Granite deterioration in the graveyard of Saint James the Less, Philadelphia

UNIVERSITVy

PENNSYLVANIA.

UBKARIES

GRANITE DETERIORATION IN THE GRAVEYARD OF
SAINT JAMES THE LESS, PHILADELPHIA

Kathryn Marit Sather

A THESIS

in

The Graduate Program in Historic Preservation

Presented to the faculties of the University of
Pennsylvania in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

1990

Samuel Y. Harris, Lecturer, Historic Preservation
Advisor

V^eanne Marie Teutonico, Lecturer,

Historic Preservation

Reader

^©dvid G. De top^, l^rofess^or of/-^rchi

top<5
Graduate Group Chairman

tecture

VC9

/VA 10^ / '^-^'3 / ^7.^ ^

PiWWSYLVANlA
LIBRARIES

To my Bister, Krista

11

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 2 : GRANITE FORMATION, PROPERTIES,

QUARRYING AND FINISHING TECHNIQUES

CHAPTER 3 : MECHANISMS OF DETERIORATION 14

CHAPTER 4 : DATA COLLECTION

CHAPTER 5 : ANALYSIS 49

CHAPTER 6 : OPTIONS FOR INTERVENTION

CHAPTER 7 : CONCLUSION 70

APPENDIX A : ILLUSTRATIONS 72

APPENDIX B : GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY SHEETS 84

BIBLIOGRAPHY 115

111

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank my advisor, Samuel Y. Harris
for his encouragement and knowledgeable advice; Jean
Marie Teutonico for synthesizing technical and
theoretical approaches; and all of the other people who
shared their time and knowledge.

I also would like to e>;pres5 my gratitude to the
members of my family and my friends for their constant
encouragement and support.

iv

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Although the quarrying of granite for use as a
building and monumental stone dates back to ancient
civilizations such as Egypt, the actual use was often
reserved for sculpture and choice locations in temples
and monuments, including the famous obelisks and veneer
in a few small rooms in the Temple of Karnak . The
extreme hardness of granite, as compared with other
available stones like marble and limestone, precluded
granite from widespread use as a building stone. With the
mechanization of the quarry process, the advent of
pneumatic hammers, and the development of carbide and
diamond tipped saws, the hardness of granite became less
of an economic consideration.

The durability of granite, related to its low
porosity and non-calcareous mineral structure, made
granite a popular building material, both as a building
stone and for monumental and sepulchral uses. Due to the
relative durability and recent widespread usage in the
United States, granite deterioration has received little
attention outside of academic petro logical journals.
There is a lack of information on tkie mechanisms of
deterioration and options for intervention available to
an architectural conservator when faced with a

deteriorated granite object or building.

After roughly one hundred years of exposure, it has
become apparent that granite does in fact deteriorate,
althoLigh at a slower rate than other corrrmon building
stones. The superior qualities of granite as a building
material led to its widespread use for tombstones,
beginning in the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
Marble and sandstone tombstones have been used in
numerous studies as examples of stone weathering. The
fact that the stones ^^re often placed in direct contact
with the soil, sre relatively thin, and ^re exposed on
all sides leads to accelerated weathering as compared
with building stones which have some measure of
protection provided by a roof and the surrounding stones.
For these reasons, this study utilizes granite tombstones
as examples of stone deterioration.

The churchyard of St. James the Less, a National
Landmark located in Philadelphia, contains many granite
tombstones which exhibit differing types of
deterioration. The examination of these tombstones and
the determination of the causes and rates of
deterioration should help determine the necessity for and
possible methods of intervention. This case study will

provide a review of the mechanisms of granite
deterioration as they apply to gravestones, which when
coupled with the analysis of the surface deterioration of
the granite gravestones at Saint James the Less, may be
applicable to other uses of granite as a building or
monumental stone.

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER 1

(1) Mary Winearls Porter, UJhat Rome Was Bull t With
(London: Henry Frowde, 1907), 62.

CHAPTER 2: GRANITE FORMATION, PROPERTIES,

QUARRYING AND FINISHING TECHNIQUES

The weathering characteristics of granite are in
part determined by the formation process, the properties
of the mineral constituents, and the methods used in the
quarrying and dressing processes. An understanding of
these properties and processes provides a basis for
understanding the complex interactions between the
granite and the environment which produce various types
of surface deterioration on the tombstones.

All igneous rocks are formed when magma, which is
molten silica found below the earth's crust, makes its
way into the earth's crust. If the magma is allowed to
cool within the crust, the resultant rock is called
intrusive or plutonic. These rocks are characterized by
coarse grains, as the magma cools very slowly and large
crystals are formed. If the magmra is extruded above the
earth's surface the magma undergoes rapid cooling and the
resultant grains are much finer. These rocks are called
extrusive or volcanic. Granite is an intrusive rock that
is exposed to the surface by the weathering of less
durable rocks above it and by movements in the earth's
surface. "

The coarse-grained or phaneritic texture of granite
is important, as the larger the grain size, the more the
minerals will behave according to their individual
properties.-' The minerals formed in the crystallization
of an igneous rock depend on the elements present in the
original magma and upon the changing temperature of the
magma as it cools. The minerals whxch make up granite
are chiefly quartz and feldspar.

Quartz comprises up to 25'/. of granite and is formed
from silicon and oxygen." It is colorless when pure, but
impurities can impart a light gray, yellow, pink or
violet color. It has a glassy appearance and a hardness
of 7 on the Mohs scale .

Plagioclase and orthoclase feldspar can constitute
over 507. of granite. Both types of feldspar have a
hardness of 6 and form elongated crystals in igneous
rocks. Plagioclase feldspar forms from aluminum, silicon,
oxygen, and either sodium or calcium, and varies in color
from white to gray. Orthoclase feldspar contains
potassium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen, ranges in color
from white to gray but is often a salmon pink color, and
is much more common in granite than either the sodium-

rich or calcium-rich plagioclase feldspars

8

other minerals present can include either mica in the
form of muscovite or biotite, and amphibole, usually in
the form of hornblende. The micas have a hardness of
between 2-3 on the Mohs scale and can easily split into

parallel sheets due to a weak bond between the more

o
strongly bonded layers. Muscovite ranges from a clear to

a light gray, green or brown color, and is less common

than biotite, which is characterized by a black, dark

green or brown color. Although different in structure,

both micas contain potassium, aluminum, silicon,

oxygen, and hydrogen. Biotite also contains magnesium and

iron as well. ■ Amphibole is a comple;-; family of hydrous

calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, and aluminum silicates

of which hornblende is a common member. The colors range

from dark green to black and the mineral has a hardness

of between 5 and 6 on the Mohs scale. •*■

Due to the mineral constituents and the process in
which it is formed, granite e;;hibits properties which
make it an ideal building and monumental stone. Granite
has an extremely low porosity, between 0.3 and 1.5"/. .■'••^
The bulk density (gm/cm3) is 2.5-2.8.-^-' Granite is also
very hard due to the hardness of the minerals, and
commonly has compressive and tensile strengths higher
than other common building stones.

Beyond the formation process and mineral properties
of granite, the quarrying and cutting processes also
affect the weathering characteristics. Although bronze
chisels were found in Egyptian quarries, early granite
quarrying techniques are not well documented. At this
point in time quarries use a variety of extraction
methods, the choice of which is somewhat dependent upon
the relation of the granite mass to the topology of the
site and the structure of the granite itself." The
oldest methods depend upon the advantageous manipulation

of the rock, structure, either on the large scale in the

1 R
form of fissures and planes of weakness, or on thie

particle level using the cleavage planes between the

minerals. The methods most commonly used in large scale

quarrying today depend upon the force of explosives and

the hardness of the materials used to tip the saws.

The oldest methods used different forms of wedges to
split off sections of rock. One type of wedge method
still employed is called plugs and feathers, referring to
the wedge shaped plugs and the two curved or angled
guides for each plug. In this method, a linear series of

holes are drilled in the granite face, usually 6-9"

1 9

apart, :.-6" deep and with diameters of an inch or less.

The metal feathers are inserted in the hole opposite each

8

other and the plug is placed in the center. The plugs ArB
tapped into the granite in succession along the line,
repeating the tapping process several times, allowing the
granite to split along the particle cleavage planes,
producing a flat rough face.

The introduction of black powder blasting issued in a
new approach to granite quarrying which relied on extreme
forces and very hard tipped saws to extract the stone,
and which characterizes the majority of granite quarrying
operations today. Low powered blasting using dynamite,
black powder, ammonium nitrate fuel, and slurries of
water, fuels and oxidizers btb commonly used in many
granite quarries, and have drastically increased the
output of the quarries since their introduction.'""
Although used in a variety of situations, in dimension
stone quarrying the charges can be used to open up
channels to facilitate removal of large blocks and to

o 1

loosen the blocks from the face.'" Compressed air, from
70 — 100 psi , has also been used in conjunction with
d'/namite and black powder blasting, and can save time if
the quarry and rock conditions permit its usage. '^'^ The
plug and feather inethod is often used in conjunction with
these other quarrying methods, although using air hammer
drills. -^^-^

Jet flame cutting is another technique which uses a
flame that moves at five times of the speed of sound and
burns at 5000F . As the minerals that formed the granite
have different coefficients of expansion, stresses a.re
built up internally which cause the heated areas to spall
off. This technique is used in chanelling, cutting, and
dressing .

Another recently developed method utilizes
continuous belt wire saws which cut by abrasion with the
additions of sand and water. The cut progresses about two
inches and hour and can descend 50-7u feet deep."-"

After the granite has been removed from the rock
face, saws tipped with either diamond or tungsten carbide
Bre used to reduce the large blocks into smaller square
blocks or into slabs.'-

The finishing techniques and tools used on granite,
although now mechanized, remain largely unchanged with
the one exception of the jet flame finish discussed
earlier. The polishing and dressing processes are now
automated or at least augmented with compressed air
tools.

10

Polishing is a process of rubbing the stone surface
with increasingly fine grades of abrasive until the
surface is completely smooth and reflects light. Granite
is a stone which takes a polish extremely well. F'olishing
machines are now automated, but previously there were
hand operated rotating-disc polishing machines. These
machines used a silicon carbide grit in a range of
grades, the final polishing using a felt pad and tin
oxide . ""

Monumental stone relief finishes are not usually
carved but shot-blasted. A rubber stencil is placed on
the stone and the whole area is blasted with silicon
carbide grit. The rubber overlay protects the stone
underneath 4iiiile the unprotected stone is evenly removed
by abrasion.'^

The tools used for finishing granite have not changed
much through time, although the order of usage of the
tools has changed. '^^ Many of the hand finishing tools are
also directly powered by electric or compressed air
instead of separate hand held hammers and mallets. The
cost of the labor intensive methods of hand finishing has
favored the use of machined finishes, such as polishing,
grit blasting and sawn blocks. However, traditional

11

carving and dressing tools sre still used where special
surface finishes are required.

The tools used on granite dressing include chisels,
bolsters, punches, claw tools, pitchers, and bush
hammers. The pitchers have wide, flat and thick ends and
arB used first to remove large pieces of excess stone,
followed by a punch which is pointed, used for the rough
shaping. Ne;;t the surface is worked over with a claw tool
and finished with a variety of chisels and bolsters. The
bolster has a wide and flat edge and is used for shaping
and surfacing. The tips of the chisels can be either
straight, skewed, pointed, or bul 1 nosed . -''-' Bushhammers
have a head of individual pyramidal points and are widely
used on granite to produce a fine, level surface finish
appropriately named after the tool. Most finishing tools
are now tipped with tungsten carbide or carbon steel. ■-^■'■

It is useful to understand the finishing and
quarrying techniques of granite as they may have created
conditions in the stone surface which will affect how the
stone weathers once e>;posed to the environment.
Information concerning the formation, properties, and
mineral constituents of granite can also be relevant in
understanding the different environmental reactions which
lead to surface deterioration.

12

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER 2

(1) Ehard M. Winkler, Stone : Properties , Durabi 1 ity in
Man ' s Environment (New York: Sprinqer-Ver lag , 1975), .1-2.

(2) Richard Nuir, The Stones of Britain (London: Michael
Joseph, 1986), 12.

(3) Winkler, Stone , 1 .

(4) Edward J. Tarbuck and Frederick K. Lutgens, The
Earth; An Introduction to Physical Geology 3rd ed .
(Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co., 1990), 55-56.

(5) Tarbuck, 40, 60.

( 6 ) McGraw-Hi 1 1 Encyc lopedia of Science and Technology
6th ed . , s.v. "guartz."

The Mohs scale of hardness, developed in 18S2,

assigns minerals a number between 1 and 10, based upon

the ability of the mineral to scratch and in turn be

scratched by other minerals on the scale.

1:

Talc

2:

Gypsum

3:

Calcite

4:

Fluorite

5:

Apatite

6:

Orthoc lase

7:

Quartz

S:

Topaz

9:

Corundum

10:

Diamond

The scale is not linear but geometric, as each number
marks a two-fold increase in indentation. The hardness of
a mineral corresponds to the strength of the weakest
bonds, thus the van der Waals bonds of talc place it at 1
and the covalent bonds of diamond place it at 10.
(Tarbuck, 36; Encycopaedia Bri tannica 15th ed . , s.v.
"minerals . " )

(7) Tarbuck, 60.

(8) Tarbuck, 43-44.

13

(9) McGraw-Hill , s.v. "mica."

(10) McGraw-Hill , s.v. "mica."

(11) Winkler, Stone, 197.

(12) Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th ed . , s.v. "physical
properties of rocks."

(13) Encyc lopaedia Britannica 15th ed . , s.v. "physical
properties of rocks."

(14) For comparison purposes, selected properties of
common building stones:

Density Porosity Compressive Tensile
(g/cm3) (7.) Strength( psi ) Strength ( psi )

1.5

Granite 2.5-2.8 0.

Sandstone 1.9-2.5 5-35

Limestone 2.5-2.7 0.1-15

Marble 2.6-2.3 0.4-2

30 , 000-50 , 000 500-1000

5 , O 0 O - 1 5 , O C) C> 10 0 — 2 0 0

2 , O O 0 - 2 O , <I) O 0 4(1)0-850

1 5 , <I) O O — 3 O , O O O 7 O O — 1 0 O O

Table compiled from: Encyc lopaedia Britannica , s.v.
"physical properties of rocks"; McGraw— Hi 1 1 Encyc lopedia
of Sc ience and Technology 6th ed . , s.v. "rock".

(15) Porter, 59.

(16) Patrizia Balenci, et al, "Investigation on the
Degradation of the Stone: XI- Historical Research on the
Techniques of Working," in Conservation of Stone I I Part
A, 2nd ed . (Bologna: Centro per la Conservazione delle
Sculture all' aperto, 1981), 165-194.

This article provides the most complete source of
information on historic quarrying and dressing
techniques .

(17) A.T. Armstrong, comp., Handbook on Quarrying 4th ed .
(Government Printer, South Australia, 1933), 121.

(18) Hugh O'Neill, Stone For Bui Idinq (London: Heinemann ,
1965), 70.

(19) O'Neill, 70.

(20) Encyc lopaedia Britannica 15th ed . , s.v. "mxning and
quarrying . "

14

(21) Halbert Powers Gillette, Handbook of Roc k Excavation
Methods and Cost (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.,
1916), 572.

(22) Gillette, 578-579.

(23) Gillette, 577.

(24) O'Neill, 72.

(25) McGraw-Hil 1 6th ed . , s.v. "quarrying."

(26) O'Neill, 91.

(27) O'Neill, 94.
(23) O'Neill, 95.

(29) Peter Rockwell, Lecture at ICCROM, Rome, August,
1939.

(30) Richard Grasby, Lettercuttinq in Stone (Oswestry,
England: Anthony Nelson Ltd., 1939), 24.

(31) O'Neill, 96.

15

CHAPTER 3: MECHANISMS OF DETERIORATION

The formation process, the properties of the
specific mineral constituents, and the quarrying and
cutting processes taken together with the environment in
which the stone is placed form the mechanisms responsible
for deterioration. The mechanisms which contribute to the
deterioration of granite can be grouped into three
separate categories; mechanical, chemical, and
biological. In practice, however, deterioration often
results frcin the interactions of these mechanisms.

The deterioration of granite due to mechanical
processes range from weaknesses and stresses formed while
the magma cooled, to excessive force used in quarrying
and finishing methods, to salt crysta 1 lation at+cl stresses
due to thermal expansion.

As the molten rock which forms granite does not cool
all in one instant, but very gradually, planes of
weakness can develop where the minerals are not strongly
bound together. These btb not like the parallel bedding
planes of sedimentary rock, but instead tend to be
irregular. These areas of weak bonds can become evident
after the stone is cut and dressed. The shocks created in
blasting and in the percussive blows of finishing can

16

serve to further reduce the bonds and create minute
cracks or fissures. These allow water to ingress and thus
facilitate other mechanical or chemical deterioration
mechanisms .

Winkler describes another process which results in a
visually similar appearance of thin sheets spalling off
the face of the stone. ^ Since granite is an intrusive
rock, the hot magma is forced into voids or cavities
surrounded by previously formed rocks. Internal stresses
created in this environment are no longer confined
internally when the blocks are extracted from the
surrounding rock structure. The phenomenon of rock bursts
and sheeting in granite quarries has long been
acknowledged and is a manifestation of these same
stresses.-' Again, this process is augmented by other
stresses on the stone, such as thermal expansion.

The extent to which dynamite, black powder, and
other types of blasting cause the degradation of granite
is unknown, but most sources agree that heavy blasting
does damage the stone. Minute cracks have been found in
both marbles and limestones which were extracted by
blasting. Another source blamed the "shattering effect
of the dynamite" for the exceedingly poor condition of
the granite, also stating that granite extracted using

17

black powder proved unacceptable as well." The minute
cracks serve to facilitate chemical deterioration,
providing the needed space for water infiltration and
salt crystal lation . Quarrying operations now use low
powered e;;plosive5 to remove granite, but research on the
effects of differing blasting charges on granite
weathering has not been conducted and widely circulated,
so acceptable blasting levels have not yet been
determined .

The effects of finishing techniques on the
weathering characteristics of marble and sandstone have
been researched in a series of studies. These reports
used a variety of methods to evaluate stones worked with
a bushhammer and with chisels. The studies showed that
the surfaces worked with the bushihammer were
overwhelmingly degraded, and that the chisels also caused
some deterioration, both of these in the form of tiny
cracks in the finished surface. The applicability of
these studies to granite may be somewhat limited, as the
constituent minerals of granite bt^ mostly very hard, and
thus would resist the crushing and cracking more than the
marbles and sandstones.

Salt crystallisation, referred to as salt fretting

18

when found on granite, is often named as the culprit of
the fairly common surface peeling of granite, without
further proof except for the visual evidence of a thin
spalling area on the face of the block, Winkler points
out that this phenomena is also found in areas not
exposed to water taorne salts. Given the extremely low
porosity of granite (from 0.5 -1.5"/.) it seems unlikely
that, salt crystallization can cause a significant amount
of deterioration, unless the surface of the block was
sufficiently degraded by tiny fassures, which would
greatly increase the porosity of the stone along this
surface .

The differing coefficients of thermal expansion of
the minerals in granite is used to advantage in the jet
flame miethod used in quarrying and finishing. Thermal
expansion within normal daily temperature ranges is also
used in quarrying to finish separating granite masses
after light charges of powder placed m the horizontal
mass have loosened a lens shaped ArGA. li the
differences in the expansion of granite minerals is such
that it can be utilized to separate the rock, it stands
to reason that these same forces sre sufficiently strong
to breakup the cut granite stones.

Geology provides a basis for understanding the

19

chemical deterioration of granite in universally accepted
theories of progenesis. Due to the slow rate with which
granite weathers, it is helpful to study how granite
formations ars broken down in the soil forming process.
Granite deterioration due to a chemical mechanism is
basically a process of hydrolysis. Most silaceous stones
are affected by this process to differing degrees,
depending on their mineral contents. In theory,
hydrolysis can occur in pure water with the watt-jr
molecules separating into positively charged hydrogen
ions and negatively charged hydro;;yl ions.

H2O > H"^ + HCD~

The positively charged ions in the crystalline rock
structure can be replaced by the hydrogen ions and the
minerals disintegrate as their internal structure is
interrupted .

Most water is slightly acidic due to the formation
of carbonic acid in thie atmospliere when carbon dioxide
dissolves in water.

CO^ + H,,a > H^CO-T

The carbonic acid separates in water into hydrogen ions
and bicarbonate ions.

Most granites contain orthoclase feldsp£Hr, also called

20

potaBsium feldspar. The potassium is the element which i;
attacked in the deterioration process. When water
containing carbonic acid comes in contact with granite,
the hydrogen ions replace the potassium ions in the
feldspar. The end product of this reaction is a clay
mineral kaolinite.

2KAlSi-.0o + 2(H"^ + HCO-^ ) + H^O >

potassium carbonic acid water

feldspar

Al^SioO^,(OH)^ + 2K"^ + 2HC0-;r~ + 4Si02
kaolinite potassium bicarbonate silica

ion ion

\ /

in solution

As the potassium feldspar decomposes into kaolinite, the
bonds with the surrounding minerals is released leaving
the quartz and other minerals as unattached particles,
thus contributing to the granular dissolution of the
rock .

This process can be seen in the feldspar as the
mineral, which usually has a pearly luster, turns cloudy
and then into the clay. On a larger scale, this process
can be seen in huge granite formations where a crevice
has given water access to the rock surface and the crack
has become filled with clay This same process is also

evident where large clay deposits &<r& found above granite

12
masses .

21

This process of deterioration is a reaction between
the granite minerals and weakly acidic water. In
industrial or otherwise polluted environments the rain
water often contains sulphuric acid and/or nitric acid.
Both of these acids s^rs considerably stronger than
carbonic acid and it follows that these acids may be
responsible for the increased deterioration of granite
noticed in large cities and other industrial areas. A
model for this chemical reaction could be proposed which
is similar to that for carbonic acid.

Bacteria, fungi, and lichens have all been
associated with the biodeterioration of stone. Although
these microorganisms and lower plants can deteriorate
rock, their presence on a stone does not guarantee that
they are the cause of the deterioration. Several studies
have proven that micro-organisms can reduce feldspar and
other aluminum silicates to kaolin.-'-' The deterioration
processes due to micro-organisms and lower plants are
largely chemical reactions, very similar to the chemical
deterioration processes previously outlined, save for the
origin and specific types of acids produced.

The role of the lower plants m the process of

22

progenes.iB has long been accepted. Yet the e>;tent to
which, and the mechanisms with which bacteria, algae,
fungi, and lichens contribute to the breakup of rock into
soil forming particles has been debated with different
theories vying for acceptance. Regardless of th"ie accepted
theory, the same mechanisms of biodeter ioration present
on rock outcrops also lead to the deterioration of
masonry. Thus the process of progenesis becomes a
conservation issue when the substrate is cut stone.

The effects of biodeterioration are most noticeable
on finely carved elements, such as statuary, tombstones,
or monuments, so these have received the most attention
and treatment. Biodeterioration is also much more of a
problem in warm and humid climates. The microbial popula-
tion is high in moderate semihumid and humid climates and
even higher in humid tropical regions. Lichiens in
particular ^atb sensitive to pollutants, and generally do
not thrive in urban areas. The information on the subject
generally reflects these parameters and either represents
large scale situations in humid, unpolluted regions or
specific locations where the microclimate was conducive
to microbial growth, with the majority of information
addressing decorative elements.

Bacteria are involved in the production of both

sulphuric and nitric acids. Sulphur-reducing bacteria
such as Desul f ovibrio desul f uricans turns sulfate into
hydrogen sulphide. Some strains of another genus of
bacteria, Thiobac i 1 lus , can o>;idize the hydrogen sulphide
into sulfuric acid. Nitrifying bacteria and nitrogen
producing bacteria can work in conjunction to produce
nitric acid from nitrogen. In the first step, two types
of bacteria take either atmospheric nitrogen or nitroge-
nous organic matter and convert it into ammonia. A thj.rd
type of bacteria can o;;idine the ammonia to produce
nitric acid. These acids produced by bacteria attack
granite, specifically the potassium feldspar minerals,
through the same processes as when the sulphuric and
nitric acids are present in rain.

There also exist micro— organisms which can reduce
and oxidize the iron contained in minerals. The iron
content of hornblende increases with the acidity of the

rock, and granite, as one of the most acidic rocks, often

1 fl
contains black colored hornblende. Biotite also

contains iron, and feldspar may have iron present,

sometimes in the form of hematite as an accessory

1 ^
mineral. All of these minerals may potentially be

attacked by iron reducing micro-organisms.

Lichens sire a lower plant form characterised by a

2A

symbiotic relationship between fungi and either algae or
bacteria. As the fungal component is responsible for the
deterioration of the substrate, lichens a.re considered
here along with other types of fungal growth. Although
the rock substrates are deteriorated by mechanical and
chemical mechanisms, the bulk of research addresses the
chemical processes.

Deterioration due to fungal and lichen growth on
masonry surfaces has been widely documented but not well
understood. A study of lava flows in Hawaii found that
the depth of weathered material was 71 times greater
beneath a lichen cover compared to the bare surface."""
Conversely, quarried blocks of stone left for 150 years

O 1

still exhibit tool marks beneath a lichen cover.'- In
response to these observations, many theories have been
offered, but a definitive explanation has not yet
surfaced. Part of the problem is that as lichens have not
successfully been cultivated in a laboratory, all re-
search on the subject has been site specific. Laboratory
research has been carried out on the fungal partners of
lichens, which coupled with the field documentation leads
to a better understanding of the mechanisms of stone
deterioration due to fungal growth.

25

It appears that the deterioration of maBonry from
lichens and fungi results from the contributions of
several different mechanisms, both mechanical and
chemical .

Although it is generally accepted that mechanical
action plays a part in the process of masonry
deterioration due to the growth processes of lower
plants, there appears to be some confusion over the
specific mechanisms. Often repeated explanations iire
based upon assumptions instead of controlled
observations, there being only a few examples oi actual
research into the subject.

Two writers comment that regardless of the other
chemical or mechanical processes involved, lichen growth
on masonry should be discouraged as the lichen thallus
retains water which could be damaging to the stone
surface. ■^'^ In considering the potential damage it is
important to note that rain water is naturally slightly
acidic due to dissolved CO-, which forms a weak carbonic
acid, in polluted atmospheres other acids form which ^re
stronger. So if water is retained in the pores and cracks
by tl"ie fungal hyphae, there could be a damaging effect.
However, The hyphae cell walls <^rB gelatinous, especially
those of the medulla and rhizones, which contact the

26

stor"ie surface. The lichens do not have any specialized
method or structures to control water loss. Eioth
laboratory testing and field observation document that a
saturated thallus will dry out in a few hours of dry
weather.-^-' The water content of a lichen reflects the
amount of water present in the immediate environment, and
thus the threat of deterioration due to water retention
is of minor, if any, concern, and the claims to this
effect Are unfounded.

Fry studied the effect of drying gelatin on glass,
gelatin on shale, and lichens on shale. The gelatin and
the lichens expand when moist and contract when dry. The
effect of the strong adhesion between the gelatinous
hyphae and the substrate can break off particles of rock
when moisture is lost and the hyphae or gelatin
contracts.^ These rock particles do not appear to be
chemically altered, and a<re eventually enveloped by the
lichen thallus, and the process proceeds to the next

layer of substrate

25

As most masonry is porous to a greater or lesser
extent, the effect of the hyphae which grow inside the
pores and cracks should be considered as a possible site
of mechanical deterioration. Hyphae usually do not
penetrate into the substrate deeper than a few

millimeters, but hyphae have been recorded at a depth of
16mm. ^'^

Several studies have attributed the deterioration of
stone, at least partially, to the mechanical penetration
of the hyphae, but there is no evidence to support this
assumption, e;;cept for the observation that hyphal cells
extend longitudinally when moistened, not radially.*- So
the uptake of water may create enough pressure for the
hyphae to borrow into the substrate, but no research
exists to support this theory. One study of lichens which
grow on silicate rocks determined that the fungal
rhizoids only penetrate the mica crystals and that the
fungal hyphae tend to grow in the mica cleavage planes.
The author attributed this tendency to chemical deterio-
ration as the bonds between the layers of mica are both

mechanically and chemically weak bonds.

28

Thus the only mechanical process of deterioration
that can be supported is the process whereby small
particles of rock are broken off due to the adhesion of
the hyphae to the substrate and the contraction of the
gelatinous material in the hyphae as it dries.

The mycobionts of the lichen produce or"ganic acids

28

as byproducts of the metabolism process. These organic
acids are readily soluble, and Bre ^^^turally occurring
chelating agents. So, chelation is the weathering process
resulting from the production of the acids."- Citric acid
and oxalic acid ^re the two acids most often identified
as active in solubilizing minerals.

There s^re differing explanations for the presence of
oxalates on stones, and this presence has been documented
as early as 1853 by J. Von Liebigs in Liebiqs Annals of_
Chemistry ■ ~' ' According to some authorities, oxalates
occur in plants which were used as coloring agents on
stone, and oxalic acid was also used as a polish for
marble." Although these applications may account for
some of the? oxalates found on stones, mono and di-hydrate
calcium oxalate has been documented on deteriorated stone
beneath lichen or fungal growth as well as in the thallus
itself. X— ray diffraction, a scanning electron
microscope, and a polarizing microscope have been used to
differentiate the calcium oxalate crystals on various
stone substrates; marble columns in Venice, a marble
figure on a church in Florence, a sandstone monument in

TO

Kiel, Germany, and on the stones at Borobudur, Java.-''^

The oxalic acid crystallizes to form oxalates, and
is usually deposited within the thallus, accumulating

29

with the age of the lichen, but generally forming 50"/. of
the total weight of the dry thai lus . -'-'' The salts s.re
formed by the extraction of a mineral from the substrate,
usually calcium, for/rung calcium oxalate, but magnesium,
copper and manganese also form oxalates. In this process
the minerals are converted to either siliceous relics or
non-cystal 1 ine weathering products.'- The deterioration
is initially visible as a pitting of the mineral surface,
but the process proceeds until the cohesion of the sur-

face is lost,

35

Citric acid is also produced from the fungal
component of lichens as well as other fungi. When a
lichen-forming fungus of a silicate rock was cultured and
grown with silicate rock forming minerals, the citric
acid solubilized a high percent of the minerals: up to
317. Si, 127. Al, 647. Fe, and 597. Mg . Feldspar and quarts
were the most resistant minerals." Iron and Magnesium
were most susceptible to fungal attack, and minerals such
as biotite and hornblende will deteriorate more quickly
than the quartz and feldspar in granite.

The chemical weathering of stones due to the growth
of a lichen thai lus depends upon the type of rock and
upon the minerals with which it is formed. The organic
acids produced b/ the mycobiont can remove the minerals

M.)

by a chelating mechanism, leaving an unstable residue
behind .

The deterioration of masonry due to lichen and
fungal growth follows the same processes as the
biodeterioration of rock in a soil forming process, which
can be a combination of both mechanical and chemical
mechanisms. The lichen thallus often envelops pieces of
the substrate which ^re not chemically altered, but
mechanically separated by the adhesion and contraction
properties of the fungal hyphae, and incorporated in the
thallus by growth and movement due to the wet/dry
cycling. Chemically altered minerals, often in the form
of mineral salts, eire also found in the lichen thallus,
transported there by chelation processes. Organic acids
produced by the fungal symbiont in lichens and other
fungi can solubilize biotite, hornblende and feldspar
crystals. Bacteria and algae also can deteriorate
granite, as they produce citric, o;;alic, sulphuric,
nitric and other organic acids which attack certain
minerals found in granite.

Damage attributed to the acid production or the
chelating action of biological growths can appear very
similar to deterioration caused by the acids present in

rainwater, or from the wetting of pollutants which are
deposited dry on the stone surface. Feldspar and mica are
the two minerals affected by chemical mechanisms due to
acidic water; feldspar, mica, and hornblende are all
affected by biochemical deterioration processes.
Regardless of the provenance of the acidity and the
minerals attacked, the result is a differential erosion
of the crystals, making the surface initially pitted and
then rougher as more crystals are removed by the actions
of the deterioration miechanisms . Mechanical weakness, in
the form of cracks, tiny fissures, stresses and weak
bonds can be due to the formation, quarrying or dressing
techniques, salt fretting or thermal expansion. Beyond
the often disfiguring results of spalling, all of these
mechanisms contribute to an acceleration of both chemical
and biological deterioration mechanisms by providing
protection of and access for water and biological growth.

The majority of information regarding granite
deterioration comes from a geological background or has
been adapted from research on other building stones.
There is a lack of research specifically addressing the
weathering processes of granite used as a building and
monumental stone. However deficient, this information
provides a preliminary basis for identifying evidence and
understanding field observations.

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER

(1) Richard Grasby, conversation with author, January 26,
1990.

(2) Erhard Winkler, "The Effect of Residual Stresses in
Stone", in The Conservation of Stone I I Part A, 2nd ed .
(Bologna: Centro per la Conservazione delle Sculture all'
aperto, 1981 ) , 4.

(3) Winkler, 4.

(4) R. J. Schaffer, The Weathering of Natura 1 Bui Idinq
Stones (London: HMSO , 1932), 17-18.

(5) Halbert Powers Gillette, Handbook of Rock Excavation
Methods and Cost (New York: hcGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc.,
1916), 578.

(6) Giovanna Alessandrini , et al., "Investigation on the
Degradation of Stones: VIII- The Working Effects on the
Candoglia Marble," in Third International Congress on the
Deterioration and Preservation of Stones Venice, 1979,
411-428; Giovanna Alessandrini, et al., "Investigation on
the Degradation of Stone: X- Effects of Finishing
Techniques on Sandstone and Marble," Conservation of
Stone 1 1 Part A, 2nd ed . (Bologna: Centro per la
Conservazione delle Sculture all' aperto, 1931), 139-164.

(7) A.E. Grimmer, A Glossary of Historic Masonry
Deterioration Problems and Preservation Treatments ,
(Washington D.C.: GPO , 1984), 19; Winkler, "Residual
Stresses" , 4 .

(8) Winkler, "Residual Stresses", 4-6.

(9) Gillette, 577.

(10) Edward J. Tarbuck and Frederick K . Lutgens, The
Earth : An In troduc tion to Physical Geoqraphv ^ 3rd ed .
(Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Co., 1990), 115.

(11) McGraw-Hi 1 1 Encyc lopedia of Science and Technology ,
5th ed . , s.v. "feldspar."

(12) Richard Muir, The Stones of Britain (London: Michael
Joseph, 1986), 13-15; O'Neill, 66.

(13) F.E.N. Eckhardt, "Microorganisms and Weathering of a
Sandstone Monument," in Environmental Bioqeochemistry and
Geomicrobiology Vol.2, ed . Wolfgang E. Krumbein, (Ann
Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 1973), 633-
685.

(14) Erhard Winkler, Stone; Properties, Durabi 1 ity in
Man • s Environment (New York: Springer-Ver lag , 1975), 157.

(15) G.G. Amoroso and V. Fassina, Stone Decay and
Conservation , Materials Science Monographs No. 11
(Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers, 1983), 100-101.

(16) John W. Simpson and Peter J. Horrobin , The
Weathering and Performance of Bui Idinq Materials (New
York: Wi ley-Interscience , 1931), 77.

(17) Winkler, Stone, 157.

(18) McGraw-Hil 1 Encyc lopedia of Science and Technology ,
5th ed . , 5. v. hornblende."

(19) Mc6raw-Hi 1 1 Encyc lopedia of Science and Technology ,
5th ed . , s.v. "feldspar."

(20) David Hawksworth and David Hill, The Lichen-Forming
Fungi (London: Blackie, 1934), 37.

(21) Schaffer, 74.

(22) Winkler, Stone, 156; Schaffer, 74.

(23) Mason E. Hale Jr., The Biology of Lichens (London:
Edward Arnold, 1967), 10-13.

(24) E. Jennie Fry, "A Suggested Explanation of the
Mechanical Action of Lithophytic Lichens on Rocks
(Shale)," Annals of Botany, 33 ( 1924 ): 175-196 .

(25) Fry, 192-193.

(26) Hawkswoth and Hill, 35.

(27) O. Salvadori and A. Zitelli, "Monohydrate and
Dihydrate Calcium Oxalate in Living Lichen Incrustations
Biodeteriorating Marble Columns of the Basilica of Santa
Maria Assunta on the Island of Torcello (Venice)," in
Conservation of Stone I I Part A, 2nd ed . (Bologna: Centre
per la Conservasione delle Sculture all' aperto, 1981),
380; W.E. Krumbein and C. Lange, "Decay of Plaster,
Paintings and Wall Material of the Interior of Buildings

34

via Microbial Activity," in Environmental EiioqeochcE'mistrv
and Geomic rob io logy , Vol.2, Wolfgang E. Krumbein , ed . ,
(Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, 197S),
695.

(28) E. Bachmann, "The relation between silica lichens
and their substratum," Berichte der deutschen Botanischen
Gesel Ischaft 22 ( 1904 ): 101-104 .

(29) E.B. Schalsa, H. Appelt, and A. Schaltz, "Chelation
as a weathering mechanism-I. Effect of completing agents
on the solubilization of iron from minerals and
granodiori te, " Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , 31
(1967) :5a7.

(30) Salvadori, 385.

(31) Unn Plahter and Leif Einar Plahter, "Notes of the
Deterioration of Donatello's Marble Figure of St. Mark on
the Church of Orsanmichele in Florence," Studies in
Conservation, 16 (1971):117.

(32) Salvadori; Plahter; F.E.N. Eckhardt, "Microorganisms
and Weathering of a Sandstone Monument," in Environmental
Bioqeochemistry and Geomicrobioloqy Vol.2, ed . Wolfgang
E. Krumbein, (Ann Arbor, Mich.: Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, 1978), 675-686; Siswowiyanto , Samidi, "How to
Control the Organic Growth on Eiorobudur, Stones After the
Restoration," in Conservation of Stones I I Part B, 2nd

ed . (Bologna: Centro per la Conservasione delle Sculture
all' aperto, 1981), 759-768.

(33) Salvadori, 384.

(34) Hawksworth and Hill, 86.

(35) Schaffer, 74.

(36) Melvin Silverman and Elaine Munoz , "Fungal Attack on
Rock: Solubilization and Altered Infared Spectra,"
Science. 169 ( 1970 ): 985-987 .

35

CHAPTER 4: DATA COLLECTION

The Church of Saint James the Less is located less
than half of a mile east of the Schuylkill river,
three and a half miles northwest of the center of
Philadelphia. The immediately surrounding area contains
residential neighborhoods, several large cemeteries,
scattered industrial plants, and is near portions of
Fairmount Park. The churchyard itself is roughly
triangular in shape, with the ends of the church facing
east and west. The gravestones of the churchyard surround
the church building and Are situated in lines parallel to
the east/west facing walls of the church, so that the
front face of the upright stones face east. There aire
approximately 1600 gravestones in the churchyard, of
which 980 3.re cut from granite or granitic stones. Many
of the granite gravestones aire from relatively recent
dates, and the earlier granite stones tend to be
unpolished and of simpler design as compared with the
later stones. There is a wide variety of stone types and
designs within the granite tombstones, ranging from
medium to coarse-grained, flat tablets to upright
positioned markers, from simple designs to stones with
intricate carvings. The oldest granite stone dates from
1864 and the most recent from 1989.

36

In order to facilitate the recording of data from
the examinations of the gravestones, a granite tombstone
inventory sheet was developed (Figure 1). Information
necessary to identify, locate, and date the stone is
included along with other types of information. Factors
relevant to mechanisms of deterioration are included in
the inventory based upon background research and
preliminary field surveys. This information includes
factors which affect the weathering characteristics of
granite, factors which may augment environmental
influences, and visible evidence of deterioration.

Beyond factors such as grain size and mineral
constituents discussed in the chapter on deterioration
mechanisms, there s^re other factors which affect the
weathering of granite gravestones. The length of time of
exposure of a gravestone is important in determining
rates of deterioration, and the date of death is
generally considered to be accurate within two years of
the date of installation of the headstone.-^ The
orientation of the faces of upright stones affects the
extent to which environmental factors play a role: heat
from sunshine, biological growth, abrasive winds all
affect the stones unevenly. The design of the monument
also affects the patterns of weathering; horizontal Areas

Figure 1: Granite Tombstone Inventory Sheet (Sample)

BRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample #_
Name

Date of Death

Appro;;. Years of Exposure
Lot # or Appro;-!. Location_
Design of the Monument

Orientation of Upright Stones
Surface Discoloration

Minerals (color and abundance):

Quartz Feldspar

Mica Hornblende

Grain Size: Coarse Medium

Visible Biological Growth^

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas

Unpolished Area!

Comments

•;e

retain water for longer periods, and decorative reliefs
can guide large amounts of water along the recesses.
Although there a.re other explanations, green or black
surface discolorations on granite may be due to
biological growth, and should be noted. The
differentiation between horizontal and vertical areas,
and polished and unpolished surfaces, follows from an
initial survey which documented differences in the
surface conditions of these different areas on the same
stones. Distinction between orientations of the vertical
faces will also be noted in the documentation of the
surface condition of the stone.

The choice of gravestones which would provide a
representative sample for the purposes of this study took
into account both age and granite type. The range of ages
includes recent stones for comparison but depends more on
stones in the older age categories. Gravestones were also
chosen for examination to document a range of grain sizes
and differences in the appearance or relative abundance
of the mineral constituents.

The methodology of the gravestone examination
process first involves recording the information
regarding identification, date and location as well as

39

other factors such as design, orientation and
discoloration. The remaining information is gained on the
microscopic level. The stone surfaces Are examined with a
20>; magnifying lens, and then documented photographically
with a macro 10;-; lens on black and white film. These
observations 3.rB made to determine the presence of
minerals, the size of grains, and the presence of
biological growths.

The minerals arB identified by visual properties of
color, luster, and structure of the crystal formations.
Grain size is decided on a comparative basis, for
although granite is characterized by a coarse-grained
structure, there exists a range of grain sizes within the
coarse-grained classification. In medium-grained stones,
the crystals are visible with the magnifying lens and the
mean grain size is between 1 and 5 mm. In coarse-grained
stones all of the mineral crystals are visible with the
unaided eye; mean grain size is greater than 5 mm . -^

Visible biological growth is determined by the
existence of green, red, or black, spherical, globular,
or strand-like particles, which are usually visible with
an unaided eye or the strength of the 20>; magnifying
lens. As the differentiation of biological matter is
largely aided by color differences, the photographs do
not adequately document these growths.

40

The illustrations referred to in the te;;t Brs in
Appendix A. The individual inventory sheets are collected
in Appendix B.

Thirty granite tombstones were closely examined.
These headstones ranged from 11 to 127 years of exposure,
with a myriad of designs and locations within the
graveyard. The front face of all the upright stones faced
east .

The surface discolorations visible with an unaided
eye varied between green and black. The green areas
commonly occurred near the ground, on the north side,
and on the north ends of the east and west sides of the
monuments. Upon examination under magnification, the
green areas appeared either globular or more elongated.
Differing types of black discoloration were observed, one
type which did not appear to be biological consisted of a
thin irregular covering which did not scrape away. Other
black areas were quite thick and always found in areas
inaccessible to water washing. Another type of black
discoloration w£-i5 actually green under magnification. The
fourth type of black discoloration always had pitting of
the surface associated with it. These surfaces were

41

usually located on diagonal areas, such as the angle from
the base to the body of an upright stone, or on
horizontal areas. These surfaces were almost uniformly
darkened except for the pitted areas (illustrations 1-4).
A distinct type of black discoloration occurred in four
stones along the edges of polished surfaces
(illustrations 5 ?< 6).

Surface deterioration is initially more visually
apparent on coarse— grained than on the medium-grained
granites, and also more apparent on polished areas than
on unpolished sawn finishes and rough dressed stones. The
horizontal surfaces of unpolished medium-grained granites
had often lost most of the marks of the sawn finish on
about a half of the stones that originally had this
finishing. On these stones the saw marks were still
visible on the vertical areas (illustrations 7 & 8). Upon
examination under magnification, it is apparent that the
uripolished areas Bre more uniformly deteriorated, whereas
the polished areas may have disfiguring pitting on an
otherwise unaltered surface. This type of surface
deterioration can be seen in the absence of the feldspar
and mica crystals which are distinguishable in the
polished surfaces (illustrations 9 &. 10). The finer-
grained granites mask the deterioration effects better as
the crystals ars smaller and less apparent when reduced

42

or lost.

One tombstone had large areas of the surface flaking
off. The coloring of the surface of this area of the
stone varied slightly from that of the rest of the stone
(illustration 11). The flakes had a relatively even
thickness and there were no signs of clay. Under
magnification, an amber colored mineral, probably
feldspar, appeared unaltered. None of the mineral
crystals showed any evidence of alteration, the flaking
appeared to split along the mineral boundaries
(illustration 12).

The surfaces of the gravestones were examined under
magnification to locate and characterize any biological
growth. Beyond the obvious north side, green growths were
found on other vertical, diagonal and horizontal
surfaces, and on polished, unpolished and rough dressed
areas .

On the north sides of the unpolished areas, the
green growth was recorded growing on all of the minerals.
At other orientations and on horizontal surfaces, a
biological growth occurred almost exclusively on the
hornblende. With an unaided eye, where the hornblende

appeared in smaller crystals, many of the surfaces with
these growths had a black tinge. In granites with larger
crystals, the hornblende had a distinct green color due
to the concentration of the biological growths. Spherical
green biological growths were also located in the
recessed areas on all orientations and horizontal
surfaces of rough dressed gravestones.

On polished surfaces, different types of biological
growth were visible. Both green and reddish-orange
strand-like elongated growths were observed along the
grain boundaries, and greenish-black growths also were
located on the polished surfaces of these coarse-grained
stones .

The green and red elongated biological growths were
also visible under the polished surface; the stones where
these growths occurred were coarse-grained, and were
documented on recent tombstones only exposed 13 years as
well as on stones almost 100 years old. In the oldest
stones there were areas which protruded from the polished
surface. Along the edges of these areas the quarts
crystals were chipped and flaked, and the green and red
growths were visible underneath (illustrations 13 A:14).

A lichen, or lichenised fungi, was documented on

one

44

stone with almost 100 years of exposure, about one inch
in diameter. Quartz crystal flakes were attached along
the edges of the plant, separated from the stone surface,
and there was an indentation of the stone surface beneath
the growth. Clay particles were found under the growth
(illustrations 15 & 16).

The quartz crystals were the most unaltered, on
polished areas the crystals retained the smooth surface
and typical glassy luster; on unpolished areas the quartz
crystals remained in place, along with hornblende, where
the other minerals had deteriorated and disappeared
(illustrations 9 &. 10).

In all of the gravestones studied, the mica crystals
were relatively small particles, in all cases smaller
than the hornblende particles. One fifth of the stones
apparently did not contain mica. Under magnification,
mica was often visible in polished areas and on vertical
faces, but absent on the horizontal and unpolished
surfaces .

The hornblende particles had a matte quality similar
to charcoal. On polished areas the hornblende often broke
the smooth surface with small pits, appearing as a

roughening of the crystal surfaces. On unpolished areas
the particles appeared the same, but were usually the
only mineral remaining with the quarts on deteriorated
surfaces (illustrations 1-4, 9).

The feldspar minerals appeared most often in the
common salmon pink color, but one third of the stones
contained amber, light yellow, or a cloudy white
feldspar. Even in the most recent gravestones the
potassium feldspar exhibited early signs of
deterioration. Yet most of the feldspar crystals were in
excellent condition, the characteristic color and pearly
luster still intact, on polished, unpolished, and rough
dressed stones. Often the amber, yellow, and white
feldspars were found in stones which were in better
condition than the pink colored feldspar containing
stones. In the stones exposed over 50 years, some of the
potassium feldspar crystals were either entirely missing,
deteriorated into clay, or showed signs of deterioration
as the crystals became cloudy and clay-like.

On the horizontal unpolished surfaces of the finer-
grained granite stones, the feldspar minerals were almost
entirely absent, whereas some of the feldspar crystals
were still visible on the vertical faces or on polished
surfaces (illustrations 9 &. 10). On polished surfaces,

46

even those exposed over 100 years, many of the feldspar
crystals were still smooth, even with the polished plane,
and still retained the pearly luster, while on the same
surface in close proximity, there were clay deposits and
empty holes, presumably where a feldspar crystal
previously existed (illustrations 17 - 21).

The summary of the data collected from examining the
granite gravestones at Saint James the Less follows the
format of the survey sheet. The analysis of this
information addresses the general types of evidence of
deterioration and determines the causes and rates of
weathering .

47

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER 4

(1) Johannes J. Feddema, Air Pol lution Effects on Marble
Weathering in Phi 1 adel phia , Pennsylvania (Center ton, NJ :
C. W . Thormwaith Associates, 1986), 4.

(2) Richard Thorpe and Geoff Brown, The Field Description
of Igneous Rocks (Milton Keynes, England: Open University
Press, 1985), 32.

48

CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS

Based upon the data gathered on the surface
deterioration of the granite tombstones in the churchyard
of Saint James the Less, and the previous research on
granite properties and deterioration mechanisms, an
analysis and interpretation can be made to determine
probable causes, initiating factors, and rates of the
deterioration process. The majority of information gained
in the tombstone survey is based upon qualitative
assessments, and not quantitative measurements, but as
many of the deterioration mechanisms can be identified,
at least initially, by visual evidence, the observations
gained through the tombstone examination surveys provide
important indicators of the causes of the surface
deterioration .

The data indicated several factors which affect the
deterioration processes which were not addressed in any
of the relevant conservation literature consulted.
Following a discussion of these topics, the specific
observations of evidence of deterioration is analyzed
using relevant information gathered at the site and
background information from geological and conservation
studies. Consideration is given to other studies which
determined weathering rates of granite, and the

49

conclusions Are compared with the conclusions of the
analysis of the site observations to determine the causes
and rates of weathering.

One repeated observation in gathering information on
the surface conditions of the granite stones is the
marked difference of surface conditions between polished
and unpolished areas. Although no research has been
located to corroborate this observation, the process of
polishing must create surface conditions very different
from the unpolished areas, and appears to provide a
measure of protection to the stone. The explanation for
this is relatively straightforward; the polishing process
creates a smooth planar surface eliminating much of the
rough surface which can harbor algae, collect and hold
water. Thus the polished areas provide protection against
both chemical and biological deterioration processes as
the smooth surface limits both the amount of biologicail
agents which can adhere to it and lessons the length of
time of contact with water which can contain carbonic,
sulphuric, and nitric acids. The presence of polished
surfaces affects the influence of both chemical and
biological mechanisms of deterioration of granite.

Many types of biological growth were documented, but

50

only in a few cases can the deterioration be directly
linked with the presence of the growth; the ingress of
water can precede, or augment the action of the
biological growths which cause the degradation of the
surface. These cases sire examined along with the other
cases in which biological growth was recorded on the
tombstones, but there was no evidence of deterioration
which could directly related to the growths.

Algae prefers to grow in moist and shaded
environments, and needs a suitable substrate as it does
not have highly effective means of attaching to a
surface, for this reason algae is often the photobiont of
lichens as the fungal component provides the necessary
structure. At the graveyard of Saint James the Less, the
algae was found on all sides of the monuments, with the
majority on the north side. The algae grew on both
horizontal and vertical surfaces, but was not found on
any of the polished vertical surfaces, probably due to
the fact that the planar surfaces do not provide any
BrssiB which could harbor the algae.

Another field observation, while not proof of
deterioration, is interesting to note. On unpolished
areas minerals had disappeared, the hornblende often was
covered with a green biological growth, while the quartz

51

crystals were relatively free from growth. A possible
explanation for this occurrence is the existence of
certain micro-organisms which reduce and oxidize the iron
which is present in minerals, including hornblende. The
hornblende does not appear to be significantly
deteriorated by the presence of the growth.

The polished surfaces of several coarse-grained
monuments, both of recent and lengthy exposure displayed
strand-like green and red growths between the crystal
boundaries. Under magnification, these growths appeared
gelatinous, resembling the descriptions of fungal hyphae.
These growths were also found in areas underneath the
polished surface. In these areas the surface protruded,
had cracks between the crystals, and the mineral crystals
around the edges were flaked and chipped. Giorgio Jorr sea
described a similar occurrence in Italy where micro-
organisms were found growing beneath the glazing of
tiles, where the glaze was translucent enough to permit
light through to the growths.'^ It was not clear if the
micro-organisms were responsible for any deterioration of
the glazing or were just taking advantage of a protective
shelter. In the granite stones in question, the quartz is
translucent enough to transmit light, and the cracks
could collect water and provide shelter, but the presence

52

of the quartz flakes, and relatively unaltered feldspar
crystals indicates that the mechanism may not be solely
chemical but possibly also biochemical and biomechanical .

Out of the thirty gravestones examined, only one
lichen or lichenized fungi was found. The one recorded
was appro;!imately one inch in diameter, and as lichens
grow radially an estimated 0.5- 5.0mm a year,-' this lower
plant could be from 5 to 50 years old. Flakes of quartz
surrounded and were attached along the outer edges of the
lichen. Clay particles cover the area underneath the
1 ichen .

The quartz flakes Bre significant, as the chemical
deterioration processes are not described as having any
effect on quartz crystals. There are certain bacteria,
fungi and other micro-organisms which can dissolve
silicates, but most stuidies on the subject show that
other minerals are solubilized in much larger
percentages. One study suggested that the fungal
component of lichens can break off flakes of stone by the
mechanical action of the gelatinous hyphae which adhere
to the stone surface, and when they dry and shrink, can
separate flakes of shale. Granite does not have the
parallel layers and fine-grained structure of shale, but
the same mechanism could be responsible for the quartz

flakes here, and as the stone in question has been
exposed for 95 years, it is possible that the surface was
partially degraded in that area, before the lichen started
growing, thus weakening the minerals. So in this case it
seems probable that the damage surrounding the lichen
could be partly attributed to the mechanical action of
the plant, and partly to a biochemical process which
produces the clay.

Some of the torribstones had other types of
indeterminate biological growth, which appears to cause
some minerals to deteriorate. Underneath this growth, on
a polished surface, certain minerals were pitted and
stained brown. Several sources also document pitting on
granite surfaces due to biological growth, or in areas of
very little atmospheric pollution." Due to the production
of organic acids and the conversion and reduction of
minerals by micro-organisms, coupled with documentation
of this condition in other studies, the deterioration in
this case seems to be caused by the presence of the
biological growth on the stone surface.

The background research on the chemical
deterioration mechanisms indicated that the potassium
feldspar crystals would degrade into kaolinite, a clay.

54

due to the carbonic, sulphuric or nitric acids in the
rainwater. The information gained in the tombstone
examinations confirmed this prediction, but the survey
gathered other information which was not adequately
addressed in previous studies.

In several recent stones which were e;;posed only 11
and 28 years, the orthoclase feldspars had brick-red
spots in the centers of the crystals, which appeared like
stains around a central spot. This condition was found on
only two stones in the graveyard. One possible
explanation for this observation os that the feldspar can
have small amounts of an iron containing mineral,
hematite, contained in the crystal which turn pink,
orange, or brick-red when altered chemically. So these
spots Are the first visible sign of either chemical or
biochemical deterioration of the feldspar crystals in
these gravestones.

The most visible evidence of chemical deterioration
can be seen on the polished areas where the feldspar
minerals are often entirely missing so that the surface
has deep pitting, or the feldspar has deteriorated into
clay, which is held in place by the surrounding minerals.
Even on polished granite tombstones around 100 years old,
only about 5 or 10"/. of the feldspar crystals btb altered.

55

On unpolished stones over 50 years old the feldspar can
be seen on the vertical faces, but not on the horizontal
areas. Although no research has been located to
corroborate this explanation, the difference in condition
between the vertical and horizontal surfaces may be due
to the amount of contact between the stone surface and
water, the horizontal, unpolished areas tending to harbor
the water, thus exposing the stone to longer contact with
acids present in the water.

Another observation related to contact with water is
the areas of a black surface discoloration and pitting
usually located in areas that receive large amounts of
runoff, such as the recessed areas in elaborate designs
and the area connecting the base to the headstone. Upon
examination under magnification, the white, pitted areas
Are bright, clean quartz crystals, and the darkened areas
appear to be a thin film which is not biological and
which covers all of the minerals. This is a situation of
differential removal of the minerals, but no evidence of
clay, or biological growth appeared, so the cause is
difficult to assign to a particular mechanism, other than
chemical deterioration.

There were some observations made in the survey of

56

the tombstones which are neither evidence of
deterioration, nor factors in the process, but which
deserve an explanation and comment. A type of black
surface discoloration is common on the upright and
elaborate horizontal gravestones. These areas ar(^
characterised by an even opaque coating and Bre located
in areas which are inaccessible to water. A similar
condition has been explained on a carbonaceous stone as a
deposit of dust which is not chemically of physically
bonded to the stone and has not altered the stone

substrate, and is typically located in areas where

■J
rainwater cannot wash the surface. Condensation is still

a consideration here, for airborne pollutants can be

deposited dry on stone surfaces, and then wetted by

condensation which can react with the pollutant to

produce acids. There also is the possibility that the

pollLitants can chemically bond with the stone surface,

making removal difficult. However, there was no visible

deterioration associated with this condition on the

stones examined.

There arB a few overall observations which can be
made from this study about the processes and rates of the
various deterioration mechanisms which affect granite. It
appears that micro-organisms grow on the tombstones soon
after their placement in the churchyard, and evidence of

57

deterioration due to biological growth has been found on
stones exposed only 20 years. The process of chemical
deterioration takes longer before it becomes visually
apparent, but some stones exposed 11 and 18 years show
initial signs of weathering. It is difficult to establish
a rate of deterioration for mechanical mechanisms as
either the damage is already in place before the stone is
exposed to the environment, or the mechanisms work in
conjunction with chemical and biological mechanisms.

There have only been a few studies which aimed at
estimating a rate of deterioration of granite. Although
this study did not generate quantitative measurements of
deterioration, consideration of these other studies
yields some information important and relevant to this
study .

In 1880, Professor Archibald Geikie presented a
paper entitled "Rock-Weathering, as illustrated in
Edinburgh Churchyards" to the Royal Society of Edinburgh
in which he refers to experiments made by a Professor
Pfaff of Erlangen which estimated the annual rate of loss
of material to be 0.0076mm on unpolished and O.OOaSmm
from polished granite. ° Geikie remarks that the
experimental stone pieces were left to weather only three

:.8

years which was not long enough to allow true rates of
disintegration to be measured. Gexkie further wrote:

Granite has been employed for too short a
time as a monumental stone in our cemeteries
to afford any ready means of measuring even
appro;;imately its rate of weathering. Traces
of decay in some of its feldspar crystals may
be detected, yet in no case that I have seen
is the decay of a polished granite surface
sensibly apparent after e;;posure for fifteen
or twenty years. "*

This observation supports the observation of this study
that the chemical alteration of the feldspars into clay
takes to roughily 20 years before becoming visually
apparent .

Another study of tombstones weathering rated stones
over 100 years old on a scale of 1 to 6 depending on the
readability of the letters, 1 being unweathered and 6,
extremely weathered. Corrected to an average 100 years,
granite had an average degree of 1.33. As this
weathering rate is a qualitative judgment, and not a
measurement, it cannot be compared with Geikies rates.
However, Rahn ' s general remarks sre useful reference;

What little weathering occurred appeared
to be the pitting developed in biotite and pyroxene
minerals, particularly on the rough textured
(unpolished) granite. The polished granite had
virtually no evidence of weathering; saw marks were
still visible on tombstones over 100 years old.""^"^

59

It should be noted that the cemetery used in this study
is located in a rural setting with very little pollution
in the surrounding Bres, so the granite weathered better
than in the urban setting of Philadelphia. The saw marks
on unpolished granite tombstones at Saint James the Less
were often only visible on the vertical faces; the
horizontal sur faces were deteriorated enough to obscure
or remove the sawn finish. The feldspar minerals with
similar years of exposure were weathered in the
Philadelphia cemetery and unweathered in the environment
of rural Connecticut. Geikie's conclusions reinforce this
observation as the feldspar minerals were deteriorated in
the polluted environment of late nineteenth century
Edinburgh. -' These observations indicate that a polluted
environment, which contributes to an acidic rainfall, is
a major factor in the deterioration of granite. The ease
with which micro-organisms and lower plants can establish
growth on the granite surface also is a factor in the
weathering of the stones. The determination and
understanding of the mechanisms responsible for the
deterioration of granite provides the framework for the
consideration of appropriate methods of intervention
which aim to prevent further damage and perhaps to repair
the deterioration.

60

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER 5

(1) Erhard Winkler, Stone: Properties.^ Durabiii.tY in
Mar's Environment (New York: Springer-Ver 1 ag , 1975), 157.

(2) Giorgio Torraca, Lecture at ICCROM, Rome, August,
1989.

(3) David Hawksworth and Francis Rose, Lichens as
Pol lution Monitors (London: Edward Arnold, 1976), 5.

(4) Melvin Silverman and H. Ehrlich, "Microbial Formation
and Degradation of Minerals," Advances in Microbiology 6

( 1964) : 153-206; Winkler, Stone, 155-158.

(■=.) Ian Wainwright, "Lichen Removal From an Engraved
Memorial to Walt Whitman," APT Bulletin 28, no. 4 (1986):
46-51; Perry H. Rahn , "The Weathering of Tombstones and
its Relationship to the Topography of New England,"
Journal of Geological Education 19 ( 1971 ): 112-118 .

(6) McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology
6th ed., s.v. "feldspar."

(7) Dario Camuffo, "Wetting, Deterioration and Visual
Features of Stone Surfaces in an Urban Area," Atni05E.!jeric
Environment 16, no. 9 (1982):2255, 2253.

(8) Archibald Geikie, "Rock-Weathering as Illustrated in
Edinburgh Churchyards," Proceedings oi the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, (1330): 531.

(9) Geikie, 513.

(10) Geikie, 531.

(11) Rahn, 112-113.

For comparison, the degree of weathering of
sandstone was 2.92; marble, 2.82; and schist, 2.47.

(12) Rahn, 114.

Rahn may have confused pyroxene with hornblende as
the visual characteristics arB similar. In the rock
forming process, under certain environmental conditions,
formerly crystallized hornblende becomes unstable and
breaks down, forming pyro;:ene (McGraw-Hi 1 1 , s.v.
"hornblende"). Granite and granodiorite usually contain
amphibole, of which hornblende is a member, and pyroxene

61

is found in more basic rocks such as diorite, gabbro, and
pendotite (Richard Thorpe and Geoff Brown, Ihe Field
Description of Igneous Rocks, [Milton Keynes, England:
Open University Press, 1935], 43.

(13) Giekie, 519, 531.

CHAPTER 6: OPTIONS FOR INTERVENTION

After the deterioration of an object has been
documented and the mechanisms identified, it is
appropriate to consider if suitable interventions exist
which will halt or retard the deterioration processes.
The first option is to choose not to intervene, to do
nothing. This can be an appropriate choice when available
treatments fail to meet standards of reversibility or
retreatment, or s^re otherwise inappropriate. The second
option IS to accelerate the rate of deterioration, as is
the case in controlled demolition when considerations of
public safety preclude preservation concerns. However,
this is a ra^re occurrence. The third option is to
intervene in the process of deterioration.

A model has been proposed which separates the
differing factors of deterioration and suggests
approaches for intervention which address these
individual components (Figure 2). In this model a
deterioration mechanism results from the interactions
between the material and the environmental factors. The
options for intervention can be grouped into three
approaches based upon the specific component of the
deterioration model they address.

63

Deterioration :

Material + Environment > Mechanism

Intervention: •'^ '^ ■'^

Reconstitution Mitigation Circumvention

Figure 2: Intervention Model

Reconstitution involves an alteration to the
material; replacement, repointing, and reconstruction
fall into this category. As the environment remains
unchanged, the deterioration process will continue as
before, affecting the new material. Mitigation addresses
the environment wxthout intervening in the material, and
works to slow the rate of deterioration. Circumventidn
seeks to alter the set of necessary and sufficient
conditions which give rise to the deterioration
mechanism. This approach receives the most attention in
the form of technological research and experimentation.
This approach often introduces another material in the
treatment process and effectively substitutes the
deterioration mechanism of the original material for a
different mechanism of the new material. If the
mechanisms affecting the new material arst understood,
expected, and preferable to those of the original
material, and if the treatment meets standards of

64

reversibility or retreatment, then the treatment may be
an appropriate intervention.

If the deterioration is due to biological action,
the model is as follows: the material here is granite,
the environment is the presence of biological organisms
plus water, and the mechanism produced is biochemical
dissolution. There atb at least three approaches for
intervention .

The reconsti tution approach suggests recuttinq the
stone, which is a common practice in some cemeteries on
marble gravestones where the name of the deceased or the
design of the monument is deemed to be more important
than the original remaining stone surface. This approach
results in the loss of original design as any new work
erases all traces of the old stoneworking techniques, and
irreversibly alters the monument. An underlying belief to
this approach is the idea that objects should look new
and clean, and that it is undesirable to show the
weathering of time. International charters which address
the preservation of cultural property stress the
preservation of original material, and the preservation
of a materials patina, or the visible signs of age which
develop over time. Based upon these charters, and
prevailing preservation theory, the recutting of

65

weathered monuments is an undesirable option that serves
to damage the significance of the monument.

Approaches which aim to mitigate the environmental
influences 3.re^ limited to repeated treatments with a
biocide appropriate to the organism. There are a
variety of algicides, fungicides, and general biocides
available, but continued treatments are necessary as
growth will reoccur as soon as conditions permit.

The final approach of circumvention aims to block
the organisms, and the water they need, from access to
the stone material. Waterproof and water-repellent
coatings, and these coatings with biocide additives,
serve to form tJiis barrier. Waterproof coatings have
fallen from grace as they serve to block all water and
can create more damage than they prevent as water may
enter from another route and cannot esc^tpe. Water-
repellent coatings allow the passage of water vapor, but
repel liquid water. The inclusion of a biocide serves to
strengthen the power of the treatment against biological
agents of deterioration.

Another option that circumvents the biological
mechanism is the removal of the gravestone from the

6d>

environment and possibly includes the replacement with a
replica. This approach is also practiced but the practice
is not generally recommended as the gravestone loses some
of its integrity when removed from the context of a
cemetery . '^

If the deterioration of granite gravestones is due to
the action of acidic rain water, the options for
intervention Bre similar to those outlined above. Again
the gravestone can be recut but this is not an
appropriate alternative. An option in mitigating the
effects of the environment is to lower the amount of
pollution in the atmosphere, a long term solution
perhaps, but also an effective approach on a global scale
as it does not alter the monument. The importance of this
approach has been voiced by many international
conservation organizations and individual conservators.

The circumvention options again offer a coating,
preferably a water-repellent coating vjhich is impervious
to the action of the acids present in the ram water.

Some marble gravestones have been removed to
interior environments to stop the deterioration process,
but again, this option is a drastic measure which alters
the context and significance of the monument.

67

The intervention proposals B.re based upon a model of
deterioration mechanisms and aim to interrupt the process
of deterioration. Choices for intervention should
consider the amount of surface deterioration and the
significance of the monument as well as the reversibility
or retreatabi 1 1 ty of the proposed treatment.

68

ENDNOTES: CHAPTER 6

(1) The model used here to identify intervention options
was developed by Samuel Y. Harris, and discussion of the
model draws upon class lectures on the subject.

(2) For a discussion of this subject see;

Robert P. Emlen, "Protective Custody: The Museum's
Responsibility for Gravestones," in Markers 1 (1979/30) •
143-147.

69

CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION

Information on the mechanisms of granite
deterioration and appropriate interventions is not
readily available to architectural conservators. This
information has been gathered from sources on geology and
from conservation literature pertaining to granite as
well as other building stones. An understanding of the
formation processes of granite, the properties of the
mineral constituents, and the working techniques provides
a basis for understanding the various mechanisms of
deterioration and the complex interactions which produce
the surface deterioration.

It should be stressed that there are many factors
which affect the weathering characteristics of granite
which have not been adequately researched. There btb also
only a few published cases of treatments to granite, such
as Cleopatra's Needle in New York City. Even well known
cases such as this obelisk have caused disagreement among
e;;perts as to the cause of the surface deterioration.
Hopefully, more research will be conducted in the future
to provide a better understanding of the mechanisms
responsible for the surface deterioration of granite.

The approach for examining the granite tombstones

70

developed in this study assumes a familiarity with the
mechanical, chemical, and biological mechanisms of
deterioration and the visual evidence of these processes.
The examination process is based upon a visual inspection
and requires only a high powered misgnifying lens. This
approach is simple, and readily available as a tool for
field diagnoses. Knowledge of the materials,
deterioration mechanisms, and treatment options of
granite will enable archi tec tur^^l conservators to make
appropriate decisions regarding the treatments of granite
monuments and buildings in an effort to preserve part of
a CLiltural heritage.

71

APPENDIX A: ILLUSTRATIONS

72

ILLUSTRATIONS 1 & 2
DISCOLORED AND PITTED SURFACES

73

ILLUSTRATIONS 3 & 4
DISCOLORED AND PITTED SURFACES

74

ILLUSTRATIONS 5 & 6

DISCOLORED AREAS ALONG EDGES OF POLISHED SURFACES

75

ILLUSTRATIONS 7 & 8

SAWN FINISH APPARENT ON VERTICAL SURFACE;
OBSCURED ON HORIZONTAL SURFACE

■^^m^^^^M^MM¥

76

ILLUSTRATIONS 9 & 10

UNPOLISHED SURFACE- ONLY QUARTZ AND HORNBLENDE PRESENT
POLISHED SURFACE- ALL MINERALS PRESENT

77

ILLUSTRATIONS 11 & 12

FLAKING SURFACE- MACRO AND MICROSCOPIC VIEW

78

ILLUSTRATIONS 13 & 14

BIOLOGICAL GROWTHS UNDER PROTRUDED AND CHIPPED AREA

79

ILLUSTRATIONS 15 & 16

DETERIORATED SURFACE UNDERNEATH LICHEN

80

ILLUSTRATIONS 17 & 18

SURFACE PITTING WITH CLAY PRESENT

' ^.f rv

81

ILLUSTRATIONS 19 & 20

SURFACE PITTING WITH CLAY PRESENT

b

~!2!5r

' 1

^^A^

*

ii.

^'-.*» »

V

^mi^^'^/

82

ILLUSTRATION 21

SURFACE PITTING WITH CLAY PRESENT

... - ■ ■ - -.

i

i

^

83

APPENDIX B: GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY SHEETS

84

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample tt 1_

Name Susan wife of Geoi-Qe Hirneison Sr.
Date of Death harch 18, 1B64

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 126

Lot tt or Approx. Location 273,

Design of the Monument vert cross on vault base

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface ni c;rr.1 oration dark on unwashed area5_,__no. gjieen

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX salmon

Mica XX silver Hornblende XX black

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Growth No

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas_

Vertical Areas (SWNE) E &. W pol ished__Qn_crQSS , names on_
E arch polished —

Polished Areas Feld. visable. on W some Feld turned to
clay, mica deter, too — —

Unpolished Areas Feld. not visable

rnmrnents S vert, only Q g< H VIS, no green biol

85

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample #_

Name M^rg.^iret b. Phillips

Date of Dp^th Sept. 15 1926
Approx . Years of Exposure 64

Lot # or Approx. I ncation f-JB^r 84;

Design of the Mnnnmpnt upright slab w.ith arched top

Orientation of Upright Stones E _

Surface Di5coloration___None

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX salmon.

Mica SDjTie Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse XX Medium.

Visible Biological Growth Mainly on north side un

unpolished area oreen aroi>JS mostly on hornblende,^-: base

Stone Condition:

Horizontal £>-»^<:^ Tnp has pits with yellow coLored clay

Vertical Cr-c^^<:^< '^\^iNF ) W side has pits with yellow or
light gold colored clay _

Polished Q.-^^^ UJ also some areas with red between cracks
between minerals but not near Feld. _ — _

Unpolished Areas^

Comments

86

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample #__3

Name Noro Phillips Szarlosky

Date of Death 9 Aug 1885

Approx . Years of Exposure 105

Lot # or Appro); . Location NE of church

Design of the honument horizontal with raised cros;

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Black-does not scrape off
granular like discoloration

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX amber

Mica some Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse XX Medium_

Visible Biological Srowth None

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas flaking

Unpol IS he

pd Area
areas

s general

pitting

not

only Fe

Id . in

diagonal

especia

llY

recessed

1 Sire

as near

cross

Comments

large

areas

have

a thin

crus

t exfol

lating on

the flat

diagonal planes f

acing N

.?.: S

also pi

tting on

diagonal

areas

Areas

with

e;;fol .

show

remains of ivy

an

d

also do not hav

e any c

lay

residue

87

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 4_

Name Chandler Hare. Priest
Date of Death 1893

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 97

Lot # or Appro;-!. Location 569 & 570

Design of the Monument upright cross
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface tm ^^^,^ nrp,t i nn black or dark green ^reas on
ho r izontal and onto vert, below

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX pink

Mica XX silver Hornblende XX_

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX_

Visible Biological Growth spherical and green

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas pitting

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas none

Unpolished Areas,

Comment;

88

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 5

Name Francis Barrinqton

Date of Death 1S94

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 96

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 490

Design of the Monument greek cross

Orientation of Upright Stones E_

Surface Discoloration black and green in protected

areas and on N side

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX light amber

Mica XX silver Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Growth green mostly on black minerals

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas very rough only guartz and hornblende

visible

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas none

Unpolished Areas_

Comments

89

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 6_

iM^m>^ Daniel B. McComb/ Catherine B. McComb Hodgson

Date of Death 1395 —

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 95

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 1B3 .

Design of the Monument cube on base with brackets.

Orientation of Upright Stones E_

Surface ni ^rol oration black on unpnl ■ areas protected

f r om rain — — — — —

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX yellow/amber

Mira x7 silver Hornblende — XX

Grain Size: Hoarse XX Medium

Visible Biological Rrnwth on N. only on base on S, W g< E

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical ak-.^^c= f guNF ^ W side on polished Ar^A both red &
green growths under surface several areas with flaking

Polished Arpas Feld. into clay or open pits, areas of

buldges with chipped or flaked minerals with red .*. green

Unpolished C^r^!^^'^ l«J side cooper green discolor, on

hornblende pokss. biol. growth _ ,

nnmrnents lichen type growth on W polished Are^ l"5g both
crystal flakes around ednes clay particles underneath

90

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 1_

Name Anna T. Dayton

Date of Death 1398

Appro;. Years of Exposure 92

Lot # or Appro; . Location near 209

Design of the Monument vertical cross
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration green on N & Ul in streaks

Mxnerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX faint pink

Mica some Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Browth green on hornblende horiz g<
vert E S & l-J sides

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas Feld only vis on pol not on unpol

Unpolished Areas_

Comments

91

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 8_

Namg McUJilliam James
Date of Death 1972

Appro;;. Years of E;!posure 18_

Lot # or Appro;:, location across from 039

Design of the Monument low vertical slab, diagonal face
Orientation of Upright Stones E__

Surface Di <^rnT nration some qree

n & black in small spots

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX ___^__ Feldspar XX salmon

Mica none Hornblende some

Grain Size: Hoarse XX Medium.

Visible Biological Rrnwth on Dol & unpol green growths
on hornb /rough dressed areas spherical green in recessed

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Arpas no pitting on unpol

Vertical Areas ( SWNE ) .

Polished Qrp.^^ minerals under biol growths Bre_
pitted also red &. green growths btwn crystals

Unpolished Areas

Commen ts on polished a»-eac; many feldspar had brick

red stains inside the crystal no biol growth near dift

from red biol growth between crystal boundaries _

92

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 9

IsiA^mP W. Elmer Schofield NA/H. Morield Schofield

Date of Death 1944/1960

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 46

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 830

Design of the Mnniiment Thick Vert RQug_h_Cut__Sl_ab

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface deterioration Green .

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX Cloudy white

Mica XX Silver Hornblende XX

Brain Size: Coarse Medium — >i>i

Visible Biological Growth Green on H more than Q on
North Side -l- Protected Areas

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas

Vertical Area5(SWNE).

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas

Commen ts No visible signs of deterioration.

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 10

l\l;.mp Albert E. Schof ield/Margeret Mitchell, wife

Date of np^th 1936/1929

Appro;:. Years of E>;posLire 54

Lot # or Appro;:. Location 845

Design of the Monument Vertical Cro5S__w/.
Orientation of Upright Stones — e_

carvings

Surface Hi c:;rnl oration Green & Black

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz ;■:>: Feldspar faint amber

Mica ;■:;■; silver Hornblende x>^

Grain Size: Coarse Medium^

Visible Biological Rrnwth Spherical green near ground,
g< on M side — mostly on hornblende

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas . — —

Vertical c^f^^^< ?^UiNF.) Protruding areas of carvings are,
b 1 ac kened -does not appear to biological .

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas,

Comments

94

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 11

Name Ra Lph Milton Davis Pries_t_
Date of Death 1979 .

Appro;;. Years of Exposure.

11

Lot # or Appro;:. Location Across from 774

Design of the Monument Diagonal face low vert.
Orientation of Upright Stones E___

Surface n -i c.r-nl r-,r^ t i nn Green on rough cut areas.

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz >:;■; . Fp.1rl<=ipar cloudy white

Mica ;■;;■; silver Hornblende >i_i<

Gram Sine: Coarse Medium X_)<_

Visible Biological Growth Green on base

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas_

Vertical Area5(SWNE).

Polished Areas Black/Green Growth on H

Unpolished Areas

Comments,

95

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # JJ

Name Ada M. lAjalbane
Date of Death 1979

Appro;:. Years of E;:po5Lire 11

Lot # or Appro;; . Location 946

Design of the Monument Flat rectangular

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration none

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz >;;; Feldspar ;■;;■; F'ink

Mica Hornblende >;;■;

Grain Size: Coarse ;■: ; ; Medium

Visible Biological Growth Green Around Sides

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas Brick Red Spots in F Crystals

Unpolished Area;

Comments

96

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample ti 13

Name Walbank William Elizabeth J Date of

Death 1942/1936

Appro..;. Years of Exposure 54

Lot # or Approx. Location 933

Design of the Monument Vertical Gothic Arch Shaped_Slab_

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface discoloration green near base, black, on top g<.._..in_

protected areas g< in rough dressed sides

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX salmon

Mica XX black Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Grov^^th black is biol ■ green grows on
hornblende

Stone Condition:

Horizontal areas

Vertical Areas (SWNE) Some pitting with red staining

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas

Comments

97

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 14

Name Raleigh UJilliam H g< Rose Ella
Date of Death 1947/1961

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 43

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 929

Design of the Monument Vertical Slab

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration green on base

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quar t z XX Fe 1 d spar XX salmon pink

Mica XX black Hornblende XX

Grain Siee: Coarse XX Medium.
Visible Biological Growth_

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical Area5(SWNE).

Polished Areas Pits with gold clay material

Unpolished Areas

Comments Red staining between crystal edges, opl
pol ished

98

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 15

Name Hov^ard J. Yoast
Date of Death 1967

Appro;;. Years of E>;po5ure 23

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 935

Design of the Mnnnmpnt Diaa . l-ace low vertical ajjab.
Orientation of Upright Stones __E _

Surface Hi c^rnloration Only G on base

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz_XX Feldspar XX pink.

Mica XX black Hornblende — XX

Grain Si=e: Coarse Medium XX_

Visible Biological firowth_ green on base^

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas,

Vertical Areas(SWNE).

Polished Areas Areas of dark red staininq-near_
pits with gold clay — possible buq_5

Unpolished Areas

Comments

99

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 16

Name Knott, Edward, Ruth, 8'. Marsden

Date of Death 1945/1976/42

Appro;-!. Years of E;:po5Lire 48

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 916

Design of the Monument Vert, tall slab
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration Green &. Black in protected areas
and on North

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX amber

Mica XX silver Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse Medium ;■;;■;

Visible Biological Growth Same as surface
discoloration

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Sawn marks partially gone

Vertical Areas (SWNE) Sawn marks still visible

Polished Areas none

Unpolished Areas_

Comments

100

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 17

Name Sarah E. Cole

Date of Death 1921

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 69

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 772

Design of the Monument Horiz. curved top
Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration green on unpolished Bre^, black
around inscription

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX salmon

Mica ;•;;•; black Hornblende >:::

Grain Size: Coarse Medium,

Visible Biological Growth

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas no major deter

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas

Unpolished Areas_

Comments

101

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 18

Name Frederic Graff

Date of Death 1890

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 100

Lot # or Appro;;. Location SW of church

Design of the Monument Horizontal slab
Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Black around inscriptions

Minerals (appearance and color):
Quartz XX Feldspar XX

Mica XX Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse XX Medium

Visible Biological Growth green growths on hornblende

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Many pits some flaking

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas Many pits some flaking

Unpolished Areas,

Comments Black around letters worse than on

horizontal than diagonal

102

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 19

Name Fracis Sayre Kent

Date of Death 1890

Approx . Years of Exposure 100

Lot # or Appro;;. Location S of church
Design of the Monument vertical cross
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration Green &. Black, mostly on
north &. east

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz >:>: Feldspar >:>: pink

Mica ;•;;■; black Hornblende :■;>■!

Grain Size: Coarse Medium xx

Visible Biological Growth above

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Pitting, sawn marks indistinguishable

F not visible

Vertical Areas(SUJNE) F still visible

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas

Comment!

lo;

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 20

Name Robert Fulton Blight

Date of Death 1898

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 92

Lot tt or Appro;;. Location 115

Design of the Monument Vertical Cross w/ Carvings
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface

Discoloration see below

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX

Mica XX

Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse

Medium XX

Visible Biological Growth Green on North, near base

^ in protected areas

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas F g-: M still Visible

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas

Unpolished Areas_

Comments__ F' 1 1 1 i n g on diagonal areas on base,

Blackening around edges on polish design

104

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 21

Name Albert Casey

Date of Death 190.:

Appro)-;. Years of E>;posure 87

Lot # or Appro;;. Location S of church along wall
Design of the Monument Vertical thick slab

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration As below

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz XX Feldspar XX cloudy white

Mica Hornblende XX

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Srowth Some H areas could have
hemi-lichens by-appearance

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Top-unpolished areas almost entirely

coyered with green & black biol .

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

F'ol ished

Areas

Many

pi

ts

with

orange

cl.

ay

Unpol ish€

?d Areas
/ering

; Rou

qh

dressed

s^rBEi a

Iso

has

a

thick co\

of q

ro^^

ith

Comments

Stone

shad

ed

by

three

' branc

hes

above

105

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 22

Name Sidney Hutchinson

Date of Death 1337

Appro;-!. Years of Exposure 101
Lot # or Appro;;. Location Near 124

Design of the Monument Vertical slab
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration G g< B on base on N side in pro-
tected areas ____^

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz >:;■: Feldspar xx light amber

Mica ;:;■; light Hornblende ;■;;■;

Grain Size: Coarse ;■:;■: Medium_

Visible Biological Growth 6 on H polished & unpolished

Stone Condition:
Horizontal Areas

Vertical Area5(SWNE)

Polished Areas Some pits much red between crystal

Unpolished Areas F still Visible, no pitting

Comment;

106

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 23

Name Helen UJilliams, Mary Ulenti^orth Leech

Date of Death 1945/1965

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 45

Lot # or Appro;;. Location South of church door

Design of the Monument vertical cross

Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration G on UJ g/ N, near ground

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz xx Feldspar >:x light pink

Mica ;•;>; black Hornblende ;■;>:

Grain Size: Course Medium ;:;;

Visible Biological Growth As above

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Sawn marks almost all gone mica, some

F still visible some pitting

Vertical AreasCSWNE)

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas

Comments

107

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 24

Name Elizabeth Ralston Welsh
Date of Death 1885

Appro;;. Years of E>;pQ5ure 105

Lot # or Appro;;. Location Near to S wall of church

Design of the Monument

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Much black in unwashed areas,
G on N and along base

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz ;■;;■; Feldspar >;>; light amber

Mica Hornblende ;;;■;

Grain Size: Coarse ;;;■; Medium.

Visible Edological Growth

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Some pitting

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas No pitting, very little area is polished

Unpolished Areas

Commen ts Very good condition

108

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 25

Name Edward Patterson/ Isabel la Liddon Co;

Date of Death 1910/1907

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 83

Lot # or Appro;;. Location NE of church
Design of the Monument Vertical slab
Orientation of Upright Stones E

Surface Discoloration Green on E , N & near base,
black on protected unwashed areas

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz ;■;;; Feldspar ;■;:■! salmon

Mica ;■;;■; black Hornblende >;;■;

Grain Size: Coarse Medium

Visible Biological Growth As above, G mostly on H

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas much pitting

Vertical Areas(SUJNE) Unpolished, sawn marks still visible

Polished Areas Only letters, some pitting with clay

Unpolished Areas

Comments

109

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 26

Name Samuel Rodman Morgan
Date of Death 1891

Approx . Years of E;;po5ure 99

Lot # or Appro;;. Location 31

Design of the Monument Horizontal slab w/ raised cross

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Black

Minerals (appearance and color):
Quartz :■;;■: Feldspar :■;;;

Mica >;;■: black Hornblende_

Grain Size: Coarse Medium,

Visible Biological Groi^th G on base

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Very pitted

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Po 1 1 shed Areas Edges of letters ?< raised cross black

very pitted, vertical less than horizontal

Unpolished Areas,

Comments

110

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 27

Name Harriet horqan

Date of Death 1915

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 75

Lot # or Appro;;. Location E of church

Design of the Monument Horizontal w/ carvings
Orientation of Upright Stones

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz ;■;;; Feldspar >

Mica ;;;•; Hornblende

Grain Size: Coarse Medium_

Visible Biological Growth G on base

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Black appears not to be biological ,

very pitted, corners of letters broken

Vertical Areas (SWNE)

Polished Areas None

Unpolished Areas

Comments

111

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 28

Name James S. Pierie/Georqe I'J . Fierie

Date of Death 1882/1385

Appro;;. Years of Exposure 103

Lot # or Appro;-; . Location E of church

Design of the Monument Thick vertical slab
Orientation of Upright Stones _E

Surface Discoloration Very little, some black oh base
G on sides near ground

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz ;■;;■; Feldspar ;■;;; light pinks

Mica Hornblende :■;;■;

Grain Size: Coarse ;■;;; Medium

Visible Biological Growth G on H

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Some pitting

Vertical Area5(SWNE)

Polished Areas Some pitting & clay, red between crystals
some G under surface too

Unpolished Areas Sawn finishing visible on w side,

some F into clay

Comments

112

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 29

Name John ■?< Barbara J. UJarburton
Date of Death 1877/1388

Approx . Years of bi;:pQsure 113

Lot # or Appro;;. Location N of church
Design of the Monument

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Much black in unwashed areas, B on

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz :■;>: Feldspar >:;; Light amber

Mica Hornblende >;;•;

Grain Size: Coarse >;;■; Medium

Visible Biological Growth See above

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Some pitting

Vertical Areas(SWNE)

Polished Areas No pitting, very little area, is polished

Unpolished Areas

Comments

ii;

GRANITE TOMBSTONE INVENTORY

Sample # 30

Name llary Ann Wilson

Date of Death 136."

Approx . Years of Exposure 127

Lot tt or Appro;;. Location North of Church

Design of the Monument Horizontal w/ carvings

Orientation of Upright Stones

Surface Discoloration Black on raised areas

Minerals (appearance and color):

Quartz xx Feldspar xx pink

Mica XX silver Hornblende

Grain Size: Coarse Medium XX

Visible Biological Growth G on base

Stone Condition:

Horizontal Areas Black appears not to be biological

very pitted, corners of letters broken

Vertical Areas (SWNE) Sawn finish visible on sides

Pol ished

A.

reas

None

Unpol IS he

?d

Areas

Comments

114

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121

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