad.)

CHEMICAL WORKS: Their Design, Erection, and
Equipment. By S. S. Dyson and S. S. Clarkson. Royal 8vo.
220 pp. With 9 Folding Plates and ^0 Illustrations. Price 21s.
net. (Post free, 21s. 6d. home; 22s. abroad.)

MANUAL OF CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, as applied to
the Assay of Fuels, Ores, Metals, Alloys, Salts and other Mineral
Products. By E. Prost, D.Sc. Translated by J. Cruickshank
Smith, B.Sc. Royal Svo. 300 pages. 44 Illustrations. Price
12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

TESTING OF CHEMICAL REAGENTS FOR
PURITY. Translated from the German of Dr. C
Krauch. Royal Svo. 350 pages. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free
13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

For contents of these books, see List I.

SHALE OILS AND TARS and their Products. By
Dr. W. SCHEITHAUER. Translated from the German. Demy 8vo.
190 pages. 70 Illustrations and 4 Diagrams. Price 8s. 6d. net.
(Post free, Ss. lOd. home ; 9s. abroad). [y«5^ published.

INDUSTRIAL ALCOHOL. A Practical Manual on the
Production and Use of Alcohol for Industrial Purposes and for
Use as a Heating Agent, as an Illuminant and as a Source of
Motive Power. By J. G. McIntosh, Lecturer on Manufacture
and Applications of Industrial Alcohol at The Polytechnic,
Regent Street, London. Demy Svo. 1907. 250 pp. With 75
Illustrations and 25 Tables. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d.
home ; 8s. abroad.)

THE UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS. A
Treatise on the Rational Utilisation, Recovery and Treatment of
Waste Products of all kinds. By Dr. Theodor Koller. Trans-
lated from the Second Revised German Edition. Twenty-two
Illustrations. Demy Svo. 280 pp. Price7s.6d.net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)

ANALYSIS OF RESINS AND BALSAMS. Trans-
lated from the German of Dr. Karl Dieterich. Demy 8vo. 340
pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. 3d. abroad.)

DISTILLATION OF RESINS, RESINATE LAKES
AND PIGMENTS, CARBON PIGMENTS AND
PIGMENTS FOR TYPEWRITING MACHINES,
iMANIFOLDERS, ETC. By Victor Schweizer.
Demy8vo. 185 pages. 68 Illustrations. Price7s.6d.net. (Post
free, 8s. home ; 8s. 3d. abroad.)

DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. By M.

Christian. Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 112
pages. 18 Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ;
5s. 6d. abroad.) * [^ust published.

(Agricultural Chemistry and Manures.)

MANUAL OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By

Herbert Ingle, F.I.C, Late Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry,
the Leeds University; Lecturer in the Victoria University.
Third and Revised Edition. 400 pp. 16 Illustrations. Demy
Svo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s. home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)
CHEMICAL MANURES. Translated from the French
of J. Fritsch. Demy 8vo. Illustrated, 340 pp. Price 10s. 6d.
net. (Post free, lis. home ; lis. 6d. abroad.)

{See also Bone Products and Manures, p. 8.)

(Writing Inks and Sealing Waxes.)

INK MANUFACTURE: Including Writing, Copying,
Lithographic, Marking, Stamping, and Laundry Inks. ^ By
SiGMUND Lehner. Three Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 162]rpp.
Translated from the German of the Fifth Edition. Price 5s, net,
(Post free, 5s. 3d. homej; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS AND OTHER
ADHESIVES FOR THE HOUSEHOLD, OFFICE,
WORKSHOP AND FACTORY. By H. C. Standage.
Crown 8vo. 96 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ;
5s. 4d. abroad.)

(Lead Ores and Lead Compounds.)

LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. By Thos. Lambert,
Technical and Consulting Chemist. Demy 8vo. 226 pp. Forty
Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ;
8s. 3d. abroad.)

NOTES ON LEAD ORES : Their Distribution and Pro-
perties. By Jas. Fairie, F.G.S. Crown 8vo. 64 pages. Price
Is. net. (Post free, Is. 3d. home ; Is. 4d. abroad.)

{White Lead and Zinc White Paints, see p. 5.)

(Industrial Hygiene.)

THE RISKS AND DANGERS TO HEALTH OF
VARIOUS OCCUPATIONS AND THEIR PRE-
VENTION. By Leonard A. Parry, M.D., B.Sc.
(Lond.). 196 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

(Industrial Uses of Air, Steam and
Water.)

DRYING BY MEANS OF AIR AND STEAM. Ex-
planations, Formulae, and Tables for Use in Practice. Trans-
lated from the German of E. Hausbrand. Second Revised
English Edition. Two folding Diagrams, Thirteen Tables, and
Two Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 76 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
{See also " Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus,''^ p. 19.)

PURE AIR, OZONE AND WATER. A Practical
Treatise of their Utilisation and Value in Oil, Grease, Soap, Paint,
Glue and other Industries. By W. B. Cowbll. Twelve Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. 85 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d.
home; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. COMPOSI-
TION—EFFECTS—TROUBLES—REMEDIES—
RESIDUARY WATERS — PURIFICATION— AN-
ALYSIS. By H. de la Coux. Royal 8vo. Trans-
lated from the French and Revised by Arthur Morris. 364 pp.
135 Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis. home;
lis. 6d. abroad.)

{See Books on Smoke Prevention, Engineering and Metallurgy, p. 19, etc.)

For contents of these books, see List II J,

(X Rays.)

PRACTICAL X RAY WORK. By Frank T. Addyman,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., Member of the Roentgen Society of London;
Radiographer to St, George's Hospital ; Demonstrator of Physics
and Chemistry, and Teacher of Radiography in St. George's
Hospital Medical School. Demy 8vo. Twelve Plates from
Photographs of X Ray Work. Fifty-two Illustrations. 200 pp.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home; lis. 3d. abroad.)

(India=Rubber and Qutta Percha.)

INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA PERCHA. Second
English Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Based on the French
work of T. Seeligmann, G. Lamy Torrilhon and H. Falconnet
by John Geddes McIntosh. Royal 8vo. 100 Illustrations. 400
pages. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home; 13s. 6d.
abroad.)

(Leather Trades.)

THE LEATHER WORKER'S MANUAL. Being a
Compendium of Practical Recipes and Working Formulae for
Curriers, Bootmakers, Leather Dressers, Blacking Manufac-
turers, Saddlers, Fancy Leather Workers. By H. C. Standage.
Demy 8vo. 165 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home;
8s. abroad.)

{See also Manufacture of Shoe Polishes, Leather Dressings, etc., p. 6.)

(Pottery, Bricks, Tiles, Glass, etc.)

MODERN BRICKMAKING. By Alfred B. Searle,
Royal 8vo. 440 pages. 260 Illustrations. Price 12s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

THE MANUAL OF PRACTICAL POTTING. Com-
piled by Experts, and Edited by Chas. F. Binns. Fourth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 17s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 17s. lOd. home; 18s. 3d. abroad.)

POTTERY DECORATING. A Description of all the Pro-
cesses for Decorating Pottery and Porcelain. By R. Hainbach.
Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 250 pp. Twenty-
two Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ;
8s. abroad.)

A TREATISE ON CERAMIC INDUSTRIES. A

Complete Manual for Pottery, Tile, and Brick Manufacturers. By
Emile Bourry. a Revised Translation from the French, with
some Critical Notes by Alfred B. Searle. Demy 8vo. 308
Illustrations. 460 pp. Pricel2s.6d.net. (Post free, 13s. home;
13s. 6d. abroad.)

ARCHITECTURAL POTTERY. Bricks, Tiles, Pipes,
Enamelled Terra-cottas, Ordinary and Incrusted Quarries, Stone-
ware Mosaics, Faiences and Architectural Stoneware. By Leon
Lefevre. Translated from the French by K. H. Bird, M.A.,
and W. Moore Binns. With Five Plates. 950 Illustrations in
the Text, and numerous estimates. 500 pp. Royal 8vo. Price
15s. net. (Post free, 15s. 6d. home; 16s. 6d. abroad.)

CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY: Being some Aspects of
Technical Science as Applied to Pottery Manufacture. Edited
by Charles F. Binns. 100 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 12s. lOd. home ; 13s. abroad.)

THE ART OP RIVETING GLASS, CHINA AND
EARTHENWARE. By J. Howorth. Second
Edition. Paper Cover. Price Is. net. (By post, home or abroad,
Is. Id.)

CLAY ANALYSIS AND CLAY TESTING. By A. B.

Searle. [In preparation.

NOTES ON POTTERY CLAYS. The Distribution,

Properties, Uses and Analyses of Ball Clays, China Clays and
China Stone. By Jas. Fairie, F.G.S. 132 pp. Crown 8vo.
Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 3s. lOd. abroad.)

HOW TO ANALYSE CLAY. By H. M.Ashby. Demy
8vo. 72 pp. 20 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free,
3s. 9d. home ; 3s. lOd. abroad.)

A Reissue of
THE HISTORY OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE POT-
TERIES; AND THE RISE AND PROGRESS
OF THE MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY AND
PORCELAIN. With References to Genuine Specimens,
and Notices of Eminent Potters. By Simeon Shaw. (Originally
published in 1829.) 265 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 9d. abroad.)

A Reissue of
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SEVERAL NATURAL
AND ARTIFICIAL HETEROGENEOUS COM-
POUNDS USED IN MANUFACTURING POR-
CELAIN, GLASS AND POTTERY. By Simeon
Shaw. (Originally published in 1837.) 750 pp. Royal 8vo.
Price 10s. net. (Post free, 10s. 6d. home ; 12s. abroad.)

BRITISH POTTERY MARKS. By G. Woolliscroft
Rhead. Demy 8vo. 310 pp. With over Twelve-hundred Illus-
trations of Marks. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s. home ;
8s. 3d. abroad.)

For conttnts of these books, see List III.

(Glassware, Glass Staining and Painting.)

RECIPES FOR FLINT GLASS MAKING. By a

British Glass Master and Mixer. Sixty Recipes. Being Leaves
from the Mixing Book of several experts in the Flint Glass Trade,
containing up-to-date recipes and valuable information as to
Crystal, Demi-crystal and Coloured Glass in its many varieties.
It contains the recipes for cheap metal suited to pressing, blow-
ing, etc., as well as the most costly crystal and ruby. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. 9d.
home ; 10s. lOd. abroad.)

A TREATISE ON THE ART OF GLASS PAINT-
ING. Prefaced with a Review of Ancient Glass. By
Ernest R. Suppling. With One Coloured Plate and Thirty-
seven Illustrations. Demy 8vo. 140 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

(Paper Malting, Paper Dyeing:, and
Testing.)

THE DYEING OF PAPER PULP. A Practical
Treatise for the use of Papermakers, Paperstainers, Students
and others. By Julius Erfurt, Manager of a Paper Mill.
Translated into English and Edited with Additions by Julius
HiJBNER, F.C.S., Lecturer on Papermaking at the Manchester
Municipal Technical School. With illustrations and 157 patterns
of paper dyed in the pulp. Royal 8vo, 180 pp. Price 15s. net.
(Post free, 15s. 6d. home; 16s. 6d. abroad).

THE PAPER MILL CHEMIST. By Henry P. Stevens,
M.A., Ph.D., F.I.C. Royal 12mo. 60 illustrations. 300 pp.
Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 7s. lOd. abroad.)

THE TREATMENT OF PAPER FOR SPECIAL
PURPOSES. By L. E. Andes. Translated from the
German. Crown Svo. 48 Illustrations. 250 pp. Price 6s. net.
(Post free, 6s. 4d. home ; 6s. 6d. abroad.)

(Enamelling on Metal.)

ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING. For Enamel
Makers, Workers in Gold and Silver, and Manufacturers of
Objects of Art. By Paul Randau. Second and Revised
Edition. Translated from the German. With 16 Illustrations.
Demy 8vo. 200 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd.
home; lis. abroad.)

THE ART OF ENAMELLING ON METAL. By

W. Norman Brown. Second Edition, Revised. Crown Svo.
60 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 3s. lOd.
abroad.) IJfust published.

14
(Textile and Dyeing Subjects.)

THE FINISHING OF TEXTILE FABRICS (Woollen,
Worsted, Union and other Cloths). By Roberts Beaumont,
M.Sc, M.I. Mech.E., Professor of Textile Industries, the Univer-
sity of Leeds ; Author of " Colour in Woven Design " ; " Woollen
and Worsted Cloth Manufacture"; "Woven Fabrics at the
World's Fair" ; Vice-President of the Jury of Award at the Paris
Exhibition, 1900 ; Inspector of Textile Institutes ; Society of
Arts Silver Medallist ; Honorary Medallist of the City and Guilds
of London Institute. With 150 Illustrations of Fibres, Yarns
and Fabrics, also Sectional and other Drawings of Finishing
Machinery Demy 8vo. 260 pp. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free,
10s. lOd. home; lis. 3d. abroad.)

FIBRES USED IN TEXTILE AND ALLIED IN-
DUSTRIES. By C. AiNSWQRTH Mitchell, B.A.
(Oxon.), F.I.C., and R. M. Prideaux, F.I.C. With 66 Illustra-
tions specially drawn direct from the Fibres. Demy 8vo.
200 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

DRESSINGS AND FINISHINGS FOR TEXTILE
FABRICS AND THEIR APPLICATION. De-
scription of all the Materials used in Dressing Textiles : Their
Special Properties, the preparation of Dressings and their em-
ployment in Finishing Linen, Cotton, Woollen and Silk Fabrics.
Fireproof and Waterproof Dressings, together with the principal
machinery employed. Translated from the Third German
Edition of Friedrich Polleyn. Demy 8vo. 280 pp. Sixty
Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ;
8s. abroad.)

THE CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY OF TEXTILE
FIBRES ; Their Origin, Structure, Preparation, Wash-
ing, Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing and Dressing. By Dr. Georo
VON Georgievics. Translated from the German by Charles
Salter. 320 pp. Forty-seven Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Price
10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis. home ; lis, 3d. abroad.)

POWER-LOOM WEAVING AND YARN NUMBER-
ING, According to Various Systems, with Conversion
Tables. Translated from the German of Anthon Gruner. With
Twenty-Six Diagrrams in Colours. 150 pp. Crown 8vo. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 8s. abroad.)

TEXTILE RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR CON-
VERSION INTO YARNS. (The Study of the Raw
Materials and the Technology of the Spinning Process.) By
Julius Zipser. Translated from German by Charles Salter.
302 Illustrations. 500 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net.
(Post free, lis. home ; lis. 6d. abroad.)

For contents of these books* see List II.

GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGN. By H. Nisbet,

Weaving and Designing Master, Bolton Municipal Technical
School. Demy 8vo. 280 pp. 490 Illustrations and Diagrams.
Price 6s. net. (Post free, 6s. 4d. home; 6s. 6d. abroad.)

ART NEEDLEWORK AND DESIGN. POINT
LACE. A Manual of Applied Art for Secondary Schools
and Continuation Classes. By M. E. Wilkinson. Oblong
quarto. With 22 Plates. Bound in Art Linen. Price 3s. 6d.
net. (Post free, 3s. lOd. home ; 4s. abroad.)

HOME LACE-MAKING. A Handbook for Teachers and
Pupils. By M. E. W. Milroy. Crown 8vo. 64 pp. With 3
Plates and 9 Diagrams. Price Is. net. (Post free, Is. 3d. home ;
Is. 4d. abroad.)

THE CHEMISTRY OF HAT MANUFACTURING.

Lectures delivered before the Hat Manufacturers' Association.
By Watson Smith, F.C.S., F.LC. Revised and Edited by
Albert Shonk. Crown 8vo. 132 pp. 16 Illustrations. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 7s. lOd. abroad.)

THE TECHNICAL TESTING OF YARNS AND
TEXTILE FABRICS. With Reference to Official
Specifications. Translated from the German of Dr. J. Herzfeld.
Second Edition. Sixty-nine Illustrations. 200 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home; lis. abroad.)

DECORATIVE AND FANCY TEXTILE FABRICS.

By R. T. Lord. For Manufacturers and Designers of Carpets,
Damask, Dress and all Textile Fabrics. 200 pp. Demy 8vo.
132 Designs and Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DAMASK WEAV-
ING. By H. KiNZER and K. Walter. Royal 8vo.
Eighteen Folding Plates. Six Illustrations. Translated from
the German. 110pp. Prlce8s.6d.net. (Post free, 9s. home;
9s. 6d. abroad.)

FAULTS IN THE MANUFACTURE OF WOOLLEN
GOODS AND THEIR PREVENTION. By

Nicolas Reiser. Translated from the Second German Edition.
Crown 8vo. Sixty-three Illustrations. 170 pp. Price 5s. net.
(Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

SPINNING AND WEAVING CALCULATIONS,

especially relating to Woollens. From the German of N.
Reiser. Thirty-four Illustrations. Tables. 160 pp. Dem.
8vo. 1904. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home ; Us.
abroad.)

ANALYSIS OF WOVEN FABRICS. By A. F. Barker

and E. Midgley. Demy 8vo. About 200 pages. [In the press.

WATERPROOFING OF FABRICS. By Dr. S. Mier-

ziNSKi. Crown 8vo. 104 pp. 29 Illus. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)

HOW TO MAKE A WOOLLEN MILL PAY. By

John Mackie. Crown 8vo. 76 pp. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 3s. 9d. home; 3s. lOd. abroad.)

YARN AND WARP SIZING IN ALL ITS
BRANCHES. Translated from the German of Carl
Kretschmar. Royal Svo. 123 Illustrations. 150 pp. Price
10s. 6d. net. (Post free, 10s. lOd. home; lis. abroad.)
{For " Textile Soaps and Oils " see p. 7.)

(Dyeing, Colour Printing, Matching
and Dye=stuffs.)

THE COLOUR PRINTING OF CARPET YARNS.

Manual for Colour Chemists and Textile Printers. By David
Paterson, F.C.S. Seventeen Illustrations, 136 pp. Demy
Svo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR MIXING. A Manual
intended for the use of Dyers, Calico Printers and Colour
Chemists. By David Paterson, F.C.S. Forty-one Illustrations.
Five Coloured Plates, and Four Plates showlnir Eleven Dyed
Specimens of Fabrics. 132 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

DYERS' MATERIALS : An Introduction to the Examina-
tion, Evaluation and Application of the most important Sub-
stances used in Dyeing, Printing, Bleaching and Finishing. By
Paul Heerman, Ph.D. Translated from the German by A. C.
Wright, M.A. (Oxon)., B.Sc. (Lond.). Twenty-four Illustrations.
Crown Svo. 150 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ;
5s. 6d. abroad.)

COLOUR MATCHING ON TEXTILES. A Manual

intended for the use of Students of Colour Chemistry, Dyeing and
Textile Printing. By David Paterson, F.C.S. Coloured Frontis-
piece. Twenty-nine Illustrations and Fourteen Specimens Of
Dyed Fabrics. Demy Svo. 132 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

COLOUR : A HANDBOOK OF THE THEORY OF
COLOUR. By George H. Hurst, F.C.S. With Ten
Coloured Plates and Seventy-two Illustrations. 160 pp. Demy
Svo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

For contents of these boohs, see List II,

Reissue of

THE ART OF DYEING WOOL, SILK AND
COTTON. Translated from the French of M. Hellot,
M. Macquer and M. le Pileur D'Apligny. First Published in
English 7n 1789. Six Plates. Demy 8vo. 446 pp. Price5s.net.
(Post free, 5s. 6d. home; 6s. abroad.)

THE CHEMISTRY OF DYE-STUFFS. By Dr. Georg
Von Georgievics. Translated from the Second German Edition.
412 pp. Demy Svo. Pricel0s.6d.net. (Post free, lis. home ;
lis. 6d. abroad.)

THE DYEING OF COTTON FABRICS : A Practical
Handbook for the Dyer and Student. By Franklin Beech,
Practical Colourist and Chemist. 272 pp. Forty-four Illus-
trations of Bleaching and Dyeing Machinery. Demy Svo. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 73. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

THE DYEING OF WOOLLEN FABRICS. By

Franklin Beech, Practical Colourist and Chemist. Thirty-
three Illustrations. Demy Svo. 228 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

(Silk Manufacture.)

SILK THROWING AND WASTE SILK SPIN-
NING. By HoLLiNS Rayner. Demy Svo. 170 pp.
117 Illus. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

(Bleaching and Bleaching Agents.)

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE BLEACHING
OF LINEN AND COTTON YARN AND FABRICS.

By L. Tailfer, Chemical and Mechanical Engineer. Trans-
lated from the French by John Geddes McIntosh. Demy Svo.
303 pp. Twenty Illus. Price 125. 6d,. net. (Post free, 13s.
home; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

MODERN BLEACHING AGENTS AND DETER-
GENTS. By Professor Max Bottler. Translated
from the German. Crown Svo. 16 Illustrations. 160 pages.
Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

(Cotton Spinning, Cotton Waste and
Cotton Combing.)

COTTON SPINNING (First Year). By Thomas

Thornley, Spinning Master, Bolton Technical School. 160 pp.

84 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Second Impression. Price 3s.

net. (Post free, 3s. 4d. home; 3s. 6d. abroad.)
•COTTON SPINNING (Intermediate, or Second Year).

ByT. Thornley. 2nd. Impression. 180pp. 70 Illus. Crown Svo.

Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
COTTON SPINNING (Honours, or Third Year). By

T. Thornley. 216 pp 74 Illustrations. Crown Svo. Second

Edition. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

COTTON COMBING MACHINES. By Thos. Thorn-
ley, Spinning Master, Technical School, Bolton. Demy 8vo.
117 Illustrations. 300 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 8s.
home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)

COTTON WASTE : Its Production, Characteristics
Regulation, Opening, Carding, Spinning and Weaving. By Thomas.
Thornley. DemySvo. 286 pages. 60 Illustrations. Price 7s, 6d.
net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

THE RING SPINNING FRAME : GUIDE FOR.
OVERLOOKERS AND STUDENTS. By N. Booth.
Crown 8vo. 76 pages. Price 3s. net. (Post free, 3s. 3d. home;.
3s. 6d. abroad.)

(Flax, Hemp and Jute Spinning.)

MODERN FLAX, HEMP AND JUTE SPINNING
AND TWISTING. A Practical Handbook for the use
of Flax, Hemp and Jute Spinners, Thread, Twine and Rope
Makers. By Herbert R. Carter, Mill Manager, Textile Expert
and Engineer, Examiner in Flax Spinning to the City and Guilds
of London Institute. Demy 8vo. 1907. With 92 Illustrations.
200 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home; 8s. abroad.).

(Collieries and Mines.)

RECOVERY WORK AFTER PIT FIRES. By Robert
Lamprecht, Mining Engineer and Manager. Translated from
the German. Illustrated by Six large Plates, containing Seventy-
six Illustrations. 175 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, 10s. lOd. home; lis. abroad.)

VENTILATION IN MINES. By Robert Wabner,
Mining Engineer. Translated from the German. Royal 8vo.
Thirty Plates and Twenty-two Illustrations. 240 pp. Price
10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis. home ; lis. 3d. abroad.)

HAULAGE AND WINDING APPLIANCES USED

IN MINES. By Carl Volk. Translated from the
German. Royal 8vo. With Six Plates and 148 Illustrations.
150 pp. Price 8s. 6d. net. (Post free, 9s. home ; 9s. 3d. abroad.)

THE ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT OF COLLIERIES.

By W. Galloway Duncan, Electrical and Mechanical Engineer^
Member of the Institution of Mining Engineers, Head of the
Government School of Engineering, Dacca, India; and David-
Penman, Certificated Colliery Manager, Lecturer in Mining to
Fife County Committee. DemySvo. 310 pp. 155 lUus. and Dia-
grams. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis. home ; lis. 3d. abroad.)'

(Dental Metallurgy.)

DENTAL METALLURGY: MANUAL FOR STU-
DENTS AND DENTISTS. By A. B. Griffiths,
Ph.D. Demy 8vo. Thirty-six Illustrations. 200 pp. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

For contents of these books, see Lists II and III.

(Engineering, Smoke Prevention and
Metallurgy.)

THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. Combined with
the Economical Combustion of Fuel. By W. C. Popplewell,
M.Sc, A.M. Inst., C.E., Consulting Engineer. Forty-six Illus-
trations. 190 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
7s. lOd. home; 8s. 3d. abroad.)

GAS AND COAL DUST FIRING. A Critical Review
of the Various Appliances Patented in Germany for this purpose
since 1885. By Albert Putsch. 130 pp. Demy 8vo. Trans-
lated from the German. With 103 Illustrations. Price 5s. net.
(Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF STEEL
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Fridolin
Reiser. Translated from the German of the Third Edition.
Crown 8vo. 120 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home;
5s. 4d. abroad.)

SIDEROLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF IRON (The

Constitution of Iron Alloys and Slags). Translated from
German of Hanns Freiherr v. Juptner. 350 pp. Demy 8vo.
Eleven Plates and Ten Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, lis. home; lis. 6d. abroad.)

EVAPORATING, CONDENSING AND COOLING
APPARATUS. Explanations, Formulae and Tables
for Use in Practice. By E. Hausbrand, Engineer. Translated
by A. C. Wright, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc, (Lond). With Twenty-
one Illustrations and Seventy-si.x Tables. 400 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis. home; lis. 6d. abroad.)

(The "Broadway" Series of Engineering:
Handbooks.)

One Uniform Size : Narrow^ Crown 8vo. (Pocket Size.)
Volume I.— ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF RE-
INFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. By

EwART S. Andrews, B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.). 200 pages. With 57
Illustrations. Numerous Tables and Worked Examples. Price
3s. net. (Post free, 3s. 3d. home ; 3s. 6d. abroad.)

Volume II.— GAS AND OIL ENGINES. By A.
KiRSCHKE. Translated and Revised from the German, and
adapted to British practice. 160 pages. 55 Illustrations.
Price 3s. net. (Post free, 3s. 3d. home ; 3s. 6d. abroad.)

Volume III. — IRON AND STEEL CONSTRUC-
TIONAL WORK. By K. Schindler. Translated
and Revised from the German, and adapted to British practice*
140 pages. 115 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free,
3s. 9d. home ; 4s. abroad.)

Volume IV.— TOOTHED GEARING. By G. T. White,
B.Sc. (Lond.). 220 pages. 136 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 4s. abroad.)

Volume V.— STEAM TURBINES : Their Theory and
Construction. By H. Wilda. Translated from the German ;
Revised and adapted to British practice. 200 pages. 104 Illus-
trations. Price 3s. 6d, net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 4s. abroad.)

Volume VI.— CRANES AND HOISTS. Their Con-
struction and Calculation. By H. Wilda. Translated from the
German ; revised and adapted to British practice. 168 pages.
399 Illustrations. Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ;
4s. abroad.) [yust published.

Volume VII.— FOUNDRY MACHINERY. By E.
Treiber. Translated from the German ; revised and adapted to
British practice. 148 pages. 51 Illustrations. Price3s.6d.net.
(Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 4s. abroad.) [yust published.

Volume VIII— MOTOR CAR MECHANISM. By
W. E. DoMMETT, A.M.I.A.E.E. 200 pages. 102 Illustrations.
Price 3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 4s. abroad.)

[J^nst pjiblished.

Volume IX.— ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF
ILLUMINATION AND ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING.

By A. Blok, B.Sc, A.M.I.E.E. Fully illustrated. [7m the press.
[IN PREPARATION.]

THE CALCULUS FOR ENGINEERS. By E. S.

Andrews, B.Sc. Eng. (Lond.), and H. Bryon Heywoob, D.Sc.

HYDRAULICS. By E. H. Sprague, A.M.I.C.E.

LAND SURVEYING. By M. T. Ormsby, M.I. C.E.I.

PORTLAND CEMENT. Its Properties and Manu-
facture. By P. C. H. West, F.C.S.

DESIGN OF MACHINE TOOLS. By G. W. Burley.

LATHES. By G. W. Burley.

REINFORCED CONCRETE IN PRACTICE. By
Alban H. Scott, M.S.A., M.C.I.

BRIDGE FOUNDATIONS. By W. Burnside, M.I.C.E.

WORKSHOP MANAGEMENT. By J. Batey.

CALCULATIONS FOR A STEEL FRAME BUILD-
ING. By W. C. Cocking, M C.I.

GEAR GUTTING. By G. T. White, B.Sc. (Lond.).

MODERN GAS WORKS PRACTICE. By Alwyne
Meade, A.M.I.E.E.

STEAM BOILERS AND COMBUSTION. By J.
Batey.

(Sanitary Plumbing, Electric Wiring:,
Metal Work, etc.)

EXTERNAL PLUMBING WORK. A Treatise on
Lead Work for Roofs. By John W. Hart, R.P.C. 180 Illustra-
tions. 272 pp. Demy 8vo. Second Edition Revised. Price
7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

For contents of these books, see List III.

HINTS TO PLUMBERS ON JOINT WIPING, PIPE
BENDING AND LEAD BURNING. Third Edition,
Revised and Corrected, By John W. Hart, R.P.C. 184 Illus-
trations. 313 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free,
8s. home ; 8s. (Sd. abroad.)

SANITARY PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE. By

JoHxN W. Hart. Demy 8vo. With 208 Illustrations. 250 pp.
1904. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home; 8s. abroad.)

ELECTRIC WIRING AND FITTING. By Sydney R
Walker, R.N., M.I.E.E., M.I.Min.E., A.M.Inst.C.E., etc., etc.
Crown 8vo. 150 pp. With Illustrations and Tables. Price 5s.
net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DIPPING,
BURNISHING, LACQUERING AND BRONZ-
ING BRASS WARE. By W. Norman Brown. 48 pp.
Crown 8vo. Price 3s. net. (Post free, 3s. 3d. home and abroad.)

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INCANDESCENT
ELECTRIC LAMP. By G. Basil Barham, A.M.I. E.E.
Demy 8vo. 200 pages. 2 Plates, 25 Illustrations and 10 Tables.
Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

WIRING CALCULATIONS FOR ELECTRIC
LIGHT AND POWER INSTALLATIONS. A

Practical Handbook containing Wiring Tables, Rules, and
Formulae for the Use of Architects, Engineers, Mining Engineers,
and Electricians, Wiring Contractors and Wiremen, etc. By G.
W. LuMMis Paterson. Crown 8vo. 96 pages. 35 Tables.
Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING. For Ironware,
Tinware, and Wood, etc. By William Norman Brown.
Second Edition. 70 pages. 13 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Price
3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. 9d. home : 4s. abroad.)

THE PRINCIPLES OF HOT WATER SUPPLY. By

John W. Hart, R.P.C. With 129 Illustrations. 177 pp. Demy
Svo. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd. home ; 8s. abroad.)

(Brewing: and Botanical.)

HOPS IN THEIR BOTANICAL, AGRICULTURAL
AND TECHNICAL ASPECT, AND AS AN
ARTICLE OF COMMERCE. By Emmanuel Gross,
Professor at the Higher Agricultural College, Tetschen-Liebwerd.
Translated from the German. 78 Illus. 340pp. Demy 8vo. Price
10s. 6d. net. (Post free, lis, home ; lis. 6d. abroad.)

INSECTICIDES, FUNGICIDES AND WEED-
KILLERS. By E. Bourcart, D.Sc. Translated from
the French. Revised and Adapted to British Standards and
Practice. Demy Svo. 450 pages, 83 Tables, and 12 Illustrations.
Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s. home ; 13s. 6d. abroad.)

[FoY Agricultural Chemistry, see p. g.)

(Wood Products, Timber and Wood
Waste.)

WOOD PRODUCTS : DISTILLATES AND EX-
TRACTS. By P. DuMESNY, Chemical Engineer,
Expert before the Lyons Commercial Tribunal, Member of the
International Association of Leather Chemists; and J. Noyer.
Translated from the French by Donald Grant. Royal 8vo.
320 pp. 103 Illustrations and Numerous Tables. Price 10s. 6d.
net. (Post free, lis. home; lis. 6d. abroad.)

TIMBER : A Comprehensive Study of Wood in all its
Aspects (Commercial and Botanical), showing the different
Applications and Uses of Timber in Various Trades, etc. Trans-
lated from the French of Paul Charpentier. Royal 8vo. 437
pp. 178 Illustrations. Price 12s. 6d. net. (Post free, 13s.
home ; 14s. abroad.)

THE UTILISATION OF WOOD WASTE. Trans-
lated from the German of Ernst Hubbard. Crown 8vo. 192 pp.
50 Illus. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)
{See also Utilisation of Waste Products, p. 9.)

(Building and Architecture.)

ORNAMENTAL CEMENT WORK. By Oliver
Wheatley. Demy 8vo. 83 Illustrations, 128 pp. Price 58.
net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS IN BUILD-
INGS ; with Remarks on the Causes, Nature and
Effects of Saline, Efflorescences and Dry-rot, for Architects,
Builders, Overseers, Plasterers, Painters and House Owners.
By Adolf Wilhelm Keim. Translated from the German of the
second revised Edition by M. J. Salter, F.I.C, F.C.S. Eight
Coloured Plates and Thirteen Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 115
pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)

HANDBOOK OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN
ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, AND THEIR
ALLIED TRADES AND SUBJECTS. By Augus-
tine C. Passmore. Demy 8vo. 380 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net.
(Post free, 8s. home ; 8s. 6d. abroad.)

(Foods, Drugs and Sweetmeats.)

FOOD AND DRUGS. By E. J. Parry, B.Sc., F.I.C, F.C.S.
Volume I. The Analysis of Food and Drugs (Chemical and

Microscopical). Royal 8vo. 724 pp. Price 21s. net. (Post

free, 21s. 6d. home; 22s. 6d. British Colonies; 23s. 3d. other

Foreign Countries.)
Volume II. The Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, 1875-1907.

Royal 8vo. 184 pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. lOd.

home ; 8s. abroad.)

For contents of these books, see List III.

THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESERVED FOODS
AND SWEETMEATS. By A. Hausner. With
Twenty-eight Illustrations. Translated from the German of the
third enlarged Edition. Second English Edition. Crown 8vo. 225
pp. Price 7s. 6d. net. (Post free, 7s. 9d. home ; 7s. lOd. abroad.)

RECIPES FOR THE PRESERVING OF FRUIT,
VEGETABLES AND MEAT. By E. Wagner.
Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 125 pp. With 14
Illustrations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d.
abroad.)

(Dyeing Fancy Goods.)

THE ART OF DYEING AND STAINING MARBLE,
ARTIFICIAL STONE, BONE, HORN, IVORY
AND WOOD, AND OF IMITATING ALL SORTS
OF WOOD. A Practical Handbook for the Use of

Joiners, Turners, Manufacturers of Fancy Goods, Stick and
Umbrella Makers, Comb Makers, etc. Translated from the
German of D. H. Soxhlet, Technical Chemist. Crown 8vo.
168 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)

(Celluloid.)

CELLULOID : Its Raw Material, Manufacture, Properties
and Uses. A Handbook for Manufacturers of Celluloid and
Celluloid Articles, and all Industries using Celluloid ; also for
Dentists and Teeth Specialists. By Dr. Fr. B6ckmann, Tech-
nical Chemist. Translated from the Third Revised German
Edition. Crown 8vo. 120 pp. With 49 Illustrations. Price 5s.
net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 4d. abroad.)

(Lithography, Printing: and
Engraving.)

ART OF LITHOGRAPHY. By G. T. Rhodes.

[In the press.

PRINTERS AND STATIONERS' READY
RECKONER AND COMPENDIUM. Compiled by
Victor Graham. Crown 8vo. 112 pp. 1904, Price3s.6d.net.
(Post free, 3s. 9d. home ; 3s. lOd. abroad.)

ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. HISTORI-
CAL AND PRACTICAL NOTES. By J. Kirkbridb.
72 pp. Two Plates and 6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Price
2s. 6d. net. (Post free, 2s. 9d. home ; 2s. lOd. abroad.)

{For Printing Inks, see p. 4.)

(Bookbinding.)

PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING. By Paul Ad.4m.
Translated from the German. Crown 8vo. 180 pp. 127 Illus-
trations. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.

(Sugar Refining.)

THE TECHNOLOGY OF SUGAR: Practical Treatise
on the Modern Methods of Manufacture of Sugar from the Sugar
Cane and Sugar Beet. By John Geddes McIntosh. Second
Revised and Enlarged Edition. Demy 8vo. Fully Illustrated.
436 pp. Seventy-six Tables. 1906. Price 10s. 6d. net. (Post
free, lis. home; lis. 6d. abroad.)

{See " Evaporating, Condensing, etc., Apparatj{s,^' p. ig.)

(Emery.)

EMERY AND THE EMERY INDUSTRY. Trans-
lated from the German of A. Haenig. Crown 8vo. 45 lUus.
104 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post free, 5s. 3d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

(Libraries and Bibliography.)

CLASSIFIED GUIDE TO TECHNICAL AND COM-
MERCIAL BOOKS. Compiled by Edgar Green-
wood. Demy 8vo. 224 pp. 1904. Being a Subject-list of the
Principal British and American Books in Print; giving Title,
Author, Size, Date, Publisher and Price. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

HANDBOOK TO THE TECHNICAL AND ART
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES OF THE UNITED
KINGDOM. Containing particulars of nearly 1,000
Technical, Commercial and Art Schools throughout the United
Kingdom. With full particulars of the courses of instruction,
names of principals, secretaries, etc. DemySvo. 150 pp. Price
3s. 6d. net. (Post free, 3s. lOd. home; 4s. abroad.)

THE LIBRARIES, MUSEUMS AND ART GAL-
LERIES YEAR BOOK, 1910-11. Being the Third
Edition of Greenwood's " British Library Year Book". Edited
by Alex. J. Philip. Demy 8vo. 286 pp. Price 5s. net. (Post
free, 5s. 4d. home ; 5s. 6d. abroad.)

THE PLUMBING, HEATING AND LIGHTING
ANNUAL FOR 1911. The Trade Reference Book
for Plumbers, Sanitary, Heating and Lighting Engineers^
Builders' Merchants, Contractors and Architects. Including
the translation of Hermann Recknagel's " Kalender fur Gesund-
heits - Techniker," Handbook for Heating, Ventilating, and
Domestic Engineers, of which Scott, Greenwood & Son have
purchased the sole right for the English Language. Quarto.
Bound in cloth and gilt lettered. Price 3s. net. (Post free»
3s. 4d. home ; 3s. 8d. abroad.)

SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,

8 Broadway, Ludgate, London, E.G.

Telegraphic Address, '• Printeries, Cent. = London ". October, 1913»

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Nisbet, Harry.

Grammar of textile design

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