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GRAPE  CTJLTUEE, 


WOES,  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


WITH   NOTES   UPON 


AGRICULTURE  AND  HORTICULTURE. 


A.  FARASZTHY, 


0011MI8SI0UEE  TO  EEPOET  ON  TIIK  IMPROVEMENT  AND  COLTUUE  OF  THE  VINE  EN 
CALIFORNIA. 


iBitli  liuniBrntts  SlliiBtrfltintis. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS,    PUBLISHERS, 
FRANKLIN    SQUARE. 

18  6  2. 

H 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 

and  sixty-two,  by 

HARPER   &   BROTHERS, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Southern  District  of  New  York. 


PREFACE. 


I  SUBMIT  this  work  to  tlic  kind  indulgence  of  the  people  of  Cal- 
ifornia. 

The  short  time  allowed  me  to  complete  a  work  of  such  magni- 
tude and  importance  will,  I  hope,  serve  as  a  partial  excuse  for  its 
defects. 

To  make  a  tour  through  a  large  portion  of  Europe — examine 
and  collect  information — select  vines  and  trees — write  the  follow- 
ing work,  with  many  of  the  extracts  translated  from  eminent  for- 
eign authors  and  reports  of  scientific  committees,  I  was  allowed, 
including  my  journey  to  Europe  and  my  return,  but  seven  months 
and  twenty-five  days. 

The  task  was  augmented  by  extensive  and  necessary  corre- 
spondence with  government  officials,  scientific  societies,  and  emi- 
nent writers. 

During  this  time  I  have  allowed  myself  little  time  for  rest  or 
recreation ;  and  if  I  have  succeeded  in  fulfilling  my  duty  to  my 
State  and  to  her  people,  I  shall  feel  myself  amply  rewarded. 

I  plead  for  a  lenient  judgment  on  the  work  on  account  of  my 
defective  English,  being  a  native  of  Hungary,  although  a  natural- 
ized American  citizen,  which  will,  I  hope,  fully  explain  this  una- 
voidable defect.  That  my  readers  will  understand  my  meaning 
without  difficulty  is  all  that  I  dare  hope. 

The  translations  contained  in  the  work  were,  in  most  cases,  nec- 
essarily literal,  and  therefore  presented  difficulties  not  easily  over- 
come. 

With  these  explanations,  the  author  presents  his  work  to  the; 
agricultural  public,  sincerely  hoping  that  future  experience  may 
not  belie  present  promises,  but  that  the  matter  upon  which  it  treats 
may  prove  a  valuable  and  an  enduring  source  of  wealth  to  the 
American  horticulturist  and  farmer.  A.  H. 

BuENA  Vista,  Sonoma  Counti/,  CuHfornia. 


REPORT. 

To  the  Honorahle  the  Senate  and  Assembly  of  the  State  of  California: 

In  accordance  with  a  joint  resolution  of  the  Assembly,  adopted 
March  2d,  1861,  and  concurred  in  by  the  Senate,  April  1st,  1861, 
authorizing  and  requesting  his  Excellency  the  Governor  to  ap- 
point a  commission  to  report  to  the  next  Legislature  upon  the 
ways  and  means  best  adapted  to  promote  the  improvement  and 
culture  of  the  grape-vine  in  California,  I  have  the  honor  respect- 
fully to  report  as  follows : 

Having  been  appointed  by  his  Excellency  the  Governor,  J,  G. 
Downey,  upon  said  commission,  I  first  considered  the  best  mode 
of  fulfilling  the  duties  imposed  by  the  above  resolution. 

It  became  evident  to  me  that  the  objects  of  the  Legislature 
would  be  best  secured  by  an  examination  of  the  different  varieties 
of  grapes,  and  the  various  modes  of  making  wine,  in  the  wine- 
growing countries  of  Europe,  and  I  communicated  this  view  to 
the  Governor,  and  offered  my  services  to  proceed  to  Europe,  if  he 
should  think  it  desirable.  He  approved  my  suggestion,  and  sanc- 
tioned the  enterprise,  and  I  at  once  proceeded  on  my  journey.  On 
my  way  I  stopped  at  Washington,  and  was  supplied  by  the  Hon. 
W.  H.  Seward,  Secretary  of  State  for  the  United  States,  with  a  cir- 
cular letter,  directing  the  diplomatic  agents  of  the  United  States 
in  Europe  to  afford  me  such  assistance  as  lay  in  their  power  in 
this  important  mission. 

On  my  arrival  in  France,  I  opened  a  correspondence  with  the 
different  imperial  agricultural  and  horticultural  societies,  request- 
ing them  to  furnish  such  information  and  letters  of  introduction 
as  would  facilitate  my  object.  They  responded  with  cheerfulness : 
and  I  was  received  with  distinction,  and  afforded  every  opportu- 
nity for  obtaining  the  information  I  required ;  in  fact,  I  met  with 
general  courtesy  wherever  I  went. 

I  visited  various  parts  of  France,  the  Netherlands,  Holland, 
Rhenish  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Nassau,  Baden,  Switzerland,  Spain,  It- 
aly, and  England.  Various  examinations  confirmed  my  previous 
conviction  that  California  is  superior  in  all  the  conditions  of  soil, 
climate,  and  other  natural  advantages,  to  the  most  favored  wine- 
producing  districts  of  Europe,  and  that  it  actually  has  yielded  con- 


xvi  REPORT. 

siderably  more  per  acre.  All  this  State  requires  to  produce  a 
generous  and  noble  wine  is  the  varieties  of  grapes  from  which  the 
most  celebrated  wines  are  made,  and  the  same  care  and  science  in 
its  manufacture.  This  conclusion  is  the  result  of  a  thorough  in- 
vestigation, and  frequent  consultations  with  many  eminent  men  in 
Europe,  who  assured  me  that  the  quality  of  the  grapes  governs,  in 
a  great  measure,  the  quality  of  the  wine ;  a  fact  proved  by  many 
scientific  experiments,  showing  that,  even  in  the  least  favored  lo- 
calities, where  common  wines  were  ordinarily  made,  the  finest  and 
most  costly  wines  had  been  produced  by  planting  the  best  varie- 
ties of  grape. 

Having  provided  myself  with  analyses  of  the  soil  of  California 
from  various  locations,  it  was  not  difficult  to  obtain  a  correct  esti- 
mate of  its  average  capacity  as  a  wine-producing  State.  From  all 
the  information  I  have  been  able  to  get,  our  climate  and  soil  are 
greatly  in  our  favor. 

In  view  of  all  these  facts  and  the  purpose  of  my  mission,  I  de- 
termined to  make  arrangements  to  purchase  a  quantity  of  vines, 
and  also  to  examine  every  celebrated  wine-making  establishment 
within  the  limits  of  my  tour,  so  as  to  learn  and  describe  the  new- 
est and  best  methods  of  making  wine.  I  did  not  limit  my  obser-' 
vation  and  study  to  the  manufactories  alone,  but  procured  the  re- 
ports of  scientific  committees,  appointed  by  different  governments 
to  investigate  the  subject  by  means  of  practical  experiments,  con- 
tinued through  a  series  of  years.  I  also  obtained  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Congress  assembled,  by  order  of  the  government  of 
France,  for  the  purposes  of  comparison  and  consultation,  and  which 
was  composed  of  the  most  scientific  chemists  and  practical  wine- 
makers.  I  availed  myself  of  the  reports  of  similar  assemblies 
held  annually  in  Germany,  and  of  the  newest  and  best  works  in 
various  languages,  written  by  able  men,  who  had  spent  their  lives 
in  the  business  of  vine  culture  and  wine-making. 

It  is  proper  to  remark  here  that  I  discovered  that  the  countries 
through  which  I  traveled  possessed  a  lucrative  trade  by  making 
raisins,  drying  figs  and  prunes,  raising  almonds,  cultivating  mul- 
l:)erry -trees  for  the  sustenance  of  silk-worms,  and,  above  all,  pro- 
ducing sugar  at  enormous  profits  from  the  Sorgho,  Imphee,  and 
tlie  sugar-beet;  and  I  therefore  thought  it  advisable  to  add  to 
the  more  strict  duties  of  my  mission  an  investigation  into  these 
branches  of  industry,  and  to  procure  the  best  and  newest  works 
concerning  them. 


REroRT.  xvii 

I  was  gratified  to  find  that  of  all  the  countries  througli  wbich 
I  passed,  not  one  possessed  the  same  advantages  that  are  to  be 
found  in  California ;  and  I  am  satisfied  that  even  if  the  separate 
advantages  of  these  countries  could  bo  combined  in  one,  it  would 
still  be  surpassed  by  this  State  when  its  now  dormant  resources 
shall  be  developed. 

California  can  produce  as  noble  and  generous  a  wine  as  any  in 
Europe ;  more  in  quantity  to  the  acre,  and  without  repeated  fail- 
ures through  frosts,  summer  rains,  hailstorms,  or  other  causes. 

The  quantity  of  raisins,  currants,  figs,  almonds,  olives,  and 
prunes  which  we  could  raise  would  surprise  the  most  sanguine 
of  our  people.  The  mulberry  and  the  silk- worm  would  occupy 
and  give  support  to  many  industrious  females,  who  have  now  no 
remunerative  employment,  in  the  rural  districts ;  would  aid  the 
small  farmer  in  his  efforts  to  raise  and  educate  a  growing  family, 
aifd  would  add  largely  to  the  wealth  and  revenue  of  the  State. 

In  my  opinion,  no  country  can  surpass  this  in  raising  the  sugar- 
beet,  Sorgho,  and  Imphce.  There  is  no  part  of  the  world,  ex- 
cept perhaps  Africa,  which  can  produce  the  same  quantity  of  these 
commodities  to  the  acre.  The  present  mode  of  making  sugar  from 
these  products  is  so  simple  that  every  farmer,  at  an  expense  of 
$30  for  machinery,  can  manufacture  enough  for  his  own  use,  and 
have  a  considerable  overplus  each  year  for  the  market.  The  cap- 
italist, too,  may  safely  invest  his  money  in  this  lucrative  business, 
and  enrich  himself  as  well  as  the  State. 

The  countries  I  visited  in  which  these  products  were  cultivated 
and  manufactured  derive  from  them  a  considerable  revenue,  as 
their  statistics  show ;  and  there  is  no  substantial  obstacle  to  pre- 
vent the  agriculturists  of  California  from  engaging  in  all  the  en- 
terprises I  have  mentioned.  The  high  price  of  labor  here  is  more 
than  counterbalanced  by  the  greater  value  of  land,  and  the  enor- 
mous taxes  on  these  productions  in  Europe.  The  development 
of  these  branches  of  industry  would  not  only  add  to  the  wealth 
of  the  State,  but  it  would  also  lead  to  a  large  immigration  from 
Europe.  Men  conversant  with  these  businesses  have  not  hitherto 
migrated  to  California  because  they  had  no  hope  of  suitable  em- 
ployment. Capitalists,  ignorant  of  these  resources  of  the  State, 
have  not  considered  the  advantages  they  present  for  investment. 
Manufacturers  who  have  grown  wealthy  in  the  older  countries, 
having  sons  or  junior  partners,  would  gladly  open  branch-houses 
here  as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  they  could  purchase  an  ade- 

B 


xviii  REPORT. 

quate  supply  of  the  raw  material  in  this  State.  But  it  would  be 
impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  benefits  which  this  State  would 
derive  from  such  an  increased  application  of  her  agricultural  ca- 
pacity. Kesidents  of  California  who  have  visited  our  plantations, 
vineyards,  and  farms,  and  who  have  attended  our  district  and 
county  fairs,  may  be  able  to  appreciate  these  just  anticipations. 

European  governments,  well  knowing  the  importance  of  agri- 
culture and  horticulture,  appropriate  large  sums  every  year,  in 
various  ways,  for  the  encouragement  of  these  most  important 
branches  of  their  wealth.  Agents  are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  to  collect  information,  to  report  on  new  inventions  and 
ameliorations,  and  to  purchase  new  varieties  of  vines,  trees,  seeds, 
etc.  Botanical  or  experimental  gardens  are  kept,  where  the  plants, 
vines,  or  fruit-trees  are  propagated,  and  then  sold  to  the  people 
for  cost  price,  or  given  free  of  charge  to  each  and  every  communi- 
ty, according  to  population,  for  distribution  among  its  landhold- 
ers. Scientific  and  practical  men  are  employed  at  high  salaries 
as  officers  of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  whose  duty  it  is  to  make 
experiments  in  all  their  various  branches.  The  magnificent  agri- 
cultural and  horticultural  schools,  with  their  experimental  gar- 
dens, costs  some  States  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  per  an- 
num, and  their  statesmen  frankly  admit  that  money  could  not  be 
more  profitably  expended.  It  can  also  be  shown  by  statistics 
that  those  States  which  have  expended  most  money  in  the  en- 
couragement of  these  departments  of  industry  are  now  the  wealthi- 
est and  most  powerful,  and  their  people  the  least  in  want.  I  would 
respectfully  recommend  that  a  law  be  passed  appropriating  money 
for  the  purchase  of  land  for  a  propagating  and  an  experimental 
garden,  and  creating  the  office  of  director  to  supervise  the  garden; 
and  also  the  appropriation  of  a  sum  to  purchase,  from  year  to 
year,  seeds,  vines,  etc. ;  and  for  other  necessary  expenses  in  main- 
taining said  garden.  In  this  connection,  I  would  respectfully 
draw  your  attention  to  the  fact  that,  by  late  treaties  with  Japan 
and  China,  an  opportunity  is  presented  to  us  to  penetrate  into 
those  countries,  which  have  been  secluded  for  centuries.  It  is 
well  known  that  many  fruits  and  plants  are  raised  there  which 
might  be  of  great  advantage  if  introduced  into  this  State.  A 
thorough  examination  of  those  countries  would  probably  bring  to 
light  some  products  which  have  not  been  thought  of  here.  To 
leave  such  inquiries  to  private  enterprise  would  be  a  tardy  mode 
of  realizing  the  object.     I  doubt  if  half  a  century  would  accom- 


REPORT.  xix 

plish,  by  private  mccans,  what  might  speedily  be  attained  by  offi- 
cial investigation.  No  private  individual,  however  wealthy,  would 
have  the  same  faeilitics  to  investigate  and  procure  seeds  and  plants 
as  an  agent  authorized  by  his  government.  This  is  the  case  in 
civilized  Europe.  How  much  more  necessary  is  such  a  prestige 
in  semi-civilized  countries  ?  The  passage  of  a  law  for  the  above 
purposes  may  be  opposed  on  the  ground  that  we  have  a  national 
garden  at  "Washington,  but  it  is  well  known  that  the  few  shrubs 
and  seeds  we  receive  from  thence  are  too  often  dry  and  useless. 

California  ought  to  propagate  only  such  vines,  fruits,  seeds,  etc., 
as  are  congenial  to  her  soil  and  climate,  and  in  large  quantities, 
so  that  our  citizens  can  be  promptly  supplied.  The  Patent  Office 
represents  too  varied  interests,  climates,  and  soils,  to  do  much  good 
to  US  here.  One  might  as  well  say  that  California  needs  no  Gov- 
ernor, Legislature,  or  Judiciary,  as  that  our  public  affairs  might 
be  administered  from  Washington ;  and,  in  fact,  it  would  be  easier 
to  govern  us  from  Washington,  than  for  the  Patent  Office  to  sup- 
ply what  we  want  for  the  speedy  development  of  our  agricultural 
and  horticultural  resources. 

In  my  travels  I  endeavored  to  induce  capitalists  to  come  among 
us  and  establish  business  places,  to  purchase  the  grapes  from  the 
small  producers  as  in  Europe,  and  to  erect  manufactories  for 
making  wine  and  extracting  sugar  from  Sorgho,  beet-root,  and 
Imphee.  I  also  urged  the  formation  of  a  joint-stock  company, 
with  a  capital  of  a  million  dollars,  for  the  planting  of  vines,  olives, 
almonds,  mulberries,  etc.,  in  the  southern  pact  of  the  State.  The 
prospect  for  the  consummation  of  these  enterprises  is  favorable, 
and  especially  if  the  apprehensions  of  a  foreign  war  should  sub- 
side. 

Whenever  there  was  an  opportunity  to  get  an  article  about  Cali- 
fornia and  its  immense  resources  in  an  influential  newspaper,  I 
embraced  it,  and  many  government  journals  heralded  our  advant- 
ages by  publishing  the  letters  your  commissioner  had  written  to 
their  officials.  Permit  me  to  say  here  that  in  no  way  can  the  ob- 
ject of  rapidly  populating  our  State  be  more  effectually  accom- 
plished than  by  authorized  agents  traveling  in  Europe,  not  for  the 
direct  purpose  of  inducing  emigration,  but  of  noting  the  progress 
of  agricultural  and  manufacturing  pursuits.  These  agents  would 
come  in  contact  with  all  classes  of  persons ;  questions  would  be 
eagerly  asked,  and  opportunities  be  thus  afforded  to  publish  the 
advantages  California  possesses.     Coming  from  an  official  source, 


XX  KEPORT. 

the  information  -would  be  credited,  newspapers  wonld  refer  to  it, 
and,  with  the  aid  of  the  reports  of  our  "  State  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety" (which  I  was  fortunate  enough  to  possess),  these  authorized 
statements  would  be  authenticated  by  the  enumerated  premiums 
and  descriptions  from  visiting  committees.  It  excited  surprise 
that  a  State  so  young  and  so  isolated  should  have  already  such 
wealth  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  as  I  proved ;  and  this  sur- 
prise among  Europeans  is  not  so  wonderful,  as  California  was  there 
known  principally  for  its  gold.  Even  our  Eastern  brethren  were 
astonished  when  I  showed  from  our  reports  the  extraordinary 
productiveness  of  our  soil  and  the  salubrity  of  .our  climate.  The 
appropriations  made  by  the  Legislature  for  the  printing  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  "  State  Agricultural  Society"  have,  and  will 
continue  to  bring  back  many  times  their  amount.  It  would  be 
well  to  distribute  these  evidences  of  our  resources  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  would  reach  more  directly  the  people  in  the  East  and  in 
Europe.  Books  sent  to  other  agricultural  societies  generallj^  fail 
to  reach  the  public,  being  mostly  retained  in  their  libraries ;  but 
if  they  were  sent  to  the  editors  of  prominent  newspapers,  they 
would  receive  a  much  wider  circulation. 

I  have  purchased  in  different  parts  of  Europe  100,000  vines, 
embracing  about  1400  varieties ;  small  lots  of  choice  almonds, 
olives,  oranges,  lemons,  ligs,  pomegranates,  and  Italian  chestnuts 
— enough  to  propagate  from  by  grafts.  The  majority  of  the 
grape-vines  I  have  engaged  I  have  seen  bearing.  From  those 
countries  which  I  was  unable  to  visit  I  ordered,  through  our  con- 
suls (to  whom  I  remitted  the  necessary  funds),  such  products  as  I 
thought  necessary,  and  I  have  no  doubt  they  will  be  forwarded 
in  time  to  be  dispatched  from  Havre  with  the  others.  My  con- 
tracts were  made,  in  all  j^laces,  in  presence  of  the  United  States 
consul,  leaving  the  money  with  him  to  be  paid  when  the  vines, 
etc.,  were  delivered,  and  instructing  the  consuls  to  send  them,  so 
as  to  arrive  in  Havre  on  or  a  few  days  before  the  1st  of  December, 
1861.  A  gardener  whom  I  employed  will  attend  to  their  proper 
shipment,  take  charge  of  them  on  the  voyage,  and  repack  them  in 
New  York,  where  arrangements  have  been  made  with  Wells,  Far- 
go, &  Co.,  for  their  farther  transportation  to  San  Francisco,  under 
the  care  and  supervision  of  the  gardener.  All  necessary  precau- 
tions have  been  taken,  and  I  am  confident  they  will  arrive  in  the 
very  best  order.  They  are  expected  to  reach  San  Francisco  by 
the  steamer  due  on  the  23d  of  January,  1862.     As  I  do  not  know 


REPORT.  xxi 

the  exact  freight  and  expenses,  I  am  not  able  to  state  the  amount 
of  cost  and  charges  to  your  honorable  body,  but  will  do  so  as  soon 
as  possible. 

It  may  not  be  irrelevant  here  to  mention  the  fact  that  in  Cali- 
fornia, as  well  as  in  the  Eastern  States,  the  public  mistrust  the  pu- 
rity of  California  made  wines  in  the  hands  of  merchants.  Wheth- 
er merchants  do  or  do  not  adulterate  the  wine,  such  doubts  injure 
its  character,  and  restrict  its  sale  greatly.  Therefore,  to  insure 
confidence,  and  prevent  such  adulterations,  I  would  respectfully 
submit  whether  it  might  not  be  a  wise  policy  to  pass  an  act  ap- 
pointing a  general  agent  for  the  State,  who  should  reside  in  San 
Francisco,  and  to  whom  the  wine-producers  could  send  their  wines 
to  be  sold ;  the  agent  to  sell  the  wine  at  the  prices  fixed  by  the 
manufacturer,  with  the  proprietor's  label  on  the  bottles,  or,  if  in 
barrels,  with  his  name  attached  thereto.  This  agent,  so  appoint- 
ed, to  receive  from  the  owners  of  all  wines  or  brandies  sold  a  com- 
mission, to  be  fixed  by  law,  and  not  to  exceed  the  commissions 
usually  received  by  merchants ;  the  agent  to  defray  the  expense 
of  ofiice  and  cellar  out  of  the  commissions  he  may  receive.  The 
law  creating  said  office  might  also  impose  heavy  fines  and  confis- 
cation of  the  liquor  belonging  to  any  individual  who  should  send 
for  sale  adulterated  articles.  Such  an  ofiice  would  be  r^o  burden 
to  the  State  nor  to  the  wine-growers,  as  it  would  be  optional  with 
them  to  send  their  wines  to  this  officer  or  dispose  of  them  in  any 
other  way.  Every  producer,  however,  would  find  it  to  his  advant- 
age to  avail  himself  of  this  medium,  as  he  would  meet  a  ready 
sale,  and  pay  no  more  than  the  usual  commissions,  while  he  would 
aid  in  preventing  frauds,  and  thus  create  confidence  in  the  genu- 
ineness of  our  wines.  The  agent  would  have  to  be  strictly  im- 
partial. All  the  samples  should  be  indifferently  exposed  and  ac- 
cessible to  purchasers,  who  could  select  the  wines  best  suited  to 
their  tastes.  The  agent  should  be  required  to  give  ample  bonds 
for  the  faithful  and  impartial  performance  of  his  duty,  and  for  the 
prompt  payment  of  all  receipts  on  account  of  sales. 

This  plan  would,  I  believe,  restore  confidence,  and  be  at  least  a 
check  upon  poisoning  our  people  by  our  own  productions. 

His  Excellency  the  Governor  has  directed  me  to  propagate  the 
vines  expected  to  arrive  here  from  Europe  at  Sonoma,  and  hold 
them  and  the  increase  subject  to  the  future  disposition  of  the  Leg- 
islature. 

I  have  the  honor  to  annex  to  this  report  a  condensed  statement. 


xxii  REPORT. 

whicli  will  serve  to  show  the  contents  of  a  work  I  propose  to  pub- 
lish, and  which  will  contain  a  full  account  of  what  I  personally 
observed  and  inspected  in  Europe,  with  extracts  from  foreign 
works,  reports  of  committees,  eminent  writers,  practical  vintners, 
farmers,  horticulturists,  manufacturers. 

As  soon  as  this  work  is  completed,  which  will  be,  I  think,  be- 
fore the  adjournment  of  the  Legislature,  I  will  furnish  a  printed 
copy  to  each  branch  of  your  honorable  body. 

Not  having  been  able,  since  my  recent  return,  to  learn  any  thing 
of  my  colleagues  and  their  labors,  I  respectfully  submit  this  as 
my  report,  and  I  have  the  honor  to  be,  with  distinguished  respect, 
your  obedient  servant, 

A.  HARASZTIIY, 

Commissioner  on  the  Improvement  and  (Jrou'lk  of  the 

Grape-vine  in  Cali/orniu. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FROM    SAN   FRANCISCO  TO  PARIS. 

Appointment  as  Commissioner. — Preparations. — Departure  from  California. — Cir- 
cular Letter  from  Mr.  Seward. — Voyage  to  Europe. — Arrival  at  Paris.— My  Son. 
— Correspondence. — Departure  for  Dijon Page  33 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE    BURGUNDY   WINE    DISTRICT. 

Start  for  Dijon. — Observations  on  the  Road. — Arrival  at  Dijon. — Professor  Ladrey. 
— Aged  Vines.  —  The  Market.  —  Inferior  Fruits. — The  Botanical  Garden. — Its 
Vines. — Visit  Gevrey. — Prices  of  Vineyards  and  Wines. — Manufacture  of  Red 
Wines.  —  The  Pineau  Vineyards.  — Vineyards  of  Chambertin. — Wine-vaults  at 
Morey. — The  Fermenting-room. — The  Press. — The  Gamai  Vineyards. — Beaune. 
— Casemates  used  as  Wine-cellars. — Clos  Vougeot. — Wine-presses  754  years  old. 
— The  Press-house. — Mode  of  testing  Wines. — The  Cellars. — Quality  of  Burgundy 
Wines. — The  Cote  d'Or. — The  Vineyard  of  Clos  Vougeot. — The  Pineau  and  the 
Gamai  Grapes. — Mode  of  laying  out  a  Vineyard. — Experiments  in  Planting. — 
Treatment  until  bearing. — Three-bud  Pruning. — Aspect  of  the  Vineyards. — Ouv- 
ries. — Manuring  Vines. — Keeping  close  to  the  Ground. — Pruning  for  large  and 
small  Crops. — Burgundy  Vines  must  be  cultivated  as  at  Home. — The  Vintage. — 
Fenced  Vineyards. — Unfenced  Vineyards. — Laws  regulating  the  time  of  gathering 
Grapes. — The  Laborers. — Small  Proprietors  make  inferior  Wine. — The  fewer  the 
Grapes  the  better  the  Wine. — Return  to  Paris 30 

CHAPTER  m. 

FROM   PARIS   TO   FRANKFORT   ON   THE   MAINE. 

Ball  at  the  Chateau  des  Fleurs. — The  Emperor's  Fete-day. — The  Illumination  and 
Fireworks. — Orderly  Conduct  of  the  People. — Departure  for  Germany. — Observa- 
tions on  the  Way. — Ems.  —  The  Casino. — Gambling.  —  The  Promenade. — Dr. 
Precht. — Donkey  and  Mule  Riding. — The  Valley  of  the  Swiss. — Count  Stein's 
Tomb. — Grist-mills. — The  Water-wheels. — Silver  Mines. — Condition  of  the  Peo- 
ple.— The  Theatre. — Letters  and  Visits. — Coblentz. — Difficulty  with  Bankers. — 
Start  for  Frankfort. — Letters  of  Credit  preferable  to  Cash, — Conversation  with 
Passengers. — Notes  by  the  Way. — Arrival  at  Frankfort. — Letters  of  Introduction. 
— Americans  in  Frankfort 53 

CHAPTER  IV. 

HOCHHBIM,    STEINBERG,   AND    JOHANNISBERG. 

Hochheim. — Mr.  Dresel.  —  The  Champagne  Manufactory. — Mr.  Lembach. — His 
Cellar. — His  Method  of  Wine-making. — Different  Wines  from  the  same  Grape. — 
The  Barrels. — Sulphuring  the  Barrels. — Price  of  Wines. — Regulations  for  Gather- 
ing the  Grapes. — Visit  to  the  Champagne  Manufactoiy. — Mr.  Hummel. — Wies- 


xxiv  CONTENTS. 

baden. — Professor  Medicus. — The  Kurhaus. — The  Gambling  Rooms, — Dr.Thoma. 
— Biberich. — The  Chief  of  the  Steinberg  Vineyards. — The  Steinberg  Vineyards. 
—Mode  of  Cuhivating  the  Grape. — The  Farm-yard.— Eberbach.— The  Wine 
Cellars. — Tasting  Wines. — Bouquet  of  Old  and  New  Wines. — How  to  taste  fine 
Wines. — Assorting  the  Grapes. — Manufacturing  the  Wine. — Large  and  small 
Barrels. — Requisites  for  making  good  Wines. — The  Presses. — Visit  to  Johannis- 
berg. — The  Soil  of  the  Region. — Vineyards  not  Sold. — Their  Value. — Palaee  of 
Johannisbcrg. — The  Vineyard. — The  Cellars. — The  Johannisberg  and  Steinberg 
Wines. — Rivalry  between  them.  —  The  Superiority  sometimes  accidental.  —  A 
lucky  Stroke.  —  Prices  the  same.  —  Last  Glasses  of  Johannisberg.  —  Geisberg. — 
The  Experimental  Gardens. — Results  of  Experiments. — High  Trimming  and  low 
Trimming  of  Vines. — The  School  of  Agriculture. — Exchange  of  Seeds. — Depart- 
ure for  Frankfort. — Report  of  Wine  Auctions  at  Eberbach Page  61 

CHAPTER  V. 

GERMANY,   THROUGH   SWITZERLAND,   TO   ITALY. 

From  Frankfort  to  Mayence. — The  Russian  Lady  and  her  Maid. — Her  extra  Bag- 
gage.— Our  Talk  about  California. — European  Ideas  of  our  State. — Hints  for  the 
Press  of  California. — W^asli  dirty  Linen  at  Home. — Chronicle  on  Normal  Progress 
rather  than  on  exceptional  Crimes. — Mayence  to  Heidelberg. — Tobacco. — Heidel- 
berg.— Nursery  at  Wiesloch. — Carl  Brunner. — His  Nursery,  Gardens,  and  Vine- 
yard.— His  Wine-press. — The  great  Tun  at  Heidelberg. — Start  for  Basle. — Notes 
by  the  Way. — Hemp. — Manuring  by  Burning. — From  Basle  to  Geneva. — Neuf- 
chatel. — The  Swiss  and  American  Lakes. — Geneva. — Passports  for  Italy. — Amer- 
icans in  Geneva. — Departure  for  Italy. — The  Road  and  the  Country. — St.  Jean 
de  Moreno. — The  Tunnel. — Crossing  the  Summit. — The  Descent. — Arrival  at 
Turin 77 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Italy: — avine  and  silk. 
Turin. — Passports. — Leave  for  Genoa. — Vines  and  Mulberries. — Plowing. — Grain 
Crops. — Manuring. — Asti  and  its  Wines. — Reach  Genoa. — The  Birthplace  of 
Columbus. — Narrow  Streets. — Professor  Isnard. — Procure  Vines. — Nova. — The 
Silk  ^lanufactory. — Jealousy  of  Visitors. — Scanty  Information. — Raising  Silk- 
worms.— Return. — Effects  of  Asti  Wine. — Return  to  Genoa. — Wine-making  in 
Italy. — No  Berths  for  Civita  Vecchia. — Leave  for  Marseilles. — The  Voyage. — 
Laying  by. — Extra  Charge  for  Board. — Arrival  at  Marseilles 90 

CHAPTER  VIL 
the  bordeaux  wine  district. 
Leave  Marseilles  for  Bordeaux. — Agricultural  Notes. — ^Vines,  Olives,  Almonds,  and 
Mulberries. — Montpellicr. — Frontignan. — Cettc. — Manufacture  of  spurious  Wines. 
— Carcassonne. — New  Vineyards. — Wheat  and  Maize. — Toulouse. — The  Canal  du 
Midi. — Montauban. — Prunes. — Agen. — Reach  Bordeaux. — Botanic  Gardens. — 
American  Ships. — Steel-plated  Vessels. — M.  de  Luze. — His  Wine-vaults. — Price 
of  Wines. — Corks  and  Capsules. — Barrels. — The  Fruit  Nursery. — A  Bird  Fan- 
cier.— Prune  Establishment  of  A.  Dufour  and  Company. — Drying  and  packing 
Prunes. — California  as  a  Fruit  Country. — Dinner  with  M.  dc  Luze. — Visit  to 
Chateau  Margaux. — The  famous  Vineyard. — The  Store-room. — The  Press-room. 
— Manufacturing  the  Wine. — Chateau  Rauzan. — A  bad  Year. —  Victor  Rendu  on 
the  Wines  of  Bordeaux :  The  different  Sorts, — Wines  of  the  Medoc. — The  Vines. 


CONTENTS.  XXV 

— Mode  of  Cultivation. — The  Manufacture  of  Wines. — Quantity  produced. — Clas- 
sification of  Medoc  Wines. — The  chief  Vineyards. — Prices  of  Wines. — Prices  of 
Vineyards. — The  ChamjiaKnc  District. — The  Vineyards. — The  Grapes. — Cultiva- 
tion of  the  Vines. — The  Vintage. — Manufacture  of  Champagnes. — Chissification 
of  Champagnes. — Quantity  of  Champagnes  produced. — Markets. — Departure  for 
Spain Page  98 

CHAPTER  Vm. 

JOURNEY  THROUGH    SPAIN:    WINE,    RAISINS,   AND   OLIVES. 

Departure  for  Spain. — Delay  for  Passports. — Country  between  Bordeaux  and  Bay- 
onne.  —  Sliepherds  on  Stilts. — Bayonne.  —  Loading  Revolvers. — Napoleon  at 
Hand. — Start  by  Diligence  for  Madrid. — The  Diligence. — The  Driver  and  the 
Mules. — The  Postillion. — On  Spanish  Frontier. — Ascent  of  the  Pyrenees. — Des- 
olate Aspect  of  the  Country. — Breakfast. — Water  and  Towel. — Another  Inspec- 
tion of  Baggage. — A  Municipal  Misunderstanding. — Burgos. — The  Railway. — 
Passengers  bound  for  a  Bull-fight. — Delay. — Train  full. — Passengers  left  behind. 
— Change  Cars. — Delay  again. — Refreshments. — virrival  at  Madrid. — Our  Hotel. 
— Compassionate  Waiter. — The  Fair. — The  Royal  Palace. — The  Prado. — The 
Fountain. — General  Description  of  the  Countiy  traversed. — Product. — Execrable 
Wines. — Leave  Madrid  for  Malaga. — Delay. — Difficulty  about  Baggage. — Final- 
ly settled. — Off  at  last. — Stopped  again. — One  Passenger  too  many. — A  Discus- 
sion.— The  extra  Child. — A  Night  Ride. — Morning. — Beggars. — Vines  appear. 
— Ordinary  Spanish  Wines  very  poor. — The  Boy  again. — Building  a  Railway. — 
BaiTen  Country. — A  beautiful  Valley. — Dinner  at  Victoria. — Arrival  at  Granada. 
— See  the  City. — Our  Carriage. — The  Sights  of  Granada. — Beggars. — Start  for 
Malaga. — Notes  by  the  Way. — Malaga. — Wine  and  Raisins. — Making  Raisins. — 
The  Drying-grounds. — Picking  and  Packing. — Malaga  Wines. — Vinegar-making. 
— Fig  Culture. — Horse-fight. — Apprehensions  of  Damages.  —  Manufacture  of  Ol- 
ive Oil. — Cotton  and  Iron  Manufactories. — Buy  Plants. — Goat-milk. — Passports 
again. — Depart  for  Alicante. — Aspect  of  the  Coast. — Alicante. — Barcelona. — 
Wine-making. — Leave  for  Paris,  via  Marseilles  and  Lyons. — Arrival  at  Paris. — 
Give  up  Project  of  visiting  Greece  and  Egypt. — Start  for  Home,  via  England. — 
Arrive  in  America > 115 

CHAPTER  IX. 

GRAPES   AND   WINES   IN   CALIFORNIA. 

The  Author's  Experience.— Climate.— Site.— Soil.— Plowing.— Laying  out  a  Vine- 
yard.—Digging  Holes.— Planting.— Cultivating.— Pruning  in  different  Years.— 
Summer  Pruning.— Crushing.— Cost  of  Planting  a  Vineyard.— The  Author's  Ex- 
penditure  on  One  hundred  Acres. — Quality  of  the  Author's  Wines. — Mi-.  Szemere's 
Pamphlet.— Adulteration  of  Wine  in  Europe. — Quantity  of  Wine  produced  in 
France.— The  Wines  of  Hungary.— Prospects  of  Wine  Culture  in  California. — 
Statistics  of  Wine  Culture  in  Europe. — Good  and  bad  Years  in  Europe.  —  The 
Advantages  of  California  as  a  Wine  Country 142 


xxvi  CONTENTS. 


APPENDIX  A. 

JOnANN  CARL  LECCHS  ON  WINES. 

I.  Constituent  Parts  of  the  Grape. — II.  Hungarian  Wines. — III.  Rhino  Wines. — 
IV.  Franconian  Wines. — V.  Other  German  Wines. — VI.  Italian  Wines. — VII. 
Spanish  Wines. — A''III.  Portuguese  Wines. — IX.  ]\Iadeira  Wines. — X.  Cape 
Wines. — XI.  Greek  Wines. — XII.  Grape  Culture  in  Turkey,  Persia,  etc. — XIII. 
Grape  Culture  in  Africa,  America,  Russia,  etc Page  161 

APPENDIX  B. 

JOHANN   CARL    LEUCHS   ON   -WINE-MAKING. 

I.  Fermentation.  The  After  Fermentation. — II.  Implements  used  in  Wine-making  .- 
The  Thermometer.  Table  of  Scales  of  different  Thermometers.  The  Areometer. 
The  Acid  Scale. — III.  Mannfucturing  Grape  Wines:  General  Observations.  Gath- 
ering the  Grapes.  Crushing  and  Pressing.  Fermentation.  Filling  in  the  Must. 
Making  Sweet  Wine.  Making  Frozen  Wine.  Making  new  Wines  a])pear  old. — 
IV.  Classification  of  Wines. — V.  Drawing  off  the  Wine. — VI.  Treatment  of  bot- 
tled Wines.  Filling  up  and  Wasting. — VII.  Clarifying  Wines. — VIII.  Giving 
Color  to  Wines. — IX.  Mixing  and  judging  of  Wines. — X.  T/ie principal  Diseases 
o/' J r/ne5;  Sudden  Changes.  Souring.  Becoming  Glutinous.  Woody,  mouldy, 
and  bitter  Taste.  Cloudiness  and  Muddiness. — XI.  Adulterations  of  Wines. — 
XII.  Uses  for  the  Husks  and  Sediment.— XIII.  The  Cellars,  Casks,  Bottles,  and 
Implements. — XIV.  Wine  Measures  of  all  Countries 193 

APPENDIX  C. 

DR.   L.    GALL    ON    I.MPROVEMENTS   IN   WINE-MAKING. 

I.  Grape-sugar. — II.  The  Grape  and  its  Components. — III.  ^feihods  of  Picking 
Ci-apcs:  At  Castle  Johannisberg.  ]\Ir.  J.  A.  Ackermann's  Method.  Mr.  S.  Hiir- 
tcr's  Method.  Messrs.  Buhl,  Jordan,  and  Wolff's  ilethod.  IMethod  usednn  To- 
kay and  Syrmia.  Relative  Value  of  perfectly  Ripe  Grapes.  Benefits  from  Se- 
lecting. Benefits  from  perfect  Maturity. — IV.  Progress  of  Wine-making  to  the 
Middle  of  this  Century,  illustrated  by  Examples. — V.  Principal  Contents  of  the 
drape  necessary  for  the  Fabrication  of  Wine :  Water.  Sugar  and  the  Must-Scale. 
Artificial  Grape-sugar.  Acids  and  tiie  Acid-Scale.  Salts.  Gummy  Parts.  Col- 
oring Matter.  Nitrogenic  Parts.  Flavoring  Matters.  Extractive  Matter. — VI. 
Wine  Fabrication  since  18.50  :  Gall's  Procedure  and  Improvements.  VII.  Gall  on 
Reformations  in  Wine-making. — VIII.  Preparations  for  the  Vintage. — IX.  Oc- 
cupations in  the  Press-house:  Manner  of  Extracting.  Improving  the  Natural  Prod- 
uct.— X.  Diibrunfaut  and  Petiot's  Method  of  increasing  the  Quantity  of  Wines. 
Gall's  E.xpcriment  on  Petiot's  System.  Application  of  the  Extractor  to  Petiot's 
Method. — XI.  Fermentation  and  its  Products :  In  a  high  Temperature.  Close  Fer- 
mentation. The  Alcohol.  The  Vajiorimeter.  Carbonates.  Ether.  Acetic  Acid. 
Barrel  Yeast.  XII.  Husk  Wine  Fabrication  according  to  Cadet  de  Vaut  and  Gall. 
— XIII.  Careo/Wi7ics,  and  their  Diseases:  MtnM.  Slimincss.  Sourness.  Cloud- 
iness.    Woody  and  Mouldy  Taste. — XIV.  Supplementary  Remarks 235 

APPENDIX  D. 

F.  RUBENS    UPON   THE    VINE    AND   ITS   TREATMENT. 

I.  The  Vine  and  its  Propagation. — II.  The  Vineyard. — III.  Care  of  a  Bearing 
Vineyard. — IV.  Preserving  and  Shipping  Grajjcs. — V.  Diseases  of  the  Grape- 
vine.— VI.  Choice  Varieties  of  Grapes  for  Wine-making. — VII,  Average  Pro- 
duction of  Wine  in  Europe 301 


CONTENTS.  XXVI  i 

ArrENDIX  E. 

J.  BETRE    ON   THE    MANUFACTURE   OP    SPARKLING   WINES. 

How  the  Sparkling  is  prbJured. — TIow  to  rcpiilatc  tlic  Sparkling. — The  CEnometer. 

—  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wine. — Double  Faucet.  —  The  Bottles. — Caillct's 
Cleaning  Api)aratus. — The  Corks. — Lcroy's  Corking  Machine. — Maurice's  Cork- 
ing Machine. — Fastening  the  Strings. — Fastening  the  Wire. — Filing  the  Bottles 
— Storing  the  Wine. — The  Aphrometer. — Flacing  Bottles. — Removal  of  Sediment. 
— Boiled  Liquors  for  the  English  Market. — Cold  Liquors  for  the  English  Market. 

—  Mosbaeh's  F''unnel.  —  Cameaux's  Charging  Machine.  —  Machet  Vacquant's 
Charging  Machine. — The  Liijuor. — Filtering  tiie  Liquor. — Sealing  Mixtures. — 
Jaunay  and  Maumene"s  Improvements  in  the  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wines. — 
Generating  Carbonic  Acid.  —  Adulteration  of  Wines.  —  Explanations  of  Flates. 

Page  323 

APPENDIX  F. 

E.  LUCAS    ON    DRYING    FRUITS. 

General  Rules. — The  Drying-room. — Drying  in  Ovens. — In  heated  Rooms. — In  the 
Air  and  Sun. — Drying  Quinces,  Plums,  and  Cherries. — Expenses  of  Fruit-drying 
in  Germany. — Apples  and  Prunes 3C3 

APPENDIX  G. 

A.  ZIEGLER    ON   THE   CULTURE    OF  THE    SILK-WORM. 

Introductory  Note  on  Silk  Culture  in  California. — Advantages  of  the  Culture  of  the 
Silk-worm. — The  Breeding  of  the  Caterpillars. — The  Breeding-room. — The  Eggs 
and  their  Development. — The  Food  and  Feeding  of  the  Caterpillars. — The  differ- 
ent Periods  in  the  Life  of  the  Silk-worm. — Air,  Light,  Warmth,  and  Space. — 
Cleaning  the  Crates. — Putting  up  the  Spinning-bushes. — Diseases  of  the  Silk- 
worm.— Enemies  of  the  Silk-worm. — Propagation  of  the  Caterpillar,  and  obtain- 
ing the  Eggs. — Taking  off  and  assorting  the  Cocoons. — Killing  the  Cocoons. — 
Converting  the  Cocoons  into  Money. — AVinding  and  Winding  Establishments. — 
The  Floret  Silk.— The  Magnaries 36i) 

APPENDIX  H. 

p.  W.  PHILIPPI    ON   POTATO-STARCH    AND   GRAPE-SUGAE 389 

APPENDIX  I. 

K.  J.  EBERT   ON   BEET-SUGAR. 

The  Beet  and  its  Culture. — Estimating  the  Saccharine  Matter. — Manufacture  of 
Beet-sugar. — Cleaning  the  Beets. — Extracting  the  Juice. — Pressing. — Macera- 
tion.— Boiling. — Preservation  of  the  Juice.— Defecation  of  the  Juice.— The  Con- 
centration, Filtration,  and  Preparation  of  the  "Spodium." — Evaporating  Appa 
ratus. — The  First  Evaporation. — The  First  Filtration. — The  Second  Evaporation. 
— Second  Filtration. — Animal  Coal. — Boiling  in. — Crystallization. — Operations 
of  the  Filling-room 395 

APPENDIX  K. 

H.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SORGHO  AND  IMPHEE. 

Introductory  Note. — First  appearance  of  the  Sorgho  and  Imphee  in  Europe. — Vari- 
ous E.Kperiments. — Mr.  Leonard  Wray. — Introduction  of  the  Sorgho  into  Amer- 
ica.— History  of  Sorgho  in  the  Southern  States. — Soils  required. — Yield  of  Seed 
and  l^odder. — Making  Sugar  or  Sirup  on  a  small  Scale. — Boiling  and  Clarifying. 
— Reducing  to  Sugar. — Mr.  Wray's  Patent '  407 

Report  to  the  Legislature  of  California xv 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS, 


Page 

1.  Hilton's  Instrument  for  drawing  off  Wines * 211 

2.  Occhsle's  Must- Scale 257 

3.  Otto's  Acid-Scale 263 

4.  Geisler's  Acid-Scale 264 

6,  6.     Grape  Baskets 273 

8.  Crushing  Apparatus 273 

9.  The  Extractor 276 

10-16.  Diagrams  of  Extractor 277,  278 

17.  The  Vaporimeter 289 

18.  Vine  Shoots 301 

19.  VineBud 302 

20.  Vine  Slip 302 

21.  Vine  Cutting 302 

21.  Training  Layers 303 

22.  Layer  in  Basket 303 

22-24.  Methods  of  Budding 304 

25.  Head  Pruning 309 

26.  Bush  Pruning 309 

27-29.  Training  on  Trellis 310 

30.      Transplanting  Shoots 311 

31-39.  Pruning  Knives  and  Shears 312-314 

40.  Improved  Safety  Faucet 350 

41.  Christian's  Safety  Cock 350 

42.  Oechsle's  Must-Scale 351 

43.  Acid-Scale 350 

44.  Fermentation  Tube 350 

45.  Closed  Fermentation  Tub 351 

46.  Ebullioscope,  or  Alcohol-Scale 351 

47-48.  Separator 351 

49.  Gas  Generator 352 

50.  Fermentation  Vat 352 

51-52.  Sulphurating  Apparatus 352 

63.      Auguer's  Hydraulic  Bung 353 

54.      Masson  Toux's  Hydraulic  Bung 352 

65.  Maumene's  Bung 352 

66.  Siphon 352 

67.  Apparatus  for  drawing  off  Wine 353 

68.  Apparatus  for  producing  Carbonic  Acid  Gas 353 

59.  Payen  and  Maumene''s  Tannin  Apparatus 353 

60.  The  CEnometer,  or  Must-Scale 354 

61.  Double  Faucet  for  Bottling  Wines 354 


XXX  I^IST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

62.  Caillet's  Cleaning  Apparatus 334 

63.  Frames  for  holding  Bottles 354 

64.  Leroy's  Corking  jMachine 354 

65.  Maurice's  Corking  Machine 355 

6G.      Piling  Bottles 355 

67.  Cellar  for  storing  Wine 356 

68.  The  Aphromcter 356 

69.  Bottle  Stand 357 

70.  Packing  Bottles 356 

71-73.  Removing  the  Dregs 357 

74.  Mosbach's  Funnel 355 

75.  Cameaux's  Charging  Machine 357 

76.  Machet  Vaquant's  Charging  Machine 358 

77.  Tub  and  Pestle 360 

78.  Jaunay  and  Maumene's  Apparatus 359 

79-83.  Parts  of  Jaunay  and  Maumene's  Apparatus 360 

84.  The  Sorgho  Plant 408 

85.  Residence  of  the  Author Frontispiece. 


GRAPE    CULTURE, 


WINES,  AND  WINE. MAKING, 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


CHAPTER  I. 

FROM  SAN  FRANCISCO  TO  PARIS. 

Appointment  as  Commissioner. — Preparations. — Departure  from  California. — Cir- 
cular Letter  from  Mr.  Seward. — Voyage  to  Europe. — Arrival  at  Paris. — My  Son. 
— Correspondence. — Departure  for  Dijon. 

Having  received  from  his  Excellency  the  Governor,  J.  G. 
Downey,  the  appointment  of  "Commissioner  npon  the  Ways  and 
Means  best  adapted  to  promote  the  Improvement  and  Growth  of 
the  Grape-vine  in  California,"  I  proceeded  to  Sacramento  to  lay 
my  plan  before  the  Governor,  and  received  his  sanction  to  go  to 
Europe  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  information,  and  such  vines 
and  trees  as  in  my  judgment  were  best  adapted  for  our  State. 
The  Legislature  not  having  made  any  appropriation  for  the  pur- 
pose of  defraying  the  necessary  expenses,  I  had  to  make  use  of 
my  own  means,  which  I  cheerfully  did,  having  been  assured  that 
my  traveling  expenses  and  money  "laid  out  for  the  purchase  of 
the  vines  and  trees  would  be  refunded  by  the  next  Legislature. 
The  Press  in  various  parts  of  the  State  approved  the  mission,  and 
spoke  in  favorable  terms  of  the  same ;  in  fact,  the  general  senti- 
ment of  the  people  favored  and  encouraged  me  in  the  under- 
taking. 

Accordingly,  I  soon  made  my  preparations,  and  on  the  10th 
day  of  June,  1861, 1  started  from  San  Francisco  on  the  steamer 
Golden  Age.  The  passage  was  pleasant  and  quick.  Arriving  in 
New  York  on  the  4th  of  July,  I  rested  for  two  days.  I  then 
proceeded  to  Washington  to  procure  my  passport.  I  was  pre- 
sented by  Messrs.  Latham  and  M'Dougal,  United  States  Senators 
from  California,  to  the  Honorable  William  H.  Seward,  Secretary 
of  State,  who  gave  me  a  circular  letter  to  the  United  States  di- 
plomatic agents  in  Europe,  which  reads  as  follows : 

C 


31  GRAPE  CULTUEE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

"To  the  Diplomatic  Agents  and  Consuls  of  the  TTnited  States  in 
Foreign  Countries. 

,  ^^  Department  of  State,  Washington,  Gth  July,  1861. 

"  Gentlemen, — Mr,  A.  Ilavaszthy,  the  bearer  of  this  communica- 
tion, has  been  appointed  by  the  government  of  the  State  of  Cahfor- 
nia  to  proceed  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  information  in 
regard  to  wine-producing  countries,  and  reporting  the  results  of  his 
observations  and  inquiries  to  that  government. 

"  I  will  consequently  thank  you  to  extend  to  him  any  facilities 
which  may  be  necessary  for  so  important  an  object. 
"  I  am  your  obedient  servant, 

"  William  H.  Sewakd." 

Having  been  furnished  with  the  above  letter  and  my  passport, 
I  returned  to  New  York  and  embarked  on  the  Hamburg  steamer 
Hammonia  for  Southampton  on  the  13th  of  July,  The  passage 
was  agreeable,  the  weather  being  fine.  We  arrived  in  port  in 
the  morning  of  July  26th. 

After  landing,  we  procured  a  carriage  and  drove  into  the  sur- 
rounding country,  examining  several  farms  and  manufactories. 
Returning  to  town  in  the  evening,  we  took  at  midnight  a  French 
steamer  for  Havre,  where  we  arrived  next  morning  at  11  o'clock. 
The  Custom-house  officers  very  civilly  passed  our  baggage  with- 
out inspection.  After  partaking  of  a  good  breakfast  at  our  hotel, 
we  strolled  through  the  town,  and  at  5  o'clock  in  the  afternoon 
started  in  the  extra  train  for  Paris,  where  we  arrived  at  11|- 
o'clock  that  night. 

We  took  lodgings  in  the  Hotel  de  Louvre.  The  next  day  I 
saw  my  son  Arpad,  to  whom  I  had  telegraphed  from  Southamp- 
ton, My  son  had  been  four  years  at  school  in  Paris,  and  latterly 
in  the  Champagne  districts,  where  he  is  now  learning  the  manu- 
facture of  Champagne  and  other  wines.  He  proved  a  great  as- 
sistaruje  to  us  during  our  stay  in  Europe ;  he  acted  as  my  secre- 
tary, my  correspondence  with  scientific  societies  increasing  daily, 
as  well  as  with  prominent  officers  of  different  governments.  He 
copied  also  my  journal  entries,  in  which  duty,  however,  he  had 
the  assistance  of  my  daughter,  as  he  was  not  able  alone  to  copy 
both  letters  and  journal. 

The  first  day  of  our  arrival  being  Sunday,  we  enjoyed  a  good 
rest,  whicb  was  much  needed  after  our  long  journey.  The  fol- 
lowing day  I  called  upon  the  United  States  minister,  Mr,  Dayton. 
This  gentleman,  being  so  much  occupied  in  getting  up  his  dis- 
patches, was  unable  to  receive  me.     Finding  through  his  secre- 


FROM  SAN  FRANCISCO  TO  PARIS.  85 

tary  that  it  ■would  be  several  days  before  be  would  be  able  to  sec 
me,  and  it  being  doubtful  whether  he  could  aid  me  much  in  the 
way  of  introductions  to  presidents  of  horticultural  and  agricultural 
societies,  I  determined  to  write  to  them  myself,  inclosing  a  copy 
of  my  commission.  This  course  was  adopted  for  two  reasons : 
first,  because  my  own  time  was  very  limited,  and,  secondly,  in 
order  not  to  trouble  the  minister  too  much. 

It  was  now  the  beginning  of  August,  and  every  body  who 
could  do  so  was  leaving  Paris.  We  found  the  presidents  gone 
with  the  rest  to  the  country.  We  ascertained  this  fact  several 
days  after  our  letters  had  been  written.  Meantime  we  visited 
the  vineyards  and  farms  around  Paris.  Having  ascertained  the 
whereabouts  of  the  officials,  we  started  to  Dijon,  August  6th. 


36  GRi:YPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT. 

Start  for  Dijon. — Obser^^ations  on  the  Road. — Arrival  at  Dijon. — Professor  Ladrey. 
— Aged  Vines. — The  Market.  —  Inferior  Fruits. — The  Botanical  Garden. — Its 
Vines. — Visit  Ge^Tcy. — Prices  of  Vineyards  and  Wines. — Manufacture  of  Red 
Wines.  —  The  Pineau  Vineyards.  — Vineyards  of  Chambcrtin. — Wine-vaults  at 
Morey. — The  Fermenting-room. — The  Press. — The  Gamai  Vineyards. — Beaune. 
— Casemates  used  as  Wine-cellars. — Clos  Vougeot. — Wine-presses  754  years  old. 
— The  Press-house. — Mode  of  testing  Wines. — The  Cellars. — Quality  of  Burgundy 
Wines. — The  Cote  d'Or. — The  Vineyard  of  Clos  Vougeot. — The  Pineau  and  the 
Gamai  Grapes. — Mode  of  laying  out  a  Vineyard. — Experiments  in  Planting. — 
Treatment  until  bearing. — Three-bud  Pruning. — Aspect  of  the  Vineyards. — Ouv- 
ries. — Manuring  Vines. — Keeping  close  to  the  Ground. — Pruning  for  large  and 
small  Crops. — Burgundy  Vines  must  be  cultivated  as  at  Home. — The  Vintage. — 
Fenced  Vineyards. — Unfenced  Vineyards. — Laws  regulating  the  time  of  gathering 
Grapes. — The  Laborers. — Small  Proprietors  make  inferior  Wine. — The  fewer  the 
Grapes  the  better  the  Wine. — Return  to  Paris. 

August  6. — Left  Paris  for  Dijon.  Tlie  country  tlirongli  wliicli 
we  passed  was  chiefly  undulating  liills  planted  with  the  sugar- 
beet,  which  looked  very  fine.  In  the  distance  could  be  seen  sev- 
eral sugar  manufactories,  with  their  tall  chimneys  and  fine  out- 
buildings. All  along  the  railroad  the  land  was  parceled  out  into 
very  small  lots,  eight  or  ten  feet  wide  and  two  hundred  feet  long. 
To  one  accustomed  to  the  broad  fields  of  America,  it  is  very 
strange  to  see  so  many  strips  of  land,  all  belonging  to  different 
persons.  Of  course,  these  lots  arc  all  planted  according  to  the  idea 
of  the  owner ;  therefore,  as  you  whirl  rapidly  by,  you  will  see 
first  a  patch  of  vineyard,  then  oats,  wheat,  barley,  etc.,  creating  a 
very  curious  effect,  till  you  know  how  valuable  land  is  in  this 
densely-populated  part  of  the  world.  On  my  way  I  also  saw  sev- 
eral fine  meadows  planted  with  clover,  or  what  we  Californians 
call  alphalfa.  The  strips  of  land  are  plowed  in  a  curved  shape 
on  the  hill-sides  and  in  very  low  land.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that 
if  the  water  were  to  run  through  a  straight  furrow  it  would  be  so 
rapid  that  the  soil  would  be  washed  away.  The  lands  are  from 
four,  five,  to  six  feet,  and  thrown  up  by  the  plow,  but  it  is  done 
most  beautifully  regular.     I  have  seen  several  men  plowing  very 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  37 

finely  in  spite  of  their  plow,  wliicli  is  a  primitive  machine  for  this 
enlightened  age.  It  is  furnished  with  a  wheel  on  the  side  of  the 
beam. 

Grain  is  now  ripe,  and  they  are  beginning  to  harvest  it.  Men, 
women,  and  children  may  be  seen  in  the  fields,  with  sickles,  hard 
at  work.  This  is  very  singular  to  the  eyes  of  a  California  farmer 
who  finds  the  Reaper  a  slow  machine  which  cuts  from  sixteen  t(j 
twenty  acres  in  the  day,  and  requires  binding,  heading,  and  stack- 
ing ;  therefore  he  lays  it  aside  for  the  Header,  which  cuts,  thrash- 
es, and  bags  his  grain  all  in  the  same  day.  However,  this  ma- 
chine could  not  be  used  in  this  part  of  Europe,  where  the  land  is 
subdivided  into  so  many  parcels,  and  the  owners  have  enough  help 
to  pick  the  head  ofi"  every  stem,  if  it  is  necessary,  with  the  hand ; 
and,  i^a  head  should  fall  from  the  wagon,  it  is  picked  up  with  all 
care ;  so  you  may  guess  there  is  not  much  chance  for  herds  of  cat- 
tle in  this  part  of  France. 

The  grain  docs  not  grow  to  a  great  height  here.  The  barley 
and  oats  are  about  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet,  and  the  rye  about 
two  and  a  half  feet  high.  On  this  route  I  did  not  see  any  wheat. 
For  carrying  the  grain  the  inhabitants  generally  use  a  donkey. 
They  pack  on  him  the  grain,  straw,  etc.,  whatever  it  may  be.  The 
wealthier  class  use  a  two-wheeled  cart,  which  has  a  rack  on  both 
sides ;  in  front  and  rear  there  is  a  fork,  which  resembles  the  fin- 
gers of  an  American  cradle.  To  this  is  attached  a  rope,  by  which 
the  rack  may  be  lowered  or  raised.  In  this  manner  the  cart  is 
easily  and  well  packed.  Those  who  are  too  poor  to  keejD  a  don- 
key carry  the  scanty  produce  upon  their  backs  to  their  homes, 
which  generally  are  four  or  five  miles  distant.  From  this  the 
reader  can  well  imagine  that  not  eveQ  a  blade  of  grass  is  allowed 
to  be  wasted. 

The  color  of  the  ground  in  some  places  is  white,  but  in  general 
is  a  pale  red,  and  very  much  exhausted.  There  are  but  few  fruit- 
trees,  and  they  are  yerj  badly  attended  to :  they  look  very  wretch- 
ed. The  vines  are  very  small,  and  in  the  vineyards  may  be  seen 
many  yellow  sprouts,  which  is  a  sign  of  decay. 

We  crossed  several  roads,  all  of  which  excited  my  greatest  ad- 
miration by  the  fine  order  in  which  they  are  kept.  They  are 
smooth  and  hard  as  a  billiard-table.  All  along  their  borders,  at 
a  distance  of  twenty  yards,  are  piled  up  fine  small  stones :  in  case 
a  hole  should  be  made  in  the  road,  the  inspector  need  only  take  a 
handful  or  two  of  these  stones  to  fill  it  up  immediately.     This 


4# 


38  GRAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

prevents  it  from  becoming  dangerously  large ;  and  both  man  and 
beast  may  travel  all  over  France  with  perfect  security  and  with 
pleasure.  The  meadows  are  generally  shaded  by  poplars,  planted 
in  rows.  The  banks  of  the  river  and  canal  are  also  ornamented 
in  the  same  manner,  which  has  a  very  pleasing  effect  on  the  eye. 
We  passed  through  many  small  villages,  where  there  are  some 
very  ancient  cottages  built  of  gray  stone,  or  still  having  the  thatch- 
ed roof.  In  the  distance  can  be  generally  seen  some  chateau, 
peeping  from  beneath  innumerable  shade-trees. 

The  town  where  the  train  stops  has  several  sugar  manufactories 
surrounding  it.  After  leaving  this  town  the  country  begins  to  be 
hilly.  The  strata  on  the  soil  is  lime  and  a  mixture  of  magnesia 
cement.  The  whole  is  planted  with  vines,  even  the  steepest  hills, 
which  a  person  ascends  with  difiiculty.  The  vines  here  also  show 
very  yellow  leaves  and  sprouts.  Across  the  meadow,  which  is 
about  two  miles  wide,  on  the  left  side  of  the  road,  the  ground  rises 
again  into  hills,  all  of  which  are  planted  with  vines. 

During  our  journey  we  passed  through  several  tunnels  of  dif- 
ferent lengths,  but  the  last,  about  twenty  miles  from  Dijon,  was  at 
least  five  or  six  miles  long. 

At  six  o'clock  we  arrived  in  Dijon ;  went  to  the  Hotel  de  la 
Cloche,  where,  after  washing  off  the  dust  that  almost  buried  us, 
we  took  dinner  at  the  table  d'hote.  It  was  the  finest  dinner  I 
have  eaten  since  the  beginning  of  my  tour.  There  were  more 
than  a  dozen  dishes  neatly  served  up  and  delicately  cooked. 
After  dinner  we  went  out  to  look  at  the  city.  Walking  through 
its  principal  streets  we  saw  the  City  Hall,  which  is  a  fine,  ancient 
stone  building.  The  Cathedral,  a  time-honored  edifice,  with  finely- 
proportioned  columns  and 'many  Bible  scenes  carved  in  stone, 
may  also  be  seen. 

After  taking  a  cuj:)  of  coffee  we  returned  home  and  addressed 
a  letter  to  Professor  Ladrey,  and  inclosed  the  letter  I  received  to 
him  from  the  editor  of  VEcIio  du  Pacific.  I  requested  the  favor 
of  a  personal  interview.  After  dispatching  this  letter  we  retired, 
well  satisfied  with  the  city,  dinner,  and  excellent  bed. 

I  arose  at  seven  o'clock,  after  passing  a  sleepless  night.  The 
whistle  of  the  night-trains,  the  rolling  of  the  omnibuses  to  and 
from  the  stations,  kept  me  awake  the  whole  night ;  and  in  the 
morning  the  chattering  of  men  and  women,  the  notes  of  a  musical 
donkey  immediately  under  my  window,  the  shrill  voice  of  the 
venders  of  fruits,  vegetables,  etc.,  deprived  me  of  my  morning's 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  39 

nap.  After  dressing  we  went  through  several  of  the  squares  or 
rolondes  of  the  city  (there  arc  none  of  any  regular  form).  There 
arc  to  bo  found  several  fine  fountains,  and  in  the  east  half  square 
a  group  of  well-exeeutcd  statues.  There  is  a  monk  on  the  sum- 
mit, supported  by  the  figures  of  monks,  popes,  etc.  The  repre- 
sentation wc  could  not  make  out.  From  these  we  went  and  in- 
spected the  interior  of  the  Cathedral,  the  market,  etc. 

During  our  walk  I  saw  several  vines  trained  up  to  the  second 
story  windows  of  a  house,  and  very  heavily  laden  with  grapes ; 
a  fair  estimate  would  be  seventy  to  eighty  pounds  to  the  vine. 
But  what  surprised  me  was  that  the  grajDe-vine  was  planted  so 
close  to  the  house  that  the  wall  must  rest  upon  half  of  its  root, 
while  on  the  other  side  are  laid  the  heavy  stones  of  the  pavement, 
which  must  have  rested  there  already  many  years.  This  is  a 
positive  proof  that  after  a  certain  age  a  vine  can  live  and  bear  a 
quantity  of  fruit  without  being  hoed,  or  the  ground  loosened 
around  its  roots.  These  vines  must  be  at  least  fifteen,  twenty, 
or  perhaps  fifty  years  old.  The  leaves  and  fruit  are  large  and 
healthy -looking.  Upon  pointing  out  the  above  to  Arpad,  he  told 
me  that  a  man  named  Eose  had  paved  his  vineyard  as  an  experi- 
ment, but  his  successor,  laughing  at  the  idea,  had  the  stones  taken 
up,  so  that  the  experiment  was  never  made.  When  I  return 
home  I  will  try  it  with  vines  of  different  ages.  If  it  should  suc- 
ceed it  would  be  a  great  economy,  and  the  grapes  resting  on  stone 
would  be  clean,  and  could  not  impart  a  ground  taste  to  the  wine 
from  the  quantity  of  dust  which  sometimes  is  ujDon  them. 

From  these  we  went  to  the  market.  Here  we  found  women 
sitting  on  both  sides  of  the  street  selling  fruit,  vegetables,  earthen- 
ware, etc.  Leaving  this  noisy,  and,  I  must  eoiifess,  dirty -looking 
street,  we  turned  into  a  covered  market,  where  the  women  sell 
butter,  cheese,  etc.  At  the  end  of  this  market  is  a  very ,  large, 
ancient  building,  also  filled  with  female  venders  of  meats,  fish, 
vegetables,  etc.  Here  the  noise  reached  its  height,  and  resembled 
the  hoarse  roar  of  the  Niagara  Falls.  Driven  out  by  the  old 
cheese  and  various  other  perfumes,  we  left  to  seek  a  more  quiet 
and  cleaner  place. 

I  here  found  with  astonishment  that  the  fruit  was  inferior  to 
that  of  California.  The  markets  of  San  Francisco,  Sacramento, 
Marysville,  even  the  mining  towns,  produce  a  finer  display  of  fruit 
than  these  large  venerable  towns.  The  reader  must  not  suppose 
that  I  am  influenced  by  partiality  for  my  own  State  when  I  make 


40  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

my  remarks.  The  object  of  my  travels  is  especially  to  note  down 
every  tiling  in  wLich  tlie  Europeans  surpass  us,  and  afterward 
lay  them  before  the  citizens  of  the  United  States.  This  task  I 
will  fulfill  to  the  very  best  of  my  judgment. 

At  half  past  ten  we  returned  to  our  breakfast,  which  did  not 
prove  inferior  to  our  dinner  of  the  preceding  day.  Indeed,  it 
seems  as  though  the  landlords  of  Dijon  are  determined  to  fatten 
their  guests  at  the  shortest  possible  notice  by  administering  to 
them  the  most  delicate  viands.  The  wine  (which  we  added  extra 
to  our  meal)  was  excellent.  I  say  "added  extra,"  because-every 
guest  is  given  a  bottle  of  wine  to  his  meal ;  and  I  will  taste  all 
the  wines  raised  in  the  places  through  which  I  travel,  as  I  wish 
to  know  whether  the  exported  wines  are  worse  or  better  than 
those  which  are  common  at  home. 

To-day  Professor  Ladrey  called  on  us.  During  the  conversa- 
tion he  promised  to  come  in  the  evening,  as,  it  being  examination- 
day,  he  was  occupied.  He  also  offered  his  services  for  the  next 
eight  days  to  show  us  the  surrounding  vineyards,  nurseries,  or- 
chards, etc.  The  professor  is  the  editor  of  La  Bourgogne,  a 
monthly  magazine  on  the  culture  of  wine,  and  president  of  the 
Dijon  wine  district.  He  is  also  author  of  several  chemical  works 
on  wine,  etc.  He  seems  to  be  a  very  gentlemanly  and  accommo- 
dating man.  "We  met  Monsieur  Ladrey  at  seven.  He  spake 
very  ably  concerning  the  wine  culture,  and  informed  us  that 
there  was  a  fine  botanical  garden  in  the  city.  After  leaving  him 
we  went  through  it,  and  also  the  old  Cathedral,  which  boasts  of 
a  few  fine  oil  paintings.  There  is  also  an  aqueduct  here  worthy 
of  notice ;  it  extends  four  leagues  from  the  city.  By  this  means 
Dijon  is  well  watered. 

August  10. — This  morning  we  went  with  Monsieur  Ladrey 
through  the  botanical  garden.  The  most  interesting  to  me  were 
the  grapes,  of  which  there  are  six  hundred  varieties.  Partly 
planted  at  the  foot  of  a  high  wall,  they  are  trained  over  a  net- 
like  wire  fastened  to  the  wall.  Some  of  these  vines  are  twenty 
years  old,  and  do  not  present  a  very  inviting  aspect,  their  leaves 
being  withered,  and  mildew  having  attacked  them  and  the  grapes. 
The  best  and  finest  arc  the  Persian  Seedlers,  which  are  transjDar- 
ent,  with  a  beautiful  healthy  color,  but  a  little  late  in  the  season. 
The  Chasalas  Fontainebleau  looks  thrifty  and  healthy,  but  the 
Palestine  mammoth  grape  is  poor,  and  most  of  the  berries  are 
dried  up.     The  gardener  ascribes  this  to  the  cold  and  changeable 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTKICT.  41 

weather  tlicy  have  had  this  year.  The  Catawba,  Isabella,  and 
Scrapanay  arc  among  the  varieties.  The  vineyard,  placed  on  a 
small  gravelly  knoll,  is  doing  much  better  than  the  above-named 
trellis-work.  This  may  be  on  account  of  the  vines  not  being  so 
old,  as  some  are  only  two  and  six  years  old.  On  being  told  their 
age,  I  was  much  surprised  to  see  how  small  and  feeble  they  were 
in  wood,  and  backward  in  bearing.  I  was  told  that  they  were 
also  manured.  This  is  the  first  time  many  of  them  bear,  as  even 
the  acclimated  vines  do  not  produce  fruit  until  they  arc  five  years 
old,  and  very  little  then.  After  thanking  the  director,  we  agreed 
to  enter  into  correspondence,  and  exchange  all  varieties  of  vines, 
seeds,  etc.,  which  the  one  does  and  the  other  does  not  possess. 
This  institution  is  supported  by  the  city  of  Dijon.  It  does  not 
sell  any  of  its  roots,  but  exchanges  with  societies  and  individuals. 

Upon  leaving  the  garden  we  started  for  Gevrey,  a  small  vil- 
lage half  an  hour's  travel  by  railroad  from  Dijon,  and  which  is 
surrounded  by  the  most  celebrated  vineyards  in  this  district.  As 
the  cars  do  not  pass  Gevrey,  we  stopped  at  Chambertin,  took  an 
omnibus,  and  proceeded  to  Gevrey;  having  letters  from  M.  Ladrey 
to  the  overseer  of  a  gentleman's  vineyard.  His  absence  from 
home  enabled  us  to  take  our  breakfast  before  starting  out.  Dur- 
ing the  preparation  of  our  meal,  we  endeavored  to  ascertain  from 
the  talkative  landlady  whether  a  vehicle  could  be  obtained.  She 
did  not  know ;  but  her  husband,  upon  our  assuring  him  we  were 
not  aristocratic,  comforted  us  with  the  remote  hope  of  procuring 
us  a  coach  to  drive  to  some  of  the  neighboring  vineyards.  "We 
were  not  able  to  get  the  promised  conveyance  till  twelve  o'clock. 
Therefore  we  took  a  stroll  through  the  village,  which,  like  all 
French  towns,  is  irregular  in  its  construction,  and  composed  of 
stone  houses  two  stories  high.  The  whole  village  has  an  air  of 
comfort  and  prosperity  about  it,  which  proves  that  even  here  the 
cultivation  of  the  vine  is  quite  remunerative.  At  last  our  man 
arrived.  I  put  a  series  of  questions  to  him,  and  gained  the  fol- 
lowing information. 

Gevrey  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  peasants,  either  possessing  vine- 
yards in  fee-simple,  or  renting  for  a  period  of  time  vineyards  al- 
ready planted,  or  warrant-lands  which  they  have  planted  them- 
selves. The  rent  of  five  acres  of  vacant  land  for  planting  a  vine- 
yard is  250  to  800  francs,  payable  annually,  the  term  of  the: lease 
being  from  20  to  30  years.  No  allowance  is  made  for..the  time 
the  vines  are  not  bearing.    Planted  vineyards  pay  a  rent  of  from 


42  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

350  to  500  francs  per  five  acres.  The  price  of  a  vineyard,  when 
for  sale,  varies  with  its  location.  The  first  class  Pineau  vineyards 
are  worth  from  40,000  to  60,000  francs  per  hectare  ;*  the  second 
class  Pineau  vineyards,  30,000  to  40,000  francs  per  hectare.  The 
first  class  Gamai  vineyards,  30,000  to  40,000  francs  per  hectare; 
the  second  class,  15,000  to  25,000  francs  per  hectare.  The  price 
of  the  wine  is  also  very  variable.  For  instance,  wine  raised  in 
1846  from  a  first  class  vineyard  sold  at  2000,  3000,  and  even  4000 
francs  per  barrel,  which  contains  60  American  gallons.  In  usual 
vintages,  wine  of  the  first  class,  when  through  the  first  fermenta- 
tion, sells  from  1000  to  1500  francs  per  barrel,  sometimes  even 
more ;  the  second  class,  from  500  to  1000  francs.  The  wine  made 
of  the  Gamai  in  celebrated  years  will  sell  for  800  to  1500  francs ; 
in  common  years,  250  to  400  francs.  Nearly  all  wines  made  here 
arc  red.     The  few  white  wines  arc  not  at  all  celebrated. 

The  mode  of  making  the  red  wine  is  very  much  the  same  in  the 
whole  district.  The  grapes  arc  picked  by  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren, from  September  to  the  10th  of  October.  They  are  placed  in 
baskets,  and  carried  to  wooden  tubs  with  leather  straps  on  each 
side.  There  are  several  of  them  scattered  in  different  parts  of  the 
vineyard.  When  these  tubs  are  full,  a  man  passes  his  arms 
through  the  straps,  lifts  the  tub  to  his  back,  and  carries  it  to  the 
large  trough  which  is  placed  in  a  central  part  of  the  vineyard. 
He  empties  the  grapes  into  the  trough,  where  the  jncn  crush  them 
with  their  feet.  The  crushed  grapes,  juice  and  all,  are  then  car- 
ried in  a  donkey-cart  to  the  village,  where  they  are  thrown  into  a 
large  fermentiug-vat.  The  people  do  not  live  in  their  vineyards, 
but  have  their  cellars  generally  in  the  village.  The  fcrmenting- 
vat  is  about  4|-  feet  high,  and  holds  from  10  to  20  or  even  SO  bar- 
rels of  wine.  When  they  have  remained  in  this  tank  from  24  to 
40  hours,  the  fermentation  will  send  the  stems  and  seeds  to  the 
top  of  the  vessel,  forming  a  hard  mass.  Then,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  tank,  from  four  to  ten  men,  stripped  of  all  their  clothes, 
step  into  the  vessel,  and  begin  to  tread  down  the  floating  mass, 
working  it  also  with  their  hands.  This  operation  is  repeated  sev- 
eral times,  if  the  wine  does  not  ferment  rapidly  enough.  The  rea- 
son given  for  this,  in  my  eyes,  rather  dirty  work,  is  that  the  bodily 
heat  of  the  men  aids  the  wine  in  its  fermentation ;  but  this  object 
might  be  gained  by  throwing  in  heated  stones,  or  using  pijDCS  filled 
with  steam  or  hot  water. 

*  The  hectare  is  two  and  a  half  American  acres. 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  43 

After  the  above-named  operation  is  completed,  the  wine  is  left 
to  ferment  two  and  a  half  to  three  and  a  half  days  longer,  or  four 
or  five  days  from  the  time  when  the  tank  was  filled.  If  the 
weather  is  warm,  four  days  and  nights  are  sufiicicnt ;  if  it  is  cold, 
it  requires  five  days.  In  rare  cases,  the  cellar  is  heated  with 
stoves.  The  wine,  after  its  fermentation,  is  drawn  from  the  tank 
by  a  siphon,  incased  by  a  tube  made  of  willows,  with  a  wicker- 
wprk  across  the  end,  which  is  plunged  through  the  seeds  and  stems 
to  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  If  the  end  of  the  siphon  was  not  cov- 
ered by  the  wicker-work,  it  would  soon  be  choked  up  by  the 
stems  and  seeds.  The  clear  juice  flowing  from  the  siphon  is  taken 
in  tubs  to  the  cellar,  and  emptied  into  barrels  already  in  their 
places.  These  barrels  are  filled  but  two  thirds  full.  When  the 
tank  has  given  up  its  clear  juice,  the  stems,  etc.,  are  taken  out,  and 
put  into  a  j)ress,  where  the  remainder  of  the  juice  is  forced  out, 
With  this  juice  the  barrels  are  filled  to  within  two  inches  of  the 
top.  This  wine  remains  quiet  for  about  a  month,  when  the  barrel 
is  completely  filled  and  bunged  up. 

In  the  month  of  March  these  barrels  are  emptied  into  others, 
where  the  wine  is  cleared  with  eggs ;  then  it  is  again  drawn  off  in 
this  first  year  of  its  existence.  Many,  in  this  district,  draw  off 
their  wine  as  often  as  three  times  in  the  year.  In  years  when  the 
rains  are  heavy,  or  when  from  any  cause  the  grapes  are  deficient 
in  saccharine  matter,  sugar  made  from  potatoes,  known  as  "  grape 
sugar,"  is  added,  to  the  amount,  often,  of  thirty  pounds  to  each 
sixty  gallons.  This  is  thrown  into  the  vat  where  the  wine  is  fer- 
menting. 

After  a  short  conversation  with  the  overseer,  we  were  agree- 
ably surprised  to  see  a  vehicle  drive  up  to  the  gate.  It  was  fur- 
nished with  a  good  horse  and  driver,  and  was,  moreover,  a  good 
example  of  the  love  of  comfort  cherished  by  the  ancients,  for  that 
carriage  has  surely  witnessed  the  rise  and  fall  of  many  dynasties. 
Our  landlord  mounted  the  box  with  the  overseer.  The  driver, 
on  closing  the  door,  asked  our  |)ermission  to  place  a  lad  of  fifteen 
years  in  the  box  behind,  where  in  good  old  times  the  servant  took 
his  place.  Of  course  we  had  no  objection,  as  it  added  to  our  aris- 
tocratic appearance,  and  the  horse  did  not  belong  to  us. 

On  leaving  Gevrey,  which  is  situated  on  rather  high  ground, 
we  passed  vineyard  after  vineyard,  until  we  came  to  the  elevation 
where  are  planted  the  Pineau  grapes,  which  produce  the  cele- 
brated red  wines.     The  ground  rises  slowly  to  the  top  of  the  hill. 


44:  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-]\IAKING. 

and  is  of  a  red  color,  thickly  strewn  witli  gravel.  The  vines  are 
planted  two  and  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  and  not  very  regularly. 
The  stems  are  not  thicker  than  from  three  fourths  to  one  and  one 
and  a  half  inches.  The  shoots  are  from  three  to  three  and  a  half 
feet  high,  where  they  are  topped.  They  are  tied  to  oak  or  locust 
sticks  three  and  a  half  feet  in  height,  and  from  one  half  to  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  The  vines  are  tied  either  with 
straw  or  twigs.  These  vines,  which  we  have  imported,  bear  very 
small  bunches,  and  also  small  berries.  The  clusters  are  more 
round  than  long  in  their  form,  and  the  berries  are  crowded  so 
closely  together  that  one  overlies  the  other.  The  Pineau  vine- 
yards will  give  from  eight  to  twelve  barrels  of  wine  to  the  hec- 
tare. This  is  generally  a  very  productive  year,  but  not  a  good 
wine  season.  The  Pineau  vines  have  only  from  one  quarter  to 
one  and  a  half  pounds  of  grapes ;  indeed,  many  vines  did  not  have 
as  much  as  a  berry  upon  them. 

We  also  examined  the  celebrated  vineyards  of  Chambertin,  the 
wine  of  which  has  a  well-deserved  and  extensive  rejDutation.  At 
a  short  distance  from  there  is  a  small  village  called  Morey,  which 
contains  a  fine  cellar  forty  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
It  is  all  arched,  is  forty  feet  wide  in  the  centre,  and  is  supported 
by  pillars  of  solid  stone.  The  barrels  are  placed  in  three  rows, 
two  barrels  high ;  but  if  the  vault  is  much  crowded,  as  many  as 
four  tiers  are  piled  u-p.  This  cellar  is  furnished  with  four  tanks, 
each  capable  of  containing  ten  barrels  of  wine.  These  tanks 
have  a  door  on  the  side,  so  as  to  enable  a  man  to  enter  and  clean 
the  interior.  To  prevent  leakage,  the  door  is  screwed  tight  to  the 
side.  Above  this  cellar  there  is  still  another  one,  arranged  in  the 
same  way,  which  contains  the  young  wines.  We  tasted  many, 
and  found  them  yerj  good.  Thence  we  went  to  the  fermenting- 
room,  where  we  saw  the  vats,  press,  tubs,  etc.,  in  excellent  order. 
The  fermenting-tanks,  which  hold  fVom  ten  to  eighteen  barrels, 
are  built  of  oak,  with  iron  hoops  to  hold  them  together.  The 
press,  instead  of  having  a  screw  from  the  top  and  pressing  the 
juice  out  in  that  way,  is  made  like  a  large  square  box,  three  sides 
of  which  are  composed  of  thick  wooden  bars,  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  apart,  so  that  the  wine,  but  not  the  seeds  and  stems,  may 
escape  upon  the  large  platform  underneath  the  press,  the  bottom 
of  which  is  also  a  lattice-work  of  strong  bars.  This  platform  is 
bordered  by  a  scantling  an  inch  and  a  half  thick  to  prevent  the 
juice  from  running  over.     The  box  above  the  platform  is  fur- 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  45 

nished  witii  one  solid  oak  slide,  which  is  pushed  toward  the  farther 
end  by  a  couple  of  iron  screws  fastened  in  the  planks  on  the  one 
end.  The  other  end  has  a  cast-iron  wheel,  and  each  of  the  screws 
is  furnished  with  one  also,  which  in  turn  is  driven  by  a  still  small- 
er wheel,  on  an  iron  bar  which  is  attached  to  a  fly-wheel  worked 
by  hand.  When  this  is  moved  it  starts  the  close-fitting  solid  slide 
of  the  box,  and  this  presses  the  substance  against  the  three  open- 
work sides  with  such  force  as  to  extract  every  particle  of  juice 
from  the  stems  and  seeds  deposited  there  for  that  purpose.  The 
wine  so  pressed  is  carried  in  tubs  to  the  cellar,  and  disjDoscd  of  as 
before  described. 

Five  days  is  generally  sufiicient  for  the  fermenting  of  wine  in 
this  part,  unless  it  is  cold  weather,  when  the  overseer  sends  his 
men  in  a  couple  of  times  more  in  their  costume  d  VAdam  to  cre- 
ate the  necessary  warmth.  The  wine  of  this  vineyard  sells  from 
600  to  1500  francs,  according  to  the  excellency  of  the  vintage. 

We  then  went  to  examine  the  Gamai  vineyards.  We  found 
that  in  color,  size,  and  form  the  fruit  very  much  resembled  the 
Pineau  grape ;  but  the  bunches  are  much  larger,  and  the  vines 
bear  three  times  as  much  as  the  Pineau.  I  was  told  that  a  tract 
of  land  originally  planted  with  the  Pineau,  which  made  an  ex- 
cellent wine,  was  replanted  with  the  Gamai  vine,  which  produced 
in  this  celebrated  situation  much  less,  and  inferior  wine  to  the 
vineyards  of  the  first  class  Gamai  in  the  plain.  If  this  be  a  fact, 
it  shows  that  the  quality  of  wine  depends  greatly  upon  the  grape, 
and  not  entirely  on  the  soil.  However,  I  will  examine  this  the- 
ory more  thoroughly,  and  compare  it  with  the  practical  knowl- 
edge acquired  by  persons  who  have  tried  the  same  experiment. 

After  seeing  every  thing  here,  we  returned  to  the  village,  dis- 
charged our  driver,  and  took  the  cars  for  Dijon,  where  we  arrived 
at  six  o'clock,  very  tired  and  hungry.  However,  we  partook  of 
white  wine  that  evening,  as  the  process  through  which  the  red 
wine  goes  did  not  serve  to  increase  our  longing  for  the  ruby-col- 
ored liquid. 

August  11. — This  morning  we  started  with  M.  Ladrey  for 
Beaune,  where  the  Professor  L.  is  well  acquainted.  We  were 
not  very  fortunate  in  our  time,  as  it  was  Sunday,  and  almost 
every  one  was  out.  However,  we  at  last  found  a  clerk  of  a  large 
commercial  house  which  buys  up  the  produce  of  the  neighbor- 
hood. This  gentleman  took  us  into  the  vaults  or  cellars  of  his 
establishment.     These  cellars  are  the  casemates  of  the  ancient 


46  GRzVPE  CULTURE  AND  ^\^NE-:MAKING. 

fortress  wliicli  in  olden  times  had  its  fortifications  around  the 
town.  These  casemates  are  now  used  by  the  inhabitants  as  wine- 
cellars.  After  descending  a  steep  flight  of  steps  about  sixty  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  an  immense  vault  met  our  aston- 
ished eyes.  It  was  filled  with  barrels  piled  one  upon  the  other. 
We  were  led  from  vault  to  vault,  which  now  contain  but  4000 
barrels  of  wine,  but  they  are  capable  of  holding  12,000.  There 
are  also  a  few  large  hogsheads,  which  will  hold  forty-two  bar- 
rels of  wine.  The  thickness  of  these  walls  are  forty  feet.  Of 
course,  no  private  individual  could  build  such  a  wall  without  its 
costing  him  a  million  of  dollars.  Little  did  the  founders  of  this 
fort  dream  of  the  use  to  which  their  casemates  would  be  put  by 
the  succeeding  generations.  The  vaults  in  Beaune  are  now  the 
best  in  the  empire  of  France. 

Having  visited  all  the  places  of  note,  we  stopped  at  a  book- 
store and  purchased  the  map  of  the  surrounding  vineyards,  with 
the  produce  of  the  district  marked ;  also  two  books  of  the  dis- 
trict containing  statistics  of  wine-making,  the  number  of  acres 
planted,  their  price,  etc.  After  having  freely  conversed  with  the 
overseers  who  make  a  great  deal  of  wine,  I  shall  be  able  to  judge 
whether  the  authors  are  theoretical  or  practical  men.  The  maps 
are  very  valuable,  as  they  give  the  quality  of  the  vineyards  as 
well  as  the  nature  of  the  soil, 

"We  then  started  again  for  Dijon.  The  whole  surrounding 
country  is  planted  with  vines — the  hills  with  the  Pincau,  and  the 
plains  with  the  Gamai.  Beaune  is  in  the  Prefecturate.  It  con- 
tains about  4000  inhabitants,  who  are  generally  wealthy  and  well 
to  do.    Much  commerce  is  here  carried  on  with  foreign  countries. 

August  12. — This  morning  we  took  the  cars  for  Clos  Yougeot. 
We  arrived  there  at  noon,  and  immediately  proceeded  to  the  vine- 
yard of  the  Clos.  The  steward  very  kindly  gave  us  all  the  de- 
sired information.  He  told  me  that  those  vineyards  and  houses 
formerly  belonged  to  the  priests,  who,  finding  that  the  vine  did 
well,  planted  the  whole  neighborhood.  They  also  built  the  wine- 
presses which  he  now  uses.  "  These  presses,  four  in  number,  were 
erected  in  the  year  1117  A.D.,  and  have  defied  the  ravages  of 
time.  Their  massive  beams  are  sixty  feet  long,  four  and  a  half 
feet  thick,  and  three  feet  wide,  with  a  large  wooden  screw  about 
eighteen  inches  thick  and  twelve  feet  high,  still  standing  firm, 
and  promising  to  last  many  years  more. 

There  are  in  the  press-house  86  tanks,  containing  825  barrels, 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  47 

or  495,000  gallons  of  wine.  The  fermentation  here  lasts  the  same 
length  of  time  as  in  other  vineyards,  namely,  four  or  five  days 
in  warm  weather,  and  six,  or  even  twelve,  in  cold.  When  the 
weather  is  cold,  tlic  men  arc  sent  into  the  wine  as  often  as  three 
times  in  the  day.  As  it  is  a  most  delicate  operation  to  have  the 
exact  quantity  of  heat,  the  overseer  informed  me  that  he  some- 
times tested  the  wine  three  and  four  times  in  the  day,  either  with 
a  wine  alcometer  and  thermometer,  or  with  the  palate.  "When 
the  test  is  made  with  the  alcometer,  he  takes  portions  from  the 
different  parts  of  the  barrel — the  top,  centre,  and  bottom — and 
mixes  them  well  together  before  testing. 

"We  were  also  taken  into  the  cellars,  which  are  lined  with  hogs- 
heads of  2400  gallons  each.  They  are  three  and  four  hundred 
years  old.  They  were  also  built  by  the  priests,  and  are  now  kept 
in  splendid  order.  The  vineyards  are  planted  with  the  Pineau 
and  the  Noirier  half  and  half.  The  wine  sells  out  of  the  ferment- 
ing-tub  for  600  francs  per  barrel. 

Burgundy  wine  was  in  ancient  times  considered  the  noblest 
and  most  generous  of  wines,  except  the  Tokay ;  the  wines  from 
this  district  were  often  presented  by  the  Princes  of  Burgundy  to 
kings,  princes,  and  chief  nobles  of  foreign  countries,  as  a  great 
favor.  No  banquet  was  given  without  the  genuine  Burgundy; 
and  even  in  the  present  age  this  fine  wine  holds  its  own  with 
connoisseurs,  and  all  lovers  of  a  good  glass.  Industry  and  science 
have  in  modern  times  elevated  the  Bordeaux,  and  have  made  it 
a  wine  more  generally  used,  on  account  of  its  mildness,  as  a  table 
wine ;  but,  nevertheless,  the  Burgundy  is  sought  for  by  all  nations, 
and  the  extensive  district  planted  with  its  vines  can  not  supply 
the  wants  of  the  trade. 

That  portion  of  the  district  which  produces  the  finest  wines  is 
called  the  Cote  d'Or,  "  Golden  Hills."  This  is  a  range  of  hills 
from  Chalons  sur  Saone  to  Dijon,  running  from  north-northeast 
to  south-southwest,  about  eighty  miles  in  length.  The  height  of 
these  hills  is  from  two  hundred  to  three  hundred  feet ;  the  soil  is 
red  and  gravelly,  containing  a  good  deal  of  limestone,  similar  to 
our  Sonoma  soil,  which  also  exists  in  almost  every  county  in  Cali- 
fornia by  millions  of  acres.  These  hills,  with  the  exception  of 
small  spots  where  the  red  rock  comes  to  the  surface,  are  planted 
with  vines,  the  vineyards  reaching  almost  to  the  top  of  the  hills. 
The  reason  why  they  do  not  extend  to  the  very  crest  is  that  no 
soil  exists  on  the  rocks  toward  the  very  top.     The  first  quality 


48  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

of  the  wine  is  produced  on  the  heights.  The  redder  the  soil,  the 
better  the  wine. 

I  have  mentioned  that  I  visited  the  celebrated  vineyard  of  Clos 
Yougeot,  containing  one  hundred  and  eighty  acres,  surrounded 
with  a  solid  stone  wall.  In  the  middle  stands  the  ancient  abbey, 
which  once  had  more  than  one  hundred  monasteries  tributary  to 
it.  It  is  a  well-preserved  edifice,  and  is  now  owned  by  a  j)rivate 
family  who  spend  a  portion  of  the  time  on  this  domain. 

The  first-class  vineyards  plant  exclusively  the  Pineau  grape- 
vines, a  black  grape  with  a  small  berry  and  a  small  bunch,  which 
produces  from  a  half  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  to  the  vine.  This 
gives  the  generous  and  widely  famed  Burgundy  wine. 

The  second-class  vineyards  contain  the  Gamai  grape,  black  in 
color,  considerably  larger  as  to  berries  than  the  Pineau,  and  more 
prolific,  but  giving  an  inferior  wine. 

The  third  class  are  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  sometimes  extending 
into  the  valleys.  They  are  planted  with  Gamai  and  several  other 
vines,  producing  blue  and  white  grapes. 

The  various  experiments  made  with  the  fresh -pressed  juice 
from  the  Pineau  showed  ninety-six  degrees  of  sugar  and  the 
greatest  weight ;  while  the  Gamai,  raised  alongside,  proved  to  be 
only  eighty-four  degrees.  In  this  province,  when  a  vineyard  is 
planted  anew,  the  work  is  as  follows:  The  ground  is  laid  out 
with  ditches  five  feet  apart  and  one  and  a  half  feet  deep ;  the 
ground  is  thrown  between  the  ditches,  making  a  ridge ;  the 
ditches  are  partially  filled  with  good  ground  manure ;  the  cut- 
tings, eighteen  inches  long,  are  placed  half  a  foot  apart,  bending 
toward  the  ridge;  the  soil  is  then  drawn  over  the  cutting  and 
trampled  down  by  the  feet,  leaving  two  buds  out.  The  ridge  is 
planted  with  potatoes,  beans,  beets,  or  cabbages.  The  first  and 
second  year,  during  the  summer,  these  vines  receive  two  or  three 
hocings.  The  first  year  these  plantations  do  not  receive  any 
pruning,  but  are  left  to  grow  as  bushy  as  nature  will  allow.  The 
second  year,  in  the  spring,  they  are  pruned  to  two  buds,  and  more 
soil  is  drawn  over,  covering  the  plants  up  to  the  cut.  Manure  is 
also  applied  in  the  rows.  In  the  third  year  the  vines  arc  pruned 
to  two  branches,  each  cut  to  two  buds,  and  furnished  with  a  stake 
from  four  to  five  feet  long.  During  the  fourth,  or  sometimes  dur- 
ing the  fifth  year,  small  ditches  are  made  from  the  vines  toward 
the  middle  of  the  rows.  The  vine  then  is  drawn  in  this  ditch, 
the  root  remaining,  with  one  branch,  in  its  original  place.     The 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  49 

Other  branch  is  bent  to  the  centre  of  the  row,  and  two  buds  are 
left  out  of  ground.  The  ridges  which  existed  between  the  rows 
become,  by  this  operation,  leveled,  and  the  whole  vineyard  now 
stands  planted,  two  and  a  quarter  feet  apart,  with  vines.  During 
the  summer  but  one  vine  is  allowed  to  grow  up ;  all  the  other 
sprouts  are  rubbed  off. 

Many  experiments  were  made  by  digging  up  the  ground  two 
feet  deep,  then  taking  an  iron  bar,  and  making  a  hole,  and  plant- 
ing the  cutting.  This  mode  succeeded  as  well  as  that  just  de- 
scribed ;  that  is,  the  vines  grew  and  flourished  well ;  but  it  was 
found  that,  after  a  certain  number  of  years,  the  vineyards  thus 
planted  yielded  but  little ;  so  that  this  mode  is  now  abandoned, 
and  the  old  ditching  and  laying  system  is  now  in  use. 

When  the  vines  begin  bearing,  which  is  the  fifth  and  sixth  year, 
each  retains  but  one  stem,  which  is  cut  above  the  ground  to  three 
buds.  This  mode  of  cutting  to  three  buds  is  repeated  every  year ; 
that  is,  year  after  year  the  wood  which  possessed  the  three  buds 
is  left,  and  the  new-made  wood  is  cut  to  three  buds.  Proceeding 
thus,  in  from  eight  to  ten  years  the  vine  will  be  raised  to  the 
height  of  from  two  to  three  feet.  It  becomes,  therefore,  necessary 
to  bring  these  vines  nearer  to  the  ground,  and  by  this  means  to 
renovate  and  rejuvenate  them.  This  may  be  done  in  the  follow- 
ing manner :  As  soon  as  the  vintner  sees  that  a  vine  is  growing 
too  high,  he  will,  in  the  month  of  February  or  March,  dig  a  ditch 
a  foot  deep  and  six  inches  wide  toward  a  vacant  place,  without 
any  reference  to  the  line.  The  vine  now  is  uncovered  from  the 
dirt  on  all  sides,  and  drawn  into  this  ditch.  The  hole  (or  ditch) 
must  be  just  as  long  as  the  old  stem  of  the  vine,  so  that  when  laid 
horizontally  the  old  stem  will  reach  the  end.  The  yearling  branch 
at  the  end  of  the  old  stem  is  then  bent  up,  the  ditch  filled  with 
manured  soil,  and  the  yearling  branch  cut  to  three  buds  above 
the  ground.  About  one  tenth  of  the  vines  are  annually  so  laid, 
consequently  every  vineyard  is  renewed  once  in  ten  years.  By 
this  operation,  of  course,  all  lines  are  destroyed,  the  vines  standing 
every  way  like  beans  sowed  broadcast ;  but,  inasmuch  as  cultiva- 
tion is  carried  on  entirely  by  hand,  it  creates  no  inconvenience. 

The  vineyards  are  generally  divided  into  ouvries  (land  of  a 
day's  work).  Such  an  ouvrie  is  8645  square  feet,  in  which  ten 
to  fifteen  vines  are  to  be  laid  every  year  by  the  hired  vintner  as  a 
part  of  his  regular  duty,  the  payment  being  included  in  his  wages ; 
but  if  it  should  exceed  the  above  number  of  vines,  he  is  paid  one 

D 


50  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

SOU  for  cacli  extra,  vine.  The  usual  wages  for  working  an  acre 
for  the  year,  excepting  the  packing  of  the  grapes  and  making  ^he 
wine,  is  from  eighty  to  a  hundred  francs  per  acre.  Many  pro- 
jDrietors  give  their  lands  on  half  shares,  as  I  have  already  men- 
tioned. 

The  practice  of  manuring  the  vines  is  a  necessary  evil.  It  is 
a  well-understood  fact  that  vines  produced  on  soil  not  manured 
will  be  more  durable,  and  clear  better,  and  are,  consequently, 
sooner  ready  for  market. 

The  general  conviction  in  this  district  is,  that  the  closer  the  bud 
to  the  main  stem,  the  stronger  the  wine  it  will  produce ;  that  is, 
the  first  bud  from  the  old  wood  will  give  grapes  less  in  size  than 
the  second  and  third  buds,  but  it  will  be  a  better  wine.  It  is  also 
demonstrated  that  the  toj)  bud  will  produce  wood  which  is  much 
more  prolific  in  bearing  than  the  wood  of  either  of  the  other  buds. 

The  reader  will  understand  that  by  cutting  the  vine  to  three 
buds  it  will  make,  of  course,  three  branch  vines.  The  sprouts 
must  be  rubbed  off,  so  that  these  three  vines  will  grow  vigorous- 
ly, and  enable  the  grapes  to  grow  to  perfection. 

It  is  generally  admitted  by  all  the  vintners  and  French  writers 
that,  the  closer  the  vines  are  kept  to  the  ground,  the  better  the 
grapes  will  ripen,  and  they  will  contain  more  saccharine  and  col- 
oring matter.  It  is  also  agreed  unanimously  by  all  reports  on 
this  subject,  that  when  vines  are  pruned  for  large  crops  many 
buds  will  be  left  on  the  vines,  which  will  produce  many  grapes, 
but  they  will  be  neither  as  sweet  nor  as  dark  colored  as  the  grapes 
from  the  moderate-bearing  vines,  besides  making  an  inferior  wine 
without  the  proper  bouquet.  In  the  district  of  Burgundy  the 
practice  of  three-bud  pruning  is  in  general  use.  The  vineyards 
being  renewed  every  ten  years,  as  described  above,  are,  of  course, 
kept  in  splendid  condition.  We  were  told  that  the  Burgundy 
vines  exported  to  foreign  countries,  and  not  cultivated  in  the  man- 
ner above  described,  in  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ceases  to  bear  en- 
tirely, or,  if  at  all,  in  very  small  quantities. 

The  vintage  is  conducted  as  follows :  Those  proprietors  of  vine- 
yards which  have  stone  walls  around  them,  called  "  des  Clos,"  are 
allowed  to  gather  their  grapes  whenever  they  please ;  consequent- 
ly, they  will  begin  the  vintage  whenever  their  grapes  are  in  the 
very  best  condition.  This  accounts  for  the  fact  that  the  wine 
from  fenced  vineyards  is  better  in  quality,  and  commands  a  high- 
er price  in  the  wine  market  than  that  of  others. 


THE  BURGUNDY  WINE  DISTRICT.  51 

Those  vineyards  not  fenced,  and  the  largest  portion,  arc  subject 
to  the  following  rules:  Three  commissioners  on  vineyards — one 
proprietor,  one  merchant,  and  one  vintner — are  appointed  by  the 
prefect,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  vineyards  from  time  to 
time,  and  reporting  to  the  sub-prefect.  When  in  their  judgment 
the  vineyards  are  fit  for  the  vintage  to  begin,  they  report  the  fact. 
At  the  receipt  of  this  report,  the  sub-prefect  issues  his  order,  set- 
ting the  day  recommended  by  the  commissioners  for  the  work  to 
begin.  On  this  day  every  body  is  compelled  to  commence  the 
vintage ;  but,  as  their  work  is  performed  in  a  few  days,  the  cus- 
tom is  to  order  a  certain  day  in  one  village ;  in  an  adjacent  one  a 
few  days  later,  and  so  on,  so  that  sufficient  hands  can  be  procured 
to  perform  the  necessary  labor.  If  this  were  not  done  in  districts 
where  several  hundred  thousands  of  acres  are  planted  with  vines, 
it  would  be  impossible  to  get  the  labor  necessary,  all  at  the  re- 
quired time. 

The  laboring  men,  women,  and  children,  at  such  appointed  time, 
come  from  far  and  near,  and  collect  at  the  market-place ;  here  they 
are  hired  by  the  vintners,  according  as  they  are  needed.  They 
are  paid  more  or  less,  accordiog  as  the  number  of  laborers  are 
greater  or  fewer.     The  gathering  is  described  elsewhere. 

The  possessors  of  small  vineyards  usually  sell  their  grapes  to 
wine-dealers,  who  come  to  the  vineyards.  They  either  jDurchase 
by  the  measure,  or  take  the  whole  produce  of  the  vineyard  in  a 
lump.  The  owner  of  the  vineyard  invariably  has  to  gather  and 
deliver  the  grapes  to  the  purchaser,  and  to  pick  and  select  them 
according  to  the  desire  of  the  merchant. 

Those  proprietors  who  have  but  small  vineyards,  and  do  not 
sell  their  grapes,  but  make  them  into  wine,  produce,  without  ex- 
ception, an  inferior  quality ;  not  on  account  of  the  locality  or  soil, 
but  for  the  reason  that  they  do  not  or  can  not  select  their  grapes, 
but  throw  all  together,  good  and  bad — the  amount  of  grapes  be- 
ing too  small  to  make  different  qualities  of  wine ;  the  consequence 
is,  that  their  wine  brings  indifferent  prices. 

It  is  believed,  and  we  think  with  good  reason,  that  the  fewer 
the  grapes  on  the  vine  the  more  perfect  they  will  be,  and  will  re- 
ceive from  nature  the  full  aroma  natural  to  the  species,  and  which 
makes  the  wine  so  celebrated  for  its  bouquet. 

Having  examined  the  district  of  Burgundy  in  every  direction, 
collecting  all  useful  information,  and  engaging  several  thousand 
cuttings  of  its  celebrated  varieties,  we  prepared  to  return  to  Paris. 


52  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-RIAKING. 

But,  before  leaving  Dijon,  I  must  here  acknowledge  my  heartfelt 
thanks  to  Professor  M.  C.  Ladrej  for  the  kind  attention  we  re- 
ceived at  his  hands,  and  for  the  valuable  information,  books,  re- 
ports, etc.,  which  he  presented  to  me.  To  his  accomplished  lady 
and  family  our  gratitude  likewise  is  due.  We  had  the  pleasure 
of  partaking  of  a  magnificent  entertainment  with  them. 

After  bidding  farewell  to  our  new  acquaintances,  we  started  at 
midnight  by  the  train  for  Paris.  As  it  was  night  we  could  see 
nothing,  so  that  we  had  to  spend  the  time  as  best  we  could. 


FROM  PAKIS  TO  FRANKFORT  ON  TUE  MAINE.  53 


CHAPTER  III. 

FROM  PARIS  TO  FRANIvFORT  ON  THE  MAINE. 

Ball  at  the  Chateau  dcs  Fleurs. — The  Emperor's  Fete-day. — The  Illumination  and 
Fireworks. — Orderly  Conduct  of  the  People. — Departure  for  Germany. — Observa- 
tions on  the  Way. — Ems.  —  The  Casino. — Gambling. — The  Promenade. — Dr. 
Precht. — Donkey  and  Mule  Riding. — The  Valley  of  the  Swiss. — Count  Stein's 
Tomb. — Grist-mills. — The  Water-wheels. — Silver  Mines. — Condition  of  the  Peo- 
ple.— The  Theatre. — Letters  and  Visits. — Coblentz.— Difficulty  with  Bankers. — 
Start  for  Frankfort. — Letters  of  Credit  preferable  to  Cash. — Conversation  with 
Passengers. — Notes  by  the  Way. — Arrival  at  Frankfort. — Letters  of  Introduction. 
— Americans  in  Frankfort. 

August  1-1. — Arrived  in  Paris  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  aft- 
er having  traveled  almost  the  whole  night.  I  was  busily  engaged 
the  whole  day  in  writing  answers  to  my  correspondents.  In  the 
evening,  hearing  that  a  public  ball  was  to  be  given  at  the  Chateau 
des  Fleurs,  I  determined  to  see  what  such  a  thing  was  in  Paris. 
The  ball  was  given  in  the  open  air,  in  a  garden  most  beautifully 
illuminated  with  lamps  of  all  colors  and  descriptions.  Some  were 
shaped  like  flowers,  and,  as  such,  were  scattered  profusely  among 
the  shrubbery ;  others  represented  garlands,  and  were  festooned 
among  the  trees,  creating  a  perfect  blaze  of  light.  Then  there 
were  gas-lights  nestling  in  among  the  flowers,  glittering  like  so 
many  dew-drops.  At  the  farther  end  of  the  avenue  was  a  fine 
pagoda  for  the  music ;  this  was  also  most  brilliantly  illuminated. 
The  whole,  when  viewed  from  an  elevated  platform,  had  a  most 
entrancingly  beautiful  effect.  But  the  company  was  not  such  as 
we  would  like  our  families  to  associate  with.  Most  of  the  females 
were  grisettes^  each  of  whom,  at  the  tones  of  the  inspiring  band, 
seemed  to  forget  for  the  moment  her  cares  and  troubles,  and  to 
have  but  one  idea — that  of  excelling  her  rivals  in  the  dance. 
After  gazing  for  a  time  upon  this  scene  of  wild  gay ety,  I  returned 
home  much  fatigued. 

August  15. — To-day  I  intended  to  leave  Paris ;  but  as  it  is  the 
Emperor's  fete-day,  and  there  will  be  grand  illuminations  in  the 
city,  I  have  determined  to  remain  over  one  day. 

Evening  has  arrived.     Carriages  have  been  forbidden  to  go  to 


54  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  Champs  Eljsues;  the  Eue  de  Eivoli  leading  to  it  is  in  a 
blaze.  Millions  and  millions  of  lights  decorate  public  and  pri- 
vate houses.  The  garden  of  the  Tuileries  has  been  transformed 
into  fairy-land.  Sceptres  and  crowns,  blazing  with  lights  to  rep- 
resent the  finest  rubies,  diamonds,  topazes,  and  emeralds,  are  scat- 
tered all  over.  Down  the  main  avenue  may  be  seen,  at  a  distance 
of  every  ten  or  twelve  feet,  immense  chandeliers  of  wire  support- 
ing hundreds  of  lights.  The  ponds  are  encircled  with  lamps. 
From  the  Tuileries  we  could  see  the  principal  public  buildings, 
all  of  which  were  encircled  with  a  double  row  of  small  gas-lights, 
which  resembled  a  crown  of  brilliants.  All  the  columns  were 
wound  around  w^ith  lamps  of  all  sizes  and  colors.  Among  the 
numerous  designs  was  that  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  It  was  ele- 
vated above  the  house-top,  and  the  imitation  of  precious  stones 
of  which  it  is  composed  was  elegant.  The  Eiver  Seine  was  also 
festooned  all  along  with  garlands  upon  garlands  of  lamps.  In 
the  Champs  Elysces  was  a  square,  containing  four  Chinese  towers, 
composed  of  different-colored  lamps.  Circle  was  within  a  circle, 
till  you  thought  you  could  see  almost  into  futurity.  These  four 
pagodas  were  connected  with  triple  garlands  of  lamps  of  all  col- 
ors, caught  up  at  equal  distances  by  bunches  of  lamps  of  different 
forms.  The  Invalides,  however,  was  the  most  beautiful,  but  it 
requires  a  more  skillful  pen  than  mine  to  give  a  description  of 
the  decorations.  Near  the  Invalides  were  also  the  fireworks, 
which  were  magnificent.  Fountains,  rockets,  wheels — in  a  word, 
every  thing  that  art  could  produce  in  that  line,  was  there  exhib- 
ited that  evening.  As  for  the  spectators,  there  must  have  been 
at  least  one  million  present.  Men,  women,  and  children  all 
thronged  to  sec  the  fireworks,  and  for  hours  the  principal  street 
was  nothing  but  a  sea  of  heads. 

There  were  guards  and  policemen  placed  at  different  points, 
and,  notwithstanding  this  almost  incredible  number  of  people, 
there  were  no  fights,  no  picking  of  pockets,  no  disturbance.  All 
was  quiet  and  well  arranged.  Every  one  seemed  to  enjoy  the 
sight,  without  having  before  his  eyes  the  continual  fear  of  being 
robbed.  The  free  approval  and  calm  behavior  of  the  people 
showed  that  they  are  accustomed  to  such  grand  sights.  What 
struck  me  as  strange  was,  that  the  Emperor  was  not  in  Paris  at 
this  grand  celebration,  but  remained  at  his  country  seat  at  St. 
Cloud. 

August  IG. — This  evening  at  five  o'clock  we  left  Paris  for  Cob- 


FROM  PARIS  TO  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE.  55 

lentz.  Daylight  lasted  but  three  and  a  half  hours,  so  I  saw  but 
few  of  the  villages  through  which  wc  passed.  There  are  inai;iy 
stonc-quarrics  on  the  way  between  Coblentz  and  Paris.  From 
these  quarries  the  stone  is  transported  to  Paris  cither  by  rail,  riv- 
er, or  canal. 

In  this  district  the  soil  is  much  richer  than  in  Dijon,  but  the 
wine  is  not  celebrated,  as  the  ground  is  entirely  planted  with  grain, 
and  the  laborers  raise  only  enough  grapes  for  their  own  use. 

I  noticed  that  a  great  deal  of  hemp  is  cultivated  in  this  part. 
It  looks  very  well,  as  also  do  the  clover-fields,  which  one  and  all 
are  in  splendid  condition.  Poplar-trees  are  planted  in  great  pro- 
fusion, and  afford  a  fine  shade.  The  grape-vines  on  the  hill-sides 
looked  very  luxuriant,  and  were  devoid  of  the  red  spots  which  I 
noticed  in  the  districts  of  Dijon  and  Beaune.  We  went  too  rap- 
idly to  judge  as  to  the  quality  of  the  crop. 

We  passed  village  after  village  till  dark,  when  we  composed 
ourselves  quietly  for  a  nap,  but  an  undisturbed  slumber  was  not 
attained.  No  sooner  had  I  fixed  myself  comfortably,  and  was  al- 
ready in  my  first  doze,  when  a  stentorian  voice  demanded  "  les 
billets^  Arousing  myself  with  difiiculty,  I  fumbled  in  every  pock- 
et, until,  by  chance,  I  reached  the  right  one  which  contained  the 
tickets,  which  the  conductor  glanced  at  and  returned.  This  pro- 
cess was  renewed  every  hour,  till  finally  I  was  worked  up  almost 
to  desperation.  But  fortunately  this,  as  all  troubles,  had  an  end, 
and  we  reached  Cologne,  where  we  changed  cars  for  Coblentz.  I 
forgot  to  say  that,  upon  reaching  the  Prussian  borders,  we  were 
hustled  out  into  the  Custom-house,  where  we  were  very  civilly 
treated  by  the  officers,  only  going  through  a  pretense  of  examina- 
tion. 

August  18. — I  took  a  carriage,  and  went  to  Ems  with  my  fam- 
ily. The  road  leading  there  winds  along  the  banks  of  the  river, 
and  is  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  which  •are  all  planted  with 
vines ;  but  the  whole  mountain  being  nothing  but  slate,  every  few 
rods  there  are  high  rock  walls  which  form  a  sort  of  platform,  and 
on  these  are  planted  vines,  which  look  well,  but  the  wine  is  infe- 
rior, as  the  soil  is  slate-rock  and  sand.  We  passed  several  large 
iron  factories  on  the  road -to  Ems,  where  we  arrived  at  half  past 
nine  o'clock. 

Ems  is  the  property  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau,  and  yields  him  an 
annual  income  of  two  millions  of  dollars.  Every  thing  is  very 
finely  arranged,  and  not  costly  for  a  bathing-place. 


56  GRAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WIXE-JIAiaNG. 

We  took  a  promenade  after  dinner,  and  passed  into  tlie  Casino, 
where  there  are  two  lui'ge  gaming  -  tables,  around  which  were 
crowded  numerous  spectators  and  betters,  among  whom  I  observed 
several  ladies,  throwing  down  their  coins  on  the  red  or  black.  I 
was  told  that,  a  short  time  since,  a  count  lost  all  he  had  and  blew 
his  brains  out,  while  a  more  lucky  individual  broke  the  bank  and 
won  52,000  thalers.  But  I  soon  left,  as  I  did  not  expect  to  be 
lucky  like  the  latter,  nor  want  to  fare  like  the  former. 

August  19. — A  beautiful  strain  of  music  awoke  me  from  a  most 
pleasant  sleep  to  a  most  beautiful  morning.  The  band,  composed 
of  forty  musicians,  paid  by  the  Duke,  plays  every  morning  from 
six  to  eight  o'clock.  Hastily  putting  on  my  clothes,  I  went  upon 
the  promenade,  which  was  crowded  with  genuine  patients,  and 
pretty  patients  who  washed  to  attract  attention  by  their  apparently 
dehcate  health,  but  in  reality  showed  themselves  to  make  a  good 
match.  I  was  much  amused  by  the  various  manoeuvres  of,  the 
mammas,  who  were  on  the  qui  vive  not  to  let  their  inexperienced 
daughters  make  a  blunder. 

The  day  was  passed  in  visiting  the  grounds  and  neighborhood, 
and  in  forming  acquaintances.  We  met  here  our  sincere  and  good 
old  friend.  Dr.  Precht,  with  whom  an  appointment  had  previously 
been  arranged  by  telegraph.  He  was  accompanied  by  his  lady. 
Our  meeting  jDroved  a  mutual  gratification.  After  partaking  of  a 
good  dinner,  accompanied  by  a  few  bottles  of  the  best  wine  the 
cellar  of  the  Duke  could  furnish,  we  passed  the  remainder  of  that 
day  admiring  the  beautiful  promenades,  rapt  sometimes  in  the  en- 
ticing charms  of  music,  or  beholding  with  admiration  the  loveli- 
est beauties  of  all  nations  who  gather  here. 

August  20. — In  the  morning,  at  six  o'clock,  wo  were  all  up  to 
take  a  donkey-ride  and  see  the  surrounding  country.  The  custom 
here  is  to  ride  donkeys.  Those  destined  for  ladies  have  on  them 
a  kind  of  arm-chairieaddle,  well  wadded,  open  on  one  side,  and 
with  a  back  on  the  other.  The  color  of  the  cover  is  a  gay  red, 
and  the  whole  concern  is  very  convenient.  This  is  placed  on  a 
small  donkey,  hardly  larger  than  a  Newfoundland  dog,  who  trots 
off  with  his  burden  with  the  greatest  seeming  ease.  The  ladies 
were  delighted  with  their  long-eared  chargers  and  their  easy  gait. 

Each  donkey  has  a  driver,  who  remains  close  behind  the  ani- 
mal to  quicken  its  speed  or  guide  it.  This  latter  operation  is  done 
by  twisting  the  donkey's  tail  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  just  as  he 
is  wished  to  go.     Our  party  was  composed  of  three  ladies,  myself, 


FROM  PAKIS  TO  FRANKFORT  ON  THE  MAINE.  57 

and  Arpad.  Wc  men  rode  mules,  whicb,  in  my  estimation,  ■were 
not  as  good  as  the  donkeys,  inasmuch  as  these,  with  the  ladies, 
were  always  ahead  of  us,  and  it  was  only  with  the  continual  exer- 
tion of  our  heels  and  the  application  of  the  driver's  stick  that  we 
could  catch  up  with  them. 

Our  drive  was  toward  a  valley  called  the  "  Valley  of  the  Swiss." 
The  road  ascends  to  the  top  of  a  well-timbered  mountain,  and  then 
descends  into  the  above-mentioned  valley.  On  the  side  of  the  hill, 
before  descending  into  the  Swiss  valley,  is  the  family  vault  of 
Count  Stein,  minister  of  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  a  celebrity  of 
the  time  of  Napoleon  the  First.  This  vault,  which  also  holds  sev- 
eral members  of  the  family,  is  of  stone,  and  is  a  building  of  simple 
construction.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  small  garden  containing  sev- 
eral  pine-trees,  and  which  itself  is  encircled  by  a  stone  wall.  A 
woman  came  and  opened,  first,  the  gate  of  the  wall,  and  then  the 
iron  door  of  the  vault.  After  we  had  seen  all  that  was  to  be  seen, 
which  was  a  couple  of  sculptures  and  as  many  inscriptions,  we  left 
the  resting-place  of  the  dead,  and  wound  our  way  down  the  nar- 
row path  into  the  valley. 

The  path  was  so  steep  and  so  narrow  that  we  were  obliged  to 
dismount  and  descend  on  foot.  On  our  way  down  we  passed 
several  small  grist-mills,  whose  working  force  was  given  by  a 
small  stream.  The  water  runs  along  in  a  ditch,  and  is  brought 
in  a  wooden  trough,  one  foot  wide  and  about  six  inches  deep, 
over  a  bucket- wheel.  I  examined  one  of  these  wheels :  it  was 
twenty-eight  feet  high  and  one  foot  wide ;  its  bucket  holds  about 
a  gallon  and  a  half  of  water.  The  water  running  was  but  one 
and  a  half  inch  deep  and  twelve  inches  wide.  The  stones  and 
inside  arrangements  are  all  very  primitive.  As  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  wheel,  round  the  axle  is  built  a  cog-wheel,  the  cogs 
being  on  the  side,  and  turning  a  small  spindle  with  seven  hori- 
zontal rods,  this  spindle,  in  its  turn,  turning  the  stone.  Much 
improvement  might  be  made  in  the  stone  and  all  the  other  ar- 
rangements. I  was  informed  by  the  miller  that  he  makes  about 
ten  bushels  a  day.  The  flour  is  bad,  and  would  not  be  market- 
able with  us. 

"We  passed  several  silver  mines;  they  are  being  worked  with 
good  advantage  to  the  proprietors.  I  intend  to  visit  at  least  one 
of  the  smelting  establishments.  Perhaps  they  contain  some  new 
improvements  by  which  Washoe  might  derive  some  benefit. 

We  at  last  arrived  home,  much  pleased  with  our  donkey-ride, 


58  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-iMAKING. 

but  less  so  with  the  information  wliich  I  gathered ;  the  land  is 
poor,  the  people  poor;  the  mountains  are  not  even  fit  for  the 
vine  culture.  The  country  gives  but  meager  earnings  to  its  in- 
habitants, and,  were  it  not  for  this  bathing-place,  they  would  fare 
still  worse.  Ems  brings  together  thousands  of  people  each  year 
from  far  and  near,  either  for  pleasure  or  to  partake  of  its  mineral 
waters,  whose  healing  virtues  have  a  wide  reputation.  The  tax 
on  agricultural  lands  in  the  Duchy  of  Nassau  is  six  dollars  on  the 
thousand.     Mechanics  pay  a  much  larger  tax. 

We  went  this  evening  to  the  theatre.  The  acting  was  pretty 
good.  There  was  present  a  fine  array  of  ladies.  The  diamonds 
sparkled,  the  pearls,  rubies,  etc.,  rivalized  with  each  other,  but  the 
captivating  eyes  of  the  ladies  were  above  all  the  diamonds  and 
pearls. 

August  21. — Long  before  the  beautiful  band  of  music  began  to 
j^lay  I  was  up  writing  letters  to  my  correspondents  in  Europe,  and 
then  continued  my  journal.  Having  not  much  to  write  from  the 
doings  of  yesterday,  I  finished  in  the  forenoon,  and  then  received 
several  visits.  ■  Having  been  invited  to  dine  with  Dr.  Precht,  my- 
self and  family  went  to  dinner.  During  the  day  I  sent  some  let- 
ters and  papers  to  Count  Wass,  also  to  Mr.  Grisza.  In  the  even- 
ing I  received  Mr.  Ordody,  a  Hungarian  nobleman,  and  his  lady. 
During  the  evening  we  received  several  other  visits,  after  which 
we  went  for  an  hour  to  the  ball.  Ecturning  from  the  ball,  I  read 
some  books  on  wine  and  wine-growing,  after  which  I  prepared  for 
my  departure  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  Rhine. 

August  22. — I  started  in  the  morning  for  Coblentz  with  Dr. 
Precht  and  Arpad.  Arrived  in  Coblentz,  I  called  on  the  banker 
to  whom  I  had  a  letter  of  credit,  but,  to  my  surprise,  he  informed 
me  that  he  had  received  no  notice  from  Hentsch  and  Lutscher, 
consequently  he  could  not  pay  me  any  money  on  my  letter  of 
credit.  What  was  to  be  done?  I  had  but  three  florins  in  my 
pocket,  and  a  bill  for  five  days'  living  for  myself  and  fimiily  in 
Ems.  I  at  once  telegraphed  to  Frankfort,  where  the  same  letter 
of  credit  was  addressed  to  another  banking-house.  From  this 
house  I  received  the  answer  that  they  had  been  notified  from 
Paris,  and  so  I  at  once  started  for  Frankfort. 

From  Coblentz  to  Frankfort  by  railroad  it  takes  five  hours 
fifteen  minutes,  and  the  fare  in  the  second  class  is  two  and  a  half 
thalers  per  scat.  In  Germany  only  the  nobility  and  higher  class- 
es, or,  to  use  a  colloquial  term,  the  Big-lugs^  travel  in  the  first 


FROM  PARIS  TO  FKANICFORT  ON  THE  MAINE.  59 

class.  The  railway  carried  iis  past  many  celebrated  vineyards; 
but,  as  the  money  was  at  loio  tide,  in  our  pockets,  we  were  forced 
to  delay  our  investigations  till  high  tide,  which  we  hoped  would 
take  place,  as  usual,  in  twenty-four  hours  or  less. 

This  money  affair  would  have  been  more  annoying  than  it  real- 
ly was  had  it  not  been  for  Dr.  Prccht,  who  furnished  me  with  twen- 
ty-five florins  to  proceed  on  my  way  to  Frankfort.  It  was  alto-  • 
gether  brought  on  by  the  carelessness  of  the  corresponding  clerk 
of  the  house  Hcntsch  and  Lutschcr.  I  purposely  put  this  little  ac- 
cident in  my  report  to  warn  my  fellow-citizens  who  travel  never 
to  let  their  purse  run  down  low  enough  to  prevent  themselves 
from  reaching  the  next-named  place  on  their  letter  of  credit.  A 
letter  of  credit,  in  traveling,  is  preferable  to  cash,  as  this  may  be 
lost  or  be  stolen ;  besides,  the  constant  change  of  money  in  the 
different  countries  constitutes  a  certain  loss,  not  taking  into  con- 
sideration that  changers  are  never  over-honest  people.  Not  only, 
then,  is  a  letter  of  credit  safer,  but  also  much  more  preferable. 

On  the  road  from  Coblentz  I  opened  a  conversation  with  a 
clergyman,  who  gave  me  some  information  on  vines  and  their  va- 
rieties. I  also  had  a  conversation  with  the  proprietor  of  a  vine- 
yard, who  is  himself  manufacturing  wine.  He  recommends  to 
me  in  very  high  terms  the  hydraulic  press,  to  press  out  the  juice 
from  the  pulp  of  the  grapes.  He  added  that  this  new  press,  only 
introduced  five  years  ago,  works  admirably  well,  and  that  all  those 
who  make  any  progress  in  wine  manufacturing  introduce  it  into 
their  establishments.  I  asked  him  why  they  had  abandoned  the 
cylinder  crushers,  and  again  adopted  the  old  method  of  stamping 
with  the  feet  or  with  wooden  pieces  ?  I  was  answered  that  cylin- 
ders crush  more  or  less  of  the  stems,  which,  containing  a  bitter 
juice,  communicates  the  flavor  to  the  wine,  destroying  some  of 
its  bouquet,  and  making  it  less  palatable.  In  regard  to  nurseries, 
the  general  answer  I  receive  is,  that  there  are  none  of  any  conse- 
quence in  the  neighborhood.  The  trees  on  the  road  have  no  fruit 
at  all.  Some  attribute  this  to  the  frost,  others  again  to  the  last 
year's  crop,  which  was  extraordinarily  heavy,  and  consequently 
spoiled  this  year's.  I  told  them  that  in  America  we  had  a  mode 
of  regulating,  to  some  extent,  the  bearing  of  our  trees  by  root- 
pruning  them.  They  listened  attentively,  but  I  saw  by  their 
smiles,  which  were  hardly  suppressed,  that  they  very  much  doubt- 
ed my  statements.  The  people  here,  in  general  agricultural  knowl- 
edge, are  much  behind  ours  of  the  same  class.     We  arrived  in 


(30  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Frankfort  at  half  past  ten  in  the  night,  where  we  took  a  beef- 
steak, and  then  went  to  bed. 

August  23. — I,  as  usual,  wrote  my  journal  in  the  morning. 
After  nine  o'clock  I  went  with  Arpad  to  my  banker  Metzler,  who 
paid  me  the  required  money,  and  kindly  offered  me  his  services 
and  letters  of  introduction  to  several  proprietors  of  large  vine- 
yards— among  others,  one  at  Johannisberg.  I  accepted  his  offers 
with  thanks. 

From  here  we  went  to  the  American  consul  general,  Mr.  Bick- 
er. Inquiring  about  Mr.  Eoss  Browne,  I  found  that  he  was  ab- 
sent, traveling  in  Norway,  but  was  expected  back  daily.  From 
the  consul's  we  went  and  took  a  walk  around  the  city  for  half  an 
hour,  then  returned  to  the  hotel  to  write  our  correspondence,  etc. 
We  were  not  long  thus  occupied  before  Mr.  Howard,  son  of  Gen- 
eral Volney  Howard,  of  San  Francisco,  called  upon  us.  This 
young  man  is  studying  medicine  in  Europe.  I  invited  him  to 
dine,  and  after  dinner  he  went  with  us  to  HocJiheim  by  railroad. 


HOCHnEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOHANNISBERG.  61 


CHAPTER  IV. 

HOCHHEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOHANNISBERG.     ' 

Ilochheim. — Mr.  Drcscl.  —  The  Ch.impagne  Manufiictory. — Mr.  Lembach. — His 
Cellar. — His  Method  of  Wine-making. — Different  Wines  from  the  same  Grape. — 
The  Barrels. — Sulphuring  the  Barrels. — Price  of  Wines. — Regulations  for  Gather- 
ing the  Grapes. — Visit  to  the  Champagne  Manufactory. — Mr.  Hummel. — Wies- 
baden.— Professor  Medicus. — The  Kurhaus. — The  Gambling  Rooms. — Dr.  Thoma. 
— Biberich. — The  Chief  .of  the  Steinberg  Vineyards. — The  Steinberg  Vineyards. 
— Mode  of  Cultivating  the  Grape. — The  Farm-yard. — Eberbach. — The  Wine 
Cellars. — Tasting  Wines. — Bouquet  of  Old  and  New  Wines. — How  to  taste  fine 
Wines. — Assorting  the  Grapes. — Manufacturing  the  Wine. — Large  and  small 
Barrels. — Requisites  for  making  good  Wines. — The  Presses. — Visit  to  Johannis- 
berg. — The  Soil  of  the  Region. — Vineyards  not  Sold. — Their  Value. — Palace  of 
Johannisberg. — The  Vineyard. — The  Cellars. — The  Johannisberg  and  Steinberg 
Wines. — Rivalry  between  them. — The  Superiority  sometimes  accidental.  —  A 
lucky  Stroke.  —  Prices  the  same.  —  Last  Glasses  of  Johannisberg.  —  Geisberg. — 
The  Experimental  Gardens. — Results  of  Experiments. — High  Trimming  and  low 
Trimming  of  Vines. — The  School  of  Agriculture. — Exchange  of  Seeds. — Depart- 
ure for  Frankfort. — Report  of  Wine  Auctions  at  Eberbach. 

In  an  hour's  travel  we  arrived  at  Hocliheim,  where,  after  going 
to  an  inn  and  having  onr  clothes  brushed,  we  set  out  to  see  Her- 
man Dresel,  Esq.,  Director  of  the  Champagne  manufactory  of  the 
Joint-stock  Association.  The  American  consul  had  furnished  me 
with  a  letter  of  introduction  to  Mr.  Dresel.  He  received  me 
kindly,  and  conducted  us  through  the  whole  establishment,  to  de- 
scribe which,  at  first  sight,  would  be  impossible.  This  is  one  of  the 
largest  establishments  in  Germany.  It  employs  eighty  men,  and 
makes  daily  three  thousand  bottles  of  Champagne.  The  capital 
invested  is  1,000,000  guldens  (about  $rtOO,000).*  It  makes  very 
good  sparkling  wines,  and  imitates  excellently  the  French  Cham- 
pagnes. Some  of  the  imitations  are  really  much  better  than  the 
brands  they  pretend  to  imitate.  The  establishment  makes  money. 
Mr.  Dresel,  who  took  great  pains  to  show  and  explain  to  us  each 
branch  separately,  invited  me  to  come  to-morrow  for  a  closer  ex- 
amination and  farther  inspection.  This  gentleman  is  the  brother 
of  Mr.  E.  Dresel,  resident  and  proprietor  of  a  fine  vineyard  in  So- 
noma.    I  was  ignorant  of  this  until  I  asked  the  gentleman  if  he 

*  The  gulden  (plural  guldens)  or  florin  is  equal  to  about  40  cents. 


62  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

was  not  related  to  a  Dresel  in  California.  His  answer  that  he 
was  a  brother  only  brought  us  closer  together  in  our  relations, 
and  we  conversed  as  old  acquaintances.  The  cordial  and  gentle- 
manly manner  of  Mr.  Dresel  I  shall  not  soon  forget. 

After  siDcuding  a  couple  of  hours  in  the  establishment,  and 
tasting  some  sparkling  wine,  we  returned  to  our  inn.  Mr.  Dresel 
joined  "us  at  our  supper,  and  we  spent  an  agreeable  evening.  In 
fact,  we  were  up  until  half  past  eleven,  which  for  a  village  is  a 
pretty  late  hour.  Parting  with  Mr.  Dresel,  with  the  promise  of 
seeing  each  other  next  day  for  a  thorough  inspection,  I  went  to 
bed  well  contented  with  to-day's  travel  and  the  result  of  the  in- 
spection. I  was  also  contented  with  the  wines  we  had  drunk,  for 
they  were  very  good. 

August  24. — After  completing  my  journal  of  yesterday,  we  went 
to  take  a  cup' of  coffee,  then  started  out  with  our  host,  Mr.  Lem- 
bach,  who  is  a  cooper  as  well  as  inn-keeper.  He  has  the  sujDerin- 
tendencc  of  several  cellars  belonging  to  persons  who  do  not  reside 
here.  We  went  to  a  press-house,  where  we  saw  two  presses  with 
screws;  one  screw  received  its  resisting  point  from  below,  the 
other  from  above.  Neither  of  these  presses  are  desirable  for 
imitation. 

From  here  he  led  us  to  his  own  wine-cellar,  where  he  has  about 
seventy  st'dch^  or  pipes,  each  holding  about  two  hundred  and  fifty 
gallons  of  wine.  He  gave  us  to  taste  wings  of  three  successive 
years,  coming  from  the  same  vineyard,  forming  eleven  different 
wines.  These  wines  were  made  purely  from  the  Eiesling  grape ; 
no  other  variety  of  grape  was  in  them.  The  bouquet  was  fine ; 
the  wine  clear  and  excellent.  We  tasted  each  wine  separately, 
then  compared  one  with  the  other.  The  difference  from  year  to 
year  was  remarkable — so  great  that  I  was  able  to  distinguish  each 
year.  He  had  first  and  second  quality  from  the  same  wine.  His 
mode  of  making  wine  is  as  follows :  The  grapes  are  gathered 
after  the  dew  has  dried  up,  and  are  carried  to  the  press-house, 
where  the  bunches  are  separated  into  three,  and  in  some  cele- 
brated vineyards  into  five  classes.  Each  bunch  of  the  first  class 
is  carefully  divested  of  the  rotten  berries,  dust,  or  other  impuri- 
ties. These  classes,  once  formed,  arc  worked  separately  and  al- 
ways kept  apart.  The  grapes,  once  separated,  are  thrown  into  a 
crusher,  where  they  run  through  two  cast-iron  cylinders.  When 
once  through  this  instrument  they  are  put  into  a  small  vat,  where 
they  ferment  six,  eight,  and  even  sixteen  hours,  but  are  carefully 


IIOCIIIIEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOIIANNISBERG.  G3 

pressed  down  whenever  the  stems  or  seeds  show  themselves  on 
the  top. 

This  mode  of  fermenting  for  several  hours  is  not  adopted  with 
blue  grapes;  it  is  onl}--  used  for  white  grapes,  and  for  making  white 
wine  from  them.  To  make  white  wine  from  blue  grapes,  jou 
must  not  ferment  them,  for  that  will  immediately  color  it. 

The  grapes,  having  fermented  for  the  above-mentioned  time, 
are  put  in  a  mass  and  pressed.  In  a  good  year,  that  is,  when  the 
grapes  are  perfectly  ripe  and  almost  raisins,  the  second  or  last  run 
makes  the  best  wine.  When  the  grapes  are  not  wholly  ripe,  the 
first  run,  or  first  pressed  juice  is  thought  to  make  the  best  wine. 
The  reasons  given  for  this  are,  that  when  the  grapes  are  ripened 
to  raisins  they  contain  but  little  juice,  and  it  is  only  extracted  by 
a  very  powerful  pressure,  and  this  pressure  only  comes  at  the 
end ;  but  when  the  grapes  are  full,  and  retain  all  their  fluid,  the 
first  pressure  gives  the  finest  juice,  as  after  it  the  pressure  becomes 
greater  and  crushes  the  seeds  and  stems,  which  then  discharge 
some  of  their  bitter  contents,  which  injures  the  wine.  In  the  first 
instance,  when  the  grapes  are  almost  raisins,  the  stones  or  seeds 
are  also  crushed,  but  they  are  dry,  and  are  totally  void  of  juice. 

The  juice  is  then  run  into  barrels,  in  the  cellar,  of  one  stiick 
(250  gallons)  each.  These  barrels,  of  course,  are  only  in  small 
vineyards,  as  in  larger  ones  tuns,  containing  from  two  to  five 
thousand  gallons,  are  employed.  These  vessels,  large  or  small,  once 
fihed,  remain  for  a  time  covered  with  a  clean  rag  on  the  bung- 
hole.  They  remain  thus  until  March,  when  they  are  drawn  ofii" 
into  clean  barrels.  These  barrels,  if  possible,  are  sulphured  a  day 
before  being  used.  If  there  is  a  deficiency  of  barrels,  those  must 
be  employed  which  have  already  been  used,  but  only  after  having 
been  thoroughly  washed  and  sulphured.  The  first  year  the  wine 
is  drawn  off  into  new  barrels  four  or  five  times.  It  is  first  drawn 
off  four  or  five  weeks  after  it  is  put  into  barrels,  then  in  two 
months  after,  then  in  three,  then  in  four.  In  the  second  year 
twice  will  be  sufiacient ;  in  the  third  year,  once ;  then  once  in  two 
years ;  and  after  that  it  may  remain  in  the  same  barrel  until  it  is 
bottled.  The  greatest  care  should  be  taken  never  to  leave  a  va- 
cant space  in  any  barrel  holding  wine.  As  our  host  quaintly 
said,  "  You  should  sooner  forget  to  kiss  your  wife  on  returning 
home  than  to  leave  a  vacancy  in  your  barrel." 

When  any  barrels  are  empty,  immediately  wash  them  out  thor- 
oughly ;  for  each  barrel  take  a  sulphur  strip,  one  inch  wide  and 


64  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

four  long,  and  burn  it  in  the  barrel ;  then  bung  it  up  well,  and 
place  it  where  it  will  be  neither  too  dry  nor  too  wet,  as  either 
extreme  will  injure  it.  Three  months  after,  open  theT^arrel,  burn 
half  as  much  as  before,  then  bung  it  up,  to  begin  again  three 
months  after.  This  is  done  on  all  the  empty  barrels.  This  op- 
eration serves  to  keep  the  barrel  ffood  and  sweet.  Should  any 
acid  or  mould  creep  into  the  barrels,  take  a  handful  of  quick-lime, 
put  it  in,  pour  hot  water  on  it,  and  wash  the  barrel  well.  The 
price  of  a  new  barrel  of  250  gallons  is  40  guldens  or  florins  ($16). 

The  cleanliness  of  all  the  wine-cellars  in  this  country  is  admi- 
rable and  most  difiicult  to  describe.  The  vine}' ards  in  good  bear- 
ing years  in  Hochheim  will  produce  one  stiick  per  mor^e/i  (some- 
what less  than  an  acre).  The  wine  per  stiick  sells  at  from  500  to 
3000  florins  ($200  to  $1200).  The  wines  are  splendid,  and  really 
delightful  to  drink. 

The  authorities  are  so  jealous  of  the  reputation  of  their  wine 
that  no  man  is  permitted  to  gather  his  grapes  before  the  time  for 
the  vintage  is  decided  by  a  council.  To  prevent  imprudent  men 
from  plucking  in  the  morning,  when  the  dew  is  still  on  the  grapes, 
it  is  forbidden  to  begin  gathering  before  the  large  bell  of  the  town 
has  sounded.  The  same  bell  also  sounds  the  hour  of  quitting  the 
vineyard,  when  every  one  must  cease  to  gather.  Besides  these 
regulations  there  are  many  others,  as,  for  instance,  a  man  planting 
a  vineyard  has  to  plaat  his  vines  three  and  a  half  feet  apart,  this 
being  considered  the  best  distance  for  the  Eiesling  grape.  Other 
varieties  have  different  distances  allowed  to  them ;  the  Oestreicher, 
for  instance,  must  be  planted  four  feet  apart,  being  a  grape  which 
produces  more  wood. 

After  having  examined  all  the  wines,  and  listened  to  much  val- 
uable information  from  our  good  host,  we  went  to  the  manufac- 
tory of  sparkling  wines  to  see  Mr.  Drcsel,  with  whom  I  had  made 
an  appointment.  This  time  I  made  arrangements  to  procure  all 
the  varieties  of  vines  grown  in  the  neighborhood,  and  each  kind 
of  implement  used  in  the  manufacturing  of  sparkling  wine.  We 
once  more  went  through  all  the  cellars  and  warehouses,  Mr.  Dresel 
having  introduced  me  to  Mr.  H.J.  Hummel,  superintendent  of  the 
wines  and  cellars.  This  young  man  has  risen  through  all  the 
branches  of  the  art  until  he  reached  the  position  which  he  now 
occupies.  He  is  a  very  intelligent  man,  and,  as  I  am  told,  is  a  per- 
fect master  of  his  art.  I  spoke  to  him  of  coming  to  California  to 
put  up  for  me  a  similar  establishment,  if  not  so  great  in  extent,  at 


HOCIIHEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOIIANNISBERG.  65 

least  producing  as  good  wines.  Uc  promised  to  consider  the  mat- 
ter, and,  if  the  company  gives  its  consent,  lie  will  do  so.  We  spent 
no  less  than  four  full  hours  in  this  mammoth  establishment,  after 
which  we  returned  to  our  inn,  where  Mr.Dresel  soon  rejoined  us. 
After  dinner  we  parted,  Mr,  Iloward  going  to  Frankfort,  myself 
and  Arpad  to  Wiesbaden,  being  furnished  with  several  letters  of 
introduction  from  Mr.  Drescl. 

We  arrived  at  about  five  o'clock  P.M.,  and  immediately  set  out 
to  see  Professor  Medicus,  who  is  a  professor  in  the  government 
School  of  Agriculture  for  the  education  of  youth  in  agricultural 
knowledge.  The  professor  was  absent  from  town,  so  we  took  a 
stroll  in  front  of  the  Kwhaus,  where  a  band  of  music  was  playing. 
The  promenade  was  full  of  gay  people.  This  bathing-place  is 
larger  than  Ems,  has  splendid  buildings,  promenades,  parks,  fount- 
ains, etc.  It  also  belongs  to  the  Duke  of  Nassau,  who  resides  here 
in  winter.  The  waters  are  considered  very  good  for  curing  sev- 
eral diseases. 

Following  a  steady  stream  of  people,  we  soon  found  ourselves 
in  a  splendid  saloon,  magnificently  decorated,  possessing  no  less 
than  seven  immense  chandeliers  hanging  from  different  parts  of 
the  saloon,  besides  hundreds  of  other  gay  burners,  all  ornamented 
with  ground  glass  globes.  The  richness  of  the  furniture  was  in 
harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  decorations.  The  saloon  has  galler- 
ies where  the  music  plays  when  balls  and  concerts  are  given.  At 
the  west  end  of  the  gallery  and  building  there  is  a  large  place 
decorated  with  red  velvet  and  gold  trimmings  for  the  use  of  the 
Duke  and  family. 

In  this  vast  saloon  there  is  a  gambling -table,  surrounded  by 
men  and  women,  who  are  players  or  spectators.  From  here  to  the 
left  open  three  more  large  saloons,  also  magnificently  furnished 
and  decorated.  In  the  centre  of  each  there  is  a  gambling-table, 
occupied  by  players.  At  two  tables  they  played  at  rouge  et  noir, 
and  at  the  other  two  at  roulette.  These  places  are  open  to  the 
public,  and  ladies  and  gentlemen  come  in  for  amusement  to  play 
or  see  the  players.  They  seat  themselves  around  in  the  rooms  on 
arm-chairs  or  well-cushioned  sofas.  Liveried  servants  are  in  at- 
tendance. No  smoking  or  loud  talking  is  allowed,  and  hats  must 
be  removed  from  the  head.  From  the  last  of  the  three  gambling- 
rooms  you  enter  into  a  fine  large  reading-room,  where  the  prom- 
inent periodicals  and  newspapers  published  in  Europe  are  to  be 
found. 

E 


66  GRAPE  CULTUEE  AND  WINE-M^iKING. 

TVc  spent  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in  the  last  plajing-room,  where 
we  watched  a  gentleman,  who,  with  the  greatest  coolness,  put  up 
and  lost  from  twenty  to  forty  napoleons  ($80  to  $160)  at  a  time. 
"We  at  last  went  to  our  hotel,  where,  after  supper,  we  went  to  bed. 

Aiirjust  25. — Being  Sunday,  nothing  could  be  done  in  the  morn- 
ing except  to  send  a  letter  to  the  director.  Professor  Dr.  Thoma, 
chief  of  the  Giesberg  Agricultural  Establishment,  of  which  I  have 
already  made  mention.  At  three  o'clock  I  received  an  answer 
that  the  director  would  receive  us  at  four.  We  accordingly  went 
at  that  hour,  and  were  received  very  cordially.  After  showing 
my  commission,  etc.,  the  doctor  kindly  offered  to  conduct  us  to 
the  Institute.  He  also  said  it  would  be  better  for  us  to  go  with 
him  to  Biberich,  where  the  Duke  is  residing,  and  where  also  the 
chief  of  the  wines  and  cellars  is  at  present.  Accordingly,  we  took 
a  carriage  and  drove  over  to  the  Eesidence,  which  is  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  distant.  Arriving  there,  we  were  presented  to  the 
chief,  who  was  surrounded  by  gentlemen  engaged  in  the  agreea- 
ble occupation  of  drinking  wine.  The  chief  is  an  old  gentleman 
over  seventy -five  years,  unable  to  walk  on  account  of  the  gout ; 
still,  he  received  us  kindly,  and  readily  gave  me  all  the  informa- 
tion I  desired.  He  appointed  that  to-morrow  I  should  go  with 
his  deputy  (as  he  can  not  leave  the  house)  to  the  different  vine- 
yards and  cellars. 

In  the  evening  we  returned  from  Biberich,  but  not  before 
taking  a  walk  in  the  gardens  of  the  Residence  of  the  Duke  of 
Nassau.  The  Burg  is  of  ancient  architecture,  large,  standing  on 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  being  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a  fine 
park  containing  grccn-houscs,  exotics,  etc.  The  trees  are  old  and 
luxuriant.  The  town  itself  is  built  around  the  park.  It  has  some 
fine  buildings,  but  it  does  not  equal  Wiesbaden. 

August  26. — As  I  was  writing  the  above,  the  Director  Thomii 
was  announced.  He  came  prepared  to  accompany  me  to  the  va- 
rious places  which  the  day  would  permit  us  to  visit.  I  was  much 
pleased  at  last  to  come  to  a  place  where  the  people  are  punctual, 
and  ready  to  go  to  work  at  seven  o'clock.  We  drove  to  Bi- 
berich. Here  the  old  gentleman  received  us  at  the  door  of  his 
receiving-room,  having  been  assisted  there  by  his  valet.  He  put 
at  our  disposal  his  deputy.  With  him  we  proceeded  to  the  cele- 
brated vineyard  of  Steinberg.  This  vineyard  disputes  the  supe- 
riority of  the  Johannisbcrg,  and,  of  course,  of  the  whole  Rhine 
country.     It  contains  10-i  morrjen.     Its  soil  is  rocky,  and  com- 


HOCHHEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOHANNISBERG.  67 

posed  of  a  bluish  clay,  though  the  substrata  is  gravel.  The  vines 
are  only  Riesling ;  the  distance  at  which  they  are  planted  is  three 
feet  in  the  rows,  and  four  feet  between  the  rows.  The  vineyards 
last  about  thirty  years,  when  they  arc  cut  out,  and  the  land  rests 
for  three  years.  During  the  first  of  these  three  years  they  haul 
some  of  the  manured  blue  clay,  and  spread  it  over  the  vacant 
ground  about  a  foot  thick.  This  is  done  during  the  summer. 
Then  it  is  plowed  over  several  times,  and  clover  raised  upon  it 
during  its  years  of  rest.  The  average  yield  of  this  vineyard  is 
40  stiick,  or  10,000  gallons. 

Adjoining  this  vineyard  is  a  farm-yard,  which  is  leased  for  a 
period  of  time,  with  all  the  land,  to  a  farmer ;  but  he  is  obliged 
to  furnish  so  many  loads  of  manure  annually,  as  it  is  indispensa- 
ble to  the  Steinberg  vineyards.  I  also  saw  his  milk-house,  and 
his  cattle,  which  are  not  allowed  to  leave  the  stable  even  for  wa- 
tering. He  considered  his  stock  very  fine,  but  I  have  seen  much 
better  in  California. 

From  there  we  went  to  the  old  Convent  of  Eberbach,  which  is 
at  present  partly  a  state  Penitentiary,  and  the  remainder  is  the 
cellar  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau.  The  deputy  master  of  the  cellars 
opened  them,  the  coopers  belonging  to  the  cellars  entered,  and 
in  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  we  were  invited  to  go  in.  Upon 
coming  into  the  cellar  a  beautiful  sight  lay  before  us.  Hundreds 
of  lights  illumined  the  room.  There  were  two  rows  of  barrels  of 
250  gallons  each,  and  upon  the  end  of  each  was  a  sperm  candle 
lighted.  The  barrels  being  of  an  equal  size,  the  effect  was  very 
fine.  This  first  cellar  is  about  100  feet  long,  40  feet  wide,  and 
25  feet  high.  It  contains  several  rows  of  barrels,  of  which  only 
the  two  in  the  centre  were  lighted.  From  this  we  reached  a  still 
larger  cellar,  built  square,  with  the  arches  resting  upon  a  fine  col- 
umn in  the  centre.  The  barrels  are  placed  in  a  circle,  leaving  a 
large  space  of  about  thirty  feet  vacant.  Each  barrel  bore  a  light- 
ed candle,  which  added  still  more  to  the  grandeur  of  the  effect. 
Around  the  central  column  is  a  table,  on  which  were  placed  about 
forty  glasses  for  tasting  the  wine.  From  this  cellar  there  is  still 
another,  which  also  was  lighted.     It  is  about  100  feet  in  length. 

Upon  returning  to  the  middle  cellar  we  stopped  at  the  table 
before-mentioned ;  the  deputy  then  ordered  wine  to  be  brought 
from  the  year  1822  to  1859 :  beyond  this  year  the  wines  are  not 
presentable.  The  reader  may  imagine  with  what  caution  we  put 
ourselves  to  the  task  of  tasting.     To  describe  the  wines  would  be 


68  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

a  work  sufficient  for  Byron,  Shakspeare,  or  Schiller,  and  even 
those  geniuses  would  not  do  full  justice  to  them  until  they  had 
imbibed  a  couple  of  glasses  full.  As  you  take  a  mouthful  and 
let  it  run  drop  by  drop  down  your  throat,  it  leaves  in  your  mouth 
the  same  aroma  as  a  bouquet  of  the  choicest  flowers  will  offer  to 
your  olfactories. 

The  older  a  wine  becomes,  the  less  grows  its  bouquet,  but  it 
grows  more  and  more  delicate.  A  young  wine  of  four  years  old 
has  this  bouquet  in  a  very  great  degree ;  but  as  it  becomes  older 
it  loses  it,  gaining  instead  a  more  delicate  but  more  penetrating 
taste ;  it  now  communicates  to  the  palate  slowly  but  surely  its 
perfume. 

After  having  tasted  many,  we  finally  concluded  by  drinking  a 
couple  of  glasses  of  the  finest  wine  mortal  can  imbibe.  I  may 
here  remark  to  those  who  are  not  initiated  in  the  manner  of  iasi- 
ing  wine,  that  you  do  not  drink  it,  but  take  a  few  drops  on  your 
tongue,  and  if  it  is  old,  let  a  few  drops  trickle  slowly  down  your 
throat.  If  the  wine  is  of  little  value,  you  keep  it  a  few  moments 
in  your  mouth  and  then  throw  it  out.  The  reason  of  this  is  that 
a  fine  old  wine  will,  by  a  few  drops,  give  you  the  entire  taste, 
whereas  it  is  necessary  to  take  a  large  mouthful  of  the  inferior 
wine  in  order  to  be  able  to  judge  of  its  quality.  The  Duke  ev- 
ery year  causes  a  public  auction  to  be  held ;  then  wines  of  three 
and  four  years  old  are  sold.  Older  wines  are  not  sold  at  public 
auction,  but  have  a  fixed  price,  which  would  astonish  some  of  my 
readers.  Again,  there  are  wines  which  can  not  be  bought  ifor 
any  price. 

The  wines  grown  on  different  parts  of  the  domain  are  kept  in 
this  cellar.  The  grapes  are  picked  by  women  and  children,  who 
have  wooden  tubs  with  leathern  straps,  so  that  they  may  be  car- 
ried on  the  back.  "When  these  tubs  are  full,  they  are  taken  to  a 
place  where  there  are  persons  who  classify  the  grapes ;  that  is, 
they  take  all  the  finest  bunches  and  lay  them  on  one  side,  then 
the  next  finest,  and  so  on  ;  from  these  latter  sorts  the  second  and 
third  class  wine  is  made.  From  the  first  class  grapes  (which  are 
allowed  to  become  like  raisins  before  they  are  picked),  the  finest 
berries  are  cut  out  and  placed  in  a  large  earthenware  dish ;  from 
these  selected  grapes  is  made  the  first  class  wine  called  the  Auslcsc 
("  Select").  These  grapes  are  trodden  out  with  boots  made  for 
that  purpose.  They  are  pressed  in  a  press  of  their  own,  so  that 
no  other  juice  may  be  mixed  with  theirs.    The  juice  is  then  put 


HOCHHEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOHANNISBERG.  69 

into  a  clean  barrel  and  left  for  fermentation.  The  bung-hole  is 
covered  with  an  earthenware  funnel,  which  is  half  filled  with  wa- 
ter, so  that  the  gas  bubbles  up  through  the  water,  but  lets  no  air 
reach  the  wine.  This  precaution  is  used  with  all  wines,  none  be- 
ing fermented  with  bung-holes  open. 

The  first  class  bunches,  from  which  the  finest  berries  have  al- 
ready been  picked,  are  then  trodden,  pressed,  and  produce  the  sec- 
ond quality.  To  this  is  also  put  that  juice  which  is  pressed  from 
the  best  of  the  second  and  third  class  bunches ;  that  is,  from  each 
of  the  bunches  the  finest  berries  are  cut  out,  as  from  the  first  class. 

Seeing  in  the  cellar  barrels  containing  but  170  to  250  gallons 
each,  I  asked  whether  they  considered  the  wine  better  in  a  small 
barrel  or  in  a  large  one,  say  of  2000  gallons. 

The  answer  was  that  the  wine  is  much  better  in  a  large  barrel, 
as  the  fermentation  then  is  more  uniform.  But  they  are  troubled 
to  fill  one  of  the  large  barrels  with  wine  of  the  first  quality.  The 
Steinberg  vineyard  of  10-i  morgen  will,  in  a  very  good  season 
(which  is  once  in  about  ten  years),  fill  with  first  class  wine  one 
stiick,  or  250  gallons.  In  other  years  it  is  with  difficulty  that  they 
can  fill  a  half  stiick. 

It  is  now  admitted  by  every  one  here  that  fine  wine-making 
depends  as  much  on  the  careful  selection  and  classification  of  the 
grapes  and  their  quality  as  upon  the  climate  and  soil.  Even  in 
places  where  very  inferior  wine  was  raised  formerly,  now,  by 
careful  selection  of  grapes,  care,  and  attention  during  the  ferment- 
ation, fine  wine  is  made,  which  frequently  sells  for  1500  to  2000 
guldens  per  barrel.  The  above  has  been  proved  by  the  experience 
of  the  veteran  officer  of  the  cellars,  who  some  time  ago  celebrated 
the  fiftieth  year  in  the  service  of  his  government,  exclusively  in 
the  superintendence  of  vineyards  and  vines.  Having  begun  as 
cup-bearer,  he  rose  by  degrees  to  his  present  position.  With  re- 
gard to  the  fermentation,  I  was  told  that  the  wine  will  ferment 
from  ten  to  twelve  days.  The  warm  or  cold  weather  has  much 
to  do  with  the  length  of  time  required  for  the  fermentation. 

The  grapes  are  generally  picked  at  the  end  of  November  and 
beginning  of  December,  often  when  the  snow  is  two,  and  even 
three  inches  thick  on  the  ground ;  but  if  they  are  caught  by 
snow  or  rain,  they  lose  much  of  their  beauty,  and  the  wine  its 
flavor. 

In  the  press-house  there  are  about  thirty  presses.  They  con- 
sist of  a  simple  screw,  which  has  two  rings  to  put  in  the  lever  end. 


70  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

This  lever  is  a  long  oak  pole,  within  fifteen  feet  of  the  press. 
There  is  an  upright  on  a  pivot.  This  upright  has  holes  made 
through,  long  enough  to  receive  levers  to  turn  the  same.  It  acts 
altogether  like  a  capstan  on  a  vessel.  The  presses  are  simple, 
and  susceptible  of  great  improvement.  After  inspecting  every 
thing  in  the  cellar  and  press-house,  we  went  to  take  a  country 
dinner  in  the  cooper's  room.  It  was  served  up  by  a  rosy-cheeked 
girl.  After  giving  her  two  thalers,  and  the  cooper  who  served 
the  wine  in  the  cellar  five  thalers,  we  left  for  Johannisberg,  the 
palace  of  the  Prince  Metternich. 

The  palace  of  the  prince  is  about  two  hours'  drive  from  Eber- 
bach.  The  country  lying  between  these  two  celebrated  vine- 
yards gradually  rises  from  the  Eiver  Ehine.  With  the  exception 
of  Steinberg  and  its  immediate  vicinity,  the  soil  is  a  very  red  clay, 
heavily  intermixed  with  gravel.  This  is  the  same  soil  as  Sonoma 
possesses  by  thousands  of  acres,  and  in  other  parts  of  California 
there  are  millions.  Of  course,  every  spot  of  earth  is  planted  here ; 
and  so  economical  are  they  with  the  ground,  that  the  walks  are 
not  more  than  three  or  four  feet  wide.  The  vineyard  lots  are 
small,  from  a  quarter  of  an  acre  to  two  acres.  I  asked  the  di- 
rector the  price  of  one  morgen.  He  answered  that  they  have  no 
price,  as  it  is  all  owned  by  rich  people  of  all  countries,  none  of 
whom  will  sell.  For  many  years  there  has  been  no  instance  of 
a  sale.  If  a  division  takes  place  among  heirs,  and  the  vineyard 
is  so  small  that  it  can  not  be  divided,  the  morgen  is  valued  at 
20,000  guldens,  and  the  retainer  of  the  vineyard  has  to  pay  over 
to  the  other  heir  his  part  of  the  money. 

After  passing  several  prosperous  villages,  we  arrived  at  last  at 
the  palace.  The  courteous  steward  received  us  very  kindly.  Mr. 
Joh.  Herzmansky  has  been  for  many  years  the  manager  of  this 
beautiful  property.  The  palace  is  about  three  miles  from  the 
Eiver  Ehine,  and  is  situated  upon  an  elevation.  As  you  step 
upon  the  terrace  in  front  of  the  palace,  a  grand  and  beautiful  view 
meets  your  gaze.  The  Prince  may  boast  of  the  view  from  his 
palace,  as  I  can  from  my  ranch  in  Sonoma ;  or,  rather,  I  may  boast 
of  having  scenery  equal  to  that  of  the  Prince  Metternich.  It  is 
true  that  I  have  no  Eiver  Ehine,  but  in  its  place  there  lies  the  St. 
Pablo  Bay. 

The  vineyard  encircles  the  palace  and  contains  sixty-five  mor- 
gen. Some  spots  arc  newly  planted;  some  lie  fallow,  as  here 
also  the  vines  will  produce  for  thirty  years  only,  when  they  are 


IIOCIIIIEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOHANNISBERG.  71 

cut  out,  and  the  ground  sufTercd  to  rest  for  three  or  four  years, 
well  manured,  and  then  replanted. 

Here  the  vines  look  very  well,  having  a  good  healthy  color, 
and  are  kept  clean,  no  grass  being  visible.  The  grapes  show 
signs  of  ripening.  They  are  all  of  one  kind — the  Riesling.  There 
are  several  varieties  of  table  grapes  in  the  yards  and  around  the 
walks  in  the  garden,  but  in  the  vineyard  there  are  no  varieties. 

We  were  then  invited  to  walk  into  the  cellars,  which  are  under 
the  palace.  After  going  down  thirty  feet  we  entered  the  first 
cellar,  which  was  lighted  in  the  same  manner  as  that  of  the  Duke 
previously  described,  with  the  exception  that  it  is  not  round.- 
The  vaults  are  all  about  forty  feet  wide  and  twenty  high,  arched 
with  stone.  This  domain  originally  belonged  to  the  priests,  and 
was  a  monastery,  but  Napoleon  drove  out  the  monks  and  pre- 
sented their  abode  to  Kellerman,  one  of  his  generals.  After  the 
deposition  of  Napoleon  the  Congress  of  Vienna  presented  Prince 
Metternich  with  this  domain  for  his  services.  The  deceased  and 
the  present  prince  have  spent  much  in  beautifying  this  truly 
royal  domain. 

We  tasted  many  wines,  which  must  be  tasted  to  know  their 
magnificence,  for  it  is  beyond  the  power  of  description.  These 
wines,  like  those  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau,  are  occasionally  sold  at 
public  auction,  but  at  such  exorbitant  prices  that  we  poor  repub- 
licans would  shudder  as  much  to  drink  such  costly  liquid  as  if  it 
was  molten  gold.  There  is  a  pardonable  rivalry  existing  between 
the  ofiicers  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau  and  those  of  Prince  Metternich. 
Those  of  the  Duke  contend  that  the  Steinberg  gives  the  best  wine, 
whereas  those  of  the  Prince  say  the  Johannisberg  is  better.  This 
divided  opinion  is  held  all  over  the  country  among  the  citizens. 
Both  vineyards  have  the  same  kind  of  grape,  the  Riesling,  so  it  is 
but  the  location  and  the  soil  which  can  be  in  favor  of  the  one  or 
the  other.  The  mode  of  making  the  wine  is  the  same,  but  the 
grapes  are  not  always  picked  at  the  same  time ;  for  instance,  Mr. 
Herzmansky,  in  1849,  plucked  his  grapes  a  week  earlier  than  the 
master  of  the  cellars  of  the  Duke.  During  that  week  some  snow 
fell,  which  watered  the  Duke's  grapes,  and,  though  he  made  mag- 
nificent wine,  still  it  is  not  considered  as  good  as  that  of  Johannis- 
berg. This  lucky  stroke  of  his  superintendent  benefited  the  owner 
of  Johannisberg  many  thousand  guldens.  From  the  first-selected 
berries  they  made  one  barrel  of  175  gallons,  for  which  they  re- 
fused 12,000  gulden.     The  wines  are  here  sold  after  being  four 


72  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

days  or  three  years  old.  The  prices  are  almost  the  same  as  those 
at  Eberbach. 

Beyond  the  first  cellar  is  another,  built  in  the  same  shape  as  the 
first.  We  did  not  enter  it,  as  it  is  only  used  for  fermenting  the 
new  wines,  and  of  course  it  is  at  present  empty.  The  cellars  ex- 
tend all  around  the  large  palace.  After  we  had  finished  tasting 
the  wines,  our  host  made  us  empty  a  couple  of  glasses  to  the  pros- 
perity of  the  vine  culture  in  California.  After  doing  this  it  was 
with  difficulty  that  we  could  leave  our  courteous  host,  who  insist- 
ed upon  our  drinking  still  more ;  but  I  summoned  up  virtue  to 
decline,  though  I  am  afraid  it  will  be  many  a  long  year  before  such 
precious  nectar  will  again  moisten  my  lips.  The  general  opinion 
is  that  wines  will  attain  their  greatest  excellence  in  from  five  to 
ten  years,  and  after  that  they  lose  mu.ch  of  their  splendid  and  ac- 
quired bouquet. 

On  leaving  the  cellar,  and  presenting  the  cooper  with  sixteen 
thalers,  we  entered  the  carriage  and  drove  toward  home,  passing 
Biberich,  where  we  left  Mr.  Victor.  "We  arrived  in  Wiesbaden 
quite  late  in  the  night,  after  having  had  the  honor  of  tasting  the 
finest  wines  in  Europe,  for  to  my  palate  there  are  no  finer  than  the 
above-named. 

August  27. — This  morning  Mr.  Thoma  called,  and  stated  that 
he  had  ordered  the  list  of  sales  for  the  last  three  years  to  be  made 
out.  And  now  he  was  ready  to  take  me  to  Geisberg,  where  the 
agricultural  Experimental  Gardens  are  located.  Here  there  is  a 
vineyard  of  about  800  kinds  of  grapes  which  are  tested.  The 
principal  care  is  used  in  testing  the  mode  of  pruning,  and  raising 
the  vines  low  or  high,  setting  them  in  rows  or  squares,  staking 
them,  or  training  them  over  wires  in  trellis  form,  and  the  like. 
Many  experiments  are  made  upon  the  vines.  Each  row  is  kept 
apart,  raised,  pruned,  trimmed  separately.  The  progress  of  the 
vine  and  grape  is  closely  watched  by  experienced  chemists ;  the 
leaves,  wood,  and  grape  are  chemically  analyzed  to  see  what  dif- 
ference is  made  by  the  difibrent  modes  of  cultivation.  The  grapes 
are  gathered  on  the  same  day,  divided  into  three  classes  from  each 
row ;  then  they  are  equally  tested,  from  time  to  time,  with  the 
alcomcter.  In  this  way,  from  year  to  year,  this  systematic  exper- 
imenting goes  on.  I  was  told  that,  so  far,  the  low  trimming,  or, 
in  other  words,  vines  raised  just  high  enough  to  prevent  the 
grapes  from  hanging  on  the  ground,  is  the  best  mode  of  raising 
them.    This  proves  the  truth  of  my  experience  with  regard  to 


IIOCHIIEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOIIANNISBERG. 


73 


California  vines,  with  the  cxeeption  that  we  need  not  fear  to  have 
our  grapes  upon  the  ground,  as  there  are  no  summer  rains  with  us. 
In  the  garden  hops,  grains,  and  vegetables  are  planted.  The 
Agricultural  School  is  supported  by  the  State.  It  possesses  mod- 
els of  all  utensils  invented  here,  a  fine  agricultural  library,  and 
collections  of  grains,  seeds,  and  objects  of  Natural  History. 

I  presented  the  Director  with  two  volumes  of  our  State  agricul- 
tural reports.  I  found  here  a  copy  of  the  Patent  Office  reports  of 
184:6.  I  promised  to  send  some  later  numbers,  and  I  also  made 
arrangements  to  exchange  seeds,  etc.,  with  the  Institute.  After 
examining  every  thing,  and  taking  down  the  names  of  various 
books  on  wine  culture,  I  returned  to  my  hotel,  where  I  wrote  a 
letter  of  thanks  to  Director  Thoma  and  the  chief  master  of  the 
cellars.  I  thanked  them  in  the  name  of  our  government ;  for  it 
was  to  California  I  owed  the  distinguished  reception  I  met  as  her 
commissioner.  I  then  packed  up  my  things,  and,  after  parting 
with  my  new  acquaintances,  and  especially  from  Director  Thoma 
— to  whom  I  would  here  again  express  my  sincere  thanks  for  his 
courtesy,  and  the  information  he  so  freely  and  kindly  furnished — 
I  took  the  cars  for  Frankfort,  having  previously  dispatched  my 
son  to  Ems  to  escort  his  mother  and  sister  to  Mayence,  where  I 
expected  to  meet  them. 


SALES  OF  WINE  BY  AUCTION  AT  EBERACH. 

[The  quantity  in  the  barrel  is  given  in  Maase^  the  price  in  Florins.    The  Maas  is  -j^  of  an  Ameri- 
can gallon — two  and  ^  Maasc  equaling  a  gallon.    The  Florin  is  worth  40  cents.] 

SEPTEMBER  7,  1858.— VINTAGE  OF  1857. 
No.               Vintage.           Quantity.        Price.  Purchaser. 

5       Hattenheimer        COO  1070 P.  Espenschied,  iJuc^esAeiw. 

7  "  606  1430 Frz.  Miillev,  Eltville. 

9  "  605  1365 Walther,  Brothers,  il/avence. 

11  "  598  1555 Frz.  MuUer,  £fei7/e. 

13  "  603  1660 "  " 

15  "  593  1495 'Feist,  Frmlc fort. 

17  "  603  1805 Deinhard,  Fordan,  CoWen<2. 

20       Grafenberger         296  1000 M.  Muller,  Eltville. 

21*  "  296i  1045 C.  de  la  Roche,  ^a^en^ewi. 

23       Marcobrunner        590  2000 Miehels,  Cologne. 

25  "  601  2105 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Co6?ente. 

27  "  606  2905 P.  Espenschied,  ^WesteVn. 

29»  "  293  2205 Gogel  Koch,  i^m«Aybr^ 

31         Steinberger  592  1800 C.  Lantern,  il%e«ce. 

33  "  595  1960 Deinhard,  Fordan,  CoWente. 

35  "  600  2000 Miehels,  Cologne. 

37  "  693  2685 Masbach,  Brothers,  il%ence. 

41  "  596  2825 Fost,  Rudeslieim. 

43  "  697  2625 H.  Becker,  £?7is. 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


So. 

Vintage. 

Qiuintitif. 

45 

Steinberger 

604 

47 

(1 

585 

49 

it 

690 

61 

(( 

608 

53 

(( 

601 

55 

(( 

695 

57 

<( 

C04 

59 

« 

606 

61 

(( 

599 

63 

11 

606 

65 

n 

601 

67 

(( 

605 

69 

(C 

698 

71 

(( 

697 

73 

(( 

699 

75 

(( 

693 

77 

(( 

580 

79 

(C 

696 

81 

<( 

606 

83 

(( 

699 

85 

<( 

600 

87 

(C 

600 

92 

(( 

304 

93 

<( 

600 

94* 

(( 

290 

98* 

u 

293 

99* 

(t 

296 

Steinberger 

295 

(.Vint.  0/1846.) 

APRIL  12 

Ao. 

Vintage. 

Quantity. 

1 

Steinberger 

660 

2 

a 

600 

3 

u 

594 

4 

(( 

600 

6 

(C 

690 

6 

<( 

594 

7 

<( 

599 

8 

« 

585 

9 

(( 

605 

10 

(( 

605 

11 

(( 

589 

12 

11 

692 

13 

t( 

693 

U 

u 

600 

15 

<( 

602 

16 

(C 

596 

17 

(( 

690 

18 

(( 

692 

19 

(( 

698 

20 

(( 

600 

21 

<( 

692 

22 

(( 

605 

23 

(( 

587 

24 

(( 

591 

25 

<( 

295 

26 

Grafcnberger 

290 

27 

" 

300 

28 

Hattenheimer 

603 

29 

(( 

590 

30 

(( 

686 

Price.  Purchaser. 

2220 Ch.  Giessen,  Cologne. 

2715 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Coblentz. 

2920 Valkenberg,  Worms. 

3250 F.  Bertram,  Wiesbaden. 

3225 Feist,  Frankfort. 

3935 P.  A.  Mumm,  Cologne. 

3305 Behrends,  Brothers,  Frankfort. 

32G0 F.  Berthold,  Frankfort. 

3710 C.  de  la  Roche,  Uattenheim. 

3510 Volkenbach,  Worms. 

3715 Sachs,  Coblentz. 

3450 F.  Muller,  Eltville. 

3705 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Coblentz. 

3770 Michels,  Cologne. 

3G00 Dilthey,  Rudeshehn. 

3810 M.  Muller,  Eltville. 

4050 Lantern,  Mmjence. 

4155 M.  Muller,  Eltville. 

4220 Dubois,  Mayence. 

3595 C.  A.  Giessen,  Frankfort. 

3815 B.  Meier,  Mayence. 

4500 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

2475 Lobus,  Geisenhcim. 

5470 P.  A.  Mumm,  Cologne. 

2130 Gogcl  Koch,  Frankfort. 

3090 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

2710 B.  F.  Mayer,  Mayence. 

6000 The  King  of  Hanover. 


18G0.— VINTAGE  OF  1858. 
Price.  Purchaser. 

660 M.  Muller,  Eltville. 

560 f...  G.  Birlenbach,  Wiesbaden. 

805 H.Bertram,  Wiesbaden. 

635 Lautern  &  Son,  Mayence. 

770 M.  Ilansemann,  Bonn. 

805 Menges  &  Schmitz,  i/a^fence. 

850 Hurter,  Coblentz. 

815 Menges  &  Schmitz,  il/a^/ence. 

910 Abreich,  Mayence. 

810 Lautern  &  Son,  Mayence. 

950 M,  Muller,  £/a'«7/e. 

900 "  " 

1035 Menges  &  Schmitz,  Mayence. 

990 Pabstmann,  Castcl. 

900 M.  Muller,  Eltville. 

1035 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Coblentz. 

1050 Liebrecht,  Ruhrort. 

1225 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

1250 Fost,  Rudesheim. 

1155 Eiscnberg,  Castel. 

1240 F.  Muller,  Eltville. 

1260. Vnlkcnberg,  Worms. 

14G5 M.  'M.nWcr,  Eltville. 

1485 

1015 H.  Holler,  Ilochheim. 

630 J.  Friedmann,  Afayence. 

720 Anthes,  Wiesbaden. 

980 Eisenberg,  Castel. 

1010 P.  Muller,  Eltville. 

1210 Pung,  Rudesheim. 


IIOCimEIM,  STEINBERG,  AND  JOIIANNISBERG. 


i'O 


No. 

Vintage. 

31 

Ilattcnhcimcr 

32 

(( 

33 

Marcobrunncr 

34 

(( 

No. 

Vintage. 

1 

Ilattenheimcr 

2 

(( 

3 

(( 

4 

(( 

5 

Marcobrunncr 

6 

(( 

7 

11 

8 

Steinberger 

9 

11 

10 

11 

11 

(1 

12 

(1 

13 

(1 

14 

11 

15 

11 

16 

It 

17 

11 

18 

11 

19 

11 

20 

(1 

21 

11 

22 

11 

23 

It 

24 

(1 

25 

It 

27 

It 

28 

If 

29 

(1 

30 

(t 

31 

tf 

32 

It 

33 

11 

34 

(1 

35 

<i 

36 

11 

37 

11 

No. 

Vintage. 

1 

Steinberger 

2 

It 

3 

(t 

4 

(1 

5 

(1 

6 

(1 

7 

(1 

8 

(( 

9 

11 

10 

11 

11 

It 

12 

11 

13 

11 

14 

Fiillwein 

15 

Hattenheimer 

Quantity.         Price.  Purchaser. 

597  1325 Hoffman,  Mayence. 

G03  1510 Valkenbcrg,  Worms. 

COO  1 205 P.  Wilhelm,  Wiesbaden. 

695  1415 B,  F.  Mayer,  J/oyence. 

FROM   THE   VINTAGE   OP    1857. 

quantity.  Price.  Purchaser. 

C05  9G0 M.  Mullcr,  Eltville. 

592  1395 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Cohkntz. 

598  12G0 King,  Brothers,  Biberirh. 

689  1705 Deinhard,  Fordan,  Cobkntz. 

598  1500 r.  Wilhelm,  Wiesbaden. 

694  2080 Manskopf,  i'VaH^/or/. 

592  2420 Valkenberg,  Worms. 

699  IC:^ Lautern,  Maijcnce. 

698  1950 F.  S.  Crass,  Erback. 

605  1690 W.  Kroschcl,  Ilochheim. 

GOO  2135 Eisenberg,  Castel. 

692  2015 Walker,  Brothers,  Mayence. 

594  2170 Lautern,  Mayence. 

690  2335 Abreich,  Mayence. 

696  2380 Brucker,  Frankfort. 

600  3005 H.  Bertram,  Wiesbaden. 

696  2430 F.  S.  Crass,  Erbach. 

690  2415 Mmsko^i,  Frankfort. 

589  2655 "  " 

692  3105..!,.!.!!!..'.  F.  MuUer,  Eltville. 

686  2710 Lautern,  Mayence. 

596  2505 W.  Kroschel,  Hochheim. 

595  3015 Y.UuWcr,  Eltville. 

596  2570 F.  Jann,  Geisenheim. 

605  3 190 Mumm,  Frankfort. 

597  3480 Manskopf  &  Falkenburg. 

303  1710 W.  Kroschel,  Hochheim. 

292  1800 Pabstmann,  Castel. 

294  1810 Hurter,  Sohn,  Cobkntz. 

290  1810 Wallot,  Brothers,  Oppenheim. 

293  1855 "  "  " 

290  2360 Lautern,  Sohn,  Mayence. 

292  2415 G.  Philippi,  Breslau. 

294  2465 H.  &  J.  Espenschied,  Cohlentz. 

308  2705 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

297  3000 Mumm,  Frankfort. 

MAY  14,  1861.— VINTAGE  OF  1858. 

Quantiti/.  Price.  Purchaser. 

607  1360 J.  Strauss  Sohne,  il/a?/ence. 

588  960 J.  B.  Hartmann,  Wiesbaden. 

596  1000 J.  Liebrecht,  Buhrort. 

694  1 100 Specht,  Mayence. 

698  1180 J.  Liebrecht,  T^M^m-i. 

602  1330 Leyenthal  and  Mosler,  Cobkntz. 

600  1505 H.  &  G.  Hirsch,  Mayence. 

600  1505 F.  Jann,  Geisenheim. 

585  1460 Gebr.  Walther,  Mayence. 

693  1850 Rosenstein,  Wiesbaden. 

587  2060 J.Bertram,  " 

605  2065 S.  W.  Krausser  &  Co. ,  Mayence. 

696  2900 Manskopf  &  Sarasin. 

590  1300 Gebr.  Feist,  Frankfort. 


76 


• 

Ko. 

Vintaye. 

16 

ITattenheimcr 

17 

" 

18 

" 

19 

(( 

20 

Marcobrunncr 

21 

Marcobrunner 

22 

(( 

23 

So. 

Vintage. 

24 

Ilattenheimer 

25 

u 

26 

(( 

27 

<( 

28 

(< 

29 

(( 

30 

Marcobrunner 

31 

i( 

32 

Steinberger 

33 

(( 

34 

<( 

35 

(( 

36 

(( 

37 

(C 

38 

(( 

39 

(C 

40 

(( 

41 

(( 

42 

(C 

43 

t( 

44 

(( 

45 

(( 

46 

(( 

47 

(( 

48 

Fiillwein 

49 

Steinberger 

50 

(( 

51 

(( 

52 

(( 

53 

C( 

64 

(( 

55 

(( 

56 

(( 

57 

<( 

58 

(( 

59 

(( 

60 

(( 

61 

<( 

62 

(( 

63 

(( 

64 

<( 

65 

(( 

GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Quantity.  Price.                                          Purchaser. 

592  1450 F.  Jann,  Geisenheim. 

296  1000 Potthof  &  Sohne,  Krmtznach. 

297  1155 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

294  1230 Gebr.  Masbach,  Frankfort. 

590  2005 Dubois, /Vrt»Z/o?-/. 

297  1235 F.  Miiller,  Ellville. 

284  1320 Valkenberg,  Worms. 

296  ICOO Ricd,  Frankfort. 

FROM  THE   VINTAGE    OF    1859. 

Quantity.  Price.                                           Purchaser. 

292*  480 Sarbach  &  Gntmann,  Mayence. 

598  1120 Menges  &  Schmitz,  i/a^e?jce. 

595  1110 Rehms,  Zcy<r/i7. 

605  1415 ♦....  Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

695  2010 Biermann,  Biele'fkld. 

600  2290 Menges  &  Scliniitz,  Mayence. 

600  2550 S.  ]M.  Seligmann,  Frankfort. 

595  2650 Sarbach  &  Gutmann,  Mayence. 

606  1480 C.  Ettinghaus,  Ilatlenhcim. 

596  1 100 P.  F.  AVerner,  Neudorf. 

595  910 F.  Jann,  Geisenheim. 

600  900 M.  Hansemann,  J5o?zn. 

604  1100 Valkenberg,  Worms. 

601  985 Cantor  &  Sohn,  Mayence. 

694  1310 Kiccvavcn,  Mai/ence. 

601  1420 Lc ycnthal  &  Masler,  Cohlentz. 

595  1205 C.  Ettingliaus,  i/a«e?j//em. 

600  1 1 30 Diehl,  Marjence. 

596  1485 C.  Ettinghaus,  Hattenheim. 

607  1150 Gebr.  Masbach,  3/aycnce. 

608  1670 Gebr.  Feist,  Frankfort. 

605  1465 Jann,  Geisenheim. 

594  1420 Beckhardt&  Sohne,  Kretiznach. 

594  1455 Deinhardt  &  Fordan,  Cohlentz. 

605  1275 Biermann,  7?if/e/e/c/. 

600  1420 FMffer,  Heidelberg. 

588  1320 Jann,  Geisenheim. 

685  2005 Manskopf,  Franlfort. 

697  1670 Gebr.  Feist,  Frankfort. 

598  1000 Crass,  Erbach. 

692  1890 H.  &  C.  Espcnschied,  Cohlentz. 

600  2405 Bicrmaim,  Bielefeld. 

597  1755 Gebr.  Bchrcnds' /<Vrt«Z/or^ 

694  2345 Deinhardt  &  Fordan,  Cohlentz. 

600  2080 W.  Biirkcrt,  Biherirh. 

685  2425 Cantor  &  Sohn,  Mayence. 

694  2780 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 

598  2705 Gebr.  Masbach,  Mayence. 

591  2570 Deinhardt  &  Fordan,  Cohlentz. 

606  3115 Gebr.  Bchrends,  Frankfort. 

602  3415 Manskopf,  Frankfort. 


GERMANY,  TlIliUUGlI  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  77 


CHAPTER  V. 

GERMANY,  THROUGH  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY. 

From  Frankfort  to  Maycnce. — The  Russian  Lady  and  her  Maid. — Her  extra  Bag- 
gage.— Our  Talk  about  California. — European  Ideas  of  our  State. — Hints  for  the 
Press  of  California. — Wasli  dirty  Linen  at  Home. — Chronicle  on  Normal  Progress 
rather  than  on  exceptional  Crimes. — Mayence  to  Heidelberg. — Tobacco. — Heidel- 
berg.— Nursery  at  Wiesloch. — Carl  Brunner. — His  Nursery,  Gardens,  and  Vine- 
yard.— His  Wine-press. — The  great  Tun  at  Heidelberg. — Start  for  Basle. — Notes 
by  the  Way. — Hemp. — Manuring  by  Burning. — From  Basle  to  Geneva. — Neuf- 
chatel. — The  Swiss  and  American  Lakes. — Geneva. — Passports  for  Italy. — Amer- 
icans in  Geneva. — Departure  for  Italy. — The  Road  and  the  Country. — St.  Jean  de 
Moreuo. — The  Tunnel. — Crossing  the  Summit. — The  Descent. — Arrival  at  Turin. 

August  27. — On  entering  the  cars  at  Frankfort  for  Mayence,  I 
was  much  amused  witli  a  lady  from  Russia,  in  the  same  car  with 
me,  returning  from  the  baths  at  Wiesbaden.  Her  servant-girl,  not 
speaking  a  word  of  German,  soon  got  into  trouble  about  the  innu- 
merable boxes,  packages,  bundles,  umbrellas,  parasols,  and  many 
other  things  placed  in  her  charge,  all  of  which  were  to  be  taken 
into  the  cars,  as  this  formidable  pile  contained  but  a  few  little  ex- 
tras to  be  kept  near  at  hand.  The  main  and  heavy  baggage,  to 
the  amount  of  fourteen  tickets,  which  I  saw,  was  already  in  the 
baggage-car.  The  bundles  had  to  go  into  the  car,  and  after  the  seat 
and  the  net-work  on  the  top  were  filled,  in  came  the  mistress  her- 
self, laden  with  a  goodly  number  more,  which  she  piled  up  above 
her  and  in  her  lap.  The  conductor  rushed  forward,  telling  the 
maid  to  go  in.  She  gesticulated,  and  talked  to  him  in  Russian, 
he  not  understanding  a  word  of  her  language.  She  was  at  last 
put  in  the  place  she  was  to  occupy,  the  conductor  taking  her  by 
the  arm  and  shoving  her  into  the  car.  This  started  the  lady  her- 
self, who  at  best  knew  but  few  German  words,  A  rush  was  made 
by  both  mistress  and  maid  for  the  luggage  which  still  lay  at  the 
door  of  the  car.  The  first  whistle  sounded.  The  conductor  en- 
deavored to  close  the  car  door,  seeing  that  the  ladies  were  almost 
crazy.  Having  had  enough  amusement  already,!  took  pity  on 
the  strangers,  and  told  the  conductor  that  these/ezy  traps  belonged 
to  them,  and  that  they  wished  to  take  them  in  the  car.     He  look- 


78  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

cd  very  much  puzzled,  and  asked  me  wlietlier  they  belonged  to  an 
opera  troupe  traveling  to  some  interior  town.  Time  was  scarce. 
He  looked  into  the  car,  calculating  how  many  seats  the  luggage 
would  occupy.  Finding  that,  even  if  one  half  the  car  was  vacated, 
there  would  be  scarcely  room  enough,  he  put  the  two  ladies  into 
the  car,  and,  with  the  help  of  two  of  his  companions,  who  came  to 
see  what  was  the  matter,  gathered  up  the  packages  and  bundles, 
and  threw  them  into  the  post-wagon.  The  whistle  sounded,  and 
away  we  went. 

I  knew  from  my  travels  in  old  times  that  Russian  ladies  were 
fast  talkers,  but  I  never  had  the  least  idea  of  the  rapidity  exhib- 
ited by  these  two ;  and  I  believe  that  as  Russia  is  improving  rap- 
idly in  all  its  movements,  these  two  ladies  endeavored  to  imitate 
the  speed  of  the  telegraph.  The  mistress  accused  the  maid  of 
slowness  in  not  taking  in  the  bundles  quick  enough,  saying,  "  Now 
all  is  lost,  and  never  will  be  recovered  again."  The  maid  defend- 
ed herself,  saying  how  impossible  it  would  have  been  to  have 
taken  them  all  in,  adding,  "  I  told  you  so,  madam.  How  lucky 
it  was  that  young  master  sent  the  greater  portion  of  the  baggage 
as  freight,  by  steamer,  up  the  Rhine !"  This  remark  by  the  maid 
raised  a  smile  on  my  countenance  which  I  could  not  suppress.  I 
told  the  lady  not  to  be  worried,  that  the  baggage  was  all  safe, 
that  the  conductor  had  put  them  in  the  post-car,  and  when  they 
stopped  all  would  be  delivered  to  them.  This  information  seem- 
ed to  relieve  them. 

I  wanted  to  ask  her  how  many  years  she  had  spent  in  this  part 
of  Germany.  This  question  the  reader  would  justify  if  he  had 
seen  the  number  of  boxes  and  packages,  the  fourteen  tickets  for 
trunks,  and  had  heard  the  remark  of  the  maid  that  her  young 
master  had  sent  the  bulk  of  the  baggage  as  freight.  The  lady 
kindly  informed  me  that  she  came  for  her  health  to  the  several 
watering-places,  and  had  been  here  for  two  months,  and  was  now 
returning  home.  I  congratulated  her  on  her  speedy  recovery  of 
health,  as  she  looked  a  picture  of  good  health.  But  she  differed 
very  much  with  me  in  that  respect,  stating  that  she  was  very  del- 
icate, and  continued  so  much  so  that  she  even  refused  to  go  with 
her  brother  to  Paris,  though  she  did  need  dresses  very  much.  She 
was  a  widow. 

Thanking  mc  for  my  aid  in  making  the  conductor  understand 
their  embarrassment,  she  asked  me  what  part  of  Germany  I  was 
from.     My  answer  that  I  was  a  Californian  seemed  to  astonish 


GERMANY,  TIIllOUGII  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  79 

her.  Every  body  in  the  car  looked  at  me,  and  I  became  the  lion 
of  the  time.  My  fair  neighbor  asked  me  many  questions  about 
the  gold ;  how  long  I  had  lived  in  California,  and  so  on.  I  told 
her  eleven  years.  "  "Why,"  she  said,  "  and  you  have  not  been 
killed !  IIow  have  you  cseaped  so  many  years  without  having 
been  murdered?  But,"  she  added,  "may  be  you  had  a  strong 
guard  around  you."  I  told  her  that,  living  in  the  country,  far 
from  any  neighbors,  my  doors  were  never  locked  niglit  or  day. 
She  heard  all  this  with  great  surprise,  asking  how  it  was  that 
newspapers  gave  so  many  accounts  of  murders  in  America,  par- 
ticularly in  California.  The  gentlemen  passengers  sitting  in  the 
cars,  with  inquiring  looks,  evidently  desiring  to  hear  my  reply 
to  this  question,  I  explained  to  her  that  whenever  a  murder  is 
committed  the  local  paper  will  chronicle  it,  and  neighboring  pa- 
pers in  the  towns  and  cities  repeat  it,  so  that  it  appears  to  the 
foreigner  that  each  announcement  refers  to  a  different  murder. 
I  remarked,  too,  that  we  had  no  more  murders  than  other  nations, 
but  that  with  us  every  murder,  suicide,  or  railroad  accident  is 
published  far  and  wide,  whereas  in  European  countries  no  such 
thing  is  done.  I  asked  her  whether  in  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
etc.,  the  dead  houses  are  ever  em-pty  ?  whether  it  is  not  often  the 
case  that  ten  or  fifteen  persons  are  lying  in  these  places,  stretched 
out  by  the  hand  of  murder  or  suicide?  whether  this  is  not  the 
case  even  in  the  best  governed,  politest  city  in  the  world — Paris, 
never  a  day  passing  that  dozens  are  not  found  in  the  Seine  ?  But 
who  hears  of  these  casualties  ?  Nobody  save  he  who  is  in  search 
of  one  lost,  or  some  stranger  who  goes  to  see  them,  led  by  curiosity. 
This  seemed  to  satisfy  the  lady  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  company. 
But  now  to  the  gentlemen  of  the  press  of  this  State  a  few  lines, 
which  I  hope  they  will  take  kindly.  It  is  concerning  the  prac- 
tice of  copying  accounts  of  murders,  suicides,  and  robberies  from 
other  papers ;  of  re-echoing,  multiplying,  and,  in  fact,  spreading  the 
facts  as  far  and  wide  as  possible,  so  doing  great  injury  and  injus- 
tice to  our  young  State.  Some  of  our  papers  are  not  satisfied 
with  such  occurrences  in  our  own  State,  but  they  will  take  these 
accounts  from  the  papers  of  Oregon,  "Washington  Territory,  and 
"Washoe.  These  places  are  not  known  in  Europe,  but  California 
is  well  known ;  consequently,  these  publications  are  at  the  ex- 
pense of  our  State  alone.  This  is  even  the  case  in  the  Eastern 
States.  For  instance,  a  San  Francisco  paper  states :  ""We  extract 
from  the  Portland  Courier"  (or  whatever  the  name  may  be)  such 


80  GEAPE  CULTURE  AND  WlNE-MAKlNG. 

and  such  an  account  of  a  murder.  The  reader  in  Europe  or  in 
the  Eastern  States  does  not  know  where  Portland  is ;  he  has  read 
it  in  a  San  Francisco  paper,  and  therefore  thinks  it  in  Cahfornia. 
But  the  zeal  and  energy  of  newspaper  men  does  not  end  here. 
Some  will  carefully  register  all  crimes  committed,  and  publish 
them  quarterly,  half  yearl}'-,  or  annually.  Others  go  still  farther. 
The  divorce  cases,  lawsuits,  names  of  bankrupts,  are  summed  up 
and  published  half  yearly  or  yearly.  If  this  collection  of  our 
vices,  so  carefully  collected,  which  we  send  broadcast  to  the  world, 
is  intended  to  scare  off  emigration,  no  better  method  could  be  in- 
vented. It  is  certain  that  the  press  does  not  desire  this,  but  pub- 
lishes without  considering  what  effect  it  may  have  on  the  other 
side  of  the  world.  I  suppose  the  intention  is  to  chastise,  mortify, 
and  expose  these  crimes  to  our  own  people.  This  would  be  very 
well  if  other  countries  did  the  same  to  their  own  people ;  but,  as 
Napoleon  said,  when  a  row  was  kicked  up  about  an  illegitimate 
child  in  the  family  of  a  noble  and  the  case  was  brought  before 
him,  "  The  husband  of  the  wife  must  be  the  father  of  the  wife's 
children  before  the  world.  Dirty  linen  must  be  washed  in  the 
family."  If,  then^  other  nations  wash  their  dirty  linen  in  secret, 
and  we  do  it  openly,  other  nations  will  have  considerable  advant- 
age over  us  in  the  eyes  of  the  world.  This  was  by  no  means  the 
only  time  while  traveling  in  Europe  that  I  heard  mentioned  the 
immense  number  of  crimes  which  occur  in  California.  In  fact,  it 
is  only  known  for  its  gold  and  its  crimes. 

Why  do  not  the  papers  chronicle  with  the  same  minuteness  ac- 
counts of  our  material  and  commercial  progress.  Give  the  sta- 
tistics of  our  agriculture  and  manufactures.  They  would  then 
astonish  the  civilized  world  with  the  unparalleled  wealth,  pros- 
perity, industry,  and  energy  of  our  really  wonderful  people.  If 
the  press  will  bestow  the  same  labor  in  statistical  reports  as  they 
do  in  reporting  crimes,  I  warrant  that,  in  a  short  time,  California 
and  its  great  and  various  wealth  will  be  truly  known  all  over  Eu- 
rope ;  and  as  no  country  on  the  face  of  the  globe  can  really  offer 
the  same  advantages  in  so  many  and  various  ways  to  men  of  in- 
dustry and  of  wealth,  soon  a  population  will  flow  in,  from  all  parts, 
of  all  professions  and  occupations,  filling  our  cities,  tilling  our  val- 
leys, mountains,  and  plains.  Who. has  read  "Robinson  Crusoe," 
and  has  not  desired  to  travel  and  see  the  world  ?  Where  is  the 
man  who  has  read  descriptions  of  London,  Paris,  or  Rome,  and 
does  not  desire  to  visit  them  ?     But  how  can  a  man  desire  to  em- 


GERMANY,  TIIKOUGII  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  81 

igratc  to  a  country  from  wliicli  he  Las  heard  nothing  but  tales 
of  crime,  of  which  he  knows  only  the  bad  side  ?  But  I  will  leave 
this  topic  and  return  to  my  journey. 

August  28. — At  one  o'clock  we  left  Maycnce  for  Heidelberg. 
Immediately  upon  leaving  Maycnce  we  saw  some  vineyards  ujDon 
very  steep  hills.  The  ground  was  walled  up.  After  proceeding 
along  for  some  miles,  we  entered  a  large,  wide  plain.  It  is  very 
well  cultivated,  and  divided  into  very  small  lots,  well  planted 
with  fruit-trees.  The  grain  is  all  harvested,  but  the  stubble  shows 
barle}'-,  oats,  and  wheat.  There  are  3^et  potatoes,  hemp,  and  occa- 
sionally a  patch  of  tobacco.  The  closer  we  approached  Manheim 
the  thicker  grew  the  tobacco-plots.  After  leaving  the  ancient 
city  of  Manheim,  the  ground  was  principally  planted  with  tobac- 
co, which  is  small,,  not  being  higher  than  about  eighteen  inches 
to  two  feet.  I  saw  but  two  qualities,  the  long-leaved  or  Hunga- 
rian tobacco,  and  the  round-leaved,  or  what  we  call  the  Kentucky 
seedling.  Judging  from  the  size  of  the  plant,  I  hardly  think  that 
more  than  600  pounds  can  be  raised  here  to  the  acre. 

At  four  o'clock  P.M.  we  arrived  at  Heidelberg.  I  hear  there 
is  a  nursery  in  the  vicinity ;  and  as  it  is  the  first  one  I  have  found 
since  I  left  America,  I  will  reserve  this  treat  for  my  birthday. 

August  29. — This  day  was  spent  in  arranging  my  correspond- 
ence and  bringing  up  my  journal.  This  evening  we  took  a  walk 
to  see  the  celebrated  Heidelberg  ruins,  which  are  still  in  a  tolera- 
ble state  of  preservation ;  but,  as  it  was  no  part  of  my  mission 
to  examine  and  describe  old  ruins,  I  pass  them  by. 

August  30. — Having  traveled  almost  all  over  Germany,  and 
considerably  out  of  my  way,  to  find  a  nursery,  I  am  at  last  to  be 
gratified.  At  three  o'clock  we  started  for  Wiesloch.  Upon  ar- 
riving there,  we  immediately  went  to  Mr.  Carl  Brunner,  the  per- 
son recommended  to  us  by  Director  Thoma.  We  found  him  at 
home.  Upon  telling  him  my  erxand,  he  immediately  took  me  to 
his  nurseries  and  vineyards,  located  at  some  distance  from  town. 
The  nurseries  are  in  small  strips ;  for  here,  as  almost  all  over  Ger- 
many, every  man  has  his  laud  in  several  places  and  in  small 
strips.  For  instance,  Mr.  Brunner  has  over  sixty  morgens,  and 
in  about  eighty  different  pieces.  This  is  very  troublesome  busi- 
ness, and  has  but  one  advantage — that  when  a  hail-storm  comes, 
as  it  is  only  in  streaks,  it  does  not  take  the  whole  of  any  one 
man's  land.  We  examined  many  of  his  nurseries  and  a  part  of 
his  vineyards.     His  catalogue  contains  over  400  varieties   of 

F 


82  GRiVPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

grape-vines,  but  I  selected  only  sucli  as  are  raised  in  this  neigh- 
borhood, amounting  to  100  varieties,  according  to  the  catalogue. 
The  vineyards  showed  but  a  poor  crop,  or,  in  fact,  no  crop  at  all ; 
as  the  frost  so  killed  the  vines  in  the  spring  that  a  morgen  with 
4600  vines  will  not  give  fifty  gallons  of  wine.  But  still  these 
people  do  well ;  for  when  there  is  a  good  year,  it  pays  them  well 
for  all  their  trouble  and  expense  during  the  bad  ones. 

After  visiting  the  vineyards,  we  went  to  see  the  venerable  Mr. 
Brunncr,  who  has  written  a  valuable  book  upon  the  grape  and 
the  making  of  red  wine.  For  fifty  years  he  has  been  engaged  in 
collecting  the  most  celebrated  varieties  of  vines  from  all  coun- 
tries, but  in  later  years  he  has  given  his  nursery  and  collection 
up  to  his  son  and  retired,  only  retaining  the  business  of  buying 
and  selling  wine. 

The  old  gentleman  is  a  learned  man,  and  well  merits  the  esteem 
he  possesses  of  the  larger  part  of  Germany.  He  is  a  great  ama- 
teur of  roses  and  flowers  in  general,  and  he  has  a  garden  of  con- 
siderable size,  where  he  has  collected  over  one  thousand  varieties 
of  roses.  In  this  favorite  place  of  his  we  found  the  old  man.  lie 
is  lively,  pleasant,  cheerful,  and  content.  He  showed  us  his  gar- 
den, and  opposite  it  a  vineyard  which  is  thirty  years  old,  and  has 
several  varieties  of  vines  planted,  but  each  in  a  separate  lot. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  frost  has  destroyed  this  year's  crop.  The 
vines  are  raised  on  a  trellis,  not  tied  to  stakes;  but  small  sticks 
are  driven  down  about  five  or  six  feet  ^)^Ti ;  then  other  sticks, 
mostly  split  from  poplar,  are  tied  to  the  upright  stakes.  This 
makes  a  kind  of  trellis.  In  some  parts,  where  wood  is  more  dis- 
tant, and  consequently  costlier,  the  cross-pieces,  instead  of  being 
wood,  are  wire ;  and  it  is  to  this  that  the  grape-vines  are  tied. 
This  trellis-work  is  about  three  to  three  and  a  half  feet  high.  The 
opinion  in  respect  to  this  mode  is  divided.  Those  districts  which 
raise  their  vines  on  sticks  contend  that  their  method  is  the  best. 
Those  that  have  trellises  are  in  favor  of  their  own  mode.  One 
thing  is  clear  to  me — that  the  vines  raised  on  straight  sticks  are 
easiest  to  work ;  for  when  you  are  in  a  row  of  trellised  vines,  you 
are  obliged  to  go  to  the  end  before  you  can  enter  another  row; 
besides,  the  shade  on  the  trellis  must  be  more  than  on  the  other. 

August  31. — The  vineyard  of  the  old  gentleman  is  on  a  side 
hill,  quite  steep,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to  prevent  a  person  climb- 
ing it  without  steps.  The  soil  is  red,  containing  much  gravel — 
is  volcanic.     Clay  is  its  general  characteristic.    There  is  a  great 


GERMANY,  THROUGH  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  83 

deal  of  red  wine  made  here,  but  more  white.  The  wines  have  a 
good  reputation,  but  arc  not  classed  as  "  Number  One." 

The  fermentation  of  the  white  wine  is  the  same  as  already  de- 
scribed. The  vineyards  being  small,  and  belonging  to  poor  peo- 
ple, the  selecting  of  grapes  is  very  little  practiced ;  and  this  is  the 
reason  why  no  such  fine  wine  is  here  made  as  in  Hochheim,  Stein- 
berg, Johannisberg,  etc.  Still,  even  here  the  people  pick  out  the 
rotten  grapes,  leaves,  and  un  ripened  bunches,  as  they  would  great- 
ly injure  the  wine. 

Mr.  Brunner  also  showed  me  his  wine-press,  upon  which  he 
prides  himself,  it  being  more  compact  and  occupying  less  space 
than  the  usual  presses.  It  is  furnished  with  one  large  iron  screw, 
which  is  turned  at  the  top  with  two  levers  which  reach  to  the  out- 
side of  the  press-box,  so  that  the  operator  may  walk  around  the 
box  pushing  or  pulling  the  levers.  The  advantage  lies  not  so 
much  in  the  screw  as  in  the  mode  of  filling  the  press,  which  is 
done  in  the  following  manner :  The  box  is  filled  about  one  foot, 
when  the  screw  is  turned  hard  down  on  the  mass.  When  this  is 
well  pressed  the  screw  is  raised,  and  another  foot  is  placed  upon 
the  first  mass  and  also  pressed.  The  wood  pieces  upon  which 
the  screw  presses  are  then  taken  up,  but  the  plank  with  holes 
bored  through,  which  forms  the  top  piece  on  the  mass,  is  left,  and 
on  this  is  placed  a  tier  of  stems,  seeds,  and  grapes,  to  a  thickness 
of  a  foot;  and  upon  this,  again,  a  wood  piece  is  placed  on  which 
the  screw  presses,  and  the  operation  is  carried  on  as  before.  Thus 
every  particle  of  juice  is  pressed  out  of  the  lower  mass,  which  is 
then  taken  out,  and  the  upper  mass  takes  its  place. 

After  examining  every  thing  sufficiently,  we  started  again  for 
Heidelberg,  where  we  arrived  at  11  o'clock  A.M.  The  whole  day 
was  occupied  in  continuing  my  correspondence.  In  the  evening 
I  went  to  see  the  great  tun  of  Heidelberg — the  largest  in  the 
world.     I  extract  the  description  of  it  from  the  guide-book : 

"This  tun  was  built  by  the  cooper  John  Jacob  Engler  the 
younger,  in  the  year  1751.  It  is  said  to  have  cost  the  enormous 
sum  of  80,000  florins,  and  was  often  filled  with  costly  wine  of  the 
Palatinate.  It  is  32  feet  long,  22  feet  in  diameter  at  the  ends, 
and  23  in  the  centre.  Its  127  staves  are  9f  inches  thick,  and  its 
circular  bung-hole  from  3  to  4  inches  in  diameter;  18  wooden 
hoops,  8  inches  thick  and  15  inches  broad — the  different  rafters 
of  which  are  bound  together  with  iron  hoops  and  screws,  but  the 
hoops  at  the  two  extremities  are  18  inches  in  breadth.  Of  the 
hoops  that  now  remain  there  are  only  eight,  and  it  is  not  known 


84  GllAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

at  the  present  day  how  the  rest  have  disappeared.  From  the  front 
as  well  as  the  back  ends  of  the  tun,  bent  in  toward  the  interior  to 
meet  the  pressure  of  the  liquid,  it  is  each  time  held  in  toward  the 
centre  in  its  concave  form  by  four  strong  rafters,  the  ends  of  which 
are  fastened  to  the  bottom  and  to  the  staves  by  iron  hoops  and 
screws.  The  tun  reposes  upon  8  very  strong  wooden  supporters, 
beautifully  carved,  and  raised  several  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
height  of  the  whole  work  is,  from  the  floor  of  the  cellar  to  its 
highest  point,  26  feet  5  inches;  and  on  the  top,  in  front,  there  is 
a  shield  surmounted  with  the  electoral  cap  on  an  azure  field,  and 
the  initials  in  gold  of  Charles  Theodore.  This  mighty  tun  sur- 
passes in  size  all  its  predecessors,  for  it  can  contain  230  fuders,  or 
283,000  large  bottles  of  fluid  in  its  colossal  space.  It  has  been 
three  times  filled  with  wine — in  1753, 1760, 1766.  There  are  still 
to  be  seen  in  the  cellar  the  compasses,  plane,  gouge,  and  timber 
mark  which  were  used  for  its  construction.  The  compasses  are 
8  feet  6  inches  long — some  verses  are  carved  upon  them;  the 
plane  is  7  feet  long,  lOf  inches  broad,  and  4|-  inches  thick,  with 
the  name  of  the  head  workman  carved  upon  it.  On  the  top  of 
this  tun  is  constructed  a  flooring,  27  feet  7  inches  above  the  floor 
of  the  cellar,  where  a  numerous  company  may  assemble  to  enjoy 
the  pleasures  of  the  dance.  The  vat  is  filled  by  a  vertical  open- 
ing in  the  top  of  the  vault.  There  is  a  small  iron  pump  over  the 
cellar  by  which  the  tun  may  be  emptied.  In  the  cooperage  there 
is  another  tun  which  holds  47  fuders.  In  its  time  of  sj^lcndor  this 
cellar  is  said  to  have  contained  12  such  barrels." 

tSeptemher  1. — "\Ye  started  from  Ileidelberg  at  ten  o'clock  for 
Basle.  The  road  follows  the  foot  of  the  mountains  and  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine,  which  here  flows  into  an  extensive  plain,  which  ex- 
tends far  beyond  the  reach  of  the  eye.  To  the  left  of  the  railroad 
are  high  mountains  rising  up  gradually.  On  their  sides,  about 
one  third  up,  vineyards  are  planted  all  the  way,  which  are  healthy 
in  color,  and  bear  a  good  crop  for  this  country.  The  mountain 
tops  are  covered  with  forests.  Here  the  Schwarzwald  begins. 
We  passed  many  thriving  villages.  The  plain  is  generally  culti- 
vated with  tobacco,  hemp,  Indian  corn,  millet,  hops,  potatoes,  and 
beans ;  but  the  largest  portion  is  meadow,  which  is  irrigated  from 
time  to  time  by  flood-gates,  which  let  in  or  keep  off  the  water. 
Poplar-trees  are  planted  around  each  lot  in  the  meadow.  Fields 
which  are  more  elevated  are  planted  with  plums,  prunes,  apples, 
and  walnuts.  The  latter  predominates,  and  may  be  get  down  as 
one  third  of  all  the  trees  here  planted. 

The  hemp,  in  all  parts  where  it  is  planted,  when  ripe,  is  pulled 
out  by  the  roots,  spread  upon  level  ground,  and  kept  there  for  a 


GERMANY,  THROUGH  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  85 

couple  of  montlis.  Then  it  is  crushed  with  a  simple  wooden  ma- 
chine, and  thus  divested  of  the  woody  substance,  leaving  only 
the  hemp.  Some  good  wine  is  raised  here ;  but  as  no  particular 
care  is  taken  in  its  manufiicture,  it  has  attained  no  celebrity. 

Upon  approaching  Basle  I  noticed  the  old-fashioned  way  of 
manuring  the  ground  by  burning  it.  The  mode  is  simple,  and 
not  costly  where  wood  is  cheap.  The  land  is  first  plowed  deeply 
in  furrows  about  twenty  feet  apart ;  a  small  pile  of  wood  is  made 
of  limbs,  roots,  etc.,  which  is  then  covered  with  dust,  and  lighted 
like  charcoal,  and  is  kept  burning  slowly,  now  and  then  air-holes 
being  made  to  prevent  the  fires  going  out.  The  people  here  are 
so  expert  that  they  do  not  lose  the  wood,  but  make  it  into  char- 
coal ;  so  they  not  only  manure  their  land  well,  but  also  have  the 
additional  gain  of  a  quantity  of  charcoal.  At  six  o'clock  P.M. 
we  arrived  in  Basle — a  picturesque  old  town,  situated  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Ehine. 

September  2. — At  nine  o'clock  we  started  with  the  cars  for  Gre- 
neva.  The  railroad  runs  in  a  narrow  valley  about  one  mile  wide. 
The  hill-sides  are  cultivated  as  grain  farms,  and  there  is  only  now 
and  then  a  vineyard.  In  the  valleys  are  meadows,  irrigated  by 
flood-gates  as  above  described.  The  farm-houses  are  large,  and 
built  of  stone;  many  of  them  are  situated  almost  at  the  top  of  the 
mountain.  Prunes,  apples,  walnuts,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  rye 
are  raised;  also  potatoes,  beans,  hemp,  and  some  Indian  corn. 
The  mountain  sides  are  well  cultivated,  and  often  large  stone 
houses  can  be  seen  on  the  summit  of  the  mountains.  At  Beel  we 
changed  cars,  and  seemingly  country  too,  for  from  here  the  vine 
seemed  to  be  the  exclusive  cultivation.  Every  foot  of  ground, 
even  three  fourths  up  the  mountains,  is  planted  with  vines,  which 
are  looking  well,  and  have  a  good  crop.  The  soil  is  yellow  clay, 
much  intermixed  with  rocks  and  gravel.  In  many  j^laces  rock 
walls  are  built  up  to  hold  the  soil.  Where  the  vines  are  grow- 
ing, much  labor  is  bestowed  upon  redeeming  land  enough  to  hold 
fifty  to  one  hundred  vines,  planted  three  and  a  half  feet  apart, 
and  the  rows  two  and  a  half  feet.  In  California  such  a  piece  of 
ground  would  hold  only  seven  or  nine  vines  (as  we  plant  them), 
and  would  cost  about  $400  to  make  it. 

"We  soon  came  to  the  end  of  the  lake,  where  lies  Neufchatel. 
This  lake,  with  its  mirror-like  smoothness,  its  limpid  waters,  and 
surrounding  scenery,  can  not  fail  to  draw  the  admiration  of  the 
traveler.     Still,  however  grand  its  beauty  may  be,  it  can  not 


86  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-aiAKING. 

equal  the  wild  grandeur  of  the  lakes  of  Wisconsin  or  Minnesota 
before  the  hand  of  civilization  robbed  them  of  half  their  beauty. 
Those  thousand  lakes,  lying  calm,  peaceful,  under  a  cloudless  sky ; 
that  solemn  stillness ;  the  deep  dark  foliage  of  a  thousand  differ- 
ent tints  and  shades  in  autumn — all  this,  when  once  seen,  can 
never  be  forgotten,  and  the  lakes  of  Switzerland  lose  half  their 
beauty  by  the  comparison. 

At  the  village  of  Neufchatel  we  changed  cars  for  Geneva. 
Near  this  place  the  soil  is  reddish,  and  its  wine  has  some  renown. 
The  cultivation  of  the  vine  is  carried  on  with  great  industry,  but 
the  soil  is  poor,  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  manure.  The  vine- 
yards lie  three  fourths  up  of  the  side  of  the  mountains ;  beyond 
them  are  the  fruit-trees,  and  near  the  top  are  either  bare  rocks  or 
dense  forests.  We  arrived  in  Geneva  after  traveling  eight  hours 
continually  among  vineyards  from  one  mile  to  three  and  a  half 
wide.  Not  a  spot  as  large  as  an  ordinary  brick-yard  was  left  un- 
cultivated, with  the  exception  of  where  the  old  vines  have  been 
cut  out  to  give  the  ground  the  necessary  three  years'  rest. 

Upon  our  arrival  at  this  ancient  town,  celebrated  for  its  watch- 
es, we  were  obliged  to  drive  around  some  time  before  we  could 
obtain  lodgings,  as  at  present  there  is  a  convention  here  of  minis- 
ters of  all  Protestant  denominations.  At  last,  however,  we  found 
rooms  and  a  good  supper,  to  which  we  did  ample  justice. 

Sepiemler  8. — Having  taken  a  carriage,  we  drove  around  the 
city  and  along  the  shore  of  the  lake  which  lies  at  its  side,  on  the 
mirror-like  surface  of  which  floated  dozens  of  swans.  The  bridge 
across  the  river  at  the  lower  end  of  the  lake  is  a  great  work  of 
art.  The  neighborhood  of  the  city  is  picturesque ;  the  bold,  tow- 
ering rocks,  always  capped  with  everlasting  snow,  inspire  the 
traveler  on  a  September  day  to  wish  himself  in  one  of  those  crev- 
ices, where  he  might  breathe  an  atmosphere  rather  lower  in  tem- 
perature than  85°.  After  seeing  all  the  sights,  we  drove  to  the 
hotel,  discharged  the  driver,  and  started  to  have  our  revolvers 
cleaned  up  and  reloaded,  as  we  had  to  cross  the  Alps.  From 
thence  we  went  to  the  United  States  Consul  to  have  our  passports 
vis(^d ;  not  that  it  was  required,  but  to  avoid  the  annoyance  of 
running  to  the  Consulate,  perhaps  not  finding  the  Consul  in,  and, 
above  all,  paying  your  tribute  of  one  dollar  for  his  signature. 

Coming  from  the  Consul  we  met  Mr.  Samuel  Brannan  and  his 
lady.  Mrs.  Brannan,  with  lier  children,  live  here,  in  a  very  fine 
villa,  surrounded  by  extensive  grounds,  adjoining  the  town;  a 


GERMANY,  THROUGH  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  87 

more  desirable  residence  could  hardly  be  wished.  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Brannan  kindly  invited  me  to  remain  some  time  at  their  villa ; 
but  this  offer  I  was  obliged  to  decline,  as  my  duty  called  me  to 
work  in  other  parts.  Mr.  Brannan  visited  me  at  the  hotel,  and  we 
together  went  to  visit  Mrs.  Ilitchcock.  On  arriving  at  her  resi- 
dence we  found  that  Mrs.  11.  was  absent,  but  were  received  by 
Miss  Hitchcock.  With  this  young  lady's  graceful  reception  and 
accomplished  manners  we  were  very  much  struck.  But  time  pre- 
vented us  from  enjoying  long  the  pleasure  of  her  company,  as  we 
were  obliged  to  make  haste  to  take  the  cars,  which  conveyed  us 
to  St.  Jean  de  Moreno. 

The  road  runs  a  long  time  on  the  banks  of  the  Eiver  Rhone, 
and  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  hills,  which  are  planted  thickly  with 
vines.  I  noticed  that  some  of  them  were  planted  four  feet  apart, 
and  without  sticks,  as  mine  are  in  Sonoma.  The  vines  were  not 
pruned,  and  were  well  filled  with  grapes  for  this  country.  Occa- 
sionally I  saw  some  staked  vineyards,  as  if  opinions  differed  as  to 
the  best  mode ;  but  the  unstaked  were  the  most  prevalent. 

On  reaching  the  French  line  we  were  stopped,  and  got  out  to 
have  our  trunks  and  passports  examined ;  but  as  I  passed  the  ofiS.- 
cial  without  even  giving  him  a  look,  he  allowed  me  to  go  on  with- 
out a  question.  The  trunks  of  my  i^arty  were  merely  brought  in 
and  taken  out  without  the  slightest  investigation.  This  being 
the  limit  of  the  Sardinian  territory  lately  annexed  by  Napoleon 
to  France,  we  soon  saw  something  of  the  Italian  mode  of  culti- 
vating the  vine,  which  is  planted  by  a  small  tree,  and  allowed  to 
run  entirely  over  it,  making  it  resemble  a  diminutive  haystack. 
The  rows  are  about  100  to  120  feet  apart.  In  this  space  is  plant- 
ed grain  or  Indian  corn,  of  which  much  is  here  raised.  On  the 
lake  side  vines  are  extensively  raised  in  the  manner  before  de- 
scribed. Mulberry-trees  also  begin  to  make  their  appearance, 
sometimes  with  grapes  running  over  them,  and  sometimes  fur- 
nishing food  for  the  si  Ik- worm. 

Night  soon  set  in,  and  nothing  could  be  seen  but  a  few  lights 
dancing  about  on  the  towering  mountains  at  whose  base  we  pass- 
ed. At  half  past  eight  o'clock  we  arrived  at  St.  Jean,  which  is 
the  terminus  of  the  present  railroad.  The  hotel  at  which  we 
stopped  was  only  a  few  minutes'  walk  from  the  station,  but  the 
town  itself  is  a  quarter  of  an  hour's  walk. 

September  4. — Early  this  morning  I  went  to  hire  a  carriage  to 
take  us  across  the  Alps.    I  succeeded,  and  we  started  at  seven 


88  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

o'clock,  keeping  along  the  banks  of  the  rapid  stream.  The  scen- 
ery is  thoroughly  grand :  high  mountains  covered  with  the  state- 
ly pine ;  huge  rocks  towering  above  us,  as  if  on  the  eve  of  falling 
to  crush  the  intruders ;  thousands  of  waterfalls,  which  resembled 
from  a  distance  a  silver  ribbon ;  in  the  far-off  distance,  mountains 
clad  with  perpetual  snow.  There  are  many  coal-mines  on  the 
road,  and  villages  which  seem  above  the  clouds.  The  land  from 
one  rod  up  to  five  rods  is  all  worked,  but  without  oxen,  mule,  or 
horse,  as  the  inhabitants  work  their  small  property  with  spades. 
Only  a  few  vines  may  be  seen  now  and  then. 

Septemher  5. — The  tunnel  which  is  now  being  constructed  will, 
when  finished,  connect  Italy  and  France,  and  will  be  four  and  a 
half  leagues  in  length.  They  are  now  pumping  air  into  it,  as  the 
workmen  suffer  much  from  its  want.  We  passed  within  half  a 
mile  of  it,  but  as  it  was  not  connected  with  my  commission  I  did 
not  visit  it.  After  riding  four  miles  more  we  stopped  at  a  small 
village  and  took  our  dinner.  The  mountains  begin  to  show  more 
'  and  more  snow ;  still,  right  under  these  snow-banks  may  be  seen 
houses,  and  herds  of  cattle  grazing.  Terrace  upon  terrace  is  built 
from  five  to  eighteen  feet,  according  to  the  steepness  of  the  hills. 
This  flat  of  ground  is  gained  by  walling  up  the  side  of  the  mount- 
ain, and  then  carefully  filling  the  space  with  sifted  ground  gravel, 
and  the  manure  which  the  poor  peasant  treasures  up  with  great 
care  during  the  whole  3-car.  The  crops  raised  on  these  patches 
of  land  are  brought  down  on  the  backs  of  men  and  women. 

On  this  road  is  the  Fort  St.  Albert ;  the  old  one  was  blown  up 
by  Napoleon.  The  mountains  began  to  become  more  and  more 
distinct  with  their  masses  of  snow.  The  cascades  were  more  and 
more  numerous.  At  last  we  arrived  in  the  village,  where  we  were 
to  remain  all  night.  Next  morning,  on  the  arrival  of  the  stage, 
I  found  that  the  poor  travelers  were  almost  frozen  with  cold, 
which  was  intense  during  the  night  in  the  valleys  and  deep  ra- 
vines of  the  snow-clad  mountains. 

At  seven  o'clock  we  started.  Four  mules  were  placed  to  the 
carriage,  as  here  the  road  begins  to  rise  from  the  plain  to  the 
mountain.  The  road  winds  so  gradually  around  the  mountain, 
and  is  in  such  excellent  order,  that  one  hardly  feels  the  gradual 
rise.  It  was  constructed  by  Napol#on,  and  the  French  side  is 
kept  by  that  government ;  the  Italian  by  Victor  Emanuel.  At 
a  distance  of  every  half  mile  there  are  men  who  water  the  road 
from  morning  till  night  from  a  small  ditch  which  runs  alongside. 


GERMANY,  TIIBOUGII  SWITZERLAND,  TO  ITALY.  89 

and  which  is  supplied  with  water  by  the  thousands  of  natural 
falls.  The  man  on  the  road  is  furnished  with  a  huge  wooden 
shovel  resembling  a  ladle ;  with  this  he  throws  the  water  over 
the  entire  way. 

When  about  one  fourth  up  the  mountain  I  got  out  of  the  car- 
riage, and  walked  across  the  summit  of  the  Alps,  arriving  on  the 
opposite  side  at  a  tavern  about  ten  minutes  sooner  than  the  car- 
riage. Near  this  tavern  is  a  small  lake,  on  the  border  of  which 
Napoleon  had  some  breast- works  built.  There  is  also  the  old  hos- 
pital which  he  erected  for  his  wounded  soldiers. 

We  soon  continued  our  journey  at  a  slow  trot,  never  fatiguing 
the  horses.  The  reader  may  judge  how  gradual  is  the  descent 
when  I  say  the  small  ditch  at  the  side  of  the  road  runs  steadily 
at  a  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour,  ^t  two  o'clock  we  arrived  at 
Susa.  At  the  gate  a  custom-house  officer  mounted  on  the  car- 
riage, and  took  us  to  the  railroad  station,  where  is  also  the  cus- 
tom-house. The  officers  politely  passed  our  trunks  without  open- 
ing them,  and  informed  us  that  we  could  leave  them  there  with 
perfect  security.  Therefore  we  went  to  a  hotel,  took  an  excellent 
dinner,  and,  at  five  o'clock,  started  for  Turin,  where  we  arrived 
at  seven. 

After  taking  rooms  we  went  out  for  a  stroll,  passing  the  King's 
palace,  where  there  were  several  carriages  in  waiting.  The  salons 
were  all  finely  lighted  up,  and,  as  the  windows  were  open,  we 
were  enabled  to  see  some  large  oil  paintings.  However,  as  we 
were  very  tired,  we  soon  returned  to  our  rooms,  and  sought  our 
beds. 


9Q  GKAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WINE,3iIi\.KING. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ITALY :— WINE  AND  SILK. 

Turin. — Passports. — Leave  for  Genoa. — Vines  and  Mulbemes. — Plowing. — Grain 
Crops. — Manuring. — Asti  and  its  Wines. — Eeach  Genoa. — ^The  Birthplace  of 
Columbus. — Narrow  Streets. — Professor  Isnard. — -Procure  Vines. — Nova. — The 
Silk  aianufactory. — Jealousy  of  Visitors. — Scanty  Information. — Raising  Silk- 
worms.— Return. — Efiects  of  Asti  Wine. — Return  to  Genoa. — Wine-making  in 
Italy. — No  Berths  for  Civita  Vecchia. — Leave  for  Marseilles. — The  Voyage. — 
Laying  by. — Extra  Charge  for  Board. — Arrival  at  Marseilles. 

September  6. — Finding  that  nothing  in  the  way  of  wine  or  silk 
raising  can  be  done  in  Turin,  I  started  this  day  for  Genoa,  through 
the  town  of  Asti,  where  the  best  wine  of  modern  Italy  is  said  to 
be  made.  Before  leaving  Turin  I  thought  it  would  be  better  to 
have  my  passport  vised  by  the  Pope's  embassador,  therefore  I 
sent  it  to  that  officer,  but  was  surprised  to  hear  that  I  must  first 
go  to  the  American  minister,  as  he  had  officially  requested  him 
and  all  other  ministers  not  to  vise  any  American  passports  unless 
first  seen  and  vised  by  himself.  I  then  sent  the  servant  to  the 
American  minister,  who  requested  me  to  call  upon  him.  This 
annoyed  me  considerably  •,  but  still,  as  it  had  to  be  done,  and  as  I 
intended  to  call  upon  the  minister  anyhow,  I  went,  and  was  re- 
ceived kindly.  lie  apologized  for  putting  me  to  so  much  trouble, 
but  such  were  his  instructions  with  regard  to  all.  He  signed  our 
passports  without  charge ;  and,  thanking  him,  we  bowed  ourselves 
out,  and  went  to  the  Pope's  embassador,  who  made  no  farther 
trouble. 

Turin  is  the  present  residence  of  Victor  Emanuel.  It  is  a  hand- 
some city,  the  houses  being  built  in  modern  style,  the  streets  wide 
and  clean.  Some  fine  public  squares  adorn  the  city,  also  some 
fine  fountains ;  but,  above  all,  it  is  very  conveniently  built  for  a 
hot  climate.  Its  side-walks  are  almost  all  arched  over,  so  that 
one  may  go  almost  all  over  the  city  without  being  exposed  to  the 
sun  or  rain. 

At  three  o'clock  we  left  Turin.  Here  the  country  is  rolling 
bills,  more  yellow  clay  than  sand.    On  these  hills  are  planted 


ITALY  :— WINE  AND  SILK.  91 

grape-vines ;  in  the  valley,  fields ;  and  the  fields  arc  surrounded 
by  mulberry-trees,  of  which,  each  year,  the  growth  of  the  last  is 
trimmed  off,  so  that  there  shall  be  new  and  more  tender  leaves  for 
the  food  of  the  silk-worm.  As  the  tree  is  low,  the  leaves  do  not 
spread,  and  are  easily  gathered.  The  production  of  silk  here  is 
very  extensive  and  profitable.  "When  I  reach  Genoa  I  shall  ex- 
amine this  subject  thoroughly. 

The  vines  on  the  hills  are  planted  in  two  different  ways — some 
by  trees,  and  allowed  to  run  over  them ;  the  others  by  trellis- 
work.     Both  seem  to  do  well ;  the  vines  hang  full  of  grapes. 

The  plowing  in  the  plains  is  done  with  the  limb  of  a  tree  shod 
with  iron,  and  drawn  by  a  yoke  of  oxen.  It  is  wonderful  how 
with  this  ancient  Roman  plow  they  can  strike  such  beautiful  fur- 
rows. They  are  now  summer-fallowing  for  putting  in  wheat,  and 
they  do  it  beautifully.  But  it  is  very  difi&cult,  and  but  little  can 
be  plowed  in  the  day. 

The  wheat,  which  they  thresh  with  flails,  is  all  the  bearded  red 
kind,  known  in  California  as  the  "Mediterranean  wheat."  It  is 
a  sure  crop,  and  never  mildews  or  rots.  Much  Indian  corn  is 
raised  here;  it  is  the  deep-yellow  corn,  almost  red.  Millet  for 
consumption  is  also  raised  in  large  quantities.  Now  and  then  a 
small  patch  of  sugar-cane  can  be  seen,  but  I  suppose  that  is  more 
for  fancy  than  profit.  Will  my  readers  believe  that  these  people 
are  so  far  back  in  improvements  that  they  have  no  fanning-mill, 
but,  as  in  olden  times,  clean  their  grain  by  throwing  it  against  the 
wind,  and  then  sweeping  it  together,  so  that  the  husks  not  taken 
off  by  the  wind  are  swept  off  by  the  broom  ? 

I  also  observed  that  they  plant  poplar-trees  in  the  meadow 
around  the  small  lots,  so  that  the  falling  leaves  shall  manure  the 
ground.  I  likewise  noticed  that  burned  earth  was  brought  from 
some  other  part  of  the  property,  and  laid  upon  the  ground  for 
amelioration.     It  is  said  to  increase  the  crop  by  one  half 

,  The  town  of  Asti,  from  which  the  wine  of  that  name  comes,  is 
situated  in  a  rolling  country,  the  hills  being  small,  none  being 
higher  than  Telegraph  Hill  of  San  Francisco.  The  soil  is  yellow 
clay,  with  no  gravel.  It  is  about  one  third  sand.  The  wine  here 
raised  is  by  no  means  considered  generous,  but  it  is  cheap  and 
pleasant,  as  it  has  not  the  bitter  taste  of  the  French  or  Hungarian 
wines.  It  is  light,  and  excellent  to  drink  in  a  hot  climate.  I 
emptied  a  bottle  with  good  will,  and  almost  at  one  draught.  The 
wine  had  no  intoxicating  effect  upon  me.    It  is  principally  red 


92  GKATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

wine.     The  white  is  not  so  good,  being  more  sweet  and  stronger. 
Champagne  is  also  made  from  these  grapes. 

Leaving  Asti,  the  land  continues  to  be  undulating,  and  the  vine- 
yards are  the  same  until  Solero.  Gelezzano  has  the  same  wine 
as  Asti  in  the  plains,  but  mulberry-trees  and  grain  are  the  chief 
produce ;  still,  the  vines  never  fail,  and  abundantly  remunerate 
the  planter.  Not  the  slightest  attention  is  paid  to  the  selection 
of  grapes  or  their  fermentation.  I  understand,  however,  that  there 
is  a  gentleman  who  has  attended  to  wine-making,  and  that  he  was 
successful  in  making  a  generous  wine.  I  will  return  to  Asti,  dis- 
cover his  whereabouts,  and  get  as  much  information  as  possible, 
for  the  Asti  vines  will  improve  on  our  red  soil. 

After  leaving  Solero  we  entered  a  large  plain,  extending  as 
far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  This  plain  is  all  planted  with  mulber- 
ry-trees. We  passed  the  strong  Fort  Alexandria  and  several 
small  villages ;  but  darkness  soon  set  in,  and  I  could  see  nothing 
of  the  country.  We  also  passed  through  several  tunnels,  some 
of  them  four  or  five  miles  long,  judging  from  the  time  it  took  us 
to  pass  through. 

At  half  past  nine  in  the  evening  we  arrived  in  Genoa,  and 
were  taken  to  the  ancient  building  now  occupied  by  the  Hotel 
Feder.  The  apartments  are  truly  fine,  from  thirty  to  thirty -five 
feet  square,  and  finely  arched,  the  ceiling  being  twenty  feet  high 
in  the  centre.  It  is  also  frescoed,  and  the  walls  are  painted  in  the 
same.  The  cornices  are  finely  gilded,  and  the  rooms  contain 
niassive  ancient  furniture. 

Sei^temher  7. — After  writing  my  journal  I  began  to  make  in- 
quiries as  to  where  I  could  see  silk  manufactories  and  where  con- 
tract for  vines.  The  accommodating  host  promised  to  furnish  me 
to-morrow  with  all  the  necessary  introductions,  so  there  was  noth- 
ing left  to  do  but  to  roam  through  this  old  city,  the  birthplace 
of  Columbus. 

It  has  a  fine  inclosed  harbor,  where  lie  hundreds  of  small  craft 
trading  on  the  coast.  The  wharves  are  scenes  of  busy  confusion. 
Men  half  naked  are  here  employed  from  morning  till  night  in 
loading  and  unloading  vessels,  and  drawing  heavy  weights  on  a 
car  on  low  wheels.  They  do  immense  labor ;  still,  their  earnings 
are  very  small. 

From  tlie  quay  I  turned  my  steps  to  the  interior  of  the  city, 
which  I  found  beyond  description — the  streets  about  six  to  eight 
feet  wide,  very  irregular;  the  houses  on  each  side  five  and  six 


ITALY:— WINE  AND  SILK.  93 

stories  liigli,  dark  and  dirty-looking,  and  from  tlio  windows  of 
the  bouses  the  neighbors  may  reach  over  and  shake  hands.  A 
person  may  imagine  that  such  a  street  has  not  the  sweetest  odor 
in  the  world.  No  wagons  can  go  in  the  streets,  nor  are  there 
many  used,  as  men  do  the  work  of  horses  and  mules.  Still,  there 
are  a  few  of  the  latter  seen  sometimes.  When  they  are  loaded 
with  a  bulky  substance,  a  person  meeting  one  finds  himself  in  a 
very  precarious  situation  in  the  narrow  streets;  and  if  there  is 
not  a  doorway  or  a  cross-street  near  by,  it  is  a  question  whether 
he  or  the  donkey  will  remain  master  of  the  field.  The  shops  in 
these  streets  are  dark,  and  the  mechanics  work  almost  continually 
by  the  light  of  a  lamp.  There  are  a  few  openings  in  this  city, 
which  can  not  be  called  squares,  but  only  spaces  of  100  feet,  in 
the  most  irregular  form  possible.  I  found  several  no-shajped 
places,  where  they  sell  vegetables  and  fruit.  These  were  fresh, 
and  excellent.  The  almonds,  oranges,  and  lemons  look  very  fine ; 
the  white  fig  is  delicious. 

September  8. — I  took  a  carriage  and  started  out  with  Professor 
E.  I.  Isnard  to  a  neighboring  village,  and,  after  examining  the 
vines  and  fruit-trees  in  the  nursery,  I  engaged  a  person  at  Rivara 
to  pack -and  send  to  me  at  Marseilles  the  following  varieties  of 
vines:  Boseo,  3felea,  Blanchetto^  Verinentino,  Bois,  Nehwioj  Bianco 
de  Asii,  Malvoisea.  The  above  vines  ^re  all  native  to  this  section 
of  Italy.  The  grapes  are  excellent.  I  engaged  cuttings  as  well 
as  rooted  vines.  After  this  we  started  for  home,  which  we  reach- 
ed after  a  very  dusty  ride.  When  it  came  to  paying  the  hack- 
man,  he  asked  double  the  price  of  what  I  had  agreed  to  pay ;  but 
as  I  had  no  time  to  argue,  I  gave  what  he  asked  and  left  him.  I 
made  an  arrangement  with  Professor  Isnard  to  start  to-morrow 
morning  at  five  o'clock  to  the  small  town  of  Nova  to  see  some 
silk  manufactories. 

September  9. — We  reached  Nova  at  eight  o'clock,  when  we  took 
breakfast,  and  immediately  started  for  one  of  the  principal  silk 
manufactories.  After  much  difficulty  we  were  at  last  admitted, 
as  the  overseer  thought  me  French,  of  whom  they  are  very  jeal- 
ous, for  fear  they  will  learn  something  of  their  silk  manufactory. 
With  great  mystery  and  suspicion  they  showed  me  the  cocoons, 
which  they  had  in  a  lofty  magazine.  They  were  spread  upon 
cane  mats,  placed  one  above  the  other,  upon  racks  made  for  that 
purpose.  From  this  place  I  could  look  down  to  where  the  wom- 
en, about  120  in  number,  were  at  work  unwinding  the  cocoons. 


94  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

These  are  placed  in  Tvarm  water,  and  the  end  of  the  thread  being 
found,  it  is  wound  upon  a  wheel  driven  by  a  steam-engine.  Each 
woman  has  a  wheel  and  an  iron  box  before  her ;  in  the  latter  are 
placed  the  cocoons. 

The  overseer  took  great  care  that  I  should  not  see  much  from 
my  stand;  he  urged  me  into  the  next  room.  I  soon  bid  him 
good-by,  telling  him  that  I  did  not  care  much  to  see  his  ma- 
chinery, as*  I  had  used  the  same  thirty  years  ago,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  steam-engine ;  and  in  regard  to  that  I  told  him  that 
at  any  time  America  can  send  him  machinery  so  complete  that 
he  would  not  need  the  women.  The  man  looked  astonished; 
but,  as  I  was  offended  by  his  making  so  much  mystery  about 
nothing,  I  left  him.  We  went  to  another  man ;  but  here  also 
we  met  with  the  same  difliculty.  He  was  willing  to  show  us  all 
the  cocoons,  but  nothing  else.  To  my  inquiries  as  to  how  many 
hands  are  required  for  100  trees  from  six  to  ten  years  old,  or  how 
much  silk  is  made  from  100  pounds  of  leaves,  the  man  gave  me 
such  unsatisfactory  answers  as  showed  that  he  either  wished  to 
mislead  me,  or  he  did  not  know  any  thing  about  it;  conse- 
quently, I  started  off  in  search  of  some  plain  farmer  who  would 
give  me  the  desired  information. 

At  last  we  found  a  place  where  there  were  three  hundred  trees, 
which  were  thirty  years  0I4,  according  to  the  statement  of  an  old 
lady,  her  son,  and  daughter,  who  all  answered  me  at  once.  Im- 
agine me  in  an  Italian  peasant's  house,  surrounded  by  the  four 
inhabitants  and  many  others,  who  were  wondering  what  the 
strangers  wanted;  why  they  examined  the  mulberry  -  trees  so 
closely,  and  so  forth ;  and  you  will  understand  that  it  required  a 
little  patience  to  wait  for  the  answers  of  these  people.  I  asked 
the  old  lady  how  many  pounds  of  cocoons  she  makes  from  the 
trees ;  at  what  price  she  sells  the  same ;  how  many  ounces  of 
eggs  and  seeds  she  uses ;  how  much  labor,  etc.  The  whole  fam- 
ily at  once  kindly  answered  all  questions  but  the  two  last,  which 
seemed  to  strike  them  with  astonishment.  The  idea  that  they 
should  know  how  much  labor  is  necessary,  or  how  many  leaves 
are  used  to  an  ounce  of  eggs,  seemed  something  preposterous. 

I  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  most  roundabout  ways 
in  the  world  to  ascertain  that  in  some  years  they  get  1000  francs, 
in  others  2000,  and  sometimes  as  many  as  4000  francs  from  the 
800  trees.  The  labor  takes  about  four  to  five  weeks,  when  it  is 
all  finished.    The  family  do  it  all  themselves,  and  even  the  four 


ITALY:— WINE  AND  SILK.  95 

are  not  kept  busy  the  wliolc  clay.  When  the  leaves  begin  to 
grow  in  spring,  and  wlien  they  have  attained  their  full  size,  they 
put  a  certain  quantity  of  eggs  under  the  mattress  upon  which 
they  sleep :  the  bodily  heat  hatches  the  eggs.  Then  some  leaves 
arc  cut  up  very  line  and  put  in  a  dish.  Several  whole  leaves  are 
then  put  above  the  young  worms,  who  creep  upon  them.  They 
are  then  laid  in  the  dish,  and  begin  to  cat.  As  they  grow,  the 
leaves  are  cut  up  less  fine,  and  the  worms  arc  placed  in  larger 
dishes,  until  they  are  placed  on  cane  mats  suspended  from  the 
ceiling.     They  must  be  regularly  fed,  and  a  great  deal. 

Kain-storms,  or  much  lightning,  will  sometimes  kill  a  whole 
brood.  When  the  worms  are  ready  to  wind  themselves,  some 
dry  weeds  are  stuck  in  the  mats ;  the  mature  worm  ascends  and 
spins  himself  in.  This  is  all  the  information  I  gathered  from 
these  people,  who  kindly  and  willingly  told  me  all  they  could. 
Still,  I  should  never  have  been  able  to  understand  them  if  I  had 
not  known  the  whole  operation  before ;  for  I  raised  silk-worms 
on  a  large  scale,  and  in  the  most  approved  manner,  on  my  domain 
in  Hungary.  But  I  was  willing  to  give  my  readers  the  manner 
in  which  these  people  raise  the  worm.  I  will  give  a  more  de- 
tailed description,  as  I  intend  to  investigate  the  matter  fully  in 
the  silk-growing  districts  in  the  south  of  France.  After  present- 
ing the  lady  with  a  five-franc  piece,  I  took  my  leave  of  her,  but 
not  before  showing  her  a  piece  of  quartz,  and  telling  her  that  gold 
was  found  in  such  stones  in  California.  Her  astonishment  it 
would  be  impossible  to  describe. 

I  hurried  to  the  depot  in  order  to  be  in  time  for  the  steamer 
in  Genoa,  which  was  to  arrive  from  Marseilles,  and  go  to  Civita 
Vecckia.  I  would  here  stop  with  my  journal,  and  only  continue 
it  from  Genoa,  but  I  must  make  a  statement,  which,  though  per- 
sonal, gave  me  a  piece  of  information  concerning  the  wines  made 
here. 

As  I  before  stated,  upon  our  arrival  at  Nova  we  had  taken 
breakfast  and  a  bottle  of  wine,  which  was  Asti  white  wine.  We 
between  us  emptied  about  half  the  bottle,  as  it  was  very  sweet, 
sparkling  like  Champagne.  It  had  a  fine  bouquet,  but  was  made 
without  care  or  system. 

Soon  after  starting  with  the  train  I  felt  a  terrible  pain  coming 
upon  me.  I  suffered  intensely.  I  could  not  imagine  from  what 
it  originated.  I  had  eaten  no  fruit,  caught  no  cold,  and  my  break- 
fast was  cold  chicken  and  potatoes.    My  sufferings  were  intense; 


96  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-RLA.KING. 

at  last  I  fainted  -when  the  train  stopped.  After  I  liad  recovered 
a  little,  the  Consul  General  of  Holland,  who  was  in  the  train,  and 
who  kindly  assisted  me  in  my  agony,  asked  me  what  I  had  eaten. 
As  soon  as  I  told  him  1  had  taken  some  Asti,  he  said  that  was 
the  cause  of  my  illness,  and  that  it  had  the  same  effect  upon  all 
strangers,  as  it  is  badly  fermented,  and  frequently  the  peasants 
put  honey  in  to  make  it  sweet.  Therefore  I  warn  all  my  readers 
never  to  drink  Asti  wine,  and  then  journey  in  the  cars. 

Much  weakened  and  fatigued,  I  arrived  in  Genoa,  when,  to  my 
annoyance  and  sorrow,  I  found  that  the  steamer  for  Civita  Yec- 
chia  had  not  another  berth,  and  that  even  the  next  steamer,  which 
will  start  only  in  five  tlays,  is  not  certain  to  be  able  to  accommo- 
date us  with  berths.  The  season  advances  rapidly;  the  grapes 
will  be  picked  in  a  few  days  in  the  south  of  France  and  in  Spain ; 
therefore  I  have  resolved  to  leave  Eome  and  NajDles  un visited, 
as  I  can,  through  friends,  order  the  cuttings  and  trees.  This  is 
all  I  can  do  for  my  readers  and  those  who  have  engaged  vines ; 
for  as  to  making  wine  as  these  jDcople,  God  forbid !  They  are  as 
far  back  in  this  art  as  are  the  Mission  Indians  in  California.  I 
have  resolved  to  embark  with  the  first  steamer  for  Marseilles,  and 
from  there  go  on  to  Spain  and  Portugal,  where  I  will  be  in  season 
to  see  the  curing  of  the  raisins,  which  is  very  essential  knowledge 
for  California,  as  this  will  form  a  large  profit  to  it. 

Septemher  10. — I  went  to  engage  my  passage  for  Marseilles,  and 
here  again  I  met  with  difficulty  about  my  passport ;  for,  notwith- 
standing that  it  was  vised  by  the  minister  at  Turin,  it  was  nec- 
essary to  have  it  vised  by  the  Consul  at  Genoa.  I  was  obliged 
to  submit,  and  took  my  passport  to  the  Consul,  Mr.  Paterson,  who 
received  us  cordially,  and  vised  it  without  charge.  He  is  ex- 
pecting his  successor  daily. 

Before  I  leave  Genoa  I  will  add  that  this  was  the  ancient  seat 
of  the  pirates,  who  lived  here  in  perfect  security,  accumulating 
immense  wealth.  To  quiet  their  conscience,  they  put  much  of  it 
in  churches  and  church  ornaments.  There  are  a  great  many 
churches  here,  built  of  the  most  beautiful  marble,  having  richly 
frescoed  walls,  and  gold  and  silver  vessels  innumerable.  Traces 
of  magnificent  palaces  still  exist.  This  place  suffers  much  on  ac- 
count of  our  troubles.  The  people  seem  content  with  their  pres- 
ent ruler,  Victor  Emanuel. 

Seplewher  11. — At  six  o'clock  this  evening  we  embarked  for 
Marseilles.     During  the  night  some  wind  arose,  and  when  I  went 


ITALY:— WINE  AND  SILK.  97 

upon  deck  I  found  wc  were  heading  in  for  land.  I  inquired  the 
reason  of  this  movement,  and  whether  we  were  to  land  at  some 
port.  The  captain  replied  no.  But  as  the  wind  continued  to 
blow  fresh,  he  ran  the  boat  under  shelter,  and  dropped  anchor. 
The  sky  was  clear,  the  day  fine,  but  I  thought  that  he  might  know 
certain  signs  which  indicate  a  storm  on  this  sea,  Wc  had  anchor- 
ed at  the  small  village  where  Napoleon  made  his  landing  after 
escaping  from  Elba. 

We  lay  there  from  eight  o'clock  A.M.  till  eight  o'clock  P.M. 
The  wind  was  moderate,  the  weather  clear ;  all  the  passengers,  as 
well  as  myself,  wondered  why  the  captain  did  not  raise  anchor, 
when  we  had  seen  several  large  vessels  pass  us  with  sails  full  set. 
Still,  I  did  not  feel  vexed,  as  my  previous  rapidity  in  traveling 
left  me  but  little  time  to  read  my  books  upon  wine,  silk,  etc., 
which  I  must  finish,  so  as  to  be  posted  when  I  reach  those  coun- 
tries where  they  are  produced.  I  was  quite  at  ease,  as  I  thought 
that  the  captain  had  to  board  us  until  we  land.  In  the  evening 
the  wind  died  away,  and  we  started. 

There  were  more  than  eighty  steerage  passengers,  men,  women, 
and  children,  all  huddled  together  like  so  many  swine.  As  these 
people  had  with  them  provisions  only  for  twenty-four  hours  (in 
which  time  the  steamer  should  make  the  trip),  the  poor  children 
suffered  a  great  deal. 

September  12. — We  arrived  at  half  past  twelve  o'clock,  but  be- 
fore we  left  the  steamer  the  steward  brought  me  a  bill  of  twenty 
francs,  and  so  to  the  other  passengers,  stating  that  the  company 
gives  us  but  two  meals,  a  breakfast  and  dinner,  and  we  had  had 
one  meal  more.  We  objected,  stating  that  we  had  asked  when 
we  paid  sixty-two  and  a  half  francs  apiece  for  our  tickets,  wheth- 
er the  board  was  included,  and  the  oflEicers  replied  that  it  was. 
Consequently,  the  company  was  obliged  to  board  us ;  besides, 
there  was  no  earthly  reason  for  lying  by,  as  the  wind  was  not 
more  than  required  for  a  sail-boat.  Our  arguments  were  vain, 
and,  to  avoid  farther  parley,  we  paid  what  was  charged. 

We  did  not  disembark  at  a  wharf,  but  were  obliged  to  go  ashore 
in  a  yawl.  After  waiting  a  long  time  in  the  custom-house  for  our 
baggage,  it  at  last  arrived.  The  ofl&cers  politely  passed  it  without 
opening  the  trunks. 

Marseilles  is  a  large,  busy  sea-port  town.  There  are  innumer- 
able large,  fine  iron  steamers  in  the  inclosed  harbor. 

a 


98  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  "VNTNE-MAKING. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT. 

Leave  Marseilles  for  Bordeaux. — Agricultural  Notes. — Vines,  Olives,  Almonds,  and 
Mulberries. — Montpellicr. — Frontignan. — Cette. — Manufacture  of  spurious  Wines. 
— Carcassonne. — New  Vineyards. — Wheat  and  Maize. — Toulouse. — The  Canal  du 
Midi. — Montauban. — Prunes. — Agen. — Reach  Bordeaux. — Botanic  Gardens. — 
American  Ships. — Steel-plated  Vessels. — M.  de  Luze. — His  Wine-vaults. — Price 
of  Wines. — Corks  and  Capsules. — Barrels. — The  Fruit  Nursery. — A  Bird  Fan- 
cier.— Prune  Establishment  of  A.  Dufour  and  Company. — Drying  and  packing 
Prunes. — California  as  a  Fruit  Country. — Dinner  with  M.  de  Luze. — Visit  to 
Chateau  Margaux. — The  famous  Vineyard. — The  Store-room. — The  Press-room. 
— Manufacturing  the  Wine. — Chateau  Rauzan. — A  bad  Ycai-.-^Victor  Eendu  on 
the  Wines  of  Bordeaux :  The  diflerent  Sorts. — Wines  of  the  IMcdoc. — The  Vines. 
— Mode  of  Cultivation. — The  Manufacture  of  Wines. — Quantity  produced. — Clas- 
sification of  Mcdoc  Wines. — The  chief  Vineyards. — Prices  of  Wines. — Prices  of 
Vineyards. — The  Champagne  District. — The  Vineyards. — The  Grapes. — Cultiva- 
tion of  the  Vines. — The  Vintage. — Manufacture  of  Champagnes. — Classification 
of  Champagnes. — Quantity  of  Champagnes  produced. — Markets. — Dejiarture  for 

Spain. 

• 

September  13. — At  eiglit  o'clock  we  started  on  our  way  to  Bor- 
deaux from  Marseilles.  From  this  city  to  Rognac  the  country  is 
planted  with  olive-trees,  vines,  and  almonds.  The  olive  is  pre- 
dominant, and  is  of  a  dwarfish  kind.  The  almond-trees  are  trim- 
med as  dwarfs.  Some  part  of  the  country  is  rocky.  The  vines 
are  planted  in  two  rows,  about  two  feet  apart,  and  these  are  sep- 
arated from  the  next  two  by  a  space  of  about  ten  feet.  From  this 
place  to  St.  Chamas  the  country  was  poor  and  rocky  in  the  ex- 
treme, but,  wherever  there  was  a  place  to  plant,  were  found  al- 
mond, olive,  and  mulberry  trees.  To  Miramas  the  lands  are  plant- 
ed with  olives,  mixed  much  with  mulberries.  Silk  is  here  raised 
in  large  quantities.  To  Aries  the  country  is  a  large  jDlain,  very 
rocky,  and  almost  a  desert.  No  trees,  no  grass  can  there  be  seen ; 
all  that  meets  the  wearied  eye  is,  from  time  to  time,  a  sheep-house, 
but  there  are  no  sheep  visible,  as  the  scanty  tufts  of  grass  must  be 
sought  far  and  wide.  The  whole  country  has  the  aspect  of  an  an- 
cient river-bed.  It  is  about  twenty-five  miles  across.  We  after- 
ward came  to  a  region  which  was  a  little  more  fertile.     It  had 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  99 

now  and  then  some  olive  and  more  mulberry  trees,  but  bay  was 
the  principal  product.  We  saw  some  well-loaded  fruit-trees,  and 
in  the  distance  some  mountains  which  exclusively  produce  fruit, 
almonds,  and  vines.  Till  Secoloux  there  were  more  or  less  mul- 
berry-trees and  vines.  There  was  some  grain,  but  the  soil  was  very 
inferior,  being  of  a  poor  gray  color.  At  Talasco  we  changed  cars. 
The  land  and  cultivation  are  the  same  as  above  until  Mandeuil. 

A^lsjyies. — To  the  right  the  country  was  rolling,  and  planted  with 
mulberry -tregs.  There  were  many  young  plantations.  The  olive- 
trees  extend  for  miles  and  miles.  We  now  and  then  passed  some 
almond-trees.  On  the  left  side  the  country  was  more  planted 
with  grain.  There  were,  however,  many  mulberry  and  olive  trees 
in  the  same  fields,  either  in  rows  or  on  the  edges.  After  passing 
the  Ehone  vines  are  almost  exclusively  planted.  Sometimes  there 
are  olive  or  mulberry  trees  having  vines  between  them,  but  the 
practice  is  not  general.  I  saw  a  plow,  by  which  land  was  sub- 
soiled,  drawn  by  five  mules,  at  the  last  place.  Wherever  the  soil 
was  red,  vines  were  cultivated.  The  table-land  this  side  of  Talas- 
co, as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  is  planted  with  vines,  olive-trees, 
and  mulberry-trees. 

Milhaud. — Plantations  of  vines,  with  olive-trees  between.  The 
species  of  vine  is  the  blue  grape. 

Ucliaud. — On  the  right-hand  side  are  rolling,  rocky,  low  hills, 
planted  with  vines  and  olives.  On  the  left  is  a  plain.  It  is  well 
elevated,  and  planted  with  olive  and  mulberry  trees.  The  vint- 
age has  already  here  begun,  and  goes  on  speedily. 

Vergere. — On  either  side,  for  miles  and  miles,  there  extends  a 
plain,  planted  with  vines,  olives,  and  some  mulberry  trees. 

Galargues. — The  land  is  similar  in  aspect  to  that  above. 

Lunel. — This  place  is  famous  for  its  sweet  wine,  which  is  made 
in  the  same  way,  and  is  the  rival  of  Frontignan  wine.  The  soil, 
wherever  vines  are  planted,  is  red.   Its  aspect  is  the  same  as  above. 

We  arrived  at  Montpellier,  where  we  stopped  to  see  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  the  method  of  here  making  wine.  Imme- 
diately on  our  arrival  we  set  out  to  visit  the  olive-presses.  We 
staid  here  over  night,  and  started  at  eight  o'clock  for  Bordeaux. 

Villeneuve. — There  were  vines  on  each  side  of  us,  and  all  culti- 
vated in  the  same  way  as  mine  in  California.  There  were  few 
olives  and  mulberries. 

Vice-Merval.—^h.Q  valley  has  been  getting  narrower.  We  pass- 
ed through  vines  and  some  meadows  which  were  well  loaded. 


100  GR^VPE  CULTUEE  AifD  WINE-MAKING. 

Frontignan. — The  vines  are  here  much  loaded.  This  is  the 
place  where  the  famous  Frontignan  wine  is  made.  There  are  two 
varieties  of  grapes  in  the  vicinity,  the  red  Muscat  and  the  white 
Muscat,  of  which  the  latter  is  the  most  in  cultivation.  The  vine- 
yards generally  give  ten  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  land.  An 
acre  is  estimated  at  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  francs. 

Cette. — Here  we  changed  cars,  the  ones  we  were  in  going  to 
Perpignan.  The  railroad  runs  through  shoals  of  the  sea  from 
Frontignan  to  Cette.  Every  where  that  a  foot  of  ground  can  be 
redeemed  from  them,  it  is  done,  and  the  spot  is  planted  with  vines ; 
these,  all  along  the  sea-coast,  were  doing  excellently.  Cette  is  the 
great  manufacturing  place  for  spurious  wines,  millions  of  gallons 
of  imitations  being  here  made,  of  every  brand  in  existence,  and 
sold  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  a  few  drops  of  the  genuine  being 
used  to  give  the  taste  of  the  different  qualities.  So  perfect  are 
some  of  these  imitations,  that  it  is  with  difficulty  you  can  distin- 
guish the  S23urious  wines  from  the  genuine.  The  country  around 
being  flat  and  the  soil  sandy,  the  wine  is  very  poor,  and,  as  the 
vines  yield  largely,  the  wine  is  almost  as  cheap  as  water.  The 
manufacturers  buy  up  these  wines,  and,  by  their  chemical  prepa- 
rations, fix  them  up,  and  sell  them,  mostly  to  the  American  mar- 
ket, for  good  prices.  Such  are  the  wines  we  drink  as  Chateau 
Margaux,  Lafitte,  Chambertin,  etc.,  etc. 

Adge. — The  vines  were  planted  still  nearer  the  shore,  and  were 
looking  well. 

Narbonne. — Here  we  breakfasted.  The  whole  country  is  one 
wide  plain,  and  planted  with  vines.    The  soil  is  of  a  grayish  color. 

Capcndu. — The  country  reaching  up  to  this  place  varies  from  a 
plain  to  rolling  ground,  and  has  on  all  sides  vineyards.  Now  and 
then  may  be  seen  some  olive  and  almond  trees  raised  in  hedges. 

Carcassonne. — Some  of  the  land  is  planted  with  grain ;  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  it  is  still  planted  with  vines,  however.  There  are 
hundreds  of  acres  which  have  been  turned  into  vineyards  since 
the  last  twenty -five  years.  It  seems  to  pay  better  than  any  thing 
else,  as  there  is  an  extreme  demand  for  common  wines,  which  are 
used  to  correct  other  wines  wanting  color,  strength,  or  body. 

Rames. — The  vineyards  diminish  and  almost  disappear.  Wheat 
is  the  principal  product.     The  plowing  is  done  by  oxen. 

Castelaundrey. — The  land  is  cultivated  with  grain,  and  appears 
pretty  rich.  There  is  a  great  quantity  of  Indian  corn  raised.  It 
is  topped  to  the  corn-ears. 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  101 

Yillofranche  cle  Lauregais. — The  valley  is  exclusively  composed 
of  farming  lands.     The  hills  on  cither  side  are  planted  with  vines. 

Toulouse. — We  here  caught  the  first  sight  of  the  great  Canal 
de  Midi.  It  did  quite  a  good  business  formerly ;  but,  since  the 
inauguration  of  the  railroad,  its  importance  has  much  diminished. 
The  vine  is  predominant, 

Orisales, — The  country  is  rolling;  produces  some  wine  and 
much  corn. 

Montlariier. — Vines  on  one  side  of  the  road,  and  grain,  mixed 
with  vines,  on.  the  other. 

Montauban. — A  large  Protestant  town,  and  famous  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Huguenots.  Vines  are  planted  on  each  side  of  the 
road. 

Casiel-Sarrasin. — The  vines  are  here  planted  in  rows  three  feet 
apart,  and  these  separated  by  a  distance  of  forty  to  sixty  feet, 
which  is  occupied  by  grain. 

Marsac. — Vines  are  on  either  side  of  the  track.  The  Eiver 
Tarn  flows  along  the  valley. 

Malouse. — The  plum  or  prune  cultivation  begins  to  increase. 
On  the  hills,  which  are  of  moderate  height,  vines  are  planted.  I 
saw  many  patches  of  cane,  which  is  used  for  the  drying  of  the 
plums. 

Valence.  —  The  country  is  cultivated  with  vines,  grain,  and 
fruit-trees. 

St.  Nicolas. — The  cultivation  is  the  same  as  above.  The  rail- 
road runs  for  a  length  of  time  on  the  banks  of  the  canal. 

Agen. — A  large  place,  famous  for  its  dried  plums,  of  which 
there  are  sometimes  only  thirty -six  to  a  pound.  After  passing 
Agen  night  came  on,  and  I  could  make  no  farther  observations. 
We  arrived  at  Bordeaux  at  twelve  o'clock,  well  worn  out  with 
our  day's  journey. 

September  15. — As  it  was  Sunday,  all  that  could  be  done  was 
to  walk  around  the  city  and  write  correspondence.  Bordeaux  is 
a  very  fine  city.  It  possesses  large  shady  walks,  promenades, 
and  squares.  It  has  a  good  safe  harbor  in  the  Eiver  Garonne. 
Its  botanic  gardens,  with  their  beautiful  ponds,  in  which  hund- 
reds of  gold-fish  swim,  and  upon  which  swans  extend  their  white 
and  graceful  forms,  contribute  in  no  small  measure  to  the  beauty 
of  the  city  and  the  pleasure  of  the  promenading  community. 
Many  ships  from  our  own  country  sweep  the  harbor  with  their 
airy  forms.     High  above  all  the  others  is  unfurled  to  the  winds 


102  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  beautiful  Star-spangled  Banner.  In  beholding  the  flag  of  m}'^ 
country,  I  felt  rush  into  my  heart  a  thrill  of  pleasure  and  pride. 
Even  without  the  flag,  it  was  easy  to  recognize  at  once  our  Amer- 
ican ships.  Their  high  masts,  towering  far  above  the  forest  around 
them,  their  sharp-cut  bows,  their  finely -moulded  lines,  pronounced 
them  American. 

I  saw  building  in  the  harbor  two  iron  gun-boats.  The  steel 
plates  were  being  put  on ;  they  were  five  inches  thick.  These 
boats  are  meant  for  the  protection  of  the  harbor ;  they  are  an- 
chored at  the  entrance,  and  defend  its  passage.  There  were  also 
building  men-of-war.  Several  were  completed ;  they  were  all 
steel-plated.  The  stone  bridge  across  the  Garonne  is  a  very  fine 
work  of  art.  Bordeaux  possesses  several  fine  public  buildings, 
of  which  the  theatre  is  the  principal.  It  is  the  finest  and  largest 
in  France.  What  is  most  remarkable  in  it  is  the  architectural 
beauty  of  the  interior. 

SqAeriiber  16. — The  first  thing  I  did  this  morning  was  to  visit 
the  house  of  Mr.  Alfred  de  Luze — the  largest  wine-dealing  estab- 
lishment in  Bordeaux,  as  it  also  is  the  most  recommendable  one. 
Monsieur  de  Luze  is  also  consul  of  Frankfort  and  of  the  Grand- 
duchy  of  Hesse.  The  stately  old  gentleman  received  us  with 
great  cordiality,  offering  his  services  for  any  information  or  let- 
ters of  introduction  that  we  might  need.  Offered  in  the  gracious 
manner  that  it  was,  and  coming  from  such  a  source,  I  of  course 
accepted  it  with  pleasure,  well  knowing  that  it  would  be  the 
means  of  making  a  thorough  investigation  in  this  vicinity. 

'Before  leaving  the  ofi&ce,  M.  Francis  de  Luze,  son  and  partner 
in  the  house,  kindly  invited  us  to  visit  the  vaults.  Accordingly, 
myself  and  my  son  Arpad  followed  our  polite  conductor.  We 
came  to  the  cooper's  shop,  where  a  dozen  or  more  men  were  at 
work  repairing  the  barrels.  Good  wine  is  never  put  into  new 
barrels.  It  is  a  universal  custom  in  Bordeaux,  in  well-conducted 
houses,  to  use  for  first  quality  wine  barrels  which  have  already 
contained  wine,  which  has  taken  out  the  astringent  taste  of  the 
wood.  These  barrels,  however,  are  taken  completely  apart  and 
thoroughly  cleansed,  piece  by  piece.  The  barrels  which  wc  saw 
were  intended  for  shipment. 

Leaving  the  shop,  we  entered  the  vaults.  Going  from  one  to 
the  other,  we  saw  each  filled  with  wine-casks  four  and  five  tiers 
high.  Our  steps  led  us  through  vault  after  vault,  and  each  suc- 
cessive one  became  larger.     Some  of  these  vaults  had  six  to  eight 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  103 

rows  of  barrels  five  to  six  tiers  high.  Rows,  not  against  the  walls, 
arc  composed  of  two  barrels  touching  each  other  at  one  end,  and 
having  the  other  on  a  little  alley  which  separates  them  from  the 
next  row.  Mr.  do  Luze  made  us  taste  all  the  principal  wines  of 
the  establishment.  I  need  hardly  say  that  they  were  delicious. 
Never  had  I  before  tasted  such  Bordeaux  or  Sauterne,  though  of 
each  I  had  previously  known  excellent  brands. 

From  this  scries  of  vaults  wc  were  taken  through  a  series  of 
smaller  ones.  They  were  narrow  and  long,  being  the  place  where 
the  wine  in  bottles  is  kept.  On  each  side  the  bottles  are  piled 
up  to  the  roof,  and  each  side  is  composed  of  one  row  four  bottles 
deep.  These  vaults  c'ach  contain  several  hundred  thousand  bot- 
tles, which  have  been  here  for  many  j^ears  awaiting  their  term 
of  maturity.  The  contents  of  the  cellars  in  bottles  and  barrels 
at  the  present  time  can  not  fall  short  of  half  a  million  of  gallons. 
It  took  us  two  full  hours  to  visit  this  grand  establishment. 

The  custom  of  this  house  is  only  to  buy  in  good  years,  and  then 
largely.  Last  year  being  a  bad  one,  no  wine  was  bought  except 
for  the  consumption  of  the  laborers  of  the  establishment. 

The  price  of  the  wine  depends  upon  the  age  and  upon  the 
year,  coming  from  the  same  growth.  The  price  of  a  barrel  of 
sixty  gallons  is  from  300  to  2000  francs,  and  sometimes  even 
more.  The  bottled  wines  cost  from  three  francs  to  eight  francs 
apiece ;  but,  of  course,  they  are  only  sold  at  wholesale. 

I  am  particular  in  describing  this  establishment,  that  my  read- 
ers, who  have  flattered  themselves  that  they  have  bought  good 
Bordeaux  in  San  Francisco  at  $40  and  $50  a  barrel,  or  at  $4  to  $5 
a  case,  have  been  most  egregiously  deceived.  Their  Bordeaux 
was  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  miserable  imitation.  No  good 
wine  can  be  sold  even  here  at  any  such  price.  "Where,  then,  is 
the  cost  of  transportation,  insurance,  interest,  and  duty,  to  say 
nothing  of  profits  ? 

I  may  here  mention  the  curious  fact  that  this  family  has  car- 
ried on  the  wine  trade  during  four  generations.  This  is  very  sin- 
gular to  us  Americans,  who  change  business  so  often  in  life,  and. 
sometimes  in  a  year, 

"When  we  had  seen  every  thing,  and  tasted  all  the  noble  wines, 
we  took  our  leave,  not,  however,  before  receiving  and  accepting 
an  invitation  to  dinner  the  next  day,  and  a  drive  in  the  environs. 
After  leaving  Alfred  de  Luze's  establishment,  we  visited  several 
other  manufactories  of  little  importance ;  among  these  was  one 


104  GIUPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

whicli  makes  the  capsules  to  place  on  the  cork,  and  stamps  them. 
The  capsules,  all  stamped,  cost  twenty  francs  a  thousand. 

Making  the  necessary  arrangements  for  to-morrow's  work,  we 
afterward  went  to  dinner,  then  wrote,  and  then  went  to  bed. 

September  17. — At  seven  o'clock,  according  to  appointment, 
Francis  de  Luze  called  with  his  carriage.  We  drove  out  several 
miles  from  Bordeaux,  inspecting  the  vineyards,  orchards,  barrel 
manufactories,  etc.,  etc.  I  was  informed  by  M.  de  Luze  that  the 
barrels  meant  to  contain  fine  Cognacs  were  made  from  Kussian 
oak.  The  reason  given  for  this  is,  that  other  wood  gives  an  un- 
pleasant taste  to  the  brandy.  New  barrels  made  from  Russian 
oak,  holding  sixty  American  gallons,  having  four  iron  hoops  and 
the  rest  wooden,  cost  from  twenty  to  twenty-two  francs. 

Leaving  the  cooper's  shop,  we  drove  to  the  largest  nursery  at 
Bordeaux,  where  M.  de  Luze  left  us.  We  examined  this  exten- 
sive establishment,  and  made  our  selections  in  fruit-trees  from  the 
fruit  which  we  saw.  We  here  found  the  very  nicest  and  finest 
fruit  that  we  had  yet  seen  in  France.  After  making  and  com- 
pleting my  contract  with  M.  Catros-Gerand,  I  went  home  to  com- 
plete my  journal  and  write  up  my  correspondence.  On  our  way 
home  we  saw  a  bird-fancier  who  had  some  very  fine  pheasants, 
and  a  large  variety  of  very  rare  birds.  He  asked  sixty  francs  a 
pair  for  his  pheasants,  and  ten  francs  for  some  fine  pigeons.  I 
was  really  sorry  that  I  was  not  on  my  way  home,  else  I  would 
have  bought  the  pheasants  and  other  rare  fowls. 

In  the  afternoon  we  were  taken  by  a  nephew  of  M.  de  Luze  to 
the  establishment  of  A.  Dufour  &  Co.,  whose  business  consists  in 
packing  and  putting  up  dried  prunes  for  exportation.  We  were 
politely  shown  round  by  the  proprietor,  and  visited  the  whole  es- 
tablishment. It  is  situated  in  a  large  five-story  house,  each  story 
having  its  special  operation.  The  prunes,  after  having  been 
bought  from  the  producers,  have  again  to  be  prepared  by  dry- 
ing ;  for,  to  make  them  weigh  more  and  appear  larger,  the  pro- 
ducers do  not  dry  them  thoroughly.  This  operation  is  repeated 
.only  when  the  prunes  are  destined  for  distant  lands  and  for  long 
keeping.  When  they  are  not  sent  from  France  they  may  be  put 
up  as  they  are,  after  the  selections  have  been  made.  The  largest 
and  best  prunes  are  put  into  glass  jars;  the  second  best  are  put 
into  paper  boxes  tastily  prepared.  Our  guide  showed  ns  boxes 
thus  prepared  which  were  to  be  sent  to  Havana,  the  box  itself 
costing  twenty  sous,  while  the  prunes  in  it  only  cost  eleven  sous. 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  105 

Thus  tlic  good  people  of  Havana  pay  tliirty-onc  sous  for  what 
they  might  have  had  for  cloven.  See  •where  a  taste  for  pretty 
things  leads  people.  There  is  a  still  cheaper  box  which  goes  to 
the  United  States.  The  third  sort  goes  in  tin  boxes,  round  or 
square.  The  fourth  sort  is  put  into  barrels,  and  is  meant  for  home 
consumption.  Great  system  is  employed  in  the  whole  matter. 
The  house  now  employs  eighty-five  women  and  twelve  men. 
Before  the  war  in  the  United  States  broke  out  it  employed  two 
hundred  and  eighty  women  and  thirty-five  men.  There  are  many 
other  establishments  in  this  vicinity  which  are  fully  as  large  as  the 
above. 

Many  of  my  readers  will  be  astonished  at  the  magnitude  of  this 
trade ;  I  myself  was  surprised  at  its  great  extent.  I  knew  before 
that  it  was  carried  on  on  a  large  scale  here,  in  Hungary,  and  in 
Germany,  but  I  never  dreamed  that  it  was  so  extensive. 

Why  do  not  we  Californians  and  brother  planters  try  this  trade  ? 
Our  soil  is  much  richer  than  that  of  Europe,  and  the  method  of 
drying  the  prunes  is  comparatively  easy.  We  might,  with  the 
greatest  ease,  furnish  all  America,  North  and  South.  Why  bring 
our  goods  from  afar  when  we  can  procure  them  at  home  ?  When 
I  have  thoroughly  made  my  investigation,  I  will  give,  at  some  fu- 
ture day,  the  modes  of  preparing  these  prunes  as  practiced  here 
and  in  other  parts  of  Euroj)e. 

Having  fully  investigated  this  house,  we  went  to  the  chateau 
of  M.  de  Luze.  It  is  within  half  an  hour's  walk  from  his  ofiice. 
The  chateau  is  an  old  family  residence,  lately  repaired  and  orna- 
mented under  the  direction  of  the  old  gentleman,  who  prides 
himself  on  such  things,  and  displays  very  good  taste.  Surround- 
ing it  is  a  very  fine  park,  which  procures  him  all  the  pleasures 
of  a  country  residence.  The  furniture  of  the  chateau  is  all  in 
the  style  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Louis  XY.,  and  is  in  the  very  best 
taste.  We  had  a  very  good  dinner,  and  a  still  better  wine.  We 
were  here  again  made  to  drink  of  all  the  best  years  and  of  the 
best  growths.  The  old  gentleman  lives  in  an  elegant  style,  show- 
ing that  the  wine  business  is  much  better,  in  way  of  revenue, 
than  that  of  many  ducal  estates.  We  left  our  kind  host  late  in 
the  evening.     To-morrow  we  will  visit  Chateau  Margaux. 

September  18. — This  morning  we  hired  a  carriage,  and,  accom- 
panied by  M.  de  Luze's  nephew,  we  went  to  see  the  wine  country. 
We  stopped  at  the  village  of  Margaux,  about  eighteen  miles  from 
Bordeaux.     This  is  the  wine  district  which  has  the  greatest  rep- 


106  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

utation  in  all  France.  It  is  here  that  the  renowned  "Chateau 
Margaux"  is  made.  The  soil  is  gravelly,  and  intermixed  with  a 
great  quantity  of  pebbles.  It  is  of  a  gray  color,  some  clay,  but 
more  sand.  The  grapes  near  the  village  are  small  and  blue. 
The  vines  are  kept  low,  being  on  trellis- work  only  two  feet  high. 
They  are  three  feet  apart  each  way.  The  vines  are  nearly  all 
sulphured.  The  didium  rages  here.  The  frost  in  the  beginning 
of  the  spring  did  much  harm. 

After  having  breakfasted  we  went  to  the  Chateau  Margaux, 
which  is  on  the  borders  of  the  village.  It  consists  of  about  eighty 
hectares,  and  belongs  to  the  Marquis  Aguado,  The  regisseur  re- 
luctantly gave  his  consent  to  us  to  see  the  place.  However,  he 
sent  us  to  the  head  cooper,  who  was  to  show  us  around.  We 
entered  a  long  room,  supported  by  pillars  in  the  centre.  There 
were  but  a  few  barrels  here.  In  bad  years  it  is  here  that  the  wine 
is  kept.  In  good  years  the  wine  is  sold  immediately  upon  com- 
ing from  the  tanks  or  fermenting-tubs,  or  but  a  short  time  after- 
ward. The  country  being  all  flat  and  near  the  river,  no  cellars 
arc  made.  We  were  led  into  the  room  where  the  wine  in  bottles 
is  kept.  It  is  about  sixty  feet  long,  narrow,  and  very  well  ar- 
ranged to  pile  up  bottles.  The  divisions  are  of  stone,  and  each 
contains  about  200  bottles. 

The  press-house  is  also  very  well  arranged.  There  are  seven- 
teen large  fermenting-tubs  on  one  side  of  the  room.  The  other 
contains  four  large  stone  vats,  one  foot  deep  and  twelve  feet 
square.  In  the  middle  of  two  of  these  there  are  two  round  press- 
es. The  sides  of  these  are  composed  of  jDerpendicular  slats  two 
to  three  inches  wide,  and  as  many  thick.  They  arc  placed  wide 
enough  apart  to  let  out  the  juice,  but  not  the  seeds  and  skins. 
In  the  centre  is  an  iron  screw,  which  is  worked  from  above. 

The  grapes,  when  brought  from  the  vineyard,  are  thrown  upon 
tables  whose  bottoms  are  made  of  slats  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  permitting  the  grapes  to  pass  between.  As  soon 
as  they  arc  on  these  tables,  the  workmen,  with  the  flat  of  the  hand, 
rub  them  against  the  bottom.  The  berries  by  this  operation  fall 
through  the  slats,  and  the  stem  remains.  It  is  immediately  pick- 
ed out  and  thrown  in  a  tub  placed  for  that  purpose. 

The  fermentation  lasts  from  seven  to  ten  days.  Then  the  wine 
is  taken  off,  the  residue  put  into  the  press  and  pressed.  This  forms 
the  second  quality  wine.  When  tlie  second  quality  has  been 
made,  the  matter  pressed  is  again  thrown  into  a  large  fermenting- 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  107 

tub  and  fermented,  after  water  has  been  poured  upon  it.  This 
latter  wine  forms  the  drink  of  the  workmen  of  the  establishment. 
There  are  about  400  barrels  made  per  annum. 

We  visited  one  more  domain,  Chateau  Rauzan,  with  its  vine- 
yards, presses,  etc.  It  was  about  the  same  thing  as  the  former,  with 
the  exception  that  the  tanks  were  not  in  such  good  order,  and 
that  the  slatted  tables  were  over  the  fermenting-tubs  instead  of 
on  the  tanks.  The  grapes  arc  thrown  upon  the  tables  by  shov- 
els. When  rubbed  from  the  stems  then  fall  into  the  fermenting- 
tubs,  where  they  arc  stamped  by  men.  The  rest  of  the  wine- 
making  establishments  are  conducted  in  nearly  the  same  way. 

I  was  really  astonished  how  they  could  make  any  wine  at  all, 
the  vines  were  so  much  affected  by  disease.  Sulphuring  must  be 
very  costly.  Many  vineyards  will  not  makfe  a  single  barrel  of 
wine  this  year  for  the  reason  which  I  have  already  stated,  that 
the  frost  killed  faearly  all  the  vines  in  the  beginning  of  spring. 
The  whole  district  of  Cognac  will  not  this  year  produce  ten  bar- 
rels. The  proprietors,  however,  take  it  very  coolly^  saying  that 
they  will  make  it  all  up  next  year. 

The  land  lying  between  Chateau  Margaux  and  Bordeaux  is  in 
many  parts  sandy,  and  large  tracts  lay  idle,  not  even  producing 
grain.  Other  parts  of  these  sandy  tracts  are  planted  with  pitch 
pine.  The  older  parts  of  these  plantations  yield  turpentine.  We 
returned  in  the  evening  much  fatigued. 

The  following  extract  from  Victor  Eendu's  Am^elogra'pliie  Fran- 
gaise  will  give  a  more  correct  idea  to  the  reader  of  the  country 
and  its  wines ; 

THE  WINES  OF  BORDEAUX. 

The  wines  bearing  the  general  appellation  of  Bordeaux  wines, 
because  they  grow  in  the  country  surrounding  this  celebrated  em- 
porium, and  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world  from  its  harbor, 
are  divided  into  four  principal  classes : 

1.  Vms  de  Medoc. — Wines  of  the  Medoc  district.  Of  these  we 
shall  treat  in  detail  hereafter. 

2.  Vins  de  Grave. — Wines  growing  on  the  gravelly  soil  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  Bordeaux,  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
rivers  Dordogne  and  Garonne,  within  a  certain  distance  of  their 
confluence.* 

*  Of  the  red  wines  grown  on  this  soil  the  most  renowned  are  those  of  Chateau 
Haut-Brion.  Of  much  less  note  are  the  wines  of  Merignac,  Carbonnieux,  and  Leo- 
gnan.  Among  the  white  wines  the  most  popular  are  the  Sauternes,  the  Barsae,  the 
Preignac,  and  the  Bommes.  Again,  among  these,  the  most  superior  is  the  white 
wine  of  Chateau  Iquem,  in  the  parish  of  Sauterne,  which  has  been  sold  up  to  1200 
francs  per  tun. 


108  GRxVPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

8.  Tins  dcs  Cotes. — 'Wines  growing  on  the  range  of  liills  at  the- 
right  side  of  the  Garonne,  from  Ambares  to  Saint  Croix  du  Mont. 
Also  on  the  right  side  of  the  Dordogne,  between  Bourg  and  Fron- 
sac.  Of  these  wines,  the  most  celebrated  are  those  of  St.  Emilion. 
Less  choice  are  those  of  St.  Laurent,  St.  Hippolyte,  St.  Christophe 
de  St.  Georges,  and  of  Pommerol.  The  soil  in  these  vineyards  is 
generally  a  combination  of  lime  and  clay,  with  a  subsoil  of  hard 
rock.     They  generally  decline  toward  south  and-west. 

4.  Yins  de  Palus. — Wines  growing  on  the  bottom-lands  of  the 
Garonne,  near  Bordeaux.  These  are  less  distinguished  than  the 
above,  although  they  are  wines  of  a  fine  color  and  a  good  deal  of 
spirit.  The  best  of  them  are  grown  in  the  communes  of  Queyries 
and  Montferrand. 

Wines  of  the  Medoc  District 

The  small  peninstila  formed  by  the  Eiver  Gironde  on  its  east- 
ern side  and  the  Atlantic  on  the  western,  is  generally  allowed  to 
contain  some  of  the  finest  vineyards  in  the  world.  This  is  the  re- 
nowned Medoc  district.  It  offers  itself  to  the  eye  as  a  softly -un- 
dulating plain,  with  gentle  declivities  all  along  the  river,  and  sandy 
downs,  frequently  interrupted  by  marshes  and  lagoons,  along  the 
sea-side.  It  is  principally  on  those  slopes  above  the  Gironde 
where  the  famous  Bordeaux  wines  are  raised  in  their  greatest  per- 
fection. The  general  formation  of  the  soil  consists  here  of  a  com- 
pound of  quartzose  fragments  with  clay,  strongly  impregnated 
with  oxide  of  iron.  This  uppermost  stratum  rests  either  on  a  bed 
of  pure  sand,  or  on  a  conglomerate  of  gravel  with  clay,  and  a 
strong  admixture  of  iron  oxide,  which  composition — very  hard  in 
some  cases,  and  soft  and  crumbling  m  others — goes  by  the  local 
name  of  "  alios." 

This  diversity  of  the  soil,  or,  rather,  the  great  variation  in  the 
mixture  of  its  component  elements,  is  the  principal  cause  for  the 
great  diversity  of  its  productions.  As  a  proof  of  this,  we  find,  in 
many  instances,  wines  of  inferior  quality  in  the  close  neighbor- 
hood of  the  very  best  vineyards,  and,  vice  versa,  streaks  of  good 
soil  amid  poor  vineyards,  giving  a  much  better  wine  than  the  sur- 
rounding grounds.  The  culture  of  the  vine  in  the  Medoc  dis- 
trict varies  more  or  less  from  the  methods  used  in  other  parts  of 
France ;  but  the  training  of  the  vines  on  laths  or  on  trellises  near 
the  ground  is  a  characteristic  not  to  be  found  any  where  else  but 
here. 

The  most  extensively  cultivated  grapes  in  the  Medoc  are  the 
Cabemet-Sauvignon,  the  Franc-Cabernet,  the  Meilot,  the  Malbec, 
and  the  Verdot ;  but  it  is  especially  the  Cabemet-Sauvignon  which 
forms  the  basis  of  the  Medoc  vineyards,  and,  in  fact,  is  to  the  great 
Medoc  wines  what  the  Pincau  is  to  the  wines  of  the  Cote  d'Or  in 
Burgundy.  This  unsurpassed  grape  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  the 
celebrated  wines  of  Panillac,  St.  Julicn,  and  Margaux;  and  about 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTKICT.  109 

five  eighths  of  the  plantations  of  Lafitte,  Mouton,  Latour,  Lcoville, 
Margaux,  Kauzan,  etc.,  belong  to  the  same.  The  wine  made  of  it 
is  of  a  splendid  color  and  an  exquisite  bouquet.  A  little  tart  at 
the  beginning,  it  requires  to  be  kept  in  wood  for  four  years,  and 
then  for  two  in  the  bottle,  to  arrive  to  its  full  maturity.  It  gains 
in  excellence  up  to  its  fifteenth  year,  and  preserves  all  its  quali- 
ties till  the  twentieth ;  beyond  this  it  loses  gradually  some  of  its 
smoothness,  and  becomes  more  and  more  dry. 

The  method  of  cultivation  is  uniform  all  through  the  Medoc 
district,  and  does  not  present  any  striking  difference  from  the 
methods  pursued  in  other  parts  of  France.  The  vines  arc  gen- 
erally planted  from  April  to  June.  The  distance  observed  is  one 
metre  and  ten  centimetres  between  the  vines  on  one  and  the  same 
line,  and  only  one  metre  between  the  rows.  In  the  second  year 
the  vine  is  pruned  to  two  or  three  eyes ;  in  the  third  it  begins  to 
be  trained  on  a  trellis  by  tying  two  sprigs,  each  with  two  or  three 
eyes,  to  the  lath.  The  pruning  commences  usually  in  November 
and  lasts  till  January. 

In  the  Medoc  district  the  vine  is  in  blossom  in  the  middle  of 
June,  and  the  grape  ripens,  in  favorable  years,  about  the  middle 
of  September.  In  such  years  the  vintage  begins  on  the  20th  of 
September  and  lasts  to  the  1st  of  October.  If  it  takes  place  alto- 
gether in  this  month,  the  year  is  pronounced  to  be  middling  or 
bad.  Every  body  may  gather  his  grapes  when  he  pleases,  as  there 
is  no  time  fixed  by  statute  for  this  purpose  in  the  Department  of 
the  Gironde,  to  which  the  Medoc  district  belongs. 

The  grapes  are  carefully  picked,  and  cleaned  of  green  or  rotten 
berries  before  they  are  taken  to  the  press-room.  Here  the  wine- 
presses stand,  generally  three  of  them,  ranged  on  one  side,  and  the 
vats  along  the  opposite  wall.  The  berries  are  all  plucked  from 
their  stalks,  which  is  done  either  with  rakes  or  an  instrument 
called  an  egraiypoir.  After  this  they  are  trodden  down  in  tubs, 
which  generally  have  a  hole  in  the  bottom  through  which  the 
must  escapes.  This  is  taken  to  the  vat,  which  is  scrupulously 
cleaned  and  sponged  with  brandy.  The  vat  being  once  full,  must 
be  left  perfectly  quiet  until  the  wine  is  formed,  which  may  take 
some  four  or  five  days,  or  even  longer,  according  to  the  tempera- 
ture, weather,  ripeness  of  the  grapes,  etc.  As  soon  as  the  must 
has  lost  its  sugary  taste,  and  has  turned  fairly  into  wine,  it  is  drawn 
carefully  into  casks,  during  which  operation  great  care  is  taken 
not  to  let  any  foreign  matter  be  mixed  with  the  pure  juice  of  the 
grape.  The  filling  of  the  casks  must  be  done  as  quick  as  possi- 
ble. During  the  first  month  they  must  be  filled  up  every  four  or 
five  days ;  the. second  month,  once  in  eight  days ;  and  subsequent- 
ly once  in  fifteen,  until  the  wine  is  drawn  off.  This  has  to  be 
done  three  times  during  the  first  year,  viz.,  in  January  or  Febru- 
ary, in  June,  and  in  September,  In  the  following  years  it  is  suf- 
ficient to  draw  off  only  twice.     Ordinarily,  the  Medoc  wines  are 


110  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

left  four  years  in  the  cask  before  tliej  are  bottled;  and  in  two 
years  more  they  will  be  perfectly  mellow  and  ready  for  the  market. 

The  Medoc  district  contains  about  20,000  hectares  of  wine-land. 
The  average  produce  is  at  the  rate  of  two  tuns  (say  18  hectoli- 
tres and  2I  litres)  per  hectare,  amounting  in  all  to  40,000  tuns. 
Of  this  quantity  about  4500  belong  to  the  first  class  wines,  an 
equal  quantity  to  the  second  but  still  superior  class,  and  the  bal- 
ance to  ordinary  wines. 

The  superior  wines  of  the  Medoc  arc  classified  in  the  Bordeaux 
commerce  into  five  different  qualities.  The  first  class  contains 
only  three  wines,  which  are  ranged  as  follows : 

1.  Chateau  Margaux,  100-110  tuns  per  year. 

2.  Chateau  Lafitte,  120-150  tuns  per  year. 
8.  Chateau  Latour,  70-90  tuns  per  year. 

The  vineyard  of  Chateau  Margaux  contains  80  hectares.  The 
soil  consists  of  a  gray  gravel,  with  a  substratum  of  "alios."  The 
greater  part  of  the  vineyard  looks  toward  east  and  west,  but  the 
best  part  of  it  inclines  to  south  and  north.  The  Cabernet-Sau- 
vignon  vine  occupies  about  one  half  of  this  celebrated  vineyard. 
In  a  first-rate  year  the  wine  of  Chateau  Margaux  surpasses  by  far 
eyery  other  Bordeaux  wine,  even  Lafitte  and  Latour  not  excepted ; 
but  in  less  favorable  years  these  two  wines  are  superior  to  their 
great  rival.  The  chemical  composition  of  the  soil  of  this  famous 
vineyard  is  as  follows : 

Oxide  of  iron 3.341 

Alumina 1.590 

Magnesia 0.2G3 

Soluble  silicates 0.380 

Phosphoric  acid 0.147 

Potash 1.291 

Carbonate  of  lime 0.891 

Organic  matter 6.670 

Insoluble  residue .' 85.427 

100.000 

The  vineyard  of  Chateau  Lafitte  contains  47  hectares.  Its  sit- 
uation is  various,  but  mostly  northerly.  The  soil,  and  especially 
the  subsoil,  is  very  rich  in  quartz  pebbles.  Chateau  Latour  con- 
tains only  42  hectares.  Its  soil  is  very  gravelly,  and  inclines 
mostly  toward  south  and  north. 

The  second  class  of  Medoc  wines  comprises  the  following  vine- 
yards : 

De  Branno-Cantenac 45  hectares, 

Cos-l)estourncl 28  " 

Duport  dc  Vivens 32  " 

Gruaud-Larossc 61  " 

Lascombe 21  " 

fLascases 65  " 

Lcoville  -'  Poyfero 30  " 

(Barton 25  " 

Mouton  Rothschild 52  " 

Prichon  dc  Longueville 50  " 

Ranzan-Rauzan 51  " 


60  to  60  tuns  per  annum. 

60  "  70 

30  "  35 

100  "  120 

15  "  20 

80  "  100 

40  "  50 

25  "  70 

120  "  140 

100  "  120 

70  "  80 

THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  HI 

To  the  third  class  belong  the  following  vineyards : 

Issan 43  hectares,  50  to   70  tuns  per  annum. 

Dcsmirail 14  "  30  "    40  "  " 

Pliilippc-Dubignon 13  "  15  "    20  "  " 

Beau-Caillon 35  "  100  "  120  "  " 

Fruitier 38  "  60  "    70  "  " 

Ganot 16  "  20  "    25  "  " 

Giscourt 45  "  80  "  100  "  " 

Kirwan 24  "  35  "    40  "  " 

Lagrange 122  "  120  "  150  "  " 

Langod-Barton 70  "  100  "  120  "  " 

Pouget  et  Chavaille 11  "  25  "    30  "  "         " 

Lacotonie  ct  Malcscot 50  "  70  "  " 

In  the  fourth  class  are  reckoned 

Talbot 69  hectares,    70  to   80  tuns  per  annum . 

Bevcherelle 40  "  100  "  120  "  » 

Calon-Lcstapis 55  "  120  "  160  "  " 

Garnet 52  "  100  "  120  "  " 

Casteja,  or  Milon 30  "  60"    70  "  " 

Dubignon 12  "    15  "  " 

Duluc,aine 60  "  80  "    90  "  " 

Verrieres 8  "  10  "    15  "  " 

Eochet 22  "  30  "    40  "  " 

LaLagune 36  "  40  "    50  "  " 

Solberg 30  "  25  "    30  "  »"         " 

Pages  au  Prieure 11  "  25"    30  "  "        " 

Palmer 85  "  50  "    60  "  " 

St.PieiTe]  9        ''    r     ^^  "    70    "      " 

Lastly,  the  fifth  class  contains,  among  others, 

Batailly 34  hectares,  60  to   80  tuns  per  annum. 

DeBedout 17  "  50  "    55  "  "        " 

Canet-Poutet 67  "  100  "  120  "  "        " 

Cantemerle 91  "  120  "  130  "  " 

Jurine 40  "  100  "  120  "  "        " 

Ducasse 33  "  80  "    90  "  "        " 

Le  Grand  Puy 52  "  50  "    60  '•  " 

Montpelouss-Casteja 14  "  25  "    30  "  " 

The  prices  of  all  these  wines  vary,  of  course,  according  to  the 
years  and  the  demand.  They  arrived  at  their  maximum  in  1844, 
when  Lafitte  was  sold  at  4500  francs  the  tun,  Haut-Brion  at  8000, 
Mouton  at  2500,  Lagrange  at  1900,  Kirwan  at  1850,  Giscourt  at 
1800,  Langod-Barton  at  1600.  In  ordinary  years  the  second 
quality  wines  are  sold  at  from  1200  francs  to  1400  francs  the  tun ; 
the  third  quality  at  from  800  to  1000 ;  the  fourth  for  only  little 
less ;  and  the  fifth,  on  an  average,  at  600  to  700.  The  first  qual- 
ity of  Chateau  Margaux  have  been  contracted  for  nine  years  at 
the  price  of  2100  francs  per  tun,  but  the  princely  Chateau  Lafitte 
generally  sells  at  a  much  higher  rate.  Of  the  inferior  wines,  the 
better  class  {Bourgeois  superieurs)  are  worth  400  to  500  francs  a 
tun ;  the  second  class  {Bourgeois  ordinaires\  350  to  400  ;  and  the 
third  {Paysa7is),  300  to  325  francs. 

The  best  customers  for  the  Medoc  wines  are  the  English,  the 


112  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Dutch,  and  the  Russians.  Those  exported  to  England  are  gener- 
ally qualified  for  the  British  palate  by  being  mixed  with  stronger 
wines,  and  especially  with  the  red  wines  of  the  Ermitage  district. 

M.  Franck,  who  has  published  an  elaborate  work  on  the  great 
Bordeaux  wines,  quotes  the  following  prices  at  which  some  vine- 
yards of  the  Medoc  have  changed  hands. 

Chateau  Margaux  (80  hectares),  bought,  in  1804,  for  651,000, 
was  sold  in  1836  to  M.  Aguado  for  1,300,000  francs. 

Malescot  (Margaux),  in  1853,  for  280,000  francs. 

Gruaud-Larosse  (St.  Julien,  51  hectares),  in  1814,  for  350,000 
francs. 

Langon  (St.  Julien,  40  hectares),  in  1851,  for  650,000  francs. 

Beycherdle  (St.  Julien,  40  hectares),  for  650,000  francs. 

La  Grange  (St.  Julien,  122  hectares),  in  1832,  for  650,000  francs; 
in  1842,  for  775,000  francs. 

Lafitte  (Panillac,  67  hectares),  in  1803,  for  1,200,000  francs. 

Mouton  (25  hectares),  bought,  in  1853,  by  M.  Kothschild  for 
1,125,000  francs. 

Baije,  for  300,000  francs. 

Balailly  (34  hectares),  for  150,000  francs, 

Calon  (St.  Est^phc,  55  hectares),  for  600,000  francs. 

Du  Bosq  (St.  Estephe),  for  190,000  francs. 

Chateau  cVIssan  (Cantenac,  43  hectares),  sold,  in  1825,  for 
255,000  francs,  was,  in  1859,  adjudged  to  the  heirs  of  the  Blanchy 
estate  for  470,000  francs, 

Lacheney  (Cussac),  for  150,000  francs. 

Laujac  (Begadan),  for  400,000  francs. 

Haut-Brion  (Pcrsac),  for  525,000  francs, 

Giscourt  (Labarde,  45  hectares),  for  500,000  francs. 

Cos-cV Estournel  (St.  Estephe,  28  hectares),  for  1,150,000  francs. 

Palmer  (Cantenac,  85  hectares),  for  425,000  francs, 

Chateait  cVAgarsac  (Ludon),  for  891,000  francs. 

The  same  author,  speaking  of  the  Champagne  and  its  wines, 
says: 

The  wine-growing  country  of  the  Champagne  district  may  be 
properly  divided  into  two  topographical  arteries :  First,  the  hills 
on  the  River  Marnc ;  and,  second,  the  mountain  of  Rheims.  The 
first  is  again  ramified  into  three  different  ranges :  1.  The  northern 
side  of  the  river,  with  the  hill-sides  looking  due  south,  and  to  which 
belong  the  distinguished  vineyards  of  Ilautvillers,  Disy,  Ay,  and 
Mareuil.  2.  The  opposite  side  of  the  river,  which  includes  the 
vineyards  of  Epernay,  of  Moussy,  Pierry,  and  Vinay.  3.  The  range 
of  Avize,  running  in  a  southeasterly  direction,  parallel  with  the 
cote  of  Epernay,  and  containing  the  vineyards  of  Cramant,  Avize, 
Oger,  Mcsnil,  and  Vertus, 

The  second  general  division  of  this  great  wine-district  embraces 
all  the  vineyards  in  the  environs  of  Rheims,  and  is  subdivided 
into  two  zones :  1.  The  hilly  part,  containing  Vcrzy,  Verzenay, 


THE  BORDEAUX  WINE  DISTRICT.  113 

Sillery,  Mailly,  Londes,  Chigny,  and  Rilly ;  2.  The  flat  zone,  with 
St.  Thierry,  Marsilly,  Ilermonville,  and  others.  Besides  these 
there  is  a  small  intermediate  traet  between  the  plain  and  the 
mountain,  where  the  gentle  declivities  of  Bouzy  and  of  Ambon- 
nay  are  to  be  found. 

Most  of  the  noted  vineyards  of  the  Champagne  are  situated  on 
a  formation  of  limestone  and  chalk,  covered  by  a  generally  very 
superficial  structure  of  vegetable  mould.  The  soil  may  be  said 
to  contain  fully  four  fifths  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  only  one  fifth 
of  cla}^,  silicious  and  other  matter.  Oxide  of  iron  also  enters  into 
its  composition  in  several  instances. 

The  vines  mostly  cultivated  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Pineau, 
and  generally  bear  dark  grapes.  They  vary,  however,  to  some 
extent  from  the  original  Pineau  (or  Pinot)  of  the  Burgundy  dis- 
trict, probably  on  account  of  the  diversity  of  the  soil  in  these  wine- 
districts. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vineyards  is  nearly  uniform  through  all 
the  province,  but  it  may  be  said  that  at  Ay  it  has  been  brought 
to  its  highest  perfection.  December  is  the  best  month  for  planta- 
tion, although  it  may  be  continued  even  to  the  end  of  March. 
The  ground  is  always  manured  at  the  time  of  planting.  The 
young  plant,  generally  a  rooted  vine  two  or  three  years  old,  is 
dug  round  four  times  during  the  first  year.  In  the  second  year 
it  is  pruned  down  to  one  or  two  eyes,  according  to  the  vigor  of 
the  plant,  and  the  soil  is  worked  up  again  four  times  in  the  course 
of  the  year.  In  the  third  year  a  certain  proportion  of  the  most 
vigorous  plants  are  used.  When  in  bearing  order  the  vine  is 
generally  kept  low,  and  tied  to  a  stick. 

The  vines  are  in  blossom  about  St.  John's  Day,  and  are  carefully 
freed  from  all  new  sprouts  {gourmands)  after  this  time.  The 
grapes  arrive  at  their  full  rii^eness  in  September,  and  the  vintage 
begins,  in  favorable  years,  in  the  middle  of  this  month ;  in  less  fa- 
vorable ones  at  the  beginning  of  October ;  and  in  bad  years  not 
before  the  middle  of  the  same  month.  Every  body  is  at  liberty 
to  gather  his  grapes  when  he  pleases.  The  grapes  are  carefully 
picked  by  women,  and  cleaned  on  the  spot  from  all  spoiled  ber- 
ries, leaves,  etc.  Then  they  are  carefully  selected  according  to 
their  ripeness  and  perfection,  and  sent  to  the  press-house. 

The  manufacture  of  wine  has  been  raised  to  the  projDortions  of 
a  particular  art  or  science  in  the  Champagne  district  during  the 
last  fifty  years,  and  forms  a  special  industry,  frequently  entirely 
separated  from  the  culture  of  the  vine.  Nearly  all  the  wine  pro- 
duced in  this  district  is  made  into  sparkling  wine ;  and  the  former- 
ly celebrated  brands  of  dry  Champagne  wines — namely,  the  red 
wines  of  Sillery,  of  Bouzy,  Verzenay,  and  Mailly — scarcely  exist 
any  more  in  commerce.  The  same  black  grape  which  was  the 
mother  of  these  dark  wines  yields  at  present  the  juice  for  the  pale 
wine,  which,  in  its  sparkling  state,  ranks  uppermost  in  the  estima- 

H 


114  GR^U'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAIvING. 

tion  of  the  ■wine-consuming  public.  In  some  vineyards  in  this  dis- 
trict, however,  white  grapes  are  planted  in  preference  to  the  black 
ones,  and  it  has  been  ascertained  that  if  judiciously  mixed  (say  one 
eighth  to  one  quarter  of  white,  the  balance  of  black  grapes),  the}'' 
add  to  the  excellence  of  the  wine,  made  into  sparkling  Champagne. 

The  grapes  must  be  passed  very  rapidly  through  the  wine- 
press, to  avoid  all  fermentation  in  the  berries,  and  all  coloring 
of  the  must.  The  must  is  not  immediately  barreled,  but  left  for 
from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  in  vats,  so  that  it  may  deposit 
all  its  coarser  dregs ;  then  it  is  drawn  into  scrupulously  cleaned 
and  sulphured  barrels.  In  these  the  wine  generally  ferments  un- 
til Christmas.  If  rich  in  sugar,  this  fermentation  will  progress 
very  slowly,  and  w'ill  be  the  more  rapid  the  less  sugary  particles 
the  must  contains.  In  the  second  half  of  December  the  wine  is 
drawn  off  for  the  first  time,  without  taking  any  notice  of  the  par- 
ticular state  of  the  atmosphere.  Now  is  the  time  to  test  the  qual- 
ity of  the  wines,  and  to  mix  the  different  qualities,  or,  in  some 
cases,  wines  of  different  vineyards  and  localities  judiciously  to- 
gether, so. as  to  obtain  the  most  perfect  mixture.  After  this  op- 
eration the  wine  is  cleared  with  gelatine,  and  then  drawn  off  again 
through  a  double  sieve  of  hair  and  silk  which  is  placed  on  the 
funnel.  By  this  the  entrance  of  all  foreign  matter  will  be  avoid- 
ed. Generally,  very  little  gelatine  is  used ;  but  in  most  cases 
a  little  tannin  in  the  liquid  state  is  added  to  the  wine  as  a  pre- 
servative against  various  maladies.  In  this  condition  the  wine 
remains  till  the  month  of  April,  when  it  is  drawn  off  again  for 
the  purpose  of  being  manufactured  into  sparkling  Champagne.* 

The  white  wines  of  Champagne  are  classified  into  the  "  Great 
Sparkling  Wine,"  Grand  Mousseux ;  the  "Ordinary  Sparkling 
Wine,"  Mousseux  ordinaire  ;  the  "  Half  Sparkling  Wine,"  Demi- 
Mousseux^  or  Gremant;  the  "Non-sparkling,"  or  "dry"  Cliam- 
pagne,  Non  Mousseux  ;  and  a  very  light,  weak,  sweet,  and  slightly 
sparkling  quality,  called  Tisane  de  Ghamixirjne.  The  sparkling 
wines  attain  their  full  maturity  in  the  third  year  after  being  bot- 
tled, and  will  lose  nothing  of  their  sparkling  quality  within  a 
dozen  years.  The  half  sparkling  wine,  if  of  a  good  source,  is  con- 
sidered by  connoisseurs  as  the  king  of  all  white  Champagne  wines. 

In  first-rate  years  the  Champagne  district  will  produce  not  less 
than  fifteen  million  bottles  of  white  wine,  and  the  average  produc- 
tion may  be  rated  at  seven  millions  per  annum.  This  commerce 
has  been  rapidly  increasing  for  about  forty  years.  The  principal 
markets  for  it  are  England,  Germany,  and  Russia ;  and  the  names 
of  the  great  manufacturers,  Moet,  Cliquot,  Euinart,  Roedcrer, 
Piper,  Perier,  Dinot,  are  well  known  all  over  the  world. 

Having  completed  our  observations  on  the  famous  wine  dis- 
trict of  Bordeaux,  we  prepared  to  take  our  departure  for  Spain. 

*  A  minute  description  of  the  modns  operandi  in  the  most  renowned  factories  of 
the  Champagne  district  is  given  in  another  part  of  this  work. 


SPAIN:  WINE,  IIMSINS,  AND  OLIVES.  115 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

JOURNEY  THROUGH  SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES. 

Departure  for  Spain. — Delay  for  Passports. — Country  between  Bordeaux  and  Bay- 
onne.  —  Shepherds  on  Stilts. — Bayonne.  —  Loading  Revolvers. — Napoleon  at 
Hand. — Start  by  Diligence  for  Madrid. — The  Diligence. — The  Driver  and  the 
Mules. — The  Postillion. — On  Spanish  Frontier. — Ascent  of  the  Pyrenees. — Des- 
olate Aspect  of  the  Country. — Breakfast. — Water  and  Towel. — Another  Inspec- 
tion of  Baggage. — A  Municipal  Misunderstanding. — Burgos. — The  Railway. — 
Passengers  bound  for  a  Bull-fight. — Delay. — Train  full. — Passengers  left  behind. 
— Change  Cars. — Delay  again. — Refreshments. — Arrival  at  Madrid. — Our  Hotel. 
— Compassionate  Waiter. — The  Fair. — The  Royal  Palace. — The  Prado". — The 
Fountain. — General  Description  of  the  Countiy  traversed. — Product. — Execrable 
Wines. — Leave  Madrid  for  Malaga. — Delay. — Difficulty  about  Baggage. — Final- 
ly settled. — Off  at  last. — Stopped  again. — One  Passenger  too  many. — A  Discus- 
sion.— The  extra  Child. — A  Night  Ride. — Morning. — Beggars. — Vines  appear. 
— Ordinary  Spanish  Wines  very  poor. — The  Boy  again. — Building  a  Railway. — 
Barren  Countiy. — A  beautiful  Valley. — Dinner  at  Victoria. — Arrival  at  Granada. 
— See  the  City. — Our  Carriage. — The  Sights  of  Granada. — Beggars. — Start  for 
Malaga. — Notes  by  the  Way. — Malaga. — Wine  and  Raisins. — Making  Raisins. — 
The  Drying-grounds. — Picking  and  Packing. — Malaga  Wines. — Vinegar-making. 
— Fig  Culture. — Horse-fight. — Apprehensions  of  Damages. — Manufacture  of  Ol- 
ive Oil. — Cotton  and  Iron  Manufactories. — Buy  Plants. — Goat-milk. — Passports 
again. — Depart  for  Alicante. — Aspect  of  the  Coast. — Alicante. — Barcelona. — 
Wine-making. — Leave  for  Paris,  via  Marseilles  and  Lyons. — Arrival  at  Paris. — 
Give  up  Project  of  visiting  Greece  and  Egypt. — Start  for  Home,  via  England. — 
Arrive  in  America. 

Septemher  19. — We  ■were  very  much  annoyed  by  tlie  trouble 
we  had  in  getting  our  passports  vis^d.  Our  consul  shuts  up  his 
office  at  three  o'clock,  and  if  an  unfortunate  American  should  not 
arrive  at  that  hour,  no  matter  who  he  be,  there  is  an  end  of  it, 
he  has  to  wait  twenty -four  hours  longer,  for  none  of  the  other 
consuls  will  vise  his  passport  before  seeing  that  of  the  American 
consul.  At  eleven  o'clock  we  went  to  our  consul's  office,  but 
found  him  absent.  The  lad  in  attendance  told  us  that  he  was 
maybe  sick,  and  at  his  house.  We  persuaded  the  lad  to  stamp 
our  passports,  that  we  might  afterward  take  them  to  the  consul 
and  have  them  signed.  This  he  did,  and  then  asked  us  for  eleven 
and  a  half  francs,  which  is  more  than  we  had  ever  given.  We 
went  to  the  consul's  house,  where,  after  knocking  and  ringing  vio- 
lently, the  door  was  opened  by  some  invisible  hand ;  we  walked 


116  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

into  a  hall  and  through  several  empty  rooms ;  at  last  we  discov- 
ered a  little  girl,  who  was  the  consul's  daughter.  She  informed 
us  that  her  father  had  left  for  his  office  in  the  morning ;  that  if  he 
was  not  there  she  did  not  know  where  he  was.  This  was  very 
disagreeable  news  to  us ;  for,  had  it  not  been  for  our  passports,  we 
could  have  started  at  six  o'clock  in  the  morning,  but  we  were  de- 
layed by  this  for  the  two  o'clock  train,  and,  from  all  appearance, 
would  be  liable  even  to  miss  that,  and  be  left  here  over-night. 
This  was  uselessly  wasting  time,  which  was  most  precious  to  me, 
to  say  nothing  of  extra  expenses.  Keturning  to  the  office,  and 
not  finding  the  consul,  I  suggested  to  the  lad  to  sign  it  himself, 
and  state  the  absence  of  the  consul.  This  was  not  legal,  nor  had 
the  boy  any  authority  whatever  to  do  it ;  but,  thinking  the  whole 
affair  a  fuss,  and  that  the  principal  part  was  passed — namely,  of 
taking  the  eleven  and  a  half  francs,  I  saw  no  harm  in  making  the 
fiiss  bigger.  The  lad,  after  some  hesitation,  signed ;  we  then  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Spanish  consul,  who,  after  stamping  and  signing, 
asked  us  for  ten  francs.     We  arrived  just  in  time  for  the  cars. 

We  were  traveling  eight  hours  from  Bordeaux  to  Bayonne, 
and  a  more  desolate  and  dreary  country  I  have  not  seen  since 
my  arrival  in  Europe.  It  consists  of  immense  plains,  which  are 
sandy,  and  only  now  and  then  possessing  some  pitch  pine.  Even 
these  trees  are  of  recent  plantation.  They  are  employed  in  mak- 
ing turpentine.  These  landes,  as  they  are  called,  produce  a  kind 
of  chapparal,  but  it  is  only  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  high. 
On  these  plains  there  are  now  and  then  seen  some  miserable 
sheep,  guarded  by  men  or  women  on  stilts.  As  their  flesh  is  so 
poor,  what  must  their  wool  be  ?  They  resemble  very  much  our 
Mexican  sheep,  only  they  are  not  so  large  nor  so  good-looking. 
But  of  all  that  is  here  seen,  it  is  the  stilts  of  the  shepherds  that 
is  most  noteworthy :  they  are  from  four  to  five  feet  high,  and 
their  owners  remain  on  them  the  whole  day  without  getting 
down.  From  this  height  they  are  better  able  to  see  their  sheep 
in  the  bushes,  and  walk  through  the  mud  when  there  is  any. 

We  arrived  at  the  hotel  at  ten  o'clock,  and  soon  turned  in. 

Sept.  20.  Bayonne. — In  the  morning  we  took  a  walk  through 
the  city.  We  visited  its  monuments  and  markets ;  in  the  latter 
the  vegetables  were  very  fine,  and  the  grapes  good  and  sweet. 
We  ascertained  that  very  little  wine  was  raised  in  this  vicinity. 

In  the  River  Gave,  which  runs  through  Bayonne,  were  an- 
chored several  large  vessels.     The  two  parts  of  the  town  arc  join- 


SPAIN :  "SVINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  117 

ed  by  a  very  fine  bridge,  newly  built.  The  fortifications  that  lie 
on  both  sides  of  the  river  seem  quite  strong.  After  exchanging 
our  money  for  Spanish  coin,  wo  went  and  engaged  our  places  in 
the  diligence  office  for  the  capital.  Here  we  learned  that  the 
stage  was  to  leave  at  six  o'clock.  Among  several  other  items  of 
disagreeable  news,  we  were  informed  that  it  would  take  two  nights 
and  two  days  to  reach  Madrid,  and,  what  was  as  bad,  very  little 
time  was  allowed  to  us  for  our  meals.  Besides  this,  we  were  told 
by  every  one  whom  we  questioned  that  the  roads  were  bad. 

At  ten  o'clock  a  most  sumptuous  breakfast  was  served  up.  It 
by  far  surpassed  many  of  our  holiday  dinners  at  home,  if  not  in 
cooking,  at  least  in  variety. 

After  breakfast  I  wrote  up  my  journal,  some  correspondence, 
then  set  out  in  search  of  a  gunsmith  to  load  my  Colt's  revolver, 
for  I  feared  that  I  might  have  some  use  for  it  in  Spain.  The 
ticket-seller  told  me  that  it  was  pretty  safe ;  but,  as  I  read  on  my 
ticket,  "  Tlie  Company  is  not  responsible  for  any  effects  taken  hy 
armed  force  ^''  I  thought  "discretion  the  better  part  of  valor,"  and 
had  my  pistol  well  loaded.  With  an  eight-inch  "  Colt,"  I  thought 
I  might  meet  on  pretty  equal  terms  quite  a  considerable  "  armed 
force." 

The  Emperor  Napoleon  is  at  this  moment  in  the  bathing-place 
of  Biarritz,  about  twenty  minutes'  drive  from  here.  To-day  he  is 
expected  to  pass  by  Bayonne  on  his  return  to  Paris,  and  all  along 
where  he  is  to  pass  the  road  is  decorated  with  flags,  flowers,  gar- 
lands, and  arches  of  triumph.  Great  enthusiasm  is  every  where 
shown,  and,  from  all  I  here  saw,  he  is  very  much  loved  in  this 
part  of  France. 

Precisely  at  six  in  the  evening  we  started  with  the  diligence. 
There  were  about  twenty  passengers,  and  a  quantity  of  large 
trunks,  some  of  which  would  hold  the  whole  household  furniture 
of  six  families  living  out  West.  Besides  these  immense  trunks 
there  were  several  dry-good  boxes  belonging  to  some  merchant 
passenger,  whicH  attained  still  greater  dimensions.  With  all  this 
weight,  the  six  powerful  horses  hitched  to  our  diligence  took  us 
along  at  a  good  sharp  rate.  At  the  first  station  we  again  took  six 
horses.  When  I  speak  of  a  diligence,  let  not  my  readers  imagine 
an  American  stage ;  it  difiers  in  every  respect. 

The  wheels  are  large  and  hea\'y ;  the  box,  which  is  painted  in 
a  tasty  manner,  is  divided  into  four  divisions,  each  having  its  own 
entry  and  its  own  price.     These  divisions,  naming  them  by  the 


118  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

order  of  their  rank  and  price,  are  the  Berline,  Inierieur,  Motonde, 
and  Coujie.  In  the  Berline  there  are  three  places,  all  fronting  the 
horses,  having  each  a  window  in  front,  and  the  two  .side  places 
one  on  the  side.  After  the  Berline,  which  is  in  the  front  of  the 
diligence,  comes  the  Interieur.  It  has  six  places,  three  toward 
the  front  and  three  opposite.  The  four  side  places  have  each  a 
window.  Like  the  Berline,  the  Interieur  has  two  entries,  one  on 
each  side.  Tlie  Ilotonde  possesses  four  places,  two  on  each  side 
of  the  carriage,  and  parallel  to  it.  Behind  each  place  there  is  a 
window,  and  the  entry  is  from  behind.  In  front,  on  a  level  with 
the  top  of  the  diligence,  is  the  driver's  seat.  Right  behind  this  is 
the  Coupe.  It  has  four  places,  one  for  the  conductor,  and  three 
for  passengers.  It  is  covered  by  a  thick  covering  of  leather,  of 
the  exact  shape  of  an  old  American  buggy.  Behind  this  was  the 
roof  of  the  diligence,  on  which  the  baggage  was  put ;  and,  after  be- 
ing firmly  lashed  on,  covered  over  with  a  thick  covering  of  leather. 
Sometimes  it  happens  that  all  the  space  under  this  covering  is  not 
taken  up  by  the  baggage ;  it  is  then  used  to  stow  away  passengers 
who  travel  as  fifth  class.  The  only  light,  the  only  air  these  poor 
fellows  get,  steals  itself  through  the  little  hole  behind  the  con- 
ductor's seat,  which  also  serves  as  door.  They  have  not  even  a 
bench  to  sit  upon.  It  is  useless  to  say  that  this  is  the  cheapest 
place.  The  Coupe,  in  price,  comes  after  the  Rotonde.  We  chose 
our  seats  in  the  Coupd.  At  the  end  of  oar  journey,  far  from  re- 
penting of  our  choice,  we  found  that  it  was  a  most  happy  one ; 
for,  while  the  other  passengers  were  half  suffocated  from  dust  and 
the  want  of  air,  we  sufi'ered  from  neither.  The  only  objection  of 
our  seats  was  the  difficulty  to  get  out  and  in :  this  difficulty  was 
much  heightened  by  a  woman  who  had  a  child  in  her  lajo,  and 
who  occupied  the  third  place  in  the  Coupe. 

At  the  next  station  they  hitched  on  thirteen  mules,  and  away 
we  went,  full  gallop  up  and  down  hill,  the  driver  hallooing,  shout- 
ing, yelling,  and  cracking  his  whip.  His  yells  would  have  done 
honor  to  an  American  savage.  What,  however,  most  astonished 
me  was  the  driver's  descending  and  mounting  to  his  seat  while 
the  mules  were  in  full  gallop.  It  was  at  least  ten  feet  above  the 
ground.  When  his  mules  would  not  pay  any  more  attention  to 
the  cracks  of  his  whip  or  to  his  voice,  he  would  quietly  descend, 
and,  after  whipping  them  from  the  last  to  the  first  rank,  all  the 
while  uttering  the  most  unearthly  sounds,  he  would  climb  qui- 
etly up  to  his  scat  again,  although  the  whole  equipage  might 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  119 

be  on  a  full  run.  No  sooner  would  be  be  in  his  scat  than  he 
would  recommence  his  yells,  and  ply  his  whip  most  vigorously. 
There  is  on  the  leading  mule  or  horse  a  postillion,  whose  only 
duty  is  to  halloo  to  wagons  and  carts  which  arc  met  to  turn  out 
of  the  road.  It  is  a  curious  sight  thus  to  see  twelve  to  sixteen 
mules,  in  two  or  in  three  rows,  going  along  with  all  their  speed, 
the  two  last  only  having  lines,  the  others  tied  one  to  another  by 
their  halter-strings.  The  postillion  has  a  control  only  over  his 
own  mule  and  the  one  beside  it.  Such  a  scene  is  as  hard  to  de- 
scribe as  it  is  curious.  Although  the  postillion  only  controls  the 
first  two  mules,  and  the  driver  the  last  two,  they  dash  away  at 
the  greatest  speed,  plying  their  whips,  shouting,  yelling,  bawling. 
"When  the  driver  gets  down  to  whip  the  mules,  the  conductor 
takes  his  place,  whips  unmercifully  all  those  he  can  reach,  and 
screams  at  those  he  can  not  reach.  When  an  unaccustomed  trav- 
eler sees  himself  carried  along  at  such  a  rate,  on  the  brink  of 
precipices  from  two  hundred  to  six  hundred  feet,  by  twelve  to 
sixteen  mules  without  reins,  he  involuntarily  shuts  his  eyes,  and 
recommends  his  soul  to  its  Maker. 

We  arrived  at  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  evening  at  a  place  where 
we  were  asked  for  our  passports  by  the  French  authorities,  who 
scarcely  gave  them  a  glance.  We  crossed  a  bridge  and  were  in 
Spanish  territory.  Here  we  got  out  to  have  our  baggage  thor- 
oughly examined,  as  well  as  our  passports,  by  the  Spanish  author- 
ities. For  having  the  latter  again  vised  we  were  obliged  to  pay 
once  more.  We  might  have  dispensed  with  their  vise,  but  they 
could  not  have  done  without  our  reals^  for  they  were  a  most  hun- 
gry-looking set. 

After  uselessly  spending  two  hours  here,  we  resumed  our  course, 
drawn  on  by  sixteen  mules.  It  was  a  fine  moonlight  night,  and 
I  could  see  the  country  all  around.  We  were  ascending  the  Pyr- 
enees. In  the  ravines  was  planted  Indian  corn.  The  hills  are 
barren,  and  have  few,  if  even  any  trees  on  them.  Soon  it  began  to 
rain,  and  I  could  no  longer  see  out.  At  twelve  o'clock  we  arrived 
at  St.  Sebastien,  where  we  were  nearly  upset  in  trying  to  get 
through  a  gate.  The  string  of  mules  was  so  long  that  they  could 
not  give  the  proper  turn,  and  the  gate  was  so  narrow  that  we  ran 
up  against  one  of  the  posts.  At  last,  after  a  few  moments  of  hal- 
looing and  whipping,  we  got  through.  We  changed  mules  and 
continued  our  way,  which  ran  along  the  sea-shore  for  about  half 
an  hour,  then  left  it  for  good. 


120  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Sejjtemher  21. — TVe  traveled  the  whole  night  in  the  same  way 
as  above-mentioned.  The  morning  brought  to  our  view  a  mount- 
ainous and  unimproved  country.  It  was  as  wild  as  the  Eocky 
Mountains.  The  ravines  were  the  only  part  of  the  country  which 
was  cultivated,  and  they  were  planted  wifh  Indian  corn  and  chest- 
nut-trees. 

The  houses  of  the  villages  are  all  of  stone,  but  they  have  a  most 
wretched  and  miserable  appearance.  Poverty,  dirt,  and  laziness 
are  every  where  to  be  seen.  The  fields  are  not  cultivated  with 
the  same  care  as  in  Switzerland.  Here  and  there  you  meet  patch- 
es of  turnips,  some  of  which  are  hoed  by  women,  but  this  must  be 
considered  so  much  work  thrown  away,  as  they  generally  are  not 
hoed  at  all. 

At  eight  o'clock  we  arrived  in  a  village  where  we  expected  to 
have  a  good  breakfast,  and,  after  such  a  ride,  by  all  means  a  good 
wash.  To  our  great  disappointment,  we  had  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other.  Water  there  was  plenty  in  the  well ;  and  as  for  the 
good  breakfast,  it  reduced  itself  down  to  a  cup  of  chocolate  and 
something  which  we  were  told  was  coffee.  We  did  not  choose  to 
experiment,  so  we  chose  the  chocolate,  which  was  in  a  little  cup, 
two  inches  in  diameter  and  three  deep.  These  measures  were 
reckoned  on  the  outside  of  the  cup,  not  on  the  inside.  For  this 
they  charged  us  the  moderate  sum  of  ten  reals.  It  is  such  an  un- 
accustomed thing,  without  doubt,  to  see  persons  wash  in  this  coun- 
try, that  they  thought  if  we  could  wash  we  could  pay. 

After  this  sumptuous  breakfast  we  went  on  again,  and  about 
eleven  o'clock  we  reached  the  valley.  It  is  large,  extensive  roll- 
ing ground,  having  no  trees  and  looking  like  a  desert.  There  is 
some  grain  grown,  which  consists  of  oats,  barley,  and  a  little  wheat, 
but  no  corn.  The  grain  is  all  planted  in  rows,  and  hilled  up,  like 
corn  out  West,  only  on  two  sides,  not  all  around.  The  planting 
is  done  by  dropping  the  seed  after  the  plow  has  raised  wp  the 
ground.  I  could  not  ascertain  what  an  acre  yielded,  for  no  one 
either  in  the  stage  or  in  the  village  could  inform  me. 

At  one  o'clock  we  arrived  at  Vittoria,  where  we  got  a  kind  of 
dinner.  We  even  had  the  luxury  of  getting  one  towel  for  eight 
of  us.  Happy  was  he  who  found  a  clean  corner !  Thirty  min- 
utes after,  we  were  again  on  the  way  through  this  dreary,  dcscrt- 
looking  country.  It  is  uninteresting,  altogether  without  trees,  and 
has  not  even  a  sign  of  cultivation.  There  are  no  houses  on  the 
plains ;  the  villages  are  small,  dirty,  and  miserable-looking ;  the 


SPAIN :  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  121 

houses  have  no  windows  to  them  except  some  few ;  the  means  of 
transportation  is  by  mules,  donkeys,  and  miserable  two-wheeled 
carts.  The  cart-wheels  arc  made  wholly  of  plank,  and  then  an 
iron  tire  is  put  on.  AVc  saw  neither  carriages  nor  wagons,  but 
we  met  now  and  then  a  large  two- wheeled  car,  with  eight  to  six- 
teen mules  hitched  on,  one  in  front  of  the  other,  stretching  out  a 
long  way. 

On  our  left  I  saw  men  working  on  the  railway  which  is  eventu- 
ally to  go  from  Bayonne  to  Madrid.  Even  this  enterprise  is  car- 
ried on  by  Frenchmen. 

We  sped  on  at  the  expense  of  the  lungs  and  whip  of  the  driver 
and  conductor.  Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  were  spared.  I 
thought  that  the  whip  bill  would  be  very  dear  to  the  company, 
but  I  learned  that  the  driver  furnishes  his  own  whip.  We  ar- 
rived in  a  dirty  little  town,  where,  to  our  great  astonishment,  we 
were  told  to  get  out  to  have  our  baggage  again  inspected.  I  tried 
to  ascertain  the  reason  for  twice  inspecting  your  baggage  in  the 
same  country, but  I  was  unsuccessful.  "It  must  be  done;"  that 
was  all  I  could  learn.  After  inspecting  us  as  well  as  our  trunks, 
they  permitted  us  to  go  on.  We  almost  got  ourselves  in  trouble 
before  leaving  this  place ;  for,  as  we  were  going  along  its  street  at 
a  sharp  walk,  up  jumped  a  man  of  authority  telling  the  driver  to 
stop,  and  accusing  him  of  trotting  in  the  street.  The  conductor, 
driver,  and  postillion  all  protested  against  this  false  accusation. 
A  dispute  arose ;  high  words  ensued ;  and  then  the  man  of  au- 
thority threatened  to  sue  the  conductor,  driver,  postillion,  and 
even  the  passengers.  Hearing  this,  and  foreseeing  the  little  chance 
of  justice  here,  I  suggested  to  the  conductor  to  put  an  end  to  all 
lawsuits  by  driving  on,  and  this  time  at  full  speed.  He  took  the 
hint,  and  away  we  went,  scattering  all  the  men  of  authority  right 
and  left,  none  venturing  to  stop  us.  That  was  putting  an  end  to 
a  lawsuit  pretty  quick,  and  for  once  again  we  were  out  of  trouble. 
The  country  through  which  we  passed  was  just  the  same  as  I  have 
already  described  above. 

September  22. — ^We  arrived  at  Burgos,  at  the  railway  station,  at 
four  o'clock  in  the  morning.  Here  our  whole  diligence,  baggage 
and  all,  except  passengers,  was  hoisted  upon  a  car,  and  fastened  to 
it.  We  were  furnished  seats  in  the  cars.  I  was  very  much  as- 
tonished at  seeing  such  a  great  number  of  people  at  the  station, 
and  especially  so,  because  Burgos  did  not  seem  large  enough  to 
furnish  so  many  travelers.     There  was  an  immense  mass  o£men, 


122  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

women,  and  children,  all  crowding  toward  the  ticket-office.  When 
the  doors  were  open,  there  was  a  general  rush  and  scramble  for 
seats.  The  enigma  was  soon  explained  to  me.  It  was  not  Bur- 
gos alone  that  produced  all  this  people,  but  the  whole  country 
around ;  they  were  all  bound  for  Valladolid,  where  there  was  to 
be  a  bull-fight  lasting  four  daj^s. 

"We  were  unable  to  get  the  least  thing  to  eat  at  Burgos.  At 
the  next  station  all  the  extra  cars  were  put  on,  but  they  were 
hardly  sufficient  to  hold  all  the  people  here,  who  were  also  on 
their  way  to  the  bull-fight. 

The  master  of  the  train,  conductor,  and  other  officers  ran  right 
and  left,  swore,  cursed,  blasphemed,  thus  making  the  confusion  ten- 
fold greater  and  the  delay  much  longer.  The  consequence  of  all 
this  was  that  we  only  got  off  one  hour  and  a  half  later  than  we 
should  have  done  by  the  regulations.  The  train  at  last  started, 
but,  being  more  than  the  locomotive  could  easily  draw,  our  prog- 
ress was  slow.  At  the  next  station  hundreds  were  waiting  to  be 
taken  in,  but  the  master  of  the  train  only  went  slow  enough  to 
tell  the  chief  of  the  station  that  there  were  no  more  places,  as  all 
was  full.  Though  the  cars  were  in  motion,  no  sooner  was  this 
heard  than  there  was  a  general  pursuit,  some  succeeding  in  scram- 
bling into  the  cars  or  gaining  the  top.  This  was  followed  by  a 
general  groaning  and  cursing  from  those  who  were  unsuccessful, 
and  loud  cheers  of  hurrah  from  those  who  had  succeeded  in  get- 
ting in  or  climbing  on  tojD  of  the  cars. 

I  pitied  the  poor  ticket  officer.  As  I  turned  round  my  head  in 
that  direction  I  saw  already  a  crowd  forming  round  him,  making 
most  violent  gesticulations — no  doubt  asking  back  their  money, 
with  damage  and  interest  for  bets  which  they  never  would  have 
made.  If  physiognomy  shows  the  workings  of  the  human  mind, 
that  of  the  poor  fellows  who  were  left  evinced  the  most  bitter  dis- 
appoinment.  Napoleon  witnessing  the  burning  of  Moscow  could 
not  have  looked  as  deplorable  as  these  poor  people  who  were 
left. 

"We  traveled  six  hours  in  the  railway,  after  which  we  again  got 
into  the  diligence,  to  which  fourteen  mules  were  put,  and  off  we 
went.  At  ten  o'clock  P.M.  we  arrived  at  another  railway  station, 
where  we  learned  that  we  were  one  hour  too  late.  Our  conduct- 
or swore  at  the  manager,  and  the  manager  swore  at  the  conduct- 
or, each  blaming  the  other.  At  last  they  came  to  terms.  It  was 
mutually  agreed  that  it  would  not  happen  again  till  next  time ; 


SPAIN;  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  123 

and  we  were  made  to  understand  that  a  merchandise  train  would 
carry  us  to  Madrid. 

The  passengers  at  first  seemed  to  like  the  delay,  for  they  had 
had  nothing  to  eat  for  sixteen  hours,  and  they  thought  it  would 
be  a  fine  opportunity  to  refill  their  empty  stomachs.  We  all  ran 
to  the  depot  like  so  many  famished  wolves.  But  what  was  our 
disappointment  when  they  informed  us  that  the  station  was  quite 
new,  and  that  there  was  nothing  eatable  to  be  had.  After  a  long 
hunt,  we  found,  in  a  corner,  a  woman  who  sold  aguardiente  and 
some  bad  water. 

Dear  reader,  you  ought  to  have  seen  the  faces  of  the  Johnny 
Bulls,  the  Johnny  Crapauds,  your  Yankee  commissioner,  and  his 
starved  secretary.  The  scale  had  turned ;  the  chevaliers  of  the 
bull-fight  would  have  burst  into  a  laugh  had  they  seen  our  ludi- 
crous expressions.  How  we  did  "bless"  the  conductors  and  man- 
agers in  general,  and  ours  in  particular!  We  walked  up  and 
down  the  yard  in  a  rage,  dining  on  the  dust  our  feet  kicked  up, 
and  having  the  beauty  of  the  moon  for  dessert.  At  last  the  Span- 
ish hour  arrived  which  is  marked  two  on  my  watch,  and  we  were 
packed  into  the  baggage  train.  Our  diligence  was  along  with  us. 
The  whistle  blew,  and  we  started. 

Our  train  got  in  at  the  Madrid  station  at  one  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  Here  we  again  got  into  our  diligence,  and  were  wheel- 
ed to  the  ofiice  of  the  company  in  the  city.  The  Custom-house 
oflicers  detained  us  for  a  while,  after  which,  to  our  great  relief, 
we  were  allowed  to  go. 

We  went  to  the  Hotel  des  Ambassadeurs.  Of  course,  every 
one  was  asleep.  We  managed,  however,  to  get  a  room,  and  the 
waiter,  seeing  our  forlorn  looks,  brought  us  a  bottle  of  wine,  and 
then,  with  great  mystery,  drew  from  his  pocket  two  cakes,  called 
ladies'  fingers^  from  their  size,  no  doubt,  and,  putting  them  beside 
the  wine,  told  us  that  no  charge  would  be  made  for  them.  Fa- 
tigued with  our  fifty-six  hours'  ride,  we  crawled  into  our  beds, 
sure  that  we  would  not  have  the  nightmare  from  an  overcharged 
stomach. 

Septemher  23. — After  ten  o'clock  A.M.  we  took  a  carriage  and 
drove  to  the  residence  of  the  American  minister,  but  found  that 
he,  his  family,  and  secretary  were  at  Lagrange,  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  queen.  From  here  we  drove  round  the  city,  visit- 
ing the  palace,  the  gardens,  the  promenades,  the  Prado,  etc.  We 
also  visited  the  fair,  which  was  being  held  on  the  continuation  of 
the  Prado,  on  the  edge  of  the  city. 


124  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

In  tliis  fair  is  offered  for  sale  every  thing  which  can  be  ima- 
gined used  for  household  or  domestic  economy,  from  a  spoon  to 
a  stove,  a  canary-bird  to  a  hare,  a  needle  to  a  dress,  a  ring  to  a 
diamond,  a  sheet  of  paper  to  a  library,  a  knife  to  a  plow ;  and,  in 
fact,  every  thing  which  is  made  use  of  in  domestic  economy,  as 
well  as  many  that  are  not.  I  found  nothing  worthy  of  note  here, 
and,  in  fact,  I  may  say  that  Madrid  fell  far  below  my  expecta- 
tions. There  are  many  provincial  cities  in  EurojDC  which  are 
much  handsomer. 

The  royal  palace  is  large  and  very  good-looking.  It  is  very 
plain,  having  little  ornament  and  no  statues.  The  statues  round 
the  circular  garden  in  front  of  the  palace  are  none  the  better  for 
wear.  They  are  hewn  out  of  some  sandstone  instead  of  marble, 
and  represent  the  ancient  kings  and  queens  of  Spain,  besides 
some  of  its  heroes.  The  garden  itself  is  pretty  handsome.  The 
palace  is  on  a  splendid  elevation  at  one  end  of  the  city,  but  what 
a  dreary,  barren  waste  is  seen  from  it !  This  waste  commences 
almost  under  the  walls  of  the  palace.  There  is  nothing  to  relieve 
the  eye;  no  green,  no  meadows,  no  woods,  no  gardens,  no  cha- 
teaux— not  even  farms.  All  that  is  seen  is  stubble-fields,  and 
now  and  then  a  brick-manufactory.  Even  the  queen's  garden  is 
of  little  consequence,  and  looks  most  sadly  neglected.  The  streets 
are  not  better,  if  even  as  good  as  those  of  San  Francisco,  The 
world-renowned  Prado  has  miserable  old  stumpy  trees,  half  de- 
cayed, ill  kept,  and  possesses  dust  enough  to  frighten  any  man 
who  has  black  boots. 

However,  Madrid  has  one  advantage  over  all  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, and  that  is  its  fountain,  which  plays  in  the  middle  of  the 
square  of  the  city.  It  has  no  ornaments  whatever,  simply  a  basin, 
which  is  100  feet  in  diameter,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  an  iron 
pipe  about  four  inches  in  diameter.  This  sends  out  a  stream  of 
water  which  rises  to  170  feet.  Seen  from  a  distance,  it  looks  like 
snow  curling  up  from  the  ground.  The  Botanic  Gardens  are  in 
progress,  and  promise  well. 

But  I  have  neglected  to  give  an  account  of  the  country  through 
which  we  traveled.  It  was  a  wide  plain,  cultivated  with  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats.  The  people  live  in  villages;  therefore  from 
one  town  to  the  other  there  is  nothing  to  break  the  monotony  of 
the  plain — no  haystack,  house,  or  even  pile  of  rocks.  The  vil- 
lages in  the  plains  consist  of  low  and  miserable  houses.  In  the 
streets  there  are  probably  one  or  two  shops,  the  whole  value  of 
the  place  being  $500,  if  so  much. 


SPAIN :  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  125 

We  passed  one  village,  which,  with  a  few  exceptions,  was  built 
in  the  ancient  style  of  the  renowned  city  of  Petra,  in  Arabia; 
only,  instead  of  being  hewn  in  the  rock,  the  houses,  or  rather  cel- 
lars, are  dug  in  a  clay  hill.  Ilcrc  in  the  cellars,  without  win- 
dows, the  people  live.  In  the  rear  of  these  habitations  is  a  hole 
which  serves  for  a  chimney.  • 

On  the  plains  of  New  Mexico,  famous  for  their  numerous  squir- 
rels, their  holes  are  called  villages ;  but  what  shall  I  call  this  ? 
my  English  is  too  defective  to  give  it  an  appropriate  name. 

On  approaching  Valladolid,  I  saw  some  few  vines  planted, 
but  without  stakes,  and  allowed  to  grow  as  they  pleased,  having 
about  five  to  eight  feet  distance  between.  They  are  plowed  by 
a  yoke  of  oxen ;  afterward  the  ground  is  piled  up  around  them. 
Corn  and  potatoes  are  also  planted.  The  soil  is  sandy  and  yel- 
low ;  and  the  wine  I  tasted  was  most  rascally  stuff,  being  made 
worse  by  being  kept  in  hide  bags  made  of  calves'  skin.  Vines 
continue  to  be  planted  in  spots  almost  all  the  way  to  Madrid. 

At  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening  we  started  from  Madrid,  on  our 
way  toward  Malaga.  We  were  drawn  to  the  railroad  depot  by  six 
fine  gray  horses.  Here  we  all  got  out,  and,  to  my  great  astonish- 
ment, the  hundred  buckles  holding  up  the  baggage  were  undone, 
and  all  taken  off  and  put  into  the  cars.  The  distance  from  the 
diligence  ofl&ce  to  the  railway  station  was  only  from  ten  to  fifteen 
minutes'  ride,  and  I  could  not  make  out  why  all  that  trouble  was 
taken  to  put  on  our  baggage,  when  it  had  to  be  taken  off  again 
so  soon.  Why  not  give  the  passengers  a  rendezvous  at  the  sta- 
tion? Much  time  and  trouble  would  be  saved  them.  To  all  my 
inquiries  no  one  could  give  an  answer.  They  have  few  practical 
ideas  here  at  present.  When  all  the  baggage  was  removed  the 
diligence  was  taken  back  to  the  city,  where  the  horses  will  re- 
main a  day  and  a  half  idle. 

After  some  whistling,  backing,  etc.,  we  started,  and  soon  lost 
sight  of  Madrid.  The  moon  was  beautiful,  and,  as  I  lay  in  my 
seat  looking  out  of  the  window,  I  imagined  myself  back  in 
New  Mexico  traveling  in  cars.  There  was,  in  fact,  some  resem- 
blance, except  that  on  the  Plains  we  sometimes  pass  a  cotton- 
wood-tree  ;  here  not  a  bush  could  be  seen.  Passing  several  vil- 
lages, all  desolate  and  uninviting,  we  at  last  came  to  the  place 
where  we  had  again  to  take  the  diligence.  It  was  two  in  the 
morning.  When  the  baggage  came  into  the  baggage-room  there 
was  a  general  rush,  each  passenger  laying  his  hands  upon  any 


126  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

thing  that  came  witbin  reach,  whether  his  own  or  not.  When 
his  hands  were  full,  he  hunted  for  the  person  who  had  his  own, 
and  then  reclaimed  it,  making  a  mutual  exchange.  The  scene 
was  highly  comical,  and  worthy  the  pencil  of  Cruikshank,  or 
Cham,  or  M'Lenan.  When  all  had  reclaimed  their  effects,  there 
was  found  to  be  one  package  unreclaimed.  Here  a  long  parley 
ensued  between  the  conductor  and  the  railroad  officers.  They 
counted  and  recounted  all  the  luggage,  but  to  no  effect.  The 
passengers  were  all  called  up,  to  see  if  any  one  would  claim  the 
package.  I  was  very  much  amused  at  the  occurrence,  as  I  felt 
satisfied  that  mine  was  all  right,  having  watched  it  during  every 
change  from  Madrid  to  this  place.  When  the  little  struggle  took 
place  for  the  baggage,  I  heroically  withstood  several  fierce  attacks 
on  my  little  valise  and  carpet  bag.  Not  being  able  to  find  an 
owner  for  the  package,  it  was  laid  down,  and  there  took  place — a 
stand-still. 

We  walked  up  and  down  an  hour  waiting  for  something  to 
turn  up.  All  this  time  the  mules  were  hitched  to  the  diligence 
upon  which  was  the  luggage ;  but,  to  our  astonishment,  no  order 
was  given  us  to  mount.  At  last  the  cold  atmosphere  had  its  ef- 
fect upon  the  brains  of  the  passengers,  who  became  uneasy,  and 
they  began  questioning  each  other  as  to  the  reason  for  not  start- 
ing. As  no  one  could  answer,  impatience  soon  turned  to  anger, 
and  one  person  stepped  up  to  the  conductor,  who  was  musingly 
leaning  against  a  pillar,  and  asked  him  for  an  explanation.  He 
answered  that  it  was  on  account  of  this  package,  for  which  he 
was  responsible ;  he  was  certain  it  belonged  to  some  one  in  the 
diligence,  and  he  could  not  take  it  out  of  the  depot  until  some 
one  claimed  it ;  then,  again,  if  he  left  it  behind,  the  company  were 
responsible  for  it  to  the  owner,  and  he  did  not  wish  to  get  him- 
self into  trouble.  His  answer  was  cool  and  philosophical.  It  was 
in  vain  the  passengers  grew  angry;  his  calmness  did  not  desert 
him. 

So  matters  stood  when  the  passengers  gathered  together  again, 
and  consulted  vehemently  on  the  subject.  At  last,  when  their 
indignation  was  fully  aroused,  they  determined  to  go  to  a  fellow- 
passenger  who  was  a  Delegado,  and  rouse  his  energy  to  action. 
This  important  person  was  calmly  seated  on  a  sofa,  wrapped  up 
in  a  warm  cloak,  thinking  of  his  greatness,  or,  perhaps,  whether 
Mexico  should  or  should  not  be  again  annexed  to  Spain.  In  his 
dream  of  great  things  he  had  altogether  forgotten  little  ones,  and 


SPAIN :  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  127 

had  not  even  noticed  our  delay — thanks  to  his  comfortable  coat. 
The  passengers  delegated  him  to  represent  them  to  the  conductor. 
The  Delcgado  was  so  much  taken  by  the  gravity  and  importance 
of  the  position,  that  he  walked  up  to  the  conductor  and  demanded 
an  immediate  start.  The  demand  was  followed  by  the  desired 
effect.  A  consultation  was  opened,  and  thus  concluded :  "  Since 
every  passenger  present  apparently  had  his  baggage,  and  since 
every  passenger  in  the  diligence  denied  being  the  possessor  of  the 
package  in  question,  it  was  decided  that  the  named  package  did 
not  belong  to  any  of  the  passengers ;  therefore,  if  left,  the  com- 
pany would  not  be  responsible  for  it." 

This  decision  was  received  with  applause,  and  soon  we  were 
galloping  away.  This  delay,  caused  by  these  disputes,  occupied 
two  and  a  half  hours.  Of  course,  myself  and  son,  being  the  only 
foreigners  in  the  diligence,  kept  quiet.  One  reason  for  our  not 
interfering  was  the  fact  that  we  were  Americans,  who  are  held  in 
great  dislike  in  this  country.  Even  the  deputy's  face  beamed 
with  smiles  when  we  at  last, started. 

"We  had  made  but  a  few  hundred  yards  when  we  were  stopped 
and  counted  head  by  head.  Yankee-like,  I  stuck  my  head  out 
of  the  window  to  see  what  now  was  in  .the  wind.  I  saw  the  con- 
ductor, driver,  postillion,  and  an  aid  gathered  around  the  door  of 
a  house,  disputing  violently.  In  the  door  were  two  men — one  a 
gendarme,  with  his  carbine ;  the  other  with  a  paper  in  his  hand. 
The  latter  said,  firmly,  that  we  could  not  be  allowed  to  proceed, 
as  we  had  one  more  person  in  the  diligence  than  the  law  allows. 
All  wanted  to  speak  at  a  time,  so  that  a  confusion  ensued  in  which 
none  understood  what  the  other  said.  Finally,  the  conductor  suc- 
ceeded in  "getting  the  floor"  alone.  He  remonstrated,  saying 
that  the  person  who  was  too  much  was  a  young  child  sitting  on 
his  mother's  lap,  and  could  not  be  separated  from  her;  besides 
this,  as  she  had  her  husband,  it  would  be  cruel  to  separate  them 
from  one  another.  Notwithstanding  this  eloquent  ajDpeal  to  hu- 
manity, the  man  with  the  paper  remained  inflexible.  Nothing 
could  move  him,  until  one  passenger,  far  away  from  the  boy,  de- 
clared that  the  child  was  very  small,  did  not  occupy  any  place, 
since  he  was  on  his  mother's  lap,  and  that  he  was  not  at  all 
troublesome.  At  this  declaration,  and  its  unanimity  (namely,  one 
man),  the  official  yielded,  and  we  went  on. 

However,  doubts  soon  arose  in  my  mind  whether  the  person 
who  so  generously  pleaded  the  cause  of  the  boy  had  not  better 


128  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

change  seats  with  me,  at  least  for  a  time.  The  little  fellow  went 
to  sleep  leaning  his  head  and  whole  body  on  me.  Now,  as  the 
road  was  not  over  smooth,  the  diligence  sometimes  gave  a  jerk  on 
one  side,  sometimes  on  the  other,  and  the  child  followed  its  move- 
ments. Imagine  what  a  pleasant  position  I  w^as  in.  I  would 
much  rather  have  been  on  a  "  grizzly"  hunt.  Three  nights  pre- 
vious I  had  not  slept.  However,  I  consoled  myself  with  the  idea 
that  all  my  pains  would  be  remunerated  by  a  sweet  smile  from 
the  daughter  of  "  a  hundred  dons  of  old  renown"  when  daylight 
came.  I  awaited  daylight  with  impatience.  At  last  it  came,  and 
I  found  the  senora  of  my  dreams  not  very  ugly,  not  very  old,  but 
very  dirty. 

Near  seven  o'clock  the  conductor  announced  to  us  that  we  were 
to  breakfast  in  the  village  which  we  were  then  entering.  No 
sooner  had  our  feet  touched  the  ground  than  we  were  surrounded 
by  about  thirty  beggars.  They  really  besieged  us.  Eesistance 
was  out  of  the  question.  In  the  first  place,  it  would  not  look 
well  to  attack  a  lot  of  old  men  and  women,  all  blind,  lame,  or 
diseased;  then  they  were  in  greater  number  than  we.  I  was 
struck  by  an  idea :  putting  my  hand  in  my  pockets,  I  pulled  out 
a  handful  of  copper  coin  and  threw  it  among  the  crowd.  The 
move  was  most  successful ;  there  was  a  general  scramble,  in  which 
the  lame  walked  and  the  bhnd  saw.  While  they  were  still  scram- 
bling for  the  money,  we  gained  the  inn  by  the  road  which  they 
had  left  open  to  us.  Once  in  the  tavern,  we  were  safe,  unless  we 
approached  the  door,  when  they  began  making  a  piteous  noise, 
begging  in  the  most  moving  language.  This  invariably  happen- 
ed whenever  we  approached  the  door,  and  we  as  invariably  made 
a  hasty  and  disorderly  retreat  to  the  interior. 

A  couple  of  miles  on  the  other  side  of  Balde  Pengas  the  vine 
plantations  begin  again.  The  soil  is  either  of  sand  or  clay,  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two.  The  wine  is  fermented  in  large  clay  jars 
from  six  to  eight,  or  even  ten  feet  high.  The  wine  has  a  peculiar 
and  disagreeable  taste,  which  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  drink 
it  after  it  has  once  come  in  contact  with  the  palate.  This  comes 
from  the  hides  which  the  wine  is  put  in.  They  have  no  barrels. 
Every  ordinary  wine  that  I  have  yet  drank  in  Spain  has  in  it 
cither  aguardiente  or  alcohol ;  this  renders  them  unfit  for  common 
use,  for  tlicy  naturally  are  very  strong  already. 

The  fifteen  minutes  allowed  for  breakfast  over,  we  huddled  in 
again  to  our  places.     The  little  boy,  being  tired  of  sitting  on  his 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  129 

mother's  lap,  took  half  of  his  mother's  seat  and  half  of  mine,  which 
was  already  not  too  large  before.  However,  I  managed  to  squeeze 
myself  some  way.  The  heat  was  intense,  and  the  dust  intolera- 
ble, for  it  was  as  line  as  it  was  penetrating.  Away  we  went,  fol- 
lowed by  four  or  five  little  girls  and  boys,  who  ran  alongside  of 
the  diligence  begging.  The  girls  gave  up  in  about  three  fourths 
of  a  mile ;  the  boys  held  out  longer,  and  one  of  them  ran  for  at 
least  four  miles.  We  had  thrown  out  to  them  some  coppers  from 
time  to  time.     Neither  the  girls  nor  boys  wore  shoes. 

Our  way  led  us  near  to  the  railway  which  was  being  built ;  we 
saw  hundreds  of  men  and  women  working  on  it.  They  all  of 
them  had  on  their  backs  a  basket  hardly  holding  four  to  five  gal- 
lons ;  they  would  creep  snail-like  to  where  the  dirt  was  found,  fif- 
teen to  twenty  yards  off,  leisurely  fill  the  basket,  and  then  return 
in  a  manner  so  slow  that  the  slowest  man  in  America  would  be- 
come desperate.  When  they  arrived  at  the  place  where  the  load 
was  to  be  deposited,  they  threw  it  down,  but  always  in  the  most 
careful  manner.  These  railway  contractors  seem  not  to  have  the 
least  practical  idea ;  had  they  one,  they  would  have  all  this  trans- 
portation done  by  machinery.  We  passed  several  other  places 
where  they  were  also  working,  but  all  in  the  same  snail-like  way. 

The  mountains  are  all  barren ;  not  a  tree  can  be  seen.  Now 
and  then  we  passed  a  miserable  village  filled  with  beggars.  You 
can  not  walk,  stand,  or  sit  any  where  without  being  besieged  by 
them.  It  is  the  most  annoying  thing  that  can  be  imagined  ;  they 
will  not  be  contented  with  a  simple  refusal,  but  will  obstinately 
follow  you  up  wherever  you  go. 

We  at  last  reached  the  top  of  the  mountain,  where  we  found  a 
table-land.  It  was  here  that  we  saw  the  ancient  Moorish  town 
of  Carolina.  It  is  a  thriving  village,  and  surrounded,  as  far  as 
the  eye  can  reach,  by  olive-trees ;  these  furnish  a  most  pleasing 
contrast  with  the  barren  country  through  which  we  had  passed 
since  we  left  Bayonne. 

We  were  several  hours  passing  through  this  really  beautiful 
country,  when  we  arrived  at  the  place  where  we  were  to  dine. 
Victoria,  I  believe,  was  the  name  of  the  place.  I  succeeded,  in 
spite  of  their  numbers,  in  making  my  way  through  the  beggars, 
and  coming  to  the  kitchen.  I  seized  upon  the  first  thing  which 
fell  under  my  hands  and  looked  like  a  wash-bowl.  After  wash- 
ing my  face,  I  was  lucky  enough  to  find  a  clean  corner  to  wipe  it. 
Our  dinner  was  a  Spanish  one.     What  was  wanting  in  dishes 

I 


130  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

was  made  up  in  charges.  The  conductor  did  not  leave  us  much 
time  to  dispute  the  charges,  but  hustled  us  into  the  diligence,  and 
away  wc  went.  Our  road  still  led  us  through  many  beautiful 
olive  and  vine  plantations.  The  boy  settled  the  right  to  the  seat 
by  taking  up  the  largest  half  of  it.  Night  soon  set  in  and  veiled 
the  scenery  from  our  view.  As  darkness  came  on,  the  boy  re- 
turned to  his  mother's  lap,  to  my  great  relief,  for  when  he  went 
to  sleep  I  only  had  to  support  half  of  him.  Arrived  at  Jean,  sev- 
eral passengers  left  us,  and  the  lady  with  her  little  boy  went  into 
the  Kotonde.  .  Her  place  was  taken  by  a  gentleman,  and  from 
here  we  enjoyed  a  little  more  comfort. 

We  entered  Granada  at  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning.  It  is  an 
old  Moorish  town,  has  quite  a  considerable  population,  and,  from 
what  I  could  see,  was  quite  thriving.  Its  produce  is  olives,  oil, 
wine,  hemj),  and  lead.  This  latter  article  is  found  in  quite  large 
quantities  in  the  neighborhood.  The  hotels  are  miserable,  and 
their  prices  exorbitant,  as  myself  and  fellow-passengers  can  all 
testify. 

Sepiemher  24. — We  were  informed  that  the  stage  would  only 
leave  at  seven  in  the  evening,  so  we  would  have  time  to  see  ev- 
ery thing.  I  went  to  a  hotel,  engaged  a  guide,  and  ordered  him 
to  get  me  saddle-horses  to  see  the  celebrated  Alhambra.  He  soon 
returned,  informing  me  that  he  could  not  get  saddle-horses,  but 
that  he  had  engaged  a  carriage  for  three  dollars.  Informing  me 
that  the  stable  where  the  carriage  was  lay  on  the  way  to  the  Al- 
hambra, I  thought  that  we  might  walk  to  it.  He  advised  me  to 
do  so,  saying  that  it  would  save  time.  This  phrase  "  save  time" 
sounded  pleasantly  in  my  ear,  for  it  was  so  long  since  I  had  last 
heard  it.  It  did  not  astonish  mc,  for  our  guide,  who  was  a  young 
Spaniard,  had  lived  some  time  in  America. 

What  was  our  astonishment  and  indignation  on  seeing  our  car- 
riage, which  was  no  more  or  less  than  a  very  old  two-wheeled 
Spanish  cart,  without  springs.  It  had  two  boards  on  the  inside 
for  seats,  with  rags  for  cushions,  held  up  on  the  sides  by  ropes. 
After  some  grumbling  we  got  in.  The  concern  was  drawn  by  a 
large  bony  mule,  led  by  the  driver,  who  walked  alongside,  and 
occasionally  gave  him  a  poke  in  the  ribs  with  the  butt  of  his 
whip,  which  had  a  nail  in  its  end.  As  we  rode  in  the  streets  we 
looked  out  to  sec  if  any  one  was  looking  at  us,  but  no  one  paid 
any  attention  to  our  "carriage,"  so  we  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  it  was  the  customary  mode  of  traveling  here. 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  131 

We  continued  our  way  slowly  through  the  narrow,  winding 
streets  until  we  came  to  the  garden  gates.  In  due  time  we  ar- 
rived at  the  Generalife.  It  was  here  that  we  perceived  how  finely 
our  guide  had  taken  us  in.  In  the  first  place,  the  walk  through 
the  streets  would  have  been  much  more  agreeable  than  the  hor- 
rible shaking  and  jolting  of  our  cart ;  secondly,  the  distance  was 
very  short;  and,  lastly,  the  walk  would  have  been  a  most  agree- 
able one  through  all  the  beautiful  and  shady  alleys. 

I  will  not  attempt  a  description  of  this  beautiful  palace,  which 
is  considered  the  finest  the  world  ever  had.  For  that  I  refer  my 
readers  to  Washington  Irving.  Only  he  has  done  justice  to  the 
beautiful  palace,  magnificent  view,  gardens,  and  legends.  Read 
his  "Legends  of  the  Alhambra,"  and  you  will  be  here. 

When  I  had  sufficiently  admired  the  scenery  and  all  the  beau- 
ties of  the  palace,  I  started  down  on  foot,  not  caring  to  rub  off  the 
small  part  of  skin  still  remaining  on  my  shins.  My  son,  how- 
ever, thought  to  make  the  most  of  a  bad  thing,  and  so  went  in  the 
carriage  to  the  Cartuja,  celebrated  for  its  interior  architectural 
beauty,  and  the  mad-house,  which  was  an  ancient  convent,  built 
by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  in  accordance  with  a  vow  which  they 
had  made  to  that  effect  while  reducing  Granada. 

I  inspected  several  manufactories,  but  none  of  them  had  any 
thing  worth  mentioning  to  my  readers.  I  returned  home  and 
wrote  up  my  journal. 

I  found  much  difiiculty  in  reaching  home  on  account  of  the 
beggars,  who  were  not  only  in  great  numbers,  but  also  very  im- 
pertinent. They  would  cry  out,  "  For  God's  sake,  look  at  me,  sir ; 
I  am  old,  sick,  and  in  want."  In  looking  at  them  I  was  often  as- 
tonished how  they  could  use  such  terms  when  they  looked  so 
well,  and  were  neither  old  nor  badly  dressed.  It  seems  to  have 
passed  into  a  habit  with  Spanish  people.  I  really  think  that  one 
third  are  beggars.  Some  Spanish  gentlemen  informed  me  that  it 
was  not  considered  as  derogating  from  one's  dignity  to  beg. 

We  left  Granada  in  full  speed  at  seven  o'clock,  and  almost  ran 
down  a  dozen  soldiers  who  were  drilling.  They  were  marching 
in  double  file  toward  the  road.  The  conductor  thought  that  they 
would  halt,  and  the  captain  thought  that  the  diligence  would  stop, 
and  so  both  continued,  until  the  men,  seeing  their  danger,  broke 
the  ranks  and  fell  back,  no  doubt  thinking  that  they  would  be 
safer  farther  off  than  under  the  wheels.  What  the  captain  thought 
I  don't  know.  The  conductor  did  not  stop  to  ask  his  opinion  on 
the  subject. 


132  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Our  seats  were  pretty  comfortable,  they  Laving  placed  us  into 
the  Berline,  as  they  call  it  here.  We  tried  in  Madrid  to  get  the 
same  seats  which  we  had  in  coming  from  Bayonne,  but  they  had 
already  been  taken. 

I  could  not  judge  of  the  appearance  of  the  country,  as  it  was 
dark  and  cloudy.  When  daybreak  came  we  were  on  high  mount- 
ains, planted  from  the  valleys  to  their  very  tops  with  grape-vines. 
The  soil  is  red  and  rocky.  The  appearance  of  the  country  was 
very  picturesque,  as  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains,  on  their  sides 
and  in  the  ravines,  houses  were  built.  This  was  the  first  time  I 
witnessed  in  Spain  an  idea  of  practical  life.  This  is  certainly  far 
better  than  huddling  themselves  together  in  dirty  little  villages. 
Not  only  is  it  more  healthy,  more  comfortable,  but  it  is  also  more 
profitable. 

The  mountains  are  very  steep,  so  the  cultivation  must  be  done 
by  hoes ;  the  work,  however,  is  not  overdone.  It  does  not  rain 
for  seven  or  eight  months  during  the  year,  consequently  but  little 
grass  grows.  Even  if  it  did  rain,  the  weeds  would  not  come  up 
very  fast  in  such  poor  ground. 

The  wine  of  the  mountains  has  the  taste  and  look  of  dark 
sherry,  and,  if  care  was  taken  in  making  it,  it  would  become  an 
excellent  wine.  The  people  here  seem  to  make  no  improvement 
whatever;  their  wine  is  still  made  in  the  same  manner  that  the 
Eomans  employed  when  masters  of  the  country. 

Our  road  still  wound  up  the  hill  for  some  time,  and  vineyards 
were  planted  from  the  foot  to  the  top  of  the  mountains.  Arriving 
at  last  on  the  top  of  the  mountain,  we  had  a  magnificent  view  of 
Malaga  and  its  fertile  valley.  The  prospect  was  beautiful,  and 
for  a  moment  I  forgot  all  my  road  troubles  in  looking  on  the 
scene  which  lay  before  me.  All  was  smiling  to  me ;  the  large 
plantations  of  olive-trees,  vines,  oranges,  and  lemons;  Malaga 
with  its  manufactories;  the  old  Moorish  citadel  and  its  cathe- 
dral— all  present  a  most  pleasing  view,  which  called  out  admira- 
tion when  from  the  town  you  turned  your  eyes  toward  the  sea, 
sprinkled  here  and  there  with  white  sails.  My  pleasure  in  be- 
holding this  scene  was  not  a  little  enhanced  by  the  thought  that 
at  last  my  traveling  by  diligence  would  end. 

Descending  the  mountain,  we  passed  several  raisin-making  es- 
tablishments.    They  are  very  numerous  around  Malaga. 

We  soon  reached  the  city,  and  proceeded  to  the  Alameda  Ho- 
tel, which  proved  to  be  an  excellent  one.     After  having  well 


SPAIN :  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  133 

washed  ourselves  and  breakfasted,  wc  were  but  too  glad  to  lie 
down  and  take  a  sleep  of  several  hours.  We  needed  it  after  the 
six  or  seven  days  or  nights  that  wc  had  passed  in  the  diligence. 

When  our  dinner  was  taken  wc  went  to  the  Alameda,  or  prom- 
enade, where  there  was  to  be  music.  Ilere  wc  saw  all  the  fashion- 
able people  promenading  up  and  do^yn,  among  wh'6m  were  many 
dark-eyed  scnoritas.  After  listening  for  some  time  to  the  music, 
which  was  very  good,  I  returned  to  the  hotel  to  write,  and  my 
son  Arpad  went  to  the  theatre. 

September  27. — In  the  morning  w^e  hired  three  horses,  two  for 
ourselves  and  one  for  our  guide.  Our  steeds  proved  to  be  fine 
ones  of  the  Andalusian  race.  Wc  first  proceeded  to  the  dwell- 
ing of  a  nurseryman,  but,  not  finding  him  at  home,  we  went  to  the 
vine  plantation  of  Don  Luis  Arra  de  Breka.  This  vineyard  is 
200  fanegas  in  extent.  It  makes  5000  boxes  of  raisins,  15,000 
arohas  of  Malaga  wine,  and  300  arohas  of  vinegar.  A  box  of 
raisins  weighs  twenty-five  American  pounds,  and  a  barrel  one 
hundred  pounds.  An  aroba  contains  twenty-two  bottles  of  wine, 
and  a  fanega  of  land  contains  fifteen  hundred  vines.  These  sta- 
tistics were  furnished  by  the  overseer,  who  readily  gave  us  all  the 
information  we  desired.  The  establishment  employs  sixty  men 
in  selecting,  drying,  and  packing  the  raisins. 

The  drying-grounds  consist  of  an  elevation  whose  surface  makes 
an  inclination  of  forty-five  degrees,  whose  length  is  sixty  feet,  and 
width  twelve.  It  is  built  out  of  brick  when  a  natural  elevation 
can  not  be  found.  The  drying-grounds  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  bricks  stuck  into  the  ground.  These  bricks  are  about 
eighteen  inches  long,  one  and  a  half  inches  thick,  and  six  wide. 
The  floor  is  a  clay  soil,  overspread  naturally  or  artificially  with 
small  loose  pebbles.  It  resembles  somewhat  a  threshing-floor, 
only  is  not  so  hard.  The  grapes,  when  ripe,  are  brought  and 
placed  on  these  drying-grounds,  which  are  invariably  built  facing 
the  noon  sun,  that  they  may  receive  the  greatest  possible  heat. 
It  is  to  obtain  this  effect  that  these  grounds  are  inclined  forty-five 
degrees,  for  it  is  at  this  inclination  that  the  heat  is  the  greatest. 

The  grapes,  laid  simply  on  the  ground  as  above  mentioned,  will 
naturally  become  dusty,  or  have  some  particles  of  dust ;  therefore 
I  asked  why  they  did  not  spread  them  on  a  canvas  or  on  straw 
mats.  The  answer  I  received  was,  that  neither  canvas  nor  straw 
received  as  much  heat  as  the  ground,  and,  consequently,  the  latter 
would  dr}^  the  grapes  much  quicker  than  the  former.     With  all 


134  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

this,  I  believe  that  many  improvements  might  be  made  in  their 
manner  of  making  raisins.  Asphaltum,  well  mixed  with  sand, 
being  black,  would  receive  a  very  great  amount  of  heat  from  the 
sun. 

The  drying-grounds  are  every  evening  covered  over  with 
boards,  one  overlaying  the^  other,  so  that  no  rain  or  dew  may 
reach  the  grapes  during  the  process  of  drying.  The  grapes  are 
left  on  the  grounds  eight,  ten,  and  twelve  days,  according  to  the 
weather  and  their  progress  in  curing.  But,  inasmuch  as  the  size 
and  ripeness  of  the  grape  comes  in  for  a  large  part,  they  do  not 
dry  all  at  once ;  and  so,  when  the  attendant  sees  some  which  are 
ready,  three  or  four  men  are  put  to  work  at  the  lower  ends,  to 
pick  out  those  which  are  cured,  gradually  proceeding  upward. 
They  arc  seated  on  a  plank  resting  on  the  separating  bricks,  and 
have  on  their  laps  small  boxes  which  hold  about  eight  pounds  of 
raisins.  These  raisins  are  afterward  taken  into  the  adjoining 
pack-house,  where  a  person  with  a  pair  of  scissors  cuts  out  all  the 
rotten  or  inferior  grapes.  It  is  then  passed  to  the  Selector^  who 
selects  all  the  fine  large  grapes,  and  puts  them  in  a  box  beside 
him,  of  the  same  dimensions  as  the  former.  The  other  raisins  are 
left  in  their  own  box,  and  filled  up  afterward  from  the  second 
quality  of  succeeding  boxes.  The  first  class  is  passed,  when  the 
box  is  full,  to  the  weigher,  who  fills  up  what  is  wanting,  and  takes 
out  what  is  too  much ;  each  must  hold  exactly  six  and  a  quarter 
pounds  of  raisins.  It  then  goes  to  the  pacJicr,  who  upsets  the 
raisins  into  a  box  of  the  same  dimensions  lined  with  paper ;  aft- 
erward he  puts  them  in  a  transporting  box,  which  contains  four 
such  small  ones,  and  weighs  twenty-five  pounds.  Each  six  and 
a  quarter  pounds  is  separated  from  the  other  by  the  above-named 
paper.  If  the  paper  is  taken  by  the  corners,  the  raisins  may  be 
taken  out  six  and  a  quarter  pounds  by  six  and  a  quarter  pounds 
without  disturbing  them  or  their  order.  In  fine  large  raisins  these 
four  layers  of  paper  are  absolutely  necessary  to  each  twenty -five 
pounds,  as  they  absorb  the  must  of  the  grapes,  which,  to  preserve 
their  size,  have  not  been  completely  dried,  as  that  would  shrink 
them  up  considerably.  The  second  quality  is  treated  in  the  same 
manner  in  every  respect  as  the  first.  The  only  difference  between 
them  is  their  size. 

The  berries  which  were  cut  out  by  the  scissors  are  all  throM'n 
into  a  barrel,  and  then  taken  to  the  press-house ;  there  they  are 
trodden  by  men  with  shoes ;  then  the  pressed  juice  runs  from  the 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  135 

press  into  a  large  vat-like  hole,  made  out  of  bricks  and  plastered 
with  Eoraan  cement.  It  is  dipped  out  from  here  with  buckets 
like  water  from  a  well,  the  juice  being  almost  as  thick  as  tar. 
Then  it  is  taken  to  large  vats  or  barrels.  In  large  establishments 
the  barrels  or  vats  are  made  of  oak,  but  in  smaller  establish- 
ments there  are  large  earthen  jars  holding  from  ten  to  two  hund- 
red and  fifty  gallons. 

When  the  juice  is  poured  into  these  jars  or  tanks,  to  each  ten 
gallons  of  juice  one  gallon  of  aguardiente  or  brandy  is  put.  It  is 
then  left  to  ferment  slowly,  no  more  care  being  taken  of  it  for  six 
months,  when  it  is  drawn  into  a  new  barrel.  As  is  well  known, 
the  Malaga  wine  requires  six  to  eight  years  to  make  it  good  and 
marketable.  It  is  very  heavy,  and  extremely  sweet.  Not  much 
is  used  by  Americans;  England  and  Kussia  consume  the  most 
of  it. 

The  residue — skins,  stems,  seeds,  etc, — after  being  thoroughly 
pressed,  is  put  into  a  large  cemented  vat ;  a  large  quantity  of  wa- 
ter is  thrown  on,  washing  it  thoroughly.  This  artificial  juice  is 
let  run  down  into  a  well  made  of  bricks  and  cement,  where  it  is 
left  to  form  itself  into  vinegar,  and,  when  ready,  it  is  drawn  off 
and  sent  to  market. 

Besides  the  above-described  drying-plots  of  forty-five  degrees, 
there  are  here  also  twenty  to  thirty  drying-plots  which  are  almost 
level.  The  floor  is  similar  to  the  ones  described.  The  width  is, 
however,  twenty-five  feet,  and,  instead  of  being  covered  in  the 
night  or  rainy  days  with  boards,  a  canvas  is  used,  so  arranged 
that  it  can  be  brought  on  or  off  the  ground  by  drawing  a  cover 
across  a  pole.  This  seems  to  be  the  better  method,  as  much  labor 
is  required  to  lift  the  boards,  which  must  be  done  by  two  men, 
and  piece  by  piece. 

There  are  two  drying-places  in  the  vineyard  and  two  packing- 
houses, to  one  of  which  is  attached  the  wine-house  and  press. 
There  are  no  cellars,  the  wine  being  kept  in  a  large  room  in  a 
stone  house. 

In  the  same  place  are  raised  and  dried  fifteen  to  twenty  thou- 
sand pounds  of  figs,  which  are  dried  in  the  same  manner  and 
upon  plots  as  the  grapes ;  only  instead  of  being  lightly  pressed 
into  the  bags  and  boxes,  they  are  solidly  pressed ;  for  the  more 
they  are  pressed,  the  more  saccharine  they  become.  Figs  require 
ten  to  fifteen  days  in  curing.  The  pressure  must  be  just  heavy 
enough  to  flatten  the  figs  without  smashing  them.     The  fig-trees 


136  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

are  planted  promiscuously,  whereas  the  almond-trees,  of  -which 
many  are  raised,  are  planted  in  avenues. 

The  vines  are  planted  two  vafras  apart.  They  are  kept  low  to 
the  ground,  and  are  trimmed  to  one  size.  According  to  the  thick- 
ness and  strength  of  the  vine,  it  has  four  to  eight  shoots.  The 
vine  is  pruned  every  year  to  one  eye,  and  forms  a  kind  of  knob 
or  head.  The  shoots  are  not  staked,  but  left  to  run  on  the  ground. 
Afler  the  month  of  June  the  ground  is  gathered  up  around  the 
vine  as  we  hill  potatoes.  This  is  done  to  permit  the  sun  to  fall 
on  the  roots  and  draw  the  heat  to  the  grapes.  The  vines  are 
thrifty,  and  the  soil  is  red  and  gravelly. 

"We  arrived  at  a  packing-house ;  the  servant  took  our  horses 
and  tied  them  separately.  As  I  was  taking  notes  I  heard  a  ter- 
rible stampede.  Eunning  out  to  see  the  cause,  I  found  that  one 
of  the  horses  had  pulled  off  the  bridle  and  "pitched  into"  the  one 
standing  next  him.  The  third  one,  also  wishing  to  have  a  hand 
in  the  matter,  broke  his  bridle,  and  the  fight  went  on  lustily. 
The  third,  being  somewhat  inferior,  soon  gave  up,  after  receiving 
several  kicks  and  bites,  but  the  others  fought  like  tigers.  We 
tried  to  stop  the  fight,  but  no  whip,  stone,  or  pole  could  separate 
the  combatants.  A  score  or  more  of  men  surrounded  them,  but 
in  vain.  One  of  the  men  threw  a  stone  at  one  of  the  horses,  but 
it  missed  its  mark,  and  landed  in  the  stomach  of  my  son,  almost 
knocking  him  down.  At  last  they  were  separated ;  but  what  a 
sight!  They  were  bleeding  every  where,  and  the  bridles  and 
saddles  were  all  in  pieces.  I  contemplated  the  scene  before  me, 
and  the  figure  of  my  landlord  rose  up  before  my  vision  like  the 
ghost  in  Hamlet.  I  saw  in  imagination  a  long  paper  with  a  fear- 
ful column  of  figures,  the  sum  total  at  the  bottom  being  quite 
too  long  to  be  read. 

After  patching  up  our  bridles  and  saddles,  we  remounted  for 
the  city.  I  was  hungry,  having  started  without  breakfast,  but 
my  appetite  was  considerably  decreased  by  the  vision  of  the  com- 
ing bill.  At  last  we  arrived,  and  rode  to  the  stable.  I  watched 
my  man.  He  looked  at  his  horses,  shook  his  head,  told  me  he 
must  send  for  a  veterinary  surgeon,  etc.  This  calmness  foreboded 
no  good.  It  showed  diplomacy,  which  I  determined  to  meet  with 
the  same.  I  went  to  our  consul,  Mr.  Hancock,  an  excellent  gen- 
tleman, by  the  way.  I  told  him  my  suspicions  about  breakers 
ahead.  The  consul  immediately  sent  his  clerk  to  the  Civil  Regis- 
ter's office  to  have  our  names  registered ;  this  would  make  the 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  137 

matter  more  complicated  for  the  stable-man  to  get  an  exorbitant 
judgment  for  damages.  So  the  matter  rests;  and  so  I  must  retire 
without  knowing  how  far  my  pocket  will  be  drained. 

Septemher  28. — At  seven  wc  started  again  with  the  same  An- 
dalusian  steeds,  who  were  oiled,  and  the  bridles  patched  up. 
The  owner  and  I  exchanged  no  words.  After  riding  five  miles 
wc  arrived  at  the  residence  of  General  Concha,  the  military  gov- 
ernor of  Granada.  On  this  property  there  are  many  olive-trees, 
also  an  olive-mill,  which  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  a  round 
stone  basin  with  a  conic  stone  in  the  middle,  which  is  pulled  by 
a  horse  or  mule.  The  stone  crushes  the  olives;  the  olives  are 
then  put  into  a  screw-press.  By  this  means  the  oil  is  extracted 
and  runs  into  the  stone  basin,  and  from  there  through  a  trough 
into  a  barrel.  The  Spaniards  do  not  refine  their  oil  like  the 
French  or  Italians,  and  it  sells  for  less,  though  it  is  really  finer. 
It  is  used  with  all  the  sediment.  This  makes  it  disagreeable  in 
cooked  dishes.  Sixty  olive-trees  are  planted  on  one  fanega  of 
land ;  grain  or  vines  are  raised  between.  The  olive-trees,  being 
planted  near  to  the  sea,  do  not  do  so  well  as  in  the  district  of 
Cordova,  where  the  average  production  is  twenty -five  pounds  of 
oil  to  the  tree.  Here  not  more  than  half  as  much  is  yielded. 
One  aroba  of  oil  is  sold  for  fifty-eight  to  sixty  reals — about  three 
dollars. 

On  our  road  we  passed  a  cotton  manufactory,  where  cloth  is 
made  by  a  New  Orleans  company.  We  saw  an  iron  or  smelting 
establishment,  also  owned  by  foreigners,  but  of  what  nation  I  did 
not  learn.  To  the  right  and  left  of  the  road  there  is  a  great  deal 
of  sugar-cane,  which  is  ground  by  a  mill  in  Malaga. 

After  examining  the  trees  and  the  olive  gathering,  which  is 
now  beginning,  we  returned  to  the  city,  having  engaged  from  a 
nursery-man  in  the  office  and  presence  of  our  consul  several  thou- 
sand of  raisin-vines,  olive,  pomegranate,  pepper,  orange,  fig,  lem- 
on, and  other  trees.  I  visited  several  prominent  merchants,  to 
whom  I  was  introduced  by  Mr.  Hancock. 

As  I  was  leaving  my  hotel  I  saw  a  herd  of  goats.  Their  owner 
was  hallooing  ^^ Leche!  Lecher  loud  enough  to  wake  the  dead. 
As  he  was  screaming,  people  ran  from  the  houses  with  pails. 
These  he  took,  set  down  by  the  goats,  and  milked  the  pail  full, 
received  his  money,  and  satisfied  his  customers.  This  is  a  certain 
way  of  getting  unadulterated  milk.  This  was  not  entirely  new 
to  me,  as  I  saw  it  tried  by  a  Frenchman  with  cows  in  San  Fran- 


138  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Cisco,  but  lie  gave  np  the  business  on  account  of  having  no  cus- 
tomers. 

After  a  good  dinner  with  the  consul  we  made  our  arrange- 
ments for  departure  to-morrow  by  the  steamer  for  Alicante.  I 
found  that  no  steamer  goes  to  Portugal,  as  they  would  have  to 
stay  in  quarantine,  as  the  yellow  fever  has  broken  out  in  the  south 
of  France.  I  was  disappointed,  as  I  intended  to  visit  Oporto; 
but  then  the  vine  disease  is  universal,  and  I  may  have  introduced 
it  into  our  state. 

Septemher  29. — After  paying  our  bills,  which  were  very  high, 
we  started  for  the  steamer.  Mr.  Hancock  accompanied  us,  but 
before  sent  his  clerk,  Don  Luis,  to  the  police-office  and  French 
consul,  to  have  our  passports  go  through  all  the  annoying  formal- 
ities ;  but,  as  Don  Luis  had  no  breakfast,  and  not  finding  the  con- 
sul at  home,  he  gave  the  passports  to  the  porter.  He  returned 
in  a  short  time,  and  found  that  the  porter  had  taken  a  trip  in  the 
country,  taking  the  passports  with  him.  This  annoyed  Don  Luis; 
but,  like  a  prudent  general,  he  made  out  two  others,  had  them 
vised,  and  came  down  just  in  time  for  the  consul  to  sign  them, 
Mr.  Hancock  "  blew  up"  Don  Luis  for  leaving  the  passports,  bade 
us  adieu,  and  we  jumped  into  the  boat  just  in  time.  The  many 
attentions  I  have  received  from  Mr.  Hancock  will  ever  keep  him 
in  my  remembrance. 

I  may  here  mention  that  all  the  harbors  in  the  south,  as  Genoa, 
Marseilles,  Malaga,  etc.,  have  no  wharf,  but  you  are  obliged  to 
embark  in  small  boats.  This  makes  it  very  inconvenient,  partic- 
ularly for  ladies.  The  shipping  is  very  close  together,  and  in 
passing  along  one  is  often  inundated  with  slop-water.  It  is  really 
astonishing  how  little  progress  these  people  are  making.  We 
started  at  twelve  o'clock  precisely  in  an  iron  steamer,  the  Paris. 
"We  kept  close  to  the  shore,  passing  the  fertile  valley  of  Malaga, 
and  sailed  by  her  high  mountains,  all  covered  with  vines  and  vil- 
las. Soon,  however,  steep,  rocky,  barren  mountains  took  the  place 
of  the  beautiful  fertile  vaUeys.  Night  set  in,  and  with  it  a  furi- 
ous wind,  which  kept  increasing  so  much  that  nearly  all  the  pas- 
sengers were  sea-sick,  and  the  steamer  was  delayed  full  ten  hours, 
arriving  at  Alicante  at  eleven  o'clock  at  night. 

October  1. — The  steamer  remaining  two  days,  it  gave  me  an 
opportunity  of  examining  the  neighborhood,  and  engaging  such 
vines  and  trees  as  the  country  possesses.  First  I  went  to  the 
market,  where  I  found  some  grapes  which  I  do  not  yet  possess. 


SPAIN :  WINE,  KAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  139 

From  there  I  presented  myself  to  tlic  American  consul,  Mr.  Leach, 
and  made  arrangements  with  him  to  send  to  Havre  the  vines  I 
had  purchased.  After  visiting  the  neighborhood,  which  is  not 
very  inviting,  we  returned  to  the  steamer,  which  lay  anchored  in 
the  harbor. 

October  2. — This  morning  was  fine  and  clear.  At  nine  o'clock 
the  cargo  arrived,  and  was  speedily  hoisted  into  the  steamer,  which 
then  left.  We  passed  several  valleys  planted  with  olives,  figs, 
vines,  etc.  They  all  looked  very  well,  but  the  valleys  are  few, 
and  there  are  numerous  high,  barren,  rocky  mountains. 

October  3. — This  morning  opened  calm  and  pleasant,  but  we 
were  out  of  sight  of  land.  As  we  neared  shore,  we  met  thou- 
sands of  fishing-boats,  with  "  shoulder  of  mutton"  sails.  The  fish- 
ing trade  is  extensively  carried  on  at  Barcelona,  Alicante,  and 
other  villages  on  this  coast.  The  fish  are  caught  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and  packed  in  olive  oil.  The  coast  is  well  populated.  Nu- 
merous villages  are  scattered  over  the  hills  and  valleys.  Figs 
and  olives  are  the  principal  produce.  This  part  of  Spain — Cata- 
lonia— is  the  richest  in  produce  and  manufactures ;  the  people  are 
more  industrious. 

We  arrived  at  Barcelona  at  twelve  o'clock.  The  steamer  re- 
maining four  hours,  we  took  a  small  boat  and  landed.  The  city 
is  a  busy  commercial  town.  The  shops  are  fine ;  the  goods  come 
from  all  countries ;  but  the  streets  are  narrow,  as  in  all  towns  of 
Southern  Europe.  It  has  several  fine  public  buildings,  monu- 
ments, promenades,  and  squares.  The  population  was  stated  to 
me  at  160,000,  but  I  doubt  the  number.  There  are  large  and 
numerous  manufactories  here  of  cotton,  iron  cutlery,  woolen,  etc. 
The  harbor  is  full  of  vessels;  the  wharf  full  of  grain,  peas,  corn, 
oats,  fruit  of  all  descriptions.  The  grain  is  put  loose  in  the  ship- 
holds,  and  when  it  is  to  be  moved  it  is  put  into  bags,  taken  ashore, 
emptied  into  a  pile,  then  again  put  in  bags  to  be  taken  away. 
This  is  a  very  awkward  way  of  doing  business,  particularly  as 
there  are  linen  manufactories,  and  linen  is  cheap.  The  sardine 
fishery  is  in  full  operation  now,  and  the  packing  requires  a  great 
number  of  men. 

I  made  some  inquiry  as  to  the  making  of  the  wine,  which  is  not 
agreeable  to  drink ;  but  a  great  deal  is  taken  to  Brazil,  England, 
and  even  North  America.  Many  varieties  of  grapes  are  mixed 
together,  crushed  with  the  feet,  put  into  a  vat ;  a  good  portion  of 
lime  is  added,  with  which  it  ferments.     The  lime  gives  it  a  dark- 


140  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

er  color.  The  wliole  is  fermented  in  a  vat  built  of  stone  and  ce- 
mented. The  fermentation  lasts  from  two  to  four  days ;  is  very 
strong,  as  the  lime  aids  it.  When  the  fermentation  stops,  the 
whole  is  drawn  off  and  put  into  barrels,  and  often  leather  bags 
made  of  hogs'  or  calves'  skins.  At  the  same  time,  one  third  or 
one  quarter  of  alcohol  is  added.  The  wine  is  used  the  same  year, 
but  when  alcohol  is  plenty  it  will  keep  for  any  length  of  time. 
The  same  process  is  used  in  all  the  vineyards. 

At  five  o'clock  we  left  for  Marseilles.  The  weather  was  fine. 
We  arrived  October  4th.  At  ten  o'clock  we  took  the  train  for 
Paris.  Being  night,  I  could  see  nothing.  In  the  morning,  how- 
ever, we  stopped  at  Lyons,  the  great  silk  manufictory  of  France. 
The  adjoining  country  is  well  cultivated.  The  people  were  busy 
sowing  wheat.  The  grain-lands  extend  to  Villafranca,  then  vines 
begin  to  predominate.     Around  Macon  are  planted  all  vines. 

Tours  and  Chalons  have  partly  vine  and  partly  grain  planted. 
From  Chalons  to  Dijon  the  whole  country  is  planted  with  vines. 
But  I  have  already  given  a  description  of  this  country. 

October  5. — Having  arrived  in  Paris,  I  found  letters  awaiting  me 
there  which  demanded  my  immediate  return  home.  Having  vis- 
ited all  the  prominent  wine-growing  countries  except  Hungary, 
my  return  was  at  once  resolved  upon.  It  is  true  that  my  orig- 
inal intention  was  to  visit  Greece  and  Egypt ;  but,  finding  that 
the  plague  had  broken  out  in  Syria,  and  I  would  have  to  remain 
in  quarantine  for  forty  days,  even  if  I  escaped  the  sickness,  I, 
of  course,  decided  not  to  go.  Even  if  I  had  gone,  I  could  have 
thus  done  no  service  to  the  State,  as  the  wine-making  is  still  car- 
ried on  in  those  countries  according  to  the  old  plan.  The  vines 
and  cuttings  I  procured  through  the  American  consuls. 

My  determination  to  speed  home  was  farther  strengthened  by 
the  fact  that  the  Legislature  would  meet  in  the  beginning  of  Jan- 
uary, and  would  very  likely  be  in  session  but  a  short  time ;  and, 
as  I  was  required  by  the  joint  resolution  to  report  before  this 
body,  my  preparations  were  soon  made. 

Ootoher  14. — I  went  to  Havre  to  make  the  necessary  arrange- 
ments there  to  receive  the  vines  from  all  parts  as  already  stated. 
The  vines  were  all  to  be  directed  to  the  American  consul.  Hav- 
ing made  the  arrangement  with  the  consul  and  Messrs.  William 
Isilin  &  Co.,  we  returned  to  Paris  the  next  day,  packed  up  our 
traps,  bade  good-by  to  our  new  acquaintances,  parted  with  our 
family,  whom  we  left  behind  partly  because  a  stormy  passage  was 


SPAIN:  WINE,  RAISINS,  AND  OLIVES.  141 

expected,  and  partly  on  account  of  my  son,  who  is  studying  prac- 
tically the  manufacture  of  Champagne  in  Europe,  and  has  been 
so  engaged  for  the  last  year  and  a  half,  and  whose  apprenticeship 
will  be  out  in  the  spring. 

On  our  arrival  we  gave  our  attention  to  the  drainage  of  lands. 
Went  to  London,  thence  to  Liverpool.  There  we  embarked  on 
the  English  steamer  Europa.  After  a  stormy  voyage  of  fifteen 
days,  arrived  in  Boston ;  from  thence  to  New  York,  and  finally 
arrived  in  California  December  5th. 


142  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-:MAK1NG. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 

The  Author's  Experience. — Climate. — Site. — Soil. — Plowing. — Laying  out  a  Vine- 
yard.— Digging  Holes. — Planting. — Cultivating. — Pruning  in  different  Years. — 
Summer  Pruning. — Crushing. — Cost  of  Planting  a  Vineyard. — The  Author's  Ex- 
penditure on  One  hundred  Acres. — Quality  of  the  Author's  Wines. — Mr.  Szemere's 
Pamphlet. — Adulteration  of  Wine  in  Europe. — Quantity  of  Wine  produced  in 
France. — The  Wines  of  Hungary. — Prospects  of  Wine  Culture  in  California. — 
Statistics  of  Wine  Culture  in  Europe. — Good  and  had  Years  in  Europe.  —  The 
Advantages  of  California  as  a  Wine  Country. 

Having  given  the  mode  of  planting  and  treating  vineyards  in 
different  parts  of  Europe,  we  deem  it  necessary  to  say  something 
of  the  mode  of  planting  and  treating  vineyards  in  California. 

It  will  be  apparent  to  practical  men,  who  have  cultivated  vines 
in  this  country,  that  for  us  to  practice  many  of  the  systems  in 
use  in  Europe  would  be  unprofitable,  either  on  account  of  the 
difference  in  climate,  or  the  high  jorice  of  labor  in  California.  On 
this  head,  however,  we  do  not  anticipate  any  difl&culty  to  our  in- 
telligent and  reflecting  planters,  for  they  will  soon  determine 
which  mode  of  cultivation  is  best  adapted  to  our  soil,  climate, 
and  price  of  labor.  But,  for  a  guide  to  beginners,  we  will  give  a 
few  extracts  from  an  essay  written  by  the  author  for  the  State  Ag- 
ricultural Society  in  1858.  It  should  be  remarked,  however,  that 
a  farther  experience  of  four  years  j)roves  that  some  of  the  in- 
structions laid  down  in  this  essay  require  modification.  We 
have  arrived  at  this  conclusion  by  careful  observation  of  our 
own,  having  a  vineyard  of  some  four  hundred  acres,  which,  to 
the  best  of  our  belief,  is  the  largest  in  the  United  States.  "We 
frankly  confess  that  the  result  of  careful  experiments,  made  on 
similar  soils,  has  changed  some  of  our  opinions,  and  our  error  was 
clearly  proved  by  observations  on  our  late  European  tour.  We 
hold  that  confessing  an  opinion  formed  to  have  been  erroneous 
is  not  only  proper,  but  a  duty  we  owe  to  science. 

Whenever,  in  the  extract  from  the  e.ssay,  a  difference  of  opin- 
ion between  what  we  then  held  and  what  we  have  since  formed 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  I43 

occurs,  \vc  will  note  it,  giving  our  present  experience  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

Climate. — The  California  climate,  with  the  exception  of  the  sea- 
coast,  especially  where  the  prevailing  western  winds  drive  the 
fogs  over  the  locality,  is  eminently  adapted  for  the  culture  of 
grape-vines,  and  it  is  proved  conclusively  that  no  European  lo- 
cality can  equal  within  two  hundred  per  cent,  its  productiveness. 
The  oldest  inhabitants  have  no  recollection  of  a  failure  in  the 
crops  of  grapes.  The  production  is  fabulous ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  in  my  mind  that  before  long  there  will  be  localities  dis- 
covered which  will  furnish  as  noble  wines  as  Hungary,  Spain, 
France,  or  Germany,  ever  have  produced.  Vineyards  planted  in 
various  counties,  beginning  at  San  Diego  up  ^to  Shasta,  have 
given  magnificent  results,  and  leave  no  doubt  in  the  mind  that 
the  north  is  as  favorable  and  productive  as  the  south. 

Site. — In  California  site  is  not  so  material  as  in  European  coun- 
tries, especially  where,  during  the  summer  season,  a  good  deal  of 
rain  falls ;  and  if  the  vineyard  is  not  exposed  during  the  whole  day 
to  the  sun,  the  rain  will  rot  and  damage  the  grapes.  California, 
having  an  even  temperature,  is  warm  and  without  rains  in  sum- 
mer. Almost  any  locality  will  do ;  but  if  a  western  gentle  slope 
can  be  obtained,  by  all  means  it  should  be  taken. 

Soil. — "When  the  planter  resolves  to  plant  a  vineyard,  he  should 
determine  whether  he  is  planting  to  produce  grapes  for  wine  or 
for  market.  If  for  the  former,  he  must  look  for  a  soil  which  is 
made  by  volcanic  eruptions,  containing  red  clay  and  soft  rocks, 
which  will  decay  by  exposure  to  the  air.  The  more  magnesia, 
lime,  or  chalk  the  soil  contains,  so  much  the  better.  This  kind 
of  soil  never  cracks,  and  retains  the  moisture  during  the  summer 
admirably.  Such  a  soil  will  produce  a  wine  that  will  keep  good 
for  fifty  or  one  hundred  years,  and  improve  annually ;  is  not  lia- 
ble to  get  sour,  or,  when  exposed  to  the  air  after  one  year  old,  to 
get  turbid,  and  change  color  in  the  bottle  or  glass. 

If  such  soil  can  not  be  found  on  the  ground  desired  to  be  laid 
out  for  a  vineyard,  the  second  best  may  be  taken,  which  is  a  shell- 
mound.  There  are  many  localities  in  this  State,  even  as  high  as 
the  mountain  tops,  where  acres  of  land  consist  of  decayed  shells. 
Such  soil  will  give  a  good  wine  in  great  abundance.  The  next 
best  to  the  above  soil  is  a  gravelly  clay,  slightly  mixed  with  sand, 
so  that  it  will  not  crack.     If  it  can  be,  red  color  or  dark  black ; 


144  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-JIAiaNG. 

but  avoid  gray  claj,  wliicli  bakes  in  summer.  The  last  of  all 
which  may  be  used  for  the  production  of  wine  is  a  light  sandy, 
gravelly  soil.  This  will  give  an  abundance  of  wine,  but  it  will 
not  keep  for  any  length  of  time.  It  will  soon  change  color  and 
become  sour  when  exposed  to  the  air ;  and  the  only  mode  of 
keeping  this  kind  of  wine  for  years  is  by  adding  to  it  brandy  or 
alcohol,  which,  of  course,  deprives  it  of  its  purity,  and  makes  it 
injurious  to  the  health  of  the  consumer. 

The  soils  described  above  are  recommended  for  producing  wine, 
as  just  stated ;  but  for  producing  marketable  table  grapes,  the 
planter  should  select  a  piece  of  ground  which  is  a  rich  black 
gravelly  or  sandy  loam,  exceedingly  mellow,  as  most  of  the  allu- 
vials  are ;  and  if  well-rotten  manure  from  sheep  or  cattle  corrals 
can  be  obtained,  it  will  pa}^  well  to  haul  it  on  the  ground.  To 
be  prepared  for  the  grape-vines,  it  should  be  moderately  moist, 
though  not  too  moist.  In  this  State  deserted  Indian  villages  are 
often  found.  In  such  localities  the  soil  is  exceedingly  rich.  A 
bucketful  of  it  in  the  hole  of  a  vine  will  astonish  the  planter  by 
its  effect.  Such  soil  as  just  now  described,  either  made  by  nature 
or  artificially,  will  produce  magnificent  bunches  of  grapes,  with 
large  berries,  in  an  immense  quantity,  which,  of  course,  will  please 
the  eye  and  palate,  as  the  bulb  or  skin  is  thin,  and  consequently 
the  best  qualified  for  table  use. 

Plowing. — The  best  mode  to  plow  the  land  is  with  the  so-called 
"  deep-tiller ;"  for  with  it,  by  putting  three  horses  abreast,  you  can 
plow  twelve  inches  deep,  except  the  soil  should  be  very  rocky. 
Follow  this  plow,  in  the  same  furrow,  with  a  common  shovel-plow, 
or,  as  it  is  called  in  some  places,  bull-tongue.  This  simple  instru- 
ment, with  two  horses  attached  to  it,  will  tear  up  and  pulverize 
the  earth  ten  or  twelve  inches  more  in  depth.  There  are  various 
designs  of  subsoil  plows,  but  most  of  them  require  a  great  mov- 
ing power,  and  will  not  answer  after  all.  The  above-named  "bull- 
tongue"  is  successfully  used  by  many  planters  in  Sonoma  and 
Nape  Valleys.  But  it  matters  very  little  what  plows  or  subsoil - 
ers  the  planter  uses,  as  long  as  he  plows  and  subsoils  hi-s  land  from 
twenty  to  twenty-four  inches. 

Layinrj  out  the  Vineyard. — It  is  sufficiently  proved,  by  close  ob- 
servations in  Europe  and  California,  that  the  vine  planted  eight 
feet  apart  is  the  best  mode,  especially  in  California,  where  land  is 
yet  cheap  and  labor  high.  Vines  planted  at  this  distance  can  be 
worked  with  the  shovel-plow  and  one  horse.     Eight  feet  is  as 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  I45 

close  as  persons  ought  to  plant.  If  planted  closer,  the  vines,  -when 
five  or  six  years  old,  will  branch  out  considerably,  and  in  the 
months  of  May,  June,  and  July,  all  the  tender  vines  would  be 
broken  by  using  a  horse  and  shovel-plow.  The  planter  would 
be  therefore  compelled  to  employ  hands  with  hoes,  and  this  would 
cost,  in  the  first  instance,  ten  times  as  much  as  horse-power ;  and, 
secondly,  it  would  not  do  as  good  work,  for  no  man  will  hoe  as 
deep  as  a  shovel-plow  goes.  Persons  laying  out  vineyards  must 
not  be  miserly,  but  leave  wide  roads — say  twelve  feet ;  at  least 
one  road  every  fifteen  rows,  which  would  be  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  apart.  Otherwise,  when  the  vines  bear  and  the  grapes 
are  picked,  the  person  picking  them  must  carry  a  heavy  basket  a 
long  distance,  to  the  road  where  the  cart  stands  to  haul  it  to  the 
press-house.  In  reality,  no  person  will  lose  any  thing  in  the 
crops  on  account  of  the  road,  for  the  rows  adjoining  each  side  of 
the  road  will  bear  more,  as  they  have  an  additional  four  feet  of 
ground  to  feed  on.  No  planter  should,  under  any  circumstances, 
plant  trees  of  any  description  in  a  vineyard.  A  vineyard  must 
be  a  vineyard,  and  nothing  else.  I  need  not  waste  room  here  to 
direct  how  to  lay  out  the  rows.  Every  man  knows  that,  and  has 
his  own  mode  for  it ;  but  a  straight  row  in  every  direction  is  es- 
sential to  a  prosperous  cultivation. 

Digging  Holes. — When  the  land  is  laid  out  as  above  recommend- 
ed, and  a  stick  staked  at  every  point  where  a  vine  is  to  be  plant- 
ed, a  hole  must  be  dug  twenty  inches  square,  a]^d  about  two  feet 
deep.  The  ground  from  the  hole  is  to  be  laid  out  as  follows : 
the  top  ground  to  your  right,  the  second  ground  to  your  left,  and 
the  third  in  front  of  the  hole.  Then  the  bottom  of  the  hole  should 
be  well  dug  up  with  the  spade,  leaving  the  last  ground  in  the  hole. 
The  earlier  the  holes  are  thus  finished  before  planting,  the  better ; 
then,  the  longer  the  earth  is  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  the  more 
it  will  be  fertihzed.  Before  you  begin  to  plant  your  vines,  have 
the  holes  filled — for  rooted  vines  to  about  six  inches  from  the 
top,  if  for  cuttings  about  ten  inches. 

[In  regard  to  the  distance  between  vines,  we  would  observe 
that,  for  CaHfornia,  our  opinion  in  regard  to  the  space  of  eight 
feet  has  not  changed ;  but  we,have  some  hesitation  in  express- 
ing a  recommendation  for  the  same  distance  after  having  seen 
the  fine  Burgundy  Pineau  and  the  world-renowned  Eiesling  plant- 
ed so  closely.  Whether  these  grapes  will  give  the  same  gener- 
ous wine,  with  that  exquisite  bouquet,  if  planted  eight  feet  apart, 

K 


146  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

remains  to  be  proved  by  experiments.  Our  doubt  originates 
from  the  generally  established  facts  that,  when  vines  are  pruned 
for  quantity^  the  quality  will  suffer.  This  fact  is  proved  by  sci- 
entific observation.  The  question  which  arises  in  our  mind  is, 
whether  vines  planted  eight  feet  apartj^roducing  eight  pounds 
of  grapes,  pruned  to  the  very  minimum  of  the  Californian  jaeld, 
or  whether  sixteen  vines,  planted  on  eight  feet  of  ground,  produc- 
ing one  fourth  of  a  pound  of  grapes  to  each  vine,  would  make  a 
better  wine.  It  is  true  that  one  vine  has,  in  the  first  case,  as 
much  soil  to  live  on  as  sixteen  vines  in  the  other,  but  whether 
the  sixteen  vines  do  not  possess  more  roots,  leaves,  and  power  to 
extract  from  the  atmosphere  more  congenial  elements  for  the  de- 
velopment of  that  fine  quality  and  bouquet  they  should  have,  is 
a  question  which  we  are  not  prepared  at  this  time  to  answer.  It 
is  our  intention  to  make  experiments  on  this  subject  in  future, 
and  it  would  be  well  if  other  planters  in  different  localities  would 
do  the  same.] 

The  ground  to  your  right,  being  the  top  ground,  is  thrown  into 
the  bottom  of  the  hole,  then  that  to  your  left.  This  done,  you 
proceed  to 

Planiing. — There  are  two  ways  o^  planting— one  with  cuttings, 
and  the  other  with  one-year-old  vines.  There  is  a  good  deal  of 
difference  of  opinion  among  good  and  practical  vine-planters. 
Some  argue  that  if  a  cutting  is  properly  planted  at  once  orf'the 
spot  of  its  destination,  it  will  be  more  advanced  in  its  third  year, 
and,  consequently,  it  will  bear  in  that  year  more  than  the  rooted 
vine,  which  is  first  set  as  a  cutting  in  the  nursery,  and  the  next 
year  transplanted  on  its  destined  spot.  It  is  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose this  to  be  the  case ;  but  it  still  leaves  a  doubt  in  the  mind 
whether  a  large  tract  of  land  can  be,  or  will  be,  as  well  worked  as 
a  small  one.  In  a  nursery,  by  good  care,  the  cuttings  can  be  root- 
ed four  times  as  strong  as  in  a  large  field;  besides,  in  the  latter 
case,  whether  the  vine  has  good  roots  or  not,  it  is  left  where  first 
planted  ;  but  when  the  rooted  vines  are  taken  out  of  the  nursery 
for  transplanting,  the  planter  will  select  only  those  having  fault- 
less roots.  But  the  greatest  advantage  of  the  nursery  is,  in  my 
opinion,  the  fact  that  if  a  planter  intends  to  plant  one  hundred 
acres  of  vineyard  with  cuttings,  he  will  have  to  cultivate  one 
hundred  acres  during  the  summer ;  but  if  he  plants  his  cuttings 
for  this  one  hundred  acres  in  a  nftrsery,  two  acres  of  ground  will 
be  enough  to  raise  sixty-eight  thousand  rooted  vines,  the  number 
required  for  one  hundred  acres.  Now,  to  cultivate  these  two 
acres  in  the  nursery,  it  wiU  require  ten  days'  labor  with  one  horse ; 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  147 

while,  on  the  contrary,  for  one  hundred  acres,  during  the  months 
of  March,  April,  May,  June,  and  July  (after  that  time  no  more 
plowing  is  required),  3'^ou  need  two  men  and  four  horses — equal 
to  two  hundred  and  sixty  days'  work,  and  double  that  for  the 
teams.  Then  the  board  of  the  men,  and  feed  for  the  horses  dur- 
ing that  period.  However,  this  is  a  matter  of  opinion,  and  each 
planter  will  follow  his  own  idea,  or  will  accommodate  himself  to 
surrounding  circumstances.     But  now  to  the  planting. 

When  the  holes  arc  filled  as  above  described,  if  you  plant  cut- 
tings, have  them  two  feet  long;  bend  the  cuttings  ten  inches  deep 
in  the  hole,  near  to  a  right  angle,  the  lower  part  of  which  is  laid 
horizontally  ort  the  bottom,  and  the  upper  part  on  the  side  wall 
of  your  hole,  the  top  of  it  to  be  above  the  ground  three  inches. 
Then  fill  the  hole  from  the  ground  surrounding  the  hole,  which, 
of  course,  is  top  ground ;  then  tramp  the  earth  fast  on  your  cut- 
ting, that  no  vacancy  shall  remain  in  the  hole.  Otherwise  foul  air 
will  gather  in  said  vacancy,  and  the  cutting  become  mouldy,  and 
will  not  live.  But  if  you  plant  rooted  vines,  your  holes  will  be 
filled  to  six  inches.  Now  take  your  rooted  vine,  spread  the  roots 
on  the  bottom,  and  throw  from  the  surrounding  top  ground  on 
the  roots ;  shake  it  well,  so  that  the  pulverized  ground  shall  get 
among  the  roots.  Then  tread  gently  with  your  foot  round  the 
root.  It  is  still  better  if  you  prepare,  from  one  part  of  fresh  cow 
manure  and  three  parts  of  black  earth  with  water,  a  mud  mixture 
of  the  consistency  of  tar.  Put,  before  planting,  your  rooted  vines 
in  the  same,  and  when  so  dipped,  turn  them  in  the  bucket  round 
and  round.  By  this  every  root  and  fibre  of  the  vines  will  be  sur- 
rounded with  this  tar-like  stuft',  and  prevent  it  from  becoming 
mouldy  under  ground.  After  this,  the  ground  in  the  front  of  the 
hole,  taken  out  the  last  of  the  same,  is  to  be  leveled  about  the 
vine  so  as  to  leave  a  dish-like  excavation  around,  as  a  receptacle 
and  conductor  of  moisture  to  the  roots.  Be  careful  never  to  plant 
your  vines  too  deep.  It  is  better — if  you  make  a  mistake — to 
have  them  too  shallow  than  too  deep. 

Cultivating. — The  vines  having  been  planted — either  as  cuttings 
or  as  rooted  vines — in  the  month  of  January,  the  ground  being 
recently  plowed,  not  many  weeds  will  be  visible  before  the  month 
of  March.  But  this  month  it  will  be  time  to  commence,  either 
on  account  of  weeds,  or  that  the  ground  has  already  hardened 
around  the  vines,  and  requires  stirring  and  pulverizing,  so  that 
the  atmosphere  may  penetrate  freely  to  the  roots ;  for  this  pur- 


148  GRAPE  CULTURE  ^V2fD  WINE-MAKING. 

pose  the  -well-knowii  sliovel-plow  is  the  best  and  most  simple  in- 
strument, commonly  used  in  the  "Western  States  to  cultivate  In- 
dian corn.  This  requires  one  horse  and  a  man.  This  plow  can 
go  within  an  inch  of  the  vines,  and  will  consequently  destroy  all 
weeds.  First  the  plowman  plows  one  way ;  and  then,  when  done 
with  the  field  thus,  he  plows  crossways,  by  which  operation  any 
weed  escaping  the  first  plowing  will  be  destroyed  without  using 
a  hand-hoe.  In  this  way,  one  man  with  two  horses  (one  horse  in 
the  forenoon  and  the  other  in  the  afternoon)  wiU  comfortably  plow 
three  acres  a  day,  on  an  average,  in  twenty-six  working  days  of 
the  month.  All  plantations  of  vines  one  or  more  years  old  ought 
to  be  plowed  twice  a  month,  as  above  described,  to  keep  weeds 
down,  and  stir  up  and  pulverize  the  ground,  by  which  means 
you  will  charge  it  with  nitrogen.  This  exposure  of  alternate 
stratas  of  earth  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  air,  and  rain,  fertilizes  the 
soil  incredibly.  Moreover,  the  weeds  plowed  under  ground  by 
their  rotting  enrich  the  soil,  and  impregnate  it  with  ammonia  and 
humors.  Then,  a  mellow  ground  is  much  more  adapted  to  attract 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere  than  a  hard-caked  one. 

Pruning^  First  Year. — When  the  last  plowing  at  the  end  of  July 
is  done,  nothing  more  in  the  way  of  cultivation  is  necessary  until 
the  end  of  December  or  beginning  of  January— the  time  for  prun- 
ing. Your  vines,  if  planted  as  cuttings,  will  have  but  small  shoots ; 
but  if  rooted  vines,  those  shoots  will  be  strong,  and  several  of 
them.  In  either  case  you  cut  the  vine  back  to  two  eyes,  being 
always  careful  that  all  ground-shoots  shall  be  clean  cut  away  from 
the  main  stem.  Your  pruning-knife  must  be  sharp ;  or,  still  bet- 
ter, use  the  grape-vine  scissors,  which  are  far  superior  to  the  knife, 
and  can  be  procured  at  the  seed  or  hardware  stores  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

When  the  vine  sprouts,  which  is  about  the  month  of  March — 
and  sooner  in  this  country — the  planter  must  carefally  inspect 
his  new  vines,  and  break  all  sprouts  out  from  the  vine  except 
the  two  coming  from  the  two  eyes  left  for  that  purpose.  This 
done,  the  planter  must  again  put  his  shovehplow  to  work,  and 
cultivate  the  soil  precisely  in  the  same  way  as  last  year,  described 
above. 

Pruninrj^  Second  Year. — Again,  at  the  end  of  December,  the 
pruning  begins,  there  having  been  two  vines  raised  on  each  stem. 
The  one  the  most  feeble  or  crushed  is  cut  off;  the  other  is  left  to 
the  length  the  planter  wishes  to  raise  his  vine-stem. 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  149 

[After  several  experiments,  made  on  a  large  scale  with  vines 
pruned  high  and  staked,  and  witli  vines  pruned  close  to  the 
ground,  we  have  become  convinced  that  low  pruning  close  to  the 
ground  is  the  better  mode  in  California;  it  gives  better  grapes, 
and  ripens  them  a  fortnight  sooner.  In  consequence  of  these  ex- 
periments, I  left  off,  some  years  ago,  high  pruning  and  staking. 
My  travels  in  Europe  have  proved  to  me  the  correctness  of  my 
experiments.  There  is  but  one  view,  that  the  closer  you  can  keep 
the  grapes  to  the  ground  the  better  they  are.  It  would  not  do, 
however,  to  let  the  branches  lie  on  the  ground,  as  the  summer 
rains  would  rot  them ;  but  in  Call  brnia  and  the  south  of  Spain 
the  grapes  may  and  do  lie  on  the  ground,  and  on  that  account 
are  sweeter.] 

Pruning,  Third  Year. — ^The  grapes  having  been  gathered,  the 
pruning  will  begin  again  in  December  or  the  beginning  of  Janu- 
ary. This  time  there  are  three  stems  on  the  main  stem.  Two 
of  these  vines  must  be  cut  to  two  buds  each,  for  making  wood  (for 
so-called  water-branches  or  vines),  to  become  the  next  year  the 
bearing  vines,  and  the  third  one  of  these  vines  cut  to  four  buds, 
which  will  be  quite  sufficient  to  bear  grapes;  but  if  the  main 
stem  is  quite  thrifty,  you  may  leave  five  buds. 

[It  has  been  before  observed  that  where  quantity  is  desired  it 
is  detrimental  to  the  quality  of  the  grape ;  therefore  he  who  in- 
tends to  make  superior  wine  will  do  well  to  prune  his  vines  to 
two  buds  instead  of  four  and  five.  But  if  only  ordinary  table 
wine  is  desired  for  home  consumption,  the  recommendation  of 
five-bud  pruning  may  be  practiced.] 

Pruning^  Fourth  and  Suhseqiieni  Years. — Many  and  various  are 
the  opinions  in  pruning  bearing  vines.  Some  assert  that  the  old 
way,  to  cut  the  vine  back  to  from  six  to  ten  spurs,  and  on  each 
spur  to  leave  two  or  three  buds,  is  the  best;  but  on  mature  re- 
flection, considering  that  the  stem  so  cut  has  to  make  all  the 
wood,  besides  to  produce  and  ripen  grapes,  it  is  not  reasonable  to 
believe  this  mode  to  be  correct,  and,  in  fact,  experiments  in  differ- 
ent countries  and  climates  have  proved  this  doctrine  false.  It  is 
a  well-established  fact  that  the  best  mode  of  pruning  is  to  cut  the 
stem  to  three  spurs  each,  with  two  buds,  and  leave  three  vines, 
each  two  or  three  feet  long,  according  to  the  strength  of  your 
stem.  The  three  spurs  will  grow  this  year  wood  for  the  next 
year's  bearing,  and  the  three  long  vines  will  grow  the  grapes. 
Next  season  the  old  three  vines  which  have  borne  grapes  this 
year  are  cut  off  to  spurs  with  two  buds  each,  and  the  three  long 


150  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

vines  originating  from  the  last  year's  spurs  are  left  to  bear  grapes 
this  year,  and  so  on  alternately  from  year  to  year.  This  mode 
of  pruning  will  insure  a  large  crop  every  year,  and  will  not  ex- 
haust the  vine. 

[The  above  paragraph  will  stand  true  in  several  wine-growing 
countries  in  Europe,  especially  on  the  Rhine  and  in  some  parts  of 
Hungary ;  but  in  California,  the  vines  pruned  three  or  four  feet 
long  will  bear  so  enormously  that  the  wine  will  prove  inferior ; 
and  if  the  vine  bears  the  blue  grape  it  will  hardly  become  blue, 
but  remains  a  pale  pink,  and  will  not  give  proper  color  to  red 
wine.] 

Summer  Pruning. — The  native  Californians  never  used  to  prune 
vines  in  the  summer,  but  let  them  grow  any  length  they  pleased. 
This  is  erroneous.     Every  person,  on  reflection,  can  at  once  see 
that  the  sap  required  to  grow  and  produce  vines  ten,  and  often 
twenty  feet  long,  may  be  better  used  if  it  is  forced  into  the  grapes. 
Undoubtedly  the  berries  and  bunches  will  be  larger  if  moderate- 
ly trimmed ;  besides,  this  trimming  is  a  great  advantage  when  the 
grapes  are  gathered,  as  the  picking  is  so  much  easier  than  in  an 
untrimmed  vineyard,  where  every  thing  is  tangled  up.     The  best 
mode  is  to  cut  the  tops  of  the  vines  to  the  height  of  five  or  six 
feet  from  the  ground,  in  the  month  of  July  for  the  first  time,  and 
the  second  time  in  the  middle  of  August.     This  operation  is  done 
easily,  and  pretty  quick.     One  man  with  a  sickle  tops  off  about 
two  thousand  five  hundred  a  day.     Besides  the  above-named  ad- 
vantages, there  is  one  more,  viz.,  when  the  top  is  cut  off,  every 
where  small  vines  will  spring  out  and  form  a  dense  leaf  on  the 
ends  of  the  vines,  keeping  the  grapes  growing  underneath  in  a 
moderate  shade,  and  making  them  thus  more  tender,  juicy,  and 
sweet.     It  is  therefore  a  great  mistake,  practiced  often  by  new 
comers  from  modern  Europe,  that  they  will  break  out  the  so-call 
ed  suckers ;  that  is,  little  branches  starting  out  behind  the  leaf, 
and  growing  feebly  up  to  the  length  of  a  few  inches.     These,  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  are  broken  up,  but  not  in  Italy 
Greece,  Smyrna,  etc.     Now  California  having  a  warmer  climate 
the  vines  need  more  protection  against  the  sun  than  elsewhere 
and  experience  shows  that  where  some  bunches  of  grajoes  are  ex 
posed,  without  the  shelter  of  their  leaves,  to  the  rays  of  the  sun 
the  berries  remain  small,  green,  hard,  and  sour. 

Crushing. — "When  the  picked  grapes  are  brought  to  the  press 
house,  they  ought  to  be  crushed  immediately,  and  not  left  stand 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  151 

ing  in  tubs  overnight  or  the  next  day.  The  crusher  is  a  simple 
machine.  There  are  three  cast  iron  cylinders ;  two  of  them,  of 
even  size,  roll  against  each  other ;  the  third  one  is  on  top  of  the 
two  lower  ones,  and  is  fluted,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  hold  of 
the  bunch  and  pressing  it  down  to  the  two  lower  ones.  These 
latter  have  very  small  projections,  like  a  waffle-iron,  so  as  to  crush 
the  grapes;  but  not  the  grape-seed',  which  would  be  injurious  to 
the  taste  of  the  wine.  I  have  one  of  these  crushers,  made  to 
crush  apples  for  cider,  and  it  answers  admirably.  Two  men 
crush  easily  with  it  five  thousand  pounds  of  grapes  in  a  day. 

[Opinions  vary  much  in  Europe  with  regard  to  crushing  or 
stamping  grapes  with  the  feet.  Our  opinion  is,  that  cylinder 
crushing  is  as  good  as  treading,  if  it  does  not  crack  the  seeds  of 
the  grape.  Two  wooden  rollers,  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  and 
two  feet  long,  with  a  hopper  on  the  top  into  which  the  grapes  are 
poured,  will  crush  grapes  enough  to  make  fifteen  hundred  gallons 
per  day,  with  two  men  in  attendance.] 

Cost  of  Planting  a  Vineyard. — This,  of  course,  will  vary  with  the 
price  of  labor,  locality,  and  soil ;  but  to  give  an  idea  to  persons 
who  have  no  practical  knowledge,  I  will  give  here  a  correct  ac- 
count of  the  planting  of  a  vineyard  of  one  hundred  acres.  This 
was  actually  expended  on  the  same  in  labor  and  money,  as  I  kept 
a  strict  account  of  every  thing.  The  soil  is  red  clay,  intermixed 
with  volcanic  rocks,  partly  decayed  and  partly  in  the  process  of 
decaying.  The  land  had  been  previously  cultivated  for  grains. 
This  hun,dred  acres  was  planted  in  January,  1858. 

FIRST  TEAR. 

Six  men  (with  9  horses  for  deep  tiller,  and  6  horses  for  shovel- 
plow),  20  days  each,  =  120  days,  $35  per  month  wages,  and 
$15  for  board:  =  120  days,  at  $1  93 $231  60 

Horse-hire  50  cents,  feed  25  cents  per  day :  15  horses,  20  days 
each .'..       225  00 

Blacksmith's  bill,  wear  and  tear  of  hanicss 30  00 

Eighteen  men  laying  out,  staking,  and  digging  holes,  21  days 
each,  =  378  days ;  and  6  men  planting,  23  days  each,  =  138 
days:  wages  $30,  and  board  $15  per  month,  =516  days,  at 
$1  73 892  68 

Thirty-two  days'  work  was  spent  in  digging  the  rooted  vines  in 
the  nursery;  their  cultivation  during  the  summer  brought 
their  cost  to  one  quarter  of  a  cent  each:  68,000  vines,  at 
$2  50  per  1000 170  00 

Sundry  expenses 55  36 

Total  cost  of  planting $1604  64 

First  summer's  expense  of  cultivation,  260  days'  work, 
with  board,  $50  per  month $500  00 

Horse-hire  and  feed  for  5  months 205  00 

Blacksmith's  bill,  and  wear  and  tear  of  harness 15  00 

Pruning,  first  year,  in  January 25  00       745  00 

Total  first  year's  expenditure $2349  64 


152  GKATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


SECOND   TE^VE. 


Replanting  vines  which  died  out  from  the  year's  planting  and 

sprouting 60  00 

Summer  cultivation  and  fall  pruning,  as  last  year 745  00 

Second  year's  expenditure $805  00 


THIRD   TEAR. 


Sprouting  and  additional  expenses  for  pruning,  as  this  goes 

slower  this  year 120  00 

Summer  cultivation  as  above 745  00 

Total  third  year's  expenditure $865  00 

Total  expenses  of  100  acres  up  to  bearing $4019  64 

Here  we  may  state  that  wine  raised  on  my  vineyard,  of  tlie 
vintages  of  different  years,  was  taken  by  me  to  Europe  to  be  test- 
ed by  connoisseurs  of  wine,  and  for  its  quality  and  fitness  to  stand 
the  ocean  trans^Dortation.  It  was  found  by  the  best  judges  to 
stand  the  voyage  well,  and  was  pronounced  eminently  adapted 
for  the  manufacture  of  Champagne.  On  our  return  we  visited 
Kohlcr  &  Co.'s  California  wine  establishment  in  New  York,  and 
found  their  wines  very  good. 

Many  of  our  people  are  of  the  opinion  that  wine-producing 
may  be  overdone  in  California  and  in  the  Atlantic  States.  This 
fear  is  totally  unfounded ;  as  a  proof  of  which,  I  will  refer  the 
reader  to  the  valuable  pamphlet  of  Mr.  B.  de  Szemere,  ex-minis- 
ter of  Hungary,  and  a  resident  of  Paris  since'  1859.  He  gives 
the  number  of  acres  planted  in  France  at  5,000,000,  and  the  pro- 
duce at  750,000,000  gallons  of  wine ;  in  Hungary,  3,000,000  of 
acres  planted,  producing  860,000,000  gallons. 

M.  de  Szemere  classifies  France  as  the  first  of  the  wine-produc- 
ing countries  of  the  world,  and  still  it  imports  largely  from  for- 
eign countries ;  and,  furthermore,  it  is  an  undeniable  fact  that 
millions  of  gallons  of  wine  arc  manufactured  without  the  aid  of  a 
single  grape. 

The  exact  words  of  the  author  on  this  subject  are  as  follows: 

"But  there  are  other,  and,  indeed,  culpable  methods  of  adulter- 
ation very  injurious  to  health.  The  marvelous  discoveries  which 
are  daily  made  in  chemical  science  arc  continually  and  skillfully 
applied,  not  only  to  improve,  but  to  adulterate  the  wines.  In 
this  manner  do  the  Germans  sweeten  their  wines;  in  this  manner 
they  saturate  them  with  sulphur,  with  a  view  to  neutralize  their 
natural  propensity  to  become  acid,  not  only  in  casks,  but  even  in 
bottles ;  in  this  manner  they  give  them  the  artificial,  but  to  con- 
noisseurs disgusting  flavor  of  Muscat.  This  trade  of  spurious 
wines  is  carried  on  in  France  on  a  still  larger  scale.     All  is  false 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA.  I53 

in  the  ■wines ;  the  color,  the  strength,  the  flavor,  the  age — even  the 
name  under  which  they  are  sold.  There  are  wines  which  do  not 
contain  a  drop  of  grape-juice.  Even  science  is  impotent  to  dis- 
tinguish the  true  from  the  false,  so  complete  is  the  imitation. 
You  may  every  day  see  advertised  in  the  French  newspapers  the 
Seve  de  Medoc,  of  which  a  small  flagon,  costing  three  francs,  is  de- 
clared sufficient  to  give  flavor  to  600  litres. 

"  Paris  and  Cette  arc  the  principal  seats  of  this  fraudulent 
adulteration.  It  is  practiced  in  both  places  on  the  most  colossal 
scale.  Certainly  one  half  of  the  Parisian  population  drink,  un- 
der the  name  of  wine,  a  mixture  of  which  there  is  not  one  drop 
of  grape-juice.  The  police  are  unable  to  prevent  this  adultera- 
tion ;  but  the  laws  punish  it  with  great  severity.  Every  week  do 
the  newspapers  publish  judgments  against  wine-merchants  and 
grocers,  in  execution  of  which  their  wines — twenty,  thirty,  eighty 
hogsheads  at  once — are  poured  into  the  gutters.  But  this  dis- 
honest art  is  now  so  perfect  that  even  clever  chemists  can  with 
difficulty  distinguish  the  true  wine  from  the  false.  Such  was  the 
case  in  a  very  recent  trial.  The  chemist,  after  reporting  every 
ingredient  of  which  the  wine  was  composed,  observed  that  if  one 
of  them  were  in  less  quantity  he  would  have  been  unable  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  natural  wine.  The  prosecuted  wine-mer- 
chant, who  was  present,  listened  attentively  to  the  chemist's  re- 
port, and  at  last  asked  him  which  ingredient  it  was.  The  chem- 
ist very  imprudently  told  him,  and  the  accused  immediately 
answered,  "I  am  very  much  obliged,  sir;  and  I  don't  regret  now 
my  forty  hogsheads  of  wine  which  will  be  destroyed,.because  now 
I  am  certain  of  my  business. 

"  The  quantity  of  the  French  home  consumption  is  exactly 
known.  Taking,  as  an  example,  the  year  1857 :  France  pro- 
duced 85,410,000  hectolitres ;  she  imported,  besides,  foreign  wine, 
626,000  hectolitres ;  total,  36,026,000  hectolitres.  Of  this  quan- 
tity, in  France  was  consumed:  as  wine,  17,142,000  hectolitres;  as 
spirit,  2,453,000  hectolitres ;  as  vinegar,  222,000  hectolitres ;  total 
of  the  French  consumption,  19,817,000  hectolitres.  We  see  that 
what  is  left  for  stock  and  exportation  is  not  too  much,  and  still 
less  if  we  consider  such  years  as  1854, 1855, 1856,  in  which  the 
total  production  was  only  10,000,000, 15,000,000,  and  21,000,000 
hectolitres,  instead  of  35,000,000,  as  it  was  in  1857.  If,  there- 
fore, France  itself,  in  1857,  consumed  more  than  she  can  produce 
in  some  years,  is  it  unreasonable  to  doubt  whether  she  would  al- 
ways be  able  to  export  natural  and  unadulterated  wines  ?  In 
any  case,  can  one  believe  that  under  such  circumstances  old 
French  wines  could  be  found  any  where  but  in  private  cellars?" 

About  Hungary  and  its  wines  he  says : 

"1.  With  the  exception  of  six  counties,  the  vine  is  cultivated 
in  all  Hungary  (in  France  eleven  departments  have  no  vines,  and 


154  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WTNE-MAKING. 

twcnty-five  departments  produce  only  common  wines  unfit  for 
exportation).  Every  wine  lias  its  name,  derived  from  a  town,  a 
county,  a  mountain,  or  a  lake.  Some  large  districts  are  celebrated 
for  their  wines ;  but  even  in  small  and  less-known  localities  ex- 
cellent wines  are  to  be  found,  concealed  like  treasures  wliick  only 
wait  to  be  discovered.     The  most  renowned  wines  are : 


LIQUEUK   WINES 

White. 
Tokay.  Soprony. 

Baszt.  Szent  Gyocrgy. 


Red. 

Menes.  Villkny. 


Eger.  Kkrloviez. 

TABLE   WINES, 

£rmellek.  Menes.  Szerednye.  Villany. 

Bakator.  Eger.  Neszmely.  Visonta. 

Somlyd.  Szegszard.  Kcebanya.  Karlo\'iez. 

Balaton.  Badacsony.  Borsod,  etc.  Nograd,  etc. 

Buda.  Magyarlit. 

"Numberless  are  the  varieties  of  wines,  for  they  vary  in  every 
respect :  in  color,  from  dark  to  pale  red,  from  green  to  golden-yel- 
low ;  in  strength,  they  are  light  or  strong ;  in  taste,  dry  or  sweet, 
with  more  or  less  flavor.  It  may  be  that  one  or  another  may  not 
suit  one's  taste,  but  it  is  impossible  that  every  body  should  not 
find  among  these  different  wines  one  agreeable  to  him.  What  is 
necessary  is  to  try  all,  and  afterward  choose  the  most  suitable. 

"2.  The  Hungarian  wines  are  generally  stronger  than  the 
French  or  the  Khine  wines.  The  reason  of  this  may  be  sought 
in  the  kind  of  grape,  in  the  properties  of  the  soil,  in  the  peculiar 
climate  of  the  country,  and  finally,  I  think,  in  the  fact  that  in  Hun- 
gary the  vineyards  are  commonly  situated  upon  elevated  hills,  I 
dare  even  call  them  mountains.  The  Hungarians,  knowing  the 
old  Latin  proverb,  Bacchus  colles  amat  ("  Bacchus  loves  the  hills"), 
have  followed  the  advice ;  they  even  now  laugh  at  and  despise 
the  wines  growing  in  the  low  plains,  which  is  the  case  with  most 
French  wines. 

"  And  this  is  not  all.  Two  contrary  tendencies  are  very  per- 
ceptible in  the  two  countries.  The  demand  for  French  wines  be- 
ing great,  the  French  cultivators,  for  thirty  or  forty  years  past, 
have  left  the  finest  wines  out  of  account ;  they  prefer  the  inferior 
sorts  at  a  low  price  to  the  finer  at  a  high  price ;  they  plant  the 
vines  close  together,  thus  depriving  the  fruit  of  sun  and  air ;  they 
choose  a  rich  soil,  which  gives  a  more  abundant  but  an  inferior 
produce ;  they,  with  the  same  object  in  view,  make  too  much  use 
of  manure,  which  injures  the  quality  of  the  wine  (a  practice  once 
forbidden  by  laiv) ;  in  a  word,  the  French  wine  has  lost  in  flavor 
what  it  has  gained  in  fecundity ;  quality  has  been  sacrificed  to 
the  quantity. 

"  But  in  Hungary  the  contrary  still  prevails — that  old  system 
under  which  the  quality  is  the  principal  object  in  view,  under 
which  a  favorable  exposure  is  tue  all-important  consideration; 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


155 


and  the  poor,  light,  stony,  granitic  land,  from  whence  alone  the 
choicest  and  the  most  highly-flavored  wines  can  be  obtained,  is 
preferred  to  a  rich,  manured  soil,  insuring  an  abundant,  but,  in 
quality,  far  inferior  return. 

"Nothing  is  grander  or  more  beautiful  than  our  mountains, 
crowned  either  with  shady  woods  or  with  vines  of  exuberant  veg- 
etation. Where  you  see  a  mountain,  there  you  will  find  our  vine- 
yards. The  superb  Badacsony  mountains  form  a  high  semicircle 
around  the  majestic  Lake  of  Balaton,  covering  a  surface  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  English  square  miles.  The  arid  mount- 
ains of  Mcnes  or  Vilagos  overlook  proudly  the  rich  plains  of  Ba- 
nat,  the  holy  Canaan  of  Ilungary.  The  mountain  called  Tokay 
rises,  in  an  another  large  plain,  like  a  lofty  pyramid.  It  has  the 
form  of  Vesuvius,  and,  indeed,  its  existing  but  silent  crater,  its 
volcanic  formation,  shows  evidently  that  it  was  once  a  fire-spread- 
ing mountain.  The  cultivation  of  such  a  soil  is  very  difiicult  and 
expensive,  the  produce  obtained  but  little ;  but  then  the  latent  fire 
of  this  volcanic  mountain  is  what  we  call  Tokay  wine. 

"Now  I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  the  best  wine  is  that  which 
contains  the  most  alcohol ;  this  is  only  one  of  its  elements ;  and 
other  qualities,  as  delicacy,  taste,  flavor,  are  equally  essential.  My 
intention  is  to  establish  that,  as  the  Hungarian  natural  wine  is 
stronger  than  the  Ehine,  French,  or  even  Spanish  or  Portuguese 
wines  (taken  without  the  usual  addition  of  brandy),  we  may  rea- 
sonably presume,  first,  that  the  Hungarian  wine  is  particularly 
adapted  to  the  English  climate,  and  then  that  it  will,  more  than 
any  other  light  wine,  facilitate  to  the  English  consumer  the  tran- 
sition from  the  spirits  and  brandied  wine  to  natural  ones,  which 
are  undoubtedly  more  beneficial  to  the  human  health. 

"  It  is  a  fact  universally  known,  that  to  all  wines  exported  to 
England  is  added  more  or  less  brandy  (and  in  most  cases  not 
Cognac,  but  what  is  quite  another  thing,  corn,  fig,  sugar-brandy) ; 
thus  the  Ehine  wines  receive  an  addition  of  2-5,  the  French  4-7, 
the  Spanish  and  Port  wines  8-15  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 

"  This  practice  is  in  Hungary  quite  unknown.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  mentioned  addition  of  brandy,  the  Ehine  wines  never 
mark  above  10-14  degrees  (of  Sykes),  and  the  lest  clarets,  like 
Chateau  Lafitte,  do  not  reach  18 ;  whereas  the  quite  pure  and 
natural  Hungarian  wines,  when  examined  by  the  Custom-house 
Test  Office  in  London,  gave  the  following  results : 


Buda,  red  table  wine 21.1 

Eger 21.5 

Szegszard 22.8 

Menes,  1842 23. 


Neszraely,  white  table  wine 19.1^^ 

Balaton 20.6 

Bakator 20.6 

Tokay  dry 23.6 


"  But  I  think  there  could  be  found  inferior  wines  not  surpass- 
ing eighteen  degrees ;  consequently  their  introduction  (at  the  shil- 
ling duty)  would  be  very  advantageous  to  the  great  mass  of  the 


English  consumers. 


156  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IMAKING. 

"3.  In  the  tliird  place,  I  -will  say  that  if  there  be  a  country 
where  real  old  wines  (from  1811  to  1855)  are  to  be  found,  it  is 
Hungary.  This  important  fact  has  its  reason  :  first^  from  this  cir- 
cumstance, that  Hungary,  like  England,  is  the  land  of  large  es- 
tates. There  are  landowners  producing  yearly  from  1000  to 
20,000  hogsheads  of  wine.  Beautiful  and  enormous  cellars,  cut 
in  rocky  mountains,  widely  extend  their  ramifications,  like  laby- 
rinths or  catacombs,  where  the  wines  are  ranged  year  after  year. 
It  is  a  kind  of  aristocratic  and  family  glory  to  have  a  full  and 
rich  cellar.  The  grandchildren  can  drink  the  wine  produced  by 
their  ancestors,  and  gratefully  remember  the  past  old  times.  Some 
of  them  would  not  sell  their  wines,  even  if  they  could  do  it ;  but 
that  is  not  an  easy  matter  in  Hungary.  Why  ?  Because,  and 
that  is  the  second  reason,  the  internal  consumption  with  us  is  very 
small.  In  Hungary  the  ladies  never  drink  any  thing  but  water; 
the  men  of  the  higher  classes  are  temperate  from  principle  and 
habit ;  the  lower  classes  from  necessity  and  custom.  Therefore, 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  inhabitants,  little  wine,  and  scarce- 
ly any  wine  brandy,  is  consumed ;  so  that,  I  dare  say,  Hungary, 
with  France,  the  richest  wine-growing  country  in  the  world,  is  at 
the  same  time  the  most  temperate. 

"  Is  not  this  fact  an  argument  to  show  that  the  light  and  nat- 
ural wines  are  the  most  efficacious  and  surest  preservatives  against 
the  use  of  fiery,  intoxicating  brandies  ?" 

The  above  extracts  will  satisfy  the  skeptic  that  where  com- 
merce exists  and  transportation  is  easy,  there  need  be  no  fear  of 
overdoing  the  business  of  vine-raising.  California  possesses  the 
commercial  advantages,  as  well  as  facility  of  communication,  be- 
tween producer  and  merchant.  The  merchant  can  send  his  wine 
to  foreign  markets  after  it  is  one  year  old  without  adding  a  drop 
of  brandy,  as  our  wine  will,  as  I  stated  before,  bear  transportation, 
and  even  improve  beyond  expectation.  The  time  so  spent  on 
the  sea  is  not  lost,  for  the  wine  gets  older  and  better,  and  will,  in 
consequence,  meet  a  better  sale. 

"We  give  below  a  table  of  the  wine  produced  in  Europe,  the 
quantity  reduced  from  morgens  to  acres.  Our  statistics  were  ex- 
tracted from  a  work  by  Gustavo  Rawald.  Also  the  price  and 
yield  per  acre  of  wine  calculated  in  dollars.  These  calculations 
were  made  by  ourselves  from  the  figures  given  in  the  above  work. 


GRAPES  AND  WINES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


157 


THE  AVEUAGE  WINE  PRODUCTION  OF  EUUOPE  KEDUCED  TO  AMERICAN  ACRES  AND 

GALLONS. 


Austria  and  her  Provinces 

Greece  and  tlie  Grecian  Lslands.. 
Ionian  Islands  (for  raisins,  ) 
over  42,000,000  lbs.)t       )   ■" 

Italy 

Switzerland  and  Belgium 

France 

Spain 

Portugal 

Total 


Acrcfl. 
2,085,950 
41,781 

35,812 

2,887,970 
7G,400 

5,013,774 
955,004 
238,751 


11,935,442 
Germany. 


Gallons. 
714,000,000* 
8,100,000 

1,224,000 

1,275,000,000 

2,550,000 

884,000,000 

144,500,000 

25,500,000 


3,054,934,000 


Gallons 

per  Acre. 

2050 

195^5 

34  i 

441  i 

332 

17Gf 

lOG^ 


^10  (T 


Saxony 

Prussia 

Bavaiia 

Wirtemberg . 

Baden 

Hesse 

Nassau 


Total. 


Acres. 

Gallons. 

Gallons 
per  Acre. 

5,945 

340,000 

57^ 

.53,719 

7,225,000 

134^ 

125,344 

20,400,000 

102  J 

05,050 

10,200,000 

155^ 

05,050 

7,140,000 

1081 

23,875 

4,250,000 

178 

10,143 

2,550,000 

2371 

350,338 

52,105,000 

1483^% 

The  aggregate  number  of  acres  under  wine  culture  in  Europe  is  12,285,780. 
The  total  average  yield  per  year  in  Europe  is  3,107,039,000  gallons. 

The  wines  of  Germany  would  bring,  at  25  cents  per  gallon $13,020,250 

And  those  of  the  other  countries,  "        "        "        703,733,500 

Together $770,759,750 

In  Germany  the  average  income  per  acre  would  be  thus $37  18i 

In  the  Other  countries,  taken  together,  per  acre  would  be  thus 03  981 

But,  taking  each  county  or  state  separately,  their  wines  would  bring,  upon  the 
above  average  price  of  25  cents  per  gallon,  as  follows : 


Etiropean  Countries. 


Austria  and  her  Provinces 

Greece  and  the  Greciaia  Islands  , 

Ionian  Islands 

Italy 

Switzei'land  and  Belgium 

France 

Spain 

Portugal 

Total 


Total  Amount. 

$178,500,000 

2,040,000 

300,000 

318,750,000 

037,500 

221,000,000 

30,125,000 

0,375,000 


German  States. 


Saxony 

Prussia 

Bavaria 

Wirtemberg 

Baden 

Hesse 

Nassau 


Total. 


$703,733,500 


Total  Amount. 
$85,000 
1,800,250 
5,100,000 
2,550,000 
1,785,000 
1,002,500 
037,500 


$13,020,250 


Per  Acre. 

$00 

40 

48 

82 

8 

54 

110  37 

8 

34 

44  07 

37 

92 

20 

70 

Per  Acre. 

$11 

79 

33 

02 

40  08 

38 

83 

27 

18 

44  50 

59 

33 

•  Of  these  714,000,000  gallons,  Hungary  produces  some  450,000,000. 

t  Cephalonia  exports  annually  4,200,000  lbs.  of  raisins  ;  Thiaki,  350,000  lbs. ;  Zante,  8,000,000  lbs. 


153  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

We  have  taken  a  low  estimate,  according  to  present  prices, 
but  still  it  amounts  to  the  enormous  sum  of  $776,759,750.  This 
amount  the  producer  receives ;  so  that  it  would  be  safe  to  calcu- 
late that  the  merchants  receive  from  the  consumers  double  this 
sum. 

Italy  shows  the  highest  yield  to  the  acre,  and  yet  does  not  come 
up  to  the  California  yield  within  100  per  cent. 

It  is  well  known  that  California  has  within  its  boundaries  at 
least  5,000,000  acres  of  land  well  adapted  for  the  vine  culture. 
This  land,  even  though  it  yield  no  better  than  Italy,  will  still 
amount  to  $551,858,208  33.  This  large  sum  may  astonish  the 
most  sanguine ;  nevertheless,  in  another  generation  California  will 
produce  this  result. 

Below  we  give  an  abstract  of  the  Wine  Chronicle  of  Germany, 
taken  from  the  Eecords  of  the  Agricultural  Society  in  Wirtem- 
berg.  These  Records,  dating  from  the  year  1246,  are  from  that 
time  up  to  1420  very  meagre  and  much  interrupted,  but  from 
1420  up  to  1852  quite  complete  and  correct.  During  those  432 
years  there  were,  as  to  quality  of  the  wine, 

Those  eminently  distinguished  only 11 

Very  good  years  for  a  good  wine 28 

Pretty  good  ones       "         "        118 

Middling  quality  wines 76 

Inferior        "         "    199 

Total 432 

Concerning  the  productiveness,  there  have  been 

Years  of  ample  yield 114 

"        middle    "    18 

"        poorer    " 99 

"        failures,  or  yields  not  paying  expenses 201 

Total 432 

This  statement  gives  a  clear  view  of  the  disadvantages  under 
which  the  culture  of  the  grape  is  to  be  carried  on  in  such  a  north- 
em  locality  as  are  most  of  the  States  of  Germany.  While  we 
have  in  California  no  year  of  failure  on  record,  or  by  the  tradition 
of  our  oldest  settlers,  cold  Germany  has  her  vine  crops  killed  or 
seriously  injured,  upon  an  average,  three  years  out  of  four.  This 
simple  fact  evinces  the  superior  advantages  of  California  for  the 
production  of  grapes  and  wine. 


APPENDIX   A. 

WINES  AND  THEIE  VARIETIES. 


EXTRACTED  FROM  JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS'  TREATISE  ON  WINES  AND  WINE-SIAKING 
iWJEIXKUNDE):  Nubembeeg,  1847. 


APPENDIX  A. 

JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES. 

I.  Constituent  Parts  of  the  Grape. — II.  Hungarian  Wines. — III.  Rhine  Wines. — 
IV.  Franconian  Wines.  — V.  Other  German  Wines. — VI.  Italian  Wines. — VII. 
Spani.sh  Wines. — VIII.  Portuguese  Wines. — IX.  Madeira  Wines. — X.  Cape 
Wines. — ^I.  Greek  Wines. — XII.  Grape  Culture  in  Turkey,  Persia,  etc. — XIII. 
Gi'ajje  Culture  in  Africa,  America,  Russia,  etc. 

I. 

CONSTITUENT  PARTS  OF  THE  GRAPE. 

Since  unadulterated  wines  are  made  from  grapes,  it  will  be  here 
not  superfluous  to  enumerate  the  constituent  parts  of  the  latter. 
They  contain,  besides  water,  tartaric  acid,  saccharine  matter,  gum 
and  other  slimy  substances,  wax,  tannic  acid,  albumen,  resinous 
coloring  matter,  fibrin,  odoriferous  matter,  coloring  matter,  astrin- 
gent substance,  tartar,  sulphate  of  potash ;  chloride,  sulphide,  phos- 
phate, and  citrate  of  calcium  ;  and  more  or  less  impurities  adher- 
ing to  the  surface,  such  as  particles  of  the  soil  and  the  like.  Of 
these  ingredients,  the  acids,  the  slimy  substances,  and  the  astrin- 
gent matters  are  chiefly  found  in  the  green  grapes,  but  disappear 
more  or  less  w^ith  their  progressive  ripening,  being  by  the  work- 
ing of  nature  transmuted  into  sugar.  These  enter  also  into  the 
must,  but  to  a  great  part  separated  during  the  fermentation,  viz., 
the  fibrin,  the  wax,  some  coloring  matter,  a  part  of  the  albumen, 
the  resinous  matter  and  slimy  substances,  with  the  earthy  and 
other  impurities,  which  settle  as  lees  on  the  bottom  of  the  barrel, 
together  with  the  tartar,  a  part  of  which  incrusts  also  the  sides  of 
the  vessel, 

1.  Water  constitutes*the  principal  part  of  wine,  for  the  best  ones 
contain  at  least  sixty  per  cent,  of  it,  the  poorer  wines  eighty  and 
even  ninety  per  cent.  The  grapes  will  be  more  watery,  and  con- 
sequently the  wnne  more  weak,  in  wet  years;  or  if  they  grow  in 
a  moist  soil ;  or  if  rains  predominate  shortly  before  or  during  the 
vintage. 

2.  Tartaric  acid  is  found  in  the  stems,  in  the  tendrils,  and  in  the 
green  grapes  themselves — partly  free,  and  partly  combined  with 
potash. 

3.  The  saccharine  substance  is  formed  by  the  ripening  of  the 
grapes,  and  this  takes  place  the  more  successfully  the  more  the 
grapes  enjoy  the  heating  influence  of  the  sun.     The  saccharine 

Li 


1(52  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WlNE-MAiaNG. 

matter  is  decomposed  by  the  fermentation  and  transmuted  into 
alcohol. 

4.  The  gum  and  other  slimy  matters  are  not  injurious  to  the 
wine  except  by  impeding  the  clarifying  process. 

5.  Wax  and  resinous  coloring  matter  are  found  in  the  husks  of 
the  grapes. 

6.  Tannic  acid  and  other  astringent  matters  give  to  the  red 
wines  a  tart  and  harsh  taste  if  fei'mented  too  long  upon  the  stems. 

7.  The  albumen  found  is  only  in  a  moderate  quantity  in  the 
grapes,  and  settles  easy  with  the  lees. 

8.  The  odoriferous  substance  is  in  some  kinds  of  grapes  more 
copious,  for  instance,  in  the  Eiesling  and  in  the  Muscats  ;  and  if 
these  are  mixed  in  a  certain  proportion  with  the  others'less  odo- 
riferous, a  fine  bouquet  is  imparted  to  the  whole  mass. 

9.  The  coloring  matter  has  its  place  on  the  inner  side' of  the 
husk,  from  which  it  is  disengaged  during  fermentation ;  there- 
fore the  longer  the  red  wine  is  left  in  the  fermenting-tub  on  the 
husks,  the  deeper  will  become  its  color. 

10.  Most  of  the  above-mentioned  neutral  salts  will  also  settle 
with  the  lees,  and  partly  crystallize  out  of  the  wine  the  older  it 
becomes. 


II. 
HUNGARIAN  WINES. 


1.  We  will  here  mention  the  most  celebrated  wines  of  Hunga- 
ry. The  first  is  the  world-renowned  Tokay,  Of  this  there  are 
four  kinds — three  sweet,  and  one  so-called  table  wine.  Of  the 
sweet  wines  the  first  is  the  "  Essence,"  which  is  collected  in  ves- 
sels put  under  baskets  containing  the  half-dried  grapes  [Troken- 
heere\  the  juice  of  which  drops  by  its  own  weight  partly  out. 
The  second  quality  is  the  so-called  "  Ausbruch,"  made  in  the  fol- 
lowing way :  when  the  above  grapes  do  not  yield  more  "  Essence," 
they  arc  taken  out  from  the  baskets  and  put  into  some  flat  vessel, 
and  there,  by  treading,  converted  into  a  pulpy  mass,  which  is  then 
transferred  into  an  open  barrel,  and  the  proper  quantity  of  good 
must  added  (to  eighty  measures  of  the  pulp,  one  hundred  and  fif- 
ty measures  of  must),  and  well  stirred  up.  As  soon  as  the  mass 
is  fermenting  the  whole  is  again  well  stirred,  and  then  put  into  a 
loose  sack  and  squeezed  out,  then  filled  into  clean  barrels  to  fin- 
ish the  fermentation.  The  third  quality  is  called  Maszlas  (pro- 
nounced Maslash),  made  from  the  squeezed  pulp  in  the  above- 
specified  way.  The  fourth  kind  is  made  from  the  ripe  grapes  in 
the  common  way. 

2.  The  wine  of  "Mdnes"  {Menesh)  is  also  a  sweet  wine,  not  much 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.  163 

inferior  to  tlic  Tokay,  but  red  in  color,  while  the  Tokay  is  yellow. 
There  the  blue  grapes  are  handled  in  the  same  way  as  the  white 
ones  are  for  the  Tokay. 

3.  The  wines  of  Sirmia.  The  sweet  wines  of  this  province,  as 
well  as  the  others,  are  also  of  eminent  quality,  though  they  are 
sold  mostly  under  the  name  of  Karlovizian  wines  ;  those  of  other 
places  in  this  district  are  entitled  to  no  less  credit  for  their  excel- 
lent virtues,  as,  for  instance,  those  of  Illok,  Suscg,  Cheslevitz,  Be- 
oscin,  Rakovatz,  Kamenitz,  and  Peterwardein.  The  red  Sirmian 
wine  is  sweet,  very  aromatic,  dark  red,  and  mild.  The  white  wine 
is  too  spirituous  to  be  drank  by  itself,  and  is  used  to  improve  poor- 
er wines.  Besides  those  wines  they  prepare  the  so-called  "I)rop- 
wermuth,"  named  from  the  process  for  collecting  it  from  linen 
filters,  which,  being  suspended  in  a  very  heated  room,  the  must 
falls  from  the  filters  in  drops  into  the  vessels  beneath.  This  half- 
fermented  must  remains  in  small  casks  for  several  months  sweet, 
and  has  some  similarity  to  the  Champagne.  Another  kind  of  wine 
there  manufactured  is  the  so-called  "Rascian  Wermuth."  The 
barrels  are  nearly  filled  with  half-dry  blue  grapes,  without  stems, 
and  then  a  good  old  red  wine  is  poured  over  them,  with  some 
wormwood  and  spices. 

4.  The  wines  of  Buda  (Ofen)  are  also  celebrated  for  their  fine 
qualities^r-especially  the  red  ones  of  Buda  and  its  environs,  and 
the  white  ones  of  Pesth,  in  the  same  county — and  called  "  Stein- 
brucher." 

5.  The  wines  of  St.  Endree  are  also  very  fine,  agreeable  to 
drink,  spirituous,  and  aromatic.  Here  are  also  sweet  wines  made 
from  dry  grapes. 

6.  Sekzardy  wines  may  successfully  compete  with  the  best  Bur- 
gundy. 

7.  Petshy  (Fiinf  kirchen)  produces  good  table  wines,  all  of  white 
grapes. 

8.  Villanyer  wines  remain  sweet  even  when  many  years  old. 

9.  Neszmely  furnishes  one  of  the  best  table  wines  known,  the 
peculiar  aromatic  taste  of  which  can  not  be  found  in  any  other 
wine.  It  attains  its  maturity  in  from  three  to  four  years.  It  is 
a  pity  that  the  spots  where  these  magnificent  grapes  grow  are  so 
limited  in  circuit.  The  average  product  of  this  wine  amounts 
yearly  only  to  ten  thousand  barrels,  a  gallon  of  which  sells  com- 
monly for  from  fifty-five  to  sixty  cents,  while  other  common  ta- 
ble wines  can  be  bought  in  Hungary  for  four  to  five  cents. 

10.  A  rival  to  the  Neszmely  is  another  white  wine,  namely,  that 
of  Shomlo.  Some  even  prefer  its  aromatic  taste  to  that  of  the 
Neszmely,  though  quite  of  another  bouquet,  and  many  consider  it 
the  best  wine  for  the  table.  Its  grapes  grow  upon  a  basaltic  hill 
of  limited  size ;  the  average  yearly  product  is  about  25,000  barrels. 

11.  Rust  and  (Edenburg  have  also  excellent  sweet  dessert 
wines,  well-flavored  and  spirituous. 


IQ4:  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

12.  Besides  many  others  of  first-rate  quality  too  numerous  to 
mention,  there  arc  also  of  prominent  notoriety  the  wines  of  Vi- 
sonta,  Erlau,  Presburg,  Ratchdorf,  St.  George  Posing,  Modern, 
Gruan,  Limbach,  Tyrling,  Shenkvitz,  Ducova,  Nusdorf,  Neustadt, 
etc. 

13.  Among  the  wines  of  Croatia  is  the  Moslavina,  equal  to  the 
Burgundy ;  the  Babulek  and  Bukovetz,  the  most  prominent  for 
their  rich  aromatic  savor  and  strength. 

14.  The  wines  of  Banat,  in  Lower  Hungary,  are  also  generally, 
on  account  of  the  warm  climate,  very  spirituous,  mild,  and  spicy. 
The  best  of  them  is  furnished  by  Vershitz,  near  the  Turkish 
boundar}^,  and  Weiskirchen. 

To  give  a  slight  insight  into  the  enormous  wine  production  of 
Hungary,  I  will  here  mention  only  a  few  instances :  Promontory, 
a  single  hill,  55,000  barrels  a  year;  Teteny,  a  village,  65,000  bar- 
rels yearly;  St.  Andree,  a  village,  70,000  barrels;  Menesh,  470,000 
barrels;  Petsh,  a  town  of  considerable  extent,  500,000  barrels; 
Tolna  County,  700,000  barrels.  In  this  county  the  village  of 
Seksard  alone  averages  }■  early  250,000  barrels,  and  the  county 
of  Pest  255,000  barrels.  Hungary  may  be  therefore  rightly  class- 
ed among  the  first  vine-growing  countries,  her  wine  produce  be- 
ing neither  in  quality  nor  quantity  second  to  any  other  country 
upon  the  globe.  Francis  Schams,  in  his  celebrated  work,  esti- 
mates the  yearly  average  yield  at  30,000,000  barrels.  One  thir- 
ty-second part  of  the  cultivated  lands  in  Hungary  is  planted  with 
grape-vines, 

[For  an  account  of  the  wine  products  of  France  the  reader  is 
referred  to  other  portions  of  this  volume. — A.  H.] 


III. 
THE  RHINE  WINES. 


Both  banks  of  the  Rhine,  from  its  outlet,  several  hundred  miles 
in  circumference,  up  to  the  city  of  Bonn,  display  to  the  eye,  with 
but  little  interruption,  their  innumerable  vineyards.  All  the 
wines  which  are  made  in  these  districts  should  properly  bo  called 
Rheinwines ;  but,  for  the  purpose  of  each  particular  wine  being 
the  more  easily  distinguished  from  that  of  any  other,  the  name 
of  the  particular  district  where  each  kind  is  produced  is  com- 
monly adopted  as  the  title  of  the  wine,  namely,  Elsasser,  Seawine, 
Marggriiffer,  Aarblischer,  Zaardtwinc,  and  Naahwine. 

Those  wines  only  which  are  called  "  Rheingaus,"  and  those 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  Maycnce  and  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
are  by  custom  designated  by  the  especial  name  of  "  Rheinwines ;" 
and,  indeed,  these  sorts  are  eminently  entitled  to  this  mark  of  dis- 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  165 

tinction,  as  they  possess,  more  than  any  of  the  others,  those  pecul- 
iar qualities  which  distinguish  the  Kliine  wines.  After  a  few 
hours'  travel  from  Mayenec  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Rhine, 
you  begin  to  enter  upon  the  more  favorable  regions  for  the  culture 
of  the  vine — the  so-called  "  Rheingau."  Here  the  most  celebrated 
wine  districts  arc  the  following:  Asmannhausen,  Riidcsheim,  Geis- 
enheim,  Johannisberg,  Markobrunn,  Steinberg,  and  Ilochheim, 
which  lies  toward  the  east. 

Next  in  quality  to  the  wines  produced  in  these  districts  you 
may  class  with  perfect  certainty  those  made  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river :  e.  g.,  those  of  Scharlachler,  Ingelheim,  Laubenheim, 
Bodenheim,  and  Nierstcin,  all  of  which  places  are  in  the  vicinity 
of  Mayence,  and  whose  wines  are  not  unfrequently  found  to  give 
satisfixction  even  to  the  ablest  connoisseurs ;  for,  even  if  the 
stringency  and  spiciness  of  the  first-named  class  of  wines  can  not 
be  attained  by  these  other  kinds,  yet  these  districts  have  afforded 
wines  which,  by  their  sweetness,  bouquet,  and  strength,  have  ob- 
tained for  them  a  considerable  degree  of  public  estimation. 

The  vineyards  also  toward  the  south  and  southwest  afford  un- 
exceptionable wines.  Nature,  however,  has  not  provided  in  ev- 
ery part  of  this  wine-country  a  soil  so  congenial  to  the  culture  of 
the  grape  as  she  has  in  the  Rheingau.  There  the  soil  attains  its 
highest  perfection  for  the  production  of  choice  wines ;  there 
flourish  the  richest  vineyards,  which  produce  the  most  generous 
wine,  the  vines  themselves  growing  generally  in  stony  ground  or 
in  the  clefts  of  rocks.  On  the  southerly  side  of  these  tracts  the 
sun  shines  the  whole  day  long;  its  ra3^s  warm  the  stones  to  the 
greatest  intensity,  and,  by  the  radiation  of  heat  therefrom,  the 
grape  is  ripened  by  the  solar  influence  to  an  equal  perfection  with 
those  which  are  fully  exposed  to  the  direct  blaze  of  the  sunbeams. 
A  high  degree  of  vinous  essence  is  consequently  developed  in 
these  grapes — an  element  which  would  be  sought  for  in  vain  in 
any  other  part  of  the  Rhine.  The  fact  is  announced  to  you  from 
a  distance  by  the  smell  of  the  air,  which  is  impregnated  with  the 
sweetness  and  spicy  odors  arising  from  the  vineyards.  Besides 
the  districts  above  enumerated,  whose  vintages  take  the  pre-emi- 
nence of  all  others  in  the  Rheingau,  there  are  many  other  places 
which,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  are  suited  to  the  growing  of 
vines  of  various  varieties. 

All  the  wine  districts  on  the  Rheingau,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Burgundy  vines,  from  Asmannhausen,  produce  only  white 
wines.  Opposite  the  Rheingau,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
red  wines  are  produced  also,  as  at  Ingelheim  and  Lorch,  near 
Mayence,  and  several  other  places.  The  latter  place,  like  the 
Asmannhausen,  in  the  Rheingau,  affords  Burgundies  of  superior 
strength  and  piquancy,  but  never  excels  in  sweetness  or  purity. 
The  finest  Rhine  wine  comes  indubitably  from  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Riidesheim   and  Hinterhaus,     The  variety  of  grape 


166  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

cultivated  in  these  mountain  sites  is  called  the  Orleans  or  Ilart- 
hengst :  these  differ  from  all  the  native  grapes  of  the  Rhine. 
They  are  very  large  in  size  and  exceedingly  aromatic,  and  in  fa- 
vorable seasons  they  become  extremely  sweet.  This  accounts 
amply  for  the  fact  that,  in  the  year  1822,  four  thousand  Rhenish 
florins  were  paid  for  one  pipe  (about  280  gallons)  of  Riidesheimer 
wine — about  $l-i  28  per  gallon.  In  the  year  1815,  1200  such 
pipes  of  wine  were  raised  in  Riidesheim,  and  14:00  pipes  in  the 
year  1819.  This  wine  is  appreciated  for  its  strength  and  pleasant 
flavor.  It  differs  from  the  mountain  wines  made  from  the  Or- 
leans grape,  of  which  the  average  yearly  product  is  fully  150 
pipes.  The  Oberfelder  and  Riesling  grape  also  produce  from  400 
to  500  pipes,  and  Hinterhaus  yields  annually  from  10  to  12  pipes. 
In  the  year  1809,  the  price  of  a  pipe  of  these  wines  was  3000 
Rhenish  florins  in  Riidesheim ;  in  1800,  1800  florins ;  in  1804, 
750  to  900  florins. 

Almost  equally  esteemed  are,  first,  the  wines  of  Steinberg  and 
Johannisberg  ;  next,  those  of  Rothenberg  ;  next,  Geisenheim  ; 
fourthly,  those  of  Markobruun  and  Griifenberg,  near  Kiederich. 
All  these  wines  are  produced  from  a  grape  called  the  Riesling. 
This  grape  is  inferior  to  none  in  bouquet,  fineness,  and  sweetness. 
One  pipe  of  the  Steinberg  vintage  was,  in  the  year  1822,  sold 
for  the  sum  of  5000  florins  ($7  14  the  gallon).  The  vineyard 
belongs  to  the  estate  of  the  Duke  of  Nassau.  All  these  wines 
have,  as  we  mentioned  before,  obtained,  from  their  remarkable 
spiciness  and  odor,  their  exquisite  flavor  and  piquancy,  an  espe- 
cial public  preference,  so  that  the  wine-growers  will  readily  make 
an  outlay  of  thousands  of  dollars  in  a  vineyard  of  this  descrip- 
tion. 

The  best  fruit  for  the  production  of  this  wine  is  grown  in  the 
upper  regions  of  the  mountains,  where  it  is  protected  by  the  cha- 
teau. The  next  in  quality  of  this  wine  is  produced  from  the 
grapes  cultivated  in  the  central  parts  of  the  mountain  heights. 
The  most  inferior  kinds  are  produced  from  vineyards  at  their 
base.     The  soil  consists  of  slate. 

During  the  process  of  the  vinous  fermentation,  the  bung-hole 
of  the  cask  is  covered  with  a  patch  of  paper,  upon  which  is  placed 
a  brick.  After  the  fermentation  has  ceased,  the  barrel  is  replen- 
ished, and  a  bung  with  a  valve  is  put  on,  so  that,  in  case  of  a  sec- 
ond fermentation  occurring,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  evolved  by  that 
process  can  readily  escape. 

During  the  first  year  the  wine  is  drawn  off  three  times;  in  the 
course  of  the  second  year  once  or  twice,  so  as  to  clarify  it  suffi- 
ciently ;  and  it  is  only  after  a  period  of  four  or  five  years  that  the 
wine  becomes  sufficiently  ripened  for  the  final  operation  of  bot- 
tling off,  after  which  it  can  be  kept  for  a  period  of  twenty-five 
years  or  oven  more.  To  prevent  any  sediment,  the  wine  has,  in 
the  first  place,  to  be  cleared.     When  the  wine  is  drawn  off,  it  is 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  167 

pumped  into  troughs,  wliich  conduct  tbe  stream  till  it  flows  into 
the  bung-hole  of  the  cask,  by  which  process  the  whole  volume  of 
wine  becomes  more  thoroughly  mixed. 

Here  the  wine  is  never  carried  in  buckets,  or  poured  from  them 
into  the  barrels,  because,  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  wines 
made  from  the  juice  of  rotten  grapes  would  be  turned  into  a  brown 
color,  which  discoloration,  although  it  will  partially  disappear  in 
time,  yet  the  body  of  the  wine  itself  will,  notwithstanding,  be  al- 
ways of  a  darker  tint  than  usual. 

During  the  first,  second,  and  third  years  the  valve-bungs  are 
affixed  to  the  wine  barrels.  These  are  shaped  like  an  ordinary 
bung,  but  they  have  a  small  perforation  through  the  centre,  which 
is  closed  up  by  the  insertion  of  a  cork,  adjusted  by  a  steel  spring, 
which  apparatus  affords  a  free  escape  for  any  evolution  of  gas. 

On  the  17th,  18th,  19th,  and  20th  days  of  October,  1831,  the 
work  of  picking  the  grapes  began( continuing  from  noon  until  four 
P.M.  On  the  southerly  sites,  where  the  grapes  had  become  rot- 
ten-ripe, the  gathering  of  the  balance  was  commenced  on  the  27th. 
28th,  29th,  and  30th  of  the  same  month,  and  was  continued  until 
the  5th  of  the  following  November,  when  the  picking  was  finish- 
ed. On  the  27th  and  28th  the  two  best  vine3^ards  were  selected, 
and  their  choice  fruit  picked  separate  and  kept  apart  from  the 
rest.  This  work,  although  slow  in  being  performed,  paid  for  it- 
self well ;  for,  after  fermentation,  the  must  remained  as  thick  as 
Malaga,  and  before  the  processes  of  making  the  wine  were  com- 
pleted it  sold  for  no  less  than  10,000  guilders  the  pipe,  or  $14  28 
the  gallon. 

The  Cassel  vineyard  contains  63  morgens,  the  annual  produce 
of  which  is  25  pipes;  each  pipe  contains  1300  bottles,  worth  24,000 
florins.  In  the  year  1818  they  raised  47,  and  in  1819  52  pipes 
of  wine. 

This  wine  contains  a  large  proportion  of  spirit,  and  is  verv 
palatable.  It  ranks  in  quality  with  the  best  wines  extant.  It  is 
made  from  the  Riesling  grape.  These  grapes  are  left  to  ripen 
thoroughl}^,  and  not  until  the  wine  is  a  year  old  is  it  drawn  off 
the  lees. 

The  following  years  have  produced  good  vintages  ;  1794, 1802. 
1804,  1811,  and  1822.  In  1819  the  price  per  bottle  of  first  class 
wine  was  four  florins,  of  second  class  three,  and  of  third  class  one 
and  a  half.  At  Hochheim  (one  hour's  ride  from  Ma3^ence)  the 
vines  grow  on  an  elevated  table-land,  which  verges  toward  the 
main,  and  covers  an  area  of  1200  morgens.  Its  site  is  exposed 
fully  to  the  sun,  but  has  little  protection  from  the  north  winds : 
and  it  is,  therefore,  to  the  vicinity  of  the  river  that  this  wine  owes 
its  excellence. 

The  price  of  one  morgen  (a  little  over  half  an  acre)  of  vineyard 
near  Mayence  is  2000  florins ;  toward  the  centre  of  the  heights, 
1000 ;  and  on  the  tops,  500  florins.     The  most  preferable  locality 


1(38  GliAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

lies  in  the  direction  of  tlie  Decbanci,  and  the  choicest  spot  there 
is  what  is  called  the  "  Church  Piece."  It  lies  contiguous  to  the 
church  itself,  which  probably  shelters  it  from  the  northerly  winds 
on  one  side,  and  radiates  the  light  and  heat  of  the  southerly  sun 
on  the  other. 

In  good  seasons  a  barrel  of  Rhenish  wine  realizes  the  sum  of 
5000  florins. 

Here  the  owners  of  extensive  vineyards  pick  their  grapes  as 
soon  as  they  begin  to  rot,  and  the  gathering  of  such  clusters  as 
are  not  found  in  this  condition  is  deferred  to  a  later  period,  till  it 
arrives.  The  berry  must  be  of  a  light-brown  color  and  opaque, 
not  green  and  transparent ;  the  kernels  brown  and  not  white ;  the 
fruit  itself  of  a  sunburnt  and  sweet  taste  to  the  palate ;  the  vine- 
stem  must  be  in  a  dry  and  sapless  state. 

The  entire  bunches  of  the  Riesling  grape  are  deposited  in  a 
treading-tank,  and  are  crushed>by  the  feet  of  the  laborers.  By 
this  operation  the  bouquet  (which  originates  from  the  part  of  the 
inner  side  of  the  husk)  will  be  easier  extracted,  and  the  wine 
much  more  flavored ;  still  more  so  if  the  must  thus  gained  re- 
mains undisturbed  for  twenty-four  hours.  After  this  interval, 
the  husks  are  thrown  into  the  ordinary  wine-press.  The  ferment- 
ing process  is  carried  on  in  the  barrel,  the  bung-hole  of  which  is 
covered  either  with  a  vine-leaf  or  an  inverted  bung.  The  bungs 
used  for  this  purpose  are  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  which  are 
plunged  to  half  their  length  in  the  wine.  By  this  means  the 
bungs  are  constantly  soaked  by  the  wine,  which  causes  them  to 
swell  and  fit  better  to  the  vent  of  the  barrels. 

In  Eelfeld,  the  largest  town  in  the  Rheingau,  situated  close  upon 
the  River  Rhine,  the  vintagers  pick  the  rotting  grapes  first. 

The  crushing  of  the  berry  is  seldom  performed  by  the  wine- 
mill,  but,  for  the  most  part,  is  done  in  the  tread-tub,  as  the  bou- 
quet is  by  that  means  more  readily  extracted.  The  press  is  gen- 
erally used,  however,  immediately  after  the  treading  by  the  foot, 
when  the  fruit  is  very  ripe ;  but  in  less  ripe  grapes  an  interval  of 
twenty-four  hours  is  suftered  to  elapse  before  the  mechanical  press- 
ing operation  is  performed.  The  fermentation  is  carried  on  in 
separate  barrels,  which  are  hermetically  sealed  by  water.  It  is 
not  considered  that  the  wine  itself  is  benefited  by  this  mode  of 
treatment,  but  it  is  adopted  rather  for  the  sake  of  security  to  the 
work-people,  as  it  prevents  the  escape  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
into  the  vaults  where  they  arc  employed. 

Steinberg — a  quarter  of  an  hour  from  the  convent  of  Eberbach 
— produces,  by  its  skillful  management,  an  excellent  kind  of  wine. 
It  yielded  in  the  year  1819  eighty-four  pipes.  Here  the  grapes 
are  gathered  as  late  in  the  season  as  possible,  and  they  are  never 
cleared  off  from  the  vines  at  once,  but  in  two  or  three  different 
pickings,  as  they  become  fit  for  use.  The  work  is  done  here  two 
or  three  weeks  later  than  in  the  Rheingau,  and  care  is  taken  never 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.         169 

to  gather  the  fruit  wliile  there  is  any  dew  on  it.  Here  also  the 
grapes  arc  crushed  by  the  feet,  and  tlie  grinding-mills  arc  no 
more  in  use.  In  a  season  of  fuilure  the  fruit  is  put  through  the 
press  as  soon  as  it  is  brought  in  from  the  field ;  but  in  good  sea- 
sons it  lies  for  twelve  or  eighteen  hours  before  it  is  pressed,  so  that 
the  saccharine  matter  may  become  fully  developed.  Separating 
the  berries  from  the  stems,  which  was  formerly  done,  is  now  dis- 
pensed with,  as  of  no  account  and  expensive;  for  the  stems  at  so 
late  a  vintage  are  too  dry  to  impair  the  quality  of  the  wine. 

The  red  wines  of  Asmannhausen,in  the  Rhcingau,  arc  also  of  a 
very  valuable  description.  In  strength  they  excel  all  others  made 
on  the  Rhine,  not  excepting  even  Burgundy  itself  They  possess 
a  peculiar  spicincss  which  is  rarely  met  with.  The  narrow  limits 
of  this  tract,  however,  permit  the  cultivation  of  but  few  vineyards. 

The  prejjaration  of  the  wine,  as  practiced  in  the  Duke's  cellars 
at  Rlidcsheim,  is  as  follows :  The  grapes  are  pounded  together 
with  a  must-club,  and  then  conveyed  to  Riidesheim ;  there  they 
are  thrown  en  masse  into  a  square  trough  with  a  flat  bottom  of 
wire  gauze,  underneath  which  is  another  vessel  mto  which  the 
berries  are  swept  with  a  stiff  besom,  passing  through  the  wire 
sieve,  and  falling  into  the  vessel  beneath.  After  this  operation, 
they  are  mashed  together  with  wooden  pounders  until  the  whole 
is  pounded  into  a  pulpy  mass. 

The  fermenting  of  red  wines  is  conducted  thus :  Tubs  are  placed 
veftically,  in  which  a  faucet  is  inserted  at  the  lower  edge ;  over 
this  hole  a  perforated  little  board  or  tin  is  nailed,  to  prevent  the 
husks  from  entering  the  faucet  and  obstructing  the  passage  of  the 
wine.  Thus  the  wine  will  run  freely  through  the  faucet  without 
being  clogged  up  by  the  pulp  of  the  grapes.  Into  these  tubs,  thus 
fitted  up,  the  conglomerated  mass  of  mashed  grapes  is  put  so  far  as 
to  fill  them  up  to  within  a  quarter  part  of  the  top.  Then  a  cover, 
perforated  with  small  holes,  is  fastened  with  some  three  or  four 
props  over  the  mass,  so  that,  when  the  same  commences  to  fer- 
ment, and  consequently  rises,  nothing  but  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  the  fluid  part  of  the  mass  can  penetrate  through  those  small 
holes,  of  which  the  former  two  will  virtually  prevent  the  atmos- 
pheric air  from  mixing  with  and  souring  the  husks,  which,  on 
their  part,  would  communicate  this  sourness  to  the  wine.  After 
the  above  precaution  is  taken,  a  well-fitting  cover  is  inserted  and 
luted  air-tight.  Into  this  cover  a  curved  tin  or  glass  pipe  is  in- 
serted, the  upper  end  of  which  is  put  into  a  small  vessel  filled  with 
cold  water.  The  water  will  absorb  the  carbonic  acid  gas,  so  del- 
eterious to  human  life ;  but  the  water,  becoming  saturated  with 
the  gas,  must.be  renewed  daily.  Thus  the  whole  is  left  until  the 
fermentation  is  complete,  which  commonly  will  take  place  within 
three  weeks.  After  this  the  fluid  part  is  decanted  through  the 
faucet ;  the  cover,  together  with  the  perforated  board,  is  removed, 
and  the  husks  properly  pressed,  each  kind  of  the  juices  being  fill- 


170  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

ed  by  itself  into  barrels;  tlie  former  making  a  wine  of  the  first 
qualitj,  ^Yllilc  the  press  wine  is  of  an  inferior  grade.  Red  wines 
are  generally  drawn  off  in  the  March  following  the  vintage,  and 
sold  in  four  or  six  weeks  after.  What  stock  remains  on  hand  is 
drawn  off  again  in  the  following  October. 

It  is  to  be  remarked  that,  b}^  an  excellent  arrangement,  the 
must  wine  can  be  conveyed  by  hollow  tubes  directly  from  the 
press-house  to  each  cask  in  the  cellar.  The  method  above  de- 
scribed is  the  best  that  can  be  adopted  for  the  making  of  red 
wine.  All  other  modes  are  attended  with  the  disadvantage  of  a 
too  long  exposure  of  the  must  to  the  open  air,  which  gives  it  an 
acidity.  The  above  process  totally  obviates  such  a  tendency,  as 
all  contact  with  the  atmosphere  is  excluded  by  the  water.  The 
red  wines  of  Ingelheim,  though  lighter  in  qualit}^,  nevertheless 
keep  better  than  those  of  Asmannhausen.  They  raise  a  good  deal 
of  wine  here — one  ohm  fetches  from  five  to  six  carolins^  whereas 
the  genuine  Asmannhausen  costs  at  least  ten  carolins. 

Scharlachberg,  near  Bingen,  produces  white  wines  which  com- 
mand a  good  price ;  they  do  not,  however,  attain  so  high  a  figure 
as  the  choice  Rheingaus,  as  they  lack  the  strength  and  bouquet 
of  the  latter  sort.  In  good  years,  fifteen  hundred  florins  per  bar- 
rel are  paid  for  the  very  best  Scharlachberger  wine. 

Nierstein  has  been  long  famous  for  its  wine,  which  is  celebrated 
for  its  good  and  wholesome  qualities.  A  great  quantity  of  it  is 
made,  and  the  best  Niersteiner  fetches  one  thousand  florins  ^er 

The  wines  of  Bodenheim  and  Laubenheim  are  in  general  twen- 
ty per  cent,  lighter  in  quality  than  the  above,  and  they  are  thus 
proportionately  cheaper.  There  are  some  exceptions,  however ; 
nor  is  it  surprising  that,  throughout  the  genuine  wine  districts  of 
the  Rhine,  some  superior  sorts  should  be  found ;  and  more  es- 
pecially will  this  be  the  case  when  once  it  becomes  a  general  rule 
to  make  their  wines  only  from  choice  and  very  ripe  fruits,  and  to 
divest  the  berries  of  every  particle  of  green  stalk.  Already  has 
this  method  been  practiced  for  years  past  by  the  more  intelligent 
wine-growers,  and  their  success  has  set  a  good  example,  inasmuch 
as  by  adopting  this  plan  the  advantage  is  gained  of  its  not  being 
found  necessary  to  lay  up  the  wine  in  barrels  for  years  in  order 
to  render  it  mild ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  it  soon  becomes  fit  for 
consumption,  and,  finding  a  speedy  market,  there  is  a  quick  re- 
turn of  the  capital  invested,  which  is  not  suffered  to  lie  idle. 

Formerly  it  was  customary  to  draw  the  wine  off  into  large  hogs- 
heads, but  now  they  select  their  different  kinds  of  grape  ibr  their 
several  sorts  of  wine,  and  draw  it  off  into  small-sized  barrels. 

The  wines  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  possess,  generally, 
less  body  than  those  of  the  right,  but  they  are  finer  in  quality, 
contain  more  alcohol,  and  have  a  most  excellent  bouquet.  Rhein- 
hessen  transports  from  Worms  to  Bingen  several  kinds  of  very 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  171 

good  wine ;  e.  g.,  in  the  year  1818,  fifty  thousand  pipes ;  in  1819, 
ninety  thousand  half  pipes. 

We  shall  here  enumerate  the  best  wine  districts,  and  describe 
the  various  methods  of  making  wine  therein,  founded  upon  Brou- 
ner's  system. 

Karlebach.  Here  the  wine  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  at 
Hardt,  with  the  difference  only  that  the  grapes  are  mashed  with 
pounders  instead  of  in  the  tread-tank  with  the  feet ;  and  in  many 
instances  the  wine-makers  crush  the  fruit  with  rollers  for  the  sake 
of  expedition,  as  one  man,  in  the  same  time,  will  crush  with  the 
roller  as  much  fruit  as  three  men  can  mash  with  the  pounders. 

Worms  produces  the  Liebfrauenmilch,  and  also  those  wines  of 
somewhat  lighter  quality — the  Katcrloch  and  Luguisland.  These 
are  the  most  celebrated  wines.  The  wine-presses  in  use  here  are 
of  small  size. 

The  Liebfrauenmilch  is  an  excellent  wine,  made  from  grapes 
which  grow  on  the  site  of  the  very  battle-field  where,  in  the  year 
1689,  Louis  XIV.  completed  his  murderous  design — in  the  sub- 
urbs of  Mayence.  The  best  in  quality  of  this  wine  is  raised  on 
the  plantings  which  lie  in  contiguity  with  the  monastery  of  what 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Liebfrau  Order.  In  1822  this  wine  brought 
fifteen  hundred  florins  per  pipe.  Its  superior  qualities  appear  to 
be  owing  to  the  protection  afforded  to  this  particular  site  by  the 
church  building  from  the  north  and  northwesterly  winds,  also  by 
the  genial  warmth  produced  by  the  shelter  of  its  walls.  The  soil 
is  red  clay  with  gravel  intermixed.  The  wine  is  fermented  in 
the  barrels,  which  are  slightly  covered.  It  is  first  drawn  off  the 
lees  at  Christmas  time,  and  again  in  the  following  autumn. 

Westhofen.  Ilere  they  draw  off  the  new  wine  twice,  once  in 
April  and  again  before  the  next  vintage. 

Osthofen,  Bechtheim,  Dienheim,  Oppenheim.  At  these  places 
they  draw  off  the  wine  three  times  in  the  year.  They  also  train 
vines  on  treliis-work,  but  the  wine  they  yield  is  bad,  on  account 
of  the  height  of  the  fruit  from  the  ground.  The  wine  made  from 
the  fruit  which  is  grown  aloft  in  these  arbors  is  worth  only  three 
hundred  florins  per  barrel,  while  that  which  is  raised  on  low  rails 
will  fetch  five  hundred  florins. 

Nierstein  has  been  already  mentioned.  Here  the  soil  consists 
of  red  decayed  slate  clay.  The  site  is  very  good,  particularly  that 
portion  of  it  which  faces  the  southern  side  of  Krauzberg,  called 
Klek.  This  clay  soil  imjDarts  a  high  color  to  the  wines  much  re- 
sembling those  of  the  Scharlachsberger,  Nakenheim,  Bodenheim, 
Laubenheim,  Guntersheim,  Petersberg,  Ingelheim,  Bingen,  and 
their  vicinities.  The  renowned  Scharlachsberger  grows  on  red- 
dish slate  clay. 

Kreuznach.  Here  the  grapes  are  crushed  partly  with  pound- 
ers, and  partly  in  grinding-mills  between  two  revolving  rollers. 
The  work  is  also  done  in  tread-tanks  whose  bottoms  are  perfo- 


172  GR.\JPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

rated  with  small  holes.  When  the  fermentation  commences,  a 
tube  shaped  like  a  bended  leg  is  fitted  into  the  bung-hole  perfectly 
air-tight,  the  larger  end  being  inserted  therein,  and  the  taper  end 
plunged  a  few  inches  deep  into  a  vessel  of  water.  Many  people 
iill  these  vessels  with  must  instead  of  water,  and  every  two  hours 
empty  their  contents  into  the  barrel,  for  the  purpose  of  adding 
to  the  must  therein  the  spirit  which  has  been  absorbed  by  the 
must  in  the  external  vessel.  When  the  rapid  effervescence  sub- 
sides the  tubes  are  removed,  and  a  bung  is  placed  sideways  over 
'  the  vent ;  and  when  there  is  no  longer  any  sound  of  effervescence 
emitted,  the  barrels  are  filled  quite  full,  and  the  bung  driven  in 
tight.  From  this  period  the  barrels  continue  to  be  replenished 
every  fortnight  until  the  first  drawing-oflf  takes  place,  which  is  at 
the  end  of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March ;  the  barrels  are 
then  again  refilled,  and  the  operation  is  repeated  at  the  stated  in- 
tervals until  the  time  of  the  second  drawing  off,  which  takes  place 
a  short  time  previous  to  the  blossoming  of  the  vines. 

All  Rheinwines  are  completely  fermented,  and  are,  therefore, 
a  little  tart.  They  are  valued  especially  for  the  gayety  and  buoy- 
ancy of  spirit  which  they  impart  by  reason  of  the  etherial  rapid- 
ity with  which  they  pervade  the  system  more  than  any  other 
wine ;  and  while  they  exhilarate  the  frame,  they  do  not  molest 
the  head.  Age  improves  them  more  and  more.  Of  all  wines, 
their  good  qualities  are  the  most  difficult  to  counterfeit,  though  a 
wine  very  similar  to  the  Rhenish  can  be  manipulated  from  the 
French  by  the  following  recipe :  Three  parts  sugar,  one  part  cream 
of  tartar,  three  parts  good  brandy,  to  which  add  of  wine  lees 
enough  to  create  a  good  fermentation. 

To  make  Rhcinwinc  artificially  out  of  sugar  or  fruit,  much  acid 
matter  must  be  added  by  the  use  of  cream  of  tartar,  or,  what  is 
better,  tartaric  acid.  The  proportions  of  these  ingredients  will  be 
as  follows:  Of  acid,  an  excess;  of  saccharine  matter,  a  minimum; 
and  of  wine  lees,  a  sufficient  quantity  to  induce  thoroughly  the 
fermentative  process. 

The  most  certain  way  of  obtaining  genuine  wines  is  for  the 
purchasers  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  wine  countries  themselves;  when 
there  they  will  be  sure  to  obtain  the  most  genuine  and  excellent 
productions  of  the  respective  districts.  All  the  best  vintages  arc 
chiefly  in  the  hands  of  owners,  who  rarely  sell  a  single  barrel, 
but  they  put  their  whole  crops  up  at  auction,  or  dispose  of  them 
in  the  gross  by  private  sale  to  foreign  wine-merchants. 

The  stranger,  however,  will  every  where  readily  find  an  agent 
at  hand,  who  knows  perfectly  well  every  cellar  in  the  place  and 
its  owner,  together  with  his  weak  points  and  his  private  affairs. 
Through  such  an  agent  great  bargains  can  be  obtained  of  the 
choicest  wines  at  a  much  cheaper  rate  and  of  a  purer  quality 
than  can  ever  be  procured  from  foreign  winc-mcrchants.  Wine 
can  also  be  purchased  to  great  advantage  of  the  wine-merchants 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  173 

themselves  in  the  Ehcingau,  and  the  neighboring  cities  of  May- 
ence  and  Bingen.  Moreover,  these  dealers  have  also,  in  many 
respects,  greater  facilities  of  transport  than  any  negotiator  in  a 
foreign  country  can  possibly  command,  by  which  it  results  that 
they  can  allbrd  to  sell  at  lower  rates  and  in  smaller  quantities 
than  any  others;  which  latter  is  an  advantage  totally  unknown 
in  liheingau,  where  sales  are  effected  only  at  wholesale  in  entire 
hogsheads,  each  of  which  contains  from  1300  to  1400  bottles  of 
Rheingau  measure,  or  1176  litres. 

In  Maycnce  the  wine  measure  is  as  follows,  viz. :  the  ohm  con- 
tains 20  quarters;  the  barrel,  8  ohms,  or  160  quarters;  the  ohm, 
180  Frankfort  bottles.  The  measure  contains  94  cubic  inches 
French;  100  measurcs  =  160^  Berlin  quarts.  The  ohm  contains 
140,  the  barrel  1050  litres,  French  measure. 


lY. 

FEANCONIAN  WINES. 


The  Franconian  wines  in  Bavaria,  especially  those  of  Werth- 
heim,  Wiirzburg,  Kitzingen,  Marktbreit,  Marksteft,  and  Ochsen- 
furt,  are  similar  to  the  Ehine  wines,  but  of  lighter  and  poorer  qual- 
ity, less  acid,  and  in  some  respects  more  wholesome.  The  best 
kind  of  this  wine  is  that  styled  "  Leistenwine ;"  so  named  from  a 
place  on  Frauenberg,  near  Wiirzburg,  and  it  is  grown  on  a  plot 
of  about  sixty  morgens.  This  wine,  when  of  a  certain  age,  Js  su- 
perior to  the  other  German  wines,  and  perhaps  to  all  other  kinds, 
from  its  more  pleasant  flavor,  its  spirit,  bouquet,  and  its  salubri- 
ous qualities.  Next  in  order  is  the  "  Steinwine,"  which  is  raised 
in  Steinberg,  near  Wiirzburg,  on  a  plot  of  about  490  morgens. 
It  is  more  fiery  than  the  former  kind,  but  is  never  so  palatable 
nor  so  fine  flavored,  being  often  of  a  hot  and  alcoholic  nature. 
There  is  a  third  sort  of  this  wine,  called  the  Calmuth.  It  derives 
its  name  from  a  mountain  ridge  which  lies  between  Lengfurth  and 
Homberg,  belonging  chiefly  to  the  Duke  of  Lowenstein-Wertheim. 
The  Schalsberger  wine  is  also  much  appreciated. 

The  Wiirzburger  and  Werthheimer  wines  are  the  two  principal 
kinds  of  Franconian  wine  which  are  known  extensively  in  com- 
merce. 

The  Wiirzburger  is  generally  raised  near  Wiirzburg,  Kitzingen, 
Marksteft,  Marktbreit,  etc.  It  is  a  light  wine,  of  a  yellow  color, 
•and  of  a  poorer  quality  than  the  Rhine  wine,  possessing  greater 
acidity,  and  is  therefore  not  so  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  is  even 
inferior  to  the  Werthheimer.  When  the  wine  is  intended  for  the 
Saxony  market  it  is  generally  colored  of  a  darker  hue  than  nat- 
ural by  means  of  burnt  sugar. 


174  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

The  "Wertliheimer  wine  is  raised  on  the  mountain  sides  on  the 
right  shore  of  the  River  Main.  The  vine)' ards  commence  at  the 
village  of  Urphiir,  and  extend  to  Hasloch,  Next  to  the  Stein, 
Leisten,  and  the  Calmuth  wines,  this  sort  is  considered  the  best 
of  the  Franconian  wines.  The  most  superior  in  quality  are  raised 
opposite  to  the  cities  of  Werthheim,  Remberg,  Kaffelstein,  and 
Wetterburg.  These  regions  lie  entirely  open  to  the  sun  from  his 
rising  to  his  setting,  and  the  soil  itself  is  of  the  very  best  of  its 
kind,  called  Leber-erde  ("  Liver-earth").  The  plantations  are  gen- 
erally set  out  with  "  white  grapes,"  and  the  vines  of  the  finest 
species,  like  their  kindred  sorts  of  the  Riesling,  CEsterreicher,  and 
Elblinger. 

Of  all  the  Franconia  wines,  the  Werthheimer  most  resembles 
genuine  Rhine  wine ;  in  flavor  they  are  alike,  and,  if  not  so  fiery, 
yet  they  are  somewhat  sweeter  and  more  palatable.  Many  pre- 
fer this  wine,  as  more  wholesome  than  the  Rhine  wine ;  and  it  is 
resorted  to  medicinally  in  hemorrhoidal  affections. 

On  account  of  the  eminent  qualities  of  these  wines,  we  will  di- 
vide them  into  three  classes,  viz. :  1.  The  Remberger  and  Wet- 
terburger ;  2.  The  Kaflfelsteiner  ou  Sand ;  3.  The  Haslocher. 
The  last-named  is  more  pleasant  to  drink  than  cither  of  the  oth- 
ers, because  it  sooner  attains  its  maturity  in  the  barrel,  but  the 
two  former  are  preferable  for  long  keeping. 

The  Werthheimer  wines,  on  account  of  the  rich  soil,  are  heavy, 
and  their  essential  qualities  become  developed  only  in  the  course 
of  six  or  eight  years ;  therefore  they  are  drawn  off  three  times 
during  the  first  year :  first,  in  Carnival  time ;  secondly,  near  St. 
John*s  day ;  and,  thirdly,  in  autumn.  In  the  second  year  they 
are  only  drawn  off  twice,  and  in  the  third  and  fourth  years  only 
once  ;  which  depends  upon  whether  the  wine  is  the  produce  of  a 
good  season  or  a  middling  one,  and  whether  it  is  raised  in  a  rich- 
er or  poorer  soil.  If  kept  in  good  cellars  and  good  barrels,  the 
old  wines  can  be  preserved  a  long  time  without  being  drawn  off; 
but  the  barrels  must  be  refilled  regularly.  Like  the  Rhine  wines, 
they  are  improved  by  age.  A  genuine  Werthheimer  wine  is 
readily  distinguished  by  its  richness,  and  its  glow  in  the  mouth 
without  biting  the  tongue ;  by  its  pleasant  bouquet ;  and  by  the 
circumstance  that,  if  it  be  drank  in  excess,  it  will  not  sour  the 
stomach. 

Klingberg  ou  Main,  about  six  hours  below  Werthheimer,  ex- 
ports good  dinner-wines,  especially  in  a  favorable  season,  which 
may  also  be  said  of  the  wines  of  Grosshcnbach. 

The  process  of  wine-making  in  Franconia  is  as  follows  : 

The  grapes  arc  selected  where  it  is  necessary ;  then  pounded 
with  a  pronged  stick ;  then  the  whole  mass  is  thrown  into  a  wire- 
sieve,  so  that,  by  riddling,  the  juice  and  berries  may  be  sifted 
through,  and  the  stalks  remain  behind ;  then  water  is  poured 
upon  the  strained  pulp,  and,  after  standing  for  twenty-four  hours, 


JOHANN  CAUL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.  175 

it  is  well  pressed.  This  produces  a  wine  of  light  quality,  called 
Lancr,  or  "  drinking  wine."  The  process  of  fermentation  is  rather 
retarded  than  hurried  on,  because  by  slow  fermentation  better 
wine  is  produced.  In  order  to  effect  this  object,  the  barrels  for 
containing  the  must  arc  twice  fumigated  with  brimstone,  or  char- 
red with  burning  alcohol. 

In  general,  the  crushed  berries  are  put  into  a  vat  and  covered 
with  an  oaken  lid.  The  mash  is  stirred  up  four  times  a  day,  and 
the  crust  pushed  down  into  the  wort.  After  the  first  fermenta- 
tion is  over  the  clear  liquor  is  drawn  off',  and  the  residuum  in  the 
vat  is  again  put  through  the  press ;  and  the  whole,  being  inter- 
mingled, is  poured  into  the  barrels  already  prepared  by  brim- 
stone or  alcohol.  The  vent  is  then  closed  with  a  bung  long 
enough  to  be  plunged  into  the  wine,  which  is  perforated  with  two 
iiolcs  of  about  a  finger's  thickness :  these  are  fitted  with  two  corks. 
As  long  as  the  fermentation  is  active  one  of  these  vents  remains 
open,  and  after  it  has  ceased  both  apertures  are  closed  with  the 
cork-spiles.  Every  fortnight  each  barrel  is  refilled  through  one 
of  these  apertures,  which  is  again  closed,  and  the  other  is  left 
open  so  that  the  gas  can  escape.  The  refilling  is  done  every  fort- 
night for  three  years. 

If  the  wines  are  warmly  housed  in  the  vaults  they  are  drawn 
off  in  May  for  the  first  time,  and  again  on  St.  Bartholomew's  day ; 
but  if  they  are  in  a  cold  atmosphere,  the  first  drawing-off"  is  de- 
ferred to  the  latter  end  of  September,  and  the  second  till  the  end 
of  November.  Should  fermentation  ensue  when  the  roses  are  in 
bloom,  then  one  of  the  small  spile-holes  is  opened.  In  the  first 
year  the  barrel  into  which  the  wine  is  to  be  drawn  must  be  pre- 
viously burned  out  with  half  an  ounce  of  brimstone,  and  one  eighth 
of  an  ounce  is  to  be  burned  on  the  surface  of  the  wine.  This  is  also 
done  to  the  wine  which  is  made  from  the  lees,  if  they  are  in  good 
condition.  During  the  second  and  third  years  the  wine  is  drawn 
off"  twice,  and  only  half  the  quantity  of  brimstone  is  used.  In 
the  fourth  year  the  barrels  are  filled  up  every  fourth  week ;  and 
if  the  liquor  is  to  be  sold,  the  stock  of  it  is  clarified  and  drawn 
off.  If,  however,  it  is  not  intended  to  be  brought  to  market,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  clarify  it. 

A  light,  drinkable  wine  can  readily  be  made  by  separating  the 
must  which  runs  off  first,  and  pouring  it  into  a  barrel  which  has 
been  burned  out  the  day  before  with  half  an  ounce  of  brimstone 
lighted  at  the  bung-hole.  In  about  twenty -four  or  thirty-six  hours 
afterward  it  is  drawn  off  into  another  barrel,  which  has  been  burn- 
ed out  with  spirit  of  wine,  during  which  time  a  considerable  por- 
tion of  the  lees  have  settled.  In  cold  weather  hot  must  should 
be  added,  and  the  barrel  bunged  up  as  above  described. 

In  the  middle  of  December  have  ready  a  barrel  burned  out  with 
half  an  ounce  of  sulphur,  and  draw  off*  the  new  wine  into  it. 
Clarify  it  in  January  with  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  isinglass ;  and 


X76  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

in  eio-lit  days  after,  burn  one  eiglith  of  an  ounce  of  sulpliur  in  the 
vacuum  caused  by  first  drawing  off  some  few  gallons  to  make  an 
empty  place  for  the  sulphur  fumes.  Then  draw  off  again  into  an- 
other barrel,  inside  of  which  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  brimstone 
has  been  burned.  Repeat  this  for  a  third  time  shortly  before  the 
roses  are  in  bloom,  and  again  for  a  fourth  time  at  Bartholomew, 
using  a  less  and  less  quantity  of  sulphur  each  time.  During  fer- 
mentation in  the  summer-time  one  of  the  small  s\n\e  holes  is  to 
be  left  open.  If  the  wine  after  September  is  pretty  clear,  then 
the  refilling  of  the  barrels  is  only  necessary  once  a  fortnight. 


V. 

OTHER  GERMAN  WINES. 


The  Affenthaler  wine,  from  Affenthal,  near  Biihl,  in  Baden,  is 
a  thick,  strong,  and  much-prized  red  wine.  The  Ahr  wine,  from 
Ahr,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  is  red,  or  of  a  reddish  color.  It  is  a  light, 
pleasant  wine,  and  fit  for  use  when  six  months  old,  but  it  will 
not  keep  over  three  or  four  years.  From  Wallporzheim  and 
Bodendorf  they  export  the  best  kinds. 

Bacharacher  wines — both  white  and  red  Rhine  wines — are 
somewhat  sweet  and  racy,  and  highly  esteemed. 

Bohemian  wines,  both  white  and  red,  are  generally  of  a  light 
quality.  The  red  Melnikcr  is  the  best  sort;  next  the  Aussiger, 
and  a  few  others  from  Lentmerizer  and  Bunzlauer  districts. 
Throughout  all  Bohemia  are  only  raised  26,000  casks  of  about 
fourteen  gallons. 

Griinberger,  from  Griinberg,  in  Silesia.  The  exports  here 
amount  to  from  20,000  to  80,000  casks.  Both  the  white  and  red 
wines  are  of  inferior  quality,  and  sell  for  eight  thalers  per  cask  of 
fourteen  gallons. 

Harrdt  wines,  from  Rhenish  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate.  This 
is  the  name  given  to  the  wines  which  are  made  on  the  Harrdt 
Mountains.  Nearly  all  of  them  are  white  wines,  pleasant  to  the 
palate,  but  not  equal  to  the  better  kinds  of  Rhine  wine. 

Rhenish  Bavaria  contains  83,048  morgens  of  vineyard  planta- 
tion, and  cxpoVts  annually  from  70,000  to  80,000  fudcrs  (tlic  fader 
is  about  seventeen  gallons)  of  wine,  the  most  preferable  of  which 
are  worthy  of  note. 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.  177 

VI. 
ITALIAN  WINES. 

These  wines  are  mostly  used  for  home  consumption.  Having 
a  very  imperfect  preparation,  they  will  bear  neither  transporta- 
tion nor  long  keeping.  Upper  Italy  produces  a  considerable 
quantity,  but  exports  only  a  few  pipes.  Such  is  also  the  case  with 
the  Eomagna  and  Naples.  Sicily  exports  yearly  some  25,000 
barrels  (somma),  worth  $75,000.  Savoy  produces  200,000  hecto- 
litres (about  4,760,000  gallons),  mostly  for  home  consumption. 
Nizza  produces  68,640  hectolitres,  and  Piedmont  1,400,000  hecto- 
litres, which  remain  in  the  country,  becoming  vinegar  if  kept  over  a 
year.  Parma,  Prazenza,  445,000  hectolitres.  Tuscany,  1,257,000 
hectolitres,  Elba,  85,000  hectolitres.  Sardinia  exports  some 
wine. 

The  Italians  let  their  vines  run  up  on  mulberry  and  elm  trees, 
where  the  shade  prevents  a  perfect  ripening,  to  the  great  injury 
of  their  wines,  which,  though  sweet  when  new,  sour  to  vinegar 
in  a  short  time.  The  best  kinds  of  grapes  grow  at  Albano,  eight 
hours'  ride  from  Eome,  with  the  exception  of  "Lacrima  Christi" 
(the  tear  of  Christ),  the  best  wine  of  Italy. 

Brescia.  The  wines  from  Eiviera  and  the  so-called  Toscolano 
are  light  and  agreeable  to  the  taste.  In  the  Upper  Eiviera  the 
vines  are  trained  upon  olive-trees ;  in  Lower  Eiviera  on  fences  six 
feet  high. 

Chambery  has  very  good  red  wines,  the  best  in  Savoy. 

Elba.  This  island  furnishes  two  distinguished  wines:  Ale- 
atico,  made  of  boiled  must,  rum,  and  wormwood,  and  Muscat. 
Both  are  white  wines.     All  the  others  are  very  inferior  kinds. 

Falerno  is  a  Neapolitan  wine,  high  red,  thick,  and  somewhat 
sweet,  but  fiery. 

Genoa  exports  some  red  wine  of  a  middle  quality,  mostly  from 
Tortosa,  Novi,  and  Voghera.  One  barilla  contains  74  ^Vo  litres 
(French  measure).     One  mezzarolla  two  barillas. 

Griante,  on  the  Lake  of  Como,  has  a  light  but  savory  wine. 

The  Lipari  Islands  produce,  besides  many  raisins  which  are  ex- 
ported, the  so-called  Malvasie^  an  amber-colored  wine,  savory,  and 
leaving  in  the  mouth  a  sweet  after-taste.  The  choicest  grapes 
are  selected,  and  left  spread  in  the  sun  from  eight  to  ten  days  be- 
fore being  pressed.  But  there  are  only  some  two  thousand  bar- 
rels produced.  The  other  kinds,  although  of  a  less  noble  quality, 
are  nevertheless  not  devoid  of  spirit,  are  of  a  pleasing  taste,  and 
bear  keeping  for  years.  Though  some  keep  the  must  in  tarred 
skins,  the  wine  loses  after  a  while,  in  the  barrels,  the  smell  con- 
tracted from  the  skins. 

Milan  has,  on  Lake  Como,  at  Belaggio  and  Brianza,  pretty 

M 


178  GRAPE  CULTUltE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

good  wines ;  around  Pavia  but  poor  ones,  witli  tlie  exception  of 
an  effervescent  wine  resembling,  in  a  measure,  the  Champagne. 
All  the  produce  of  Milan  is  not  quite  adequate  for  home  con- 
sumption. The  quartero  contains  nearly  six  litres,  the  mina  two 
quarteros,  the  stare  four,  and  the  harilla  twelve. 

Marsala,  in  Western  Sicily,  produces  a  similar,  but  inferior  wine 
to  that  of  Madeira,  and  exports  a  great  deal  to  America  under 
the  name  of  Madeira. 

Modena  produces  very  dark  wines,  tolerably  good,  but  poor  in 
spirits.     The  best  of  this  kind  is  produced  at  Rubina  and  Sapolo. 

In  Tuscan}^,  the  Monte  Pulciano  is  a  strong,  spirituous,  red  wine. 

The  wines  of  Naples  are  mostly  sweet.  On  the  Mount  Vesu- 
vius three  kinds  of  wine  are  made :  1.  Lacrima  Christi — the  best 
sweet  wine  of  this  country — of  a  fine  red  color,  and  of  an  excel- 
lent taste  and  bouquet.  Very  little  of  it  is  made,  and  this  goes 
mostly  into  the  cellars  of  the  king;  therefore  that  in  trade  is 
mostly  spurious.  2.  Muscat,  of  an  amber  color,  with  a  line  taste 
and  bouquet.  8.  Greek,  a  kind  of  Malvasie.  Puzzuolo  and  Baja 
have  white  and  red  sweet  wines,  which  often  sell  for  Malvasie. 

Calabria  produces  good  Muscat  wines,  mostly  at  Carigliano  and 
the  environs  of  Tarento.  The  wine-measure  is  the  barilla  of  for- 
ty-two and  a  half  litres ;  twelve  barillas  make  one  hotia,  or  about 
one  hundred  and  twentj^-two  and  a  half  gallons ;  two  bottas,  one 
caveo. 

Piedmont  produces  keen,  but  sweet  and  dark-colored  red  wines, 
which  mostly  sour  in  August  or  September,  turn  next  year  into 
vinegar.  But  some  wines  form  an  exception  to  this  general  rule, 
where  more  careful  wine-growers  observe  a  judicious  procedure. 
The  best  wines  are  made  in  Asti  and  Chaumont.  Alba  has  also 
some  good,  but  not  strong  wines.  Gatinara,  Masserano,  and  the 
red  wines  of  Biella  keep  better.  Montferrat  has  distinguished 
white  and  red  wines,  mostly  those  of  Casal,  fifteen  leagues  east  of 
Turin.  There  the  ruho  has  about  two  gallons,  the  hrenta  six  ru- 
bos,  and  the  carro  (a  wagon-load)  ten  brentas. 

Puzzuolo,  a  village  in  Naples,  raises  red  wines  similar  in  taste 
to  the  inferior  qualities  of  Bordeaux ;  but  it  bears  transportation 
by  sea,  and  finds  ready  markets  in  Holland,  Hamburg,  America, 
etc. 

In  the  Romagna,  the  grape-vines  are  trained  upon  elm-trees ; 
and,  for  this  reason,  they  do  not  ripen  always ;  and,  by  careless  ' 
preparation,  the  wines  are  bad,  and  keep  rarely  over  a  few  months. 
The  wines  from  Albano  and  Orvieto  are  exceptions.  The  latter 
place  produces  a  tenable  red  wine,  and  a  white  Muscat  with  a 
good  bouquet  and  a  balsamic  perfume,  but  of  not  long  keeping. 
Farnese  and  Terni  have  also  some  good  wines.  At  Rome,  the 
barilla  has  about  eleven  gallons  English,  and  the  botta  sixteen 
barillas. 

Sardinia  sends  her  wines  mostly  by  Cagliari.     She  has  Malva- 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  I79 

sie  of  Sorso,  Posa,  Algbiera,  Kasco,  ambcr-colorcd,  with  a  fine  bou- 
quet; Giro,  sweet,  but  not  spirituous,  somewhat  resembling  the 
Tinto  of  Alicante.  The  wines  of  Bosa,  Saffari,  and  Ogliastra  are 
dark  red,  and  pretty  strong ;  as  a  general  rule,  they  are  more  like 
the  wines  of  Spain  than  those  of  France.  Cannoao,  Monaco,  and 
Garnaccia  send  their  wines,  under  the  name  of  Malvasie,  to  Hol- 
land, and  other  northern  places.  The  best  wines  are  kept  in  earth- 
en'vessels,  containing  about  five  or  six  gallons  English. 

Sicily  keeps  her  common  wines,  but  sends  some  of  her  sweet 
ones  abroad.  Syracuse  supplies  good  red  and  white  wines,  of 
sweet,  aromatic  taste.  The  first  is  pale  red,  and  the  white  one 
amber-colored.  Mascoli  and  Mazara  have  quite  good  red  wines; 
Catanca  has  strong  ones  of  a  tarry  taste,  which  are  consumed 
mostly  at  home.  The  wines  of  vSicily  are  of  a  first-rate  odor  and 
good  taste,  but  are  from  the  beginning  badly  managed,  and  there- 
fore do  not  keep  long.  The  grapes  begin  to  ripen  in  June,  and 
the  vintage  commences  in  September.  One  thousand  vines  give 
from  one  and  a  quarter  to  four  pipes  of  wine.  There  are  culti- 
vated for  wine-making  only  nineteen  species  of  grapes,  of  which 
the  best  are  the  Cibibbo,  Carmola,  Greek  Muscat — the  dry  and 
the  winter  grape.  In  the  Lipari  Islands  the  vines  are  kept  high, 
as  in  Sicily ;  they  cut  the  clusters  at  the  end  of  August,  keep  the 
grapes  spread  in  the  sun  for  from  six  to  eight  days,  sprinkle  them 
over  with  ley  to  neutralize  the  acidity,  and  then  pack  the  dry  rai- 
sins for  exportation. 

Tuscany  has,  in  general,  the  best  Italian  wines.  The  red  ones 
are  somewhat  thick  and  dark,  and  resemble  the  Bordeaux  wines 
of  inferior  quality ;  but  the  white  ones  are  dainty  and  aromatic. 
One  of  the  best  sorts  is  the  Aleatico,  which  is  sweet,  well  colored, 
and  has  a  good  bouquet.  It  is  exported  in  small  bottles  via  Flor- 
ence. They  make  also  Aleatico  in  the  island  of  Elba  and  in  the 
Roman  District.  In  the  environs  of  Sienna,  at  Monte  Pulciano, 
and  other  places,  good  sweet  wines  are  manufactured,  and  export- 
ed from  Florence  in  bottles  of  about  one  quart  each.  The  barilla 
contains  about  from  nine  to  ten  gallons.  The  fiascone,  in  Flor- 
ence, about  two  and  a  half  quarts. 

Fabrioni  describes  in  his  work,  "Arte  di  fare  il  Vino,"  the 
method  used  for  making  the  red  and  dark  wines  of  Tuscany,  as 
the  Carmignano  and  Monte  Pulciano;  and  the  white  ones,  viz., 
the  Trebiano,  Topazio,  and  Malvaglia.  The  Carmignano  is  raised 
on  the  hills  of  Carmignano ;  the  vintage  is  from  the  last  days  of 
September  to  the  10th  of  October.  A  few  days  previous  the 
grapes  are  spread  on  mattings  and  often  turned,  to  get  some  dry 
grapes  (raisins).  The  other  ones  are  bruised,  and  worked  well 
every  twelve  hours  in  the  seven  first  days,  with  forks  or  the  feet. 
In  about  a  fortnight  the  fermentation  ceases,  and  the  husks  and 
stems  are  only  from  time  to  time  pressed  down.  After  the  lapse 
of  twenty  days  the  vats  are  covered,  and  when  the  wine  becomes 


180  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

clear  it  is  decanted  into  barrels,  to  which,  for  each  barrel,  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  above  dried  grapes,  well  smashed,  is  added, 
and  well  mixed  with  the  mass.  A  new  fermentation  then  takes 
place,  which  commonly  lasts  from  six  to  eight  days.  In  Monte 
Pulciano  (considered  by  them  the  king  of  wines),  the  vintage  is 
retarded  as  long  as  the  weather  will  admit ;  then  one  tenth  part 
of  the  must  is  condensed  by  boiling  and  mixed  with  the  other. 
Trebiano  makes  her  white  wine  from  white  grapes.  This  is  of 
superior  qualit}''.  They  draw  the  fluid  mass  from  the  husks  as 
soon  as  the  fermentation  commences ;  then  again,  in  about  fifteen 
days,  from  the  dregs  (settlings) ;  in  a  month  later  a  third  time. 
The  Topazio  takes  its  name  from  the  color  resembling  a  topaz;  it 
is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  Trebiano.  The  Malvaglia  is 
pressed  from  grapes  which  are  soon  made  dry  by  twirling  their 
green  stems ;  the  must  is  then  heated  to  nearly  the  boiling  point. 
Toscolano  has  light  but  well-colored  wines  of  an  agreeable  taste, 
which  keep  well  for  twenty-five  years.  At  Brescia  the  measure 
zerla  contains  about  thirteen  gallons  of  ours,  and  twelve  to  fifteen 
zerlas  make  one  caro. 

Vino  Santo  (Holy  wine)  is  a  sweet  wine  from  Castiglione  and 
Lonato,  five  leagues  from  Brescia.  It  is  a  golden-yellow  wine, 
sweet,  mild,  and  of  good  flavor  generally,  if  three  or  four  years 
old.  This  wine  is  made  from  well-assorted  grapes,  which  are 
spread  on  scaffolds,  and  kept  there  as  long  as  December.  They 
compare  it  with  the  Tokay,  and  prefer  it  to  the  wines  from  Cy- 
prus. Piacenza  exports,  under  the  name  of  Vino  Santo,  a  mix- 
ture of  several  species  to  Milan  and  Genoa. 

The  wines  of  Vicentia  are  less  spirituous  than  those  of  Priuli ; 
but  they  are  recommended  to  sufferers  from  the  gout.  In  Vi- 
cenza  and  Padua  the  grape-vines  are  raised  on  walnut-trees,  which 
impart  an  odor  and  taste  to  them  not  suited  to  every  palate. 

Zara,  though  not  renowned  for  more  than  middling  quality  of 
wines,  has  distinguished  brandies  and  wine  vinegars. 


YII. 

SPANISH  WINES. 

Spain  has  several  wines  of  the  choicest  kind,  and  exports  a 
great  deal.  The  greatest  marts  are  Alicante,  Malaga,  and  Xeres. 
Malaga  raises  annually  some  80,000  "arobas"  (about  350,200 
gallons),  of  which  more  than  one  half  is  exported.  Catalonia 
furnishes  annually  about  600,000  pipes  (of  425  litres),  or  about 
63,600,000  gallons ;  Valencia,  3,000,000  cantaros  (36,000,000  gal- 
lonsi  and  some  6,000,000  pounds  of  raisins. 

Tne  Spanish  wines  are  nearly  all  made  of  thoroughly  ripe 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.         181 

grapes  and  condensed  must.  They  have  caldrons  holding  near- 
ly one  thousand  gallons.  They  boil  the  must  until  three  quar- 
ters, of  it  has  evaporated,  skimming  off  the  froth  when  it  rises. 
This  sirup  is  then  added  to  the  unboiled  must  in  different  pro- 
portions, according  as  more  or  less  sweet  and  strong  wines  are  re- 
quired. For  the  white  wines  no  sirup  is  used ;  but  more  or  less 
brandy  is  added,  which  prevents  an  entire  fermentation,  and  con- 
sequently these  wines  retain  some  sweetness. 

Andalusia  produces  several  exquisite  wines,  which  she  exports 
via  Cadiz,  Kota,  and  Santa  Maria.  The  choicest  ones  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

At  Rota  the  best  red  wine  of  Andalusia  is  made.  When  new 
it  is  dark  red,  but  loses  color  by  age.  The  Spaniards  call  it,  there- 
fore, Tintilla,  or  Tinto  de  Rosa.  It  is  a  sweet  wine  of  much  fire, 
elegant  taste,  and  aromatic  bouquet.  It  shows  some  similarity 
with  the  Alicante,  without  its  astringent  property.  Its  color, 
nevertheless,  is  darker,  and  its  taste  sweeter,  improving  rather 
than  losing  by  age. 

Xeres  de  la  Frontera,  seven  leagues  from  Cadiz,  has  three  sorts 
of  spicy  white  wines,  viz.,  Paraxete,  sweet,  of  agreeable  taste,  and 
odorous ;  Vino  Seco,  dry  and  bitter,  but,  nevertheless,  good-tasting 
and  aromatic ;  and  Abocado,  holding  a  middle  position  between 
the  two  former.  They  make  also  "  Pedro  Ximes"  wine,  which 
some  persons  prefer  to  Malaga,  and  also  Muscat — pretty  good, 
but  inferior  to  that  of  St.  Lucar.  Among  their  red  wines  they 
have  also  some  Tintilla,  but  not  of  so  good  a  quality  as  that  of 
Rota.  Xeres  produces  yearly  860,000  arohas  (about  1,440,000 
gallons),  of  which  200,000  are  exported  to  England  and  France. 
In  England  an  artificial  sherry  is  manufactured  out  of  Cape  wine, 
to  which  some  extract  of  bitter  almonds  is  added. 

The  monastery  of  Paraxete,  one  and  a  half  leagues  from  Xeres, 
furnishes  also  the  above-named  three  kinds  of  white  wine,  and  of 
still  better  quality  than  that  of  Xeres,  which  bring  also  higher 
prices. 

Moguro  has  also  some  reddish  wine  of  good  quality,  and  much 
of  inferior  quality  is  exported  to  the  colonies. 

St.  Lucar  de  Barameda  has  red  and  white  wines,  which  gain  by 
age,  and  are  mixed  in  Xeres  with  others. 

Negro  Rancio  is  the  name  of  a  very  dark  wine,  of  a  dry,  pasty 
nature,  more  keen  and  prickling  than  sweet.  It  is  a  great  deal  in 
demand  for  mixing  with  other  wines  which  are  deficient  in  these 
qualities.  They  make  the  same  in  Rota,  Xeres,  and  some  other 
places. 

Seville  produces  a  great  deal  of  wine  from  must,  of  which  a  part 
is  condensed  by  boiling.    This  is  very  dark,  but  without  bouquet. 

The  aivha  contains  in  Andalusia  IS^pj^y  litres,  not  quite  four 
gallons ;  and  the  hoita  28  arobas. 

Aragon  produces  much  dark-colored  tasteful  red  wines,  which 


182  GRAPE  CULTURE  A]^D  WINE-MAKING. 

would  be  more  valuable  if  tlie  grapes  were  not  in  so  many  in- 
stances planted  on  a  too  rich  soil.  Exquisite  are  the  "  Grenacbe" 
from  Sabajes  and  Carignena — reddish,  sweet,  of  an  agreeable  fla- 
vor, with  a  good  deal  of  spirit ;  and  a  white  sweet  wine  from  Bor- 
ja.  Saragossa  is  the  chief  market-place.  The  cantaro  contains 
about  two  gallons  and  one  and  a  half  quarts ;  a  nieiro  or  carga 
about  38  gallons. 

Biscay  has  very  poor  wines,  mostly  green,  tart,  and  sour,  which 
do  not  bear  keeping.  The  only  exception  is  a  wine  from  the  en- 
virons of  Vittoria,  called  Pedro  Ximenez. 

Estremadura  furnishes,  besides  some  good  wine,  Tinto,  which, 
nevertheless,  has  little  similarity  with  that  of  this  name  from  Ali- 
cante. It  is  a  mild  wine,  has  a  good  color  and  spirit,  a  fine  taste, 
and  agreeable  bouquet.  It  is  the  only  Spanish  wine  which  will 
bear  comparison  with  the  best  French  wines  of  the  second  class. 

Gallicia  produces  very  little.  The  best  of  her  wines  come  from 
Eibadavia  and  Tuy.  Of  both  some  is  exported.  The  common 
measure  is  named  cantaro,  holding  IGt^f^o  litres — about  four  gal- 
lons three  quarts. 

Grenada  has  only  two  distinguished  places  for  good  wines :  the 
territory  of  the  city  of  Malaga,  and  Velez  Malaga,  five  leagues 
from  Malaga.  Upon  the  mountains  around  the  former  city  grow 
the  grapes  which  give  those  exquisite  wines  known  in  France  and 
Germany  under  the  name  of  Malaga,  in  England  under  that  of 
Mountain  wine.  They  distinguish  seven  varieties  of  it :  1.  Pedro 
Ximenez — sweet,  delicious,  with  a  great  deal  of  bouquet,  but  infe- 
rior to  that  from  Xeres.  2.  Vino  Tintorio — when  young,  dark 
amber-colored  and  very  sweet ;  with  age  it  loses  some  of  its  sweet- 
ness, and  becomes  more  spirituous  and  aromatic.  This  is  the 
kind  that  comes,  under  the  name  of  Malaga,  to  the  various  coun- 
tries. It  bears  keeping  over  one  hundred  ^^ears.  Its  price  in- 
creases with  its  age ;  and  while  the  hotta  (440  litres)  of  a  new  wine 
sells  for  150  francs,  the  hotta  of  the  oldest  one  will  bring  5000 
francs  and  more.  3.  Muscat;  of  which  there  are  two  kinds,  Mal- 
aga Muscat  and  Drop  or  Tear  Muscat.  These  have  a  yellowish 
color  and  much  bouquet,  especially  the  latter,  which  is  also  clear- 
er and  finer.  4.  Cherry,  made  of  common  wine  with  which  sour 
cherries  are  macerated,  the  taste  of  which  the  wine  adopts.  5.  The 
dry  white  wine,  near  in  quality  to  the  Sherries,  and  sold  under 
that  name.  6.  Malvasie,  similar  to  that  of  Sihes,  which  will,  how- 
ever, keep  but  a  very  short  time.  7.  Tinto,  of  a  dark  color,  sweet 
and  keen. 

Velez  Malaga,  five  leagues  east  of  Malaga,  furnishes  also  a  great 
deal  of  wine,  which  is  sold  for  genuine  Malaga,  although  of  a  little 
inferior  quality.     The  main  product  of  Velez  is  raisins. 

Minorca  produces,  in  the  environs  of  Aleyor,  a  very  good  dark 
red  wine,  of  excellent  taste,  which  nevertheless  does  not  bear  ex- 
portation, losing  its  good  qualities  in  a  few  days  by  a  sea  voyage. 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.  I33 

Alba  Flora,  a  white  wine,  fine,  spirituous,  and  of  a  good  bouquet 
and  taste,  is  also  of  some  repute. 

Catalonia  has  mostly  red  wines,  little  tenable,  losing  in  a  short 
time  their  color  and  taste. 

Majorca  produces,  near  Pallcnzia,  a  valuable  kind  of  Malvasie. 

Murcia  furnishes  only  thick  and  tart  wines,  though  those  of 
Carthagena  attain  sometimes  the  quality  of  inferior  Alicante. 

Navarre  exports  but  small  quantites.  Around  Tudela,  sixteen 
leagues  from  Pampeluna,  they  make  joretty  good  wines,  approach- 
ing inferior  qualities  of  Burgundy.  Near  Peralto,  two  valuable 
wines  are  produced:  the  Rancio,  similar  to  the  Paraxete,  and  a 
sweet  wine,  delicious  and  spirituous.  The  staple  place  for  these 
wines  is  Pampeluna. 

New  Castile  has  wines  in  La  Mancha  and  Valdagenas,  which 
are  less  colored  and  less  strong,  but  have  nevertheless  a  more 
agreeable  taste  than  most  of  the  other  Spanish  wines.  The  better 
ones  arc  compared  with  the  middle  wines  of  Burgundy.  They 
have  fineness,  spirit,  and  even  some  bouquet.  In  the  second  class 
we  may  count  those  of  Manzanares,  Albacete,  and  Ciudad  Real, 
though  most  of  them  are  sent  to  Madrid  in  skins,  from  which  they 
contract  an  odor  and  strange  taste.  Fuencarol,  near  Madrid,  has 
a  celebrated  Muscat  wine,  sweet,  of  good  taste  and  bouquet. 

In  Valencia,  the  vineyards  are  partly  on  hills  and  partly  in  the 
valleys ;  therefore  they  difter  in  quality.  The  graj)es  on  the 
plains  are  mostly  made  into  brandy,  of  which  from  500,000  to 
600,000  cantaros  are  distilled.  Alicante,  thirty  leagues  from  Va- 
lencia, produces  the  celebrated  Tinto.  This  wine  bears  long  keep- 
ing, with  a  continual  improving ;  is  very  tonic,  and  therefore  much 
valued  for  a  stomach-invigorating  beverage.  It  is  of  a  dark  red 
color,  which  in  course  of  time  covers  the  bottles  with  a  layer.  It 
is  very  sweet,  warming,  of  an  agreeable  bouquet  and  taste.  They 
also  make  here  a  pretty  good  sweet  white  wine.  Benicarlo,  twen- 
ty leagues  from  Valencia,  and  Viueroz,  produce  dark  red  wines 
of  first  quality,  preferable  to  the  common  Alicante.  The  caniaro 
contains  lOf  quarts,  the  botta  from  103  to  117  gallons. 


VIII. 

PORTUGUESE  WINES. 


Portugal  has  an  important  vine-culture,  producing  mostly  red 
wines,  and  exports  yearly  over  100,000  pipes.  The  prominent  sta- 
ple place  is  Oporto,  with  an  exportation  of  about  80,000  pipes, 
the  pipe  worth  from  sixty  to  eighty  dollars.  The  wines  of  Por- 
tugal are  inferior  to  those  of  Spain,  being  of  less  strength,  and  re- 
quiring, therefore,  an  addition  of  alcohol  to  enable  them  to  keep 
and  bear  a  sea- voyage. 


184  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Of  wbitc  -wines,  those  of  Carcavellos  are  nearly  alone  exported, 
under  the  name  of  Lisbon j.  This  is  sweet,  spirituous,  and  of  a 
good  bouquet.  Next  to  it  is  that  of  Setuval,  which  place  pro- 
duces a  sweet  and  a  common  wine,  both  of  a  good  quality. 

Buccllas,  six  leagues  from  Lisbon,  has  white  wines  which,  to 
enable  them  to  bear  keeping,  are  mixed  with  alcohol. 

Oporto  has  Vinos  de  Fectoria  and  Vinos  de  Kamo.  The  for- 
mer are  the  better  ones ;  but,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  keep  or 
stand  a  sea- voyage,  one  twelfth  part  of  brandy  is  added  after  the 
first  fermentation  is  over.  This  is  the  kind  which  is  exported  un. 
der  the  name  of  Port  wine.  Pego  de  Regua  furnishes  the  best 
Vino  de  Fectoria.  The  pipa  (pipe)  holds  about  104  gallons.  The 
wine  district  of  the  tapper  Duoro  commences  about  fifty  miles 
from  the  harbor  of  Oporto,  and  consists  of  a  range  of  hills  on 
both  shores  of  the  river,  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  consisting 
of  a  loose  soil  JDeculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  grape-vine; 
but  the  best  ones  grow  where  the  upper  stratas  consist  of  weath- 
er-beaten clay  slate,  as  in  the  case  of  the  district  of  Axarquia, 
which,  under  the  surveillance  of  a  privileged  company,  not  only 
limits  the  price  of  the  different  kinds  of  wine,  but  also  prescribes 
within  what  boundaries  the  vines  are  to  be  planted. 


IX. 

MADEIRA  WINES. 

Madeira,  to  which  the  vine  was  transplanted  in  1421  from 
Candia,  produced  formerly  some  80,000  pipes ;  but  at  present  only 
about  20,000  pipes  of  common  wines  and  about  500  pipes  ofMal- 
vasie,  of  which  about  the  half  goes  to  England,  North  America, 
and  the  West  Indies ;  the  balance  is  consumed  on  the  island  itself. 
The  vinQS  are  mostly  planted  upon  sandy  and  stony  soil;  and 
some  vine-trunks  can  be  seen  there  which  the  extended  arms  of 
three  men  are  unable  to  compass.  They  have  three  kinds  of 
wine:  l.Malvasie;  2.  Dry  white;  and  8.  Tinto. 

The  Madeira  Malvasie,  from  the  variety  of  Candian  grapes,  is 
the  most  exquisite  sort  of  Malvasie,  sweet,  very  delicious,  and  full 
of  a  balsamic  fragrance.  It  occupies  a  prominent  place  among 
the  first-class  wines.  It  becomes  with  age  more  pleasing,  and 
sells,  at  the  place  of  its  growth,  for  $200  per  pipe ;  but,  in  order 
to  enable  it  to  hold  out  a  sea-voyage,  alcohol  or  brandy  must  be 
added. 

The  Dry  Madeira,  or  Madere  sec,  is  still  more  dry  than  the  white 
Burgundy,  though  without  having  the  piquantncss  of  the  Rhine 
wines.  This  is  amber-colored,  spirituous,  aromatic,  and  often  of  a 
walnut  taste. 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINES.  185 

The  Red  Madeira  (Tinto)  has  a  great  deal  of  astringent  matter, 
and  can  not  be  used  alone  without  injury  to  the  health. 

In  the  interior  of  this  island  they  raise  the  vines  on  trees,  un- 
der the  shade  of  which  the  grapes  attain  so  little  of  maturity  that 
they  must  be  subjected  to  a  crushing  process  in  order  to  press  out 
the  juice ;  but  this,  of  course,  gives  only  a  watery,  poor  wine,  that 
does  not  bear  keeping. 

The  Dry  or  Harsh  Madeira  is  often  mixed  with  the  Tinto,  and 
thus  exported.  It  improves  by  passing  the  equator ;  and  English- 
men ship  it  and  re-ship  it  for  this  purpose  to  the  East  Indies  and 
back.  But  now  the  same  result  is  attained  in  Madeira  by  keep- 
ing such  wines  in  heated  rooms,  where  they  will  become,  in  a  few 
months,  as  good  as  if  kept  in  a  cellar  for  five  or  six  years.  They 
have  had  in  Madeira,  for  some  fifty  years,  such  apartments,  of 
enormous  sizes,  heated  with  large  stoves  and  heat-conducting 
tubes,  filled  with  barrels  and  hogsheads,  for  the  above  purpose. 


X. 

CAPE  WINES. 

The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  produces  three  sorts  of  wine,  which 
are  commonly  designated  Cape  Wines.  The  most  celebrated  is 
the  Constancia,  so  called  from  a  mountain  of  the  same  name  two 
leagues  from  the  promontory.  It  may  be  classed  among  the  first 
quality  wines,  second  only  to  the  Tokay.  This  is  sweet,  spirit- 
uous, very  agreeable  in  taste,  and  exquisitely  spicy.  The  white 
one  is  a  little  less  sweet  than  the  red  one.  In  former  years  only 
some  900  hectolitres,  or  about  22,950  gallons,  have  been  produced, 
which  was  sold  at  the  place  of  its  growth  for  80  and  120  cents 
the  bottle,  while  the  common  one  is  sold  for  one  cent.  The 
grapes  are  left  on  the  vines  till  they  become  shriveled.  After 
the  Constancia  follows,  in  quality,  the  Muscat,  which  is  grown  on 
the  False  and  Table  Bay.  In  Europe  it  sells  under  the  name  of 
Constancia,  notwithsLanding  its  inferior  merit.  The  best  kinds 
of  this  wine  are  those  of  Beker  and  Hendrik.  The  third  sort  of 
Cape  wine  is  the  Stone  wine ;  though  dry,  it  has  a  good  taste. 
It  is  raised  in  the  districts  of  Gerlen,  Drachenstein,  and  Stellen- 
bosch.  The  red  wines  are  there  known  under  the  name  of  Rota : 
they  are  somewhat  like  the  Spanish  wine  of  this  name.  They  are 
dark,  of  good  body  and  spirit,  and  a  pleasant  odor.  Recently  the 
quality  of  the  Cape  wine  has  been  impaired,  because  the  wine- 
growers look  more  for  quantity  than  for  quality.  In  1806,  only 
6909  pipes  were  exported ;  while  in  1817  there  were  12,000  pipes, 
and  in  1822,  23,000 ;  and  since  then  a  constantly  increasing 
amount  has  been  sent  abroad. 


186  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

XI. 

GREEK  WINES. 

The  islands  in  the  Mediterranean  are  eminently  fit,  on  account 
of  their  dry  and  sunny  hills,  for  the  cultivation  of  grapes ;  and  if 
the  -wine-making  were  more  skillfully  attended  to,  most  excellent 
sorts  could  be  produced. 

Candia  has  strong,  but  few  wines.  In  former  times  the  culture 
of  vines  was  of  much  more  importance  than  toward  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Candia  exported  annually  to  Italy  about 
200,000  barrels. 

Cyprus,  Samos,  Scio,  and  Tenedos  produce  yearly  600,000  ocas, 
or  about  220,000  gallons ;  and  Santorin  1,000,000  ocas,  or  375,000 
gallons.     ]\Iiconi  and  other  isles  of  Greece  export,  also,  some  wines. 

The  Ionian  Islands  produce  good  wines,  which  are  sent  to  Ita- 
ly, Trieste,  etc.  Saint  Maura  exports  from  7000  to  8000  barillas^ 
119,000  to  136,000  gallons.  Cephalonia  15,000  barillas,  255,000 
gallons  of  red,  and  12,000  barillas,  201,000  gallons  of  white,  and 
8000  barillas  of  Moscatello.  Corfu  exports  annually  from  200  to 
300  loads,  and  Zante  4000  barillas,  59,500  gallons.  Thiaki,  for- 
merly Ithaca,  exports  yearly  875,000  pounds  of  raisins. 

The  continent  of  Greece — the  modern  kingdom — has  exquisite 
situations  for  vine  culture,  but  hitherto  little  wine  has  been  pro- 
duced, and  this  badly  attended  to.  The  greater  part  is  produced 
in  the  Morea.  Patras,  the  Monastery  of  Megaspilon,  and  Pyrgos 
produce  some  100,000  barillas,  1,700,000  gallons  ;  Shiron,  Argos, 
Megara,  Arcadia,  and  Tripolizza,  15,000  barillas,  255,000  gallons. 
Mesenteu  and  Laconia  have  Malvasie. 


xn. 

GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  TURKEY,  PERSIA,  CHINA,  ETC. 

Vine  culture  in  Turkey  is  not  of  much  consequence,  because 
the  Mohammedan  religion  does  not  allow  the  drinking  of  wine ; 
but  for  the  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Armenian  inhabitants,  in  some 
places  wines  are  produced.  In  Moldavia,  between  Cotnar  and 
the  Danube,  a  very  good  white  and  red  wine  is  made,  and  some 
of  it  is  exported  to  Russia.  The  best  one  has  a  greenish  color, 
which  becomes  brighter  by  age ;  the  wine  also  improving,  being, 
after  the  lapse  of  three  years,  as  strong  as  brandy.  But  it  is  oft- 
en drawn  from  its  settlings,  which  would  otherwise  improve  its 
strength.    From  Wallachia  some  goes  to  Eussia  and  Poland.    The 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINES.  187 

wines  of  Piatra  have  a  slight  similarity  to  the  Tokay.  Bosnia, 
Servia,  Turkish  Dalmatia,  and  Bulgaria  do  not  export  any. 

The  wines  of  Asiatic  Turkey  arc  but  little  known  in  Europe. 
Anatolia  has  some  export,  especially  of  Mondania,  a  pretty  good 
white  wine.  Syria  exports  more ;  and  her  wines  are  somewhat 
similar  to  those  of  Bordeaux.  The  best  one  is  from  Libanon, 
named  the  Gold  Wine.  They  make  there,  also,  wine  from  must, 
condensed  by  boiling.  Palestine  herself  produces  not  a  great 
deal  of  wine,  but  the  environs  of  Jerusalem  give  a  good  white 
wine.  In  Mesoj)Otamia  the  wines  of  Bajazet  are  the  best.  In 
Arabia  the  grapes  are  raised  more  for  raisins  than  for  wine. 

Throughout  the  whole  of  Persia  the  grape-vine  is  cultivated. 
Notwithstanding  that  most  of  her  inhabitants  profess  the  religion 
of  Mohammed,  they  drink  wines  in  secret,  as  they  formerly  did 
publicly.  They  raise  from  ten  to  fourteen  kinds  of  grapes — white, 
blue,  black,  and  red.  The  most  distinguished  of  them  is  a  white 
variety,  with  pretty  large  berries,  of  a  sweet  and  agreeable  taste, 
like  our  Muscats.  In  Ispahan  the  vines  are  trained  upon  trellises, 
and  bear  profusely — about  ten  times  as  much  as  those  treated  in 
the  common  way.  Being  a  country  of  a  warm  climate,  the  grapes 
are  ripe  and  gathered  toward  the  end  of  August.  In  the  region  of 
Shiraz  a  great  deal  of  wine  is  produced,  especially  the  renowned 
Shiraz,  made  from  a  red  grape.  Besides  this  latter,  there  is  still 
another  distinguished  grape,  called  Kischbaba,  which  has  no  seeds, 
and  its  berries  are  large,  white,  very  sweet,  and  of  a  fine  taste. 
The  wines  of  Shiraz  are  partly  made  of  must,  previously  con- 
densed by  boiling,  and  partly  of  half-dry  grapes.  In  Erivan  tra- 
dition has  it  that  Noah  planted  his  first  vines. 

In  China  the  grape  culture  was  much  in  vogue  nineteen  centu- 
ries ago,  and  the  provinces  of  Chausi,  Chensi,  Petchely,  Chantong, 
Honan,  and  Hougnana,  then  produced  plenty  of  wine.  But  at 
present  these  people  prefer  their  tea,  and  a  warm  beverage,  made 
-  like  our  beer,  but  from  rice  instead  of  barley.  The  grapes  raised 
at  Honan,  Chantong,  and  Chansi  are  now  made  into  raisins  of  su- 
perior quality. 

The  district  of  Hanir,  northwest  from  China,  exports  very  fine 
and  sweet  raisins. 

In  Japan  grape-vines  are  abundant,  but  no  wine  is  made  from 
them. 

In  the  East  Indies  vine  culture  exists  in  some  places.  In  the 
province  of  Lahore  very  good  wines  are  made. 

In  Cochin  China  wild  grapes  are  common,  but  they  are  not 
used  for  wine-making. 

In  Australia  recently  some  satisfactory  experiments  have  been 
made  in  cultivating  grapes. 


188  GK.VPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

XIII. 
GRAPE  CULTURE  IN  AFRICA,  AJ^IERICA,  RUSSIA,  AND  ENGLAND. 

In  Africa  tlie  culture  of  the  vine  is  not  very  extensive.  Egypt, 
in  the  times  of  the  Komans,  furnished  excellent  wines,  but  at 
present  only  few.     The  same  is  the  case  with  Abyssinia. 

In  the  Barbary  States  vines  are  found  in  some  places.  At  the 
southern  extremity  of  Africa  is  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  of  the 
wines  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. 

The  Cape  de  Verd  Islands  export  no  wines.  The  Canary  Isl- 
ands produce  a  large  quantity.  Teneriflfe  produces  yearly  40,000 
pipes,  or  about  4,400,000  gallons.  They  make  from  grapes  trans- 
planted from  4ihe  Morca  a  kind  of  Malvasie  wine,  of  agreeable 
taste,  sweet  and  spirituous ;  and  Yidogne^  which,  though  keen  and 
tart  when  new,  gains  by  age.  The  wines  of  the  Palma  Island, 
though  inferior  to  those  of  Teneriffe,  are  more  tasty.  Madeira 
has  been  already  mentioned. 

Of  the  Azores,  St.  Michael  produces  about  5000  pipes,  and  Pico 
from  15,000  to  30,000.  Both  are  pretty  good  wines.  Fayal  ex- 
ports much  of  the  same,  and  of  her  own  growth,  which  is  very 
good. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  America  the  wine  culture  at  present  is 
very  limited.  Canada  has  one  kind  of  wild  grape,  which  is,  nev- 
ertheless, made  only  some  use  of  at  Montreal.  The  United  States 
have  also  some  wild  grapes.  In  the  environs  of  Philadelphia, 
Cincinnati,  and  Herman,  considerable  progress  is  already  made  in 
this  line.  California  produces  wines  much  resembling  those  of 
Madeira.* 

In  Spanish  America  the  grape  culture  was  formerly  much  lim- 
ited by  the  action  of  the  mother  country.  Mexico  exports  already 
from  El  Paso  del  Norte  quite  good  wines  to  the  surrounding 
countries.  Peru  produces  much  of  it.  Those  of  Lucumba,  Pisco, 
Sucamba,  and  Arequipa  are  much  valued.  The  wines  of  Chili 
have  some  similarity  with  those  of  Alicante.  She  exports  about 
270,000  arohas  to  Buenos  Ayres  and  Paraguay,  and  some  800 
arobas  to  Peru.  Near  the  city  of  Moqucgna,  in  South  America, 
a  good  deal  of  wine  is  made.  It  is  mostly  like  that  of  Spain.  It 
is  somewhat  strange  that  they  do  not  sell  the  wine  by  measure- 
ment, but  by  weight.  Fifty  Uhras  of  wine  (two  arobas)  cost  from 
eight  to  nine  piastres.  These  wines  are  kept  in  goat-skins.  The 
use  of  barrels  is  nearly  unknown. 

Eussia  produces  wines  in  her  southern  provinces.  The  wine 
from  the  Crimea  resembles  somewhat  the  Hungarian.  The  best 
of  it  is  made  about  Sudak  and  Kos ;  annually  about  510,000  gal- 

*  [This  view  of  the  \-ine  culture  of  the  United  States  was  written  some  years 
ago.     Since  that  time  it  has  vastly  increased. — A.  II.] 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCUS  ON  WINES.  189 

Ions.  Astracan  has  very  good  wines.  The  German  colonists 
on  the  rivers  Sarpa  ana  Volga  also  produce  good  wines.  In 
some  parts  of  the  Caucasus  grapes  prosper,  as  they  also  do  in 
Mingrclia,  without  cultivation ;  so  that  this  region  resembles  an 
extensive  vineyard.  The  wines  arc  still  better  than  those  of  the 
Crimea.  In  Georgia  also  grapes  grow  wild,  and  the  wine  made 
from  them  kccjis  not  over  a  year.  In  Daghestan  we  find  also  ex- 
quisite grapes.  Here  they  condense  the  must,  and  mix  it  with 
rose-water.  In  Derbent  the  grapes  are  very  sweet,  and  they  give 
a  good  light  red  wine.  In  Grusia  all  the  hills  and  mountains  are 
covered  with  vineyards,  the  vines  sometimes  forming  hedges,  and 
sometimes  climbing  up  on  mulberry,  j)omegranate,  and  walnut 
trees.  The  wine  is  not  kept  over  a  year.  In  Shirwan  some  wine 
is  made,  which  is  the  best  on  the  Caucasus. 

In  England  a  great  deal  of  wine  was  formerly  made  by  the 
monks,  but  the  grapes  did  not  come  to  maturity  every  year.  Now 
a  little  is  made  by  the  farmers  in  Sussex,  from  grapes  which  climb 
upon  the  walls  of  the  houses ;  in  Derbyshire  also  some  is  made  ; 
but  these  are  of  very  inferior  quality,  and  hardly  worthy  of  notice 
as  to  quantity. 


APPENDIX    B. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  AND  TREATMENT 
OF  WINES. 


EXTRACTED  FROAI  JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS'  TREATISE  ON  WINES  AND  WINE-MAKING 
(,n'ETXKU\DE):   Nuremberg,  1S4T. 


APPENDIX  B. 

JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING. 

I.  Fermentation.  The  After  Fermentation. — 11.  Implements  used  in  Wine-making: 
The  Thermometer.  Table  of  Scales  of  different  Thermometers.  The  Areometer. 
The  Acid  Scale. — III.  MunvfacturiiHj  Grape  Wines:  General  Observations  GatL- 
cring  the  Grapes.  Crushing  and  rressing.  Fermentation.  Filling  in  the  Musi. 
Making  Sweet  Wine.  Making  Frozen  Wine.  Making  new  Wines  appear  old. — 
IV.  Classification  of  Wines. — V.  Drawing  off  the  Wine. — VI.  Treatment  of  bot- 
tled Wines.  Filling  up  and  Wasting.  —  VII.  Clarifying  Wines. — VIII.  Giving 
Color  to  Wines. — IX.  Mi.xing  and  judging  of  Wines. — X.  The  principal  Diseases 
o/"  TFtnes;  Sudden  Changes.  Souring.  Becoming  Glutinous.  Woody,  mouldy, 
and  bitter  Taste.  Cloudiness  and  Muddiness. — XI.  Adulterations  of  Wines.  — 
XII.  Uses  for  the  Husks  and  Sediment. — XIII.  The  Cellars,  Casks,  Bottles,  and 
Implements. — XIV.  Wine  Measures  of  all  Countries. 


FERMENTATION. 

In  the  process  of  fermentation,  carbonic  acid  is  produced  by  a 
cbemical  process  which  is  explained  in  all  l^ooks  upon  chemistry. 
In  the  formation  of  carbonic  acid  caloric  is  liberated,  and  the  fer- 
menting liquid  becomes  heated.  The  more  active  the  fermenta- 
tion, the  greater  is  the  amount  of  heat  produced.  When  large 
quantities  of  grape-juice  are  fermented  together,  care  must  be  taken 
that  it  is  carried  on  at  a  reduced  temperature,  otherwise  the  heat 
would  become  too  great.  The  general  rule  is,  that  if  a  vessel 
containing  five  hectolitres  requires  from  25°  to  28°,  one  contain- 
ing ten  hectolitres  requires  from  15°  to  20°,  and  one  containing 
thirty  or  more  hectolitres  requires  from  12°  to  15°.*  The  heat 
of  fermentation  appears  to  be  mainly  produced  by  the  formation 
of  the  carbonic  acid,  as  it  is  in  ordinary  combustion,  in  which  this 
gas  is  likewise  developed  and  heat  produced.  In  fermentation, 
however,  the  increase  of  temperature  is  not  so  perceptible  as  in 
combustion,  for  the  process  goes  on  but  slowly,  and  the  heat  de- 
veloped is  dispersed  by  radiation  and  conduction ;  and,  moreover, 
a  considerable  part  of  the  heat  becomes  latent  by  the  evaporation 
of  the  water  contained  in  the  juice.  When  large  quantities  of 
juice  are  fermented  together,  the  increase  of  temperature,  howev- 
er, becomes  quite  perceptible.  It  decreases  as  the  fermentation 
lessens,  and  also  when  the  larger  part  of  the  sugar  is  decomposed. 
It  has  been  calculated  that,  in  the  fermentation  of  a  mash  of  malt 

*  The  degrees  of  temperature  given  here,  as  elsewhere  in  this  treatise,  are  those 
of  Reaumur,  whose  thermometer  is  generally  used  in  Germany.  These  may  be  con, 
verted  into  their  equivalents  of  Fahrenheit  and  Celsius  by  the  table  on  page  196. 

N 


194  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

liquor,  when  the  highest  degree  of  heat  has  been  attained  about 
nine  tenths  of  the  sugar  has  been  decomposed. 

When  the  sugar  has  been  decomposed,  or  the  fermentation  be- 
gins to  subside  on  account  of  the  lack  of  yeast  or  its  inefficiency, 
the  formation  of  air-bubhles  decreases,  as  less  sugar  becomes  resolved 
into  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol.  These  bubbles,  -which  had  formed 
a  kind  of  foam  upon  the  surface,  gradually  disappear  by  bursting, 
and  are  replaced  by  few  new  ones.  The  falling  of  the  foam  now 
begins  by  the  formation  of  air-holes  and  rents ;  and  also  the  burst- 
ing of  the  surface,  as  the  solid  parts,  which  had  hitherto  been  kept 
floating  by  the  foam,  now  follow  the  law  of  gravit}^,  and  sink  back 
into  the  fluid.  At  the  same  time  the  decrease  of  heat  begins,  as  a 
natural  consequence  of  the  lessened  development  of  carbonic  acid. 
The  cessation  of  the  inner  commotion  soon  follows;  in  consequence 
of  which,  the  heavy  parts  of  the  liquid  are  precipitated  to  the  bot- 
tom, while  the  lighter  ones  swim  on  the  surface.  These  latter 
consist  mainly  of  the  yeast,  a  part  of  which  had  been  used  up  in 
the  fermentation,  while  a  part  had  been  formed  during  the  process 
from  the  gum  and  vegetable  albumen  contained  in  the  juice. 

The  result  of  these  various  processes  is  the  clearing  of  the  fluid, 
especially  of  the  middle  portion  of  it.  This  clearing  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  sure  proof  that  the  fermentation  of  the  must  has  been 
properly  conducted. 

Meanwhile  only  a  part  of  the  sugar  has  been  decomposed,  and 
only  a  part  of  the  yeast,  or  the  glutinous  substances  which  may 
form  yeast,  even  if  these  have  been  separated  from  the  portions 
which  have  been  precipitated,  or  which  still  swim  on  the  surface. 
The  fermentation,  therefore,  still  continues ;  the  yeast  and  gum 
yet  present,  combining  with  the  air,  go  on  converting  the  remain- 
ing sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  until  all  the  sugar  is 
consumed. 

This  fermentation  is  called  the  After  Fermentation.  It  goes  on 
very  slowly,  frequently  requiring  years  to  complete  it  if  the  wine 
is  kept  in  close  vessels  in  a  cool  place.  It  may  be  known  by  the 
wine  becoming  richer  in  alcohol,  less  sweet,  and  specifically  light- 
er. If  this  fermentation  is  comparatively  vigorous,  and  the  cask 
is  air-tight,  the  wine  wnll  effervesce  when  the  cask  is  opened,  or 
may  even  burst  the  vessel  if  a  great  amount  of  carbonic  acid  has 
been  generated. 

If  favored  by  a  high  temperature,  or  if  the  liquid  contains  a 
large  amount  of  undecomposed  sugar  or  yeast,  this  after  ferment- 
ation may  present  more  or  less  of  the  characteristics  of  the  first 
fermentation.  This  is  generally  prevented  by  clearing  it  off,  cool- 
ing, sulphurization,  etc. 

If  the  yeasty  parts  remain  in  the  liquid,  the  fermentation  shows 
itself  in  a  different  way.  The  yeast,  settling  down  to  the  bot- 
tom, decomposes  the  saccharine  parts  near  it,  together  with  the 
alcohol.     Air-bubbles  then  rise,  indicating  the  commencement  of 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAiaNG.  195 

the  acetous  fermentation.  The  liquid  begins  to  effervesce,  flocu- 
lent  particles  swim  about  in  it,  heat  is  generated,  oxygen  is  at- 
tracted from  the  atmosphere,  and  the  fluid  is  changed  into  vin- 
egar. 


11. 

IMPLEMENTS  USED  IN  WINE-MAKING. 

The  principal  implements  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wine 
are  the  Thermometer  and  the  Areometer.  The  former  is  used  to 
measure  the  temperature  during  fermentation  ;  the  latter  to  meas- 
ure the  saccharine  matter  of  the  must  and  the  alcohol  of  the  wine. 
Besides  these,  there  are  other  implements  used  to  ascertain  the 
acids  and  the  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  forming. 

The  Thermometer. 

The  thermometer  is  used  to  measure  the  variations  of  tempera- 
ture. The  principle  upon  which  it  is  constructed  is  that  matter 
expands,  or  increases  its  volume,  when  heated,  and  contracts  when 
cooled.  Thus  a  given  quantity  of  mercury  occupies  more  space 
when  warm  than  when  cold.  For  many  reasons,  it  is  found  con- 
venient to  use  mercury  for  the  construction  of  thermometers  for 
common  purposes ;  though  for  scientific  jDurposes,  where  extreme 
accuracy  is  required,  other  substances  are  employed.  The  mer- 
curial thermometer,  however,  is  sufficiently  accurate  for  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  required  in  wine-making.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  mercurial  thermometers  used  in  different  parts  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  principle  of  all  is  the  same.  They  consist 
of  a  bulb  containing  mercury,  to  which  is  attached  a  glass  tube 
with  a  very  small  bore.  As  the  mercury  in  the  bulb  expands  by 
heat,  it  rises  in  the  tube,  the  height  to  which  it  reaches  at  various 
temperatures  being  marked  on  a  scale  attached  to  the  tube.  The 
only  difference  between  the  thermometers  in  use  is  the  number 
of  degrees  by  which  this  expansion  is  marked  on  the  scale. 

In  Keaumur's  thermometer  the  point  at  which  water  begins  to 
freeze  is  marked  0 ;  that  at  which  it  boils  is  marked  80 ;  and  the 
intervening  space  is  divided  into  80  equal  degrees,  marked  from 
0  to  80. 

In  Celsius's  thermometer  the  freezing  point  is  marked  0,  the 
boiling  point  100  ;  the  intervening  space  being  divided  into  100 
degrees,  marked  from  0  to  100. 

In  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  0  (or  zero)  indicates  a  tempera- 
ture much  below  the  freezing  point  of  water,  which  is  marked  32, 
while  the  boiling  point  is  marked  212.  The  space  between  the 
freezing  and  boiling  points  is  therefore  divided  into  (212—32) 
180  parts. 


196 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Thus  the  space  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  of  wa- 
ter is  divided  by  Eeaumur  into  80  parts,  by  Celsius  into  100,  and 
by  Fahrenheit  into  180  parts.  The  following  table  will  enable 
any  one  readily  to  convert  the  degrees  of  temperature  as  marked 
by  one  thermometer  into  those  of  either  of  the  others. 

"  The  degrees  below  zero  in  each  are  indicated  by  the  sign  — 
[lyiinus). 

COMPARATIVE  TABLE  OF  THE  THERMOMETERS  OF  REAUMUR, 
CELSIUS,  AND  FAHRENHEIT. 


Reaumur. 

O^Isius. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

Celsius. 

Fahreuheit. 

llteaumur 

Celsius. 

Fahrenheit. 

80 

100.00 

212. 

42 

52.50 

126.50 

4 

5.00 

41.00 

79 

98.75 

209.75 

41 

51.25 

124.25 

3 

3.75 

38.75 

78 

97.50 

207.50 

40 

50.00 

122.00 

2 

2.50 

36.50 

77 

96.25 

205.25 

39 

48.75 

119.75 

1 

1.25 

34.25 

76 

95.00 

203.00 

38 

47.50 

117.50 

0 

0.00 

32.00 

75 

93.75 

200.75 

37 

46.25 

115.25 

-   1 

-   1.25 

29.75 

74 

92.50 

198.50 

36 

45.00 

113.00 

_  2 

-  2.50 

27.50 

73 

91.25 

196.25 

35 

43.75 

110.75 

-  3 

-  3.75 

25.25 

72 

90.00 

194.00 

34 

42.50 

108.50 

-  4 

-  5.00 

23.00 

71 

88.75 

191.75 

33 

41.25 

106.25 

-  5 

-  6.25 

20.75 

70 

87.50 

189.50 

32 

40.00 

104.00 

-  6 

-   7.50 

18.50 

69 

86.25 

187.25 

31 

38.75 

101.75 

-  7 

-  8.75 

16.25 

68 

85.00 

185.00 

30 

37.50 

99..'-.0 

-  8 

-10.00 

14.00 

67 

83.75 

182.75 

29 

36.25 

97.25 

-  9 

-11.25 

11.75 

66 

82.50 

180.50 

28 

35.00 

95.00 

-10 

-12.50 

9..50 

65 

81.25 

178.25 

27 

33.75 

92.75 

-11 

-13.75 

7.25 

64 

80.00 

176.00 

26 

32.50 

90.50 

-12 

-1.5.00 

5.00 

63 

78.75 

173.75 

25 

31.25 

88.25 

-13 

-16.25 

2.75 

62 

77.50 

171.50 

24 

30.00 

86.00 

-14 

-17.50 

0.50 

61 

76.25 

169.25 

23 

28.75 

83.75 

-15 

-18.75 

-   1.75 

60 

75.00 

167.00 

22 

27.50 

81.50 

-16 

-20.00 

-  4.00 

59 

73.75 

164.75 

21 

26.25 

79.25 

-17 

-21.25 

-  6.25 

58 

72.50 

162.50 

20 

25.00 

77.00 

-18 

-22.  .50 

-  8.50 

57 

71.25 

160.25 

19 

23.75 

74.75 

-19 

-23.75 

-10.75 

56 

70.00 

158.00 

18 

22.50 

72.. 50 

-20 

-25.00 

-13.00 

55 

68.75 

155.75 

17 

21.25 

70.25 

-21 

-26.25 

-15.25 

54 

67.50 

153.50 

16 

20.00 

68.00 

-22 

-27.50 

-17..50 

53 

66.25 

151.25 

15 

18.75 

65.75 

-23 

-28.75 

-19.75 

52 

65.00 

149.00 

14 

17.  .50 

63.. 50 

-24 

-30.00 

-22.00 

51 

63.75 

146.75 

13 

16.25 

61.25 

-25 

-31.25 

-24.25 

50 

62.50 

144.. 50 

12 

1.5.00 

,59.00 

—26 

-32..50 

-26..50 

49 

61.25 

142.25 

11 

13.75 

56.75 

-27 

-33.75 

-28.75 

48 

60.00 

140.00 

10 

12.  .50 

54.50 

-28 

-35.00 

-31.00 

47 

58.75 

137.75 

9 

11.25 

52.25 

-29 

-36.25 

-33.25 

46 

57.50 

135..'50 

8 

10.00 

50.00 

-30 

-37..50 

-35.50 

45 

56.25 

133.25 

7 

8.75 

47.75 

-31 

-38.75 

-37.75 

44 

55.00 

131.00 

6 

7.50 

45.50 

-32 

-40.00 

-40.00 

43 

.'S3. 75 

128.75 

5 

6.25 

43.25 

77ie  Areometer,  or  Must-Scale. 

"When  a  solid  body  is  put  upon  a  fluid,  it  will  press  it  out  of  its 
place ;  and  if  it  be  heavier  than  the  fluid,  will  sink  to  the  bottom  ; 
but  if  it  be  lighter,  it  swims  upon  it.  The  swimming  body  itself 
pushes,  however,  more  or  less  parts  of  the  fluid  out  of  their  place ; 
sinks  more  or  less  deep  into  it.     The  depth  of  this  sinking  is  dif- 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  197 

ferent,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  fluid.  One  that  has  more 
particles  in  the  same  space  will  offer  more  resistance,  and  conse- 
quently allow  the  body  to  sink  less  deeply.  For  instance,  water 
in  which  salt  or  sugar  has  been  dissolved  has,  of  course,  more  par- 
ticles than  pure  water,  and  will  consequently  not  allow  the  body 
to  sink  so  deep  into  it. 

Of  this  property  of  matter  use  has  been  made  to  determine  the 
proportion  of  solid  parts  in  a  given  fluid,  or  the  quantity  of  light- 
er fluids  mixed  with  it.  An  instrument  for  this  purpose  is  called 
an  Areometer^  or,  according  to  its  various  purposes,  a  Hydrome- 
ter (Water-Scale),  an  Alcoholometer  (Spirit-Scale),  a  Must-Scale,  a 
<S'acc/io?^o?72(?/'er  (Sugar-Scale),  an  ^Zca/mieile?- (Alkali-Scale),  etc.,  etc. 

The  main  parts  of  such  an  instrument  are,  a  stem,  with  a  hol- 
low ball  at  its  foot,  to  make  it  swim,  with  a  weight  beneath,  to 
keep  it  in  a  perpendicular  position.  The  stem  is  divided  into 
equal  parts  (degrees),  and  determines  by  them  the  weight  of  the 
fluid,  or  its  contents  of  solid  or  spirit  jDarts.  The  kinds  named 
after  their  inventors,  Beaume's,  Cartier's,  Tralles's,  Richter's,  and 
those  for  especial  purposes,  as  for  sugar,  salt,  malt  liquor,  are  the 
most  in  use. 

Of  Beaume's  Areometer  we  have  two  kinds :  one  for  fluids  that 
are  heavier  than  water,  the  other  for  lighter  ones.  In  the  former 
kind,  the  point  at  which  the  stem  sinks  into  pure  water  is  marked 
by  0,  and  the  one  at  which  it  sinks  into  a  solution  of  10  parts  of 
salt  in  85  parts  of  water  by  15 ;  the  intervening  space,  therefore,  is 
divided  into  15  parts,  and  the  entire  stem  is  likewise  divided  into 
degrees  of  similar  length.  Each  degree  thus  indicates  1  per  cent. 
of  salt.  In  the  latter  kind,  the  point  at  which  the  stem  stands  in 
pure  water  is  marked  by  10° ;  the  one  at  which  it  stands  in  a  so- 
lution of  10  parts  of  salt  in  90  of  water  by  0 ;  and  the  entire  stem, 
up  to  its  upper  end,  is  divided  into  60  and  more  equal  degrees. 

Cartier's  areometer  differs  but  little  from  this  latter.  It  sinks 
in  pure  water  to  10°  ;  in  pure  alcohol  to  42°.  The  higher  degrees 
only  differ  somewhat.  For  instance,  14°  C.  are  =13.47°  B. ;  18° 
C.  =17.73°  B. ;  25°  C.  =25.2°  B. ;  30°  C.  =30.53°  B. 

Eichter's  alcoholometer  sinks  in  water  to  0 ;  in  pure  alcohol 
to  100°.  The  number  of  degrees  to  which  it  sinks  in  a  fluid  com- 
posed of  water  and  alcohol  indicates  how  many  parts  by  weight 
of  alcohol  of  the  specific  gravity  of  0.792  are  contained  in  100 
parts  by  weight  of  the  fluid  to  be  tested.  Thus,  if  in  a  distilled 
malt  liquor,  the  instrument  sinks  to  50°,  it  indicates  that  this  con- 
tains 50  parts  of  alcohol  and  50  parts  of  water. 

Tralles's  alcoholometer  indicates  the  contents  in  the  same  man- 
ner by  measure.  Whisky  of  30°  T.  contains,  therefore,  in  100 
parts,  30  parts  of  alcohol  and  70  parts  of  water  by  measure. 

Beaume's  areometer  is  the  most  in  use.  In  order  to  weigh 
fluids  that  are  heavier  than  water,  such  as  malt  beer,  sirup,  sugar 
solution,  etc.,  60°,  measuring  downward  from  0,  is  usually  taken 
as  the  point  at  which  it  stands  in  pure  water. 


198 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


In  determining  specific  gravities,  water  is  assumed  as  the  unit, 
its  weight  being  denoted  by  1,  or,  for  convenience  of  notation,  by 
1000.  If  the  areometer  indicates  the  specific  gravity  of  a  fluid 
to  be  more  than  1000,  it  is  by  so  much  heavier  than  water ;  if 
less  than  1000,  it  is  by  so  much  lighter.  Thus,  if  a  solution  of 
sugar  in  water  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1010,  we  understand  that 
if  a  certain  number  of  cubic  inches  of  water  weighs  1000  ounces, 
the  same  quantity,  by  measure,  of  the  fluid  weighs  1010  ounces : 
such  a  solution  contains  1000  parts  of  water  and  10  parts  of  sugar. 

In  comparing  the  degrees  indicated  by  Beaume's  areometer  in 
fluids  containing  sugar  with  their  specific  weight,  the  following 
table  will  be  found  useful : 


Dejjrees 

Specific 

Degrees 

Specific 

Degrees 

."Specific 

Degrees 

Specific 

Degrees 

Specific 

Beaume. 

Gravity. 

Beaume. 

Gravity. 

Beaume. 

Gravity. 

Beaume. 

Gravity. 

Beaume. 

Gravity. 

0 

1000 

11 

1081 

21 

11G7 

31 

1267 

41 

1386 

1 

lOOG 

12 

1090 

22 

1176 

32 

1278 

42 

1400 

2 

1013 

13 

1100 

23 

118G 

33 

1289 

43 

1413 

3 

1020 

14 

HOC 

24 

1195 

34 

1301 

44 

1427 

i 

102S 

15 

1114 

25 

1205 

35 

1312 

45 

1441 

5 

1035 

16 

1125 

26 

1215 

36 

1324 

46 

145G 

6 

1042 

17 

1132 

27 

1225 

37 

1336 

47 

1470 

7 

1050 

18 

1140 

28 

1235 

38 

1349 

48 

1485 

8 

1058 

19 

1148 

29 

1246 

39 

1361 

49 

1500 

9 

1065 

20 

1157 

30 

125G 

40 

1374 

50 

1515 

10 

1073 

By  the  aid  of  this  table  it  will  be  easy  to  calculate  how  much 
sugar  is  contained  in  any  solution.  For  instance,  if  a  solution 
shows  15°  B.  (=1114  specific  gravity  by  the  table),  we  have  to 
ascertain  how  many  cubic  centimetres  of  sugar  are  contained  in 
a  given  quantity,  say  1000  centimetres.  Now  sugar  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  1600 ;  that  is,  one  cubic  centimetre  weighs  1600  grains, 
while  one  cubic  centimetre  of  water  weighs  1000  grains.  We 
will  indicate  the  unknown  quantity,  the  amount  of  sugar,  by  x. 
Then, 

_(1114-1000)xl000_114,000_ 
'^~        1600-1000        ~     600    ~ 
That  is,  190  cubic  centimetres  of  sugar  were  contained  in  1000 
cubic  centimetres  of  the  fluid.     Consequently,  there  were  in  the 
1000  centimetres  of  fluid, 

Sugar 190  cubic  centimetres. 

Water ^810     " 

1000     "  " 

The  above  are  the  quantities  by  measure ;  by  weight  they  are, 

Water 810  cubic  ccntimctrcs=810  grains. 

Sugar  (11U-810)=314     "  "  _314      " 

1114      " 

For  practical  use,  it  is,  however,  more  convenient  to  have  the 
stem  of  the  areometer  graduated  in  such  a  manner  as  to  indicate 
the  quantity  of  a  body  dissolved  in  a  certain  quantity  of  the  fluid. 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  I99 

The  point  to  which  the  stem  of  the  areometer  sinks  in  pure  water 
is  marked  1000 ;  that  one  to  which  it  rises  if,  at  a  temperature 
of  14°  li.,  5  parts  of  sugar  are  dissolved  in  1000  parts  of  water 
by  weight,  is  marked  1005 ;  the  point  to  which  it  rises  when  10 
parts  of  sugar  are  dissol^d  in  1000  parts  of  water,  by  1010,  and 
so  on.  Each  of  these  intervals  may  also  be  divided  into  five  de- 
grees. The  areometer  will  then  indicate,  if  standing  in  a  fluid 
of  1020  containing  sugar,  that  in  1000  parts  of  it  20  parts  of  sugar 
are  dissolved. 

The  same  mode  of  indication  can  be  adapted  to  measure  as  well 
as  to  iveight.  Thus,  the  point  where  the  stem  stands,  when  one 
pound  of  sugar  is  dissolved  in  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  may 
be  marked  by  1,  that  where  it  stands  when  two  pounds  are  dis- 
solved by  2,  and  so  on.  Most  saccharometers  and  must-scales  are 
made  after  this  manner.  Some,  however,  have  a  different  prin- 
ciple. In  these,  the  point  where  they  sink  in  pure  water  is  mark- 
ed by  0,  and  small  weights  are  then  placed  upon  a  little  plate 
fixed  to  the  upper  end  of  the  stem,  in  order  to  press  this  down 
to  0  into  the  fluid,  in  which  it  will  not  otherwise  sink  thus  far. 
Now  suppose  we  have  to  add  to  a  certain  must  50,  to  another  one 
70,  to  a  third  90  of  such  small  weights,  in  order  to  make  the  scale 
sink  down  to  0,  the  proportion  of  the  specific  gravity  of  these 
musts  to  that  of  pure  water  (the  water  being  taken  at  1000)  will 
be,  that  of  number  1,  as  1050  to  1000;  that  of  number  2,  as  1070 
to  1000 ;  that  of  number  3,  as  1090  to  1000.  This  is  generally 
expressed  thus:  "The  must  number  2  is  by  20  degrees  better 
than  number  1 ;  the  must  number  3  is  by  40  degrees  better  than 
number  1." 

Of  this  construction  are  the  Baumann-Kinzelbach  Wine-must 
Scales  and  those  of  Ilahn.  The  first  may  also  be  used  to  determ- 
ine the  specific  gravity  of  fermented  old  wines  by  the  degree 
marked  by  the  number  on  the  scale  in  the  stem  down  to  which 
the  instrument  sinks  in  the  wine.  This  scale  ranges  from  0  to 
10.  For  instance,  if  the  instrument  sink  down  to  the  number  6, 
the  specific  gravity  of  thq  wine  will  be  1000  less  6,  or  -TiTiro  of 
the  weight  of  water ;  if  it  sinks  to  9,  the  weight  of  the  wine  will 
be  =1000  less  9,  or  iVcnr  of  the  weight  of  the  water.  This  latter 
wine  is  consequently  better  than  the  former,  because  the  value 
of  old  wine  is  determined  by  the  alcohol  in  it,  and  the  less  it 
weighs  the  better  it  is. 

The  must-scale  used  exclusively  by  the  "Company  for  Improv- 
ing the  Grape  Culture"  in  Saxony  indicates  by  degrees,  1  to  80, 
how  many  half  ounces  of  sugar  are  contained  in  one  can,  Dresden 
measure,  of  must  (1  English  gallon =4.85  cans).  Of  course,  we 
can  not  assume  that  if  a  must-scale  indicates  that  a  must  is  =10 
or  20  degrees  heavier  than  water,  the  excess  in  weight  is  nothing 
but  sugar.  There  may  also  be  portions  of  salts,  mucilage,  acids, 
and  so  forth.     Sugar,  however,  forming  the  main  part  of  the  must, 


200  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

and  large  parts  of  acids  and  salts  being  indicated  by  the  taste,  and 
the  mucilage  weighing  but  little,  the  greater  weight  of  the  must 
may  be  taken  as  a  sure  sign  of  the  ^-reater  quantity  of  sugar  in 
it ;  consequently,  of  its  greater  value.  To  ascertain  this  correctly, 
the  must  has  only  to  be  still  sweety  and  ncft  made  cloudy  by  earthy, 
yeasty,  and  thready  parts,  as  these  may  hinder  the  proper  sinking 
of  the  instrument.  The  fluids  we  wish  to  weigh  must  also  have 
an  equal  degree  of  temperature,  as  heat  expands  bodies ;  and  a 
like  quantity  consequently  weighs  less  if  warmer  than  a  colder 
one  of  the  same  contents. 

Mr.  Berg  says  of  the  must  of  Wiirtemberg  grapes  that  such  as 
weigh  1060  or  less  make  a  bad  wine ;  that  of  1065  an  inferior,  but 
drinkable ;  and  heavier,  up  to  1080,  a  better  and  better  quality. 

If  the  specific  gravity  of  the  must  amounts  to  1060  or  1070, 
the  sugar  gets,  at  the  first  proper  fermentation,  so  dissolved  that 
the  taste  can  hardly  discern  it.  If  the  specific  gravity  rises  to 
1075,  or  still  higher,  the  wine  is  only  a  little  sweet ;  if  it  rises 
still  more,  to  1085  or  1090,  a  great  quantity  of  sugar  remains  in 
an  undissolved  state  after  the  first  fermentation,  which  is  not 
changed  until  later  into  alcohol  by  a  continued  still  fermentation  ; 
the  wine  not  only  getting  by  it  more  durable,  but  also  stronger, 
provided  it  is  kept  in  good  casks. 

Besides  the  sugar,  the  other  matters  contained  in  the  sweet 
must,  such  as  vegetable  acids,  mucilage,  tannic  acid,  etc.,  seem 
to  add  but  little  to  its  weight.  As  soon  as  the  first  turbulent 
fermentation  is  passed,  the  specific  gravity  of  the  must  sinks  to 
that  of  water,  and  grows  lighter  the  more  alcohol  has  been  form- 
ed. The  weight  of  such  alcoholic  wines  is  usually  only  by  0.010 
or  0.012  larger  than  that  of  water  mixed  in  the  like  proportion 
with  alcohol. 

The  Wine-Scale  serves  also  to  prove  old  wines  under  certain 
precautions.  Wines  of  equal  color  and  the  same  vintage  are 
usually  the  richer  in  alcohol  the  lighter  they  are.  Neckar  wines, 
for  instance,  of  the  vintage  1825,  showed,  after  eight  months, 

Specific  gravity  993,  alcoholic  par.ts  11.2  per  cent. 
"  "       994,         "  "    10.8    "      " 

"  "       997,         "  "       7.0    "      " 

"       999,         "  "      6.4    "      " 

Old  wines  have  in  proportion  frequently  a  larger  specific  gravity 
than  newer  ones,  also  dark  colored  ones  more  than  light  colored. 
The  alcohol  is  closely  united  to  the  other  parts  of  the  wine,  and, 
in  order  to  obtain  all  of  it  out  of  a  wine,  usually  more  than  two 
thirds  of  the  must  has  to  be  distilled  over  again. 

The  Acid-Scale, 

This  is  constructed  similar  to  the  vinegar-scale.  A  narrow 
tube,  closed  at  its  lower  end,  has  near  the  bottom  (which  point  is 
marked  by  0)  division  lines  marked  1,  2,  3,  etc.     It  is  filled  with 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  201 

wine,  whicli  is  colored  red  by  a  tincture  of  litmus.  A  weak  al- 
kaline or  nitrogenic  solution  is  then  added  drop  wise  until  the 
red  color  changes  into  blue,  the  sign  that  the  acid  has  been  neu- 
tralized. The  more  of  this  solution  it  takes,  the  more  acid  is  con- 
tained in  the  wine.  That  which  is  specifically  the  heaviest,  and 
therefore  richest  in  sugar,  has  usually  the  least  proportion  of 
acids. 

The  Fermentation^  or  Carbomc  Acid  Scale. 

This  consists  simply  of  a  tube,  the  bore  of  which  is  marked  off 
into  cubic  inches,  in  which  the  carbonic  acid  produced  in  fer- 
mentation is  caught.  The  principle  of  its  use  is  this :  One  grain 
of  sugar,  according  to  Dobreiner,  produces  y^  cubic  inch  of  car- 
bonic acid.  The  quantity  of  the  sugar,  and  consequently  the 
quality  of  the  must,  can  therefore  be  ascertained  by  the  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  which  it  develops.  For  instance,  if  -^  cubic 
inch  of  must  gives  1-J-  cubic  inches  of  carbonic  acid,  IfVV  grain 
of  sugar  must  consequently  have  been  contained  in  it  (7r-^  =  l-nnr)- 

One  grain  of  sugar  gives,  farthermore,  during  the  fermentation, 
xoV  grains  of  alcohol ;  or,  when  f^  cubic  inches  of  carbonic  acid 
are  formed,  -^  grains  of  alcohol  are  at  the  same  time  produced. 
If,  therefore,  -^  cubic  inch  of  must  has  by  fermentation  develop- 
ed 4y'^  cubic  inches  of  carbonic  acid,  it  contained  5  grains  of 
sugar  {P:l%=6  grains),  and  has  formed  out  of  it  2^—  (5  x  0.51  = 
2.55)  grains  of  alcohol. 

For  this  purpose  serves  a  tube,  divided  into  cubic  inches,  into 
which  the  developing  carbonic  acid  is  caught. 


III. 
MANUFACTUEING  GRAPE  WINE. 

General  Observations. 


So  many  different  causes  influence  this  that  hardly  two  casks 
of  the  same  sort  of  wine  are  exactly  equal  in  all  their  points. 

If  the  wines  are  filled  in  casks  or  bottles  after  the  must  has 
gone  through  the  first  fermentation,  and  before  all  the  sugar  has 
been  dissolved  by  the  after  fermentation  and  the  yeast  secreted 
they  will  continue  to  ferment  more  or  less  strongly,  and  to  devel- 
op a  great  deal  of  carbonic  acid,  which  may  burst  the  casks  if 
quite  filled.  The  gas  rises  in  a  multitude  of  small  bubbles,  spout- 
ing up  when  the  casks  are  opened,  in  case  they  withstand  the 
pressure.  Such  wines  are  called  effervescent.  The  kind  most 
known  of  them  is  the  Champagne. 

If  the  fermentation  is  allowed  to  go  to  its  full  end,  so  that  all 


202  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WDfE- MAKING. 

the  sugar  gets  dissolved,  the  so-ealled  "cZr?/"  or  ^^sour''^  wines  are 
obtained. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  a  large  part  of  sugar  is  still  contained  in  it, 
the  wine  is  called  "sit'ee^."     These  usually  re-ferment. 

Those  sweet  wines  that  are  at  the  same  time  of  a  thick  juice 
are  called  "  liqueur  winesy  Such  are  mostly  produced  in  warm 
climates,  as  the  must  of  the  grapes  grown  there  contains  too 
much  sugar  and  too  little  water  and  yeast,  and,  therefore,  does  not 
completely  ferment.  In  an  artificial  way  they  are  produced  by 
allowing  the  grapes  to  dry  on  the  bush  or  in  the  sun,  or  by  add- 
ing lime  to  the  must,  or  by  boiling  down  a  part  of  it.  These  lat- 
ter are  called  ^^  boiled  loines.''^ 

In  colder  climates  the  wine  is  sometimes  made  stronger  by  let- 
ting the  watery  parts  freeze  out,  thereby  giving  them  also  a  pe- 
culiarly agreeable  taste.     These  are  sold  as  ^^ frozen  ivines^ 

The  peculiar  agreeable  flavor  of  wines  is  styled  the  bouquet 
{^^blume,^^  in  German).     It  is  especially  found  in  fine  qualities. 

The  method  of  making  wine  differs  in  almost  all  countries,  even 
in  particular  districts,  though  each  of  them  adheres  to  its  own  as 
the  best,  or,  in  fact,  the  only  good  one.  Some  of  the  principal 
methods  we  shall  describe  hereafter. 

The  Time  of  Gathering  the  Grapes. 

It  ought  to  be  a  policy  always  to  undertake  this  only  when 
they  have  attained  their  highest  state  of  maturity,  as  it  is  well 
known  that  they  are  the  richer  in  sugar  the  riper  they  are,  and 
produce  the  more  alcohol  the  more  sugar  parts  are  contained  in 
them.  Even  over-maturity,  rottenness,  and  frost  do  not  harm 
them,  as  they  will  also  get  sweeter  by  them ;  and  the  must  made 
of  such  grapes  will  give  a  wine  richer  in  alcohol  and  aroma. 
The  rottenness,  however,  it  may  be  premised,  must  not  take  place 
when  the  grapes  are  unripe,  as  this  would  destroy  the  little  sweet- 
ness already  contained  by  them. 

It  is  not  always  possible  to  let  the  grapes  get  over-ripe — some- 
times not  even  ripe — on  account  of  the  unfavorable  state  of  the 
temperature  and  weather.  In  such  cases,  an  increase  of  the  sugar 
and  an  improvement  of  the  must  may  be  obtained  by  the  follow- 
ing means : 

1.  The  grapes,  with  their  pedicles  left  on  them,  are  spread  upon 
mats,  or  fiat  vessels,  and  exposed  for  maturing  to  the  influence 
of  the  sun,  air,  light,  and  dew.     This  is  frequently  done  in  Spain. 

2.  They  are  placed  upon  layers  of  straw,  and  allowed  to  ripen 
in  warmed  rooms.  This  method  is  used  in  Germany  with  the 
so-called  "  straiv  ivine^ 

3.  They  may  be  put  uncrushed  into  vats,  and  left  three  or  four 
days  in  them,  for  the  same  purpose. 

4.  They  are,  when  gathered,  exposed  to  a  moderate  cold,  but 
immediately  pressed  when  beginning  to  thaw. 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCUS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  203 

5.  Boiling  them  by  steam. 

The  maturity  of  the  grapes  is  indicated  by  the  berries  attain- 
ing their  perfect  color  and  clearness,  and  beginning  to  get  wrin- 
kled ;  by  their  skin  getting  thin,  the  stones  loosening  easily,  and 
becoming  darker  in  color ;  by  the  pedicles  darkening,  wrinkling, 
and  letting  the  grapes  droop. 

The  gathering  of  the  grapes  can  be  done  at  all  hours  of  the 
day,  and  in  all  kinds  of  weather.  If  done  on  rainy  days,  more, 
but  weaker  wine,  and  less  well  colored,  will  be  produced.  If  the 
production  of  the  best  wine  be  an  object,  the  grapes  must  not  be 
gathered  until  the  dew  has  dried  off.  If  the  grapes  are  very 
sweet,  however,  this  makes  no  difference ;  likewise  if  effervescent 
wines  are  the  object. 

The  most  profitable  way  is  to  have  wooden  tubs  that  will  not 
let  the  juice  escape,  and  to  be  careful  to  cut  the  grapes  off  with  a 
pair  of  scissors,  so  that  no  berries  get  wasted. 

If  the  quality  of  the  wine  be  no  especial  consideration,  all  the 
grapes,  no  matter  whether  ripe  or  not,  are  crushed  together.  It 
is  different,  however,  if  a  good  wine  is  wanted.  In  this  case  they 
must  be  picked  out,  and  the  more  carefully  the  better  the  wine 
is  required  to  be. 

As  the  stalks  give  the  wine  an  unpleasant  harsh  taste,  it  is  well 
to  separate  them  from  the  berries  before  the  pressing.  Only  in 
such  cases  it  is  desirable  to  leave  them  if  the  grapes  have  too  lit- 
tle acid  and  sour  parts,  but  many  mucilaginous  ones.  If  the  wines 
are  destined  for  the  fabrication  of  cognac,  nothing  is  taken  off,  as 
all  the  parts  make  alcohol,  and  the  acid  matter  does  no  harm  to 
it,  remaining  in  the  still. 

There  are  different  modes  of  picking  off  the  grapes : 

1.  By  the  hand  only, 

2.  By  a  wicker  frame,  with  small  holes  through  which  the  pick- 
ed-off  berries  fall  into  the  tub. 

3.  By  the  fork,  which  is  of  wood,  17  to  24  inches  long  and 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  parting  in  the  middle  into  three 
branches.  This  instrument  is  moved  about  in  the  tub  filled  with 
grapes,  holding  it  with  one  hand  by  the  handle,  with  the  other 
by  one  of  the  three  prongs.  The  stalks  are  thereby  separated 
from  the  berries  and  taken  out. 

Crushing  and  Pressing  the  Grapes. 

The  first  is  usually  done  in  the  vineyard,  in  a  tub  placed  in  a 
slanting  position,  by  "  treading'^  them  with  the  feet,  or  by  crush- 
ing with  a  wooden  pestle.  In  the  first  case,  wooden  shoes,  well 
cleaned,  are  put  on. 

If  the  juice  is  to  be  directly  separated  from  the  stones  and 
skins,  the  tub  must  have  holes  in  the  bottom  to  let  it  flow  out, 
leavmg  those  inside.  In  the  Ehine  district  the  treading  method 
has  been  generally  adopted,  because  the  aroma,  being  mostly  held 


204:  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKlNG. 

by  the  skins,  is  better  developed  in  this  manner,  and  -wines  so 
produced  have  a  much  stronger  bouquet  than  if  made  by  any  oth- 
er method. 

The  tubs  have  a  lid  which  covers  the  vat  underneath,  in  order 
to  shut  the  air  out  from  it.  This  lid  or  board  has  a  large  round 
hole,  surrounded  by  a  wooden  hoop  one  inch  high,  within  which 
the  upper  tub  is  put  so  as  to  be  immovable.  It  has  likewise  a 
small  flap,  through  which  one  sees  if  the  tub  is  filled,  and  also 
may  push  the  husks  back  that  rise  in  the  middle. 

If  the  must,  however,  is  to  ferment  with  the  skins  and  pedicles, 
the  whole  mass  is  left  together,  and  is  pressed  off  from  the  husks 
when  the  fermentation  has  more  or  less  advanced. 

In  the  2^^'css-house  the  mass  is  either  pressed  at  once,  or  allowed 
to  ferment  with  the  skins  and  stalks,  or  with  the  first  only.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  wine  gains  in  color,  taste,  flavor,  and  spirit,  as 
the  husks  always  contain  sweet  and  spicy  parts  that  get  freed  by 
the  fermentation.  It  gets  also  sooner  drinkable,  as  the  acid  and 
tannic  parts  of  the  berries  effect  a  quicker  secretion  of  the  yeast. 
But  it  is  also  sourer  and  more  acid ;  therefore  it  is  frequently  pre- 
ferred to  leave  the  skins  and  stalks  aside. 

This  is  done  by  the  2>'>'<^ssing  2irocess,  to  which  the  whole  mass  is 
subjected  in  a  fresh-crushed  state,  or  in  that  of  a  more  or  less  ad- 
vanced fermentation.  The  juice  first  coming  out  here  is  that  of 
the  most  ripe  grapes;  consequently  it  is  the  sweetest,  and  gives 
the  best  wine.  After  this  it  contains  more  and  more  acid  and 
sour  parts,  and  makes  only  inferior  wines.  From  this  the  names 
of  "wine  of  the  first,  second,  third  press"  are  given,  as  also  ^)mne, 
press,  and  hiisk  wine.  '  If  the  grapes  have  but  little  water,  warm 
or  cold  water  is  poured  on  the  pressed-out  busks,  which  are  then 
pressed  again. 

The  husks  on  the  sides  of  the  tub  are  not  exposed  to  an  equal 
pressure  with  those  in  the  middle.  They  are  consequently  cut 
off  and  pushed  toward  the  centre  after  each  pressing.  In  Wiir- 
temberg  the  common  broad-axe  of  the  carpenters  is  used  for  this 
purpose.  In  other  districts  they  have  particular  implements  for 
the  same  object. 

Only  the  must  of  grapes  gathered  and  pressed  at  the  same  time 
must  be  put  into  one  vat,  as  otherwise  the  fermentation  would  be 
unequal  and  the  wine  less  good. 

Fermentatio7i. 

The  must  is  now  left  to  ferment :  in  northern  climates  usually 
in  cellars ;  in  southern,  under  sheds.  If  it  is  in  large  tubs  or 
vats,  its  own  heat  is  generally  sufficient  to  get  it  into  proper  fer- 
mentation even  at  a  low  temperature ;  but  if  this  should  not  be 
the  case,  artificial  warmth  must  be  applied.  The  cellar,  in  that 
case,  if  covering  with  warm  blankets  will  not  answer,  is  warm- 
ed by  a  coal  fire,  or  some  of  the  must  itself  is  warmed  and  pour- 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  205 

ed  into  the  vats  tbrough  a  long  funnel,  that  it  may  get  to  the  bot- 
tom. 

The  fermentation  may  take  place  in  covered,  in  partially  covered, 
or  in  open  tubs  or  vats. 

The  must  may  furthermore  be  allowed  to  ferment  above  or  he- 
low ;  that  is,  the  vats  may  be  so  constructed  that  the  must  ejects 
above  all  the  slimy,  thready,  and  yeast  parts  which  arc  driven  up- 
ward. This  may  easily  be  caused  by  keeping  the  tubs  all  the 
time  so  well  filled  that  the  crust  is  ejected  over  the  border;  or 
these  parts  may  remain  in  the  fluid  and  settle  on  the  bottom  to- 
ward the  end  of  the  fermentation,  in  which  case  it  takes  place  be- 
low. The  wines  made  by  the  first  manner  are  usually  sooner 
drinkable,  but  also  of  less  body. 

When  the  fermentation  subsides  the  bungs  must  not  be  closed 
at  once,  but  only  lightly  covered,  as  carbonic  acid  still  develops 
itself,  and,  when  the  temperature  changes,  the  fermentation  fre- 
quently commences  again. 

A  disadvantage  of  the  fermentation  in  open  vats  is  that  the  sur- 
face of  the  must  comes  too  much  into  contact  with  the  air,  gets 
cold  by  this,  sour,  and  gives  the  wine  a  disagreeable  taste.  In  or- 
der to  prevent  this,  it  would  be  wiser  to  close  the  vat  entirely,  and 
let  the  air  escape  by  a  crooked  pipe  whose  mouth  lies  under  wa- 
ter. By  this  construction  the  outer  air  is  perfectly  shut  out  from 
the  must,  and  all  fermentation  of  acetic  acid  is  prevented.  A  part 
of  the  carbonic  acid  and  the  alcohol  evaporating  with  it  is  like- 
wise retained  by  the  water. 

The  advantages  of  this  method  are  farther : 

1.  That  the  fermentation  takes  place  more  quietly,  consequent- 
ly with  less  inner  heat,  though  slower. 

2.  The  result  will  be  not  only  more  wine,  but  also  one  richer 
in  spirit. 

3.  The  red  wine  especially  gets  a  finer  color,  as  the  air  does  not 
extract  the  coloring  matter. 

4.  The  wine  is  less  exposed  to  danger  of  changing  suddenly 
and  getting  sour. 

.5.  A  fluid  is  got  in  the  receiving  water  containing  carbonic 
acid  and  alcohol,  which  may  be  profitably  used  for  making  vine- 
gar or  alcohol  by  distillation.  It  has  also  been  used  for  bathing 
and  drinking  purposes. 

Filling  in  the  Must. 

The  time  of  the  fermentation  depends  greatly  on  the  tempera- 
ture, the  nature  of  the  must,  and  the  quality  of  wine  that  may  be 
wanted.  In  warmer  climates  it  is  frequently  done  in  twelve 
hours ;  in  others  it  takes  from  four  to  fifteen  days,  and  even  four 
weeks.  Wines  of  but  little  sugar  must  be  filled  into  casks  before 
the  visible  fermentation  ceases,  as  they  are  much  exposed  to  sud- 
den changes.     Wines  that  came  out  of  a  slow  fermentation  are 


206  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

always  more  durable  than  those  of  a  quick  one.  In  such  too 
much  alcohol  escapes.  It  may,  however,  be  retarded  by  decreas- 
ing the  warmth,  or  by  burning  sulphur  in  the  vats. 

The  greatest  possible  cleanliness  is  absolutely  necessary  during 
the  process.  The  edges  of  the  bungs  have  to  be  frequently  clean- 
ed ;  and  care  must  be  taken  that  no  parts  changed  by  the  air  re- 
enter the  wine. 

When  filling  it  into  the  casks  all  the  husks  must  be  left  out,  as 
these  are  pressed  over  again,  either  to  give  an  inferior  quality  of 
wine  or  to  make  vinegar.  The  casks  are  filled  up  to  the  bung ; 
but  if  the  wine  be  subject  to  a  strong  after  fermentation,  only  up 
to  within  several  inches  below  the  bung-hole.  The  bung-hole 
must  only  be  lightly  covered  by  a  leaf  or  a  stone.  Every  second 
day  the  cask  must  be  filled  up  again. 

The  finishing  of  the  first  after  fermentation  may  be  known 
when  no  more  air-bubbles  arise,  and  the  stone  on  the  bung-hole 
does  not  become  moist  any  more.  "When  this  is  the  case,  the  hole 
must  be  closed  tighter.  The  filling  up  must,  however,  be  contin- 
ued every  eight  days  at  first ;  later,  every  fourteen  days ;  and  still 
later,  every  four  weeks. 

As  the  young  wines,  especially  if  they  contain  many  slimy 
parts,  deposit  a  great  deal  of  yeast,  they  must  be  draivn  off  from 
this  from  time  to  time.  The  rules  about  this  are,  however,  differ- 
ent in  all  the  grape  countries. 

The  Malcing  of  Sweet  Wine. 

Wine  is  called  sweet  in  which  only  a  part  of  the  sugar  parts 
are  decomposed,  and,  consequently,  the  fermentation  is  not  en- 
tirely finished.  This  might  be  attained  by  filling  the  young  wine 
into  closed  casks  before  it  has  fermented  out,  and  checking  this 
latter  process  by  an  addition  of  salt,  mustard,  etc.  The  wine 
would  then,  however,  not  get  clear,  but  would  easily  relapse  into 
fermentation.  It  is,  therefore,  better  to  take  must  containing  much 
sugar  and  but  few  yeast  parts.  As  this  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
decompose  all  the  sugar,  a  part  of  it  will  remain  undissolved  in 
the  wine.  The  grapes  of  warm  countries  generally  have  these 
conditions  by  nature,  and  consequently  produce  sweet  wines. 

They  are  still  made  richer  in  sugar  by  boiling  down  a  part  of 
the  must  and  adding  this  to  the  rest ;  or  the  yeast  parts  are  re- 
duced by  boiling  and  scumming  the  must,  or  adding  gypsum  that 
decomposes  the  cream  of  tartar.  An  addition  of  sugar  would 
likewise  tend  to  the  first  end,  and  a  filtering  through  charcoal  to 
the  second. 

In  Portugal  they  add  spirit  (that  makes  a  part  of  the  yeast  in- 
capable of  fermentation)  to  produce  the  celebrated  Angelica  or 
Gcropica  wine.  Sweet  wines  need,  for  the  most  part,  an  artificial 
clearing. 

In  Alsatia  they  select  the  best  and  ripest  grapes ;  leave  them  as 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  207 

long  as  possible  on  the  bushes  until  the  stalks  become  dry.  They 
gather  them  on  a  warm,  clear  day,  and  lay  them  on  straw  (there- 
fore the  wine  is  called  slmw  wine)\  or  hang  them  up  on  rafters 
or  poles  provided  for  the  purpose,  taking  care,  however,  that  the 
stalks  where  they  are  cut  look  downward,  in  order  to  give  the 
berries  more  room  to  stand  off  from  one  another,  since  if  they 
were  close  pressed  they  would  be  apt  to  rot.  The  room  in  whica 
the  drying  is  done  must  be  airy,  not  too  warm,  and  closed  against 
strong  cold.  For  the  first  days  the  windows  are  left  open  ;  after- 
ward opened  at  least  once  in  every  few  days.  The  more  the 
grapes  dry,  the  more  delicate  against  cold  they  get.  In  this  room 
they  leave  them  until  March  or  April,  frequently  picking  out  the 
rotten  berries.  Then  they  take  them  down,  and  pick  the  berries 
off  singly,  and  crush  and  press  them.  The  juice  is  then  at  once 
put  into  a  tub,  not  quite  filling  it.  The  fermentation  proceeds 
very  slowl}^,  frequently  lasting  five  to  six  weeks.  If  the  tem- 
perature be  somewhat  cold,  it  is  advisable  to  place  the  tub  in  a 
room  of  about  12°  to  14°  R.  After  the  fermentation  is  over,  the 
tub  is  filled  up  by  a  quantity  left  for  the  purpose.  This  wine  re- 
mains very  sweet  indeed  for  a  long  time,  and  grows  finer  by  age, 
choicer,  and  more  delicious.  Its  cloudiness  always  clears  off  again 
by  its  own  action.  It  will  never  turn  sour  as  long  as  it  may  be 
kept. 

The  husks  of  these  grapes  serve  very  well  to  improve  ordinary 
wines  if  thrown  into  the  casks  of  the  latter,  stirred  up  from  time 
to  time,  left  in  them  a  few  days,  and  then  the  wine  is  drawn  off 
and  mixed  with  other.  A  new  fermentation  commonly  sets  in, 
producing  a  highly  improved  wine. 

3faking  Frozen  Wine. 

The  wine  freed  of  part  of  its  water  by  the  process  of  freezing 
not  only  gains  by  it  in  strength,  but  gets,  also,  the  appearance  of 
an  old  wine  and  a  peculiarly  agreeable  taste.  For  these  reasons, 
it  has  been  for  a  long  time  a  custom  in  Franconia,  on  the  Rhine, 
and  in  Moldavia,  to  improve  young  wines  in  this  manner : 

The  wine  is  put  into  small  barrels,  not  quite  full,  or  into  tubs, 
and  exposed  to  the  winter  cold.  The  ice-crust  formed  is  in  the 
beginning  broken  until  sufficient  water  is  frozen  out,  and  the  re- 
maining wine  filled  into  a  freshly -sulphurized  cask.  If  the  crust 
gets  into  compact  masses,  these  must  be  broken  up  by  a  red-hot 
iron.  After  the  dropping  off,  the  ice  contains  nothing  but  some 
cream  of  tartar  and  impure  matters.  This  procedure  is,  however, 
not  recommendable  with  red  wines,  neither  for  efiervescent  ones. 

Making  Young  Wines  appear  "  Old." 

1.  Take  a  new  cask  with  stout  hoops,  wash  it  well  out  with 
yeast  liquor,  and  fill  it  three  fourths  with  must.  This  will  soon 
get  into  fermentation,  and  must,  after  this  is  past,  be  drawn  off 


208  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

into  an  old  wine-cask,  and  may  be  repeated  over  again  until 
spring  comes. 

2.  Mix  a  little  lime-water  ■with  it.     This  will  make  it  mild. 

8.  Let  it  freeze. 

4.  Throw  red-hot  flint-stones  into  it,  one  after  another,  and  draw 
the  wine  off  in  about  six  weeks.  The  slimy  matters  will  settle 
on  those  stones. 

5.  Put  some  oak  wood  into  the  cask.  This  will  give  the  wine 
color,  and  removes  slime.  It  is,  however,  not  very  recommenda- 
ble. 

6.  Take  it,  in  good  casks,  to  a  warm  place — for  instance,  to  a 
warmed  room.     A  few  weeks  will  suffice. 

7.  Put  it  into  a  cask  in  which  old  wine  had  been  contained. 

8.  Mix  it  with  a  little  wine-ether. 


IV. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  WINES. 

JULLIEN  puts  them  into^^ye  classes.  The  first  comprises  the 
fine  wines,  of  the  prime  superior  quality,  only  produced  in  small 
quantities.  The  second,  the  fine  wines  of  a  really  good  quality, 
made  in  a  larger  quantity,  and  generally  confounded  with  the 
former.  The  third,  the  fine  and  middle-fine  ones.  The  fourth, 
the  ordinary  ones,  commonly  called  of  first  quality.  The  fifth, 
those  of  the  second  and  third  quality,  and  the  most  inferior  ones. 

According  to  this  system,  he  classified  the  most  superior  wines 
as  follows : 

I.  Eed  Wines. 

First  Class. 

Of  Burgundy.  —  Romance  -  Conti,  Chambertin,  Eicheburg,  Vou- 
geot,  La  Tashe,  St.  Georges,  Gorton. 

Of  Bordeaux. — Lafitte,  Latour,  Ghateaux-Margeaux,  Ilaut-Brion. 
Ilermitage :  First  quality,  Of  the  Vendee. 

Second  Class. 

Of  Champagne. — Verzy,  Verzenay,  Mailly,  St.  Basle,  Bouzy,  St. 
Thierry. 

Of  Burgundy. — Bosne,  Nuits,  Ghambolle,  Volnay,  Pomard,  Sa- 
vigny,  Beaune,  Marey,  Meursault,  Olivates,  Pitry,  Perriere,  Gbai- 
nette,  Migrenne,  Auxerre. 

Hermitage :  Second  quality,  the  Gote-Rotie  of  Lyons. 

Of  Bordeaux. — Rozan,  Gorse,  Leoville,  Larosc. 

Goteaux-Brul(:^  of  Avignon,  Turancon  and  Gan  of  Beam. 

Of  Rousillon. — The  Vagnals,  Gasperon,  Gollioure,  Terrats. 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  209 

Third  Class, 

Of  Champagne. — Ilautville,  Marcuil,  Disy,  Picrry,  Epcrnay,  Tai- 
sy,  Ludcs,  Cbigny. 

Of  Bordeaux. — The  Pauillac,  Margaux,  Pcssac,  St.  Julien. 

Of  Burgundy. — The  Gevrcy,  Chassagne,  Aloso,  Llagny. 

OfLauguedoc. — The  Chuzelan,  Tavel,  St.  Geniez,  Lirac,  Ledenoa, 
Cornac,  Cante-Perdrix. 

Fourth  and  Fifth  Class. 
All  others,  too  numerous  to  be  mentioned. 

II.  White  Wines. 

First  Class. 

Of  Champagne. — Sillery,  Ay,  Mareuil,  Hautviller,  Pierry,  Dissy, 
Clozet. 

Of  Burgundy. — Montrachet. 

Of  Bordeaux. — The  dry  wine  of  St.  Bris,  Carbonnieux,  Pontac. 
Sauternes,  Barsac,  Beaumes,  and  the  Preignac. 

The  Hermitage,  and  the  Chateau-Grillet. 

Second  Class. 

Of  Champagne. — Cramet,  Avise,  Ogne,  Le  Menil. 

OfAlsatia. — Gebweiler,  Turkheimer,  Riqueville,  Thanner,  Pfaft"- 
enheimer,  Rufacher,  Kaisersberger,  Molsheimer. 

Of  Burgundy. — Perriere,  Combotte,  Charmes. 

Of  Franche-Comte. — Chateau-Chalons,  Arbois,  and  Pupillin. 

The  Condrieux,  Department  du  Ehone ;  Langon,  of  Bordeaux : 
Montbasillace,  St.  Nessons,  and  Sance,  of  Pdrigord ;  St.  Peray  and 
St.  Jean,  of  Languedoc. 

Third  Class. 
Some  sorts  of  Burgundy  and  of  Bordeaux. 

HI.  Liqueur  Wines. 

First  Class. 

Tokay,  from  Hungary  ;  Lacrimse  Christi,  from  Napolis  ;  Mus- 
cat, from  Syracuse  ;  Commandery  Wine,  from  Cyprus  ;  Constan- 
tia,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ;  Rivesalter,  from  Roussillon  : 
and  several  straw  wines  from  Alsatia,  and  that  of  the  Hermitage. 

Second  Class. 

Frontignac,  Lunel,  and  other  Muscat  wine,  from  Languedoc : 
Grenache,  from  Rousillon ;  and  the  Maccabee,  from  the  Pyrenees : 
the  better  sort  of  Alicante  and  Malaga ;  Grenache,  from  Aragon  : 
those  of  Setuval,  Carcavellos,  and  Bucellas,  in  Portugal ;  the  sweet 

0 


210  GRAl^E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

wines  from  Vesuvius,  from  Syracuse,  tlie  Lipari  Islands,  Albauo, 
Monte  Fiascone,  etc.,  etc. ;  the  Cbiras,  from  Persia ;  Muscat  and 
Eota,  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  Madeiras  and  Teneriffes. 

Third  Class. 

Several  white  Alicante  wines  ;  several  from  Upper  Italy ;  the 
straw  wine  of  Wiirzburg,  and  the  Calmuth  wine  of  Aschaffenburg ; 
the  wine  of  Chiavenna ;  the  Karlowitzer ;  the  second  quality  of 
the  Muscat  of  Languedoc ;  the  Picardan. 

IV,  Dry  Wines. 

First  Glass. 
Johannisberger,  Eiidesheimer,  Deidesheimer,  Badenweiler. 

Second  Class. 

The  first  qualities  of  the  Rhine  wines,  principally  Ilochheimer, 
Laubenheimer,  ISTierensteiner,  Brauneberger ;  the  Ruster,  Menes- 
cher,  the  Karlowitzer ;  the  dry  Xeres,  Paraxeta,  Olivenza ;  Port 
wine. 

Third  Class. 

The  wines  from  the  Upper  Rhine ;  the  better  sorts  of  Franconia 
wines ;  some  from  Bohemia  and  Wiirtemberg. 


V. 

OF  DRAWING  OFF  THE  WINE. 


The  purpose  of  this  is  to  separate  the  wine  from  its  yeasty  parts. 
It  must,  consequently,  be  principally  done  at  times  when  influ- 
ences of  the  weather  dispose  it  to  ferment  again.  The  seasons  are 
when  the  grape-bush  shoots  anew  in  the  spring ;  when  it  blooms 
in  the  months  of  May  and  June ;  in  August,  and  when  the  grapes 
mature  in  September ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  winter,  when  rainy 
weather  lasts  for  several  days.  It  ought  to  be  a  rule  to  draw  off 
before  such  influences  set  in.  Against  those  of  very  stormy  weath- 
er the  wine  may  be  partially  protected  by  closing  the  doors  and 
windows  of  the  cellar  in  which  it  is  kept.  If  fermentation,  how- 
ever, takes  place,  it  is  better  to  loosen  the  bungs  to  give  the  air 
free  egress,  and  let  it  go  on,  or  to  check  it  by  sulphurization. 

Rhine  and  other  sour  wines  are  generally  drawn  off  three  times 
during  six  years,  at  the  above-mentioned  times;  then  they  are 
left  undisturbed  for  three  years,  being  only  looked  after  from  time 
to  time,  and  the  bung-cloth  changed. 

Frequent  connection  with  the  air  often  injures  the  wine,  as  a 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  211 

great  quantity  of  spirit  evaporates  cacli  time,  and  it  thereby  gets 
weaker,  especially  if  clone  on  warm  days.  To  prevent  this  as 
much  as  possible,  the  opening  ought  always  to  be  done  on  cool 
days,  when  the  north  wind  blows,  never  during  a  south  wind.  To 
prevent  the  combination  with  the  outer  air,  various  methods  are 
recommended,  some  of  which  we  will  here  describe. 

The  drawing  off  is  usually  performed  as  follows:  A  hole  is 
bored  into  the  cask  at  a  certain  height  from  the  bottom,  where  it  is 
supposed  that  the  wine  may  no  longer  be  clear ;  through  this  hole 
the  wine  runs  out  by  means  of  a  tube  or  pipe.  In  order  to  let 
the  air  enter  the  cask,  the  bung  is  opened,  or  a  small  hole  bored 
through  one  of  the  staves.  When  the  clear  wine  is  all  out,  the 
cask  is  lifted  up  until  the  thick  or  muddy  portion  runs  out.  This 
is  then  filled  into  another  cask. 

A  better  method  is  that  with  a  leather  pipe,  four  to  six  feet 
long,  one  end  of  which  holds  a  tube.  This  is  placed  tightly  into 
the  bung-hole  of  the  cask  to  be  filled,  the  other  end  being  attach- 
ed to  the  fiuicet  of  the  cask  to  be  emptied,  which  must  stand  high- 
er. The  wine  runs  through  this  pipe  to  the  other  cask  until  it  is 
half  filled.  Now  the  attendant  must  blow  into  the  upper  cask 
through  a  bellows  having  a  leather  cap  over  its  mouth  to  prevent 
the  air  from  re-entering  it,  and  drive  the  remaining  wine  out  of 
it  through  the  pipe. 

The  mode  of  drawing  the  wine  off  by  means  of  a  siphon  has 
the  advantage  that  the  connection  with  the  outer  air  may  be  al- 
most wholly  avoided.  The  siphon  is  filled  with  wine,  and  the 
short  arm  is  placed  in  the  cask  to  be  emptied,  the  long  one  into 
that  to  be  filled.  The  contents  of  the  first  barrel  then  pass  into 
the  second.  The  use  of  the  pump  for  drawing  off  wine  is  mostl}'' 
confined  to  Champagnes. 


UILTON'8  lnstecmekt. 


Preferable  to  this  is,  however,  the  method  of  drawing  off  by  a 
"  Hilton's  Instrument,"  which  offers  the  advantage  of  its  being 
quickly  done,  without  allowing  the  wine  to  communicate  with 
the  air.  A  shows  a  cask  filled  with  wine.  B  is  a  cask  into  which 
this  wine  is  to  be  transferred.     C  and  D  are  faucets  screwed  into 


212  GRM'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  casks  about  one  and  three  quarter  inches  from  the  bottom. 
F  is  a  crooked  piece  of  pipe  preventing  the  air  from  passing  over 
with  the  last  of  the  wine.  At  G  two  glasses  are  placed,  allowing 
the  condition  of  the  wine  to  be  ascertained.  H  is  a  sucking-pump 
with  a  conical  screw,  which  is  screwed  into  the  bung-hole  of  cask 
B.  After  opening  the  faucets  C  and  D,  screwing  in  the  pump 
and  starting  it,  a  partial  vacuum  is  formed  in  the  cask,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  drives  the  wine  immediatel}'  over  out 
of  A  into  B.  As  soon  as  it  has  sunk  to  near  the  bottom,  the  fau- 
cet D  is  closed,  and  the  cask  A  carefully  lifted.  The  wine  is  thus 
drawn  off  without  muddying  it  by  the  yeast.  Below,  the  pump 
has  a  hole  (at  I)  through  which  the  air  escapes,  which  is  closed 
when  this  is  done. 

Filling  the  Wine  into  Bottles. 

This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  a  faucet,  from  which  it  runs 
into  the  bottles  through  a  funnel.  It  comes,  however,  less  in  con- 
tact with  the  air  if  let  off  by  a  siphon,  but  mixes  itself  with  the 
yeasty  parts  stirred  up  in  the  cask.  An  improvement  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  former  instrument  preventing  the  first  cause  of 
complaint,  seems  to  make  the  simple  old  fashion  more  preferable. 

As  a  rule,  wines  must  not  be  bottled  until  their  fermentation 
is  completely  over,  otherwise  many  bottles  would  likely  burst. 

White  wines  may  be  bottled  without  danger  after  a  year  or 
eighteen  months ;  so,  too,  liqueur  wines  or  light  red  wines.  Oth- 
ers of  a  heavier  body  (as,  for  instance,  the  Chambertin,  the  Gorton) 
must  not  be  bottled  before  three  or  five  years.  Bordeaux  and 
Ehine  wines  are  best  left  eight  to  ten  years  in  the  casks. 

The  bottling  should  be  done  in  cool  weather.  In  the  district 
of  Champagne,  in  France,  the  time  of  the  full  moon  in  the  month 
of  March  is  preferred  for  effervescent  loines;  for  others,  the  waning 
of  the  moon. 

The  bottles  must  only  be  filled  to  within  two  inches  of  the 
mouth,  so  that,  after  corking  them,  a  small  vacuum  remains  be- 
tween the  cork  and  wine.     This  is  done  to  prevent  bursting. 


YI. 

TREATMENT  OF  BOTTLED  WINES. 

A  CHIEF  condition  for  the  preservation  of  such  is  to  keep  the 
bottles  always  in  a  level  position,  so  that  the  cork  is  covered  by 
the  wine.     If  not,  mould  will  soon  cover  and  make  it  sour. 

In  the  course  of  time,  however,  they  secrete  a  sediment,  of 
which  they  must  be  freed  before  they  can  be  used  or  sent  off.  If 
it  be  clean  and  sand-like,  it  is  only  cream  of  tartar,  and  may  re- 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  213 

main.     The  filling  from  one  bottle  into  anothei:  is  simply  done 
by  leaving  the  sediment  back. 

Filling  uj)  and  Wasting  of  Wines. 

Even  in  tlic  best-made  casks  an  evaporation  of  the  spirit  and 
watery  parts  of  the  wine  takes  place,  escaping  through  the  seams, 
forming,  consequently,  by  the  diminution  of  it,  a  vacuum  above 
it.  This  is  called  "the  wasting"  of  the  wine.  No  remedies 
against  it  have  proved  effective ;  the  only  thing  to  be  done  is  the 
timely  filling  up  of  the  casks,  for  the  air,  coming  into  contact  with 
the  wine,  would  otherwise  spoil  it.  A  younger  wine,  though 
similar  in  quality  or  taste,  is  generally  taken  for  this  purpose. 
Before  it  is  done,  the  air  must  be  blown  out  of  the  cork  by  a  pair 
of  bellows,  or  the  empty  space  be  sulphurized.  If  wine  has  been 
freshly  drawn  off,  it  must  be  filled  up  within  the  first  twenty -four 
hours,  especially  if  the  casks  are  new,  for  these  draw  a  great  deal 
of  fluids  in  ;  again  in  about  eight  or  fourteen  days ;  later,  in  three 
or  four  weeks,  and  so  on. 

In  case  the  wine  should  be  mouldy,  it  must  be  filled  up  by 
means  of  a  pipe  laid  under  its  surface,  so  as  not  to  drive  the  mould 
under  it.  When  the  cask  is  full,  this  must  be  taken  off  with  a 
spoon.  If  the  mould  should  be  mixed  already  with  the  wine, 
this  must  be  drawn  off  through  a  faucet  whose  mouth  is  covered 
by  a  piece  of  gauze. 

In  case  there  should  not  wine  enough  be  left  to  fill  a  cask  suffi- 
ciently up,  the  empty  space  in  it  must  at  least  be  sulphurized 
every  four  to  five  days,  and  fresh  air  blown  into  it.  The  bung- 
cloths  must  at  every  filling  up  be  well  washed  or  renewed,  as 
they  easily  tend  to  make  it  sour. 

Of  late  it  has  been  recommended  to  put  glass  bells  upon  the 
bung,  thereby  greatly  facilitating  the  filling-up  process.  These 
are  fixed  by  cork  stoppers,  by  boring  a  conical  hole,  of  the  thick- 
ness of  the  lower  part  of  the  tube  of  the  glass  bell,  through  a  piece 
of  cork.  The  tighter  this  is  let  into  the  bung-hole,  the  more  se- 
cure will  be  the  result.  It  will  be  well,  however,  before  letting 
it  in,  to  dip  the  cork  into  hot  water  for  several  minutes.  After 
all  this  is  done,  the  glass  bell  is  turned  into  the  hole  of  the  stopper 
to  about  two  thirds  of  the  tube,  so  that  it  is  felt  sticking  tightly. 
It  is  then  filled  with  the  same  kind  of  wine  as  that  in  the  cork, 
and  the  upper  mouth  of  it  closed  by  an  ordinary  stopper.  A  few 
days  after  it  is  filled  up  again,  until  the  wine  has  settled,  and  it 
will  then  be  seen  that  it  remains  in  the  bell.  The  farther  filling 
up  may  be  repeated  every  two  or  three  weeks.  These  bells  must 
be  from  three  to  six  or  eight  inches  wide,  and  the  six  to  ten-inch 
long  tubes  have  an  upper  mouth  one  and  a  half  inches  wide. 

The  advantages  presented  by  this  method  are :  1.  That  no  mould 
can  be  formed ;  2.  It  results  in  much  less  sediment  or  yeast ;  3, 
The  wines,  if  once  clear,  need  less  drawing  off. 


214  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-JIAKING. 


YII. 
CLARIFYING  WINES. 

In  most  wines  clarification  results  from  tlieir  own  action,  as 
the  yeast  parts  settle  down  as  soon  as  the  fermentation  is  over. 
Especially  is  this  the  case  with  dry  wines,  i.  e.,  such  as  have  per- 
fectly fermented  out,  and  these  need  no  artificial  help. 

It  is,  however,  different  with  sweet  and  oily  wines,  in  which  the 
still  undissolved  sugar  contains  a  great  deal  of  yeast  in  an  unde- 
composed  state ;  and  the  slimy  and  extractive  parts  do  not  easily 
settle.  With  these  it  is  necessary  to  add  a  slimy  body,  that  mixes 
itself  with  them,  then  coagulates,  and  in  this  state  absorbs  all  those 
parts. 

Such  substances  are  animal  jelly  and  albumen  {ivhite  of  an  egg). 
They  arc  both  dissolved  in  water,  and  stirred  into  the  wine.  The 
gelatinous  matter  coagulates,  in  conjunction  with  the  tannic  acid, 
into  an  insoluble  substance.  Consequently,  it  can  only  be  used 
for  clarifying  such  wines  as  contain  tannic  acid ;  or,  if  not,  the}' 
must  be  made  to  contain  it  by  a  decoction  of  oak  shavings  or 
catechu  poured  into  it,  or  by  putting  the  shavings  themselves 
into  the  cask.  The  white  of  an  egg  also  forms  a  similar  insolu- 
ble connection  with  the  tannic  acid,  but  coagulates  by  heat  or 
strong  spirit,  and  satiates  a  small  portion  of  the  vinous  acids.  It 
may,  therefore,  be  used  for  wines  that  have  no  such  tannic  acids, 
if  they  are  only  strong  in  spirit.  The  wines  that  are  to  be  clari- 
fied are  usually  not  sulphurized. 

The  most  convenient  time  for  the  operation  are  cool,  pleasant 
days.  Old  wines  are  closed  up  after  being  mixed  with  the  sub- 
stance ;  young  ones,  generating  much  carbonic  acid,  are  left  with 
a  small  opening  during  the  first  day  to  allow  this  to  escape. 

The  white  of  the  egg  is  best  stirred  up  with  water  before  add- 
ing it  to  the  wine.  Three  eggs  will  generally  suffice  for  about 
160  bottles  of  red  wine.  If  not,  it  will  be  better  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment than  to  take  at  once  a  greater  number.  In  young  wines 
a  little  salt  may  be  safely  added. 

The  clearing  by  isinglass  is  done  by  beating  this  material  first 
with  a  hammer,  then  tearing  it  into  small  pieces  and  putting  them 
into  a  vessel  containing  wine.  This  is  poured  off  in  about  eight 
hours,  and  new  ones  added.  After  twenty-four  hours  a  jelly  will 
be  formed,  to  which  hot  water  must  be  added  ;  then  the  mass  is 
kneaded  with  the  hands  to  accelerate  the  dissolution,  strained, 
and  beaten,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  more  wine,  for  about  a 
quarter  of  an  hour.  In  this  condition  it  is  mixed  with  the  wine 
in  the  cask.  One  litre  of  isinglass  will  sufiice  for  about  240  or 
260  bottles  of  white  wine.  In  Germany  one  half  to  two  ounces 
of  it  are  taken,  according  to  circumstances,  to  one  fuder ;  in  France, 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  215 

half  an  ounce  to  80  or  100  bottles  of  wine.  Two  or  three  weeks 
after  the  clarifying  with  isinglass  the  wine  may  be  drawn  off.  It 
is  mainly  used  for  Muscadine,  Luucl,  Frontignae,  Malaga,  and  all 
the  various  "liqueur  wines." 

Clarifying  with  bone  jelly  is  performed  in  a  similar  manner. 
The  substance  is  previously  soaked  in  water  for  a  few  hours  and 
beaten.  It  is  preferable  to  the  former,  as,  once  settled  down,  it 
does 'not  easily  rise  again  to  mix  with  the  liquid,  being  heavier 
than  other  kinds  of  glue.  Five  grammes  of  it  will  do  the  same 
work  as  the  white  of  four  eggs.  Especially  for  red  wines  it  is 
recommendablc.  One  pound  of  bone  jelly  is  sufficient  for  25 
hogsheads  of  it ;  in  liqueur  wines  one  pound  is  taken  for  15  hogs- 
heads. 

If  clearing  with  milk  is  tried,  this  must  be  boiled,  and  skimmed 
off  to  remove  all  the  fat  parts,  and  one  maas  of  it  mixed  with  150 
bottles  of  wine. 

Sheep's  blood  may  also  be  used  by  taking  half  a  maas  of  it 
(when  fresh)  to  150  bottles.  In  France  it  is  sold  for  this  purpose 
in  a  dried  and  powdered  state. 

In  clarifying  with  resin,  this  substance  must  be  finely  powder- 
ed, and  thrown  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  wine  after  taking  a 
few  bottles  of  it  out  of  the  cask  by  a  siphon.  This  must  be  filled 
in  again  in  a  fortnight.  The  resin  is  dissolved  gradually,  and 
sinks  to  the  bottom,  clearing  the  wine,  which  must  be  drawn  off 
afterward.     One  ounce  of  resin  is  sufficient  for  400  bottles. 

"Dyer's  Clarifying  Powder,"  patented  in  England  in  1835,  is 
composed  of  dried  blood,  dried  white  of  eggs,  dried  bones  of 
young  animals.  When  used  the  powder  is  stirred  with  water, 
left  standing  for  eight  hours,  and  then  mixed  with  the  wine.  Mr. 
Dyer  dries  the  blood  and  white  of  eggs  in  the  air. 

With  blotting-paper :  This  is  put  into  the  wine  rolled  up  in 
such  a  manner  that,  gradually  unrolling,  it  expands  itself,  and, 
settling  down,  carries  all  the  muddy  parts  with  it  to  the  bottom. 
This  method  is,  however,  not  very  effective. 

By  red-hot  stones :  Gradually  introducing  them  through  the 
bung-hole,  and  leaving  them  for  about  six  weeks  in  the  cask. 
For  young  yeasty  wines  this  mode  is  of  advantage,  as  it  makes 
them  milder,  richer  in  spirit,  and  of  improved  taste  and  color. 
After  the  wine  is  drawn  off  the  stones  will  be  found  covered  by 
a  thick  slime. 

Clarifying  with  coal  is  done  by  using  half  a  pound  or  a  pound 
of  powdered  charcoal  to  one  eimer  of  wine,  and  leaving  both  for 
eight  days  in  connection. 


216  GRAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WmE-MAIUNG. 


VIIL 
GIVING  COLOR  TO  WINES. 

This  is  principally  done  with  red  wines.  In  Bordeaux  the 
whortleberry  {Vaccinium  myrtiUus)  is  mainly  used.  By  boiling 
them  a  decoction  is  made,  and  a  little  cream  of  tartar  added  to 
this,  then  strained,  and,  with  some  alcohol,  filled  up  in  bottles  for 
use. 

The  following  substances  are  also  used  to  give  color  to  wines : 
the  berries  of  the  elder-bush ;  Brazil-wood ;  red  beets ;  the  flow- 
er-leaves of  the  mallow  {AUhcea  7-osea);  the  berries  of  the  scarlet- 
berry  {Phytolacca  decandra) ;  black  cherries ;  the  yeast  of  red 
wines ;  and  very  highly-colored  red  wines. 

Weak  wines  are  usually  not  well  colored,  because  the  coloring 
matter  is  mainly  dissolved  in  the  alcohol.  In  this  case  they  must 
be  mixed  with  spirit,  8  to  15  maas  to  the  cask. 

White  wines  receive  an  artificial  yellow  color  by  a  solution  of 
burnt  sugar.  Take  1  lb.  of  powdered  white  sugar,  add  a  \  lb.  of 
water,  and  stir  it  over  a  fire  until  it  gets  a  dark  brown  color. 

If  red  wines  have  a  brown  color,  this  is  caused  by  the  presence 
of  too  much  lime  or  alkali.  An  addition  of  any  kind  of  acid  will 
remedy  it. 

White  wines  frequently  get  by  age  an  unpleasant  brownish 
color.  Sulphurizing  them,  an  addition  of  powdered  charcoal  or 
of  chalk.,  will  help  here  (one  ounce  to  the  eimer). 


IX. 

MIXING  AND  JUDGING  OF  WINES. 

Mixing  frequently  proves  of  great  advantage,  as  the  jDromi- 
nent  qualities  of  the  one  will  effectually  cover  the  lacks  of  the 
other.  All,  however,  depends  on  the  wines  themselves,  and  no 
certain  rules  can  be  given.  In  France,  those  of  the  south,  rich  in 
sugar  and  alcohol,  are  mostly  used  to  improve  those  of  the  north, 
or  of  inferior  vintages.  But  even  in  the  south  thcj/-  mix  their 
wines  with  alcohol,  to  make  them  stronger  and  give  them  a 
clearer  color. 

Wines  that  are  too  thick  or  slimy  must  be  mixed  with  light 
red  or  white  ones.  As  the  bouquet  usually  disappears  by  this 
proceeding,  wines  that  are  rich  in  it  ought  not  to  be  mixed  at  all. 

A  really  good  wine  must  have  the  following  qualities : 

Its  color  must  be  bright  and  transparent,  no  matter  of  what 
shade  it  be.    Young  wines  have  it  generally  very  light ;  the  more 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  217 

of  age  they  become,  the  more  this  changes  into  dark.  The  dark- 
er, the  more  oily  and  earthy  parts  they  contain. 

The  Jiavor  must  be  agreeable  and  strengthening,  the  more  so 
the  finer  the  wine. 

The  taste  must  be  a  little  sourish-sweet,  and  touch  the  tongue 
without  acidity,  much  less  contract  it. 

The  impression  upon  the  tongue  should  last  for  some  time, 
and  be  without  any  earthy  or  other  by-taste. 

The  strength  and  fire  characterize  it  mainly,  insomuch  that,  even 
if  intoxicating,  it  docs  not  effect  or  leave  a  heavy  drowsiness,  heat, 
headache,  and  thirst. 

It  must,  farthermore,  be  volatile  and  penetrating^  quickly  open 
its  own  way,  and  disappear  again.  When  poured  into  a  glass  a 
whizzing  noise  must  be  heard,  and  the  wine  must  leap  up  in  a 
multitude  of  small  pearls. 

It  must  have  gone  through  ^  perfect  fermentation. 

In  trying  different  qualities  of  wines,  it  is  always  well  to  take 
the  sample  (if  it  be  from  a  cask)  from  the  middle  of  it,  and  the 
examining  person  must  take  care  not  to  eat,  shortly  previous  to 
or  during  the  occupation,  any  spiced  or  salted  things,  such  as 
cheese,  sausages,  and  so  forth;  nor  sweet  ones,  as  honey,  coffee, 
etc. 


X. 

THE  PRINCIPAL  DISEASES  OF  WINES.    ' 

Sudden  Changes. 

The  cause  of  sudden  changes  in  wines  may  be,  1.  Too  large  a 
quantity  of  yeast  matter^  especially  in  sour  wines  not  rich  in  sugar, 
where  they  continually  try  to  change,  first,  the  sugar  into  spirit, 
and  this,  then,  into  vinegar.  2.  A  renewal  of  the  slow  fermentation. 
If  this  sets  in  and  is  neglected,  it  may  become  very  detrimental 
to  the  wine.  This  ought,  therefore,  to  be  several  times  drawn  off 
from  the  yeast  sediment  in  the  cask.  3.  A  change  of  temperature. 
The  wine  drops,  at  a  temperature  of  4  to  8  degrees  above  0,  many 
firm  parts  from  the  decomposition,  and  its  inner  fermentation  stops 
almost  entirely.  But  at  a  contrary  temperature  of  14  or  15  de- 
grees above  0,  many  of  these  get  dissolved,  and  impart  to  the  wine 
an  unpleasant  taste  and  more  acids.  4.  Motion  of  the  wine  in  the 
casks.  By  this,  the  sediment  and  yeast  matter  get  again  mixed 
up  with  it,  and  the  warmer  the  temperature,  the  more  detrimental 
it  becomes.  A  thunder-storm  may  also  affect  the  wine  on  ac- 
count of  the  influence  of  the  electricity.  5.  Connection  ivith  the  air, 
and  an  empty  space  in  the  casJcs.  These  ought  consequently  to  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

The  most  efficient  remedy  against  all  these  causes  is  to  give 


218  GKArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  wine  always  something  whereby  it  may  form  alcohol :  a  sweet 
siibstauce,  for  instance,  such  as  boiled  grape-juice,  grape-sugar,  or 
honey.  Besides  this,  a  good  bed,  quiet,  and  as  little  access  of  air 
as  possible. 

Of  sweet  mixtures  used  for  this  purpose,  and  also  to  give  inferior 
wines  a  better  taste  and  more  body,  we  mention  the  following : 

1.  Prime  Spanish  raisins,  without  stalks  and  stones,  are  boiled 
with  water;  the  decoction  is  strained,  and  mixed  with  alcohol 
(one  maas  to  one  pound  of  raisins).  In  the  fall,  this  is  mixed 
with  four  or  five  times  its  quantity  of  good  must ;  let  them  fer- 
ment together,  draw  it  oft'  from  the  }' east,  and  preserve  it  in  bot- 
tles. One  maas  of  this  strong  juice  is  sufficient  to  improve  one 
eimer  of  young  red  wine.  But  if  this  be  sour,  it  must  be  made 
right  again  previously  by  an  application  of  powdered  chalk  or 
coal.  2.  Good  must,  mixed  with  the  tenth  part  of  its  own  weight 
of  crushed  sugar  and  the  eighth  part  of  its  quantity  of  pure  alco- 
hol. 3.  Selected  grapes  are  allowed  to  get  to  perfect  maturity  in 
the  sun,  or  in  a  heated  room,  and  to  dry.  Their  juice  is  then 
pressed  out  and  boiled  a  little,  or  mixed  with  sugar  and  cream 
of  tartar  if  too  watery.  In  this  manner  it  serves  very  well  to 
improve  weak  wines.  4.  One  part  of  honey  and  two  parts  of  old 
French  wine  are  warmed  over  a  small  fire,  and  skimmed.  Four 
maas  are  sufficient  for  one  hogshead.  5.  Shoots  of  the  grape-vino 
are  boiled  in  wine.  This  is  good  for  such  wines  as  have  but  lit- 
tle taste  and  color.  6.  One  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar  boiled  with 
six  maas  of  water  until  it  is  dissolved ;  then  one  pound  of  barley 
to  be  added,  and  boiled  till  it  bursts ;  then  four  pounds  of  honey 
added,  stirred,  and  so  much  water  put  to  it  that  the  quantity 
amounts  to  six  maas,  and  the  whole  used  for  a  cask  of  wine  of 
fifty  cans.  7.  In  France,  often  nothing  but  ^^ grape-sugar''^  is  used, 
especially  for  wines  destined  for  sale  in  the  northern  countries. 

Souring. 

This  takes  place  if  a  part  of  its  spirit  changes  into  vinegar. 
In  order  to  do  this,  it  needs  a  stuff  inducing  a  sour  fermentation, 
and  free  access  of  the  air.  Water  favors  it,  and  alcohol  mixed 
with  a  great  quantity  of  water  is,  by  the  mere  combination  with 
the  air,  transformed  into  vinegar.     The  mould  is  a  forerunner  of  it. 

If  the  wine,  therefore,  has  but  few  watery  parts  and  fermenta- 
tion matters,  and  is  kept  shut  out  from  the  air,  there  isbut  little 
danger  of  its  turning  sour.  Likewise  if  it  still  contains  many 
undissolved  sweet  parts.  Eeduction  of  the  water,  removing  the 
yeasty  matters,  and  preventing  the  air  from  coming  into  contact 
with  it,  are  consequently  the  most  available  remedies.  Souring 
takes  place  most  readily  with  wine  kept  in  badly-constructed  cel- 
lars, or  at  the  times  of  great  changes  of  the  atmosphere,  and  vio- 
lent electric  shocks. 

For  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  quantity  of  water,  an  addition 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  £19 

of  strong  wine,  of  sugar,  alcohol,  or  gypsum,  is  available.  To  pre- 
vent the  detrimental  influences  of  the  air,  the  casks  must  be  not 
only  filled  full,  but  also  kept  so,  and  closed  well.  Sulphurizing 
the  wine  serves  also,  and  the  fermenting  of  the  must  already  in 
closed  tubs.  To  reduce  the  bad  influences  of  the  yeast  parts,  all 
movements  or  shaking  of  the  casks  must  be  carefully  avoided,  as 
well  as  the  changes  of  temperature. 

If  the  wine  should  be  just  beginning  to  get  sour,  it  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  draw  it  off  into  another  sulphurized  cask,  and  to  clear 
it  with  the  white  of  an  egg.  If  it  be  already  more  advanced,  fine- 
ly-powdered charcoal  must  be  mixed  with  the  wine  (4  ounces  to 
1  eimer),  and  then  drawn  off,  after  a  while,  and  clarified.  The 
same  effect  is  produced  by  roasted  nuts  (4  to  25  bottles). 

If  it  is  very  far  advanced,  nothing  is  left  but  to  satiate  the  wine 
with  potassa  (i  to  ^  oz.  to  1  eimer)  or  with  powdered  chalk  (2 
oz).     It  must  then,  however,  be  used  soon. 

Ehine  wines  that  get  sour  are  usually  cleared  by  a  mixture  of 
10  lbs.  of  honey  and  8  quarts  of  skimmed  milk.  Strong  red  wines 
are  mixed  with  sugar  or  boiled  grape-juice. 

A  preventive  against  mould  are  long  bungs  that  enter  deeply 
into  the  wine. 

Becoming  Glutinous. 

This  is  a  disease  to  which  weak  wines  are  especially  subject, 
which  have  fermented  but  little,  and  consequently  contain  many 
slimy  parts,  or  those  in  which  the  yeast  has  not  been  properly 
separated.  Frequently  it  also  happens  to  wines  whose  grapes 
were  grown  on  a  highly-manured  soil.  The  remedies  are  such 
as  will  promote  fermentation  and  strengthen  the  wine : 

1.  It  must  be  drawn  off  in  time  into  another  cask  in  which  new 
wine  has  been,  and  some  alcohol  or  good  new  wine  addefl. — 2. 
Eed-hot  flint-stones  may  be  thrown  into  the  cask,  and  the  wine  be 
drawn  off  after  four  to  six  weeks. — 3.  Take  12  to  14  ounces  of 
cream  of  tartar  and  the  like  quantity  of  brown  sugar ;  dissolve 
these  in  four  maas  of  wine ;  put  this  mixture,  when  hot,  into  the 
wine ;  close  the  bung  of  the  cask,  shake  it  for  five  or  six  minutes, 
tighten  the  bung,  shake  the  cask  for  one  or  two  days  more ;  and 
after  four  or  five  days  (when  it  has  got  clear),  draw  the  wine  off 
into  another  cask. — 4.  If  the  evil  be  not  considerable,  it  may  be 
sufficient  to  expose  the  bottles  or  casks  to  the  free  air ;  or,  5.  To 
shake  the  bottles,  and  then  open  them  to  let  the  air  escape,  or  to 
shake  the  casks. — 6.  If  it  happens  to  be  at  the  time  of  the  vintage, 
the  wine  may  be  allowed  to  ferment  over  again,  with  the  same 
proportion  of  must. — 7.  Bed  wines  are  perfectly  restored  by  a 
mixture  with  tartaric  acid,  about  one  oz.  to  the  hectolitre. 

By  the  addition  of  salt  (|-  lb.  to  1  eimer)  to  the  must  toward  the 
end  of  its  fermentation,  we  may  prevent  the  formation  of  glutin- 
ous matters.     Sulphuric  acid  tends  to  the  same  purpose. 


220  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Woody,  Mouldy,  and  Bitter  Taste. 

If  the  taste  should  not  prevail  to  a  great  extent,  it  will  be  found 
satisfactory  to  draw  the  wine  off  into  a  new  cask,  and  to  sulphur- 
ize it  well,  or  to  suspend  medlar-fruits  by  a  thread  in  the  cask. 
Fine  wines,  however,  are  better  clarified  by  the  white  of  an  egg, 
and  then  drawn  off  after  a  month.  In  case  the  taste  be  very  no- 
ticeable, fresh  W-burned  charcoal,  well  washed,  is  best  stirred  into 
the  wine,  which  should  be  afterward  drawn  off.  In  white  wines, 
a  mixture  with  lime-water  destroys  also  the  bitter  and  woody 
taste. 

This  taste  may  likewise  be  disguised  by  suspending  such  ma- 
terials as  powdered  peach-stones,  bitter  almonds,  w41d  sage,  elder- 
flowers,  sassafras,  raspberry-sirup,  cinnamon,  tied  up  in  a  bag  in 
the  cask. 

Wines  of  an  acid  taste  are  mixed  with  a  good  old  one,  or  with 
wine-yeast  or  pure  brandy,  and  afterward  cleared.  Powdered 
charcoal  may  also  serve.  The  casks  themselves  may  be  purified 
of  their  sour  taste  by  being  washed  well  out  with  lime-water  or 
the  ley  of  ashes.  Against  the  woody  taste  Mr.  Lajuinais  recom- 
mends to  scrape  off  the  inner  sides  of  the  casks  and  put  oil  of  ol- 
ives on  them. 

Cloudiness  and  Muddiness. 

"Wine  is  not  clear  as  long  as  the  yeast  matter  has  not  yet  set- 
tled down,  and  it  gets  cloudy  when  these  mix  with  it  again.  In 
sweet  wines  that  have  not  fully  fermented  they  remain  very  long, 
and  must  be  removed  in  an  artificial  way. 

This  is  done  by  clarifying.  In  a  very  simple  way  this  may  be 
achieved  by  putting  boiled  beech-wood  shavings  into  a  cask, 
drawi^ig  the  wine  into  this,  and  off  again  after  a  little  while,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  salt,  which  induces  the  separation  of  the 
yeast  matter.  Some  time  after,  the  wine  must  be  drawn  off  again 
into  a  new  cask  and  sulphurized. 

In  case,  however,  wines  remain  cloudy  that  should  have  per- 
fected their  fermentation,  this  is  a  sign  that  they  have  not  done 
so.  Sugar  may  then  be  added,  and  means  be  employed  which 
favor  the  fermentation  ;  for  instance,  warmth :  a  mixture  of  w\arm 
must,  an  addition  of  red-hot  stones,  shaking  the  casks,  or  stirring 
up  the  yeast,  and  an  addition  of  chalk  or  lime  if  too  much  acid 
should  be  contained. 

If  wines  kept  in  a  badly-constructed  cellar  get  troubled  by  fre- 
quent shakings  of  the  casks  and  influences  of  the  air,  they  must 
be  repeatedly  drawn  off  from  the  yeast,  cleared,  and  sulphurized. 

Red  wines  are  generally  cleared,  when  getting  cloudy,  by  a  mix- 
ture of  rain-water,  a  handful  of  salt,  and  the  whites  of  eight  eggs. 

The  spoiling  of  cloudy  (muddy)  wines  may  be  prevented  by  an 
addition  of  sugar  or  boiled  must. 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCUS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  221 

XI. 

ADULTERATIONS  OF  WINES. 

Adulterations  with  poisonous  substances,  sucli  as  arsenic, 
lead,  and  copper,  deserve  especial  consideration. 

The  sulphur  used  in  curing  the  wine  sometimes  contains  ar- 
senic. The  most  simple  way  of  ascertaining  the  presence  of  ar- 
senic in  the  wine  is  as  follows :  Pour  some  of  the  white  wine 
upon  a  piece  of  white  paper,  and  draw  through  it  with  a  piece  of 
caustic  stone  {lapis  infernalis).  If  the  paper  turns  yellow  the 
wine  contains  either  arsenic  or  a  phosphoric  salt.  If  the  color 
turns  brown  after  a  few  minutes,  or  if  the  line  appears  harsh  to 
the  touch  of  the  finger,  the  arsenic  is  certainly  in  it ;  if  the  color 
changes  into  a  dirty  green,  there  is  nothing  but  the  latter  salt. 

Lead  and  copper  get  into  the  wine  if  these  metals  were  allowed 
to  come  in  connection  with  it ;  for  instance,  by  keeping  it  in  cop- 
per vessels,  or  the  presses  having  leaden  parts,  or  not  keeping  the 
brass  faucets  clean.  The  lead  is  sometimes  added  to  the  wine  by 
unscrupulous  persons  in  order  to  improve  it.  This  ought  never 
to  be  done.  Its  presence  is  easily  detected  by  the  method  of  Mr. 
Hahnemann.  He  takes  4  parts  of  burned  lime  and  4  of  sulphur 
(both  finely  powdered  and  conglomerated  in  a  crucible  over  fire), 
dissolves  them  in  120  parts  of  pure  water,  and  adds  3  parts  of 
cream  of  tartar.  In  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  the  fluid  turns 
milk-white.  Now  he  adds  a  few  drops  of  muriatic  acid,  and  pre- 
serves the  whole  in  closed  bottles.  It  indicates  the  lead,  even  if 
there  be  only  1  part  of  it  in  5800  parts  of  wine.  The  lead  gives 
a  black  sediment. 

Copper  is  found  out  in  the  wine  by  putting  a  bright  piece  of 
coin  into  it.  If  it  contains  copper,  this  will  get  metallically  de- 
posited on  it. 

Eed  wines  are  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  application  of 
alum.     It  may  be  indicated  by  mixing  the  wine  with  kalium. 

The  earths  and  metallic  salts  fall  to  the  bottom  and  remain. 
If  the  sediment  is  rubbed  with  a  little  grease,  this  gets  metallic 
by  this  process,  except  in  the  case  of  arsenic,  which  evaporates, 
and  makes  itself  known  by  a  smell  of  garlic.  The  earths  remain, 
and  are  cognizable  by  a  solution  in  pure  acetic  acid.  If  this  pro- 
duces a  salt  of  a  bitter  taste,  it  serves  as  a  sign  of  the  presence  of 
lime  parts ;  a  salt  of  astringent  taste  shows  argillaceous  earth 
(clay).  If  it  dissolves  in  reduced  sulphuric  acid,  and  gives  a  bit- 
ter salt,  it  contains  magnesia. 

Vitriolic  acid  is  sometimes  used  for  adulterating  red  wines.  It 
may  be  known  by  their  strong  sour  taste,  or  if  their  acids  are 
satiated  with  lime-water,  and  the  residue  (or  sediment)  is  greased. 
If  it  is  cream  of  tartaric  acid  lime,  it  will  become  like  burned 


222  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

lime ;  if  it  is  gypsum,  it  will  be  indicated  by  tlic  smell  of  rotten 
eggs. 

Frequently  the  wines  contain  mixtures  of  water,  alcohol,  sugar, 
honey,  or  a  decoction  of  grapes  or  raisins.  These  are  not  detri- 
mental to  the  health  if  the  wine,  after  being  mixed  with  them, 
has  been  allowed  to  remain  quietly  for  some  time,  until  a  perfect 
combination  has  taken  place.  Wines  of  heavier  body  want  two 
to  three  years,  lighter  ones  a  shorter  period,  but  may  be  acceler- 
ated by  warm  cellars. 

It  is  said  that  a  mixture  of  sugar  may  be  detected  in  a  wine,  if 
made  shortly  before,  by  turning  an  opened  bottle  of  it  over  into  a 
tumbler  half  filled  with  water.  If  it  contains  a  sugar  solution, 
this  will  transfer  itself  to  the  water  and  sweeten  it.  If  the  wine 
is  sweet  by  nature,  this  is  not  the  case. 

Also  the  mixture  of  alcohol  is  indicated  in  this  way :  that  if 
the  wine  is  distilled,  the  alcohol  changes  already  at  200°  Fahr., 
while  the  natural  alcohol  will  not  before  212°  Fahr, 

The  adulterations  of  the  red  wines  are  the  most  common.  They 
are  even  frequently  entirely  fabricated  in  an  artificial  manner. 
The  artificial  coloring  is  generally  in  use  even  in  the  most  renown- 
ed wine  districts.  For  instance,  Bordeaux  imports  yearly  many 
thousands  of  dollars'  worth  of  whortleberries  solely  for  this  pur- 
pose. Besides  these.  Brazil-wood  is  extensively  used,  the  berries 
of  the  elder-tree,  red  beets,  and  flower  of  mallows. 

According  to  Mr.Vogel,  the  natural  red  wine  gives  a  greenish- 
gray  sediment,  that  colored  by  elder-flowers  and  Brazil-wood  an 
indigo-blue,  by  red  beets  a  red  sediment.  An  application  of  lime- 
water  colors  natural  red  wines  yellowish-brown ;  those  colored  by 
Brazil-wood  it  changes  into  a  reddish-brown ;  those  by  whortle- 
berries and  elder-flowers  into  green ;  those  by  red  beets  into  a 
yellowish-white,  but  again  into  red  by  adding  an  acid. 

An  astringent  taste  is  artificially  given  to  the  red  wines  by  oak- 
wood-shavings  or  walnut-shells.  In  England  they  have  a  fashion 
of  shaking  a  bottle  with  a  decoction  of  Brazil-wood  and  cream  of 
tartar  to  crystallize  on  its  sides,  in  order  to  give  artificial  red  wines 
the  appearance  of  natural  ones.  The  lower  end  of  the  cork  stop- 
per is  also  colored  red. 

Very  common  is  a  mixture  of  the  grape  wine  with  apple  wine 
(cider).  If  it  be  good  it  can  do  no  harm  whatever,  and  is  not  eas- 
ily recognizable. 


JOUANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  223 

XII. 

USES  FOR  THE  HUSKS  AND  SEDIMENT. 

After  the  wine  has  been  produced,  there  are  remaining  certain 
parts  of  the  grape  which  may  be  turned  to  use.  They  may  be 
classed  as  the  husks  and  the  sediment. 

The  Husks. 

The  husks  consist  of  the  pedicles  and  twigs  of  vines,  and  skins 
and  stones  of  the  grapes. 

The  pedicles  and  skins  contain  many  astringent  and  acid  parts, 
and  have  always  more  or  less  juice  left  in  them  after  the  crush- 
ing process  has  been  gone  through.  They  may  consequently  be 
used  for  making  brand//,  for  vinegar,  for  food  for  animals,  and  as 
manure  upon  the  fields.  The  stones  may  be  used  to  make  oil  for 
tanning  purposes,  for  coloring,  and  also  instead  of  coffee. 

If  the  husks  are  wanted  for  brandy  they  must  be  kept  out  of 
connection  with  the  air,  as  by  this  they  soon  get  sour  and  rotten ; 
they  must  also  be  worked  up  soon.  In  the  south  of  France  they 
are  put  into  large  square  copper  kettles,  that  have  a  cooling-tube 
attached,  and  are  put  over  the  lire,  when  the  brandy  is  formed. 

Mr.  Audouard  recommends,  however,  not  to  distill  them  at  all, 
but  to  extract  the  brandy  by  filtration,  thereby  gaining  one  tenth 
more  in  quantity,  and  an  article  of  more  strength  and  better  taste. 

The  husks  of  24  hogsheads  of  wine  are  put  into  three  square 
stone  vats,  each  of  which  has  a  faucet,  and  24  barrels  of  water, 
each  containing  200  kilogrammes,  are  added ;  and  an  hour  later, 
the  fluid  is  drawn  off  and  distilled.  It  gives  72  kilogr.  of  alcohol 
of  22°,  and  a  quantity  of  weaker  spirit.  Immediately  after,  the 
same  quantity  of  water  is  again  put  to  the  husks,  and  the  weak 
spirit  added ;  an  hour  later,  this  fluid  is  again  drawn  oflp  into  the 
vat  No.  1,  and  the  same  water  put  to  them  for  the  third  time, 
which  is  drawn  off  into  vat  No.  2.  The  husks  will  then  be  found 
exhausted.  Fresh  husks  are  now  filled  in  and  extracted,  (1.)  by 
the  fluid  of  vat  No.  1,  which  then  gives  by  distillation  100  kilo- 
grammes of  spirit  of  22° ;  (2.)  by  the  fluid  of  vat  No.  2,  which  is 
then  to  be  filled  into  vat  No.  1 ;  (3.)  by  pure  water  filled  upon  vat 
No.  2,  and  so  on. 

Vinegar  is  formed  if  the  husks  are  moistened  a  little  and  left  to 
ferment  in  closed  tubs  until  the  alcohol  has  been  transformed  into 
vinegar.    This  must  then  be  drawn  off  from  above  by  filtration. 

If  used  for  food  fox  animals  the  husks  must  be  thoroughly  dried. 
Sheep  like  them  exceedingly ;  poultry  will  especially  thrive  on 
them. 

In  making  potash  out  of  the  husks,  ten  pounds  will  be  the  prod- 
uce of  500  pounds  of  the  husks. 


22J:  GKAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WINE-IVIAKING. 

If  the  stones  are  wanted  to  make  oil  of,  tliey  must  be  separated 
from  the  husks  directly  after  being  pressed,  dried,  cleaned  by  siev- 
ing, and  then  pressed;  100  lbs.  of  stones  will  give  =10  to  12  to 
20  lbs.  of  oil.  The  oil-cake  forms  an  excellent  food  for  hogs.  In 
Italy,  for  instance,  the  single  province  of  Verona  manufactures 
yearly  about  6000  cwt.  of  oil  from  these  stones.  They  may  also 
be  used  for  tanning  purposes,  as  they  contain  a  great  deal  of  the 
matter. 

The  Sediment. 

The  yeast  matters  that  get  deposited  during  the  fermentation 
or  later,  contain,  besides  the  yeast,  mainly  vegetable  threads,  cream 
of  tartar,  and  other  substances,  as  alcoholic  and  sweet  ones.  They 
may  consequently  be  turned  to  profit  by  distilling  brandy  out  of 
them.  If  burned,  they  make  ashes  very  rich  in  alkali :  8000 
pounds  of  dry  wine  yeast  will  give  500  pounds  of  ashes,  which 
will  yield  250  pounds  of  good  potash. 

The  salts  which  are  found  deposited  on  the  sides  of  the  casks, 
especially  of  those  containing  old  wines,  are  sold  as  "crude  cream 
of  tartar." 


XIII. 

THE  CELLAKS,  CASKS,  BOTTLES,  AND  IMPLEMENTS. 
The  Cellars. 

Much  depends  on  the  condition  of  these.  A  good  cellar  should 
1.  Lie  ioivard  the  7iorih,  because  it  is  then  less  warm  and  less  ex- 
posed to  the  changes  of  the  temperature. — 2.  Be  dcej),  to  keep  the 
influence  of  the  outer  air  from  it  as  much  as  possible. — 8.  Be  a 
little  moist,  but  not  too  much  so.  In  such  cellars  a  cask  of  250 
bottles  will  probably  not  lose  more  than  one  tumblerful  a  month, 
while  in  dry  cellars  frequently  two  bottles  of  wine  and  more  will 
be  lost. — 4.  Have  a  moderate  light.  If  the  light  is  too  strong,  it 
dries  too  much  ;  if  light  is  entirely  shut  out,  mould  is  induced. — 
5.  Not  he  subject  to  shaldrtrj,  because  each  concussion  injures  the 
wine.  —  6.  Not  be  surrounded  by  a  soil  that  contains  rotten  or 
mouldy  parts,  as  these  will  fill  it  with  bad  vapors  affecting  the 
wine. — 7.  It  must  not  serve  at  the  same  time  to  keep  vegetables, 
green  ivood,  or  vinegar,  cheese,  etc. 

A  cellar  that  has  not  these  required  qualities  may  be  improved 
by  artificial  means  in  the  following  manner: 

1.  If  it  is  too  u-arm,  by  planting  trees  about  it  where  the  sun 
shines  upon  it,  or  by  fixing  double  doors  at  some  distance  apart, 
the  inner  one  of  which  is  not  to  be  opened  before  the  outer  one 
has  been  closed.     2.  If  it  is  too  damp,  by  putting  the  casks  upon 


JOIIANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  225 

a  higher  bed,  and  frequently  sweeping  the  ground  beneath  them ; 
or  by  making  more  air-holes ;  or  by  strewing  fresh  blacksmith 
cinders  over  the  floor,  and  taking  them  out  again  after  two  or 
three  days :  these  will  absorb  a  great  deal  of  moisture.  3.  If  it 
is  too  d)-i/,  by  reducing  the  number  of  air-holes ;  by  bringing  in 
moist  sand,  or  vessels  filled  with  water.  4.  If  it  is  too  cold,  by 
warming  it.     This  is  especially  advisable  for  red  wines. 

A  cellar  should  have  at  least  a  height  of  six  to  ten  feet,  and  be 
covered  with  six  feet  of  earth.  Cellars  dug  out  of  a  gypsum  rock 
can  not  be  used  during  the  first  two  to  four  years,  as  this  evolves 
a  vapor  which  might  spoil  the  wane  in  the  casks.  Air-holes  are 
indispensably  necessary,  and  must,  during  the  summer  heat,  be 
lightly  covered  over  with  straw,  as  also  during  the  cold  of  the 
winter. 

In  order  to  get  the  carbonic  acid,  so  detrimental  to  the  health, 
out  of  a  cellar,  some  slackened  lime  must  be  introduced,  besides 
keeping  up  a  good  draught  of  air.  If  a  person  has  business  in 
such  a  cellar,  a  lighted  candle  ought  always  to  be  taken  along, 
and  held  low.  When  it  goes  out  of  itself  there  is  danger  of  suf- 
focation. This  may  be  in  some  measure  prevented  by  holding  a 
sponge  dipped  in  ammonia  before  the  mouth  and  nose. 

The  Casks. 

Large  casks  are  preferable  to  small  ones.  The  fermentation 
takes  a  more  even  and  perfect  course  in  them ;  the  air  has  less 
influence  on  the  wine,  which  is  not  so  liable  to  sudden  changes, 
on  account  of  the  greater  thickness  of  the  staves.  After  they  are 
filled  they  are  to  be  closed  air-tight  by  bungs,  made  best  of  ash- 
wood,  and  have  a  small  hole  left  in  the  middle,  which  serves  to 
fill  the  wine  up  through.  The  bung  of  this  hole  has  a  hook  to 
facilitate  its  lifting. 

According  to  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Lignieres,  the  wine  in 
ordinary  barrels  loses,  in  the  first  year,  from  8  to  10  per  cent. ; 
but  in  large  casks,  on  the  contrary,  only  1^  per  cent.  Besides 
this,  there  are  other  advantages  offered  by  large  casks.  They 
cause  a  saving  of  room  and  of  labor. 

In  olden  times  large  casks  were  constructed,  where  frequently 
single  cloisters  and  seigneuries  had  occasion  to  bring  the  rich  har- 
vests of  entire  districts  into  their  cellars.  The  most  widely-known 
of  them  were : 

1.  The  great  cask  of  Koenigstein,  in  Saxony.  It  is  17  ells  long, 
its  depth  is  12  ells  at  the  bung  and  11  ells  at  the  bottom.  It  was" 
constructed  in  the  year  1725,  and  has  157  staves,  each  one  8  inch- 
es thick.  It  holds  3709  Dresdener  eimer  of  wine.  The  wine 
with  which  it  was  filled  the  first  time  cost  20  kreutzers  per  maas ; 
altogether,  50,000  guldens. 

2.  The  great  cask  of  Heidelberg,  in  Germany.  This  is  36  feet 
long,  24  wide,  and  21  high.     A  staircase  leads  up  to  a  small  danc- 

P 


226  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKI<2s^G. 

ing-room.  The  iron  hoops  weigh  110  cwt.  It  was  constructed 
ill  the  year  1664,  and  holds  2040  eimer  of  wine — 236,000  bottles. 
In  the  same  cellar  is  shown,  as  a  contrast  to  this  leviathan,  a  very 
small  keg,  onl}^  holding  a  few  drops. 

3.  The  big  cask  of  Nikolsburg,  in  Moravia.  It  holds  2000 
eimer,  and  has  22  iron  hoops,  each  of  which  weighs  7  cwt.  It 
was  constructed  in  the  year  1643. 

4.  The  cask  at  Tata  or  Dotis,  in  Hungary.  This  holds  1500 
eimer ;  is  24  feet  long,  and  14  high ;  has  staves  6  inches  thick, 
and  enormous  iron  hoops,  held  together  by  iron  screws  as  thick 
as  one's  arm.  By  means  of  a  ladder  the  bung-hole  is  reached. 
The  cellar  in  which  it  is  placed  holds  50,000  eimers  of  wine,  and 
one  may  drive  about  in  it  with  a  coach  and  six. 

5.  The  cask  of  Kloster  Neuburg.  This  holds  999  eimer.  Be- 
sides these,  the  bung-hole  holds  a  full  eimer. 

6.  The  cask  in  the  castle  at  Tubingen,  which  is  24  feet  long 
and  16  high.     Constructed  in  1548. 

7.  The  casks  on  the  island  of  Meinau,  in  the  Lake  of  Constance. 
The  largest  one  holds  184,320  bottles.  Besides  this  there  are 
100  others,  each  one  capable  of  holding  5000  bottles. 

8.  The  cask  at  Groeningen,  constructed  by  Michael  Werner, 
who  built  also  the  one  at  Heidelberg.  It  consists  of  93  oak  staves, 
each  one  80  feet  long,  and  8|-  inches  thick  at  its  end.  Each  bot- 
tom is  18  feet  and  1  inch  high,  and  has  3  bars.     Each  hoop  is  9 

finches  thick,  made  of  oak,  with  iron  bands  and  screws.  On  all 
the  hoops  are  316  pairs  of  bands,  and  955  iron  screws,  which 
weigh  together  123  cwt.  99  lbs.  It  is  said  that  the  weight  of  the 
cask  itself  is  636  cwt.  18  lbs.,  and  that  it  holds  161  fuder  and  16 
viertel,  or  28,672  stiibchen  of  wine.  Its  cost,  without  including 
the  value  of  the  timber,  was  6000  thalers. 

The  Bottles. 

In  order  to  clean  the  bottles,  common  lead  shot  is  usually  used ; 
but  this  may  become  detrimental  to  the  health,  because  every 
time  they  are  used  some  lead  remains  on  the  glass,  and  even  sin- 
gle shots,  that  get  dissolved  and  poison  the  wine.  To  extract 
such  pieces  there  is  an  instrument  called  the  "lead  extractor," 
This  consists  of  a  steel  rod  with  a  handle,  and  at  its  lower  end  a 
crooked  or  bent  point  to  loosen  the  shot  with ;  and  a  little  above 
this,  a  hook  to  extract  the  pieces  of  cork  that  may  be  in  the  bot- 
tle. It  is,  however,  better  to  use  common  coarse  sand  or  small 
iron  chains  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  bottles. 

Bottles  that  have  been  used  before  must  be  cleaned  very  care- 
fully before  they  are  filled  anew.  If  there  has  been  pitch  or  wax 
on  them,  these  must  be  removed  by  a  knife,  or  an  instrument  call- 
ed the  ^'' pilch  remover y  This  is  formed  by  two  teethed  steel  jaws, 
movable  in  a  hinge,  and  held  by  a  handle  with  one  hand.  This 
is  pressed  asunder  in  order  to  get  the  neck  of  the  bottles  between 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  227 

the  jaws,  and  tTic  instrument  is  then  turned  round.  The  pitch 
now  falls  directly  off.  In  about  half  an  hour  it  can  clean  100  bot- 
tles, that  would  otherwise  occupy  two  or  three  hours. 

The  filled  bottles  are  placed  in  the  cellar  either  upon  sand  or 
laths,  one  above  another,  three  to  five  feet  high,  in  a  horizontal 
position,  so  that  the  cork  shall  be  always  covered  by  the  wine. 

Corks  and  Corlcing. 

It  ought  to  be  a  rule  always  to  take  only  the  softest,  most  equal 
corks,  and  those  that  have  the  fewest  holes.  For  wines  that  are 
to  be  kept  for  a  long  time  new  corks  must  be  taken.  The  lower 
end  of  the  corks,  before  putting  them  into  the  bottles,  must  be 
pressed  a  little. 

Sealing  and  Capping. 

Sealing  is  generally  preferred  for  fine  wines.  The  neck  of  the 
bottle  is  for  this  purpose  dipped  into  the  molten  sealing-wax  or 
pitch,  and  then  put  upright  to  let  this  get  cold.  In  France  they 
usually  make  this  wax  by  melting  together  two  pounds  of  pitch, 
one  pound  of  Burgundy  pitch,  half  a  pound  of  yellow  bees'-wax, 
or  six  ounces  of  tallow  and  half  a  pound  of  red  mastic,  which  is 
sufficient  for  300  bottles ;  or  two  pounds  of  white  pitch,  one  pound 
of  rosin,  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  bees'-wax. 

The  putting  of  lead  or  tin  foil  over  the  corks  is  not  quite  as  ad- 
visable a  manner  as  the  foregoing. 


XIY. 

WINE  MEASURES  OF  ALL  COUNTRIES. 

[The  following  Wine  Measures  hai'e  been  reduced  to  Parisian  cubic  inches  and  decimal 
parts. — Cub.  denotes  cubic  inches.^ 

Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle)  has  the  Prussian  measure.  The  old 
wine-can  (kanne)  =  1066  litre. 

Alessandria  (Sardinia). — 1  caro  =  10  brente  =  360  pinte  =  720 
bocali=1440  quartini=:  28.400  cub. =8795  Bavarian  eimer=564 
litre. 

Alicante. — 1  tonnelade=2  pipes =80  arobas=100  cantaras= 
54.400  CM&.  =  1079  litre =16.8  Bavarian  =  15.7  Prussian  =  18.6  Vi- 
enna eimer.     The  cantara=8  medios  =  16  quartillos. 

Altenburg. — 1  eimer =40  cans =80  maas=160  n6ssel= 8419.9 
cub.  =  67  litre  =  1057  Bavarian  =  .987  Prussian  =  1169  Vienna 
eimer. 

Altona. — 1  ahm=4  anker =5  eimer =20  viertel=40  stiibchen 
=80  kannen  =  160  quartier=320  oessel. 

Amsterdam. — French  measure:  the  vat =100  litre. 


228  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

AiKoy^a.  —  1  soma  =  48  boccali  =  3455  cuh.  =z  .9977  Prussian 
eimer. 

Appenzell. — 1  eimer=32  maas=2112  C2<Z).  =41.8  litre. 

Arau.  —  1  saum  of  unclear  measure  =  108  maas;  1  of  clear 
measure  =  100  maas;  1  saum  =  100  maas  =  2245  Bavarian  eimer 
=  144  litre =31.706  gallons =1898  Leipsic,  or  2096  Prussian,  or 
2482  Vienna  eimer. 

Baden  (Grand  Duchy). — 1  olim  =  10  stiitzen  =  100  maas  or  1000 
glasses ;  since  1810  French  measure. 

Barcelona. — 1  carga=16  cortanes  =  32  c]^uarteros  =  128  cjuartos 
=5505  ciib.  =  109  litre. 

Basle. — 1  saum  =  3  ohm  =  96  old=120  new  maas  =  7404  cuh.=z 
146  litre= 1.014  Hamburgh  ahm. 

^fn^a/'/a  (Kingdom). — 1  schenk-eimer=60  shenkmaas  =  3235.53 
a<i.  =  .4283  French  litre  =  .4283  Danish  ahm  =  .4429  Hamburgh 
ahm  =  .8455  Leipzic=.9336  Prussian  eiraer=5.0523  Eussian  we- 
dro  =  .40S2  Swedish  ahm  =  1.1055  Vienna  eimer. 

Bern. — 1  landfass  =  6  saum  =  24  brenten  =  600  maas;  1  saum  = 
4  brenten  =  100  maas=400  viertel  =  167.12  litre=505.13  cub. 

Bilbao. — 1  cantara  (aroba-major)  =  8  acumbres=32  quartillos  = 
794  a<6.  =  15.7  litre. 

Bologna.— I  corba  =  G0  boccali  =  240  fogliette  =  3720  cub.=7Z.7 
litre  =  1.15  Bavarian  =  1.074  Prussian  eimer. 

Bordeaux  (France). — 1  tonneau=4  barriques  =  6  tierces  =  128 
veltes;  1  barrique  =  228  litre  =  3555  Bavarian  =  3319  Prussian  = 
3931  Vienna  eimer. 

Braunschiveig  (Brunswick). — 1  fuder  =  4  oxhoft  =  240  stiibchen 
=  960  quartier=1920  noessel;  1  oxhoft=llll  cw&.=22  litre= 
,343  Bavarian  =  .32  Prussian  eimer. 

Bremen. — 1  ahm  =45  stiibchen  =  180  quarts. 

Cassel. — 1  ohm  =  80  maas  =  8033  cMi,  =  2.1  Leipzic  cimer=l.l 
Hamburgh  ahm  =  159  litre  =  35  gallons  =  2.31  Prussian  eimer. 

Constantinople. — 1  alma=264  cm6.=5.2  litre  =  l.l  gallon  =  ,09 
Vienna  eimer. 

Corwina. — 1  mojo=4  canadas=16  alias =68  acumbres=272 
quartillos=5440  oncias=6749  C7<Z>.  =  133.8  litre =.924  Hamburgh 
ahm =2.087  Bavarian  eimer. 

Cracoiv.—l  bezka  =  34  garnico  =  144  kwart=  6883  n</A  =  2.128 
Bavarian  =  1.799  Leipzic =1.987  Prussian  eimer =30.06  gallons 
=  136.5  litre. 

Darmstadt.  —  1  ohm  =  20  viertel  =  80  maas  =  320  schoppen  = 
8065.9  cw5.  =  2.49  Bavarian=2.1  Leipzic=2.328  Prussian  eimer 
=  35.2  gallons=160  litre. 

Debreczin  (Hungary).  —  1  big  ezeber  =  100  Hungarian  ize  = 
4201  «</;.  =  83.3  litre  =  1.908  Leipzic  eimer;  1  small  czcber=50 
Hungarian  ize  =  41.6  litre. 

Denmark  (Kingdom). — 1  fass  =  7^  ahm  =  30  anker;  1  fuder= 
6  ahm  =  24  anker  =  240   stubchen=465  cans  =  930  pots  =  3720 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCIIS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  229 

pale;  1  alim=7548.5  cm6.=32.9665  gallons  =  149.73  litre=2.1794 
Prussian  cimer. 

Dresden. — 1  eimcr  =  63  cans  =  126  nocsscl  =  50-i  quarticr  =  2973 
cub.  =  1.01Q  Vienna  eimcr. 

England.  —  1  imperial  gallon  =  4  quarts  =  228.974  cm5.  =  .0708 
Bavarian  eimerz=  4.5-1  litre  =  .0GG1  Prussian  eimer. 

Ferrara. — 1  mastello  =  8  secchie=4128  cw&.  =  18.02  gallons =81 
litre =1.079  Leipzic  eimer. 

Florence.— 1  barile=20  fiaslii=40  mezzetti=2298  cwZ>.  =  10.03 
gallons =45.5  litre. 

France.— 1  kilalitre  =  1000  litre  =  50412  cuh. ;  100  litre  = 
5041.24  c?^5.  =  1.5590  Bavarian  =  1.3182  Leipzic  =  1.4555  Prussian 
=  1.7236  Vienna  eimer  =  .6678  Danish  ohm  =  22.0566  gallons. 

Frcmlfort  on  the  Mam. — 1  ohm  =  20  viertel  =  80  old  maas  =  320 
old  sehoppen  =  7230  cich.  =  2.0S  Prussian  =  2.47  Vienna  eimer  =  .95 
Danish  ohm  =  31.57  gallons  =  143  litre  =  .99  Ilamburgh  ahm;  1 
stlick  ohm=8  ohm  and  1  viertel  =  19.9  Vienna  =  18  Bavarian  = 
16.8  Prussian  eimer=1154  litre  =  l  fuder  =  6  ohm. 

Freiburg  (Switzerland). — 1  fass  =  16  brente  =  400  maas  =  1600 
sehoppen  =  1970  cub.  =zS9  litre  =  .515  Leipzic  eimer. 

Fulda. — 1  ohm  =  2  eimer =80  maas  =  320  schoppen  =  7282  cuh. 
=  146  litre  =  1.009  Hamburgh  ohm. 

Geneva. — 1  char=12  setiers  =  576  pots  =  27648  cm&.  =  548  litre. 

Genoa. — 1  mezzarola  =  2  bariles  =  200  pintes  =  7484  cz(&.  =  148.4 
litre  =  32.68  gallons  =  1.025  Hamburgh  ahm. 

Glarus. — 1  eimer =4  viertel=30  kopf=60  maas=240  stozen  = 
5382  cu&.  =  106.7  litre. 

Gratz.—l  startin  =  28533  cub.-9.im  Vienna=8.82  Bavarian 
eimer =566  litre  =  3.9  Hamburg  ahm. 

Hamburgh. — 1  ahm  =  7300.05  c?<&.  =  2.2576  Bavarian  eimer= 
.9670  Danish  eimer=31.8815  gallons  =  1448  litre  =  2.1077  Prus- 
sian eimer;  1  fuder  =  6  ahm  =  24  anker=30  eimer=120  viertel 
=240  stiibchen=480  cans=960  quartier=1920  oesel;  1  fass  of 
wine  =  4  oxhoft  =  6  tiercen  ;  1  oxhoft  of  brandy  =  60  stiibehen. 

Hanau. — 1  ohm  =  20  viertel  =  80  raaas  =  320  schoppen;  1  ohm 
old  measure  =  7522  cuh.^  new  measure  =  6488  cub. 

Hanover. — 1  fuder=4  oxhoft  =  6  ahm  =  15  eimer =24  anker = 
240  stubcheri=480  cans=96  quartier=1920  ndssel;  1  ahm= 
7840  cm6.= 155.5  litre. 

Lausanne. — 1  char =400  pots =23444  cu&,=465  litre =6.769 
Prussian  =  7.25  Bavarian  eimer. 

Leii^zic. — 1  oxhoft  of  Freneh  wine  =  2f  eimer;  1  fuder  =  2.4 
fass=12  eimer=24  ahm;  1  eimer=63  cans=126  n6ssel=504 
quartier= 3824.1  cm&.= 16.7009  gallons =75.85  litre =1.1041  Prus- 
sian eimer. 

Leraga. — 1  ohm  =  108  cans  =  7851  cub. 

Lubeck.—  l  fuder  =  6  ahm  =  120  viertel  =  240  stiibehen  =  480 
cans =960  quartier =1920  planken = 3840  ort.  The  ahm  is  equal 
to  that  of  Hamburgh. 


230  GR-tVTE  CULTURE  AND  WJNE-jNIAKING. 

Lucerne. — 1  saum  =  8^  oliin  =  100  maas=:4:00  sclioppeii=4000 
priineii=8712  ciib.  —  112.^  litre =38.0i  gallons =2.515  Prussian 
eimer. 

Madrid. — 1  moja=16  cantaro;  1  pipe =27  cantaros;  1  rotta= 
80  cantaros. 

Mahon. — 1  carga=26  quarteras  =  5096  cid).  — 101  litre. 

Mailand. — 1  somma=10  miue  =  100  pinte=1000  koppi  =  100 
French  litres. 

Malaga. — 1  pipe  de  Pedro  Ximenez  wine  has  =354  litres =6.1 
Vienna  eimer  =  5.52  Bavarian  eimer =78.01  gallons  =  2.447  Ilam- 
burgh  ahm =5.157  Prussian  eimer. 

Messina.  —  1  salma  =  8  quartari  =  12  quartucci  =  4416  cub.  = 
87.59  litre  =  1.509  Vienna  eimer. 

Kajjolis.  —  1  parile  =  2109  cu&.  =  .751  Vienna =.634  Prussian 
eimer =43. 6  litre  =  9.6  gallons. 

Neufchatel  (Switzerland).  —  1  muid=5  gerle  =  12  setiers  =  192 
hot =13047  ci<6. =250.8  litre =4.035  Bavarian  eimer. 

Oedenhnrg. — 1  ako  =  84  Hungarian  halbe  =  3529  cub.  =70  litre 
=  1.2  Vienna=1.09  Bavarian  =  .92  Leipsic  =  1.019  Prussian  eimer. 

Oldenburg  (Grand  Dukedom). — 1  anker=26  cans=40  quartier 
=  1924  cub. 

OsnabrucL — 1  ahm  =  6887  cub.;  1  fudcr=6  ahm  =  168  viertel 
=  672  cans=2688  ort=10752  helshen. 

Oviedo. — 1  cantaro=925  cub.=:18.S  litre=.316  Vienna  eimer. 

Pulma  (Island  of  Majorca). — 1  carga=26  quarteros=5096  cub. 
=  101  litre. 

Poland. — 1  beczka=25  garniec=100  kwarti=100  French  litre. 

Portugal  (Kingdom). — 1  fuder  =  2  pipas  (batas)  =  52  almudes  = 
104  alquieras  (potas)  =  624  canhados=2496  quartilhas= 43888 
cui.  =  12.671  Prussian  eimer=191.67  gallons=870.5  litre=6.012 
Hamburgh  ahm  =  15.005  Vienna  eimer. 

Presburgh.  —  1  eimer=64  Hungarian  halfs  =  2689  a<&.  =  .776 
Prussian  =  .831  Bavarian  eimer=11.74  gallons=53.3  litre  =  .368 
Hamburgh  ahm. 

Prussia  (Kingdom).— 1  cimer=60  quart=3463.42  cub.  =  1.0111 
Bavarian  eimcr=15.1258  gallons=68.70  litre  =  .4744  Hamburgh 
ahm=.9056  Leipzic  cimer=1.1841  Vienna  eimer. 

Rome. — 1  botta=3  brente=9  barili=40^  rubbi=228  boccali 
=  1152  fogliette=20649.7  c?/Z/.=409.6  litre  =  7.06  Vienna  eimer; 
1  barilo=4-^  rubbi  =  32  boccali  =  128  foglietti=512  cartucci= 
2294  cM&.  =  10.02  gallons =45.5  litre. 

Rostolc. — 1  ahm =4  anker =5  eimer =20  viertel =40  stubchen 
=80  cans=160  pot=.999  Hamburgh  ahm;  1  fudcr  has  =4  ox- 
hoft  or  6  ahm. 

Russia. — 1  fass=13-|-  anker=49  wcdro  =  160  tschetwcrki  =  368 
osmuschki  or  kuschki.  The  wedro  has  640  cwi. =2.7950  gallons 
=  12.69  litre  =  .1847  Prussian  eimer. 

St.  Oallen. — 1  eimer =4  viertel =32  maas  =  128  schoppen=2576 


JOHANN  CARL  LEUCHS  ON  WINE-MAKING.  231 

cub.=:51  litre=.88  Yienna=.796  Bavarian  =  .743  Prussian  eimer. 
The  must  cimcr  has  36  raaas.     The  fuder=7^  saum  or  30  eimer. 

Sdiaffliausen. — 1  saum— 4  eimer = 16  viertel  =  128  maas=:2120 
cub. 

Siehenhiirgen. — 1  ur=:570.6  cuh.  =  ll.^  litrc=.16-4  Prussian  ei- 
mer. 

Soloilmrn. — 1  saum  =  100  maas  =  8033  cub. 

Sweden  (Kingdom).—!  ahm  =  71)20  cuJ. =2.4493  Bavarian  = 
2.2867  Prussian =2.0710  Leipzic  eimer =34.5892  gallons =157.50 
litre =1.0849  Hamburgh  ahm  =  12.3754  Russian  wedro  =  1.0492 
Danish  ahm;  1.25  Swedish  tuns=2.7079  Vienna  eimer;  1  fuhre 
of  wine  is  =2  pipen=4  oxhoft=6  ahm  =  12  eimer =24  anker = 
360  cans  =  720  stoop. 

Tokay  (Hungary). — 1  fass  =  2f  Presburg  eimer  =  176  Hungary 
halfs  =  7395  cui. =2.528  Vienna =2.287  Bavarian  =  1.933  Leipzic 
=  2.135  Prussian  eimer =146.6  litre =32.29  gallons. 

Trieste.— 1  orna=36  boccali=3310  ct^6.  =65.6  litre =1.13  Vien- 
na eimer. 

Tyrol. — 1  ihre=12  pezeiten;  1  pezeite=4J  maas;  1  maas= 
4seidel;  1  ihre=2240  czi6.=.646  Prussian  =  .765  Vienna  eimer 
=  9.78  gallons =44.4  litre. 

Valencia. — 1  carga=15  arobas  (cantaras)=60  accumbres= 
8594.8  cmZ). =2.938  Vienna=2.658  Bavarian =2.481  Prussian  ei- 
mer =170.49  litre  =  37.53  gallons. 

Venice. — 1  biconzia=^  amphora=2  conzi  =  128  boccali= 7995.8 
cm6.  =  158.6  litre. 

Vienna. — 1  eimer =41  maas =2924.7  cw5. =.9044  Bavarian  eimer 
=  12.773  gallons  =  58.01  litre  =  .4006  Hamburgh  ahm =.7648 
Leipzic =.8444  Prussian  eimer =4.5698  Russian  wedro  =  .3692 
Swedish  ahm. 

Wallachia.—l  viadra=10  oka =713.34  cm&.  =  14.15  litre =.2439 
Vienna  eimer. 

Weimar. — 1  eimer=80  maas=3695  cw5.  =  73.3  litre. 

Wiesbaden. — 1  ohm =20  viertel=80  small  maas =2.113  Bava- 
rian =1.073  Prussian  eimer =6824  cub. 

Wuriemburg  (Kingdom). — 1  eimer  (hellisch-maas)=160  maas= 
14817  CM&.  =4.582  Bavarian  =  3.874  Leipzic =4.278  Prussian  ei- 
mer=293.9  litre  =  64.71  gallons=5.066  Vienna  eimer.  The  fu- 
der  has  6  ohm  or  eimer;  96  immi=960  maas,  3840  schoppen. 

Zurich. — 1  saum=l^  eimer =6  viertel;  1  viertel=8  kopf=16 
maas =32  quartli=64  stozen ;  1  eimer  (clear  measure) =4  viertel 
=  60  maas =120  quartli=240  stozen =5520  «<&.  =  109.5  litre. 

Old  Roman  Wine  Measures. — 1  cubeus  =  20  amphora  (or  513-| 
litre);  1  amphora=2  urnas=8  congius;  1  congius  =  6  sextarius 
=  12  hemina=24  quartarius=48  acetabulum =72  cyathus=208 
ligula  (=3i  litre). 


APPENDIX   C. 


IMPEOVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 


EXTRACTED  FROM  DR.  L.  GALL'S  "DIRECTIONS   TO   IMPROVE  THE  QUALITY  AND 

INCREASE   THE    QUANTITY   OF   AVINES;    ALSO,  TO   MAKE   GOOD   WINES 

FROM  THE  HUSKS  OF  GRAPES."— Teiee,  1S61. 

WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


APPENDIX  C. 

DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 

I.  Grape-sugar. — II.  Tho  Grape  and  its  Components. — III.  Methods  of  Picking 
Grapes:  At  Castle  JohannisbcrR.  Mr.  J.  A.  Ackermann's  Method.  Mr.  S.  Iliir- 
ter's  Method.  Messrs.  Buhl,  Jordan,  and  Wolft"'s  Method.  Method  used  in  To- 
kay and  ISjTmia.  Relative  Value  of  perfectly  Ripe  Grapes.  Benefits  from  Se- 
lecting. Benefits  from  perfect  Maturity. — IV.  Progress  of  Wine-making  to  the 
Middle  of  this  Century,  illustrated  by  Examples. — V.  Principal  Contents  of  the 
Grape  necessary  for  the  Fabrication  of  Wine :  Water.  Sugar  and  the  Must-Scale. 
Artificial  Grape-sugar.  Acids  and  the  Acid-Scale.  Salts.  Gummy  Parts.  Col- 
oring Matter.  Nitrogenic  Parts.  Flavoring  Matters.  Extractive  Matter. — VI. 
Wine  Fabrication  since  IS.'SO :  Gall's  Procedure  and  Improvements.  VII.  Gall  on 
Reformations  in  Wine-making. — VIII.  Preparations  for  the  Vintage. — IX.  Oc- 
cupations in  the  Press-house :  Manner  of  Extracting.  Improving  the  Natural  Prod- 
uct.— X.  Diibrunfaut  and  Petiot's  Method  of  increasing  the  Quantity  of  Wines. 
Gall's  Experiment  on  Petiot's  System.  Application  of  the  Extractor  to  Petiot's 
Method. — XI.  Fermentation  and  its  Products :  In  a  high  Temperature.  Close  Fer- 
mentation. The  Alcohol.  The  Vaporimeter.  Carbonates.  Ether.  Acetic  Acid. 
Barrel  Yeast.  XII.  Husk  Wine  Fabrication  according  to  Cadet  de  Vaut  and  Gall. 
— 'Kill.  Care  of  Wines,  and  their  Diseases : 'M.owlA.  Siiminess.  Sourness.  Cloud- 
iness.    Woody  and  Mouldy  Taste. — XIV.  Supplementary  Remarks. 

t 

GRAPE-SUGAR. 

At  an  exliibition  of  different  grape  wines,  held  at  the  city  of 
Karlsruhe  in  the  year  1849,  a  cask  of  the  vintage  of  1847,  from 
the  celebrated  cellar  of  Baron  de  Babo,  was  unanimously  .declared 
the  finest  of  that  year's  growth,  although  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners were  well  aware  of  the  fact  of  its  superiority  being  main- 
ly attributable  to  the  employment  of  "(7/ia/jtoZ's  method  of  improv- 
ing the  must'^  (the  so-called  ^^Chaptalizing  method'''')]  «".  e,,  a  mix- 
ture of  sugar  before  the  fermentation  takes  place. 

At  the  same  time,  it  was  no  longer  a  secret  that,  in  France,  such 
a  mixture  of  sugar  was  not  only  actually  customary,  but  also  the 
almost  exclusive  use  o^  artificial  "  grape-sugar,"  which,  being  only 
half  as  dear  in  price,  is,  moreover,  considered  better  than  common 
sugar,  because  of  its  chemical  composition  being  the  same  as  that 
of  the  natural  grape-sugar.  This  procedure  of  Mr.  de  Babo  hav- 
ing been  openly  acknowledged,  the  firm  of  Messrs.  Best  Bros.,  at 
Osthofen,  on  the  Rhine,  were  induced  to  erect  in  the  same  year, 
1849,  their  first  manufactory  of  grape-sugar  after  the  French  meth- 
od. In  the  year  1850  I  published,  for  the  first  time,  my  essay  on 
the  method  of  producing  a  very  good  quality  of  medium  wines 
from  grapes  yet  unripe,  since  known  as  Gall's  method. 

The  main  feature  of  the  difference  between  GalVs  and  ChaptaTs 


236  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

methods  lies  in  the  first  requiring  twice,  or  even  three  or  four 
times  cOS  much  sugar  as  the  latter,  producing,  however,  from  the 
same  quantity  of  must,  from  ten  to  fifteen,  or  even  a  hundred  per 
cent,  more  wine,  and  that  of  much  better  quality,  and  especially 
more  durable  and  more  agreeable  to  the  taste. 

The  splendid  success  attending  the  first  enterprise  of  Messrs. 
Best  Bros,  induced  Mr.  Fricdrich  Wohl,  of  Neuwied,  to  erect,  in 
the  year  1852,  another  establishment,  on  a  still  larger  scale,  at 
Neuwied ;  and  as  early  as  1853  several  others  followed,  by  vari- 
ous parties,  all  of  them  enjoying  a  high  reputation  for  their  ar- 
ticles, and  commanding  a  ready  and  profitable  sale  of  them.  Since 
then,  year  by  3^ear,  other  similar  establishments  have  been  found- 
ed, and  now  there  are  no  less  than  seventeen  in  successful  opera- 
tion. 

We  have  to  refer  here  to  two  circumstances :  1.  That  the  first 
grape-sugar  factory  had  to  be  enlarged  in  1825,  after  Gall's  meth- 
od had  become  known  prior  to  the  fall  of  1850,  the  poorest  vint- 
age on  record  of  the  century  in  regard  to  quality  of  the  wine 
itself;  which  method,  requiring  an  addition  of  water  to  reduce 
the  acids  of  the  "  must,"  makes  also  a  larger  portion  of  sugar  nec- 
essary than  Chaptal's  method.  2.  That  the  founders  of  all  the 
following  establishments  were  only  induced  to  the  enterprise  by 
the  great  success  of  the  former,  and  the  demand  for  "  grape-sug- 
ar" grew  successively  from  year  to  year. 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  grape-sugar  factories  prove,  by 
their  very  existence  and  the  history  of  their  founding,  that,  1.  They 
were  called  to  life  by  the  scientific  advances  made  in  the  fobrica- 
tion  of  wines.  2.  That  the  improved  system  of  wine  fabrication 
has  gained  ground  from  year  to  year.  8.  That  the  results  of  the 
same  have  given  entire  satisfaction  to  the  grape-growers  and  wine- 
dealers.  4.  That  these  have  considered  it  most  useful,  after  the 
experiments  made  from  1850  uj)  to  1856,  even  in  1857  and  1859, 
to  improve,  by  an  addition  of  artificial  means,  partially  even  of 
nothing  but  sugar,  what  Nature  had  fixiled  to  make  good  in  quality. 

In  this  way,  the  advancing  science  in  the  fabrication  of  wine 
has,  in  its  onward  march  through  the  grape-cultivating  districts 
of  Germany,  built  up  evident  monuments  of  its  pacific  conquests 
which  would  put  to  shame  even  its  most  inveterate  enemies. 

The  firms  of  these  "  Grape-sugar  factories"  are : 

In  Prussia:  Fricdrich  "Wohl,  Eemy  &  Wohl,  and  N.  Rcinhardt, 
at  ISTeuwied ;  H.  T.  Bertog,  Lohburgcr  Fabrik,  and  Jaehling  &  Co., 
at  Magdeburg ;  A.  Rammelberg,  at  Wolmirstcdt ;  C.  J.  Knoelke, 
at  Frankfort  on  the  Main  ;  Baron  von  dcr  Dcken,  at  Dziewentline, 
in  Silesia.  In  Rhenish  Hesse:  Tobias  Diesz  &  Co.,  at  Offstein ;  N. 
Iloffmann,  at  Ingenheim;  Fritz  Muth  k  Weisheimcr,  at  Neu- 
muehl.  In  Baden :  Albert  Glock,  at  Karlsruhe.  In  Wiirtemburg : 
Adolfsfurter  Fabrik,  at  Oehringen.  In  Austria :  Carl  Ilesse,  at 
Primislaw,  Bohemia ;  Carl  Ilenn,  at  Hochenegg,  Styria. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        237 

II. 
THE  GRAPE  AND  ITS  COMPONENTS. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  grape  being  universally  known, 
it  needs  no  farther  description  in  this  chapter.  We  shall  there- 
fore confine  ourselves  to  show  which  of  its  interior  parts  contrib- 
utes most  to  produce  a  palatable  and  durable  wine. 

As  all-wise  Nature  has  provided  every  species  of  plants  with 
constituent  parts,  whereby  they  are  enabled  to  germinate,  grow, 
and  draw  their  necessary  nourishment,  so  the  fruit  contains  cer- 
tain elements  which  arc  required  for  the  first  support  of  the  fu- 
ture plant ;  these,  therefore,  are  not  only  useful,  but  indispensable 
to  their  own  offspring,  though  not  always  so  for  the  application 
to  man's  taste  and  purposes.  For  instance,  each  grain  of  barley 
contains,  besides  starch,  albumen,  sugar,  gum ;  also  oil,  water,  phos- 
phate of  lime,  and  mucus ;  and  all  of  these  matters  are  eminently 
necessary  for  the  jDroduction  of  the  roots,  stalk,  leaves,  flowers, 
and  fruits  of  the  new  barley  plants.  But  for  producing  the  bev- 
erage called  beer,  man  only  uses  the  three  first  ingredients ;  and 
for  the  fabrication  of  malt  whisky  or  alcohol  out  of  barley  or  any 
other  species  of  grain,  absolutely  no  other  is  of  any  value  but  the 
starch.  In  the  same  manner,  man  only  makes  use  of  the  sugar 
matter  which  he  draws  out  of  the  sugar-beet  for  the  making  of 
the  sugar  itself,  leaving  aside  all  the  other  ingredients  contained 
in  the  plant. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  grape.  Of  its  perhaps  twenty 
different  ingredients,  some — if  the  fermentation  of  the  must  takes 
place  in  a  fully-filled  cask — will  be  cast  out  at  the  very  beginning 
of  the  fermentation ;  others  while  it  is  going  on ;  and  others  in  a 
shorter  or  longer  period  afterward ;  and  some  will  even  "  settle" 
after  a  number  of  years  have  passed.  These  ingredients,  there- 
fore, do  not  belong  properly  to  the  main  produce  of  the  grape — 
the  wine.  They  form  no  constituent  part  of  it ;  they  were  only 
necessary  for  the  nourishment  of  the  new  plant  emanating  from 
the  seed. 

Therefore  it  is  evident  that  only  the  grape  itself  is  a  product  of 
nature.  The  wine,  however,  or  the  art  of  making  it — be  the  qual- 
ity good  or  bad,  according  to  that  of  the  grape,  or  his  knowledge 
to  prepare  its  juice — is  one  which  only  an  accident  could  teach  to 
man ;  to  improve  which,  only  other  accidental  observations,  re- 
flections, and  various  alterations  could  lead  him. 

Only  very  lately,  however,  after  groping  about  in  the  dark  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years,  man — guided  by  the  hand  of  pro- 
gressing natural  science — has  discovered  that  it  was  his  own  fault 
if  he  could  only  produce  from  grapes  not  yet  fully  ripe  another 
but  very  inferior  quality  of  wine.     It  only  depends  on  him  to 


238  GRA.PE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

make  tlic  best  possible  wines  out  of  grapes  fully  ripe,  after  throw- 
ing out  the  unripe  and  damaged  ones ;  the  same  as  it  does  on  him- 
self to  produce  from  grapes  not  seasonable  yet  a  wine  of  very  good 
quality,  by  adding  such  ingredients  as  are  necessary  to  the  fabri- 
cation, comparing  them  to  those  of  the  ripe  fruit. 

The  grape-fruit,  from  its  blossoming  to  maturity,  has  to  go 
through  three  distinct  terms : 

1.  The  Formation. 

2.  The  Growth. 
8.  The  Maturing. 

During  the  last  the  formation  of  the  sugar  stuff  takes  place, 
which  afterward  produces,  by  the  wine-making  process  and  fer- 
mentation, the  alcohol — the  spirit  that  gives  the  juice  its  strength 
and  fire. 

In  some  very  favorable  years  may  still  be  added, 
4,  The  Refining. 

This,  however,  is  but  seldom  attained  by  all  berries  of  a  grape, 
and  never  by  all  the  grapes  of  one  and  the  same  bush,  except  by 
the  application  of  artificial  means. 

The  refining  period  takes  j^lace  at  the  expiration  of  the  life  of 
the  berries,  when  the  small  pedicles  which  unite  them  to  the  main 
one  dry  up,  and  do  not  allow  any  farther  circulation  of  the  sap. 
Then  begins  a  partial  evaporation  of  the  watery  elements,  the  sug- 
ar element  in  the  mean  time  remaining  unchanged.  The  juice, 
hereby  excluding  farther  sugar  formation,  gets,  by  concentration, 
sweeter — therefore  improving.  The  same  result  is  achieved  in 
France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  where  it  is  even  customary,  by 
giving  the  pedicles  or  stalks  of  the  grape  a  full  twist  at  the  time 
of  maturing,  and  allowing  the  grapes  to  hang  on  the  bush  after 
this  as  long  as  possible. 

Still  another  point  needs  remark,  tending  to  show  the  policy  of 
leaving  the  grapes  hanging — the  longer  the  better.  The  better 
to  appreciate  the  importance  of  it,  however,  we  shall  have  to  look 
a  little  closer  into  the  structure  of  the  berries. 

Take,  for  instance,  a  healthy  berry ;  open  the  inside  by  a  cross- 
cut, and  you  will  seemingly  behold  a  sort  of  jelly  surrounding  the 
seeds.  By  a  closer  look,  however,  we  see  distinctly  fibres^  which 
cross  each  other  in  different  directions.  These  fibres  form  the 
partitions  between  numerous  small  cells.  In  the  berries  not  yet 
matured,  various  acids,  as  acids  of  apples,  wine,  grapes,  etc. ;  bitar- 
trate  of  potassa ;  some  traces  of  salts,  albumen,  and  water,  form 
the  entire  contents  of  these  cells.  By  the  maturing  process  of  the 
fruit,  "grape-sugar"  is  formed  from  the  elements  of  the  fibres 
and  a  part  of  the  superabundant  acids  and  water. 

This  change  first  takes  place  on  the  surface  of  the  berry,  under- 
neath the  skin,  and  develops  itself,  on  account  of  the  exterior 
warmth  which  causes  the  maturing,  only  gradually  toward  the 
centre.     Ilerc  we  have  the  reason  why  the  juice  of  berries  not 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        239 

yet  fully  ripe  tastes  sweet  on  their  surface  below  the  skin,  while 
toward  the  centre  the  grape  contains  a  jelly  more  or  less  sour, 
according  to  the  state  of  maturity. 

Besides  what  wc  have  now  seen — the  partial  formation  of  the 
sugar  from  acids — the  inner  structure  of  the  berry  may  also  teach 
us  the  manner  to  obtain  the  sweet  juice  suitable  for  wine-mak- 
ing, separated  from  the  sour  and  bitter  stuffs. 

It  is  a  well-known  saying  that  a  wine  without  acids  is  neither 
palatable  nor  durable ;  but  every  thing  must  be  confined  in  a  cer- 
tain measure,  and  this  measure  we  find  the  best  in  the  natural 
combined  state  of  sweet  and  sour  stuffs  within  the  completely 
ripened  grape.  Witness  those  wines,  known  as  "  Selected  Grape 
Wines"  of  the  Palatinate,  that  brought,  even  in  1852,  which  was 
considered  as  only  a  medium  year,  from  5000  to  8000  guilders 
per  cask — being  pressed  from  "  selected  herries.^''  Witness  the  "  Jo- 
hannisberg  Cabinet  "Wines,"  that  fetch  as  high  as  11  guilders  per 
bottle — made  up  from  ^^  selected  berries ^ 

If,  therefore,  the  berries,  selected  with  the  greatest  care,  already 
contain  a  sufiicient  quantity  of  acid  and  sour  stuffs  to  produce  the 
most  costly  and  durable  wine,  it  seems  clear  that  the  grapes  pick- 
ed in  a  mass,  of  the  best  year's  growth,  contain  too  much  acid ; 
and  in  order  to  produce  as  good  a  wine  as  the  quality  of  the  grape 
permits,  it  appears  necessary  not  to  mix  the  must  of  the  last  press- 
ure with  that  of  the  former  even  during  the  pressing  process. 
Nature  itself  shows  us  this  in  retaining  the  impure  juice,  only  apt 
to  spoil  the  sweet  pure  one,  so  tenaciously  by  the  meshes  of  the 
cells,  and  the  texture  of  .the  skins  and  pedicles  of  the  berries. 

We  have,  indeed,  to  .acknowledge  the  want  of  a  definite  stand- 
ard— so  long  as  it  was  not  generally  understood  that  the  value  of 
the  middle  loines  chiefly  depended  on  a  certain  quantity  of  acids 
— by  which  to  regulate  the  mixture  of  the  must  of  the  different 
pressures.  Formerly,  also,  it  was  not  understood  how  to  dispose 
of  the  sour  juice  of  the  last  pressure  in  conjunction  with  the  good 
must ;  but  now  we  claim  to  know  these  standards. 

No  experienced  wine-grower  ought  to  be  unacquainted  with 
the  "  Essays"  of  Dr.  Liidersdorf,  who  gave  us,  as  early  as  1841,  the 
important  hint,  that  the  '■'■good  quality^  state  of  flavor^  and  price  of 
the  loines  depends  infinitely  more  on  their  not  too  large  amount  of 
acids,  than  on  a  high  grade  ofalcohoiy 

In  even  the  most  favorable  years  the  state  of  perfect  maturity 
is  but  seldom  attained,  and  in  inferior  and  middling  years  the 
sugar  process  is  never  entirely  interrupted  during  the  continua- 
tion of  vegetation.  Considering,  therefore,  that  the  good  quality 
of  the  grapes — i.  e.,  their  aptitude  for  wine-producing — is  more 
based  upon  a  certain  medium  quantity  of  acids  than  upon  a  large 
quantity  of  sugar,  and  that  this  same  sugar  is  partially  formed  by 
the  acids  already  contained  within  the  berries,  without  their  be- 
ing too  much  reduced  thereby;  that  evidently  with  each  addi- 


240  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

tional  day  the  grapes  are  allowed  to  hang  on  the  bush,  the  sweet- 
ness increases  while  the  acid  diminishes,  it  must  clearly  aj^pear, 
even  to  those  not  interested  in  practical  grape-growing,  that  the 
best  and  true  policy  would  be  always  to  wait  for  the  highest  pos- 
sible state  of  maturity  to  gather  in  the  grapes,  provided  that  the 
state  of  the  weather  be  favorable  enough. 

It  seems  rather  singular  that  while  every  one  breaking  off 
fruits  always  selects  for  his  choice  principally  the  most  luscious 
ripe  ones,  leaving  the  remaining  cherries,  apples,  etc.,  to  mature, 
yet  ill  regard  to  grapes — this  superb  fruit,  whose  culture  is  so  te- 
dious and  expensive,  whose  thriving  and  sale  affects  materially 
the  welfare  of  entire  populations — it  has  almost  remained  custom- 
ary to  gather  together  bad  and  good,  ripe  and  unripe,  and  throw 
them  all  in  one  heap. 

No  other  fruit,  however,  matures  so  irregularly  as  the  grape. 
The  difference  of  soil,  the  declination,  the  temperature,  the  kinds 
of  seed,  the  treatment,  the  site,  and  the  age  of  the  stock,  affect 
more  or  less  the  period  of  maturity.  Even  on  one  and  the  same 
bush  the  grapes  will  ripen  the  sooner  the  nearer  they  are  to  the 
ground ;  and  even  in  the  same  cluster  one  finds  berries  in  differ- 
ent states  of  maturity. 

In  what  manner,  therefore,  shall  we  proceed  in  gathering  the 
grapes — a  labor  which  Nature  has  imposed  uj^on  man — in  order, 
at  least,  to  produce  as  good  a  wine,  even  in  inferior  years,  and 
this  without  any  mixture,  pure  as  nature  gives  it,  as  the  best  years' 
vintages  may  enable  us  to  produce  ? 

This  question  we  will  answer  in  the  next  chapter  by  a  few  il- 
lustrations, which,  although  long  known,  are  yet  but  little  re- 
garded. 


III. 
METHODS  OF  PICKING  GRAPES. 


I  PROCEED  to  describe  the  means  of  producing  wines  of  prime 
quality,  even  from  inferior  vintages,  without  the  aid  of  artificial 
means,  beginning  with  a  few  examples  of  the  mode  of  picking  the 
grapes,  as  practiced  in  celebrated  vineyards. 

Method  jpracticed  at  Castle  Johannisherg. 

Here  the  gathering  of  the  grapes  begins  as  late  in  the  season 
as  possible,  in  order  to  give  them  plenty  of  time  to  attain  their 
fullest  maturity.  It  takes  place  usually  in  November,  frequently, 
however,  not  before  the  first  fall  of  snow,  and  only  in  very  good 
years  in  the  month  of  October.  The  care  expended  upon  the 
vintage  itself,  and  the  treatment  of  the  wine,  is  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  main  causes  of  the  superior  quality  of  the  article.     The 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        241 

gatherers  employed  arc  strictly  forbidden  to  cat  of  the  grapes,  un- 
der penalty  of  instant  dismissal,  but  they  receive  double  wages 
during  the  time  of  vintage.  None  but  absolutely  matured  grapes 
receive  the  honor  of  being  thrown  under  the  press,  and  many  a 
bush  is  not  emptied  until  the  fourth  turn.  Warm  and  dry  weath- 
er is  considerea  essential  in  the  fall. 

For  the  finest "  Select  Wines"  {Auslese  Wei7i)  only  the  most  lus- 
cious grapes  are  picked  out,  and  from  these  the  best-matured  ber- 
ries are  cut  out  singly  by  the  scissors.  After  "  musting"  them 
for  2-4  hours  they  are  taken  to  the  press. 

Since  the  vintage  of  the  year  1800,  have  been  produced  at  the 
Castle  Johannisberg, 

18  times  wine  of  inferior  quality ; 
16  times  wine  of  good  quality ; 
7  times  wine  of  prime  quality ; 
5  times  wine  of  superior  quality. 

The  "superior"  wines  were  of  the  vintages  1811, 1822, 1881, 
1834,  and  1846.  The  wine  of  1831,  however,  bears  off  the  palm 
from  all  others.  In  1817,  the  wine  was  absolutely  bad;  in  the 
year  1816,  the  grape-bushes  were  killed  by  the  frost,  so  that  no 
vintage  took  place.  The  richest  yields  were  those  of  1811,  when 
46  acres  of  vineyard  produced  50  casks ;  of  1819,  when  45  acres 
produced  52  casks ;  and  of  1833,  when  55  acres  produced  57  casks 
per  acre.  On  an  average,  from  the  year  1800  to  1849,  50  acres 
of  vineyard  were  annually  under  cultivation,  and  the  produce  of 
each  acre  during  this  period  was  34  casks.  One  cask  of  wine  is 
equal  to  80  Prussian  maas,  or  160  French  litres.  One  acre  is 
about  equal  to  three  fourths  of  a  Prussian  morgen. 

The  wine  of  remarkably  superior  vintages  is  sold  by  the  bot- 
tle ;  the  other  qualities  are  generally  sold  by  the  cask,  at  public 
auction.     The  highest  prices  paid  were  as  follows : 

In  1802,  for  one  cask  of  the  vintage  of  1777,  5,000  florins. 

"  "  "  "  1780,  4,500  " 

"  «  "  "  1781,  4,000  " 

«  «  "  "  1794,  3,500  " 

"  "  "  "  1798,  2,700  " 

(c  «  u  u  1791^  2,200  " 

»  «'  "  "  1793,  2,000  " 

1805,  "  "  "  1825,  6,500*  " 

"  "  "  "  1825,  9,100t  " 

1832,  "  "  "  1822,  12,500t  " 

The  ^^  Cabinet  Wine,''^  i.  e.,  the  kind  sold  only  in  bottles,  brings 
the  following  prices,  according  to  the  Price-current  of  1847 : 

Vintage  of  1822,  sealed  with  gold  wax,  17/.,  32  kr. 

"          1831,          "          silver  "       7  " 

"            "              "          green  "      4  " 

"          1834,          "          gold  "       7  " 

•  To  Mr.  Von  Eothachild.  t  To  the  King  of  Bavftria.  t  To  the  King  of  PruBsi*. 


242  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Vintage  of  1834,  sealed  with  red        wax,    4^. 


"  "  "  yellow 

"  1842,  "  gold 

♦<  ..  <<  red 

"  "  "  blue 

"  "     (Ausbruck)  blue 


30  kr. 

4  " 

4   " 

2   " 

11   " 


Professor  Yon  Liebig  subjected  the  wine  of  Castle  Johannisberg 
to  a  chemical  analysis,  of  which  the  following  shows  the  results : 

vintufTP  Per  Cent,  of  Alcohol.  Sugar  and  Not-volatile 

''  By  Measure.  By  Weight.  Contents,  in  100  Tarts. 

1822  13.63  10.80                             3.300 

1831  13.63  10.80                             2.692 

1834  14.39  11.40                           2.654 

1889  15.90  12.90                            3.470 

1842  15.90  12.60                           3.755 

1845  15.90  12.60                           6.030 

Method  of  Mr.  J.  A.  Ackermann. 

Mr.  Ackermann,  at  Nackenheim  on  the  Main,  never  allows  his 
grapes  to  be  gathered  so  long  as  they  are  wet  by  the  rain  or  dew, 
believing  that  ripe  grapes  already  contain  all  the  requisites,  includ- 
ing water,  in  their  due  proportions.  He  also  allows  the  grapes 
to  remain  on  the  bush  as  long  as  possible ;  but  has  the  perfectly 
ripe  ones  gathered  as  often  as  necessary,  thereby  avoiding  loss 
by  rottenness.  He  permits  no  eating  of  grapes,  either  in  the 
press-house  or  in  the  vineyard,  under  penalty  of  instant  dismiss- 
al and  loss  of  the  whole  wages ;  to  compensate  for  this,  he  pays 
twice  as  high,  and  pays  even  if  the  unfavorable  state  of  the  weath- 
er should  allow  but  a  few  hours  of  labor. 

By  these  simple  means  Mr.  Ackermann  produced,  in  the  vint- 
age of  1828,  one  cask  of  wine  which  formed  the  nucleus  of  admi- 
ration of  the  whole  district,  and  realized  a  price  of  2000  florins. 
At  the  same  time,  his  neighbors  could  not  sell  theirs  higher  than 
250  florins.  Besides  this,  he  produced  two  and  a  half  more  casks 
which  did  not  fetch  more  than  550  florins,  the  wine  being  made 
of  less  ripe  grapes.  On  the  whole,  he  received  for  his  three  and 
a  half  casks  2550  florins,  while  his  neighbors,  for  their  three  and 
a  half  casks  of  best  quality  of  wine,  only  cleared  875  florins.  By 
his  superior  intelligence,  whereby  Mr.  Ackermann  understood 
how  to  aid  Nature,  he  netted  a  sum  three  times  higher  than  the 
others,  and  gained  over  them  1675  florins.  Nay,  even  more ;  for 
the  actual  cost  of  production  to  Mr.  Ackermann's  neighbors 
amounted  to  about  500  florins ;  therefore  their  three  and  a  half 
casks  left  them  a  net  balance  of  375  florins,  while  Mr.  Ackermann, 
even  allowing  his  expenses  to  be  50  florins  higher  than  theirs, 
had  a  surplus  of  2000  florins — five  times  more  than  the  others. 
And  if  we  take,  as  with  his  neighbors,  only  375  florins  as  net  ex- 
penses of  his  vineyard,  the  rest  of  the  four  and  a  half  times  as 
large  amount  of  1625  florins  was  the  well-merited  fruit  of  his 
higher  intelligence. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        243 

Results  of  Mr.  J.  HUrter. 

This  gentlemfin,  the  author  of  "  The  Rhenish  Gro.pe  CuUure,^^ 
gained  by  the  same  proceeding,  in  the  year  1825,  from  his  vine- 
yards at  Damscheidt  and  Perscheid,  two  fuder  of  bouquet  wine, 
for  which  he  received  1240  tholers^  and  four  fuder  of  good  table 
wine,  which  sold  for  800  thalers — 2040  thalcrs  in  all ;  while  his 
neighbors  could  not  sell  their  wines  higher  than  at  230  thalers 
per  fuder ;  therefore  for  six  fuder  they  received  1380  thalers. 
His  higher  intelligence  netted,  therefore,  to  Mr.  Hcirter,  660  tha- 
lers more  than  his  neighbors  received  from  their  vineyards,  in- 
cluding their  labor. 

Results  of  Messrs.  Buhl,  Jordan,  and  Wolff. 

To  further  show  the  incalculable  results  of  a  careful  picking, 
let  us  look  at  the  following : 

At  their  vintage  of  1852,  Messrs.  Buhl  produced  a  wine  for 
which,  in  the  same  year,  5000  florins  per  cask  were  offered.  They 
sold  one  quarter  cask  of  Deidesheimer  {Prima  Auslese)  for  1500 
florins ;  the  whole  cask,  therefore,  was  worth  6000  florins.  Mr. 
Wolff,  at  Wachenheim,  sold  one  cask  of  Wachenheimer  of  1852 
for  2500  florins,  and  asks  for  one  cask  of  "  1852  Prima  Auslese'^ 
8000  florins. 

Method  used  in  Tokay  and  in  Syrmia,  Hungary. 

The  foundation  of  the  so-called  "  Tokay"  Hungarian  wines  is 
the  dry  berries  {Trochenheeren),  which,  hanging  on  the  bush,  have 
almost  been  turned  into  raisins.  The  finest  and  most  reliable 
season  of  the  year  in  that  country  is  the  latter  part  of  summer 
and  the  fall.  The  grapes  ripen  by  the  end  of  September,  but,  in 
order  to  obtain  good  ^^Ausbruch,''^  they  must  become  over-ripe. 
The  vintage  is  therefore  retarded  till  November,  and  frequently 
to  the  first  frost ;  so  that,  by  the  progressive  drying  up  of  the  sap 
in  the  stalk,  the  most  matured  berries  shrivel  together  into  raisins, 
losing  their  transparency,  and  turning  into  a  kind  of  blue  color. 

As  soon  as  these  begin  to  show  themselves  the  vineyards  are 
opened,  and  from  day  to  day,  at  first,  only  the  best  of  the  dry  ber- 
ries are  gathered.  The  main  vintage,  however,  is  retarded  as 
long  as  possible.  When  this  takes  place,  the  men  and  women 
form  into  a  line,  advancing  uniformly,  each  person  carrying,  be- 
sides a  wooden  basket  to  hold  the  gathered  grapes,  another  one 
about  the  waist,  into  which  they  throw  the  single  berries  which 
they  break  from  out  of  the  clusters.  An  inspector,  whose  chief 
duty  it  is  to  watch  that  none  are  eaten,  orders  from  time  to  time 
another  man  to  carry  these  picked  dry  berries  to  a  vessel  placed 
for  the  purpose,  and  keeps,  in  general,  an  eye  upon  all  hands  that 
they  do  not  lag  in  their  work,  and  are  careful  in  picking.  To  pre- 
vent any  possible  negligence  or  oversight  in  this,  even  the  green 


244  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

grapes  are  subjected  to  an  overhauling  before  they  are  transported 
to  the  press-houses.  This  is  done  upon  tables  placed  near  by,  on 
which  children  spread  the  grapes,  and  pick  out  all  the  dry  ber- 
ries, and  throw  away  the  rotten  ones. 

The  care  taken  throughout  the  whole  proceeding  insures  a  no- 
ble and  superior  article  of  wine,  which,  however,  sells  at  a  remark- 
ably low  figure.  The  antal,  =44  Wiener  maas,'t)r  55f  Prussian 
quarts,  fetches  scarcely  80  ducats ;  therefore,  the  highest  price 
paid  for  one  fuder  of  this  wine  would  not  be  more  than  2460  flor- 
ins (=1500  Prussian  thalers;  1  fuder =872  quarts,  bringing  470 
ducats  per  fuder) ;  while  the  wines  produced  in  the  Palatinate 
and  the  Rheingau,  by  a  similar  careful  arrangement,  sell  readily 
at  from  8000  to  12,000  florins. 

Relative  Value  of  perfectly  Ripe  Grapes. 

The  well-known  vinologist,  Ilorter,  tells  us,  as  a  result  of  nu- 
merous direct  observations,  that  during  the  vintage-time,  on  an 
average,  the  twentieth  grape  is  eaten.  These  would  give  us  5  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  amount.  Little  enough  it  would  seem,  and  yet 
a  great  loss  and  waste. 

This  5  per  cent,  would  form,  in  good  years  perhaps  10,  in  bad 
years  perhaps  50  per  cent,  of  all  the  ripe  grapes ;  and,  for  the 
most  part,  the  very  finest  berries  are  chosen  for  the  mouth,  and 
thus  lost  to  the  production  of  the  most  noble  of  all  beverages. 
Considering  what  an  amount  of  money-value  the  article  bears,  it 
is  really  to  be  looked  upon  as  so  much  gold  which  is  lost  to  the 
community  of  the  district.  The  greatest  possible  care  ought, 
therefore,  to  be  taken  to  prevent  the  waste. 

Benefits  derived  from  Selecting. 

Mr.  B.  Kolges  proves  to  us  that,  from  year  to  year,  the  method 
of  picking  out  the  berries  finds  more  favor  with  the  wine-makers, 
inasmuch  as  sufficient  trials  have  undeniably  shown  that,  if  from 
three  casks  made  of  grapes  that  grew  on  the  same  piece  of  ground, 
two  are  from  picked  berries,  these  two  will  eventually  fetch  more 
than  if  all  three  casks  had  come  from  mixed-up  grapes. 

Benefits  f-om  a  perfect  Maturity  of  the  Grapes. 

The  Count  de  Odart,  a  rich  vineyard  proprietor,  near  the  city 
of  Tours,  in  France,  says,  in  his  "  Observations  sur  le  Moment  des 
Vendages,^^  that,  since  the  year  1833,  he  has  not  only  confined 
himself  to  the  careful  picking  of  the  berries,  but  he  exposes  after- 
ward these  selected  ones  to  the  air,  spread  out  on  hurdles.  The 
sugar  getting  more  concentrated  by  this  process,  he  makes  a  wine 
that  sells  at  three  and  four  francs  per  bottle.  The  same  quality 
he  sold  before  at  three  and  four  sous. 

We  have  now  seen  that,  at  this  day,  it  has  become  an  acknowl- 
edged fact  that  it  is  possible  to  produce  from  inferior  vintages,  by 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        245 

a  well-regulated  management  of  the  separated  half-ripe  and  un- 
ripe grapes,  a  wine  of  better  quality  than  results  in  medium  years 
from  the  total  mass  of  the  grapes. 

The  chief  object  should  be  to  produce,  1.  Even  from  the  very 
best  vintages,  still  finer  natural  wines  than  before ;  2.  Even  in  the 
most  unfavorable  years,  good  wines,  approaching  in  value  these 
superior  ones. 

The  very  simple  means  to  attain  this  are  the  following — pro- 
vided, of  course,  the  weather,  as  it  is  and  is  like  to  be,  will  permit 
their  use : 

1.  To  leave  the  grapes  as  long  as  possible  on  the  bush. 

2.  To  abolish  the  wasteful  eating  of  grajDes  on  the  part  of  the 
gatherers  by  compensation  in  pay. 

3.  To  pick  frequently,  in  order  not  to  lose  the  ripe  grapes  by 
rottenness. 

4.  To  do  at  least  one  primary  picking. 

5.  To  select  during  the  main  vintage,  (a),  the  most  matured 
grapes ;  and,  (i),  from  these  those  kinds  mostly  fit  to  make  "  bou- 
quet wines,"  such  as  Eiesling,  Traminer,  Muscat. 

6.  To  press,  and  treat  all  of  them  separately. 


IV. 

PROGRESS   OF  WINE-MAKING  UP  TO  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THIS 

CENTURY. 

We  began  our  well-meant  hints  as  to  the  means  of  gaining  a 
lasting  remunerative  produce  from  our  grape  culture  by  show- 
ing that  we  may  annually  realize  superior  natural  wines  of  the 
greater  market  value  however  little  of  material,  i.  e,,  'perfectly  ma- 
tured grapes,  Nature  condescends  to  give.  This  it  does  annually 
with  more  or  less  bounty ;  all  the  rest  of  the  work  belongs  to 
man.  But  also  to  produce  each  year,  at  least  partially,  superior 
wines,  we  are  solely  enabled  by  not  deteriorating  what  Nature 
has  made  good,  in  mixing  it  up  with  inferior  stuff,  i.  e.,  with 
grapes  that  are  not  able  to  make  good  wine.  As  even  the  most 
unfavorable  seasons  produce  ripe  grapes,  so  likewise  grapes  are 
to  be  met  with  in  a  very  unadvanced  state  of  maturity  even  in  the 
most  favorable  ones,  and  this  in  a  larger  quantity  than  may  gen- 
erally be  thought. 

To  press  ripe  and  unripe  grapes  mixed  up  together  would,  how- 
ever, turn  out  a  mistaken  policy.  Grape-growers  of  a  thoughtful 
mind  have  therefore,  always  since  an  accident  taught  them  the 
first  rudiments  of  the  art  of  wine-making,  exerted  themselves  to 
find  means  to  obtain  a  palatable  wine,  even  if  the  "  must"  should 
have  turned  out  of  inferior  quality  from  Nature's  workshop. 


246  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-JMAiaNG. 

Thus,  in  remote  antiquity,  Aristfeus  taught  the  method  of  ame- 
liorating the  must  by  an  addition  of  honey.  Others  tried  this  by 
adding  different  substances,  salt,  sea- water,  ashes,  chalk,  gypsum, 
raisins,  and,  later  yet,  of  potassa,  brandy,  and  water.  Some  of 
these  are  still  in  use  in  our  own  days,  especially  the  most  natural 
and  useful  of  them — water  and  sugar.  And  these  have  gained 
favor  at  this  time  in  France,  after  such  men  as  the  honorable  min- 
ister and  eminent  chemist,  Count  de  Chaptal,  and  the  eminent  nat- 
uralist, Cadet  de  Vaux,  and  others,  began  to  teach  and  warmly  to 
recommend  those  means  to  improve  greatly  even  the  most  infe- 
rior quality  of  must. 

Up  to  their  time  it  was  the  general  policy  of  the  wine-dealers 
acquainted  with  these  "arfe"  to  keep  them  jealously  concealed 
from  the  great  mass  of  the  small  producers,  only  transferring  them 
as  a  sort  of  valuable  family  secret  to  their  own  kindred,  in  order 
not  to  be  interfered  with  in  their  immense  gains.  The  promul- 
gation of  the  knowledge  by  the  above-named  savans  checked  this 
system  effectually,  not,  however,  without  first  doing  battle  to  the 
combined  fraternity  of  those  privileged  few,  who  ridiculed  it,  and 
gave  out  to  the  world  that  it  was  all  nonsense,  and  that  Nature 
alone  could  and  would  produce  the  true  generous  beverage. 

We  propose  to  give  here  some  extracts  from  the  principal 
works  of  some  of  these  eminent  men  upon  this  subject. 

Frenchmen. 

Maupin. — This  estimable  chemist,  in  1768,  in  his  essay,  The 
Art  of  Increasing  Wines  hy  TFafer,  recommended  to  reduce  by  the 
addition  of  water  the  musts  of  the  South,  which  contained  too 
much  sugar;  by  which  process  he  said  that  he  had  always  ob- 
tained, not  only  a  greater  quantity  of  wine,  but  also  that  which 
was  richer  in  "spirit."  He  failed,  however,  to  give  instruction  as 
to  the  proper  regulation  of  the  quantity  of  water,  or  to  extend  it 
to  the  treatment  of  sour  musts. 

Lenoir  {Traite  de  la  Culture  de  la  Vigne  et  de  la  Vinification, 
1828)  says :  I  believe  it  was  Mr.  Delaveau  that  had  the  courage, 
notwithstanding  the  derision  heaped  upon  him  by  the  blockheads, 
to  recommend  the  method  of  adding  water  to  the  overcharged 
must  to  make  it  more  ready  to  ferment  and  produce  more  alcohol 
in  the  wine.  He  also,  to  the  same  end,  recommended  to  add  wine 
or  beer  yeast  to  such  must. 

Add  so  much  water  as  will  be  found  necessary  to  reduce  the 
must  to  a  density  of  ten  degrees  by  Beaume's  scale.  In  cold 
weather  the  water  has  to  be  sufficiently  warmed,  in  order  to  im- 

fart  to  the  must  the  most  favorable  temperature  for  fermentation, 
t  has,  indeed,  even  answered  to  mix  equal  parU;  of  water  with 
must  very  rich  in  sugar,  and  the  wine  produced  thereby  proved 
superior  to  that  made  of  like  must  not  watered  at  all. 

The  reason  for  not  speaking  of  reducing  the  overcharge  of  acid 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPllOVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        247 

may  be  found  in  the  circumstance  that  this  happens  very  seldom 
in  France,  and,  in  case  it  docs,  in  sucli  small  quantity  that  wine 
kept  during  two  years  ■will  secrete  all  that  is  superfluous  by  its 
own  action. 

Chaptal  (Count,  Minister,  and  Peer  of  France),  author  of  the 
celebrated  essa}'',  TlieArt  of  Making  Winc^  says: 

In  case  the  grapes  have  not  attained  their  maturity,  add  to 
them  the  wanting  ingredient.  Mix  sugar  with  them  until  the 
must  has  attained  the  sweetness  of  the  perfectly  ripe  grape. 

To  give  an  example:  Magnet  added  to  must  of  picked  unripe 
grapes,  of  the  vintage  of  1776,  sugar,  until  it  had  the  taste  of  a 
tolerably  good  and  sweet  must.  In  October,  1777,  the  wine  made 
from  it  proved  to  be  not  only  perfectly  clear  and  fine,  but  also 
very  sparkling,  palatable,  and  fiery — in  a  word,  just  like  a  wine 
made  of  a  good  vintage,  and  raised  on  good  soil. 

Bouillon  had  about  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  of  sugar  per  hogs- 
head added  to  the  must  of  his  vineyard  of  Bellejames,  and  obtain- 
ed a  wine  of  excellent  quality.  This  proves  that  by  adding  a 
proper  quantity  of  sugar,  a  wine  of  required  grade  may  be  ob- 
tained, no  matter  of  what  quality  the  must  may  be ;  except  that 
the  must  which  contains  too  much  sugar  is  to  be  reduced  by 
water. 

Claude  Dumont  says,  in  his  essay  Afoyen  de  douhler,  de  tripler 
meme  le  Ra2:)port  de  nos  Vignohles :  France  furnishes  to  her  popu- 
lation hardly  eighty  litres  of  wine  annually  per  head,  and  even 
this  moderate  quantity  is  not  consumed.  England,  on  the  con- 
trary, produces  two  hectolitres  of  beer  to  the  head,  and  consumes 
it.  This  proves  that  England  brews  a  very  good  article  of  beer, 
while  France  only  makes  very  inferior  wine.  We  possess,  how- 
ever, a  very  simple,  yet  very  effective  means  to  produce  good 
wines  even  in  the  least  favorable  seasons,  and  to  augment  the 
quantity  of  good  wines  in  better  years.     Here  he  goes  on  to  say : 

For  instance:  In  order  to  produce  one  barrique  (barrel)  of 
wine  of  32  veltes,  it  requires  800  pounds  of  grapes.  These  are 
put  into  a  tub  holding  about  1000  litres  after  mashing  them  well. 
When  the  must  attains  a  density  of  nine  degrees  of  Beaume,  add 
500  pounds  of  water,  in  which  previously  100  pounds  of  sugar 
and  10  pounds  of  cream  of  tartar  have  been  dissolved.  This  has 
now  to  ferment,  and  the  result  may  be  vouched  for. 

Suppose  the  price  of  a  barrique  of  wine  be  100  francs,  we  shall 
now  have  two  instead,  in  value  200  francs.  The  original  cost  of 
these  may  be  put  down  as  follows :  One  barrique  of  wine,  100 
francs ;  100  pounds  of  sugar,  60  francs ;  10  pounds  of  cream  of 
tartar,  2  francs;  total  cost,  162  francs:  the  net  gain  is,  therefore, 
38  francs.  And  besides  this,  these  wines  will  be  much  more  pal- 
atable and  durable  than  by  neglecting  this  advice. 

By  the  calculation  of  these  sugar  prices,  it  appears  that  this 
treatise  appeared  m  1815  or  1816 — (it  bearing  neither  the  name 


248  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING.' 

of  the  place  nor  tlie  year  in  which  it  was  printed  on  its  title-page) 
— at  a  time,  therefore,  when  factories  of  grape-sugar  were  yet  un- 
known in  France,  and  cassonade  (raw)  sugar  was  mostly  used  for 
improving  the  must.  The  wholesale  price  of  this,  according  to  the 
then  market  value,  was  60  francs.  Now  the  expense  for  "  grape- 
sugar"  in  Dumont's  calculation  would  not  amount  to  above  80 
francs,  thereby  leaving  a  net  gain  of  68  francs. 

Pa  YEN,  Professor  of  Chemical  Sciences  at  Paris,  says :  The  main 
ingredient  of  the  juice  of  the  grape  is  the  grape-sugar,  whose  quan- 
tity augments  by  the  maturing  process,  while  the  quantity  of  acids 
decreases,  though  not  in  the  same  rate.  The  grape-juice,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  is,  in  inferior  seasons,  poorer  in  sugar  and  richer  in 
acids  than  in  more  favorable  ones.  By  adding  sugar,  especially 
sugar  of  starch — that,  however,  has  to  be  free  from  acids  and  pure 
— it  is  therefore  possible  to  obtain  a  good  wine  from  inferior  vint- 
ages. This  wine  may  not  attain  the  standard  of  the  best  seasons' 
growth,  but  with  proper  management  will  turn  out  better  than 
one  without  such  a  mixture. 

In  the  Revue  des  Deux-Mondes  of  September  1st,  1856,  the  same 
savan  expressed  his  firm  conviction,  in  a  treatise  on  the  "  Grape 
Sickness"  and  its  influence  on  the  French  wine  culture,  that  an 
addition  of  water  to  the  must  would  be  the  sole  means  to  prevent 
future  want  of  wine. 

Englishmen. 

M'CuLLOCH,  in  his  work  entitled  The  British  Wine-maJcer,  Lon- 
don, 1835,  says :  In  France,  for  a  number  of  years,  trials  have  been 
made  with  grapes  that  had  not  yet  matured  (green)  and  sugar,  and 
always  with  the  best  success.  This  induced  me  to  try  the  same 
myself,  with  equal  success,  and  repeatedly,  under  various  modifi- 
cations. The  result,  varying  according  to  these,  turned  out  a  prod- 
uct in  wines  that  were  similar  to  the  Champagne,  the  Graves,  the 
Rhine  and  Moselle  wines,  of  such  an  excellent  quality,  also,  that 
connoisseurs  even  could  not  tell  their  difference  from  the  above- 
mentioned  originals.  The  grapes  may  be  used  for  wine-making, 
no  matter  how  unripe  they  are.  The  procedure  satisfies  perfect- 
ly, let  them  be  even  not  more  than  half  ripe  or  totally  hard.  The 
greenest  grapes  will  give  a  wine  of  the  quality  of  the  White  Her- 
mitage when  adding  three  pounds  of  sugar  to  the  gallon,  and,  con- 
sidering the  value  of  the  product,  the  costs  are  but  small  indeed. 
The  rich  and  particular  "  bouquet"  (flavor)  of  the  original  wines 
characterizes  just  as  strongly  these  imitations. 

In  relation  to  the  degree  of  maturity  of  the  berries,  the  propor- 
tion of  those  ingredients  which  serve  for  the  formation  of  wine 
must  greatly  differ.  A  large  part  of  their  salt,  sour,  and  gum 
contents  changing  into  sugar  during  the  process  of  maturing,  it  is 
evident  that,  measure  for  measure,  more  of  these  parts  are  con- 
tained by  the  unrijje  than  by  the  ripe  berries. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        249 

To  produce,  therefore,  a,  must  of  a  quality  resembling  that  of 
ripe  grapes,  water  has  to  be  added  to  the  must  of  unripe  ones,  to 
reduce  it  and  the  proportions  of  those  salt  parts  that  would  other- 
wise leave  to  the  wine  a  disagreeable  astringcncy.  In  order  to 
obtain  a  wine  similar  to  the  Champagne  or  White  Bordeaux,  I 
would  advise  to  mix  the  juice  of  half- ripe  grapes  with  equal  parts 
of  luater.  If  they  are  more  advanced,  the  quantity  of  grapes  has 
to  be  increased ;  if  less,  reduced. 

Egberts  says :  I  am  in  the  habit  of  taking,  in  a  good  season, 
fifteen  pounds  of  grapes  to  one  gallon  of  water  (therefore — one 
gallon  of  water  weighing  about  nine  pounds,  and  fifteen  pounds 
of  berries  giving  twelve  pounds  of  juice — three  parts  of  water  to 
four  jjarts  of  juice).  I  pick  the  berries  from  the  pedicles  and  mash 
them,  then  mix  them  well  with  the  water.  After  this,  taking  a 
sample,  I  filter  it  through  a  piece  of  linen,  and  test  it  by  the  must- 
scale,  and  cover  up  the  tub.  Next  morning  the  fluid  has  to  be 
well  stirred,  and  a  second  sample  to  be  tested  and  weighed.  The 
must  will  now  be  found  heavier  (denser).  These  examinations 
have  to  be  continued  every  morning  and  evening  until  the  densi- 
ty no  longer  increases.  Now  the  must  has  to  be  drawn  off  from 
the  husks  (remains  of  grapes) ;  these  are  to  be  pressed,  and  a  little 
water  added,  to  extract  from  them  every  remaining  particle  of  sub- 
stance useful  for  the  wine-making ;  then  re-pressed  once  more, 
and  this  juice  added  to  the  must.  The  must  has  now  to  be  weigh- 
ed by  the  must-scale  to  find  out  the  required  amount  of  sugar. 
The  greater  the  specific  gravity,  and  therefore  of  the  natural  sug- 
ar of  the  must,  the  less  sugar  need  be  added.  A  proportion  of 
two  pounds  of  sugar,  for  instance,  to  one  gallon  of  the  mixture, 
will  produce  but  a  light  wine.  Three  pounds  to  one  gallon  gives, 
however,  a  wine  equal  in  strength  to  the  best  qualities  of  Cham- 
pagne. 

Germans. 

Baron  L.  Yon  Babo  {Die  Erzeugimg  unci  BeJiandlung  der  Trau- 
hemveines  nach  neueren  Erfahrungen^  Frankfurt,  1848)  says :  There 
are  three  ingredients  of  the  wine,  by  whose  increase  or  decrease 
a  natural  improvement  of  the  wine  may  be  attained  in  the  must 
itself. 

1.  The  Sugar. 

2.  The  Acids. 
8.  The  Alcohol. 

A  genuine  improvement  of  the  wine  is  not  to  be  called  an 
adulteration  of  it,  so  long  as  it  remains  confined  to  those  ingredi- 
ents which  are  homogeneous  to  the  constituent  parts  of  the  grape, 
and  the  production  of  which  in  them  in  larger  quantity  only  de- 
pends on  the  accidental  state  of  temperature.  But  as  in  the  wine 
a  certain  relation  of  sugar,  alcohol,  and  its  other  ingredients  must 
of  necessity  prevail,  so  is  it  the  duty  of  the  wine-maker  to  regu- 


250  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

late  the  addition  of  sugar  as  far  as  possible  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  other  parts. 

It  is,  indeed,  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  as  yet  we  know 
but  little  of  this.  Each  season  changes  here  the  proportion. 
Wise  would  it  therefore  be  to  consider  the  weight  of  must  in 
good  seasons,  and  to  regulate  the  adding  of  sugar  by  the  must- 
scale. 

Various  observations  show  to  us  that  the  standard  of  acids  of 
the  wine  frequently  affects  its  price  more  than  that  of  the  sugar 
and  alcohol.  In  a  southern  climate,  where  the  larger  amount  of 
sugar  covers  more  the  small  quantity  of  vegetable  acids,  a  mis- 
proportion  of  these  ingredients  is  rarely  thought  of.  In  north- 
ern climates,  however,  the  acids  frequently  prevail,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  the  cool  and  damp  weather  of  the  summer,  with  but 
little  heat  from  the  sun,  retards  the  sugar  formation.  In  very 
unfavorable  seasons,  therefore,  the  inferior  wine  is,  apart  from  the 
main  ingredient  the  water,  chiefly  composed  of  acids ;  and  these 
predominate  in  such  a  degree  over  sugar  and  alcohol  that,  after 
extracting  the  acids  from  the  wine,  almost  nothing  remains.  By 
such  action  on  these  wines,  nothing,  therefore,  is  to  be  gained. 
Different  would  it  be  if,  in  a  must  with  predominating  acids,  suf- 
ficient sugar  be  contained  (no  matter  whether  formed  by  vegeta- 
tion or  artificially  added).  Here  a  reduction  of  acids  always  op- 
erates to  benefit.     This  may  be  done, 

1.  By  deadening  with  chalk,  or, 

2.  By  properly  unsliming  (purifying)  the  must  at  the  right 
time,  this  slime  containing,  as  it  seems,  mainly  those  unperfected 
acids  that  rise  in  connection  with  the  slimy  particles.  At  least, 
observations  have  proven  that,  by  acting  thus,  such  a  reduction 
of  acids  takes  place  that  the  skimmed  wine  thereby  improved 
considerably. 

The  quantity  of  the  acids  to  be  reduced  can  not  be  exactly 
given,  as  it  has  always  to  remain  in  proportion  to  the  other  wine 
ingredients. 

At  an  exhibition  held  in  1849  by  the  "Badensche  Landwirih- 
schafdiche  Verehi^  (Association  for  Agricultural  Purposes),  a  wine 
improved  by  this  method  by  Mr.  Von  Babo  was  acknowledged  to 
be  the  finest  of  the  white  wines  of  the  season ;  and  says  this  gen- 
tleman about  his  proceeding : 

I  added  so  much  sugar  to  the  must  (before  the  fermentation) 
until  the  scale  of  Oechslc  showed  98  to  100  degrees.  The  sugar 
used  was  pure  white  loaf.  That  such  a  procedure  does  not  im- 
pair the  durability  of  a  wine,  I  might  prove  by  a  sample  of  supe- 
rior wine  of  the  vintage  of  1847,  which  stood  the  test  perfectly 
up  to  the  present  time  (1860). 

I  had  also  to  defend  myself  against  many  charges  of  having 
given,  too  much  publicity  of  the  secret  to  the  uninitiated,  which 
might  lead  to  misuse.     The  addition  of  sugar,  known  as  "  Chap- 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        251 

taVs  ineihod,^^  is  well  understood,  and,  true  cnougli,  frequently  ap- 
plied in  a  very  improper  manner,  I,  liowcvcr,  believe  it  to  be 
good  poliey,  in  order  to  break  down  the  misuses,  to  search  into 
and  publish  the  results  as  much  as  possible. 

In  a  good  season,  and  by  the  sun-heat  of  a  warm  summer,  all 
the  dilFcrcnt  elements  of  a  grape  necessary  to  form  the  taste  of  the 
juice  attain,  as  a  rule,  their  perfection  as  well  as  the  sugar,  de- 
pendent on  site  and  soil  of  the  vineyard.  But  if,  in  inferior 
seasons,  the  perfection  of  the  sugar  in  the  grapes  does  not  take 
place,  so  it  is  with  the  other  parts,  and  the  acids  originally  con- 
tained in  the  grapes  remain  predominant.  Of  those  ingredients, 
we  only  know  the  grape-sugar  as  sweetening  and  alcohol-forming 
stuff;  concerning  the  rest  wc  arc  still  greatly  in  the  dark.  If 
we  have  no  substitute  for  these,  we  know,  at  least,  that  the  grape- 
sugar  may  be  replaced  by  an  exactly  similar  artificial  article ;  and 
although  we  may  not  be  able  to  give  by  it  a  wine  of  a  certain 
known  locality,  with  all  its  peculiar  flavor,  yet  we  may  produce 
a  sweeter  and  more  palatable  article. 

Somewhat  different  it  turns  out  in  regard  to  red  wines.  These 
contain  usually  less  taste-forming  parts,  and  these,  in  good  sea- 
sons, very  like  to  those  in  inferior  ones.  But  the  sugar,  and, 
therefore,  alcohol  contents,  as  well  as  the  sweetness  of  the  wine, 
are  subject  to  remarkable  changes.  By  adding  the  like  quantity 
of  sugar  in  inferior  seasons  as  in  good  ones,  the  results  will  alwaj^s 
be  an  agreeable  red  wine.  I  produced  from  a  must  of  the  vint- 
age of  1849,  from  a  medium  locality,  at  a  weight  of  86  degrees  of 
Oechsle's  scale,  by  adding  sugar  up  to  96  degrees,  a  very  palata- 
ble wine  not  inferior  to  that  of  18-18. 

I  will,  however,  here  say  that  this  addition  of  sugar  should  only 
be  carried  up  to  the  must  standard  of  good  seasons ;  more  ought 
to  be  classed  as  adulteration. 

Professor  Balling-  {Die  aUgemeine  Galirungs-Ghemie,  und  die 
Bereitung  des  Weines^  P^g,  1845)  says :  In  inferior  seasons  and 
localities  we  find  usually  the  must  with  very  little  sugar  contents ; 
these,  however,  relatively  larger  of  cream  of  tartar  {WeiiisteirC) 
and  free  acids. 

Such  a  must  can  be  improved  by  adding  the  sugar  that  is  nec- 
essary for  the  production  of  a  good  wine.  To  do  this,  add  to  the 
weak  must  so  much  grape-sugar  as  will  be  found  necessary  to 
give  it  the  desired  concentration.  By  not  using  too  much  sugar, 
the  must  contains  sufiicient  yeast  (ferment)  to  effect  the  ferment- 
ation perfectly,  and  it  will  produce  a  more  durable  wine  and  rich- 
er in  alcohol :  100  pounds  of  must  of  14  per  cent,  by  the  saccha- 
rometer  (or  57°  of  Oechsle)  require  7-|  lbs.  of  dry  artificial  grape- 
sugar  (starch-sugar) ;  this  will  give  107^  lbs.  of  must  of  20  per 
cent,  saccharometer  (83°  Oechsle).  The  contents  of  cream  of  tar- 
tar and  free  acids  is  in  this  way  distributed  in  a  larger  quantity 
of  fluids,  and  their  relative  proportion  in  consequence  lesser,  and 
the  wine  richer. 


252  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

"It  would  be  extremely  desirable  to  abolish  all  the  prejudices 
that  still  exist  against  this  method." 

Dr.  DoEBEREiNER,  in  his  Gaehrungs-Chemie,  Jena,  1822,  says: 

1  recommend  the  following  English  method  :  Take  one  gallon  of 
water  to  each  gallon  of  white  grapes ;  crush  them,  and  let  them 
stand  for  one  week  without  stirring;  then  draw  off  the  juice. 
Add  to  each  gallon  8  lbs.  of  loaf  sugar ;  put  the  whole  into  a  bar- 
rel, but  take  care  not  to  close  the  bung  until  the  mass  has  whiz- 
zed out.  After  six  months'  time  the  wine  may  be  drawn  off  into 
bottles. 

Again  he  repeats  the  same  counsel  in  1843,  in  his  Privilegirte 
Jenaische  WochenhUiiler^  1813 :  Take  to  1  eimer  (64  Prussian 
quarts — about  17  gallons)  of  must  of  half-ripe  grapes,  1  eimer 
(17  gallons)  of  good  river  or  rain  water,  20  lbs.  of  loaf-sugar,  and 
half  a  quart  of  beer-yeast,  and  let  the  whole  ferment  in  a  moder- 
ate temperature.  According  to  my  strictest  observations,  20  lbs. 
of  sugar  will  give,  during  the  process  of  fermentation,  10-|  lbs.  of 
alcohol  (wine-spirit),  and  it  will  produce  a  wine  at  least  equal  to 
the  French. 

In  his  Adtere  unci  Neuere  Erfalirungen  ueher  die  Fabrication  und 
Yerhesserung  der  naiurlichen  und  kilnstlichen  Weine,  Jena,  1850, 
he  counsels :  In  case  the  must  contains  a  great  quantity  of  free 
acids  (acids  of  apples  and  wine),  it  will  be  prudent  to  mix  it,  be- 
fore the  fermentation  sets  in,  with  about  one  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
of  slightly  burned  and  finely-pulverized  chalk,  and  increase  its 
sugar  stuff  by  an  addition  of  grape-sugar.  The  juice  of  unripe 
grapes  produces  only,  by  reducing  its  acids  in  the  prescribed 
manner,  a  drinkable  wine,  then  by  adding  sugared  water  (in  equal 
parts  according  to  the  weight),  and  fermenting  it  by  a  very  little 
beer-yeast.  It  will  do  to  take  to  17  gallons  of  such  must  17  gal- 
lons of  water,  30  to  40  lbs.  of  grape-sugar,  and  1  lb.  of  beer-yeast 
(bung-yeast).     There  may  also  be  added  to  the  whole  mass  1  or 

2  lbs.  of  crushed  grape-seeds. 

G.  C.  Bartels  {Kurze  Anweisung  zur  recliien  Behandlung  deut- 
scher  Weine,  Diisscl thai,  1843)  expresses  himself  as  follows:  Every 
wine  is  partially  produced  by  Nature  and  partly  by  Art.  It  is  the 
produce  of  a  chemical  process,  by  fermenting  juices,  guided  by 
man  to  a  certain  point,  where  he  has  to  interrupt  it  in  order  to 
make  it  tvine,  and  not  let  it  turn  into  vinegar  by  allowing  it  to 
continue  its  natural  course. 

Pure  icines  are  such  as  are  produced  by  a  well-regulated  fer- 
menting process.  Imjtroved  wines  differ  from  natural  ones  by  the 
latter  being  produced  without  man's  help,  while  the  former  be- 
came, by  a  regulated  treatment,  what  Nature  ought  to  have  made 
them. 

I  proceed  now  to  show  in  what  manner  to  produce  a  palatable 
and  ncaltliy  wine  even  out  of  inferior  must,  or  that  of  positive 
bad  quality.     The  principal  condition  is  reducing  the  acids  in  the 


Dli.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        253 

must  of  sour  grapes.  To  do  this  effectually  we  have  a  very  sim- 
ple and  cheap  means — pulverized  chalk.  A  too  watery  must  re- 
quires an  addition  of  sugar,  otherwise  the  wine  will  turn  out 
weak  and  not  durable.  Good  care  ought,  however,  to  be  taken 
not  to  use  too  much  sugar.  The  best  plan  is  to  take  so  much  as 
would  be  required  to  obtain  the  strength  of  a  medium  season. 

Dr.  F.  IIUBECK,  Professor  of  Agricultural  Sciences,  says  (in  his 
Essay  on  the  Grape  Culture  in  Lower  Styria) :  Wc  have  three  ways 
to  improve  the  sugar-contents  of  grapes,  viz. : 

1.  By  keeping  them  on  layers  to  mature. 

2.  By  boiling  the  must. 

3.  By  a  direct  addition  of  sugar. 

We  have  three  kinds  of  sugar :  cane  or  beet  sugar,  grape  or 
potato  sugar,  and  "slime  sugar"  {saccharum  mucosum).  Consider- 
ing that,  according  to  the  results  of  the  French,  who  have  attain- 
ed such  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the  art  of  wine-making, 
the  potato-sugar  is  the  most  adapted  to  this  purpose,  we  have  the 
conviction  that  the  potatoes  are  one  of  the  chiefest  means  to  im- 
prove and  procure  an  extended  market  for  the  wines  of  a  country. 

J.  C.  Leuchs  ( Yollstaendige  Weinkunde^  1847)  says  :  For  im- 
proving the  too  watery  must  we  have  three  excellent  methods, 
viz. : 

1.  The  boiling  of  the  must. 

2.  The  addition  of  must  boiled  down  to  the  consistency  of  mo- 
lasses. 

3.  The  addition  of  sugar-sirup  (which  is,  in  effect,  sugar  and 
water — for  sugar-sirup  is  but  sugar  dissolved  in  water),  starch  or 
grape  sugar,  cane-sugar,  or  honey. 

To  must  that,  besides  water,  contains  much  acids,  an  addition 
of  these  bodies  (sugar  or  honey)  is  preferable  to  boiled  must.  Es- 
pecially recommendable  are  the  grape-sugar  and  cane-sugar. 

Improving  the  too  acid  and  sour  must :  These  parts  may  be  es- 
sentially reduced  by  increasing  the  siveet  ones ;  therefore  by  add- 
ing boiled  must  or  sugar.  Unripe  grapes  may  be  allowed  to  fer- 
ment with  their  skins  and  pedicles.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
crush  the  seeds.  The  addition  of  sugar  and  water  differs  accord- 
ing to  the  acid  and  asLringency  of  the  grapes. 

Dr.  C,  E.  Fresenius  {Chemiefilr  Landwirthe,  Wiesbaden,  184:9) 
says:  Addition  of  sugar  to  Must. — The  wine-producers  increase  the 
specific  gravity  of  their  must,  in  seasons  whose  unfavorable  tem- 
perature did  not  allow  a  perfect  formation  of  the  sugar  stuff  in 
the  grapes,  by  an  addition  of  sugar  up  to  the  standard  of  good 
seasons,  and  obtain  thereby  a  wine  richer  in  spirit  and  more  pal- 
atable than  from  like  must  without  this  addition. 

Professor  J.  Von  Liebig  {Annalen  der  Chemie  und  Pharmacie) 
says :  Young  wines  contain,  among  other  parts,  sugar  that,  by 
keeping,  gradually  disappears,  and  some  yet  very  little  known 
gum-like  stuffs,  that,  in  boiling  the  wine,  very  easily  get  a  brown- 


254  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

isb  color.  The  existence  of  these  is  apparently  principally  effect- 
ed by  the  quality  of  the  soil  and  the  locality  of  the  vineyard  in 
which  the  grapes  grow ;  and  it  is  self-evident  that  the  sugar  can 
not  replace  the  qualities  that  are  dependent  on  those  other  parts. 
For  instance,  it  will  be  possible  to  produce  at  Diirkheim,  in  me- 
dium or  inferior  seasons,  a  wine  much  better  in  quality  by  an  ad- 
dition of  sugar,  and  yet  it  will  always  be  but  a  better  Uurkheim 
at  Worms  a  beitei-  Liehfrauenmilch^  in  Weinheim  a  better  Hubberger, 
but  never  a  Sieinberger^  a  R'ddesheimer^  or  any  other  different  spe- 
cies of  wine. 

Fully  conscious  of  the  contradiction  of  many  wine-producers, 
yet  I  have  the  full  belief  that,  twenty -five  years  hence,  during  in- 
ferior seasons,  this  method  of  improving  the  must  will  be  generally 
adopted. 

Dr.  EiTTER  (  ^Vei7lIehre,  Mayence,  1817)  saj^s :  The  main  want  of 
the  German  must,  in  medium  and  inferior  seasons,  lies  in  the  de- 
ficiency of  sugar  stuff,  and  an  overcharge  of  free  acids.  A  ridic- 
ulous prejudice  took  this  deficiency  to  be  an  essential  quality  of 
the  Ehenish  wines,  which,  however,  is  contradicted  by  the  but 
seldom  happening  seasons  in  which  the  grapes  attain  their  full 
maturity.  Connected  with  this  overcharge  of  acids  is  generally 
the  want  of  sugar,  for  which  reason  the  wine  contains  but  little 
spirit. 

It  would  therefore  be  a  great  advantage  to  introduce  into  Ger- 
many a  method  to  remedy  both  evils.  This  method  (in  France 
in  use  even  with  greatly  richer  must)  would  be,  boiling  the  must 
in  a  kettle  up  to  70°  Eeaumur,  and  then  reducing  its  acids  by  a 
mixture  of  chalk.  Must  very  poor  in  sugar  has  to  be  improved 
by  the  addition  of  sugar. 

An  opinion  expressed  by  a  medical  commission,  installed  by 
order  of  the  royal  Prussian  government  at  Coblentz  in  the  year 
1844,  in  a  controversy  about  the  practicability  of  "  Chaptal's  meth- 
od," runs  in  the  following  words :  The  proper  chemical  analysis 
was  neither  directed  upon  the  contents  of  sugar  nor  that  of  spirit 
(alcohol),  inasmuch  as  neither  one,  when  added  before  the  ferment- 
ation takes  place,  is  discoverable  by  chemical  means  from  that 
sugar  or  alcohol  which  is  contained  in  the  grapes,  and  which  de- 
velops itself  only  by  a  fermentation.  The  cane-sugar  added 
changes,  during  the  fermentation,  into  grape-sugar,  and  leaves  no 
difference  w^hatever.  The  spirit  of  wine  or  alcohol  is,  however, 
contained  in  every  species  of  wine,  and  by  its  nature  not  distin- 
guishable, whether  formed  by  patural  grape-sugar,  or  cane-sugar 
changed  into  it. 

By  this  published  opinion,  the  method  of  improving  wines  by 
sugar  or  spirit  addition  was  therefore  ofl&cially  acknowledged  and 
recommended. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAlilNU.        255 


V. 

THE  TRINCIPAL  CONTENTS  OF  THE  GRAPE  NECESSARY  FOR  THE 
FABRICATION  OF  WINE. 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  we  have  cliiefly  spoken  of  the  sugar, 
acids,  and  water  as  parts  of  the  grape-juice,  rroperly  speaking, 
these  form  the  main  ingredients  from  which  the  wine  results,  and 
that  produce  a  wine  of  as  good  quality  as  any  given  species  of 
grape  is  able  to  furnish  from  the  particular  site  of  the  vineyard  in 
which  it  grew,  provided  those  main  constituent  parts  were  con- 
tained in  a  right  proportion,  or  their  relation  to  one  another  were 
rectified  in  the  must  before  the  fermentation  took  place.  But  it 
now  becomes  necessary  to  look  closer  into  those  principal  agents 
of  wine-producing,  as  water,  sugar,  and  acids,  as  also  a  few  oth- 
ers, that  merit  consideration  solely  because  of  their  not  belonging 
to  the  wine,  in  order  to  manage  properly  those  grapes  that  are 
not  fit  for  producing  a  wine  of  superior  quality,  or  to  know  the 
most  profitable  way  of  turning  the  residue  of  the  grapes  to  the 
best  possible  profit. 

The  Water. 

The  water  which  is  contained  in  the  must  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  falling  from  the  clouds.  It  contains  the  grape-sugar  and 
the  other  parts  of  the  must  in  solution,  just  as  sugar-water  con- 
tains the  sugar  dissolved  therein.  By  distilling  a  quantity  of  must 
we  get,  however,  perfectly  pure  water  without  any  taste. 

We  have  soft  and  hard  water  according  to  its  being  impreg- 
nated by  minerals  sucked  up  by  running  through  them.  Green 
vegetables  will  not  get  soft  when  boiled  in  hard  water ;  and,  to 
reduce  the  must,  none  but  soft  water  should  be  used.  The  hard 
water  may  be  charged  with  gypsum  or  lime,  according  to  the 
kind  of  rock  through  which  it  runs,  and  differs  from  soft  water 
by  getting  cloudy  when  a  few  drops  of  soap-spirit  (soap  dissolved 
in  alcohol)  are  poured  into  a  tumblerful  of  it,  while  soft  water  re- 
tains its  clearness.  To  know  whether  it  is  charged  with  lime  or 
gypsum,  it  must  be  boiled  and  left  to  cool :  if  with  gypsum,  it  re- 
mains cloudy ;  if  with  lime,  it  will  turn  clear  again.  By  boiling 
limy  water,  therefore,  and  leaving  it  to  settle,  it  may,  by  this  pro- 
cess, be  turned  soft,  drawing  it  off  from  the  bottom  residue.  The 
objections  to  using  hard  water  to  improve  wines  are  the  following; 

1.  If  it  contains  lime  particles^  (a)  the  lime  combines  with  a  part 
of  the  wine  acid  of  the  must,  forming  cream  of  tartar,  settles  down 
as  such,  and  is  therefore  lost  for  the  formation  of  wine,  and  this 
may  retain  less  acid  than  desirable ;  or,  {b)  bottles  cleaned  out 
with  water  highly  charged  with  lime  parts,  and  filled  in  a  yet  wet 
state  with  wine  will  instantly  get  covered  by  a  thin  coating  of 


256  GILVPE-CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

wine-acid  lime,  forming  itself  to  a  residue  in  case  they  remain 
standing  upright,  or  are  laid  down  after  being  corked  up. 

2.  If  it  contains  gypsum  jMrticks,  it  will,  being  used  to  the  must, 
impart  to  the  produced  wine  a  disagreeable  taste. 

It  hardly  needs  mention  that  neither  water  from  still-standing 
ponds  nor  from  foul  wells  should  be  used.  In  a  very  wet  fall, 
the  quantity  of  dew  or  rain-water  entering  the  must  depends 
greatly  on  the  form  of  the  grapes.  "We  shall  look  a  little  closer 
into  the  quantity  and  the  effect  of  this  water.  For  instance :  a 
grape,  if  plucked  on  a  warm  day,  and  accurately  weighed  after 
this,  then  put  into  a  vessel  filled  with  water  for  a  few  minutes 
and  weighed  over  again,  will  show  a  gain  of  8  to  12  per  cent, 
water,  according  to  the  distance  of  the  berries  from  one  another. 
If,  therefore,  the  vintage  takes  place  after  a  rain  or  a  heavy  dew, 
from  8  to  12  per  cent,  of  water  is  transferred  to  the  tubs  by  the 
grapes  themselves :  100  pounds  of  grapes,  on  an  average,  how- 
ever, giving  not  more  than  70  pounds  of  wine,  it  is  evident  that, 
as  all  the  added  water  remains  in  the  must,  this  8  or  12  per  cent, 
of  the  weight  of  the  grapes  forms  from  ll-j  to  18  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  wine.  In  case  such  a  must,  as  is  usual  in  rainy 
seasons,  holds  besides  a  sugar  content  of  16  per  cent.,  this  will  be 
reduced  in  the  first  case  to  13,  in  the  latter  to  12  per  cent.,  and 
produce  in  both  but  an  inferior  quality  of  wine ;  while,  if  the 
clouds  have  opened  upon  the  fall,  it  will  be  but  necessary  to  add 
but  3  or  4  per  cent,  of  grape-sugar  to  produce  not  only  a  wine 
equally  as  good  as  without  rain,  but  really  a  much  better  article, 
because  more  palatable  and  mild,  and,  besides,  from  11  to  17  per 
cent,  more  in  quantity.  Greatly  increased  will  this  quantity  of 
water  be  if  the  gathering  takes  place  on  a  rainy  day,  because  then 
the  rain  falls  also  into  the  open  receiving-tubs. 

Knowing  by  experience  that  the  perfectly -matured  grapes  pos- 
sess all  the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  production  of  the  most 
superior  wines,  in  proportions  that  suffer  no  change  whatever, 
and  learning  by  the  exterior  form  of  the  grape  that  to  attain  this 
required  end  the  most  matured  ones  must  only  be  gathered  dur- 
ing sunny,  warm  days,  a  gathering,  during  a  rain,  of  only  half- 
ripe  grapes  will  therefore,  in  one  point,  only  tend  to  profit  by  the 
misproportion  of  the  too  much  prevailing  acid  to  the  water  and 
sugar  being  at  least  improved,  however  not  regulated — a  mispro- 
portion vastly  more  annoying  than  that  of  a  low  content  of  sugar. 

We  might  therefrom  long  ago  have  drawn  the  lesson  to  add 
ourselves  the  wanting  water  to  the  acid  must  whenever  the  clouds 
fail  to  send  it. 

Sugar  contained  in  the  Orape,  and  the  Must-Scale. 

The  sugar  contained  in  the  grapes  in  a  dissolved  state  appears 
in  the  raisins  in  the  shape  of  white  grains,  essentially  being  the 
same  kind  as  that  crystallizing  in  the  honey  when  it  dries  up. 


DK.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 


257 


From  the  common  cane  or  beet  sugar  it  only  differs  by  being 
found,  when  in  a  natural  dry  state,  in  irregular  shape.  Many  oth- 
er plants  contain  the  same  kind,  as  apples,  pears,  figs,  wherefore 
it  is  frequently  called  ^'■fruit-sugary  Its  taste  is  less  sweet  than 
that  of  common  sugar,  insomuch  that  two  and  a  half  ounces  of 
the  first  will  only  give  the  same  degree  of  sweetness  as  one  ounce 
of  the  latter.  In  water  it  dissolves  less  freely,  one  ounce  of  water 
being  only  able  to  receive  two  thirds  of  an  ounce  of  it,  while  it 
readily  will  receive  three  ounces  of  cane-sugar.  In  boiling  wa- 
ter, however,  no  difference  is  perceptible. 

The  spirit  (fire)  of  the  wine  is  due  to  the  sugar  parts  of  the 
must  forming  alcohol  during  the  fermentation.  Both  kinds  of 
sugar  produce  it  nearly  equally. 

The  richest  contents  of  sugar  observed  in  our  climate  (Germany) 
in  the  finest  kinds  of  grapes,  such  as  Kiesling,  Eulaender,  Trami- 
ner,  etc.,  amount,  in  the  best  localities  and  the  warmest  seasons,  to 
28  or  80  per  cent.,  while  in  southern  climates  not  seldom  to  50 
per  cent.  Dr.  Walz  observed,  during  the  month  of  August,  1846. 
a  daily  increase  of  0.4  per  cent,  of  sugar  in  the  juice  of  Trami- 
ner  grapes. 

The  science  of  chemistry  has  given  us  various  instruments  and 
means  to  measure  very  accurately  the  sugar  parts  contained  in  the 
grape-juice.     Of  these,  Oechsle's  Must-Scale  is  considered  the  best. 

Oechsle^s  Must-Scale. 

A  {Fig.  1)  is  a  glass  tube,  or,  instead  of  this, 
a  common  tumbler,  filled  nearly  to  the  brim 
with  must,  into  which  the  scale  B  is  inserted. 
The  scale  consists  of  the  float  o,  the  gravity 
point  5,  and  the  stem  c.  The  stem  is  divided 
by  lines  into  degrees  from  50  to  100,  as  shown 
in  the  cut.  Before  inserting  the  instrument 
into  the  must  (which  is  to  be  filtered  through 
a  piece  of  linen),  draw  the  "  scale"  through 
the  mouth  to  wet  it  a  little.  After  allowing 
it  then  sufficient  time  to  get  steady,  find  out 
down  to  which  line  it  has  been  sinking,  press 
it  down  a  little  more,  and,  after  then  steady- 
ing itself  again,  it  will  show  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  the  sugar  parts  marked  by  degrees. 

The  following  table,  compiled  by  actual 
minute  observations,  will  be  a  tolerably  reli- 
able guide,  although  it  may  not  prove  equally 
correct  for  the  must  of  all  the  different  kinds 
of  grapes  of  different  parts  of  the  world,  their 
contents  of  extract  too  widely  varying.  It 
will,  however,  be  found  quite  sufficient  for 
places,  as  we  know  at  our  day  that  the  general  value  of  the 

K 


most 


258 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


wines  depends  more  on  a  certain  part  of  alcohol  (therefore  sugar 
of  the  must)  than  on  a  medium  part  of  acids. 

NEW  TABLE  FOR  THE  USE  OF  OECHSLE'S  MUST-SCALE. 


III 

100  Pounds  of 
such       Must 
contain  Sug- 
ar, 

o 

III 

Q 

100  Pounds  of 
such       Must 
contain  Sug- 
ar, 

o 

.a  -* 

■•J  r-t 

O  e8  S 

if! 

100  }^und3  of 
such       Must 
contain  Sug- 
ar, 

100    Litres    of 
such      Must 
weigh, 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

41 

8.0 

206 

64 

14.0 

210 

87 

20.2 

42 

8.3 

(( 

65 

14.2 

<( 

88 

20.4 

215 

43 

8.6 

<( 

66 

14.4 

(t 

89 

20.7 

'• 

44 

8.9 

u 

67 

14.7 

211 

90 

20.9 

" 

45 

9.2 

(( 

68 

15.0 

(1 

91 

21.2 

>■' 

46 

9.4 

(( 

69 

15.2 

u 

92 

21.4 

u 

47 

9.7 

207 

70 

15.5 

" 

93 

21.7 

216 

48 

9.9 

it 

71 

15.8 

a 

94 

21.9 

" 

49 

10.2 

a 

72 

16.1 

212 

95 

22.2 

i( 

50 

10.5 

(1 

73 

16.3  .. 

(( 

96 

22.5 

u 

51 

10.8 

208 

74 

16.0 

" 

97 

22.7 

'• 

52 

11.1 

" 

75 

16.9 

" 

98 

23.0 

217 

53 

11.4 

" 

76 

17.2 

" 

99 

23.2 

" 

54 

11.7 

" 

77 

17.5 

213 

100 

23.4 

" 

55 

11.9 

u 

78 

17.8 

li 

101 

23.7 

a 

56 

12.2 

(( 

79 

18.0 

" 

102 

23.9 

" 

57 

12.5 

209 

80 

18.3 

u 

103 

24.2 

218 

58 

12.7 

a 

81 

18.5 

" 

104 

24.5 

" 

59 

13.0 

" 

82 

18.8 

214 

105 

24.8 

a 

60 

13.2 

•' 

83 

19.1 

" 

106 

25.0 

" 

61 

13.4 

a 

84 

19.4 

" 

107 

25.2 

(( 

62 

13.6 

210 

85 

19.7 

a 

108 

25.4 

219 

63 

13.9 

u 

86 

20.0 

(( 

109 

25.7 

a 

In  order  to  avoid  possible  variations,  it  will  be  well  to  bring 
the  must  up  to  a  temperature  of  14°  Eeaumur  by  putting  the  ves- 
sel containing  the  must  for  a  few  minutes  into  warm  water. 

Artificial  Grape-sugar. 

A  good  must  of  20  per  cent,  weight  of  sugar  parts  contains,  on 
an  average,  76  per  cent,  of  water,  and  leaves,  after  this  has  evap- 
orated, about  24  per  cent,  as  an  extract,  holding  all  the  not  vola- 
tible  ingredients  of  the  grape-juice.  The  sugar,  however,  as  long 
as  it  is  dissolved  in  water,  holds  the  same  relation  as  reducing 
medium  of  the  acids  in  regard  to  the  room  which  it  occupies  in 
the  fluid  as  the  water  itself,  united  to  which  it  forms  the  sugar- 
water.  This  proves  that  a  good  grape  must,  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion to  the  acid,  not  only  contains  76  per  cent,  of  water  and  20  per 
cent,  sugar,  but  96  per  cent,  sugar- water;  these,  however,  will  be 
found,  according  to  the  more  or  less  fiery  wine  (strength  of  alco- 
hol), composed  of  more  sugar  and  less  water  in  the  first  case,  and 
in  the  latter  of  more  water  and  less  sugar. 

Grape-sugar  is  made  by  artificial  means  of  the  starch  of  pota- 
toes, therefore  frequently  called  starch  or  jwiato  sugar.  It  received 
the  name  of  grape-sugar  because  of  its  not  only  being  similar  to 


mi.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        259 

the  article  produced  by  the  grape,  but  in  all  respects  alike.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  better  adapted  to  improve  the  must,  as  its  price  al- 
ways, even  at  very  high  market  value  of  the  potatoes,  ranges  from 
25  to  80  per  cent,  lower  than  common  cane  or  beet  sugar.  The 
artificial,  as  well  as  the  natural  grape-sugar,  is,  in  its  dry  state,  a 
combination  of  six  atoms  of  oxygen,  six  atoms  of  carbon,  arfd  five 
of  hydrogen ;  while  the  common  cane-sugar  contains,  in  its  dry 
state,  five  atoms  of  oxygen,  six  of  carbon,  and  five  of  hydrogen. 

As  an  article  of  merchandise,  we  find  the  artificial  grape-sugar 
in  the  following  forms : 

1.  Thick  liquid,  or  "  sirup,"  of  various  sugar  contents,  and 
therefore  more  or  less  thick  and  transparent ;  white  or  clear  as 
water,  light  yellow  to  brown. 

2.  Consistent,  but,  when  fresh,  more  or  less  wet,  about  like  very 
dry  soap,  from  milk-white  to  light  yellow,  put  up  in  barrels  or 
boxes,  in  form  of  lumps. 

8.  In  the  shape  of  sugar-loaves,  very  hard,  and  from  white  to 
yellowish  color. 

4.  Dry,  (a)  finely  pulverized  and  snow-white,  as  flour-sugar,  (b) 
crumby,  milk  white. 

5.  Crystallized  sugar,  an  invention  of  the  eminent  chemist  Mr. 
Anton,  of  Prague.  In  this  form  it  is  principally  used  for  the  fab- 
rication of  Champagne  wines. 

The  relative  value  of  the  different  kinds  of  sugar  depends  nat- 
urally on  their  real  sugar  parts.  In  100  pounds  of  water-free 
sugar  are  contained  of  these : 

Of  cane  or  beet  sugar 90-93  lbs. 

"  dry  grape-sugar 89-90    " 

"  consistent  grape-sugar 80-84    " 

"  wet  (fresh)        "  75-80    " 

Considering  the  sinq:>,  this  may  be  casilj'  and  accurately  de- 
termined by  the  saccharometer  of  Balling.  The  saccharometer 
is  a  balance-scale  (similar  to  the  must-scale)  that  indicates  by  its 
more  or  less  deep  sinking  into  solutions  of  pure  sugar  how  many 
parts  of  sugar  such  a  solution  contains.  For  instance,  if  it  sinks 
in  a  sirup  warmed  to  14°  Eeaumur  down  to  the  degree-line  of  75, 
it  contains  in  100  pounds  75  pounds  of  pure  sugar. 

In  order  to  examine  in  this  manner  hard  grape-sugar,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  dissolve  10  ounces  of  it  in  90  ounces  of  hot  water,  to 
weigh  the  same  over  again,  and  add  so  many  ounces  of  water  as 
are  wanting  to  make  up  the  100  ounces ;  and  now  the  saccharom- 
eter has  to  be  sunk  into  the  solution.  Had  10  ounces  of  per- 
fectly dry  sugar  been  dissolved  in  90  ounces  of  distilled  water,  the 
instrument  would  sink  down  to  the  tenth  degree-mark ;  i.  e.,  it 
would  mark  10  degrees  of  sugar  parts.  If  it  shows,  however,  but 
8  degrees,  it  becomes  evident  that  the  10  ounces  of  hard  but  still 
wet  sugar  held  only  8  (8173-)  ounces  of  dry,  or  the  examined  grape- 
sugar  was  composed  of  82  per  cent,  sugar  and  18  per  cent,  water. 


260  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Sirups  of  a  darker  color  than  light  yellow  can  only  be  used  in 
the  fabrication  of  red  wines. 

The  Acids  of  the  Must. 

Those  contained  in  the  grape-juice  are  part/ree,  part  combined 
with  earths  and  alkalies,  with  which  they  form  bitter  as  well  as 
neutral  salts.  Only  the  free  and  the  hitter  salts  can  be  detected 
by  the  taste,  and  proved  in  their  total  quantity  in  the  wine. 

The  acid  parts,  besides  deciding  the  palatable  taste  of  the  wine 
present  in  proper  proportions,  also  determine  and  influence,  ac- 
cording to  general  belief,  the  existence  of  many  different  combi- 
nations, and  by  these  the  formation  of  the  aroma  (flavor). 

To  prove  this  supposition,  it  is  said  by  many  that  principally 
those  wines  that  contain  a  great  deal  of  acids  develop  a  rich  bou- 
quet^ while  this  is  almost  entirely  wanting  in  the  southern  wines 
holding  less  acids.  It  seems,  however,  that  in  asserting  this,  the 
bouquet  is  confounded  with  the  wine-smell  appertaining  to  all  the 
wines  of  a  larger  acid  content  than  the  southern  have.  In  this 
connection,  also,  that  part  of  .acids  can  only  be  considered  as  con- 
ditioning the  development  of  the  wine-smell  that  is-  proper  to  those 
wines  in  the  best  season,  because  otherwise  the  over-acid  wines 
of  inferior  seasons  would  have  to  show  the  strongest  wine-smell. 

Hence  follow  the  consequences  of  this  in  favor  of  a  reduction 
of  the  contents  of  acids  of  a  more  than  ordinary  sour  must  upon 
them  in  good  seasons,  the  more  properly,  as  we  know  that  for  a 
long  time  various  articles,  as  chalk,  lime,  potassa,  etc.,  have  been 
used  to  reduce  those  acids.  Ilowever,  the  real  relation  of  these 
free  acids  remained  a  secret  until  that  eminent  chemist,  Dr.  Ltj- 
DERSDORF,  Supplied  this  want,  and  gave  thereby  a  firm  and  secure 
foundation  to  the  art  of  wine  fabrication.  He  recognized  the  fact 
that  the  most  esteemed  wines  (in  other  respects  of  equally  good 
qualities)  were  more  valued  by  their  quantity  of  medium  contents 
of  acid  than  that  of  alcohol.  This  induced  him  to  examine  in  the 
year  1841  about  eighteen  different  sorts  of  wines  of  the  vintage 
of  1834,  and  to  publish  those  results  in  Erdmann^s  Journal  for 
Chemistry^  which  may  be  seen  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

It  will  not  be  amiss  to  add  a  few  remarks  here  for  such  as  have 
no  farther  knowledge  of  the  science  of  chemistry.  ^   ■ 

Acids  and  alkalies  are  characterized  by  their  capacity  of  neu- 
tralizing each  other's  qualities.  For  instance,  acids  change  the 
blue  color  of  litmus  tincture  into  red;  now  to  this  red  fluid  add 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  an  alkali,  and  the  blue  color  will  be  re- 
stored, the  acid  being  neutralized.  The  point  at  which  this  takes 
place  is  called  the  satiating  point.  The  greater  the  quantity  of 
acid  (say  vinegar  or  wine)  which  had  been  added  to  the  litmus 
tincture  in  order  to  recover  it,  the  more  alkali  will  be  required  to 
change  the  color  back  to  blue.  Now,  as  a  certain  quantity  of  al- 
kali is  required  to  neutralize  a  definite  amount  of  a  particular 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMrKOVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 


261 


acid,  tbc  amount  of  acid  can  be  ascertained  by  the  quantity  of  al- 
kali which  was  required  to  satiate  it.  This  calculation  will,  how- 
ever, be  perfectly  accurate  only  when  the  fluid  —  for  instance, 
vinegar — contains  only  one  kind  oi acid.  It  is  different  in  regard 
to  wine.  This  contains  different  Icinds  of  acids,  as  wine-acid  or 
cream  of  tartar,  apple,  grape,  and  acetic  acids,  and  each  of  these 
requires  a  little  different  quantity  of  the  same  alkali  for  its  satia- 
tion. It  is  therefore  impossible  to  determine  with  perfect  accu- 
racy the  quantity  of  the  acids  contained  in  a  wine  or  must  except 
by  a  very  difficult  analysis,  which  is  at  the  same  time  qualitative 
and  quantitative. 


Names  of  the  examined  Wines. 


Haut-SaiUerne  .... 

Haut-Bommes 

Medoc-Bourgcois . 

Haut-Cerocs 

Oppenheimer 

Ungsteiner , 

Forster-Riesling . . . 

Neuberger 

Viersteincr 

Brauneberger 

Markobrunner 

Pisporter 

Leistenwein 

Zeltinger 

Roedelser 

Griinebei-ger 

Naumburger 

Tokaier 


Contents  of 

Contents 

Contents 

Acids  count- 

of Alco- 

of  Ex- 

ed as  Acetic 

tiol  in 

tract  in 

Acid  in  1000 

100 

100 

Parts. 

Parts. 

Parts. 

4.8 

9.7 

2.1 

4.8 

9.5 

1.7 

5.3 

7.4 

1.9 

6.8 

8.5 

2.0 

4.4 

9.8 

i.n 

4.5 

6.7 

1.9^ 

4.8 

9.0 

1.7 

4.9 

6.7 

1.9 

5.2 

8.8 

1.9 

5.2 

7.8 

1.5 

5.3 

7.8 

2.U 

6.5 

6.7 

1.7 

5.7 

7.2 

1.9 

5.7 

7.3 

1.7 

6.1 

8.5 

1.9 

7.8 

6.5 

2.H 

8.3 

6.4 

2.2^ 

5.5 

12.1 

10.62 

J'ricc  per 
Uottle  in 

Berlin,  in 
Silber 

grosclien. 


Reduced 

into 
Dollars 

and 
Cents. 


36 

25 

15 

17i 

30 

30 

25 

25 

25 

20 

60 

15 

30 

12^ 

15 
7^ 
7* 

45 


81 
57 
34 
40 
69 
69 
57 
57 
57 
46 
38 
34 
69 
29 
35 
18 
18 
04 


In  a  purely  scientific  essay,  like  the  one  published  by  Dr.  Lii- 
dersdorf  on  his  examinations,  he  could,  therefore,  not  say,  as  it 
has  been  done  in  the  foregoing  table,  that  the  examined  wines  held 
such  a  portion  of  their  weight  in  acids,  but  only,  using  as  means 
to  neutralize  a  solution  of  ammonia.,  what  quantity  of  this  'proof 
fluid  was  required  to  satiate  the  acids  of  each  of  the  wines  he  ex- 
amined. The  uninitiated,  however,  not  understanding  these  re- 
marks, it  was  deemed,  better  to  substitute  the  numbers  contained 
in  the  third  column  of  the  table,  expressing  the  calculated  acid 
content,  as  acetic  acid,  i.  e.,  the  acid  of  vinegar.  These  remarks 
may  not  be  scientifically  accurate,  but  they  are  sufficiently  accu- 
rate for  practical  use.  The  main  point  being  this :  that  the  same 
quantity  of  a  neutralizing  agent  that  satiates  11.4  pounds  of  acetic 
acid,  will  satiate  12.7  pounds  of  apple  acid,  or  14.25  pounds  of 
wine  acid ;  and  so  a  quantity  of  sugar- water  that  will  sweeten  to 
a  certain  point  of  taste  14.25  pounds  of  wine  acid,  will  bring  to 
the  same  degree  of  sweetness  only  12.7  pounds  of  apple  acid,  or 
11.4  pounds  of  acetic  acid.     Instead,  therefore,  of  expressing  the 


262 


GIUPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 


result  of  our  examination  of  a  must  or  wine  by  saying,  "It  con- 
tains so  many  thousandth  parts  of  free  acid,"  we  should,  in  strict 
correctness,  say,  "  It  requires  such  a  quantity  of  the  proof-fluid  to 
satiate  its  acids,  according  to  Otto's  Acid-Scale." 

By  comparing  the  foregoing  table,  we  find  that  wine-consumers 
estimate  as  good  wines  only  those  whose  contents  of  acids  do  not 
much  exceed  6  parts  in  1000. 

Dr.LUdersdorf's  examinations  would  have  been  still  more  sug- 
gestive if  extended  upon  a  larger  assortment  of  wines  of  a  higher 
content  of  acids.  This  has  been  done  for  Styria  by  Dr.  Hlubeck, 
who  gives  a  table  of  twelve  kinds  of  wines,  of  vintage  1841,  ex- 
amined by  him.  These  examinations  show  evidently  that  the 
influence  of  the  acids  upon  the  price  of  such  wines  is  so  very  un- 
favorable that,  for  instance,  the  one  of  No.  5  is  not  able  to  com- 
pensate for  the  contents  of  acid  only  0.7  per  cent,  higher,  although 
it  is  If  per  cent,  higher  in  alcohol  than  No.  6. 


Names  of  the  Examined  Wines. 


Brandncr 

Wiseller  Drenowezer .... 

Murberger 

Radkersburger 

Johannisberger  Pickerer 

Kerschbacher 

Sandberger 

Wiseller  Johannisberger 

Pettaner  Stadtbcrger 

Sauritscher 

Marburger  Possnicker... 
'•         Koschacker.. 


Contents 

of  Acids 

in  100 

Parts. 

Contents 

ofAlcohol 

in  100 

Parts. 

Pi'ice  per 
Eimer  at  CO 
Quarts,  in  Sil- 
ber  groschen. 

Reduced 
into  Dol- 
lars and 
Cents. 

5.0 

9.8 

240 

$5  52 

6.0 

9.5 

202 

4  65 

5.9 

8.3 

202 

4  65 

6.2 

8.4 

192 

4  42 

6.4 

7.9 

187 

1  90 

7.1 

9.5 

168 

3  86 

7.5 

8.9 

161 

3  70 

8.3 

8.9 

144 

3  31 

8.8 

9.3 

137 

3  15 

9.1 

10.2 

132 

3  03 

11.6 

6.7 

103 

2  36 

12.0 

6.7 

98 

2  25 

As  a  proof  that  it  is  not  the  quality  ov  peculiarity  of  some  of  the 
acids  which  constitutes  their  influence  upon  the  quality  of  the 
wines,  but  principally  the  proportion  of  their  entire  quantity  to 
the  other  main  constituent  parts,  we  have  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Maguer,  mentioned  by  Chaptal,  who  produced  superior  wine  from 
unripe  grapes. 

For  practical  wine  fabrication  it  sufiices  perfectly  to  know  with 
certainty  : 

1.  That  by  the  maturing-process  of  the  grapes  their  sugar  con- 
tents increase,  while  the  acids  decrease ;  that  we  therefore  have  it 
in  our  power  to  improve  them  doubly  by  leaving  them  as  long  as 
possible  on  the  bush. 

2.  That  all  the  wines,  in  order  to  bo  estimated  as  good  and 
palatable,  must  contain  at  least  4^  pro  mille  (thousandth  parts)  of 
free  acids  (counted  as  vinegar  acid),  and  not  more  than  6|. 

3.  That  all  must  containing  more  than  6  thousandths  of  free 
acids  must  be  considered  as  having  not  enough  water  in  proportion 
to  its  acids. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 


263 


Fior.  2. 


4.  That  experience  has  tauglit  us,  for  more  tlian  ten  years,  in 
all  the  different  German  grape  districts,  that  a  proportionable  ad- 
dition of  water  and  sugar  forms  the  means  to  produce,  oven  from 
the  most  sour  must,  as  drinkable  and  as  good  a  wine  as  is  other- 
wise produced  in  good  medium  seasons. 

A  remarkable  attribute  of  the  acid  of  wine  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
reduced  by  a  great  deal  of  water  and  mixed  with  but  little  alco- 
hol, it  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  change  into  acetic  acid,  which 
explains  the  little  durability  of  the  weak  wines  of  inferior  seasons. 
Acetic  acid  is  not  contained  in  rp-aj^es ;  it  is  merely  oxydized  alco- 
hol, and  can  only  be  formed  after  this  is  previously  produced  by 
fermentation. 

Acid  Scales  and  their  Use. 

The  first  instrument  of  this  kind,  invented  by  Mr. 
Otto,  which,  being  based  upon  the  principle  that  the  con- 
tents of  acids  are  estimated  as  those  of  vinegar,  proved 
very  useful,  and  was  generally  adopted.  We  have  at  this 
day,  however,  another  newly-invented  one,  in  Otto's  Acetic 
Acid  Scale  {Fig.  2).  This  is  composed  of  a  glass  tube,  ten 
or  twelve  inches  long  and  half  an  inch  wide,  closed  at  the 
bottom.  This  is  filled  with  blue  litmus  tincture  up  to  the 
line  a.  After  this,  the  must,  previously  filtered,  is  added 
up  to  the  line  0,  taking  care  that  it  is  not  in  a  state  of  fer- 
mentation. By  the  action  of  the  acids  in  the  must,  the 
litmus  tincture,  which  would  retain  its  hlue  color  if  mixed 
with  water,  turns  red  or  rose  color.  Now  if  to  this  fluid  a 
solution  of  ammonia  be  added,  the  tube  being  in  the  mean 
time  shaken  gently  to  promote  the  mixing,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  red  color  changes  to  an  onion-red  or  violet-hlue,  ac- 
cording to  the  greater  or  less  quantity  of  the  neutralizing 
agent.  This,  as  before  stated,  shows  the  perfect  satiation 
of  the  acids,  and  the  degree  line  of  the  fluid  in  the  tube 
shows  the  contents  of  acids  of  the  must  by  whole,  half, 
and  quarter  per  cents,  of  weight.  The  lines  1,  2,  3  mark 
the  whole  percentage,  and  the  lesser  divisions  the  quar- 
ter per  cent. 

This  highly  valuable  instrument  needed  but  a  more . 
commodious  contrivance  to  adapt  it  better  still  to  general 
use.  This  has  been  effected  by  giving  to  it  (as  shown  in  Fig.  3, 
on  the  following  page)  a  little  smaller  diameter,  but  at  the  same 
time  an  exactly  half  as  large  again  cubic  space  to  all  its  divisions. 
By  this  it  becomes  possible  to  divide  each  per  cent,  into  tenths 
instead  of  fourths ;  the  whole  space  above  0,  therefore,  is  divided 
into  thousandths,  and  gives  to  each /)ro  onille  the  same  space — i.  e., 
the  same  space  from  one  dividing  line  to  another — as  the  former 
instrument  offered  for  the  quarter  per  cent,  lines.  The  only  evil 
was,  that  by  the  turning  over  and  shaking  of  the  glass  tube  to 


264 


GRAPE  CULTUEE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


promote  tlie  mixing,  a  little  of 
the  contents  will  adhere  to  the 
skin  of  the  thumb  that  closes 
the  orifice,  which  might  easily 
amount  to  one  half  pro  mille. 

This  fault  is  remedied  by  a 
new  scale,  invented  by  Mr.  Geis- 
ler,  the  patentee  of  the  Vapori- 
meter,  used  to  determine  the  al- 
coholic contents  of  wine.  Figs. 
■i,  5,  and  6  represent  Geisler's 
Scale.  It  is  composed  of  three 
pieces,  all  of  glass,  put  up  in  a 
box.  The  price  is  two  and  a 
half  Prussian  thalers.  Besides 
these  pieces,  three  small  vials 
are  required  in  the  process  of 
examination.  One  of  these  con- 
tains tincture  of  litmus,  anoth- 
er a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac 
(1.369  per  cent.),  and  the  third 
holds  some  of  the  wine  or  must 
to  be  tested.  The  parts  of  the 
Acid-Scale  are  these :  1.  A  Bu- 
rette, or  Graduated  Tube  (Fig.  4), 
which  rests  upon  a  small  wood- 
en stand  to  hold  it  erect ;  2.  A 
Flash  {Fig.  5) ;  and,  3.  A  Pipette, 
or  Suction  Pipe  {Fig.  6). 

The  manner  of  examination 
is  as  follows : 

Bringing  first  the  must  to  the 
normal  temperature  of  14°  R., 
and  the  litmus  tincture  also  to 
the  same ;  put  then  of  both,  by 
means  of  the  pipette,  exactly  the 
necessary  quantity  into  the  flask 
by  alternately  filling  the  pipette 
at  first  up  to  the  division  line  A 
with  the  litmus  tincture,  and 
then,  when  this  has  run  out  into 
the  flask,  with  must  up  to  the 
line  B.  To  fill  the  pipette,  hold 
its  orifice  into  the  glass  with  the  tincture  or  must,  and  suck,  by 
applying  the  mouth  to  it,  the  fluid  up  to  a  little  above  the  proper 
division  line ;  then  quickly  close  the  upper  orifice  by  the  thumb, 
and  allow,  by  alternately  closing  and  opening  the  orifice,  the  tinc- 
ture or  must  to  enter  the  glass  until  the  tincture  stands  exactly 


Geuler's  Acid-Scalo. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        £65 

on  tlic  line  A,  or  the  must  on  B.  In  the  introduction  of  these 
fluids  into  the  flask,  the  last  drops  must  be  ejected  by  blowing 
into  the  pipette.  Then,  with  the  right  hand,  place  the  thinner 
tube  of  the  burette  into  the  phial  containing  the  solution  of  am- 
monia, and,  applying  the  orifice  of  the  wider  tube  to  the  mouth, 
fill  it  by  sucking  exactly  up  to  the  division  line  0  of  the  scale ; 
then  take  the  flask  between  the  thumb  and  second  finger  of  the 
right  hand,  placing  the  smaller  tube  of  the  burette  into  the  mouth 
of  the  flask,  which  is  to  be  shaken  continually ;  put  the  solution 
of  ammonia,  drop  by  drop,  into  the  flask,  from  the  burette,  until 
the  red  color  of  the  fluid  begins  to  change  to  blue,  or  until  it  has 
assumed  the  deep  hluisli-red  of  the  onion.  This  appearance  shows 
that  the  acids  have  been  satiated.  This  having  been  ascertained, 
hold  the  burette  perpendicularly  and  see  how  much  ammonia  has 
been  consumed,  that  is,  to  what  division  line  of  the  scale  the  bu- 
rette has  been  emptied.  The  acid  contents  of  the  examined  must 
are  in  relation  to  the  quantity  of  the  proof  fluid  consumed  in  this 
manner,  that  the  larger  division  lines  which  have  the  numbers  1, 
2,  3,  etc.,  indicate  so  many  thousandth  parts,  and  the  smaller  lines 
indicate  ten  thousandth  parts. 

Before  getting  used  to  the  handling  of  this  instrument,  it  will 
be  well  to  make  examination  of  the  must  by  litmus  paper.  To  do 
this,  when  the  mixture  in  the  bottle  begins  to  turn  blue,  thrust 
the  end  of  a  small  slip  of  blue  litmus  paper  about  half  an  inch 
deep  into  it,  and  let  immediately  after  the  inserted  end  glide  be- 
tween the  thumb  wetted  with  water  and  the  second  finger.  So 
long  as  the  acids  are  not  perfectly  satiated,  the  inserted  end  of  the 
paper  will  appear  more  or  less  reddish;  and  the  satiating  point  is 
not  attained  until  the  proof-paper  remains  blue  immediately  after 
the  cleaning. 

In  examining  red  must,  the  proceeding  is  to  be  modified  in 
the  following  manner :  Instead  of  litmus  tincture,  fill  the  pipette 
with  ivaier  up  to  the  line  A,  and  bring  this  into  the  flask.  After 
adding  the  necessary  quantity  of  must,  pour  dropwise,  shaking  it 
from  the  very  outset,  four  2}ro  milks  of  solution  of  ammonia  into 
the  mixture,  and  prove  it,  as  well  as  after  each  successive  neces- 
sary addition  of  ammonia,  with  litmus  paper,  until  it  no  longer 
reddens  when  cleaned.  A  few  trials  will,  however,  suf&ce  to 
make  one  quite  proficient  in  the  use  of  the  instrument. 

As  it  has,  however,  frequently  happened  that  an  addition  of 
water  has  been  made  ad  libitum,  it  may  be  well  to  give  yet  an- 
other manner  by  which  one  may  tolerably  well  rely  on  the  taste 
of  the  tongue.  This  needs  nothing  but  two  glass  bottles,  each 
one  holding  a  little  more  than  two  and  a  half  quarts,  and  marked 
A  and  B,  in  order  not  to  confound  them.  Farthermore,  a  few 
tin  measures,  one  of  which  must  hold  one  quart,  the  other  one 
half,  and  the  third  exactly  one  twentieth  of  a  quart,  each  having 
a  handle  and  a  spout ;  also  two  small  tin  funnels,  one  for  each 


266  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


• 


bottle.  "When  the  acids  of  a  must  are  to  be  examined,  one  quart 
of  must,  previously  filtered  through  linen,  is  to  be  measured  oft' 
into  each  bottle  (it  would  be  well  if'  the  must  was  freshly  pressed). 
After  this,  add  cold  water  to  it  in  both  bottles,  in  small,  exactly 
equal  portions,  until,  shaking  the  mixture  in  the  bottle  marked  A 
before  each  new  addition,  and  then  proving,  the  acid  be  found 
reduced  to  the  right  proportion,  i.  e.,  agreeable  to  the  taste.  For 
adding  the  water,  use  the  one-twentieth-quart  vessel;  take  the 
proofs  only  out  from  A,  and  only  so  much  as  is  necessary  to 
taste  it. 

The  acids  of  the  must  being  sufficiently  reduced,  the  contents 
of  bottle  B  must  be  accurately  measured,  by  which  it  becomes  ev- 
ident how  much  water  has  been  added  to  the  must,  and  exactly  so 
much  sugar-ioater  has  to  be  added  to  the  must  in  wholesale  that 
is  to  be  improved.  If,  for  instance,  the  mixture  in  B  is  l-j^  quarts, 
then  to  each  quart  of  must  t%  quart  of  sugar- water  is  to  be  added ; 
60  quarts  of  sugar- water,  that  is,  to  100  of  must. 

Now  we  have  still  to  deal  with  another  question,  "  Of  how 
much  sugar  and  how  much  water  has  the  sugar-water  to  be  com- 
posed?" 

To  answer  this,  we  must  ascertain  the  weight  of  100  quarts  of 
must  or  water.     The  following  table  will  aid  to  find  this  out : 

100  pounds  (ZoUp/und)  are  equal  to 

33  maas  of  Baden,  50  kans  of  Holland, 

50       "       Bavaria,  29  maas  of  Nassau, 

54  quai"tier  of  Brunswick,  25       "       Austria, 

28  maas  of  Frankfort,  43  quarts  of  Prussia, 

50  litres  of  France,  32  visii-kans  of  Saxony, 

51  quartier  of  Hanover,  33  maas  of  Switzerland, 
25  maas  of  Electoral  Hesse,  60  halbe  of  Hungary, 

29  "       Hesse-Darmstadt  28  hellaichmaas  of  Wiirtemburg. 

We  have  farther  to  determine  the  contents  of  sugar  of  the  must 
by  Oechsle's  Must-Scale  and  table.  For  instance,  if  this  shows  68 
degrees,  the  sugar  contents,  according  to  the  table,  will  be  15  per 
cent.  If  it  is  to  be  brought  up  to  20  per  cent.,  we  have  to  add 
5  pounds  of  sugar  to  every  100  pounds  of  must,  and  to  every  200 
pounds  of  must,  therefore,  10  pounds  of  sugar.  Of  water  (or,  more 
properly,  sugar- water),  as  we  previously  have  shown,  must  be  add- 
ed 60  maas,  or  120  pounds.  Because  this  must  contains  20  per 
cent,  of  sugar,  therefore  in  120  pounds  of  this  will  be  contained 
24  pounds  of  sugar.  In  the  whole,  therefore,  100  Bavarian  maas 
of  must  require  31  jDOunds  of  sugar.  These,  deducted  from  tlie 
120  pounds  of  sugar-water  which  must  be  added,  it  is  evident 
that,  of  ivater^  we  have  to  add  86  pounds,  and  the  sugar-water  is 
therefore  to  be  composed  of  31  pounds  sugar  and  86  pounds  (or 
43  Bavarian  maas)  of  ivater. 

The  Salts. 
All  combinations  of  acids  with  a  "  basis"  are  called  salts.     By 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        207 

dissolving  such  a  combination  (for  instance,  common  salt,  or  cream 
of  tartar)  in  a  fluid,  and  leaving  it  quietly  in  a  warm  place  until 
this  has  evaporated,  it  will  be  a  salt  remaining  in  small  crystals. 
The  salts  dissolved  in  must  and  wine  are,  however,  very  different, 
according  to  the  ingredients  of  the  soil  on  which  the  grapes  grew. 
Besides  cream  of  tartar,  we  know  now  yet  sulphate  of  potassa, 
soda,  tartrate  of  potassa,  of  alumina,  tartrate  of  iron,  chlorate  of 
magnesia,  and  phosphate  of  magnesia.  One  and  the  same  spe- 
cies of  grapes  can  therefore,  according  to  its  native  soil,  con- 
tain, besides  cream  of  tartar,  also  salts  of  different  kinds,  in  a 
greater  or  smaller  proportion.  This  furnishes  another  proof  that 
no  one  of  all  forms  a  necessary  ingredient  of  a  good  wine.  A 
strong  content  of  salts  depends  always  on  a  very  salty  soil  or  the 
employed  manure.  A  very  detrimental  influence  upon  the  taste 
of  wines  have  the  salts  of  grapes  that  grew  on  a  soil  rich  in  ni- 
trate of  potassa,  nitrate  of  lime,  magnesia,  and  ammoniacal  salts. 
The  must  of  those  ought  always  to  be  brought  up  to  a  sugar  con- 
tent of  28  to  30  per  cent.,  in  order  to  exclude  a  larger  part  of  the 
injurious  salts  by  increasing  the  alcoholic  contents  of  the  wine. 

The  main  usefulness  of  some  salts,  as,  for  instance,  cream  of 
tartar,  common  salt,  the  bitter  salts,  is  their  imparting  to  the  wine 
a  softeningj  opening  quality. 

The  Oummy  {Slimy)  Parts. 

Their  presence  in  the  wine  retards  only  their  clearing  off,  where- 
fore it  will  always  be  prudent  to  remove  them  as  much  as  possi- 
ble before  the  fermentation  by  clearing  off  the  slime  from  the 
must,  thereby  removing,  at  the  same  time,  many  other  stuffs  not 
destined  by  nature  for  the  producing  of  wine,  also  the  dirt  and 
dust  that  may  have  fallen  into  it. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  ^'■gelatinic  acicV  Fortunately,  it 
is  partly  removed  by  the  fermentation,  partly  settling  itself  in  the 
wine  with  the  superfluous  Tcali  (potassa)  and  alkaline  earths  (lime), 
with  which  it  enters  into  indissoluble  combinations.  By  the 
cleaning  process  it  is,  for  the  most  part,  removed. 

T'hc  Coloring  Matter. 

Only  one  kind  of  grapes  is  known  that  has  a  red-colored  juice 
— the  "  Faerber  grape."  All  others,  whether  red,  blue,  or  black, 
have  the  red  coloring  matter  only  in  their  skins.  Its  nature  is 
rosin,  and  therefore  indissoluble  in  must  as  long  as  no  fermenta- 
tion of  alcohol  in  it  has  taken  place.  For  this  reason,  the  red, 
blue,  or  black  grapes  produce  only  white  wine  if  the  skins  are 
thrown  out  before  the  fermentation.  If  these,  however,  are  al- 
lowed to  share  the  fermentation,  the  alcohol  forming  during  it  will 
dissolve  the  coloring  matter.  This  it  does  the  more  effectually, 
and  the  wine  gets  the  darker,  the  more  sugar  the  must  contained 
(the  more  alcohol  was  formed).    Besides  this,  the  wine  will  turn 


268  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

out  the  darker  the  less  acids  it  holds,  because  these  change  the 
deep  reddish-hlue  into  red. 

A  not  too  large  addition  of  water  (with  a  corresponding  of  sug- 
ar) will  therefore  not  reduce  the  color  of  the  wine,  but  make  it 
frequently  appear  darker. 

By  frequent  connection  with  the  air  the  coloring  matter  oxy- 
dizcs,  turns  brown-red,  and  separates  itself  by-and-by  from  the 
wine.  The  filling  of  red  wines  from  one  cask  into  another  ought, 
therefore,  always  to  be  attended  with  great  care.  By  adding  a 
little  cream  of  tartar,  the  change  of  color  may,  however,  be  stop- 
ped, or  itself  renewed. 

The  green  color  of  the  white  or  yellow  grapes  is  formed  by  a 
coloring  matter,  contained  as  well  in  the  juice  as  skin,  called 
"leaf green,"  or  " chlorophill."  The  reason  why,  out  of  green 
must,  wine  of  more  or  less  light  or  dark  yellow  color  is  produced, 
lies  in  the  larger  or  smaller  contents  of  lime  of  the  soil  that  those 
grapes  grew  on. 

The  Nitrogenic  Comhinaiions  and  the  Ferment. 

These  (vegetable  albumen,  etc.),  perfectly  dissolved  in  the  must 
as  well  as  wine,  attain,  under  particular  circumstances,  the  faculty 
of  originating  the  fermentation  by  whose  action  (and  this  is  about 
all  we  know)  the  must  changes  into  wine.  A  great  many  of  the 
yeast  stuffs,  not  being  consumed,  remain,  however,  and  our  white 
wines  especially  appear  to  be  apt  to  retain  them  in  so  much,  often 
that,  even  after  being  kept  for  years,  they  will  work  again,  and 
form  anew  a  kind  of  fermentation.  The  red  wines  retain  consid- 
erably less.  The  yeast  stuff  remaining  in  the  wine  effects,  after 
all  the  sugar  is  dissolved,  the  alcohol  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
former,  so  that,  as  this  by  combination  with  oxygen  forms  the 
yeast,  the  alcohol  with  oxygen  forms  the  acid  of  vinegar. 

The  Flavor  Matters. 

Besides  the  particular  agreeable  ivine  smell  shared  by  all  grape 
wines,  some  of  them  have  still  another  flavor,  similar  to  that  of 
the  grape  blossom,  generally  called  "  aroma,  jloioer,  bouquet.''''  It 
only  develops  itself  during  the  fermentation,  and  the  more  and 
stronger  the  richer  the  grapes  were  in  sugar.  It  is  probable  that 
the  alcohol  of  the  wine  effects  greatly  the  so-called  bouquet  stuff 
(though  this  itself  is  as  great  a  secret),  as  we  know  the  more  sug- 
ar in  the  must  the  more  alcohol  is  formed. 

The  Extractive  Matters. 

These  comprise  all  those  parts  of  the  wine  that  are  not  vola- 
tile ;  that  is  to  say,  the  remaining  parts  of  the  wine  after  all  oth- 
ers have  evaporated,  as  water,  alcohol,  acid  of  vinegar,  etc.  The 
value  of  the  wine  is  not  affected  by  them,  or  only  to  a  very  small 
degree. 


DK.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.         269 

After  tlius  examining  the  composing  parts  of  the  grape-juice 
and  their  main  features,  we  justly  conclude  that  none  of  them  but 
the  acids,  the  sugar,  and  the  water  are  indispensable  for  the  fabri- 
cation of  wine,  the  others  merely  aiding. 


VI. 

PROGRESS  OP  WINE  FABRICATION  SINCE  1850. 

In  France  we  see  a  lady,  Mrs.  Cora  Millet,  a  landed  proprie- 
tress, taking  the  lead  in  adapting  a  rational  manner  to  increase 
the  quantity  of  the  wine  by  more  than  five  per  cent,  without 
harming  its  quality.  Soon  others,  convinced  by  the  good  results, 
followed  in  the  wake.  In  the  year  1856  a  distinct  class  was 
founded  at  the  Eoyal  College  at  Dijon,  the  capital  city  of  the  rich 
Burgundy  district,  for  the  instruction  of  students  in  the  applica- 
tion of  chemistry  to  the  culture  of  the  grape. 

In  this  the  diiBferent  newly-invented  methods  of  making  and 
increasing  the  wine  are  clearly  discussed  and  taught,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  based  upon  proportionate  additions  of  sugar  and  water. 
A  similar  class  was  founded  at  Rheims,  the  capital  of  the  Cham- 
pagne district. 

OalVs  Procedure  and  Improvemeyits. 

The  main  principles  upon  which  my  system  of  making  very 
good  medium  luines,  even  from  unripe  grapes^  is  founded,  are : 

1.  All  grapes  have  within  themselves  the  materials  necessary 
to  produce  wine. 

2.  These  materials  are  sugar,  water,  and  free  acids. 

8.  Only  perfectly  ripe  grapes  have  them  in  proper  proportions. 

4.  All  grapes  less  ripe  contain  too  little  water  and  sugar  in 
proportion  to  their  acids. 

5.  Must  of  not  fully  ripe  grapes  can  be  improved  by  adding  the 
deficient  water  and  sugar. 

6.  The  other  parts  of  the  juice  are  always  present  in  sufficient 
quantity. 

7.  The  price  of  the  wines  is,  in  general,  more  regulated  by  a 
medium  degree  of  acids  of  no  more  than  six,  and  not  less  than  four 
pro  milles,  than  by  a  higher  degree  of  alcohol  than  eight  per  cent. 

The  art  of  producing  from  grapes  7iot  fidly  matured  a  wine 
equally  as  good  and  of  increased  quantity  as  from  fully  ripe  ones 
of  the  same  locality  and  species,  is  therefore  mainly  founded  upon 
the  method  of  bringing  the  sugar,  water,  and  acids  of  the  must 
into  the  relations  in  which  they  would  be  in  fully-matured  grapes 
of  one  and  the  same  kind  and  locality  in  a  superior  season. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  review  once  more  the  feasibility 


270  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

of  the  recommended  method  of  improving  and  increasing  the  wine. 
As  a  main  point,  we  have  to  bear  in  mind  that  we  are  obUged  to 
calculate  or  find  out  the  weight  of  the  must  and  the  water,  be- 
cause we  can  not  otherwise  determine  the  quantity  of  sugar  and 
the  acids.  Let  us  now  take,  for  instance,  two  kinds  of  must  of 
different  quality  as  an  illustration : 

The  good  one  shall  be  composed  of  262  pounds  of  sugar,  5.9 
pounds  of  acids,  and  732.1  pounds  of  water.  The  inferior  one  of 
110  pounds  of  sugar,  9  pounds  of  acids,  and  881  pounds  of  water. 

We  have  here  a  wide  difference  in  the  three  main  materials,  the 
latter  must,  compared  to  the  former,  containing  too  little  sugar 
and  apparently  too  much  water,  also  by  far  too  large  a  quantity 
of  acids.  In  order  to  bring  it  up  to  the  standard  of  the  good  must, 
and  to  know  how  much  sugar  and  other  substances  we  have  to 
add,  let  us  try  to  find  out  by  a  simple  calculation  : 

(a.)  Query. — If  in  a  good  quality  of  must  5.9  pounds  of  acids 
require  732.1  pounds  of  water,  how  much  water  need  the  9  pounds 
of  acids  of  the  inferior  ? 

Answer. — 5.9 :  732.1  =  9 :  1116.76  ;  or,  leaving  out  the  fraction, 
1117  pounds. 

{b.)  Query. — If  a  good  must  holds  262  pounds  of  sugar  to  5.9 
pounds  of  acids,  how  many  pounds  of  sugar  do  the  9  pounds  of 
acids  of  the  inferior  require  ? 

Answer. — 5.9 :  262  =  9 :  399.65 ;  or,  leaving  out  the  fraction,  400 
pounds. 

In  order,  therefore  to  be  qualitatively  equal  to  the  good  must, 
the  raw  one  must  be  composed  of 

1117  lbs.  Water,  400  lbs.  Sugar,  9  \hs.Acids. 

It  contains _881   "        "       110  "        "    _9   "       " 

Andmeds "236  "        "       290  ~ 

Making  an  increase  of  520  pounds  to  the  must,  or  more  than  52 
per  cent. 

A  natural  must  of  72°  Oechsle's  Scale =16  per  cent,  of  sugar, 
and  5  per  cent,  of  acids,  may  safely  be  considered  the  most  proper 
standard  by  which  to  regulate  the  main  materials  of  the  inferior 
ones.     Such  a  standard  must  has 
160  pounds  of  sugar. 
6         "         acids. 
835         "         water. 
lUOO  pounds. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-]VLA.KING.        271 

VII. 
GALL'S  REFORMATIONS  IN  WINE-MAKING. 

Having  devoted,  says  Dr.  Gall,  considerable  time  and  pains 
to  experimenting  on  wines,  and  different  methods  of  making  and 
ameliorating  them,  I  came,  in  tlic  year  1828,  upon  the  idea  to  try 
whether  I  could  not  produce  a  drinkable  wine  without  using  any 
grapes  at  all  for  the  purpose ;  and,  verily,  I  succeeded  far  beyond 
expectation.  I  took  nothing  but  grape-twigs  chopped  into  pieces, 
ancl  allowed  them  to  ferment  with  half  an  ohm  of  sugar-water. 
The  result  was  a  very  palatable  wine.  This  experiment  proved 
to  me  that  even  toialhj  unripe  grapes  have  not  only  too  much 
acids,  but  too  little  water  and  too  little  sugar  in  proportion  to  their 
acid  parts,  and  that  it  would  be  an  unwise  policy  to  extract  acids 
from  a  too  sour  must,  but  that  water  should  be  added  instead,  just 
in  the  same  way  as  it  is  to  be  added  to  a  must  very  rich  in  sug- 
ar to  reduce  its  acids,  and  to  make  the  wine  produced  from  it 
drinkable.  I  believed,  therefore,  also,  that  the  acids  of  the  grapes 
were  a  very  valuable  part  of  them,  especially  in  unfavorable  sea- 
sons. 

In  subsequent  years  I  madere  peated  experiments  by  adding 
sugar-water  to  musts,  thereby  not  only  increasing  this  in  quan- 
tity by  20  and  80  per  cent,  but  also  improving  their  quality.  In 
the  district  of  Leutesdorf  (which  only  produces  in  most  of  its  sites 
a  very  inferior  grape)  I  had,  in  the  year  1831,  six  casks  to  exper- 
iment on. 

I  numbered  them  from  A  to  F,  their  cubic  space  differing  but 
slightly.  A  was  filled  with  6  ohm  of  must,  pressed  from  grapes 
without  selection :  the  sugar  parts  of  it  amounted  to  15^  per 
cent. ;  B  with  6  ohm  of  selected  ripe  grapes,  with  sugar  parts  of 
17|-  per  cent. ;  C  with  5^  ohm  of  must  of  selected  ripe  grapes,  with 
an  addition  of  50  lbs.  of  grape-sugar :  after  this  became  dissolved 
in  the  must  its  sugar  contents  were  19^  per  cent. ;  D  with  6  ohm, 
made  of  the  selected  rotten  and  half-ripe  grapes :  its  sugar  part 
13  per  cent.;  E  with  5J  ohm  of  the  same  quality  of  must  as  the 
latter,  with  an  addition  of  100  lbs.  of  grape-sugar :  sugar  contents 
18  per  cent. ;  F  with  5  ohm  of  the  same  must,  with  an  addition 
of  f  ohm  of  water  and  125  lbs.  of  grape-sugar :  sugar  contents  18 
per  cent. 

After  the  fermentation  was  over,  all  the  casks  were  filled  up 
with  wine  of  the  same  quality  as  that  of  A. 

The  next  public  sale  demonstrated  the  benefits  derived  from 
this  process.  The  following  tables  show  the  prices  brought  by 
the  wines  prepared  by  these  processes,  the  gain  actually  realized, 
and  that  which  would  have  accrued  had  all  been  similarly  treated. 
The  sums  are  expressed  in  Prussian  thalers. 


272  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

A.  Natural  wine 53 

B.  Wine  of  ripe  and  sound  grapes 87 

C.  The  same,  with  50  lbs.  of  sugar lOl 

D.  Of  raisin-iike  and  half-ripe  grapes 26 

E.  The  same,  with  100  lbs.  of  sugar 68 

F.  The  same,  with  125  lbs.  of  sugar  and  J  ohm  of  water 82 

417 
From  this  are  to  be  deducted,  for  the  picking  out  of  the  ripe  grapes,  for  275  lbs. 
of  sugar,  and  for  divers  labor 30 

Leaving  for  the  G  casks  of  wine 387 

To  which  must  be  added  the  price  of  about  i  ohm  of  must  saved  by  the  addi- 
tion of  sugar .". 10 

The  total  proceeds  of  the  G  casks  were  therefore 397 

If  these  improvements  had  not  been  added,  the  G  casks  would  have  been  like 

that  of  A,  bringing  (53xG) 318 

The  net  gain,  by  improving  the  must,  was  therefore,  in  Prussian  thalers 89 

This  gain  would  have  been  considerably  larger  if  these  im- 
provements had  been  employed  on  all  the  grapes,  as  the  follow- 
ing calculation  shows : 

For  A,  if  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  F,  at  least  the  same  price ;   an  addi- 
tion of. 29 

For  B,  if  mixed  with  50  lbs.  of  sugar,  the  same  price  as  for  C ;  an  addition  of..     14 

For  D,  if  treated  as  F,  the  same  price,  an  addition  of. 56 

For  E,  on  the  same  supposition 14 

Besides,  1  ohm  of  must  would  have  been  saved  at  A,  i  ohm  at  B,  1  ohm  at  D, 
and  2  ohm  at  F  •  three  ohm  in  all,  which,  by  the  same  treatment  as  at  E, 

would  have  given 49 

Total  increase 162 

Deduct  from  this  the  price  of  500  lbs.  of  sugar  that  would  have  been  added 46 

And  there  would  have  been  a  gain  of. 116 

Add  to  this  the  former  gain  of 89 

And  there  would  have  been  a  net  gain,  by  applying  the  improvement  to  all  the 
G  casks,  of  Prussian  thalers 205 

This  would  have  been  still  farther  considerably  increased  if 
the  acid  parts  had  been  reduced  to  their  proper  proportions ;  but 
of  this  I  had  at  the  time  no  idea.  It  was  not  until  the  year  1850 
that  I  published  my  essay  "  0)i  the  Manne?^  of  Malcing  very  good 
medium  Wines  even  from  um-ipe  Qrapes,^^  and  had  afterward  the 
satisfaction  of  receiving  numerous  written  acknowledgments  from 
many  societi|^  and  individuals  of  its  entire  practicability. 


YIII. 

PREPARATIONS  FOR  THE  VINTAGE. 

Knowing  that  Nature  does  not  in  all  seasons  allow  the  fullest 
state  of  maturity  to  be  attained  by  the  grapes,  and  therefore  the 
proper  formation  of  the  sugar  parts,  it  becomes  our  policy  to  try 
at  least  to  gain  all  of  these  out  of  them  as  far  as  possible.     Better 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        273 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Fig.  0. 


274  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

than  by  pressing,  which  always  leaves  a  certain  proportion  within 
the  grapes,  we  obtain  this  end  by  extracting  it  by  water. 

The  simple  apparatus  for  this  purpose  we  find  represented  in 
Fig.  10  (page  276),  in  a  perpendicular  j^rofile.  In  its  main  fea- 
ture it  is  composed  of  a  barrel  standing  upright,  whose  inner  space 
is  partitioned  off  by  inlay-bottoms.  These  divisions  are  filled 
with  musted  grapes  up  to  four  fifths  of  their  height,  after  which 
die  must  is  let  in  under  the  sink-bottom  A,  through  the  tube  iv,  u\ 
that  is  connected  with  the  funnel  x,  and  so  allowed  to  enter  the 
interstices  of  the  crushed  grapes.  After  the  barrel,  which  may  be 
called  the  "-Elr/roctor,"  has  been  filled  in  this  manner  with  must 
up  to  the  height  of  the  proof-tube  o,  water  is  passed  to  the  must 
through  the  funnel,  and  this  latter  fluid  will  be  pressed  upward 
through  the  intervals  of  the  grape  residue  and  the  proof-tube  by 
the  action  of  the  water,  that,  without  being  able  to  mix  itself  with 
the  must,  takes  its  place  in  the  same  proportion  as  this  flows  out. 
Immediately  after  the  last  drop  of  the  must  has  been  driven  out, 
the  first  drop  of  water  will  appear. 

"We  will  now  see  what  farther  implements  have  to  be  prepared 
in  order  to  be  fully  in  readiness  to  make  the  most  profit  out  of 
the  vintage : 

One  or  more  wicker  baskets,  to  hold  the  gathered  berries  {Figs. 
7  and  8). 

One  or  two  tubs  (A,  Fig.  9),  to  crusli  the  grapes  in. 

Some  ivooden  pestles  (C,  Fig.  9). 

A  copper  or  iron  kettle,  to  boil  the  water  in  and  dissolve  the 
grape-sugar. 

A  chopping-form  and  a  cutting-knife,  to  cut  the  grape-sugar 
that  may  be  found  in  hard  lumps. 

A  decimal-scale. 

Baskets  with  two  handles,  and  numbered,  to  hold  the  cut  sugar. 

Tin  buckets,  skimmers,  and  dippers. 

Two  small  hand-tubs,  to  carry  the  sugar  solution  to  the  barrels. 

A  portable  ladder,  with  five  or  six  steps,  to  be  placed  on  the 
tubs. 

A  whip  to  stir  and  beat  the  sugar  solution  into  the  must. 

The  necessary  number  of  fermentation-tubes  {Fig.  13,  and  u, 
Fig.  10). 

A  thermometer. 

A  must-scale  {Fig.  1,  page  257). 

An  acid-sco,le  {Fig.  3,  page  264). 

A  spirit  lamp,  with  a  small  tin  pan  to  heat  the  must  whose 
acids  are  to  be  examined. 

After  all  these  instruments  are  properly  cleaned,  and  the  nec- 
essary barrels  put  in  their  places,  these  are  numbered  A,  B,  etc., 
and  a  book  is  made  with  a  separate  leaf  for  each  barrel  to  hold 
the  respective  notices  thereon. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.       275 

IX. 

THE  OCCUPATIONS  IN  THE  PRESS-HOUSE. 

Here  we  have  the  task  of  transforming  the  grapes  which  we 
receive  from  the  vineyard  into  the  most  adapted  state  for  produ- 
cing wine.  Three  principal  operations  will  be  wanted  to  bring 
the  grapes  to  fermentation  in  either  a  crushed  state,  as  "wcwA," 
or  their  juice  only  as  "must:" 

1.  The  picking  off' the  berries  from  their  pedicles. 

2.  The  crushing  of  the  grapes. 

3.  The  pressing^  which  is  either  done  before  or  after  the  fer- 
mentation, to  gain  as  much  as  possible  of  the  wine,  in  the  first  in- 
stance as  "must,"  in  the  latter  as  "young  wine." 

Dr.  Gall  says :  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  the  picking  off  of  the 
berries  ought  always  to  be  done,  if  the  skins  and  seeds  are  to  share 
the  fermentation  in  the  employment  of  a  sugar  and  water  addi- 
tion. I  also  consider  it  prudent  to  allow  the  "  combs"  to  ferment 
only  partially,  and  to  draw  off  the  young  wines  from  the  husks 
not  later  than  fourteen  days  after  the  main  fermentation  has  set 
in.  Experience  has  shown  that  wines  that  had  fermented  with 
the  "combs"  left  when  still  green,  kept,  even  for  a  year  after,  a 
peculiar  taste,  owing,  it  seems,  to  a  particular  bitter,  not  easily 
soluble  matter  therein  contained,  besides  the  usual  tannic  acid. 
Many  wine  districts  do  not  crush  their  grapes  at  all,  but  bring 
them  directly  from  the  vineyard  to  the  press.  Under  all  circum- 
stances, it  seems,  however,  preferable,  and  especially  recommend- 
able  if  the  crushed  grapes  are  to  ferment  in  closed  vessels. 

The  manner  of  crushing  the  berries  differs  a  little  in  regard  to 
white  and  red  ones,  and  according  as  one  wants  to  produce  only 
juice  wine,  or  also  husk  wine.  We  will  here  only  consider  the 
management  of  the  white  grapes. 

The  "  crushing  apparatus"  [crusher],  Fig.  9,  page  273,  is  composed 
of  the  "  crushing-tub''^  A,  of  about  3  feet  diameter  and  20  inches 
high,  whose  bottom  is  perforated  by  about  150  holes,  each  2  inch- 
es wide.  These  latter  have  to  be  burned  out  with  a  red-hot  iron 
to  an  upper  width  of  2^  inches,  and  a  lower  of  4.  inches.  The 
tub  rests  upon  two  blocks  (&,  h)  above  the  ^'- juice-tuV  (B),  upon 
which,  on  both  sides  of  tub  A,  foot-boards  (o,  c)  are  placed  for  the 
man  that  has  to  crush  the  berries  by  the  aid  of  a  wooden  pestle 
(C),  avoiding,  however,  as  much  as  possible  the  breaking  of  the 
seeds. 

If  only  the  juice  of  the  grapes  is  wanted,  it  needs  but  to  bring 
the  vineyard  into  the  receiving-tubs,  and  from  these  into  the 
crushing-tub,  in  such  portions  as  are  wanted.  After  the  grapes 
have  been  crushed,  the  husks  are  taken  from  the  bottom  and  car- 
ried to  the  press.     The  juice  here  produced  is  then  put  into  the 


276 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Fig.  10. 


-IU£  EXTBAOTOB. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        277 

barrels  destined  for  it,  and  cither  mixed  at  once  witli  the  sugar 
necessary  to  improve  it,  or,  which  appears  better,  this  may  be 
done  after  the  main  fermentation  is  finished.  In  both  cases,  each 
barrel  has  to  be  provided  with  {x  fermeniation-iuhe^  and  left  to  its 
action. 

Otherwise  the  husks  can  be  trodden  into  their  respective  barrels 
as  soon  as  a  portion  is  crushed  out.  It  is  also  well  to  do  this  at 
once,  because  if  it  is  well  done  they  will  keep  for  several  months, 
and  yet  make  a  good  husk  wine. 

The  Manner  of  Extracting. 

A  different  method  is  employed  in  cases  when  from  white 
grapes  not  only  juice  wine  is  to  be  made,  but  the  husks  also  used, 
when  still  fresh,  to  produce  husk  wine. 

We  will  first  give  a  little  closer  description  of  the  already-men- 
tioned apparatus  {Fvj.  10)  necessary  for  this :  a  a  are  the  sides  of 
the  barrel  in  profile ;  Z>,  its  lower,  c,  its  upper  bottom.  The  four 
Fig.  11.  upper  hoops  are  connected  by  screws 

{Fig.  11).     By  loosening  these  four 
screws  a  little,  j,.    ^^ 

the  staves  sepa- 
rate so  far  that 
the  upper  lid,  c,  may  be  easily  taken  out  and 
readjusted.  Fig.  12  represents  a  section  of 
the  lid,  c,  and  of  the  staves,  a.  When  the 
edge  of  the  lid  has  been  placed  in  the  groove, 
e,  of  the  staves,  a  slip  of  gutta  percha  about 
two  inches  wide  is  inserted  in  the  joint  so 
as  to  close  it  effectually,  and  the  screws  are 
tightened. 

The  inner  space  of  each  extracting  barrel  is  divided  into  three 
compartments  {Fig.  10, 1,  II,  III)  by  four  movable  bottoms  (A, 
B,  C,  D).  The  upper  sides  of  three  of  these  inlay  bottoms  are 
shown  in  Figs.  15,  16,  17,  the  letters  corresponding  with  those  of 
Fig.  10,  p.  276.  Fig.  15,  A  is  a  sunk  bottom,  with  six  sticks, 
round  or  square,  fixed  therein.  These  sticks  are  one  inch  thick, 
and  from  twelve  inches  to  twenty  inches  high,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  barrel  (//',  g  g\  and  g"  g"),  by  which  this  bottom  is 
held  at  the  distance  of  two  inches  above  the  natural  bottom,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  middle  bottom  {Fig.  16),  composed  of  two 
halves,  B  and  B,  gets  support.  The  sticks  g  and  g',  as  well  as  g" 
and  g'"^  are  therefore  united  to  one  another  by  the  small  boards 
h  li'.  Each  of  those  two  parts,  B  and  B,  has  three  sticks,  z^,  i"^  i"\ 
and  h'^  k".,  h'"^  fixed  into  it,  in  order  to  support  the  bottom  C, 
which  also  has  four  sticks,  ?,  ?,  ?,  /,  for  supporters  of  the  lid  D, 
Fig.  17.  This  latter  only  serves  to  keep  the  husks  that,  after  the 
fermentation  begins,  are  apt  to  rise,  steeped  in  the  fluid.  For  this 
purpose  D  has  also  four  sticks  inserted,  w,  m',  m'\  m'"  (these, 


278 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Fig.  ir 


Fig.  IC. 


however,  being  but  one  sixth  part 
of  the  inner  height  of  the  barrel) ; 
n  is  an  orifice  closed  by  a  bung, 
in  order  to  allow  a  hand  to  pass 
through  to  get  hold  of  the  bot- 
tom a,  either  to  take  it  out  or  re- 
place it.  At  0  there  is  a  proof- 
tube,  in  equal  height  to  the  upper 
level  of  the  Fig.  i4. 

lid.     Fig.  U 
shows       the 


Fig.  13. 


same    on    a 

larger  scale :  j5  is  a  faucet-shaped  hollow  tube,  with  a  tenon,  g. 
Into  a  second  opening  of  the  lid  c  a  perforated 
bung  is  fixed  (r),  into  which  the  two-shanked  fer- 
mentation-tube E  (shown  in  Fir/.  13  enlarged)  is 
I  inserted,  with  its  longer  part,  s,  having  the  shorter 
one,  i,  dipped  into  the  vessel  u,  filled  with  water; 
V  is  a  small  iron  rod  soldered  to  the  angle  of  the 
part  5  of  the  tube,  serving  the  purpose,  if  necessa- 
ry, to  drive  by  blows  the  tube  faster  into  the  bung  r;  iv  is  the 
extraction-tube,  of  strong  sheet  iron,  one  and  a  quarter  inches 
wide,  and  furnished  with  a  funnel  ten  inches  wide,  which  enters 
the  extraction-barrel  with  its  angle-shaped  end  below  the  sink- 
bottom  A,  and  serves  to  extract  the  ley  of  the  husks  in  a  shorter 
time,  and  more  efficiently  than  it  could  be  done  without  it ;  y  is 
an  iron  rod  like  v.  The  funnel  x  contains  inside  a  sieve  with 
many  small  holes,  to  keep  back  the  particles  of  the  husks.  Z  is  a 
wooden  faucet ;  F  is  the  support  of  the  extraction-barrel,  twelve 
to  fourteen  inches  high. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  the  manner  of  extracting  itself     The 
first  business  would  be  to  place  the  barrels  so  that  the  bung-holes 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IJMrilOVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.         271» 

arc  turned  to  the  front.  After  a  })ortion  of  the  grapes  are  crushed, 
the  remains  of  them  have  to  be  thrown  upon  the  sink-bottom  A. 
and  this  is  continued  until  the  first  partition  is  filled  to  about  four 
fifths  of  its  height.  Then  bring  the  inlay-bottom,  B'  B'',  with  its 
upward  tending  sticks,  upon  the  sticks  of  sink-bottom  A,  un- 
screwing the  hoops  a  little.  After  these  tightening  again,  con- 
tinue the  introduction  of  crushed  grapes  to  the  height  of  four 
fifths  of  the  second  division.  Now  bring  also  up  the  must  con- 
tained in  the  juice-tub  B,  Fig.  9,  so  much  into  the  barrel  through 
means  of  the  extraction-tube,  iv,  as  will  be  necessary  to  fill  the 
part  I  entirely.  When  the  partition  III  has  been  filled  in  the 
same  manner  as  I  and  II  with  crushed  grapes,  and  the  lid  D  been 
placed,  insert  also  the  natural  bottom  c,  and  fix  the  gutta  percha 
slip  into  the  seam  of  the  barrel,  in  order  to  tighten  it;  tighten  the 
screws,  place  the  fermentation-tube,  and  fill  the  vessel  with  water. 

Not  before  all  this  is  done  may  the  extraction -barrel  be  filled 
with  the  necessary  quantity  of  must,  w^hich  is  done  by  pouring  it 
into  the  funnel  of  the  extraction-tube,  while  the  proof-tube  o  re- 
mains open  until  it  appears  in  this  latter,  which  after  this  must 
be  closed. 

After  about  two  hours'  time  it  may  be  opened  again,  in  order 
to  draw  off  into  buckets  about  one  tenth  part  of  the  must  through 
the  faucet.  When  this  is  now  closed  again,  the  drawn-off  must 
is  re-filled  through  the  extraction-tube  lo  into  the  extractor,  and 
now  the  must  may  be  entirely  drawn  off  into  those  barrels  in 
which  it  is  destined  to  ferment,  either  in  its  natural  state,  or  with 
the  necessary  addition  of  sugar  and  water. 

We  proceed  now  to  the  extraction  of  the  gra]ie  remains  by  the 
application  of  water.  To  show  how  this  may  be  done  in  the 
most  practical  manner,  let  us  change  the  proof-tube  o  for  a  brass 
faucet  f  wide  (eXtract-cock),  and  place  beneath  this  a  receiving- 
tub.  After  this,  we  fill  the  extraction  apparatus  with  clean  water. 
in  the  same  manner  as  was  before  done  wnth  the  must,  by  pour- 
ing it  into  the  funnel  until  it  appears  as  a  clear  fluid  in  the  ex- 
tract-cock. When  this  has  been  sufficiently  done,  stop  the  cock, 
and  bring  the  produced  extract  to  the  must  in  the  barrel.  The 
first  operation,  of  introducing  the  must  and  water  below  and  draw- 
ing it  off  above,  may  be  called  "  extraction  by  removal ;"  the  lat- 
ter, by  bringing  the  fluid  to  be  used  for  extracting  into  the  appa- 
ratus at  the  top  of  it  and  drawing  it  off'  at  its  foot,  the  "  extraction 
by  filtration," 

Eeturning  to  our  operations,  we  have,  after  acquiring  the  nec- 
essary quantity  of  extract  by  two  or  three  manipulations,  know- 
ing the  apparatus  still  to  be  filled  to  the  cock,  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment in  order  to  gain  the  remaining  fluid  by  continuing  to 
fill  water  into  the  funnel  x.  This  extract  we  put,  however,  into 
a  separate  barrel,  and  add  directly  about  six  per  cent,  of  grain  oi- 
dissolved  suo-ar.     The  still  full  extraction-barrel  remains  so  for 


280  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

six  or  eigbt  hours,  until  we  take  a  proof  from  the  faucet  as  well  as 
the  cock.  If  there  is  no  difference  in  the  taste  of  these,  we  may 
draw  the  fluid  off  bj  the  faucet ;  otherwise  we  have  to  repeat  the 
filling,  and  not  until  then  to  draw  off  by  the  faucet,  and  to  put 
this,  according  to  its  quality,  either  to  the  husk-wine  extract,  or 
to  keep  it  in  a  separate  barrel,  to  be  used,  instead  of  water,  for 
subsequent  extractions.  The  remaining  husks  themselves  arc  of 
no  farther  use. 

Besides  the  manifold  advantages  offered  by  this  method  of  ex- 
traction, by  means  of  an  upward  removal  and  pure  water  only, 
the  following  may  be  considered :  Its  allowing  a  rapid  gain  of 
the  juice ;  the  extraction  of  all  the  valuable  ingredients  of  the 
grapes ;  that,  of  the  sugar  to  be  added,  nothing  can  remain  in 
the  husks  nor  in  the  yeast,  because  it  is  not  mixed  with  the  young 
wine  before  the  first  draw  off. 

After  the  performance  of  this  labor,  the  principal  object  is  to 
determine  the  quantity  of  the  sugar  and  acids  of  the  grape-juice, 
which  can  be  done  either  directly  or  indirectly. 

Directly  it  is  done  by  proving  the  fresh  must  itself  by  means 
of  the  scale.  It  is,  however,  better  to  do  it  indirectly  by  allowing 
the  must  first  to  ferment,  and  to  find  out  the  weight  of  the  alco- 
hol after  the  first  draw  from  the  yeast  by  means  of  the  '■^vapori- 
meter^''  and  from  this  to  determine  the  sugar  quantity,  counting 
each  per  cent,  of  alcohol  as  two  per  cents,  of  sugar.  As,  howev- 
er, either  Geislerh  Vaporimeter  or  Tallerons  Alcoholometer  might  cost 
too  much  for  most  grape-growers,  the  best  plan  would  be  to  weigh 
once  a  day,  during  the  time  of  the  vintage,  the  juice  of  the  grapes, 
to  note  this  down  regularly,  and  to  adopt  the  average  number  of 
these  notices  as  the  quantity  of  sugar  parts  for  the  season. 

The  quantity  of  acids  is  best  calculated  on  one  and  the  same 
day  of  all  the  produced  must.  Of  this  about  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
is  to  be  heated  to  the  boiling  point  in  a  small  tin  pan,  in  order  to 
evaporate  the  oxygen  originated  by  the  fermentation,  and  then  to 
be  cooled  down  again  to  20°  E. 

Imjjroving  the  Natural  Product. 

This  is  best  undertaken  after  the  first  main  fermentation  has 
taken  place.  The  fermented  must  has  to  be  quieted  still  more  for 
several  days,  to  allow  the  yeast  matters  to  settle  perfectly,  which 
may  be  accelerated  by  burning  sulphur  in  the  vacant  space  of  the 
barrel.  Now  the  grape-sugar  has  to  be  reduced  to  its  true  sugar 
iceight,  and  to  add  to  this  tlie  wanting  quantity  (for  instance,  20 
pounds  to  100  pounds  of  lump  sugar,  12  pounds  to  100  pounds 
of  grain,  and  8  to  100  pounds  of  pulverized).  If  this  latter,  or 
grain  sugar,  is  to  be  used,  it  only  needs  to  put  the  calculated  quan- 
tity of  water,  sugar,  and  must  into  the  barrel,  and  leave  it  to  fer- 
ment. If  lump  sugar  is  used,  it  must  first  be  dissolved  in  a  part 
of  the  water  to  be  mixed  with  the  must,  by  boiling  this  (about 


rri         •      e  /11)20X14.2\      „„„„,,, 

Ihcre  IS  of  siisar  ( )  =2/2.04:  lbs. 

1000       / 

>Q  V  ft 

jicids  f^^r^l  =   1G.32    "     288.9G 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        281 

one  pound  to  tlircc  pounds  of  sugar)  in  a  kettle,  and  throwing  the 
sugar  in  little  by  little. 

As  the  mixture  of  sugar  and  water  may  be  done  ad  lihilura  be- 
fore or  after  the  main  fermentation,  we  will,  in  our  calculation, 
here  prefer  the  first.  Suppose  we  have  taken  book-notices  of  the 
quantity  of  sugar  and  acids  of  the  must  in  all  the  barrels.  By 
these  we  see  now  that,  for  instance,  the  barrel  A  has  a  cubic  space 
of  1000  litres,  and,  in  order  to  leave  a  vacant  space  of  40  litres  for 
fermentation,  we  had  filled  it  with  960  litres  or  1920  pounds  of 
must,  of  14.2  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  8.5  pro  millcs  of  acids : 

The  barrel  containing  in  all 1920        lbs. 

(- 

/in20x8.rA 

V     1000     ) 
Leaving  of  water  and  indifFcrent  matters 1631.04    " 

"Wishing  now  to  have  wines  of  5  per  cent,  acids  and  8  per  cent, 
of  alcohol  (=16  per  cent,  sugar),  and  such  a  wine  having  in  1000 
pounds  of  must  160  pounds  of  sugar,  5  pounds  of  acids,  885 
pounds  of  water,  the  questions  arise :  How  many  pounds  of  water 
do  16.32  pounds  of  acids  require,  if  5  pounds  of  these  presume 
835  pounds  of  the  former?  Ansiver:  (5  :  835  =  16.32  :  a;)  =  2.725.4 
pounds  of  water ;  and.  How  many  pounds  of  sugar  to  the  like 
quantity  of  acids,  5  pounds  of  acids  requiring  160  pounds  of  sugar? 
Ansioer:  (5 :  160  =  16.32  :  a:)=522.25  pounds  oi  sugar. 

The  acids  of  the  must  in  the  barrel  A 

therefore  require  2725.40  lbs.  oiicater,  522.25  lbs.  of  sugar. 

The  must  already  contains 1G31.04      "         "       272.G4     "         " 

There  is  therefore  to  be  added 1094.36      "        "      249.61     "         " 

In  case  lump  sugar  is  used,  which  contains  only  80  pounds  of 
dry  sugar  in  100,  and  20  pounds  of  water,  we  have  farther  to  as- 
certain. How  many  pounds  of  it  are  necessary  to  compensate  for 
249.61  pounds?  Ansicer :  (80  :  100  =  249.61  :  a:)  =  312  pounds. 
Against  the  calculated  249.61  pounds  of  dry  sugar  w^e  want  there- 
fore of  lump  sugar  61.39  pounds  more.  As  312  pounds  of  this 
contain,  however,  the  same  quantity  of  water  too  much  as  too  lit- 
tle of  sugar,  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  so  much  less  water,  viz., 
61.39  pounds.  We  have  therefore  virtually  to  add  1032  pounds 
of  water  and  312  pounds  of  sugar.     The  result  will  be : 

The  barrel  A  containing  already  of  must 1920  lbs. 

Water  to  be  added 1032  lbs. 

Sugar 312   "    1344    " 

This  will  give  of  improved  must 3264    " 

By  measure,  therefore,  we  shall  have : 

Must  already  in  the  barrel 960  litres. 

Water  to  be  added,  1032  lbs.  (2  lbs.  =  l  litre),  516  litres. 

Sugar     "         "         312    "   (3  lbs.  =  1  litre),  104     "     620      " 

Requiring  a  cubic  space  of 1580      " 


282  GRAl'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

But,  as  we  have  to  leave  a  space  of  -iO  litres  free  in  the  barrel 
for  fermentation,  we  have  now  to  calculate  how  much  must  we 
have  to  take  from  it  to  gain  the  room  w\anted  for  the  sugar  and 
water  additions.  As  1580  litres  of  improved  must  are  to  be  pro- 
duced from  9G0  litres  of  the  original  must,  how  much  of  the  lat- 
ter is  to  be  left  in  the  cask?  Ansioer:  (1580 :  960  =  960  :  583.30) 
=583  litres,  to  be  left;  and  as  the  barrel  contains  960  litres,  we 
must  take  away  377  litres.  And  again :  If  960  litres  of  must  re- 
quire 516  litres  of  water,  how  much  will  583  litres  require  ?  An- 
swer: (960  :  583=583  :  312.60)  =  313  litres.  And  farther:  K 960 
litres  of  must  require  312  pounds  of  sugar,  how  much  will  583 
litres  require  ?  Answer :  (960  :  312  =  583  :  189.38)  =  64  litres.  In 
our  note-book  we  have  to  make  the  following  entries : 

Of  the  contents  of  barrel  A 9C0  litres. 

"We  have  to  take  out 377     " 

Remaining 583     " 

To  this  is  to  be  added,  w.itcr 313     " 

'•  "  "      sugar 64     " 

The  barrel  will  therefore  again  contain 960     " 

It  will,  however,  be  found  more  advantageous  to  make  this  im- 
proveiftfent  after  the  main  fermentation.  In  this  case  we  have  to 
begin  with  putting  the  sugar-water  into  another  barrel,  and  to  add 
it  to  the  young  wine  (in  the  above  example  583  litres)  at  the 
drawing  off  of  the  yeast.  The  yeasts  remaining  in  the  various 
barrels  are  put  into  one  barrel,  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
sugar- water  (of  20  per  cent,  sugar  parts),  and  left  to  ferment.  The 
wine  coming  out  of  this  is  best  adapted  for  filling-up  purposes. 

The  next  draw-off  of  the  improved  wines  takes  place  best  when 
they  begin  to  clear  off.  The  barrels,  as  soon  as  they  may  be 
safely  bunged,  must  be  kept  full  by  regularly  filling  up :  in  the 
first  year,  three  times ;  in  the  second,  twice ;  and  every  subsequent 
one  drawn  off  from  their  sediments. 

The  most  efficient  substance  used  for  clearing  red  and  white 
wines  is  a  gelatinous  composition  known  and  extensively  used  in 
France  under  the  name  of  "  Gehtine-LaimJ''  Its  efQcacy  is  in- 
deed surprising. 


X. 

THE  METHOD  OF  DUBRUNFAUT  AND  VtVlOT  TO  INCREASE  THE 
QUANTITY  OF  WINE. 

The  eminent  technician,  Mr.  Diibrunfaut,  promulgated,  for  the 
first  time,  in  the  year  1854,  in  France,  his  opinion,  based  upon 
many  trials: 

Tliat  an  addition  of  sugar-water  to  the  must,  regulated  accord- 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        283 

ing  to  tlic  quantity  of  its  acids,  will  be  the  unfailing  means  to 
produce  from  every  vintage,  no  matter  of  what  locality,  always 
wines  of  like  quality  as  those  of  the  best  seasons,  and  to  quintu- 
ple their  quantity  if  necessary. 

The  proposition  of  Diibrunfaut  was  carried  out  in  the  largest 
measure  the  year  following  by  a  Mr.  Abel  Petiot  de  Chamirey,  a 
large  vineyard  proprietor  in  Burgundy,  and  an  essay  on  the  man- 
ner employed  and  its  results  was  handed  by  him  to  the  Imperial 
Society  of  Agriculture.     In  this  the  gentleman  says : 

At  the  vintage  of  1854  I  was  fully  convinced  that  one  may  at 
least  double  the  quantity  of  wine  by  adding  sugar-water  to  the 
must  or  husks  equal  to  the  quantity  of  grapes.  That  farther,  this 
article  must  be  durable,  because  of  its  having  all  the  substances 
necessary  for  keeping  it  so,  and  less  of  those  that  might  tend  to 
sjDoil  it. 

I  commenced  my  experiments,  and  found  the  results  surpass 
my  expectations.  Of  a  quantity  of  grapes  that  by  way  of  ordi- 
nary procedure  would  probably  not  have  given  more  than  60 
hectolitres  of  wine,  I  received  285 — almost  five  times  more. 

I  proceeded  as  follows :  After  the  grapes  had  been  crushed, 
and  still  before  the  fermentation,  I  drew  off  all  the  fluid  that 
could  run  off  without  being  pressed,  and  got  a  white,  very  good 
must  indeed.  In  this  manner  I  drew  off  45  hectolitres.  This 
juice  weighed  13  degrees  by  Chevalier,  and,  to  give  the  sugar 
mixture  an  equal  density,  19  kilogrammes  (38  pounds)  of  refined 
sugar  were  required  per  hectolitre  (200  pounds)  of  water.  I  re- 
placed now  the  45  hectolitres  of  juice  by  50  hectolitres  of  sugar- 
water  in  the  tub,  left  it  to  ferment,  and  drew  off  three  days  later 
50  hectolitres  of  splendid  red  wine.  In  order  to  try  the  experi- 
ment still  farther,  I  renewed  it  several  times.  At  the  second 
time  I  replaced  the  50  hectolitres  by  55  hectolitres  of  sugar-water 
at  22  kilogrammes,  and  drew  the  same  quantity  off  after  the  fer- 
mentation was  over,  only  two  days  later.  At  the  third  trial  I 
took  55  hectolitres  of  sugar-water  at  23  kilogrammes;  the  ferment- 
ation lasted  hardly  two  days,  after  which,  pressing  the  grapes,  they 
gave  60  hectolitres  of  wine.  The  remaining  husks  I  put  anew 
into  the  tub  with  35  hectolitres  of  sugar-water,  left  them  to  fer- 
ment, and  made  39  hectolitres.  Finally,  I  put  the  first  natural 
ivhiie  wine  into  barrels  only  half  full,  and  filled  them  uj)  entirely 
twelve  hours  later  by  water  sugared  to  18  kilogrammes.  Those 
different  fluids  resulted  in — 

Fermentation. — At  the  four  operations  with  sugar-water  ver}^ 
strong.     The  first  lasted  the  longest,  and  the  last  the  shortest. 

Color. — The  third  tub  had  the  most,  and  the  fourth,  made  of 
the  husks,  the  weakest. 

Alcohol. — The  natural  wine  held  12  per  cent. ;  the  sugar-water 
wine,  of  18  kilogrammes  sugar,  13  per  cent. ;  that  of  22  kilogram- 
mes, 15  per  cent. ;  and  that  of  25  kilogrammes  sugar,  17  per  cent. 


284  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Taste,  Bouquet. — The  wine  produced  by  tlie  aid  of  sugar-water 
was  less  acid,  and  had  more  flavor  (bouquet)  than  the  natural 
wine ;  in  short,  it  was  better. 

Durahilitij. — In  all  respects  satisfactory.  I  sent  of  this  same  wine 
to  Kew  Orleans,  and  it  arrived  there  in  a  clear  and  perfect  state. 

Of  the  vintage  of  1855  I  made,  instead  of  285  hectolitres  of 
wine,  5000  by  this  manner  of  operation.  Sometimes  I  varied  this 
slightly.  I  renewed  on  certain  tubs  the  mixture  of  sugar-water 
eiglU  and  nine  times,  viz.,  two  operations  with  ivhite  wine  before 
the  fermentation,  two  with  fermented  red  wine,  and  four  or  five 
with  more  or  less  colored  white  wine.  The  fermentation  was  al- 
waj^s  sufficient  to  let  the  sugar-water  of  ten  degrees  quickly  fall 
to  the  0  point.  When  this  takes  place,  all  the  sugar  is  changed 
into  alcohol,  and  the  drawing  off  must  begin. 

GaJTs  Experiment  on  the  System  of  Petiot. 

.  .  .  After  receiving  the  information  of  this  splendid  success  at- 
tained by  Mr.  Petiot  by  the  aid  of  his  system,  I  concluded  to  give 
it  myself  a  trial.  I  bought,  therefore,  in  the  Koncn  district,  fa- 
mous for  the  quality  of  its  red  wines,  a  quantity  of  husks  from 
one  of  the  best  sites  which  had  gone  already  through  the  ferment- 
ation, wnth  but  a  small  portion  of  pedicles  mixed,  the  air  having 
been  excluded.  At  the  drawing  off  of  the  juice,  it  resulted  in  168 
quarts  of  clear  wine  of  8.8  per  cent,  of  alcohol  and  6.1  ^9?'o  mille 
of  acid  parts,  and  I  supposed  that  about  30  quarts  remained  in  the 
husks.  I  had  now  to  these  220  quarts  of  a  solution  of  sugar  of 
24  per  cent,  added  (grape-sugar  of  84  per  cent,  of  dry  sugar).  The 
fermentation  set  in  immediately  in  a  cellar  of  twelve  degrees  tem- 
perature. In  the  month  of  March  the  wane  was  drawn  off  and 
the  husks  pressed ;  the  result  was  248  quarts.  The  husks  retain- 
ed, therefore,  after  the  first  drawing  off,  28  quarts ;  consequently, 
there  had  been  produced. 

Grape  wine  (168  +  28) 190  quarts. 

Sugar-water  wine 220      " 

Total Tig    " 

The  acids,  which  must  have  been  reduced  to  exactly  three  per 
cent,  by  the  sugar  solution,  proved  to  be  four  j^ro  milk;  conse- 
quently only  one  pro  mille  was  still  received  from  the  husks. 
This  same  wine,  after  keeping  it  for  about  two  years,  required 
such  an  exquisite  aroma,  fine  taste,  and  brilliant  color,  that  it 
struck  every  body  as  quite  extraordinary. 

Ajyplicatiou  of  the  '■'■Extractor''''  to  Petiot s  Method. 
The  "extractor"  may  serve  as  "fermentation-tub"  when  red 
grapes  are  worked  up  by  Pdtiot's  system,  to  produce  four  times 
more  wine.  To  this  end,  our  drawing  shows  it  with  a  fermenta- 
tion-tube and  a  water-vessel.  Its  inner  construction  has  to  be 
slightly  changed  for  the  purpose,  so  that  the  distance  between  A 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMrROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        285 

and  B  be  one  fifth,  from  B  to  C  one  fifth,  from  C  to  D  one  fifth, 
and  from  J)  to  the  upper  lid  c,  two  fifths  of  the  total  inner  height 
of  the  tub. 

If  the  juice  only  of  the  red  grapes  is  required  in  a  pure  uncol- 
ored  state,  they  must  only  be  j^resscd,  not  crushed.  The  residue 
is  taken  to  the  extractor,  and  its  three  divisions  are  filled  to  three 
fourths  of  their  height,  and  the  lid  (c)  put  up.  At  the  same  time, 
the  must  gathered  in  the  juice-tub  is  put  into  its  destined  barrel 
and  measured.  An  entry  must  be  made  in  the  book  "of  how  much 
juice  has  been  produced  from  those  grapes  whose  husks  are  in 
the  extractor.  The  same  quantity  of  sugar-water  of  like  per  cent- 
age  has  now  to  be  put  into  the  extractor  through  the  tube  tv. 
Next  measure  exactly  by  a  stick  thrust  through  the  bung-hole  n 
in  the  lid  what  height  the  fluid  has  atttained.  On  the  same  level 
with  this  a  hole  must  be  bored  through  the  staves,  into  which  the 
sample-cock  o  is  inserted,  closed  by  its  stopper. 

After  the  main  fermentation  is  over  (which  may  be  known 
when  no  more  gas-bubbles  rise  through  the  water  in  the  vessel), 
a  sample  must  be  taken  at  the  sample-cock.  In  case  the  color  of 
the  young  wine  satisfies,  draw  it  oft',  and  put  it  directly  into  a  bar- 
rel. If  it  be  wished  darker,  open  the  bung  {n),  insert  a  funnel 
with  a  perforated  mouth,  and  draw  about  half  of  the  fluid  oft"  by 
degrees  and  return  it  to  the  tub,  thus  producing  a  cleaning  or 
washing  out  of  the  coloring  matter  in  the  grape  residues. 

Then  the  wine  is  all  to  be  drawn  off  and  put  into  barrels,  as 
second  product  (the  Jirst  was  the  colorless  juice).  The  extractor 
is  now  refilled  through  the  tube  iv  by  sugar-water  (the  second  in- 
fusion) of  the  like  sugar  per  centage  as  the  first  up  to  the  sample- 
cock,  and  after  the  fermentation,  which  begins  at  once,  has  sub- 
sided, operate  just  as  before ;  draw  the  wine  oif  (as  third  product), 
and  put  it  into  barrels.  Likewise  a  fourth  may  be  gained,  but  it 
would  be  wise  to  keep  this  apart.  The  husks  can  then  be  taken 
from  the  extractor  and  pressed  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  wine 
thus  produced  be  mixed  in  equal  parts  with  the  second  and  third 
product. 


XI. 

FERMENTATION  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS. 

Fermentation  in  a  High  Temperature. 

Of  Fermentation  but  little  more  is  known  than  its  action  and 
its  effects.  We  see  and  follow  its  progress  while  it  begins  to  op- 
erate at  a  medium  temperature  of  10°  E.  in  the  room,  when  the 
wine  gets  cloudy,  turbulent,  and  finally  loses  its  sweet  taste,  pro- 
ducing by  the  process  of  change  a  spirituous,  intoxicating  fluid. 


286  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

But  very  few  know  besides  that  during  its  action  originate  two 
distinct  new  agents  from  its  sugar  parts  that  had  not  been  pres- 
ent in  the  must,  viz.,  alcohol^  remaining  in  the  product  and  impart- 
ing to  it  its  strength,  and  oxygen^  which  chiefly  evaporates.  But 
the  real  cause  that  transforms  the  sugar  parts  into  these — or,  rath- 
er, in  the  case  of  grape  fermentation,  into  v:inc — is  still  a  profound 
•secret. 

In  the  following  paragraphs  Dr.  L.  Gall  proposes  to  give  some 
contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which  those 
actions  take  place  in  the  most  perfect  way,  if  by  them  wine  is  to 
be  produced : 

The  fermented  must  becomes  wine  not  before  all  those  parts 
have  been  secreted  that  do  not  properly  belong  to  the  latter  and 
peril  its  durability.  It  does  this,  indeed,  by  itself  in  the  course 
of  time;  but  it  must  be  a  main  object  of  modern  industry  to  pro- 
duce such  an  end  not  only  ivell^  hut  also  cheaply ;  i.  e.,  avoiding  as 
far  as  possible  the  expenditure  of  capital,  material,  time,  and  labor. 

A  mean  temperature  of  10°  or  12°  R.  was  formerly  generally 
considered  sufficient  for  the  whole  period  of  the  fermentation  of 
must.  Numerous  facts  prove,  however,  that  this  can  not  be  con- 
sidered as  a  proper  standard,  as  it  has  been  observed,  as  Chaptal 
mentions,  that,  according  to  exj)eriments  made  by  Mr.  Poitevin, 
the  heat  originating  in  a  certain  quantity  of  grapes  increased  with- 
in five  days  to  26f  per  cent.,  and  the  fermentation  ceased  after 
fourteen  days  at  22  per  cent. 

From  this  we  may  draw  the  following  consequences : 

1'.  That  larger  quantities  of  grapes,  very  rich  in  sugar,  attain  a 
heat  of  26f  per  cent. ;  this  temperature,  consequently,  has  to  be 
taken  as  the  most  favorable  for  fermentation. 

2.  That  as  the  heat  of  the  fermenting  must  originates  by  the 
changing  of  the  sugar  into  alcohol  and  oxygen,  thereby  develop- 
ing warmth,  this  necessarily  must  reduce  itself  by  degrees  as  less 
sugar  remains  to  decompose. 

3.  That  it  is  policy  to  aid  the  natural  fermentation  toward  its 
end  by  gradually  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  fermentation 
room  (locality),  and,  on  the  contrary,  protect  it  from  cooling  off. 

Many  experiments  by  Dr.  L.  Gall  and  others  have  settled  it 
that: 

1.  The  mash  of  red  grapes  of  18  to  25  per  cent,  sugar  heats  it- 
self (when  the  outer  air  is  excluded),  at  a  temperature  of  14°  to  15° 
of  the  mash-room,  up  to  20°  to  23°  R. ;  the  must  of  vMte  grapes 
of  like  sugar  per  centage  only  to  20°  or  21°  R. 

2.  That  the  fermentation  falls  oflP  as  soon  as,  at  an  equal  exte- 
rior temperature,  the  warmth  of  the  fermenting  mass  sinks  2°  or 
3° ;  but  after  two  or  three  days  (so  long  as  all  the  sugar  is  not 
yet  decomposed)  begins  anew,  continuing  for  several  days  more 
if  the  secreted  mash  is  stirred  up  again  with  the  whole  mass. 

3.  That  the  fermentation  appears  to  finish  sooner,  and  all  the 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.         287 

sugar  to  bo  dissolved,  if,  from  the  second  or  third  day  after  the 
audible  fermentation  sets  in,  the  temperature  of  the  fermentation 
room  is  gradually  increased  to  22°  for  must  and  20°  for  masJi^  and 
kept  at  this  degree  until  the  former  dies  off. 

This  procedure  effects  sufficiently  the  secretion  of  the  so-called 
^^  yeast  matters'''  in  an  oxydized  state  as  ^^  yeast,^^  and  other  ingre- 
dients not  properly  belonging  to  the  wine,  in  a  shorter  space  of 
time,  and  more  perfectly,  than  they  would  otherwise  for  them- 
selves (frequently  not  before  years). 

We  know  it  is  our  main  object  to  free  the  wine  as  soon  and  as 
well  as  possible  of  all  the  albuminous  matters  that  it  contains, 
partly  in  the  shape  of  "?/c«s/,"  partly  as  ^^  yeast  ???«Wer."  It  might, 
therefore,  be  highly  advantageous  to  interrupt  the  heating  process 
for  a  couple  of  days,  in  order  to  give  the  yeast  time  to  settle  suffi- 
ciently, then  to  draw  the  wine  off  from  this  into  another  barrel, 
and  increase  the  heat  again  to  its  former  point.  A  new  portion 
of  matter  has  now  been  transformed  into  yeast,  whose  operation 
will  soon  be  visible  by  a  new  fermentation,  after  the  quieting 
down  of  which  a  considerable  sediment  will  be  found  in  the  barrel. 

It  would  be  recommendable  to  leave  as  long  as  possible  that 
temperature  to  the  fermenting  fluids  which  they  obtain  by  them- 
selves during  the  main  fermentation,  or  we  should  at  least  take 
care  to  prevent  the  cooling  off  of  the  fermenting-tubs  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  surrounding  colder  air.  To  do  this,  the  interval  be- 
tween the  supporting  blocks  and  the  floor  and  the  bottom  of  the 
tubs  are  to  be  well  filled  out  by  straw,  and  the  tubs  themselves, 
being  filled  with  the  crushed  grapes,  wrapped  round  with  straw- 
cords  about  the  thickness  of  an  arm,  besides  being  clothed  over 
with  straw  to  the  thickness  of  half  a  foot,  tied  by  strong  twine. 
The  upper  lids  ought  likewise  be  covered  with  straw  or  mats  of 
this  material.  The  doors  of  the  fermenting-room  ought  only  to 
be  opened  when  necessary,  and  the  windows  closed  for  the  night 
by  straw  bundles. 

[These  remarks  have  particular  reference  to  a  cold  climate  like 
that  of  Dr.  Gall's  country.— A.  H.] 

Advantages  of  dose  Fermentation. 

Acetic  acid  is  not  to  be  met  with  in  its  natural  state  in  any 
gra]^e-juice.  We  find  it,  however,  contained  in  all  icines.  How, 
then,  does  it  originate  in  them?  The  simple  answer  we  have  in 
the  fact  that  whenever  the  alcohol  of  the  fermenting  must  comes 
into  contact  with  the  air,  it  attracts  oxygen  from  it,  and  so  trans- 
forms itself  partly  into  acetic  acid,  which  consequently  spoils  or 
destroys  the  taste  of  the  wine.  And  by  what  is  this  combination 
allowed  to  take  place?  We  answer.  By  the  custom  of  allowing 
the  fermentation  of  grape-must  in  uncovered  tubs.  This  simple 
fact  speaks  for  itself  Witness  only  the  procedure  by  which  vin- 
egar is  manufactured.    The  same  relation  it  bears  to  the  wine. 


288  GRxU'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

To  prevent,  therefore,  as  mucli  as  lies  in  our  power,  this  possibil- 
ity'", we  should  principally  employ  open  or  uncovered  tubs  for  the 
fermentation.  Besides,  two  more  advantages  are  connected  with 
it :  We  guard  against  loss  in  quantity  and  quality ;  the  first  by 
evaporating  (being  sucked  in  by  the  outer  air),  the  latter  by  get- 
ting insipid.  The  adapting  of  a  tub  for  this  purpose  is  very  sim- 
ple indeed.  The  whole  apparatus  needs  but  a  tub  (or  barrel)  put 
upright  (like  the  one  in  Fig.  10),  with  the  fermentation-tube  (viz., 
same  as  in  Fig.  10). 

This  latter  is  indispensable,  because  it  makes  it  possible  to  pro- 
ceed with  the  fermentation  in  air-tight  space  'without  jjeril.  The 
oxygen  gas  emanating  from  the  sugar  would  likely  burst  even 
the  strongest  barrel,  if  an  outlet  were  not  provided.  This  it  finds 
now  through  the  tube  s  t,  while  the  water  in  the  vessel  ti  hinders 
the  outer  air  from  entering  into  the  barrel  in  the  reversed  way 
through  t  and  s.  In  order  to  ferment  red  grapes  in  an  air-tight 
barrel,  no  more  is  therefore  wanted  but  a  top-bottom  (lid-cover) 
like  D  {Fig.  17)  and  a  fermenting-tube,  E  {Fig.  13). 

We  will  now  proceed  to  acquaint  ourselves  with  the  products 
of  the  fermentation,  ?".  e.,  the  wine,  and  those  parts  of  it  that  were 
not  yet  contained  in  the  must,  and  were  only  originated  during  its 
fermentation.     These  are,  AlcoJiol,  Carhoiiates,  and  Acetic  Acid. 

The  Alcohol. 

This  forms  one  of  the  chief  ingredients  of  all  spirituous  bever- 
ages, out  of  which  it  may  be  secreted,  by  distillation,  as  a  clear 
fluid,  very  volatile  and  combustible,  of  rather  pleasant  smell,  and 
an  acid,  burning  taste.  It  is  lighter  than  water  (791  pounds  of 
alcohol  occupy  but  the  same  space  as  1000  pounds  of  water). 
Taken  in  small  quantities,  it  may  safely  be  considered  as  rather  a 
stimulant  to  the  body.  It  has  the  quality  of  crippling  and  sup- 
pressing the  fermentation ;  so  much  so,  that  highly-concentrated 
alcohol  will  prevent  the  yeast  from  creating  or  keeping  it  up.  The 
best  ally  of  the  yeast  is  loarmth ;  and  in  the  same  degree  that  this 
leaves  it,  it  has  to  yield  before  its  enemy.  This  fact  should  be 
another  hint  to  us  to  aid  the  yeast  in  its  battling  with  the  alcohol 
by  the  application  of  outer  warmth. 

The  strong  acids  contained  in  the  wine  decompose  it  in  process 
of  time,  at  least  partially,  or  combine  with  the  alcohol,  making  it 
still  more  volatile,  and  the  base  of  the  spicy  flavor  of  the  wines. 

We  have  now  to  answer  the  question.  What  degree  of  alcohol  is 
required  hy  a  good  quality  of  wine  "^ 

A  fact  undisputable  is  that,  although  alcohol  forms  not  the  chief 
factor  of  the  value  of  wines,  yet,  in  case  of  equal  bouquet  and  acids, 
those  of  the  same  locality,  grape  species  and  vintage,  are  always 
the  most  praised  that  contain  the  greatest  amount  of  alcohol,  or 
arc  the  most  fiery.  As  the  composition  of  the  perfectly-matured 
grapes  has  already  taught  us  to  leave  to  our  wines  at  the  utmost 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        289 

6  per  cent,  of  acids,  so  it  should  also  admonish  ns  to  give  them 
at  least  24  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  by  this  about  12  per  cent,  of  al- 
cohol. We  should,  however,  never  go  beyond  14  per  cent,  of  it. 
Quite  sufficient  for  the  greater  part  of  the  home-consumed  wines 
is  8  per  cent. 


The  Vaporimeter. 


The  Vaporimeter. 

This  instrument  is  invented  by  Mr.  Geisler,  an  eminent  optician 
at  Bonn.  The  accompanying  cut  shows  it  in  one  third  of  its  size. 
Its  four  main  parts.  A,  B,  C,  D,  must  be  put  together,  when  want- 
ed, in  the  manner  represented  in  Fig.  1.  A  is  a  small  steam-boil- 
er standing  upon  three  feet,  half  filled  with  water,  and  heated  by 
the  spirit-lamp  (e)  underneath.  BB  is  a  double-bended  glass  tube, 
which  is  fixed  upon  an  angular  brass  plate  {m\  together  with  a 
scale  belonging  to  it.  This  plate  can  be  moved  upon  the  vessel 
A,  and  fixed  on  it.     C  is  a  strong  glass  vessel  called  the  quicksil- 

T 


290  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

ver  cylinder,  filled  with  tliis  material  up  to  the  division  line  a  ;  its 
conical-shaped  neck  (i,  c)  fits  so  exactly  and  tightly  over  the  end 
(S)  of  the  glass  tube  B,  that  it  can  be  moved  upon  it  to  the  divis- 
ion line  Z),  and  connected  in  such  a  manner  with  the  inner  hollow 
of  the  tube  B,  that  the  contents  can  onhj  enter  from  C  into  tube 
B.  Fig.  4  shows  the  cylinder  also  in  full  })rofile,  as  well  as  a  small 
angular  elevator,  E. 

I)  is  a  brass  cylinder  of  double  sides,  having  in  its  upper  part 
a  very  sensitive  thermometer  (/).  This  cylinder  fits  air-tight  and 
steam-tight  over  a  brass  ring  soldered  to  the  foot-plate  of  the  part 
B,  and,  when  the  instrument  is  used,  is  placed  over  the  upward- 
tending  ring.  Its  object  is  to  take  into  its  inner  hollow  the  steam 
rising  from  the  vessel  A,  and  to  keep  them  in  connection  from  all 
sides  with  vessel  C. 

The  space  between  the  double  sides  serves  to  prevent  the  cool- 
ing off  of  the  vapors  that  finally  find  an  outlet  through  two  open- 
ings in  the  upper  part  of  the  inner  sides,  and  escape  by  means  of 
the  tube  g.  The  thermometer  /  has  only  5°  of  the  100°  scale, 
viz.,  from  97  to  101,  subdivided  into  ten  parts,  so  that  the  rising 
of  the  quicksilver  can  be  observed  to  one  tenth  of  a  degree.  In 
order  to  show  the  manner  of  experimenting  on  it,  let  us  make  a 
trial  with  water. 

We  first  lift  the  brass  cylinder  D,  with  the  thermometer  fixed 
to  it,  off  from  the  steam  boiler,  and  put  it  on  one  side.  After  this 
we  loosen  the  part  {Fig.  2),  and  take  it  off,  holding  it  perpendicu- 
lar, but  without  taking  the  quicksilver  cylinder  C  previously  off. 
Now  we  put  our  left  hand  underneath  the  foot-plate  m,  take  hold 
with  our  right  of  the  quicksilver  cylinder  C,  and  turn  the  whole 
round  in  such  a  manner  that  the  tube-end  S  (in  our  drawing  point- 
ed upward)  gets  a  perpendicular  downward  position.  In  this  we 
draw  the  cylinder  0  off  from  S,  and  take  it  into  our  left  hand,  hav- 
ing laid  aside  part  2. 

C  is  filled  up  to  a  with  quicksilver.  AVhen  used,  we  fill  the 
space  between  a  and  h  with  the  fluid  we  wish  to  prove.  For  this 
purpose  we  have  the  small  elevator  E  {Fig.  4). 

We  fill  now  the  boiler  A  half  full  of  water,  and  light  the  lamp 
(e),  and  while  this  boils  rearrange  the  instrument.  By  degrees 
steam  will  evaporate  from  the  water  in  vessel  D.  This  steam, 
shut  in  by  the  cylinder  C^  now  presses  upon  the  quicksilver,  and 
pushes  gradually  so  much  of  it  out  from  it  into  the  tube  BB  as  is 
necessary  to  find  room  for  itself.  This  point  is  indicated  by  the 
division  line  0  of  the  scale.  When  the  quicksilver  has  attained 
this,  it  will  not  rise  any  more.  A  quantity  of  pure  alcoJiol,  equal 
to  that  of  water  which  we  have  put  into  the  cylinder,  requires  a 
still  larger  space  to  expand  itself  into  steam.  It  drives,  conse- 
quently, the  quicksilver  higher  than  the  steam  of  water. 

Upon  this  power  to  expand  is  based  the  applicability  of  the 
vaporimetcr  to  determine  very  exactly  by  per  cents.,  even  one 


mi.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        £91 

tenth  and  one  twentieth  per  cent,  of  the  real  alcohoHc  parts  of 
certain  fluids  (as  wine,  beer,  vinegar).  The  scale  at  the  tube  BB 
is  therefore  divided  into  one  per  cenA  and  one  tenth  per  cent, 
lines,  bearing  the  numbers  1, 2,  8,  4 ,  5,  etc.  When  the  quicksilver 
rises  to  the  line  5,  we  know,  consequently,  that  the  fluid  contains 
in  every  100  parts  by  weight  5  such  parts  of  alcohol  free  from 
water. 

As  wine  always  contains  carbonates,  and  the  action  of  this  might 
tend  to  drive  the  quicksilver  higher,  it  is  better  to  free  it,  there- 
fore, from  these  previous  to  examining.  To  do  this,  we  put  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  burned  and  finely-pulvcrizcd  lime  into  a  small,  wide- 
mouthed  glass  vial,  and  fill  this  with  the  wine,  cork  it,  and  shake 
it  about  a  minute,  then  filter  it  through  a  glass  funnel  and  filter- 
paper. 

Carbonates. 

A  part  of  the  elements  of  the  sugar  change  during  the  act  of 
fermentation  into  carbonates.  A  part  of  it  escapes  by  its  gaseous 
nature,  carrying  away  with  it  from  the  must  some  part  of  the 
alcoholic  fluid.  Another  part  remains,  however,  dissolved  in  the 
wine,  and  gives  it  that  peculiar  prickling  taste,  and  to  the  effer- 
vescing wines  the  peculiarity  of  foaming.  The  quantity  of  it  de- 
pends on  the  temperature  of  the  wine ;  the  less  this  is,  the  more 
carbonate. 

In  the  same  degree  as  the  wine  afterward  increases  its  temper- 
ature, a  part  of  the  carbonates  also  escape,  and  in  this  lies  the  rea- 
son of  the  turbulency  of  such  wines  (in  the  warmer  season)  as 
contain  no  more  undissolved  sugar.  In  the  course  of  time  it  dis- 
appears almost  entirely.  The  carbonatie  air  emanating  from  the 
fermenting  must  may  become  very  injurious;  in  rooms  where 
many  tubs  are  kept,  it  will  frequently  concentrate  so  much  that 
a  lighted  candle  will  not  burn.  Great  care  ought  always  to  be 
taken  when  entering  or  bending  over  a  tub.  By  putting  fresh- 
made  lime  upon  the  floor  of  the  room  beneath  the  tubs,  much 
harm  may  be  prevented. 

Ether. 

This  is  a  thin,  very  combustible  fluid  substance,  of  agreeable, 
penetrating  smell,  that  forms  itself  in  the  wine  by  the  influence 
of  the  acids  upon  the  alcohol.  Besides  the  "  Oenanth"  we  find 
also  "oxygen-ether,"  formed  by  the  oxydation  of  a  part  of  the 
alcohol,  and  "vinegar-ether."  All  these  are  to  be  charged  to  the 
account  of  the  alcohol ;  and  as  the  wine  consequently  thereby 
loses  some  of  its  strength,  we  ought  to  give  the  wines,  at  their 
making,  so  much  alcohol  as  they  would  have  attained  if  the  grapes 
had  been  perfectly  ripe. 

Acetic  Acid. 

This  never  forms  a  part  of  the  grape-juice,  but  invariably  orig- 


292  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

inates  in  the  wine  itself,  if  proper  care  is  not  taken  to  keep  it  out. 
Common  policy  requires,  therefore,  to  ferment  the  must  in  closed 
tubs.  It  forms  and  increases,  also,  when  by  negligence  an  empty 
space  is  left  in  the  casks  between  the  bung-hole  and  the  wine. 
This  ought  never  to  be  suffered,  but  the  casks  be  filled  iqj  every 
eight  days. 

Barrel  Yeast. 

This  name  is  given  to  the  sediments  which  are  formed  while  the 
wine  rests  in  its  barrels.  The  question,  "When,  how,  and  how 
frequently  shall  wine  be  drawn  off  from  them  ?"  has  often  been 
raised.  The  best  policy  is  to  draw  off  the  first  time  a  few  days 
after  the  main  fermentation  is  over,  and  to  repeat  this  at  least  two 
or  three  times  before  the  warmer  season  sets  in. 


XII. 

HUSK  WINE  FABRICATION. 
1.  According  to  Cadet  de  Vaux. 

Says  this  eminent  French  savant,  in  his  book  {Tlie  profitable 
Employment  of  different  Fruits.^  Paris,  1811):  In  order  to  make  use 
of  our  unpressed  husks  of  grapes  for  producing  wine,  let  us  make 
a  trial : 

Oar  crushed  red  grapes  in  the  tub  shall  produce  15  hectolitres 
of  wine.  After  the  fermentation  is  over,  we  draw  off  12^  litres, 
and  leave  2|  hectolitres  in  the  husks.  These  we  mix  with  2|- 
hectolitres  of  water  of  15°  R,in  which  we  have  before  dissolved 
25  pounds  of  grape  sirup.  We  now  cover  the  tub,  and  the  fer- 
mentation will  set  in  anew  in  about  two  or  three  hours,  and  cease 
after  36  hours.  We  then  draw  the  wine  off  from  the  tub,  put  the 
husks  into  the  press,  and  mix  the  wine  out  of  this  with  the  for- 
mer, gaining  in  this  manner  1\  to  3  hectolitres  more,  of  a  very  fair 
quality  and  with  very  little  cost. 

2.  According  to  Dr.  L.  Gall. 

By  the  foregoing  article  we  see  tliat,  fifty  years  ago,  husk  wine 
was  made  and  recommended ;  but  it  was  not  known  then  that  the 
value  of  medium  wines  mainly  depended  on  a  certain  medium 
acid  per  centage ;  neither  was  it  clearly  understood  how  much  al- 
cohol is  formed  by  a  certain  quantity  of  sugar ;  neither  was  the 
grape-sugar  made/;'om  starch  then  known.  To-day  we  know  all 
this  and  more. 

Frequent  experiments  have  shown  the  following  method  to  be 
practicable : 

1.  After  the  grapes  are  crushed  and  pressed,  bring  the  press- 
must  to  that  in  the  juice-tub. 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  I  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        293 

2.  Tlicn  fill  the  Extractor  {Fig.  10,  page  276),  that  is,  every  par- 
tition of  it  four  fifths  high,  with  the  husks. 

3.  After  the  hoops  have  been  tightly  screwed,  the  must  in  the 
juice-tub  must  be  measured,  and  the  like  quantity  of  water  put 
upon  the  husks  in  the  Extractor  by  letting  it  enter  from  below 
through  the  tube  lu  lu. 

4.  lialf  an  hour  later,  pour  half  as  much  again  in  the  same  way 
into  the  Extractor. 

5.  After  again  half  an  hour,  draw  half  the  contents  of  it  off,  and 
put  into  it  again  from  above,  in  order  to  wash  the  husks  off.  This 
operation  is  to  be  repeated  a  few  times,  and  then  the  extract  is  to 
be  drawn  off  into  a  barrel.  The  husks  may  then  be  pressed  out, 
and  the  fluid  from  them  mixed  with  the  former. 

6.  When  this  is  done,  leaving  a  space  free  in  the  barrel  for  the 
sugar  solution,  this  has  to  be  added. 

This  much  in  respect  to  the  husks  of  white  grapes.  If  wine  is, 
however,  to  be  made  from  unpressed  red  grapes,  the  sugar  mixture 
of  20  to  2-1  per  cent,  is  to  be  added  from  the  very  start;  and  the 
young  wine  must  be  left  for  two  or  three  weeks  upon  the  husks 
after  the  main  fermentation,  because  the  coloring-matter  is  not  dis- 
solved before  the  alcohol  has  been  formed  by  the  sugar,  and  the 
more  gets  extracted  the  longer  this  remains  in  connection  with  the 
husks  containing  it. 


XIII. 

CARE  OF  WINES,  AND  THEIR  DISEASES. 

Separation  of  the  Wine  from  the  Matters  not  properly  belonging  to  it. 

We  know  already  that  the  wine  has  two  main  enemies  against 
whom  it  needs  protection :  1.  The  yeast  matters  contained  in  it 
after  the  fermentation  in  a  dissolved  state,  that  impair  its  durabil- 
ity ;  and,  2.  The  atmospheric  air.  No  matter  how  well  the  bungs 
may  be  closed  in  the  casks,  this  latter  will  find  ways  to  enter  and 
connect  itself  with  the  former,  thereby  forming  sediments.  To 
guard  as  much  as  we  can  against  these  two  dangers  becomes  our 
duty.  Hoiu  this  may  be  done, Von  Babo  advises  in  the  following 
words :  If  we  can  not  avoid  the  yeast  matters,  and  their  efforts  to 
combine  themselves  with  the  oxygen  of  the  outer  air,  why  should 
it,  then,  not  be  advantageous  to  offer  to  the  wine,  right  in  its  youth, 
the  oxygen  that  it  requires  for  its  oxydation  ?  I  think  yes.  Let 
us  therefore  draw  it  off  about  eight  days  after  the  main  ferment- 
ation is  over,  by  means  of  a  perforated  mouth-cover  fixed  to  the 
'  faucet,  in  order  to  bring  it  into  the  utmost  possible  connection  with, 
the  air. 

This  w.ine  we  must,  however,  take  care  to  fill  into  a  cask  not 


294  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAIQNG. 

sulphurized  {in  whieli  no  sulphur  has  been  burned),  because  a  vig- 
orous second  fermentation  is  now  wanted,  which  otherwise  might 
be  impaired.  This  drawing  off  must  be  repeated  three  or  four 
times  before  the  warm  season  sets  in,  viz.,  the  second  in  the  month 
of  January,  the  third  in  February  into  shghtly-sulphurized  casks, 
and  the  fourth  in  May  by  means  of  a  hose  and  bellows,  because 
now  the  air  has  to  be  kept  secluded.  For  this  last  time  the  casks 
have  to  be  strongly  sulphurized.  After  the  second  drawing  these 
may  be  loosely  bunged.  The  now  developing  carbonate  protects 
the  wine  sufficiently  against  the  entrance  of  air.  After  the  third 
drawing  the  casks  must  be  filled  up  to  the  bung,  and  frequently 
looked  over,  that  they  remain  so.  A  fermentation -tube  to  the 
bung  would  prove  very  useful.  In  autumn  it  is  advisable  to  ap- 
ply an  improvement  to  the  wine — according  to  the  kind  of  wine, 
either  by  the  white  of  an  egg,  isinglass,  gelatine,  gum-arabic,  milk, 
etc.,  etc.  The  two  first  must  be  dissolved  two  or  three  days  pre- 
viously. By  adding  ten  to  twelve  ounces  of  salt  the  efficacy  of 
each  of  these  materials  will  be  considerably  increased.  After  this 
the  wine  may  be  refilled  into  a  but  5%/i^/2/-sulphurized  cask,  eight 
or  ten  days  later,  by  means  of  the  hose  and  bellows. 

Diseases  of  the  Wine. 

1.  Mould. — One  of  the  most  common  is  the  "  mould"  (kahm). 
It  affects  all  wines  except  those  fabricated  by  a  mixture  of  the 
grape-juice  and  sugar- water.  The  reason  for  this  may  probably 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  detrimental  substances  were  partly 
reduced  by  the  water  already,  partly  extracted  by  the  repeated 
drawing  off  during  the  first  year.  The  mould  forms  itself  upon 
wines  if  these  remain  in  the  casks  for  a  length  of  time  without 
being  refilled.  A  thin  skin  is  first  seen,  which,  growing  thicker, 
gradually  appears  as  a  fleecy  scum,  a  sure  sign  of  the  beginning 
of  the  vinegar  formation,  and  weakening  the  wine  by  transform- 
ing the  alcohol  into  acid  of  vinegar.  To  counteract  its  progress, 
the  cask  must  be  refilled  with  wine  to  the  bung  by  means  of  a 
funnel  penetrating  the  mould  skin.  This  flows  off  through  the 
bung-hole  by  its  being  raised  by  the  wine.  Before  this  is  done  it 
will  be  well  to  knock  repeatedly  on  the  outside  of  the  cask,  in 
order  to  loosen  the  mould  sticking  to  the  inside  of  the  staves. 
The  inner  parts  of  the  bung-hole  have  then  to  be  cleaned  with  a 
brush,  and  a  little  more  wine  poured  in. 

2.  tSliniiness. — The  wine  loses  by  this  its  clearness  and  trans- 
parency, and  gets  thick  like  oil,  even  in  well-corked  bottles.  It 
originates  from  a  part  of  dissolved  vegetable  glue.  In  very  cool 
cellars  it  frequently  settles  of  itself,  without  any  help  at  all.  The 
most  efficient  remedy  consists  in  a  mixture  of  tannic  acid,  which 
combines  closely  with  the  glue,  and  sinks  it  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cask.  The  seeds  of  grapes  contain  such  acid,  and  it  would,  there- 
fore, be  wise  always  to  keep  a  quantity  gathered  on  hand.     Six- 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMPKOVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        295 

teen  ounces  of  seeds  of  red  grapes,  or  twenty-four  ounces  of  white, 
that  have  not  been  in  the  fermenting  tub,  are  sufficient  for  one 
hectohtre  of  wine.  To  extract  the  acid  from  them,  pour  upon 
these  sixteen  or  twenty-four  ounces  one  half  litre  of  boiling  wa- 
ter, and  leave  them  therein  for  twenty-four  hours ;  then  rub  them 
between  the  fingers  to  break  their  skin,  and  put  all  together  into 
a  clean  copper  kettle,  which  again  is  placed  in  a  larger  one  filled 
with  water,  and  heat  it  until  the  water  in  the  latter  has  boiled  for 
about  two  hours.  All  the  tannic  matters  are  then  dissolved  in 
the  water,  and  it  only  needs  now  the  filtering  of  the  solution 
through  linen.  In  applying  it  to  the  wine,  mix  it  with  two  litres 
of  this  to  the  hectolitre ;  put  it  in  small  portions  into  the  barrel, 
and  stir  "the  wine  well  up.  In  case  the  disease  is  merely  begin- 
ning, it  answers  to  fill  the  wine  a  few  times  from  one  cask  into 
another  by  means  of  the  funnel  with  a  perforated  covering.  In 
all  cases,  the  wine,  after  being  mixed  with  the  tannic  acid,  must 
be  cleared  by  isinglass  or  gelatine,  etc.,  etc.,  and  after  its  clearing 
be  drawn  off  into  a  sulphurized  cask. 

3.  Sourness. — This  consists  in  the  progress  of  the  transformation 
of  the  alcohol  into  acid  of  vinegar,  as  soon  as  this  has  been  allowed 
to  appear  : 

a. — Principally^  if  the  casks  have  not  been  properly  or  not  at 
all  closed  by  their  bungs. 

h. — If  they  remain  for  a  longer  period  in  warm  cellars  not  per- 
fectly filled,  and  sulphurized,  and  bunged. 

c. — If  they  are  filled  up  with  wines  that  already  contain  the 
poison. 

In  its  first  stage  it  may  be  kept  in  bounds  by  a  mixture  of 
honey  or  three  or  four  per  cent,  of  sugar,  this  producing  a  new 
fermentation,  whereby  the  alcohol  of  the  wine  increases,  and  is 
able  to  resist  for  a  time  longer  the  inroads  of  the  acid  of  vinegar. 
But  if  the  wine  is  already  perfectly  sour,  all  remedies  will  be  tried 
in  vain,  and  it  would  be  best  to  let  it  turn  perfectly  into  vinegar, 
and  sell  it  as  such. 

4.  Cloudiness. — No  matter  what  the  cause  may  be,  it  is  almost 
sure  to  yield  to  a  properly  applied  melioration.  But  it  needs  to 
draw  the  wine  off  into  another  strongly-sulphurized  cask,  and  to 
bring  it  into  close  combination  with  the  sulphur  as  well  as  the 
remedy.  To  this  end,  burn  first  half  only  of  the  required  sulphur 
in  the  cask,  fill  one  third  of  the  cloudy  wine  into  it,  add  the  half 
of  the  improving  article  (isinglass,  gelatine,  gum-arabic),  and  roll 
the  cask  about.  After  this,  burn  another  one  fourth  of  the  sulphur 
in  the  empty  space  of  the  cask,  put  another  one  third  of  the  wine 
in,  and  the  other  half  of  the  clearing  material,  and  mix  all  thor- 
oughly. Finally,  burn  the  last  one  fourth  of  tlie  sulphur,  put  the 
balance  of  the  wine  in,  whip  it  all  well,  and  put  the  bung  tight 
into  the  cask.  Wines  treated  in  this  manner  that  do  not  clear 
off  within  fourteen  days  must  be  filtered. 


296  GR.\TE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

6.  Woody  and  Moiddy  Task. — These  are,  for  the  most  part,  tes- 
timonies of  an  unwarrantable  negligence.  A  remedy  we  have  in 
the  following :  Fill  the  wine  over  into  another  perfectly  clean 
cask ;  add  to  one  hectolitre  of  it  six  pounds  (to  one  Prussian  eimer 
about  four  pounds)  of  fresh  and  well-charred  coals,  and  stir  them 
well  into  it.  Gradually  this  will  settle  to  the  bottom  with  the 
yeast  yet  remaining  in  the  wine.  Now  take  a  sample  and  filter 
it  through  soft  paper.  If  the  taste  has  not  abated  yet,  repeat  the 
experiment,  but  with  less  charcoal.  When  it  is  found  of  sufficient 
good  taste,  draw  it  off  into  a  sulphurized  cask ;  clear  it  by  means 
of  the  above-mentioned  articles,  and  treat  it  as  usual. 


XIV. 
SUPPLEMENTARY  REMARKS. 


Dr.  Maumene  says,  in  his  work  Sur  le  Travail  des  Vins,  in  re- 
gard to  Petiot's  method :  The  results  of  it  are  clear ;  no  enlight- 
ened man  can  gainsay  them.  Nobody  will  be  surprised  by  the 
number  of  repeated  fermentations,  because  we  know  that  theyer- 
ment  may  dissolve  enormous  quantities  of  sugar  into  alcohol  and 
oxygen.  The  bouquet  also  preserves  itself  better,  as  well  as  a  de- 
volution of  the  coloring  matter  takes  place  in  such  a  degree  as  to 
leave  hardly  a  difference  between  the  results  of  more  than  one 
fermentation.  Only  the  cream  of  tartar  is  reduced  in  those  wines 
that  may  properly  be  called  "grape-sugar  wines."  This  reduc- 
tion may,  however,  be  rather  considered  as  iin  advantage  to  them 
than  detrimental,  because  they  increase  in  good  qualities  the  more 
the  tartaric  acid  disappears ;  and  for  this  very  reason  Mr.  Petiot's 
resemble  so  much  the  old  wines  in  their  agreeable  and  full  taste. 

The  future  of  the  grape-sugar  wines  is  indeed  extraordinary. 
This  method  wall  tend  to  increase  immensely  the  products  of  the 
grape  culture,  prevent  their  scarcity  in  bad  seasons,  and  benefit 
especially  the  poorer  class  of  industrious  wine-raisers. 

Speaking  of  Dr.  L.  Gall's  method,  Mr.  Von  Babo  says :  I  take  it, 
indeed,  to  be  the  most  rational.  The  alcohol  formed  from  the 
grape-sugar  affects  also  the  taste  of  a  wine  by  combining  itself 
with  free  acids  to  ether,  and  connected  with  this,  forming  the  aro- 
matic flavor — the  bouquet.  The  wine  taste  remains  unaffected, 
so  that  such  artificially-made  wine  could  not  be  distinguished  by 
it  from  natural  ones.  Remarkable  results  have  shown  that  by 
his  method,  even  from  pure  husks,  containing  not  above  10  per 
cent,  of  juice  and  90  per  cent,  of  sugar- water,  a  wine  is  made  infi- 
nitely superior  to  that  from  sour  must. 

Dr.  Gall  himself  says :  I  only  named  a  tenfold  net  result  from 
the  grape  agriculture  by  a  proper  application  of  my  reformed  meth- 


DR.  L.  GALL  ON  IMrROVEMENTS  IN  WINE-MAKING.        297 

od  (repeated  picking  out  of  the  grapes,  assorting  them,  etc.,  and 
"Gallizising"  of  the  inferior  balance) ;  and  Mr.  Von  Babo  gives  the 

proof  that  it  may  even  be  brought  up  to  a  twenty -fold  one 

In  regard  to  the  produce  of  the  vineyard  "Salem:"  Ilere,  says 
he,  according  to  an  average  of  the  last  fourteen  years,  the  produce 
of  the  vintage  of  one  morgcn  (f  acres)  is  9f  ohm,  and  their  price 
17  florins  40  kreutzers. 

The  average  yearly  income  per  1  morgcn,  therefore,  were 167  fl.  .'50  kr. 

The  expenses  per  1  morgcn  (excluding  interest  on  capital  invested)...     91  "  IB  " 

The  surplus  per  1  morgcn  consequently  amounting  to 70  fl.  35  kr. 

Or,  counting  the  stock  capital  at  1800  florins  per  morgcn,  and  these  at 

4  per  cent,  interest 72  "00  " 

A  net  gain  resulted  per  morgen  of 4  fl.  35  kr. 

Suppose  now  of  the  average  yield  of  9|-  ohm  of  wine  only  5 
of  the  most  inferior  quality  had  to  be  "Gallizised,"  and  thereby 
their  value  increased  by  7^  florins,  consequently  raised  to  25  flor- 
ins ;  then  we  shall  have  the  following  calculation : 

After  separating  5  ohm  of  the  inferior  quality,  a  price  of  30  florins 
Avould  have  been  realized  on  an  average  per  ohm,  consequently,  for 

4^  ohm 135  fl.  00  kr. 

And  for  5  ohm  Gallizised  wine  at  25  florins 125  "  00  " 

Total 260  fl.  00  kr. 

Deducting  the  expenses  and  interest  on  capital 163  "  15  " 

We  would  realize  a  net  gain  of  each  morgen  of 96  fl.  45  kr. 

Consequently,  20  times  more  than  by  adopting  the  old-fashioned  method. 

NOTE. 


1  Prussian  morgen                   is  e( 

:|ual 

to  .63  Engli 

sh  acre. 

1  Baden           " 

(( 

.88        " 

IC 

1  litre  (French  measure) 

" 

.22        " 

gallon. 

1  hectolitre  (French  measure) 

(I 

22.3      " 

gallons. 

1  Baden  maas 

(t 

1.50      " 

litre. 

1      " 

(( 

.33 

gallon. 

1  fuder 

(( 

6  eimer. 

1  Prussian  quart 

(( 

.25  English  gallon. 

1  ohm 

(I 

160  Prussian  quarts. 

1  hectolitre  (French  measure) 

(( 

1  litre  (F 

rench). 

1  Prussian  thaler 

(( 

09 1  cents 

(American). 

1—1 

It 

30  silber  i 

gi-oschen. 

1  florin  of  Baden 

(( 

40  cents  ( 

American). 

1      " 

*' 

60  kreutzers  (Baden). 

APPENDIX  D. 

THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TKEATMENT. 

EXTRACTED  FROM  THE  WORK  OF  FERDINAND  RUBENS. 
WITH  ILLUSTKATIONS. 


APPENDIX  D. 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 

I.  Tlie  Vine  and  its  Propagation. — II.  Tlie  Vineyard. — III.  Care  of  a  Bearing 
Vineyard. — IV.  Preserving  and  Sliipping  Grapes. — V.  Diseases  of  the  Grape- 
vine.— VI.  Choice  Varieties  of  Grapes  for  Wine-making. — VII.  Average  Pro- 
duction of  Wine  in  Europe. 

I. 

THE  VINE  AND  ITS  PROPAGATION. 


Fig.  1. 


The  Grape-vine  {Vitis  vinifera),  on  account 
of  its  climbing  propensities,  must  be  helped  in 
the  vineyards,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  by 
training  it  on  poles  or  trellises,  and  by  prun- 
ing, etc.  The  roots  of  the  vine  will  expand 
much  and  far.  The  soil  should  be  loose.  The 
duration  or  age  of  a  vine  depends  much  upon 
its  well-developed  trunk.  The  vine  has  shoots, 
which  are  distinguished  as  those  which  will 
produce  fruit  and  those  which  do  not  produce 
fruit.  Those  which  produce  fruit  grow  out 
from  the  last  year's  wood ;  the  others  sprout 
from  old  wood  or  the  trunk  of  the  vine. 
Side  shoots  are  represented  in  Fig.  1. 

Propagation  of  the  Grape-vine. 

1.  Through  Seed. — This  is  a  plan  not  much 
adopted,  since  the  plants  take  from  six  to  eight 
and  ten  years  before  they  produce  fruit.  Sel- 
dom will  the  seed  produce  the  same  quality  as  the  original. 
Through  this  mode,  however,  very  choice  varieties  have  frequent- 
ly originated,  which  will  be  more  identified  with  the  local  cli- 
mate, and  for  this  reason  more  hardy.  Most  of  the  early  varie- 
ties are  produced  from  seeds.  Experiments  have  proved  that 
grapes  from  seedlings  ripen  more  early  than  the  originals.  The 
seed  may  be  planted  jjbout  two  or  three  inches  apart,  and  one  inch 
deep.  The  seedlings  will  grow,  by  good  care  and  on  rich  soil, 
from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  high  during  the  summer.  The 
best  shoot  is  cut  down  to  two  buds,  and  the  rest  nicely  .pruned 
off.  The  following  year  the  vines  are  pruned  down  to  two  buds 
again.  From  this  time  they  are  treated  the  same  as  planted  cut- 
tings. 


502 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-M2VIUNG. 


2.  Through  Buds. — This  metbocl  of  propagation  is  excellent  for 
choice  vines  which  are  required  in  quantity,  Sound  and  strong 
buds  are  cut  from  vines  early  in  spring,  before  the  sap  is  in  the 
wood.  These  buds  contain  about  half  an  inch  of  wood  on  each 
side.  The  separate  buds  may  be  planted  so,  yet  it  is  better  to 
split  the  vine  without  injuring  the  bud ;  through  this  the  roots 
are  enabled  to  start  more  easily.  These  buds  must  be  planted  on 
carefully-prepared  soil,  or  better  in  hot-beds,  so  that  the  bud  is 
covered  with  half  an  inch  of  pulverized  soil.  It  may  be  well 
to  put  a  little  straw,  moss,  or  fine  leaves  over  the  soil.     It  must 

not  be  neglected  to  keep  the  soil  moder- 
ately moist.     The  buds  will  start  soon,  and 
where  otherwise  leaves  would  start,  roots 
V\    /iFx'^^  will  make  their  appearance,     i^/^.  2  repre- 

sents such  a  bud.  After  a  few  months  the 
buds  will  have  started  on  two  feet  if  treat- 
ed with  care.  Such  vines  may  grow  in 
the  first  year  from  four  to  five  feet  shoots, 
and  produce  bearing  wood. 

3,  Through  Cuttings. — This  mode  consists  in  planting  slips  of 
vines.  Well-matured  vines  with  many  buds  are  always  the  best, 
represented  by  Fig.  3.    It 

is  best  to  take  only  the   ^ —- <^^^~=-:r::— .^^^ 

lower  part  of  a  vine,  and, 

if  possi- 


Fig.4. 


ble,  with  some  of  the  last  year's  wood;  then 
from  this  wood  the  strongest  and  the  best  roots 
will  start.  When  the  cuttings  have  been  made, 
they  may  be  put  in  bundles  of  twenty  to  thir- 
ty, and  covered  from  two  to  three  inches  un- 
der ground.  If  the  cuttings  arc  made  in  the 
spring,  it  is  best  to  place  them  in  water  from 
six  to  eight  inches  deep,  and  plant  them  when 
the  buds  have  started  about  half  an  inch.  If 
the  cuttings  are  planted  to  produce  rooted  vines 
[Fig.  4),  it  is  best  to  plant  them  on  tolerably 
moist  and  rich  land ;  and  if  the  season  is  very 
flry,  it  is  advisable  to  irrigate  them.  The  finer 
roots  of  the  year-old  vines  are  more  apt  to  grow 
successfully  than  older  and  stout  roots  of  two 
years  old. 

4,  Through  Side-shoots  <^  Layers. — For  this 
method  a  well-matured  branch  of  a  healthy  and 
stout  vine  is  taken,  placed  in  the  ground  so  that 
it  will  be  from  eight  to  twelve  inches  deep,  and 
have  two  to  four  buds  above  the  ground.  The 
bend  must  Idc  made  gradually  and  carefully,  so 
that  the  vine  is  not  injured.     The  rooting  of  the 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


OAO 


rig  5.  vine  will  be  promoted 

if  the  vine,  where  it  is 
covered  with  ground, 
is  twisted  like  a  wil- 
low (.%.  5).    This  lay- 
er will  grow  excellent- 
ly during  the  summer, 
and  produce  an  abun- 
dance of  fruit. 
Another  plan  to  pro- 
duce layers  on  every  place  required  is  attained  through  a  method 
Fig.  6.  used  on  the  Ehine  {Fig.  6). 

Little  baskets,  of  oval  form, 
one  and  a  half  foot  long,  one 
foot  high  and  broad,  are  used 
for  this  purpose.  In  spring 
this  basket  is  placed  about 
one  foot  from  the  old  vine, 
deep  enough  to  cover  it.  The 
intended  layer  is  led  through 
this  basket,  and  allowed  to 
have  two  buds  above  the 
ground,  which  are  well  taken 
care  of  during  the  summer. 
If  it  is  intended  to  remove 
this  layer,  it  is  separated  from 
the  mother  plant,  and  taken 
out  with  the  basket  and  placed 
in  the  intended  place.  Eoot- 
ed  vines  produced  in  such  a 
manner  are  much  to  be  preferred,  as  they  bear  fruit  one  year  aft- 
er planting. 

Another  method  is  by  leading  a  vine  through  a  flower-pot 
which  is  filled  with  rich  soil.  If  the  soil  is  kept  moist  during  the 
summer  the  vine  will  throw  out  beautiful  roots.  In  autumn,  when 
the  grapes  are  ripe,  the  vine  below  the  flower-pot  is  cut  from  the 
mother  vine,  the  pot  carefully  taken  oft',  and  this  shoot  transplant- 
ed. To  promote  the  formation  of  roots,  the  vine  may  receive  a 
cut  immediately  below  a  joint,  and  then  be  split  up  a  couple  of 
inches,  whicb  split  may  be  kept  open  by  a  little  wedge. 

Improvement  of  the  Grape-vine. 

There  are  different  ways  of  improving  the  vine.  The  grafting 
may  be  above  the  soil  or  below.  To  graft  upon  the  trunk  of  the 
vine,  under  the  soil,  is  the  method  chiefly  in  use  in  Hungary.  The 
method  is  the  following:  The  vine  tp  be  grafted  is  early  in  the 
spring  laid  bare  and  freed  of  the  fine  top  roots.  Three  inches 
above  the  main  roots  the  trunk  is  cut  off  with  a  saw  about  six 


304 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Fig.  T  (-7). 


inches  below  the  surflice.  The  remaining  trunk  is  split  with  a 
sharp  knife  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inches  deep.  To  prevent 
the  stem  from  splitting  altogether,  it  is  well  to  tie  something  tight 
above  the  roots  {Fig.  7,  a).  If  the  vine  is 
stout,  two  grafts  may  be  taken ;  if  not,  one 
will  answer.  This  graft  {Fig.  7,  h)  must  have 
two  healthy  buds  above  the  split,  and  the 
lower  bud  must  touch,  or  must  be  upon  the 
trunk  of  the  grafted  vine  {Fig.  8).  If  many 
vines  are  to  be  grafted,  the  following  plan 
may  be  adopted :  One  person  will  lay  the 
vine  bare  to  a  depth  of  six  to  eight  inches, 
and  clear  off  all  fine  roots  to  a  depth  of  five 
inches;  a  second  person  will  saw  the  vine 
off  at  a  depth  of  four  to  six  inches,  and  make 
the  split  in  the  trunk ;  a  third  person  will  place  the  graft  and  fill 
the  hole,  so  that  one  bud  is  even  with  the  surface,  or  barely  cover- 
ed with  the  soil.  By  working  in  such  manner,  several  hundred 
old  vines  may  be  grafted  during  a  day's  work. 

Another  method  is  represented  by  Fig.  9,  a,  h. 
A  cutting  destined  for  the  graft  is  taken — one 
with  four  buds ;  one  part,  between  the  two  buds 
or  middle,  is  trimmed  on  both  sides,  to  present  the 
appearance  of  a  wedge.  The  trunk  of  the  vine  is 
cut  off  horizontally,  then  split  in  the  centre,  and 
on  each  side  of  this  trunk  a  graft  is  placed  in  the 
split,  so  that  two  buds  are  above  the  trunk  and 
two  are  below.  Vines  grafted  in  this  manner  suc- 
ceed well. 

The  lower  part  of  this  graft  will  invariably  start 
roots,  which  will  favor  its  success.  This  plan 
may  be  carried  out  on  any  part  of  the  vine  above  the  ground,  if 
the  lower  part  of  the  graft  is  placed  in  a  bottle  filled  with  water. 
If  it  is  required  to  graft  above  the  ground,  the  following  plan  may 
be  adopted :  Ripe  year-old  wood  is  trimmed  down  and  split  be- 
tween two  joints.  The  graft  is  taken  of  wood  of  the  same  thick- 
ness, its  end  cut  nicely  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  and  placed  in  the 
split  in  such  a  manner  that  the  bark  of  both  will  be  filled  exactly, 
which  is  then  bound  to  keep  it  in  place. 


II. 
THE  VINEYARD. 

In  laying  out  a  vineyard  particularly  to  be  regarded  are, 
1.  The  Location. — In  general,  an  exposure  toward  the  south, 
sheltered  from  cold  winds,  and  having  a  pure  air,  is  the  best  place 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  ANT)  ITS  TREATMENT.         305 

for  grape-vines.  An  exposure  toward  the  north  is  the  least  fa- 
vorable ;  toward  the  east  considerably  better,  especially  if  western 
mountain  ridges  afford  protection,  or  a  plain  exists  upon  wliicli 
the  winds  may  be  warmed,  A  western  exposure  is  yet  poorer 
than  an  eastern,  unless  certain  causes  should  act  favorably  upon 
it.     Local  considerations  must  be  taken  into  account. 

2.  The  Soil. — The  grape-vine  loves  to  have  a  loose  and  mellow 
soil,  more  light  than  heavy,  not  too  rich,  but  warm.  Generally  a 
vineyard  is  judged  by  its  surface  soil ;  but  the  bottom  soil  is  also 
of  great  importance,  as  the  roots  will  extend  largely.  That  is  al- 
ways the  best  which  gives  the  least  hinderance  to  the  expansion 
of  the  roots,  and,  without  being  wet,  contains  sufficient  moisture. 
A  knowledge  of  the  bottom  soil  is  then  of  eminent  service,  if 
poorly-productive  soil  is  to  be  improved.  A  greater  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  grape-vine  than  the  bottom  soil  has 
the  surface  soil,  because  this  will  come  in  a  greater  contact  with 
the  plant.  The  main  point,  if  the  vines  are  to  thrive  well,  is  that 
the  soil  should  be  mellow,  so  that  the  roots  may  expand  without 
any  hinderance  to  seek  nourishment,  and  the  heat  penetrate  easily, 
and  no  superfluous  moisture  will  gather.  For  which  reason,  soil 
containing  many  and  different  ingredients  will  prove  the  most 
beneficial  for  vines ;  as,  for  instance,  decomposed  granite,  lava,  etc., 
upon  which  the  vines  will  thrive  beautifully,  and  are  not  liable  to 
the  different  diseases.  Silicious  and  calcareous  earths,  if  predom- 
inant, are  best  adapted  for  grape  culture,  especially  if  mixed  with 
some  clay.  If  these  ingredients  are  entirely  deficient  in  the  soil, 
they  may  be  supplied  by  manure.  If  clay  is  predominant,  the  soil 
"will  be  heavy  and  binding ;  will  retard  the  expansion  of  roots, 
and  Avill  receive  the  water  tolerably  easy,  but  will  be  long  moist, 
through  which  the  soil  will  get  cold.  To  improve  such  land  ar- 
tificially would  prove  too  expensive. 

8,  Selection  of  Vines. — This  is  often  very  difficult,  as  not  only  the 
locality  and  soil  has  to  be  regarded,  but  the  nature  of  the  vine 
and  the  quality  of  the  product  raised  must  be  taken  into  consid- 
eration.    The  following  may  serve  for  a  guide : 

In  districts  of  hot  and  southern  exposure,  the  white  Eiesling 
commands  the  first  place,  which  combines  all  qualities  to  produce 
a  first  class  wine. 

Should  the  soil  be  too  rich  in  such  location,  and  the  Eiesling, 
through  a  rank  growth,  impair  the  quality  of  its  product,  the  red 
Traminer  {Auvernas  rouge  clair)  may  be  taken,  which  will  produce 
a  first  class  article.  In  the  same  category  comes  the  spice  Trami- 
ner, This  variety  is,  in  regard  of  locality,  more  easily  affected, 
and  will  invariably  require  a  warm  and  sheltered  place.  For  a 
second  class  location  as  regards  soil  and  place,  and  commanding 
attention  for  their  early  ripening  and  the  quantity  of  the  produce, 
the  Rulander  {Oris  commun),  the  black  Clavner  {Morillon  noir), 
and  Sylvaner,  are  recommenclable.    The  Eulander  will  produce  a 

U 


306  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

sweet,  pleasant,  spirituous  wine.     This  variety  will  thrive  best 
upon  low,  level,  and  a  little  moist  soil. 

The  black  Clavner  {Morillon  noir)  will  thrive  best  upon  clayish 
soil,  if  this  is  loose  and  not  too  moist.  This  plant  is  very  hardy, 
and  produces  much  fruit.  The  Clavner  is  chiefly  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  red  wines ;  but  much  white  wine  is  also  made  of 
it,  which  will  distinguish  itself  through  its  pleasant  and  beautiful 
bouquet.  Sparkling  wines  are  mostly  made  from  the  must  of 
these  grapes. 

The  Sylvaner  is  satisfied  with  a  less  favorable  location,  and  even 
a  colder  place  and  poorer  soil  than  the  Clavner.  In  districts 
where  only  a  poorer  quality  of  wine  is  produced  may  be  recom- 
mended the  Chasselas  blanc  and  the  Chasselas  croquant.  They  re- 
quire a  heavy  and  moist  soil ;  in  sandy  land,  if  it  is  well  manured, 
they  will  thrive  very  well.  The  wine  is  mild  and  pleasant,  and 
will  be  so  in  a  poor  season,  as  these  varieties  contain  but  little 
acid.     The  vines  are  lasting,  and  produce  well  every  year. 

The  green  Sylvaner  likes  a  dry  and  loose  soil ;  will  thrive  ex- 
cellently in  the  poorest  soil. 

The  Ortlieber  is  a  plant  which  will  produce  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  fruit,  and  in  a  poor  locality  will  give  a  sweet  and  pleasant 
wine.     It  is  satisfied  with  the  poorest  soil. 

The  early  Burgundy,  blue  or  black  Burgundy :  In  a  good  sea- 
son this  variety,  in  a  poor  location,  will  produce  a  wine  which  can 
be  placed  side  by  side  with  the  finest  red  wine  on  the  Ehine. 

In  what  proportion  these  different  varieties  should  be  planted 
can  not  be  exactly  determined,  as  this  depends  much  upon  local 
circumstances,  of  the  location,  the  soil,  the  required  quality  and 
quantity  of  the  product  required.  For  hot,  hilly,  and  dry  loca- 
tions, the  following  proportion  may  be  taken  as  a  basis :  ^  Eies- 
ling,  ^  red  Traminer,  and  ^  green  Sylvaner;  or,  ^  Eiesling,  ^  red 
Traminer,  and  ^  black  Clavner ;  or,  ^  Eiesling,  ^  Welshriesling, 
^  spice  Traminer,  and  ^  red  Traminer.  For  hills  which  are  dry 
and  not  so  hot,  which  have  richer  soil  and  a  more  eastern  or 
western  exposure,  may  be  taken,  ^  Eiesling,  |-  green  Sylvaner,  ^ 
red  Traminer,  and  ^  black  Clavner ;  or,  ^  Eiesling,  •§■  Sylvaner,  i 
spice  Traminer,  and  ^  black  Clavner,  For  a  location  more  hilly, 
cool  and  rich  soil :  ^  black  Clavner,  ^  Eulander,  ^  red  Traminer, 
i  green  Sylvaner,  and  }  Chasselas  blanc ;  or,  ^  red  Traminer,  ^ 
Chasselas  blanc,  -}  green  Sylvaner,  and  ^  black  Clavner  or  early 
Burgundy.  For  a  cold  place  and  good  soil :  i  early  Burgundy, 
i  green  Sylvaner,  ^  red  Traminer,  and  ^  Ortlieber.  For  quite 
cold  places  and  dry  soil :  ^  green  Sylvaner,  J-  blue  Arbst,  and  ^ 
Ortlieber  or  early  Burgundy.  In  the  distribution  of  these  differ- 
ent varieties,  the  peculiarities  of  the  separate  kinds  must  be  taken 
into  consideration,  so  that  each  may  receive  a  place  most  adapted 
to  its  propensities. 


F.  KUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.         307 

Layincj  out  new  Vineyards. 

Preparing  of  the  Soil. — In  laying  out  new  vineyards  two  points 
are  particularly  to  be  considered :  whether  the  piece  of  land  has 
never  been  planted  with  grape-vines,  or  whether  it  is  an  old  vine- 
yard which  has  to  be  planted  anew.  In  the  first  case  the  follow- 
ing things  should  be  taken  into  consideration : 

1.  Turning  of  the  Soil. — As  the  grape-vine  requires  the  soil  very 
mellow,  this  is  attained  by  turning  the  soil  from  two  to  three  or 
four  feet  deep.  Of  the  most  advantage  is  it  if  it  can  be  done  after 
the  grape-gathering,  and  remain  then  in  that  state  until  spring. 
The  manner  in  which  this  is  done  is  not  material,  only  the  best 
mode  is  to  have  it  done  by  hand  and  with  the  spade.  To  subsoil 
the  land  with  plow  will  answer  nearly  the  same  purpose,  should 
hand-labor  be  too  expensive.  Should  the  soil  be  hard,  and  not 
allow  the  water  to  run  off  easy,  the  land  should  be  ditched.  Is 
an  old  vineyard  intended  to  be  planted  anew,  it  is  decidedly  the 
best  to  rest  the  land  for  a  few  years,  to  gain  certain  substances 
which  have  been  exhausted  by  the  vines,  unless  the  bottom  soil 
should  be  decomposed  rock.  In  this  case  the  turning  of  the  land 
will  answer.  If  this  is  not  the  case,  the  land  should  rest  for  at 
least  three  years.  Grass  or  clover  may  be  sown  on  the  same.  In 
the  third  year  the  grass  must  be  turned  under  to  decay, 

2.  Terracing  the  Ground. — Terraces  are  made  on  steep  hill-sides, 
to  form  them  into  so  many  pieces  of  land  with  a  level  surface ; 
firstly,  to  be  able  to  cultivate  the  vines  more  easily ;  and,  second- 
ly, to  retain  the  moisture  as  much  as  possible.  Stone  walls  are 
built  to  form  the  terraces,  which  are  inclined  toward  the  hill,  to 
be  able  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the  earth. 

Division  of  a  Vineyard. 

What  distance  to  plant  the  grape-vines  from  each  other  depends 
more  or  less  upon  the  slope  of  the  land,  the  variety  of  grape-vine, 
the  soil,  and  the  method  of  training  the  vines.  In  vineyards 
where  the  land  is  of  a  gradual  inclination,  the  vines  should  be 
planted  farther  apart  than  on  land  which  is  steep ;  on  level  land 
or  plains,  farther  apart  than  on  hill-sides ;  vines  of  rank  growth, 
farther  apart  than  those  which  grow  but  little  wood;  in  strong 
and  rich  soil,  farther  than  in  poorer  soil ;  vines  trained  on  trellis, 
farther  than  those  trained  after  the  common  vineyard  style. 

The  vines  and  the  rows  must  be  so  far  from  each  other  that  the 
sun  can  penetrate  to  the  foot  of  the  full-grown  vines,  and  the  air 
be  able  to  strike  freely  between  the  rows,  so  that  the  grapes  may 
attain  their  full  ripeness. 

Planting  a  Vineyard. 

The  spring  is  the  best  time  for  planting,  if  the  soil  is  very  rich 
and  heavy.     In  regard  to  the  selection  of  vines,  the  necessary 


308  GR.VPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

points  Lave  been  mentioned.  The  best  adapted  are  year-old  root- 
ed vines,  then  follow  cuttings.  When  rooted  vines  are  planted, 
all  the  fine  roots  toward  the  top  of  the  vine  should  be  trimmed 
off,  the  remainder  trimmed  to  about  four  or  six  inches  in  length. 
In  regard  to  the  age  required  for  rooted  vines,  opinions  differ 
much.  Some  prefer  three  and  four  year  old ;  but  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  the  finer  roots  of  year-old  vines  are  more  apt  to  be 
successful.  It  is  well  to  mark  the  place  of  each  planted  vine  with 
a  little  stick,  to  prevent  it  from  being  covered  when  the  ground  is 
again  cultivated. 

Treatment  of  young  Yhies. 

The  main  care  and  object  are  to  have  tte  vine  form  a  strong 
and  healthy  head.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  stouter  and  more 
healthy  the  head  of  a  vine  is,  the  more  durable  and  fruitful  are 
the  vines. 

To  form  this  head  of  a  vine,  the  young  shoot  should  be  entire- 
ly cut  off,  or  close  off  to  the  old  wood.  By  this  process  the  dor- 
mant buds  will  start,  which  produce  beautiful  strong  shoots.  Dur- 
ing the  summer  the  ground  is  kept  clean  and  loose,  to  promote 
the  growth  of  the  3^oung  plants.  If  these  vines  grow  more  than 
two  or  three  shoots,  the  others  are  broken  off.  It  is  better  not  to 
tie  these  young  shoots,  as  they  will  grow  stouter  when  exposed 
to  the  wind.  The  third  spring  the  vines  are  pruned  down  to  one 
or  two  buds,  according  to  their  strength.  During  the  summer  the 
ground  is  kept  clean. 

The  fourth  spring,  the  vines  should  be  allowed  to  have  about 
four  shoots,  each  of  four  buds ;  a  uniformity  should  be  looked  to, 
the  branches  should  spread,  and,  if  possible,  be  of  equal  height. 

In  poorer  soil,  the  forming  of  a  head  on  a  vine  is  attended  with 
more  difiiculty. 

Metliods  of  Training  and  Pruning  Yines. 

The  different  methods  of  training  vines  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes :  1.  Without  any  props,  or  free.  2.  Trained  on  props. 
3.  On  trellises. 

In  the  first  class  come  all  grape  varieties  which  are  trained  low 
on  the  ground,  and  such  as  require  this  system,  as  Eiesling,  red 
Traminer,  etc.  In  the  second  class,  in  rich  soil,  the  same  varieties, 
the  black  Clavncr,  Rulander,  etc.  In  the  third  class,  varieties 
which  grow  considerable  wood,  and  require  to  be  pruned  long; 
as  a  few  sorts  of  the  Chasselas,  Trollinger,  and  others. 

For  vineyard  purposes  those  methods  are  best  in  which  the 
grapes  are  brought  as  near  the  ground  as  possible.  The  more 
this  is  the  case,  the  more  early  will  the  blooming  set  in,  as  well  as 
the  ripening  of  the  grapes;  and  wine  produced  from  such  grapes 
will  be  heavy  and  spirituous.  The  ripening  of  the  grapes  de- 
pends not  so  much  upon  the  direct  action  of  the  sun  as  upon  the 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATiMENT.        309 


Fip.  10. 


heat  which  the  soil  tlirows  out;  for  which  reason,  grapes  in  the 
immediate  neighborhood  of  the  ground,  and  covered  entirely  by 
vine-leaves,  are  often  the  ripest.  Excellent  pruning  methods  to 
accomplish  this  are  the  following: 

1.  The  Head-pruning. — This  will  form  the  lowest  training  of  the 
vines.  The  pruning  is  very  simple,  as  all  shoots  with  year-old 
wood  are  pruned  off';  and  of  the  new  vines,  according  to  the 

strength  of  the  grape-vine,  from  four  to  ten 
are  left,  wliich  are  pruned  so  that  each  shoot 
has  one  bud  left.  After  the  blooming  is 
over,  the  3'oung  shoots  may  be  brought  up- 
ward and  tied  together  {Figure  10).  It  will 
represent  almost  a  balloon  form.  To  pre- 
vent the  shoots  from  bending  down  under 
their  own  weight,  the  end  should  be  cut  off 
over  the  place  where  they  are  tied.  The 
grapes  will  hang  in  the  shape  of  a  wreath 
around  the  vine,  and  can  have  all  the  influ- 
ence of  air,  light,  and  sun,  through  which 
they  not  only  ripen  more  earl}'-,  but  they  gain  in  sweetness  and 
produce  an  excellent  wine.  For  level  slopes,  and  for  places  of  a 
light,  warm  soil,  and  a  sheltered,  dry  location,  this  method  is  to  be 
preferred  to  any  other.  In  districts  where  wood  is  scarce  or  ex- 
pensive, this  plan  should  be  followed. 

2.  The  Bush-pruning. — This  method  differs  from  the  foregoing 

only  in  that  a  few  of 
the  last  year's  shoots 
are  kept  on  the  vine, 
which  are  pruned 
down  to  2  or  3  buds 
{Figure  11).  Should 
the  number  of  young 
shoots  amount  to  12 
or  14,  they  are  di- 
vided ;  some  are  tied 
together  over  the 
vine  balloon-fashion, 
while  others  are,  as 
represented  in  Figure 

11,  tied  together  with  shoots  of  a  neighboring  vine,  which  is  sup- 
ported with  a  little  pole.  This  method  is  adapted  for  richer  soil 
and  hot  localities. 

3.  The  method  of  the  Landerhach  pruning  is  best  adapted  for 
steep  hills  with  rich  soil,  as  the  vine  will  be  sujpported  by  a  prop. 
The  young  vines  are  not  tied  balloon-like,  as  by  the  foregoing 
method;  they  are  spread  like  a  fan,  and  give  the  same  result 
and  advantages  as  the  plans  No.  1  and  2,  exclusive  of  the  cost  of 
the  props.     The  grape-vine  has  generally  two  or  three  branches 


310 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


one  half  to  one  foot  long,  on  wliich  young  slioots  have  been  pruned 
down  to  two  buds.  The  young  shoots  grown  during  the  summer 
are  tied  with  their  ends  on  the  prop.  Before  tying  them  per- 
manently they  are  bent  down,  to  prevent  them  from  being  in  a 
close  cluster,  and  to  give  free  access  to  the  air. 


Fie;.  1-2. 


4.  Another  method  of  training  vines  is  to  grow  three  branches 
on  the  trunk  of  the  vine,  and  to  allow  the  same  to  lean  over  bars 
supported  by  posts  {Figs.  12, 13).  The  bar  is  about  two  and  a  half 
Fig.  13.  feet  from  the  ground.    All  the 

side  shoots  of  the  branches 
growing  upward  are  carefully 
pruned  off.  The  incline  of  the 
branches  lying  over  the  bar  is 
toward  the  south.  The  grapes 
and  the  growth  of  wood  will 
lean  to  the  ground,  showing 
that  the  grapes  derive  benefit  from  the  heat  of  the  soil.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  rows  is  six  feet,  and  the  distance  of  the  vines  four 
feet.  The  young  will  grow  during  the  summer  upward,  but  grad- 
ually, through  their  own  weight,  lean  down.  By  adopting  this 
plan  a  great  quantity  of  props  may  be  saved. 

Training  the  Vines  on  a  Trellis. 

According  to  the  distance  from  the  ground,  this  method  is  di- 
vided into  the  low  training  and  the  high  training  on  a  trellis. 

p.   j4^  The   plan    of  hw   training 

{Fig.  14)  is  very  judicious  for 
varieties  which  require  short 
pruning  and  the  low  system  of 
training.  This  mode  requires 
but  little  wood ;  it  is  a  sup- 
porter to  all  the  young  shoots, 
and  affords  to  the  vines  all  the  advantages  of  light,  sun,  and  air. 
It  is  exceedingly  well  adapted  for  hills  with  dry  soil.  The  height 
of  the  frame  is  between  one  and  two  feet. 

The  high  mode  of  training  differs  from  the  other  only  in  this, 
that  the  frame  is  from  two  to  three  feet  high.     This  mode  is  the 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.        311 


most  in  use,  as  it  will  afford  more  room,  and  is  best  adapted  for 
vines  which  grow  much  wood. 

Training  of  Vines  ivith  low  Boughs  and  Layers. 

This  mode  is  excellent,  as  it  can  be  introduced  into  any  vine- 
yard without  any  preparatory  work.  Grape-vines  treated  after 
this  mode  produce  not  only  more  and  better  grapes,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  young  rooted  vines,  which  might  serve  for  planting  of 
new  ground.  The  method  is  plain,  and  the  following  will  illus- 
trate it :  After  the  gathering  of  grapes,  the  vines  are  pruned  in 
such  manner  that  the  two  finest  branches  are  exempted  and  se- 
lected for  layers ;  the  rest  of  the  good  and  bearing  branches  are 
pruned  down  to  two  buds.  The  two  branches  are  bent  down  in 
a  half  circle,  and  the  ends  of  the  same  are  placed  from  six  to  eight 
inches  deep  in  the  ground.  It  is  well  to  have  one  layer  toward 
the  west  and  the  other  toward  the  east,  to  give  them  all  possible 
influence  of  the  noon  sun.  During  the  next  spring  these  layers 
will  grow  beautiful  roots,  and  are  able  to  support  jDart  of  the 
grapes  on  this  layer. 

The  grapes  grown  on  these  layers  will  distinguish  themselves 

through  their  quality  and  size,  which  can  be  easily  accounted  for, 

as  they  receive  nourishment  from  two  sources — first  from  the  old 

Pj„  ^5  vines,  and  secondly  from  the  roots  of 

the  layer. 

After  the  gathering  of  grapes,  the  lay- 
ers are  cut  off  close  from  the  old  wood 
of  the  vine,  and  may  then  be  taken  out 
of  the  ground  and  replanted,  or  remain 
on  the  place  to  be  substituted  for  old 
vines  or  vacant  places.  The  other 
shoots  are  treated  in  the  same  manner 
as  mentioned  before.  Fig.  15  will  serve 
for  an  illustration. 


III. 

CARE  OF  A  BEARING  VINEYARD. 

Young  vineyards  may,  in  the  first  two  or  three  years,  be  used 
for  raising  vegetables,  but  it  must  not  be  neglected  to  keep  each 
vine  free  from  influence  of  weeds.  In  old  vineyards  nothing  is 
to  be  allowed  to  grow  besides  vines.  Even  the  turning  rows 
should  be  kept  free  of  weeds  and  grass.  Fruit-trees  are  very  inju- 
rious to  the  vines,  as  they  will  stint  them  of  nourishment,  sun,  air, 
and  light,  and  so  retard  the  development  of  the  grapes. 


312 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


Pruning  of  the  Vines. 

The  pruning  of  the  grape-vine  is  the  most  important  part  of  its 
entire  management  and  eulture.  It  demands  knowledge,  care,  and 
experience.  The  aim  of  the  pruning  should  be  the  forming  of 
wood  for  the  coming  year,  and  the  forming  of  fruit  in  the  present. 
This  law  of  Nature  must  be  especially  regarded,  that  the  grape- 
vine produces  its  fruit  always  on  healthy  shoots  of  the  year  pre- 
vious ;  for  which  reason,  all  vines  which  have  produced  fruit  are 
pruned  off,  and  have  to  make  room  for  young  shoots  grown  dur- 
ing the  summer. 

If  the  grape-vine  is  not  pruned,  it  will  form  a  mere  bush,  of 
which  the  weak  shoots  will  not  derive  any  benefit  from  the  influ- 
ence of  the  sun,  and  will  produce  only  small,  sour  grapes,  which 
ripen  late.  For  this  reason,  all  shoots  are  pruned  off  which  are 
not  required  for  the  forming  of  fruit  or  reserve  wood  for  the  com- 
ing season.  A  main  object  should  be,  that  the  vine  shall  produce 
as  much  fruit  as  possible  without  injury  to  it  in  the  future.  Va- 
rieties which  grow  much  in  wood,  as,  for  instance,  the  Muscatel 
or  Trollinger,  and  others,  must  not  be  pruned  as  short  as  the  Ries- 
ling and  Traminer.     If  the  soil  is  rich,  and  the  locality  good,  the 


Fitr.  10, 


p.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


313 


vine  may  Lave  proportionally  more  wood  than  in  light  and  hot 
soil. 

It  must  bo  observed  that  the  cut  is  not  so  close  to  a  bud  as  to 
prevent  the  drying  out  of  the  wood.  Fig.  16  represents  a  pruning- 
knife ;  Figs.  17, 18,  and  19,  shears  which  are  successfully  used. 
For  trimming  of  old  and  dead  wood  a  little  saw  should  be  used, 
Fi'j.  20.  ^ 

The  time  when  the  pruning  should  take  place  depends  much 
upon  the  vine  itself,  partly  upon  climate  and  soil.  The  pruning 
of  the  vines  after  grape-gathering  is  in  many  places  customary. 
In  warm  climates,  where  grape-vines  will  not  suffer  from  frost,  the 
pruning  in  autumn  is  certainly  preferable. 

Propping  the  Vines. 

This  work  should  commence  immediately  after  pruning.  The 
props  should  be  placed  from  four  to  six  inches  from  the  vines,  in 
order  not  to  injure  the  roots.  As  the  wood  of  the  vines  is  most 
tough  after  a  rain,  it  should  be  tied  then.  If  vines  are  pruned  in 
autumn,  this  work  is  suspended  until  spring. 

The  first  Cultivation  of  the  Soil. 

The  first  cultivation  should  begin  in  the  spring,  when  the  weeds 
have  made  their  appearance.  The  intention  of  this  work  is  to 
loosen  the  soil,  in  order  that  the  heat  and  air  may  penetrate  it. 
The  depth  of  cultivation  depends  upon  the  state  of  the  roots.  If 
they  are  deep,  it  is  better  to  cultivate  from  eight  to  nine  inches 
deep  than  only  from  five  to  six.  The  turning  of  the  surface  is 
very  beneficial,  and  at  the  same  time  will  cause  the  extermination 
of  weeds. 

Spring  Pruning. 

The  time  of  this  work  depends  upon  the  development  of  the 
young  shoots.  For  instance,  if  they  are  about  four  inches  long, 
it  certainly  must  be  done  before  the  blooming  commences.  It 
should  always  be  done  during  dry  weather.  All  young  shoots 
which  bear  no  fruit,  or  are  not  destined  for  the  next  season,  are 
broke  out.  To  break  off  the  side  shoots  is  injurious  to  the  vine, 
as  well  as  to  the  development  of  the  grapes. 


Ringing  the  Vines. 

Fig.  21. 


This  is  done  sim- 
ilar as  with  fruit- 
trees.  It  consists  in 
this  point,  that  the 
bark  of  a  grape- 
vine is  cut  around 
twice,  nearly  one 
quarter  of  an  inch 
apart,  without  in- 


314 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


juring  the  wood.  The  bark  between  tliese  two  cuts  is  carefully 
taken  out.  For  the  forming  of  these  cuts  a  certain  kind  of  shears 
are  used,  represented  by  Figs.  21  and  22.  This  work  is  done  about 
six  or  eight  days  before  the  blooming,  and  always  on  old  wood, 
below  a  young  shoot. 

The  second  Cultivation  of  the  Soil. 

The  turning  of  the  soil  should  not  be  very  deep,  as  it  is  the 
main  object  to  kill  the  weeds. 

The  last  Cultivation  of  the  Soil. 

This  should  be  done  when  the  grapes  begin  to  get  soft,  to  im- 
prove the  action  of  the  soil.  Even  upon  the  poorest  and  driest 
soil  this  work  will  be  beneficial. 


The  Gathering. 


The  time  of  gathering  de- 
pends upon  different  cir- 
cumstances :  the  season,  the 
variety  of  grape-vine,  etc. 
It  is  of  most  consequence 
to  have  varieties  planted 
which  may  ripen  at  the  same 
time.  Again,  the  different 
varieties  should  be  gathered 
by  themselves.  In  a  poor 
season,  it  is  essential  to  com- 
mence gathering  after  the 
dew  is  dried  off.  Fig.  23 
represents  a  shears,  and  Fig. 
24  a  knife  for  taking  off  the 
grapes. 

Manuring. 

The  principal  varieties  of  manure  are, 

1.  Animal  Manures. — These  consist  of  meat,  blood,  hair,  wool^ 
feathers,  bones,  rags,  leather,  etc.  All  these  substances  cause  not 
only  the  dissolution  of  the  humus,  but  through  their  animating 
power  they  heighten  the  vegetation.  In  applying  these  manures 
to  the  soil  the}''  should  be  in  small  particles. 

2.  Vegetable  Manures. — These  consist  of  decomposed  substances 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Weeds  and  grasses  belong  to  this 
class.  They  have  not  the  same  effect  as  animal  manure.  In  rich 
soil  they  are  to  be  preferred  to  any  other,  as  through  them  the 
soil  will  be  freshened  and  cooled.  An  easy  mode  of  manuring  is 
to  sow  lupines  between  the  rows,  and  after  they  reach  the  height 
of  a  foot,  to  spade  them  under  ground.    In  poorer  vineyards  grass 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.         3I5 

may  be  sown,  especially  in  clayisb,  heavy,  and  little  moist  soil ; 
throu.<^li  it  the  qualities  will  enhance  much. 

3.  Vegetable-animal  Manures. — 'These  consist  of  excrements  of 
animals.  This  manure  will  not  act  as  soon  as  animal  manure; 
it  decomposes  sooner  than  vegetable,  and  is  for  this  reason  ani- 
mating. It  promotes  not  only  the  activity  of  the  soil,  but  it  will 
act  upon  the  decomposition  of  the  humus.  The  quality  will  de- 
pend upon  the  fodder  of  the  animals,  and  the  care  bestowed  upon 
the  manure.  The  best  manure  for  grape-vines  is  always  that  from 
cattle.  Horse  and  sheep  manure  may  be  used  with  advantage. 
For  hot  soil,  manure  from  cattle  is  to  be  preferred ;  for  cold  and 
moist  soil,  that  from  horses  and  fowls  may  be  used. 

4.  Mineral  Manures. — The  best  is  lime.  Marl  is  excellent  ma- 
nure, especially  if  it  contains  lime.  Sand  is  the  best  improvement 
for  heavy  soils. 


IV. 
PRESERVING  AND  SHIPPING  GRAPES. 

Quality  of  the  Fruit. — Grapes  which  were  grown  during  a  warm 
and  dry  year,  or  on  a  warm  and  dry  soil,  will  keep  longer  than 
those  which  have  grown  in  a  cold  and  wet  year.  Thickly-clus- 
tered grapes,  of  a  thin  skin,  and  which  contain  much  watery  sub- 
stance, are  always  inclined  to  decay  soon,  which  makes  them  unfit 
for  preserving. 

Selection  of  Varieties  of  Grapes. — Only  those  grapes  of  which  the 
berries  hang  loose  and  have  a  thick  skin  should  be  selected  for 
packing.  The  different  varieties  of  Chasselas  are  well  adapted 
for  this  purpose,  especially  the  Chasselas  de  Foniainebleau,  Chasselas 
blajic,  and  Chasselas  croquant.  The  grapes  should  remain  as  long 
as  possible  on  the  vines.     A  little  frost  will  not  hurt  them. 

Different  Ways  of  Preserving  Grapes. — (1.)  To  preserve  single 
bunches  of  grapes,  they  may  be  laid  on  a  board,  then  covered  with 
flower-pots,  glass  bells,  etc.,  and  the  hole  be  covered  with  fine 
sand.  (2.)  The  grapes  may  be  placed  in  a  cellar,  and  suspended 
on  frames  without  touching  each  other.  The  grapes  should  be 
looked  after  every  week  to  separate  the  bad  berries.  It  is  well 
to  ventilate  the  place  in  which  they  are  kept  occasionally.  (3.) 
Clean  barrels  may  be  used,  one  head  be  taken  out,  and  the  grapes 
packed  in  the  barrel  with  fine  sawdust ;  after  which  the  head  is 
put  on  again,  and  the  barrel  then  placed  in  a  dry  cellar  of  even 
temperature. 

The  principal  object  should  be  to  pack  the  grapes  in  as  dry  a 
state  as  possible.  If  the  distance  is  not  far,  the  grapes  may  be 
packed  carefully  in  boxes,  and  then  covered.  Otherwise  they 
should  be  packed  in  sawdust,  and  then  covered  with  a  lid. 


316  GKAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


V. 

DISEASES  OF  THE  GRAPE-VINE. 

1.  The  Jaundice. — This  disease  may  be  recognized  by  tlie  leaves 
turning  yellow  on  the  short  shoots,  and  loose  grape  bunches  with 
small  undeveloped  berries.  It  is  caused  by  an  unfavorable  wet 
season,  very  deep  or  low  location,  often  through  a  general  weak 
vegetation  of  the  vines,  through  age  or  insufficient  nourishment 
in  the  soil ;  and  it  will  affect  vines  which  are  not  suited  for  the 
soil.  If  insufficient  nourishment  is  contained  in  the  soil,  it  should 
be  helped  by  applying  suitable  manure.  In  moist  soils  drains 
should  be  constructed.  If  acids  in  the  soil  cause  this  disease,  the 
mixing  of  ashes  with  manure  will  be  of  service. 

2.  Consumplion^  or  Wmd'ng  Aicay. — This  disease  is  the  cause 
of  a  continual  state  of  jaundice.  The  only  remedy  is  to  apply 
suitable  manure,  a  good  cultivation  of  the  soil,  draining  of  the 
land,  and  separating  the  injurious  substances  of  the  soil,  as,  for  in- 
stance, saltpetre.     Decomposed  manure  should  be  used. 

3.  Mildero ;  BUrjht. — When  rainy  weather  alternates  with  very 
hot,  vines  are  apt  to  be  affected  by  this  sickness.  It  commences 
around  the  rim  of  the  leaves,  and  increases  canker-like,  until  the 
leaves,  the  stems,  and  the  ends  of  the  young  shoots  are  affected 
by  it.  This  disease  will  often  stop  of  itself;  otherwise  there  is 
no  cure  for  it.  To  trim  off  the  ends  of  the  shoots,  and  cover  the 
ground  with  hay  or  leaves,  is  said  to  prevent  this  malady. 

4.  The  Black  Mortification. — The  black  Clavner  is  principally 
affected  by  this  disease.  It  may  be  distinguished  by  black  spots 
on  the  under  side  of  the  leaves,  which  increase  in  number  until 
the  leaf  is  covered  by  them.  The  leaves  will  gradually  die  and 
fall  off",  through  which  the  development  of  the  grapes  is  retarded, 
especially  if  the  vines  are  attacked  by  this  sickness  early.  In 
valleys  in  which  the  heat  is  doubled  through  the  reflection  of  the 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  exposed  to  cool  nights  and  moist  fogs,  this 
sickness  is  often  cj^uite  a  plague.  Against  this  evil  there  is  no 
remedy.  It  may  be  retarded  by  planting  hardy  varieties  in  such 
places,  the  summer  pruning  of  shoots  with  fruit,  and  by  checking 
the  too  rapid  vegetation,  and  by  planting  the  vines  far  apart,  to 
allow  the  soil  the  greatest  influence  of  the  sun. 

5.  The  Dropsy. — The  grape-vine  affected  thus  will  produce  much 
wood  and  leaves,  but  only  sparely  grapes,  which  will  not  attain 
ripeness.  It  is  caused  by  the  roots  penetrating  deep  into  moist 
and  cold  soil.  It  will  be  checked  if  the  land  is  drained,  some  of 
the  larger  roots  cut  off",  and  around  the  roots  a  quantity  of  sand 
and  gravel  is  placed. 

6.  Tlie  Cancer. — This  will  happen  chiefly  to  three  and  four  year 
old  vines  on  rich  and  heavy  soil,  during  a  rapid  change  of  cold 


F.  RUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.         31 7 

and  wet  wcatlicr,  wliich  cause  the  bark  of  the  vines  to  burst.  As 
a  remedy,  it  is  advised  to  heap  the  soil  on  the  vines  in  autumn, 
and  to  leave  it  in  spring  until  there  is  no  more  danger  of  cold  and 
"wet  weather. 

7.  Excess  of  Sap. — If  it  is  noticed  early  in  the  season  that  the 
sap  will  merely  form  wood,  pruning  will  help  much,  or  ripping 
the  bark  off  the  vines  to  allow  the  outflow  of  surplus  sap. 

8.  The  Sour  Rot. — This  disease  will  make  its  appearance  after 
long  and  cold  rains,  which  cause  the  undeveloped  grapes  to  rot. 
If  the  weather  does  not  improve,  the  entire  grape-crop  is  lost. 
Such  sour  grapes  are  to  be  carefully  separated  from  grapes  for 
wine  manuflxcture,  as  these  grapes  will  impart  to  the  wine  a  very 
unpleasant  taste. 

9.  The  Grape-sichness,  O'idium. — This  terrible  disease  has  within 
a  few  years  made  its  appearance  in  all  parts  of  Europe.  The 
sickness  aftects  the  leaves,  the  young  shoots,  and  the  grapes.  It 
appears  in  a  variety  of  fungus,  termed  Oidium  Tucheri,  hardly  per- 
ceptible at  first  with  the  naked  eye,  presenting  a  whitish  cover, 
which  will  gradually  form  a  connected  crust.  During  a  more  de- 
veloped state  of  this  sickness,  the  entire  vines  are  covered  so  much, 
that  at  a  distance  of  twenty  steps  it  may  be  perceived.  If  the 
grapes  are  affected  by  this  sickness  early,  they  will  remain  hard 
and  unpalatable,  and  seem  to  be  incompetent  to  develop  farther. 
As  a  remedy,  flour  of  sulphur  is  used,  which,  after  many  experi- 
ments, has  proved  the  best,  especially  during  the  first  stage  of  the 
sickness.  Road-dust  used  in  the  same  manner  as  sulphur  is  said 
to  act  well.  A  remedy  is  said  to  be  successfully  applied  in  the 
Tyrol :  it  is,  two  pounds  of  gelatine  dissolved  in  one  pail  of  water, 
in  which  the  grape  bunches  are  dipped  when  of  the  size  of  duck- 
shot. 


yi. 

CHOICE  VARIETIES  OF  GRAPES  FOR  WINE-MAKING. 

Grapes  from  which  the  finest  "White  Wines  are  made. 

1.  White  Riesling,  Riesling,  spice  Traminer,  etc.,  Una  pusilla, 
etc.  The  grape-vine  is  small,  the  wood  is  thin,  the  grape  bunch 
is  small,  thick  at  times,  a  little  loose,  plain,  often  with  branches, 
and  short  stem.  The  berry  is  fleshy,  with  a  thin  skin,  often  a  lit- 
tle flat,  of  aromatic,  pleasant,  sweet  taste,  with  two  kernels.  The 
Riesling  is  in  Germany  the  king  of  all  grape  varieties.  It  de- 
mands a  first  class  location,  shelter  against  cold  winds,  rather 
heavy  than  light  soil,  and  requires  to  be  trained  low. 

2.  Wbite  Welshriesling  {Meislier  de  ChampcLgne).  The  grape- 
vine is  small,  the  wood  thin  and  short ;  the  berry  yellowish  green. 


318  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

sweet,  aromatic,  with  a  fine  skin.  The  grapes  produce  a  very  dur- 
able, heavy-bodied  wine,  but  it  has  not  that  beautiful  bouquet  of 
the  Kiesling.  This  variety  ripens  late,  and  requires  an  excellent 
warm  place,  thrives  well  in  poorer  soil,  and  must  be  trained  low. 

3.  Eed  Traminer,  Auvernat  rouge  clair,  Gris  rouge,  E'ormen- 
teau.  The  vine  is  small,  the  grape-bunch  small,  close,  with  shoul- 
ders and  short  stems;  the  berry  gray-reddish,  thick  skin,  juicy, 
very  fine  flavored.  These  grapes  produce  an  excellent,  pleasant, 
sweet,  fiery,  and  durable  wine.  The  grape  will  preserve  well, 
and  for  the  table  a  choice  article.  The  Traminer  demands  a  shel- 
tered location. 

4.  The  spiced  Traminer  maybe  called  a  cousin  of  the  red  Tram- 
iner, which  is  distinguished  through  its  aromatic  taste. 

5.  Orleans  (Raison  et  Orleans).  The  vine  is  large,  the  wood  is 
long,  the  berry  oval,  hard,  fleshy,  with  a  thick  skin,  whitish-yel- 
low, of  a  fine  taste.  This  vine  will  produce  as  much  again  as  the 
Eiesling.  The  wine  requires  some  time  before  it  attains  maturity. 
Mixed  with  Riesling  the  wine  is  elegant.  As  a  table  grape  it  is  to 
be  recommended.  It  requires  a  hot,  deep,  stony  soil,  and  a  hot 
place  on  a  hill-side. 

6.  Rulander,  Gris  commun.  The  vine  is  of  middle  size,  often 
small ;  the  grape-bunch  is  of  middle  size ;  the  berries  oval,  often 
round,  brownish  color,  very  tender.  This  variety  ripens  more 
early  than  any  above  mentioned.  The  wine  is  exceedingly  fine, 
and  is  used  for  the  manufacture  of  Champagne.  The  vine  will 
thrive  almost  in  any  soil,  and  produce  much  fruit  if  manured.  It 
is  well  adapted  for  covering  of  low  trellises. 

7.  Black  Clavner  or  Black  Burgundy,  Chiovenna,  Morillon  noir, 
Pineau,  Auvernat,  etc.  The  vine  is  middling  large,  wood  is  tol- 
erably long,  thin,  reddish-brown ;  the  ends  are  a  little  woolly. 
The  grape  is  small,  closely  clustered.  The  berry  is  oval,  often 
round,  dark  blue,  with  a  thin  skin,  and  of  a  pleasant,  sweet  taste. 
Of  this  excellent  variety  are  the  finest  red  wines  made  in  Ger- 
many, for  instance,  Assmannshausen,Ingelheim,Aarbleichert,  etc. 

8.  Blue  Arbst,  Pineau,  Auvernat,  is  a  variety  of  the  former. 
First  class  wines  are  made  in  Baden  from  this  vine.  In  regard 
of  culture,  growth,  and  use,  it  is  the  same  as  the  Black  Clavner. 

Grapes  which  inoduce  a  Middling^  mostly  light  White  Wine. 

9.  Chassclas  blanc  or  verd.  The  vine-growth  healthy  and  long 
shoots.  The  grape  is  loose,  of  a  long  form ;  the  grape-stem  is 
long,  thin,  and  red ;  the  berries  are  round,  greenish-yellow,  with  a 
thin  skin,  transparent,  and  covered  with  fine  dots.  The  flesh  is 
mellow,  juicy,  and  of  a  sweet,  aromatic  taste.  This  grape  will 
produce  much,  but  only  a  light,  mild  wine,  which  is  poor  in  alco- 
nol.     As  a  table  grape  it  commands  the  first  place. 

10.  Chassclas  croquant.  The  wine  of  this  variety  is  of  a  bet- 
ter quality  than  of  the  Chassclas  blanc.     The  grape-vine  requires 


F.  KUBENS  UPON  THE  VINE  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.         319 

a  rich  soil  and  a  very  sunny  place.     As  a  tabic  grape  it  is  much 
liked  on  account  of  its  sweet  and  hard  flesh. 

11.  Sylvaner.  The  vine  is  of  middle  size,  the  wood  is  short, 
light  brown,  which  is  striped  and  spotted.  The  grape-bunch  is 
middling  large,  short,  very  thick.  The  berries  are  round,  oval, 
yellowish-green,  spotted,  and  have  only  one  kernel.  The  flesh  is 
tender,  green,  juicy,  of  an  excellent,  pleasant,  peculiar  sugar  taste, 
which  enhances  its  value  as  a  table  grape.  The  wine  is  very  mild, 
seldom  quite  clear,  and  requires  to  be  consumed  very  soon. 

12.  Morillon  blanc,  Bourguignon  blanc,  etc.  The  vine  is  of 
middle  size  and  growth,  tolerably  long  wood.  The  berry  is  very 
juicy  and  sweet.  It  produces  a  tolerably  good  wine  of  middling 
quality ;  will  thrive  almost  in  every  locality  sjid  soil. 

Grapes  of  which  first-class  Red  Wines  are  made. 

No.  7  Black  Clavher  commands  the  first  place. 

13.  Raisin  prccoce.  Morillon  hatif  produces  an  elegant  red  wine 
at  Karlstadt.  The  grape-vine  is  small,  requires  a  good  location, 
and  to  be  trained  low. 

14.  The  early  Magyars  is  in  Southern  Germany  planted,  and 
gives  a  beautiful  wine.     The  berries  are  very  sweet  and  tender. 

15.  Frangais  noir,  Liverdon,  Plant  St.  Martin.  The  vine  is 
middling  large ;  the  wood  is  thin ;  the  berry  dark  blue,  very  juicy, 
sweet,  and  pleasant.  This  sort  is  to  be  recommended  for  vine- 
yard purposes.     It  requires  a  sheltered  place. 

Oi'apes  ivhich  produce  a  tolerably  good  Red  Wine. 

16.  Blue  Raushling.  The  vine  is  small,  the  wood  is  short.  It 
belongs  to  the  better  table  and  vineyard  varieties.  If  the  grapes 
are  pressed  immediately,  a  tolerably  good  white  wine  can  be  made 
of  them.  The  vine  produces  considerable  fruit ;  is  suited  with 
every  location,  soil,  and  the  different  modes  of  training. 

17.  Meumer,  Fa5onne,  Morillon  tasconi.  Has  its  name  from  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves,  which  especially  look,  early  in  the  sea- 
son, as  if  they  were  covered  with  flour.  The  grape-vine  is  mid- 
dling large,  the  wood  is  long.  The  grape  is  tolerably  large  and 
thick ;  the  berry  is  blue,  red-fleshy,  juicy,  and  tolerably  sweet.  It 
demands  a  rich,  light  soil. 


320 


GKM'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


YII. 
AVERAGE  PRODUCTION  OF  WINE  IN  EUROPE. 


GeiTnany  produces  in  Eimer  of  Wino  upon 

Saxoiiv 20,000 

Prussia 425,000 

Bavaria 1,200,000 

Wirtembcrg G00,000 

Baden 420,000 

Other  States 400,000 

3,070,000 

The  Austrian  Empire 42,000,000 

Greece 70,000 

Archipelago  of  Greece G0,000 

Italy 75,000,000 

Switzerland 150,000 

France 52,000,000 

Spain 8,500,000 

Portugal 1,500,000 

182,350,000 


Morgen  of  Vineyard. 

10,000 

90,000 

210,000 

110,000 

110,000 

58,000 

588,000 

4,500,000 

480,000 

72,000 

4,800,000 

128,000 

8,400,000 

1,  GOO,  000 

400,000 


20,9G8,000 


This  number  of  cimcrs  make  about  15,500,000,000  bottles  of  wine  of  all  varieties 
and  quality. 


APPENDIX  E. 

THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF  SPARKLING 
WINES. 

EXTRACTED  FROM  THE  "WORK  OF  J.  BEYRE. 
WITH   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


X 


APPENDIX  E. 

J.  BEYEE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES. 

IIow  the  Sparkling  is  produced. — How  to  regulate  the  Sparkling. — The  Q^nometer. 

—  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wine. — Double  Faucet.  —  The  Bottles. — Caillet's 
Cleaning  Apparatus. — The  Corks. — Leroy's  Corking  Machine. — Maurice's  Cork- 
ing Machine. — Fastening  the  Strings. — Fastening  the  Wire. — Piling  the  Bottles. 
— Storing  the  Wine. — The  Aphrometer. — Placing  Bottles. — Removal  of  Sediment. 
— Boiled  Liquors  for  the  English  Market. — Cold  Liquors  for  the  English  Market. 

—  Mosbach's  Funnel.  —  Cameaux's  Charging  Machine.  —  Machet  Vacquant's 
Charging  Machine. — The  Liquor. — Filtering  the  Liquor. — Sealing  Mixtures. — 
Jaunay  and  Maumene's  Improvements  in  the  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wines. — 
Generating  Carbonic  Acid. — Adulteration  of  Wines. — Explanations  of  Plates. 

Holu  the  Sparlding  is  produced. 

The  difference  between  sparkling  and  common  wine  consists  in 
the  large  quantity  of  carbonic  acid  contained  in  the  former,  which, 
by  putting  the  wine  in  casks  before  the  vinous  fermentation  is 
completed,  and  closing  them  tight,  is  thus  prevented  from  escap- 
ing. The  fermentation  proceeds  in  the  bottles,  and  the  carbonic 
acid  which  is  thus  developed  mixes  with  the  atmospheric  air  in 
the  chamber  of  the  bottle,  and  by  its  pressure  on  the  wine  causes 
the  gas  to  impregnate  the  same,  which  afterward,  at  the  uncork- 
ing of  the  bottle,  rises  to  the  surface  by  its  expansive  force,  caus- 
ing an  explosion,  and  producing  the  sparkling  and  bubbling. 

As  all  wines  contain  carbonic  acid,  any  wine  can  be  made  spark- 
ling; but  strong  and  sweet  wines,  and  even  such  as  are  somewhat 
astringent,  absorb  a  larger  quantity  of  this  gas  than  dry  and  sweet 
wines.  None,  however,  is  better  adapted  to  produce  a  sparkling 
wine  than  that  grown  in  the  Champagne  district;  hence  most 
sparkling  wines  are  called  Champagne.  Moselle,  Ehine,  Neckar, 
and  some  light  Hungarian  wines  are  also  well  adapted  for  the 
purpose. 

The  pressure  which  the  gas  exercises  in  the  bottles  amounts  to 
four,  five,  and  even  six  atmospheres,  but  infallibly  bursts  the  bot- 
tles when  it  attains  the  height  of  seven  or  eight  atmospheres. 

As  to  the  sparkling  capacity  of  the  wine,  it  is  generally  the  case 
that  the  kind  of  wine  which  explodes  loudest  sparkles  but  little 
when  standing  in  the  glasses ;  whereas,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
wine  which  sparkles  briskly  and  lively  explodes  but  with  a  weak 
sound.  This  depends  on  the  capacity  of  the  wine  to  absorb  more 
or  less  carbonic  acid,  for  the  less  it  absorbs  the  more  gas  gathers 
in  the  chamber  of  the  bottle,  and  the  more  it  must  be  compressed, 
and  consequently  the  explosion  must  be  stronger  and  the  cork  be 


324  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  ^VINE-]VLAJ^mG. 

driven  to  a  greater  distance.  By  tliis  it  is  apparent  tliat  the  wine 
must  be  of  such  a  quality  that  a  correct  relation  exists  between 
the  gas  condensed  in  the  chamber  and  that  absorbed  in  the 
wine. 

At  the  opening  of  the  bottle  hardly  one  third  of  the  gas  escapes. 
If  the  same  were  kept  in  the  wine  by  pressure  only,  it  would  nat- 
urally escape  entirely  on  the  removal  of  the  cork  but  for  the  ad- 
hesive character  of  the  wine,  which  is  strong  enough  to  require  a 
certain  mechanical  influence  to  liberate  the  carbonic  acid  thus  ab- 
sorbed. Also  will  a  piece  of  sugar,  a  crumb  of  bread,  or  a  raisin 
thrown  into  the  wine  after  it  has  been  poured  out,  cause  a  new 
agitation  and  produce  a  lively  sparkling. 

The  temperature  the  wine  is  kept  in  is  of  no  less  importance, 
for  the  higher  it  is  the  easier  the  carbonic  acid  develops  itself 
Champagne  that  has  been  placed  in  ice  for  a  considerable  time 
will  therefore  not  foam  at  all. 

Hoio  to  regulate  the  Sparhling. 

It  was  not  till  1836  that  H.  Fran9ois,  of  Chalons  sur  Marne,  pub- 
lished a  rational  method  to  regulate  the  sparkling.  Maumend,  in 
his  book  on  Champagne,  for  instance,  gives  us  the  following  items, 
which  go  to  show  how  little  profit  the  early  manufacture  of  that 
wine  rendered: 

"  In  the  year  1746  I  bottled  6000  bottles  of  a  wine  of  very 
heavy  body:  120  bottles  were  all  that  remained  of  this  lot;  all 
the  others  burst.  In  1747  the  wine  did  not  contain  quite  so  much 
liquor  as  the  preceding  season,  but  still  one  third  of  the  bottles 
exploded.  In  1748  only  one  sixth  of  the  bottles  burst.  In  1749, 
the  wine  being  more  astringent,  I  lost  only  one  tenth ;  and  in 
1750,  when  the  wine  of  Jacquelet  was  still  more  so,  I  lost  not 
more  than  one  twentieth  of  my  Champagne  by  the  bursting  of 
the  bottles." 

The  method  of  Mr.  Fran9ois,  above  referred  to,  consists  in  the 
following  new  manner  of  using  the  CEnometer,  invented  by  Mr. 
Cadet  de  Vaux,  and  perfected  by  Engineer  Chevalier : 

A  bottle  of  wine  is,  by  boiling  it  down,  reduced  to  four  ounces, 
by  which  process  the  alcohol  is  set  free,  and  only  the  sugar  and 
several  salts  remain.  After  the  crystallization  of  the  tartaric  acid 
has  taken  place,  which  generally  occurs  in  24  hours,  the  degree 
which  the  (Enometer  indicates  must  be  marked.  Now  when  the 
liquid  thus  condensed  shows  not  more  than  5°  above  zero,  the 
wine  will  not  sparkle  in  the  bottles,  not  even  at  20°  and  25°  C. 
These  five  degrees  represent  the  specific  gravity  which  the  sugar 
and  saline  particles  give  to  the  wine. 

Eight  days  before  the  wine  is  bottled,  sugar  or  liquor  of  wine 
(one  pound  of  candied  sugar  to  each  bottle  of  wine  produces  this 
liquor)  are  added,  according  to  the  following  table : 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  325 
At   5°  below  0,  7  lbs.  sugar  or  7  bottles  liquor  of  wine. 


6° 

t( 

C 

(( 

(1 

G 

7° 

i( 

5 

u 

<( 

5 

8° 

(( 

4 

il 

(( 

i 

9° 

" 

3 

" 

<( 

3 

10° 

(( 

2 

(( 

2 

11° 

(( 

1 

<1 

(( 

1 

12^ 

" 

0 

u 

(( 

0 

This  tabic  is  founded  on  the  following  observations  of  Mr. 
Fran9ois : 

1  bottle  containing  1  quentchen  (gros)  of  sugar  shows  only  very  weak  sparkling. 

"  "  2         "  "  "  tolerable  sparkling. 

"  "  3        "  "  "  complete  sjjarkling :  the  foam  es- 

ca])es  the  bottle. 

"  "  4        "  "  "  the  foam  escapes  as  a  stream. 

"  "  5         "  "  "  sparkling  with  great  vehemence. 

"  "  G         "  "  "  extraordinary  vehemence  of  spark- 

ling. 

Nearly  all  bottles  which  contained  six  gros  (1  gros =72  gram.) 
burst,  and  those  containing  five  gros  are  also  apt  to  burst. 

According  to  these  observations,  the  wine  requires  an  addition 
of  4  gros  sugar  per  bottle,  or  900  gros  (a  little  over  7  lbs. — 7.03) 
per  cask  of  225  bottles.  Consequently,  when  wine  that  has  been 
boiled  down  as  above  mentioned  shows,  on  measuring  it  with  the 
OEnometer,  only  5°,  7  pounds  of  sugar  must  be  added.  If  the 
(Enometer  shows  8°,  only  4  pounds  of  sugar  have  to  be  added, 
and  so  in  proportion. 

This  direction,  as  given  by  Mr.  Frangois,  has  been  since  super- 
seded by  the  following :  750  grammes  of  wine,  accurately  weigh- 
ed, are  boiled  down  to  125  grammes,  exactly  the  sixth  part  of  the 
original  quantity.  To  avoid  all  errors,  it  is  best  to  use  the  ivatcr- 
lath  for  this  process,  which  we  will  describe,  so  as  to  leave  no 
doubt  to  persons  not  well  acquainted  with  chemical  terms : 

On  a  trivet,  which  is  placed  over  a  charcoal  furnace,  a  pan  is 
put  with  a  cylinder  of  copper,  w^hich  cylinder  is  filled  with  water 
to  three  fourths  of  its  contents.  On  this  an  evaporating  dish  of 
porcelain,  containing  the  aforesaid  750  grammes  of  wine  which 
we  wish  to  boil  down,  must  be  placed,  and  in  about  three  hours 
we  can  reduce  them  to  that  quantity  we  wish  to  use,  viz.,  125 
grammes.  After  leaving  the  mass  standing  in  a  glass  cylinder  of 
25  centim.  in  height,  and  of  the  same  width,  to  let  the  tartaric  acid 
settle  itself,  keeping  the  cylinder  well  corked  for  24  hours,  the 
proof  by  the  CEnometer  can  be  obtained. 

The  (Enometer^  or  Gleuco- CEnometer  {Fig.  21),  is  an  instrument 
similar  to  an  Alcoholometer  or  Areometer.  The  degrees  are  ac- 
cording to  Beaume,  and  are  obtained  in  the  following  manner : 
The  instrument  is  placed  in  distilled  water  before  the  upper  end 
of  it.  A,  is  closed.  Then  quicksilver  is  poured  into  it  till  it  sinks 
to  the  middle  of  the  tube  A  B,  at  which  point  is  fixed  the  zero 
of  the  instrument.  Then  the  instrument  is  placed  in  a  proof 
vial  (which,  as  well  as  the  instrument  itself,  must  be  wiped  per- 


326  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

fectly  dry),  containing  a  solution  of  15  grammes  of  table-salt  in 
85  grammes  of  water,  and  the  point  to  which  it  sinks  is  marked 
B.  The  space  between  this  point  and  zero  has  to  be  divided 
into  15  degrees,  and  a  like  space  above  zero  must  be  equally  sub- 
divided. The  first  will  show  the  degrees  of  sugar  a  liquid  con- 
tains, and  the  latter  those  of  alcohol. 

This  is  the  simplest  way  to  obtain  a  Gleuco-ffinometer,  which 
was  first  used  by  Cadet  de  Vaux.  The  following  is  a  rectified 
table,  which  all  wine-merchants  use  as  a  guide  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  Champagne : 

Degi-eL>3  of  the  boiled-down  liquid  g         ^^  ^   ^^^^^      225  litres, 

as  shown  by  the  Gleuco-(Enometer.  " 

5°  below  0 4     kil.  sugar,  or  8     bottles  wine-liquor. 


G° 

'       3.4       " 

" 

6.8 

70 

'       2.9       " 

(( 

5.8 

8=' 

'       2.3       " 

(( 

4.6 

9° 

'       1.7      " 

(( 

3.4 

10° 

'       1.1       " 

(( 

2.2 

11° 

'       0.5       " 

<( 

1.0 

12° 

'       0.0      " 

11 

0.0 

To  estimate  the  quantity  of  gas  which  is  developed,  we  will 
only  calculate  the  carbonic  acid  as  produced  by  the  sugar.  A 
bottle  which  has  received  an  addition  of  16  grammes  sugar  (4  kil, 
to  225  bottles)  contains,  after  the  fermentation,  8  gr.  234  mgr.  car- 
bonic acid  developed  out  of  the  sugar.  The  weight  of  one  litre 
of  this  gas,  at  a  temperature  of  15°  C,  is  1  gr.  88  mgr. ;  conse- 
quently, at  the  same  temperature,  those  8  gr.  234  mgr.  will  give 
4  litres,  38  gas.  Now,  taking  it  for  granted  that  100  centilitres 
of  wine  have  the  capacity  to  absorb  99  centilitres,  2384  of  gas,  we 
find  that  a  bottle  which  contains  80  centilitres  of  wine  will  absorb 
87.39  of  gas,  and  the  pressure  must  amount  to  5.4  atmospheres. 
This  is  exactly  the  pressure  that  is  sustained  by  the  bottles  where 
the  wine  showed  12°  below  zero  on  the  Gleuco-CEnometer. 

This  method,  though  a  great  improvement  for  the  manufacture 
of  Champagne,  is  not  perfect  yet,  for  it  still  occurs  that  40  per 
cent,  of  the  bottles  burst. 

Another  method,  which  has  been  in  practice  for  several  years 
in  the  Champagne  districts,  is  this : 

The  quality  of  the  wine  which  is  to  be  bottled  must  first  be  as- 
certained by  testing  it  with  the  Gleuco-CEnometer.  Then  such  a 
quantity  of  sugar,  which  is  to  be  carefully  marked,  is  added  as  to 
make  the  instrument  fall  to  zero. 

As,  at  the  time  of  bottling,  the  wine  has  lost  most  of  its  saccha- 
rine substance  by  the  fermentation  in  the  casks,  the  Gleuco-ffinom- 
eter  stands  a  few  degrees  above  zero.  By  adding  the  sugar,  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  wine  is  increased,  and  equals  that  of  water 
when  the  (Enometer  stands  at  zero. 

The  wine  out  of  w4iich  Champagne  is  made  contains  always 
from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  the  other  mgrcdicnts  are 
present  in  the  same  proportion,  so  that,  at  the  testing  of  the  liquid, 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  327 

the  degrees  above  zero  pointed  out  by  the  instrument  show  in 
reality  the  quantity  of  sugar  contained  in  the  wine ;  for  the  more 
of  saccharine  substance  the  same  contains,  the  higher  the  instru- 
ment will  rise  in  the  liquid.  By  calculation,  we  find  that  to  re- 
duce a  wine  which  contains  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  alcohol  down 
to  zero,  the  same  quantity  of  sugar  is  required  which  in  the  wine 
that  has  been  boiled  down  is  indicated  by  12°  below  zero  on  the 
Gleuco-ffinometer. 

This  latter  method  has  the  advantage  over  that  of  Mr.  Frangois 
that  the  evaporating  process  is  avoided ;  but  then  neither  method 
is  complete,  as  by  none  of  them  the  other  ingredients  of  the  wine, 
and  especially  the  uncombined  acids,  can  be  ascertained. 

According  to  analyses  of  the  best  wines  as  regards  flavor  and 
sparkling  capacity,  the  wine  ought  to  be  composed  of 

1.  IG  to  18  grammes  of  siigai*  per  bottle. 

2.  Jj,'-j;  to  ^-^  of  its  volume  of  alcohol. 

3.  Uncombined  acids  to  correspond  to  3.5  grammes  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Manufacturers  of  sparkling  wine  will  do  well  to  pay  particular 
attention  to  this  analysis,  if  they  wish  to  obtain  a  wine  of  supe- 
rior quality. 

Manufacture  of  SparJding  Wine. 

After  it  has  been  shown  how  much  sugar  has  been  added  to 
the  wine,  according  to  the  method  practiced  in  the  Champagne 
district,  we  now  proceed  to  explain  the  manufacturing  process : 

For  the  manufacture  of  sparkling  wine  the  blue,  grape  is  gen- 
erally used  in  the  Champagne  district,  the  coloring  matter  being 
extracted  out  of  the  skin  of  the  grapes  after  the  juice  has  been 
pressed  out.  I  mention  this  particularly,  because  in  other  coun- 
tries none  but  ivhite  grapes  are  used  for  this  purpose.  The  blue 
grape  is  far  preferable,  however,  because  its  juice  has  the  capacity 
to  absorb  a  larger  quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  which  is  the  main 
point. 

The  young  wine  (must)  is  first  filled  into  pipes  to  settle,  and  is 
afterward  put  into  hogsheads  in  the  upper  cellar,  where  it  remains 
till  it  is  ready  for  bottling,  which  should  be  done  in  the  short- 
est possible  time,  inasmuch  as  one  day  may  produce  a  complete 
change  in  the  wine.  It  is  also  advisable  to  ascertain  every  morn- 
ing, by  means  of  the  Gleuco-CEnometer,  the  quantity  of  sugar  it 
contains. 

To  facilitate  the  work  and  do  it  with  greater  dispatch,  a  faucet 
{Fig.  22)  with  two  separate  openings  may  be  used,  the  key  of 
which  must  be  so  constructed  that  it  opens  one  opening  while 
it  closes  the  other,  so  that  the  workman  can  cork  one  bottle  while 
the  other  is  filling. 

The  Bottles. 
These  must  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care.     The  following 


328  GILVPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

analysis  sliows  tlie  ingredients  of  wliicli  the  glass  of  a  good  bot- 
tle that  had  withstood  a  strong  pressure  was  composed  : 

Silicic  acid 58.4 

Potash 1.8 

Soda 9.9 

Lime 18.6 

Aluminum 2.1 

Oxvdc  of  iron 8.9 

Doubtful 0.3 

100.0 

This  bottle  contained  no  magnesia ;  but  several  of  the  broken 
bottles  contained  some,  viz.,  one  bottle  2.4  per  cent.,  and  another 
one  3.6  per  cent.  Of  how  great  an  importance  the  chemical  com- 
position of  the  Champagne  bottles  is,  the  following,  incident,  which 
occurred  in  France,  will  show  clearly :  A  certain  glass  manufac- 
tory used  sulphuric  alkalies  in  the  composition  of  their  Cham- 
pagne bottles ;  the  consequence  of  which  was  that  the  wine  dis- 
solved the  sulphuric  particles  of  the  glass,  and  a  beverage  was 
produced  which  smelled  like  rotten  eggs,  and  tasted  somewhat 
like  the  mineral  waters  of  Parad,  in  Hungary. 

The  chief  properties  of  a  good  Champagne  bottle  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  It  must  weigh  from  800  to  900  grammes. 

2.  The  glass  must  be  of  an  even  thickness. 

3.  It  must  never  be  of  a  blue  or  rainbow  color,  which  can  be  easily  detected  by 
wetting  the  bottle  and  holding  it  np  to  the  sunlight  in  a  horizontal  position. 

4.  The  glass  must  be  perfectly  pure ;  if  but  the  smallest  particle  of  flint  is  nsible 
in  it,  the  bottle  can  not  be  used  with  safety. 

5.  The  neck  of  the  bottle  must  be  perfectly  conical,  so  as  to  better  hold  the  cork. 

As  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  shot  for  the  cleaning  of  the  bot- 
tles, the  smallest  particle  of  lead  being  sufficient  to  spoil  the  wine, 
the  cleaning  apparatus,  which  was  invented  by  H.  Caillet,  is  gen- 
erally used  for  that  purpose,  the  main  piece  of  which  is  represent- 
ed in  Fif/.  23.  The  bottle  is  put  with  its  neck  in  the  opening 
gofa  flat  piece  of  wood  marked  o,  and  by  the  force  of  the  springs 
r  r  pressed  against  another  piece  of  wood  marked  h.  By  means 
of  a  winch  which,  through  the  cords  c  c,  moves  the  double  roll 
2),  the  bottle,  which  is  partly  filled  with  water,  is  quickly  turned 
round;  and  while  a  stream  of  water  is  washing  the  outside  of  it, 
the  workman  presses  the  brush  marked  Ic,  which  is  attached  to 
an  iron  wire  marked  c^yj  against  it  with  his  left  hand^, holding 
with  his  right  one  the  brush  u  x,  which  cleans  the  inside  of  the 
bottle  at  the  same  time.  This  apparatus  is  a  double  one,  as  our 
sketch  shows,  two  bottles  moving  on  the  same  axle,  and  from  two 
to  six  of  them  are  generally  turned  by  one  cord.  Fig.  2-i  shows 
the  wooden  frames  on  which  the  bottles  are  placed  during  the 
cleaning  process. 

The  CorJcs. 
The  greatest  care  must  be  bestowed  on  the  selection  of  the 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  329 

corks.  They  must  be  perfectly  sound,  and  their  elasticity  such 
that  they  can  be  compressed  to  the  third  part  of  their  diameter 
without  breaking ;  for,  should  the  elasticity  of  the  fibres  be  not 
uniform,  the  bottle  would  not  be  closed  hermetically,  as  the  slight- 
est difference  in  the  cylindrical  shape  of  the  cork  would  cause  the 
gas  to  escape.  The  best  method  to  avoid  great  changes  in  the 
elasticity  of  the  cork  by  the  influence  of  the  carbonic  acid  of  the 
wine  is  to  boil  them  several  times  in  a  solution  of  tartaric  acid, 
and  afterward  expose  them  to  steam  under  a  certain  pressure. 
Corks  are  generally  prepared  in  this  manner,  and  with  good  re- 
sults. Corks  that  have  been  used  once  can  be  used  a  second  time 
— though  the  iron  of  the  wires  and  the  influence  of  the  wine  has 
deprived  them,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  their  elasticity — by  treating 
them  with  oxalic  acid.  From  two  to  five  kilogrammes  of  this 
acid  are  dissolved  in  100  litres  of  water,  and  the  corks  soaked  in 
it  for  about  a  fortnight,  after  which  the  whole  mass  is  boiled,  and 
finally  the  corks  well  cleaned  in  fresh  water.  The  regular  size 
of  a  cork  for  Champagne  bottles  is  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  millime- 
ters in  height,  with  a  diameter  of  thirty  millimeters. 

Machines  used  for  Corking  the  Bottles. 

The  oldest  machine  of  this  kind  bears  the  name  of  its  invent- 
or, "  Leroy,"  and  is  represented  in  Fig.  25.  The  horizontal  bar 
O  O  is  furnished  with  a  tube  of  a  conical  shape,  the  opening  of 
which,  in  which  the  cork  is  placed,  and  a  trifle  larger  than  this, 
has  a  steel  funnel  inserted  in  it,  of  which  the  left  half  is  fastened 
to  the  side  of  the  tube,  while  the  left  one  is  loose,  and  connects 
with  a  spring  marked  T  V,  the  strength  of  which  can  be  increased 
at  will  by  placing  the  bar  a  V  under  the  hammer  «,  which  is  mov- 
able. By  pressing  down  the  treadle  Q,  the  cylinder  F  F,  and  the 
arm,  L  G,  of  a  bent  lever — the  other  arm  of  which  connects  with 
the  horizontal  piece  L  D — are  moved,  and  by  force  of  the  square 
band  L  the  piece  L  D  is  pulled  to  the  left,  drawing  out  the  end, 
T,  of  the  spring  T  V,  and  the  movable  piece  of  the  funnel,  which 
presses  the  cork  down  to  the  lower  end  of  the  tube,  and  so  closes 
it.  To  prevent  the  retrograde  motion,  an  iron  wedge  (which  in 
the  drawing  will  be  seen  right  above  D)  falls  by  its  own  weight 
into  the  tube,  and  forces  itself  between  the  movable  piece  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  same.  By  releasing  the  treadle  Q,  the  shaft  C 
C  is  pulled  down,  which  again  lowers  the  rammer  A,  under  which, 
and  on  the  cap-like  shaped  stand  H,  which  moves  round  a  hori- 
zontal axis,  and  rests  on  a  powerful  spring  wound  round  the  roll- 
er S,  the  bottle  is  placed.  By  beating  the  rammer  with  a  mallet, 
the  cork  is  driven  into  the  bottle  about  20  to  22  millimeters  deep. 
By  pressing  down  the  key-board,  C,  which  connects  with  the 
wedge,  this  is  lifted  to  its  former  position,  and  releases  the  mov- 
able piece  of  the  funnel,  which  instantly  is  drawn  back  by  the 
spring  T  Y,  so  that  the  bottle  can  be  easily  removed.     This  ma- 


330  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

chine  works  very  quick,  but,  owing  to  tlie  conical  sliape  of  the 
tube,  the  cork  is  not  always  placed  quite  straight  into  the  bottles, 
and  so  often  is  the  cause  of  the  escaping  of  a  part  of  the  gas. 

To  avoid  this,  Mr.  Maurice  constructed  another  machine,  which 
is  represented  in  Fig.  26,  by  which  the  cork  is  pressed  through  a 
cylindrical  tube  composed  of  three  or  four  iron  plates.  The  first 
plate  is  movable,  and  forms  one  of  the  sides  of  the  machine,  E  E. 
The  second  piece  is  governed  by  the  eccentric  wheel  P  P,  which 
is  fastened  to  the  axis  F,  and  moves  also  the  third  plate  by  means 
of  a  side  piece  in  the  shape  of  an  inclining  plane  attached  to  the 
wheel.  By  pressing  the  handle  G  down  to  E,  the  three  plates  ap- 
proach each  other  and  compress  the  cork,  while  by  means  of  a 
treadle  like  that  of  the  machine  Leroy  {Fig.  25)  the  cylinder  B  B 
is  lifted  up  and  the  cork  driven  under  the  rammer.  The  balance 
of  the  bottling  process  is  the  same  as  described  in  the  foregoing 
account  of  the  machine  of  Leroy.  As  the  sharp  edges  of  the  iron 
plates  are  apt  to  cut  the  cork,  it  is  best  to  have  them  rounded  a 
little.  Lately  Mr.  Maurice  has  altered  this  machine  considerably, 
and  the  improvements  are  such  that  the  cork  can  be  driven  into 
the  bottle  by  the  same  force  which  serves  to  fasten  the  wire  over  it. 

Fastening  the  Strings. 

The  bottle  is  placed  in  a  cylinder  of  leather,  which  is  fastened 
to  a  trivet  attached  to  a  stool  on  which  the  workman  sits  (see  Fig. 
27),  who,  holding  the  bottle  between  his  knees,  places  the  first 
noose  (represented  in  Fig.  28)  over  the  cork,  which  is  quickly 
drawn  together  by  pulling  at  both  ends,  marked  a  and  i,  the  latter 
of  which  connects  with  the  ball  of  twine  in  the  box  of  the  trivet. 
The  second  noose  is  like  the  first,  the  only  difference  being  in  the 
turns  of  the  loop  between  a  and  Z^,  of  which  it  contains  one  less. 
A  good  workman  in  the  Champagne  district  can  fasten  in  this 
manner  from  1000  to  1200  bottles  in  one  day.  Before  the  cord 
is  used,  it  is  necessary  to  dip  the  same  into  linseed  oil,  to  protect 
it  against  the  dampness  of  the  cellars,  which  causes  the  strings  to 
rot,  otherwise,  in  a  very  short  time. 

Fastening  the  Wire. 

The  wire,  which  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  is  brought  into  the 
market  in  pieces  already  prepared  for  the  purpose  (see  Fig.  29). 
The  workman  who  puts  on  the  wire  sits  on  a  similar  stool  like 
that  one  represented  in  Fig.  27,  except  that  the  cyhnder  in  which 
the  bottle  is  placed  is  a  wooden  one.  The  open  ends,  h,  are  placed 
around  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and  by  pulling  the  wire  over  the 
cork,  both  ends,  a  and  h,  are  united  and  twisted  by  means  of  a 
pair  of  shears  {Fig.  30),  the  points  of  which  serve  to  cut  off  the 
rest  of  the  wire. 

As  it  takes  from  two  to  three  years  before  the  wine  is  fit  for 
the  market,  and  as  the  strings  are  apt  to  rot,  Mr.  Maurice  has  pre- 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTUEE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  33I 

pared  a  wire  fastening,  of  wliicli  wc  give  a  drawing  in  Fi<j.  31. 
This  is  put  on  before  tlic  bottle  is  corked,  as  its  upper  opening  is 
large  enough  to  admit  the  cork,  and  afterward  fastened  in  the 
manner  shown  in  Fig.  32.  This  fastening  saves  th'c  labor  of  put- 
ting on  any  strings  whatever,  and  in  ten  hours  a  good  workman 
can  cork  1000  bottles  and  put  on  the  wire  at  the  same  time. 

After  the  bottles  have  been  so  corked  and  wired  they  are  piled 
up  from  20  to  25  high,  in  the  following  manner  (see  Fig.  33) : 
The  first  row  of  bottles,  B  ?,  rests  with  the  necks  on  live  laths, 
marked  /,  and  those  of  the  second  row,  B'  T,  on  another  lath,  mark- 
ed r,  which  is  laid  over  the  lower  ends  of  the  first  row,  and  so  the 
pile  is  built  up,  care  being  taken  that  the  outside  bottles  are  stead- 
ied by  a  small  wedge  of  cork.  This  kind  of  piles  can  withstand 
a  great  pressure  from  outside,  and  have  the  advantage,  at  the  same 
time,  that  each  single  bottle  can  be  taken  out  for  examination  at 
pleasure. 

Storing  the  Wine  in  the  Cellars. 

To  develop  the  sparkling,  the  greatest  possible  care  must  be 
taken  as  to  the  temperature*  in  which  the  wine  is  kept.  Some 
manufacturers  keep  the  bottles  in  the  fermentation-room  in  a  very 
high  temperature  till  the  sparkling  has  fairly  commenced,  and 
not  till  then  they  remove  the  wine  to  the  cellars.  Others  keep 
the  wine  in  the  cellars,  and  only  bring  it  into  the  fermentation- 
room  when  the  sparkling  process  is  going  on  too  slowly. 

There  are  cellars  in  the  Champagne  district  in  which  the  tem- 
perature seldom  rises  above  3°  or  4°  C,  and  as  many  cellars  con- 
tain three  different  stories,  which  communicate  by  openings  in  the 
middle  of  the  "floor  that  can  be  hermetically  closed,  it  is  easy  to 
produce  a  change  in  the  temperature  of  the  different  cellars. 
When  the  development  of  the  carbonic  acid  proceeds  regularly, 
it  is  not  necessary  to  expose  the  bottles  to  a  very  low  tempera- 
ture ;  but  when  the  fermentatiion  goes  on  too  quickly,  this  becomes 
necessary,  for  the  bursting  of  one  bottle  destroys  at  least  five  or 
six  others  ;  and  as  as  many  as  7500  bottles  are  stored  together  in 
fifteen  different  piles  in  most  of  the  larger  cellars,  this  breaking 
might  become  very  fatal  to  the  whole  mass. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  temperature,  which  rises  to  18°  or  20° 
C,  fresh  water  or  ice-water  is  poured  over  the  bottles  during  the 
coolest  time  of  the  day,  either  before  sunrise  or  after  sunset,  and 
the  cellars  are  well  ventilated.  If  this  does  not  prove  of  suffi- 
cient avail,  the  wine  is  removed  to  a  lower  and  cooler  cellar. 

Most  of  the  cellars  are  provided  with  sinks  to  carry  off  the  wa- 
ter, as  shown  by  Fig.  3-1.  The  floor  a  h,  a'  h\  m  c,  m'  c',  has  an  in- 
clination of  -^.  The  channels  he,  he  are  80  centimeters  broad  by 
3  or  4  centimeters  in  depth,  and  contain  large  sinks,  marked  0  O, 
at  a  distance  of  every  10  meters,  in  which  the  wine  from  the 
broken  bottles  flows. 


332  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

The  Aphro7neter. 

To  ascertain  the  correct  time  for  the  removal  of  the  bottles,  the 
Aphromter  {Fig.  35)  is  used  for  measuring  the  pressure  of  the  gas. 
By  means  of  a  hollow  screw,  which  contains  a  movable  cylinder 
1 1,  the  point  of  which  is  called  V^  this  latter  is  driven  into  the 
cork  of  the  bottle  after  the  wire  has  been  removed  and  the  cork 
been  cut  even.  The  movement  of  the  cylinder  is  governed  by 
the  knob  B,  fastened  to  it  by  a  small  screw  marked  F,  and  by  the 
female  screw  E,  in  which  the  male  screw  of  the  knob  is  inserted. 
The  gas  rises  through  t  into  the  tube  h,  /,  ?',  and,  by  turning  the 
handle  y,  is  admitted  into  the  Manometer,  which  has  been  previ- 
ously filled  with  water,  and  by  another  screw,  marked  G,  connects 
with  the  frame^  h,  I,  r.  This  Manometer,  which  has  been  invent- 
ed by  Bourdin,  shows  exactly  the  number  of  atmospheres  the 
pressure  of  the  gas  in  the  bottles  amounts  to. 

After  the  fermentation  process  is  completed,  the  dregs  of  the 
wine  must  be  removed.  For  this  purpose,  the  bottles  are  placed 
on  stands  of  1  m.  60  in  height  by  0  m.  90  broad,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  36.  Each  stand  has  10  rows  of  bottle-holes  (6  holes  in  one 
row),  of  oval  shape,  on  each  side,  the  largest  diameter  of  which 
measures  10  and  the  smallest  one  9  centimeters.  It  answers  the 
purpose  best  to  place  the  bottles  at  an  angle  of  30°  to  35°.  Fig. 
37  shows  a  simpler  way  of  placing  the  bottles  in  a  position  to 
make  the  sediment  of  the  wine  settle  on  the  cork. 

To  facilitate  the  gathering  of  the  dregs,  it  is  necessary  to  shake 
the  bottles  a  little  at  different  times.  As  the  sediment  of  the  wine 
is  often  slimy,  and  sticks  to  the  glass,  the  following  solutions  of 
tannin  and  alum  are  used  to  prevent  this.  ♦ 

1.  Solution  of  Tannin. — 200  grammes  of  pure  gall-nut  tannin  are  dissolved  in  al- 
cohol of  95°  C,  so  as  to  give  one  litre  of  liquid,  which  is  sufficient  to  clear  IG  casks 
of  wine  of  100  litres  each.  This  is  equivalent  to  12  grammes  ;  5  of  this  solution  for 
one  cask,  or  G2.o  for  one  litre,  or  50  milligrammes  for  one  bottle. 

2.  Solution  of  Alum. 

Pure  gelatine IG  grammes. 

Alum 8        " 

White  wine 1  litre. 

The  wine  is  heated,  and  in  a  decilitre  of  it  the  alum  is  dissolved, 
and  the  gelatine  in  the  residue.  The  whole  is  mixed  when  it  be- 
comes lukewarm.  A  quarter  litre  of  this  liquid  suffices  for  200 
litres  of  wine.  The  sediment  produced  by  the  mixture  of  gela- 
tine and  alum  with  tannin  is  always  pulverous,  does  not  adhere 
to  the  glass,  and  produces  a  very  clear  wine. 

Fig.  38  shows  the  way  in  which  the  dregs  are  removed.  The 
workman  places  the  bottle  inverted  on  his  left  arm.  After  hav- 
ing removed  the  wire  and  strings  with  the  common  hook  (TvJy.SQ), 
he  presses  the  finger  of  his  left  hand  on  the  cork,  which  he  ex- 
tracts by  means  of  pincers  {Fig.  40).  The  foam  is  let  into  a  small 
cask,  marked  c,  leaning  toward  the  workman,  out  of  which  it  runs 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  333 

into  a  tub,  marked  ^,  2>,  o,  having  a  sieve,  /,  to  keep  the  sediments 
back.  If  tlie  dregs  arc  not  entirely  removed  by  the  force  of  the 
explosion,  the  fingers  must  do  the  rest  of  the  work.  Corks  that 
will  not  give  way  easily  are  removed  by  a  simple  contrivance,  as 
represented  in  our  drawing.  The  loss  of  wine  caused  by  this  op- 
eration averages  about  6  centilitres  per  bottle. 

After  this  cleaning  process  sugar  must  be  added.  Formerly 
this  was  not  done ;  but  now,  in  a  bottle  of  80  centilitres  are  put 
24  and  even  26  centilitres  of  sugar-liquor.  The  common  liquor 
consists  of 

150  kilogrammes  white  candy-sugar. 

125  litres  wine. 
10  litres  spirit  of  cognac. 

285  kilogrammes,  or  200  litres. 

LiqiLor  used  for  the  English  Marlcet  (1  cash=200  litres). 

Sugar 50  kilogrammes. 

Water 15  litres. 

;^hitewine )    20  litres. 

(Champagne  out  of  the  vat) > 

The  sugar  is  dissolved  in  warm  water  and  mixed  with  the  wine, 
after  which  the  liquid  is  boiled  down  to  50  litres.  When  the 
liquor  is  cold  it  weighs  35°.     Then  are  added, 

Port  wine 38  litres. 

Spirits  of  cognac 10     " 

Common  cognac 5     " 

Brown  cognac 8     " 

"Fismer"  dyeing  matter 2     " 

{Sugar,                     50     kilogrammes 
White  wine,            20     litres 
Cognac,                    15        "     }     87 
Cherry  brandy,          1        "     
Raspberry  brandy,    0.1    "     , 

200     " 

I/iquor  for  England,  mixed,  without  being  Boiled. 

Common  boiled  liquor •. 100  litres. 

Pure  liquor , 20  " 

Port  wine 30  " 

Madeira 8  " 

White  wine  (Champagne) 10  " 

Spirits  of  cognac 12  " 

Cognac 12  *' 

Brown  cognac 6  " 

"Fismer"  dyeing  matter 2  " 

200     " 

To  each  cask  are  added  2  litres  of  the  following  mixture : 

Water 60  litres. 

A  saturated  solution  of  alum 20     " 

"  "  tartaric  acid 40     " 

"  "  tannin 80     " 

200     " 

The  Fismer  dyeing  matter,  which  yields  one  litre  of  liquor,  con- 
sists of 


334:  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IVIAKING. 

Extract  of  elder-berries 250-500  grammes. 

Alum 30-  65 

Water GOO-800         " 

The  liquor  is  generally  poured  into  the  bottle  by  means  of  com- 
mon tin  cylinders,  with  a  handle  and  a  pipe  of  conic  shape,  the 
opening  of  which  measures  10  or  12  millimeters.  This  instru- 
ment has  been  improved  by  H.  Mosbach,  of  the  house  of  J.  Mum- 
mds,  as  shown  by  our  drawing  in  Fig.  41. 

H.  Cameaux  has  constructed  a  machine  {Fig.  42)  by  which  the 
work  of  putting  the  liquor  into  the  Champagne  can  be  performed 
with  great  regularit3^  The  cylinder  P,  which  is  supported  by 
B  B,  C  C,  E  E,  and  G,  contains  the  chamber  of  the  pump,  made 
of  glass,  and  graduated  into  centilitres.  The  liquor  is  pumped  into 
the  chamber  by  the  lever  A"  A  A',  to  which  the  cylinder  T  is 
fastened,  out  of  a  glass  or  stone  jar,  ?>,  and  through  a  passes  into 
the  bottle,  which  is  placed  on  the  stand  H.  The  overflowing  wine 
runs  into  the  bottle  vi'  through  the  tube  D  D. 

As  it  is  rather  difficult  to  keep  this  machine  clean,  and  as  the 
tube  a  D  D  must  be  made  of  silver  in  order  not  to  injure  the  wine, 
and,  moreover,  as  a  great  deal  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  set  free  by 
the  pumping  operation,  it  is  not  recommendable. 

H.  Machet  Yacquant,  of  the  house  of  Moet,  has  invented  an- 
other machine  which  is  far  preferable.  We  give  a  drawing  of  it 
in  Fig.  43.  A  glass  vessel.  A,  with  a  cover,  which  is  fastened  by 
the  screw  B  C,  contains  the  liquor.  F  is  the  measure,  which  is 
completely  filled  by  the  liquor  in  order  to  exclude  all  atmospheric 
air.  The  stand  G  is  controlled  by  the  treadle  li,  and  the  gas  can 
be  let  off  by  the  faucet  H. 

We  will  add  a  few  remarks  concerning  the  preparation  of  the 
liquor:  Liquor  that  is  made  without  being  boiled  must  be  stirred 
often,  and  the  spirits  of  cognac  must  not  be  added  before  the  sugar 
is  completely  dissolved  in  the  wine.  Liquor  that  is  boiled  must 
be  allowed  to  become  perfectly  cool  before  the  other  ingredients 
are  added — the  alcoholic  liquids  as  well  as  the  dyeing  matter — as 
these  materials  get  deteriorated  in  their  flavor  by  heat.  The  liq- 
uor is  strained  through  a  flannel  bag  lined  with  calico,  and  partly 
filled  with  paper  pulp,  which  must  be  well  mashed. 

Fig.  44  shows  the  tub  out  of  which  the  liquor  runs  into  the  fil- 
tering-bag, and  the  cask  in  which  the  latter  is  suspended ;  also 
the  club  used  for  mashing  the  paper.  Before  the  wine  is  put  up 
in  baskets  and  sent  to  market,  it  should  lie  for  a  week  or  two. 

The  mixtures  used  for  sealing  the  bottles  up  consist  of 

1  kilogr.  of  white  pitch,  and 

1  do.     of  yellow  rosin ; 

or, 

2  kilogr.  of  yellow  rosin,  and 

1  do.     of  yellow  wax; 

or, 

2  kilogr.  of  yellow  wax,  and 
1     do.     of  turpentine ; 


J.  BEYIIE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  335 


1  kilogr.  of  turpentine, 
1  do.  of  shellac,  and 
1    do.     of  yellow  wax. 

These  mixtures  arc  dyed  cither  with  red  ochre,  ivory  black,  or 
Prussian  blue  and  chromate  of  zinc,  which  gives  a  fine  green  col- 
or.    They  are  mixed  in  the  following  proportions : 

1  kilogr.  of  red  ochre ; 

OS)  of  ivory  black  ; 

0.5  of  a  mixture  of  1  kilogr.  of  Prussian  blue  to  2  kilogr.  of  chromate  of  zinc. 

Often  some  mica  or  gold-dust  is  added,  in  the  proportion  of  100 
to  200  grammes  to  1  kilogramme  of  pitch.  Minium,  chromate  of 
lead,  cinnabar,  or  any  other  preparation  of  quicksilver,  must  be 
carefully  avoided. 

Iviprovemcnt  in  the  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wine,  hy  L.  Jaunay 
and  E.  Mauraene. 

The  practice  of  cleaning  the  wine  of  the  dregs  and  adding  the 
liquor,  as  described  iri  the  foregoing  section,  causes  a  loss  of  about 
25  per  cent,  of  the  wine.  This  loss  is  guarded  against  by  the  in- 
vention of  Messrs.  L.  Jaunay  and  E.  Maumene  of  an  apparatus 
{Fig.  45)  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  prevent  the  wine  from  be- 
ing exposed  to  the  atmospheric  air  and  the  escaping  of  the  car- 
bonic acid. 

After  the  dregs  have  been  removed,  the  wine  is  poured  into  a 
ball-shaped  vessel,  marked  S,  filled  with  carbonic  acid,  which  holds 
from  20  to  30  bottles.  The  bottle  B  is  placed  on  the  stand  a,  in 
a  frame  marked  c  cc  c,  which  moves  on  hinges.  The  springs  /•  r 
press  the  bottle  against  the  opening  of  the  tube,  which  connects 
with  the  vessel  S.  By  turning  the  frame  upward,  the  equilibrium 
between  the  gas  in  the  bottle  and  that  in  the  vessel  S,  which  has 
been  previously  made  to  correspond  with  the  atmospheric  press- 
ure which  the  gas  exercises  in  the  bottles,  is  produced,  and  the 
bottle  is  placed  in  a  vertical  position,  so  that  the  wine  runs  into  S 
through  the  tube  t^  which  is  plated  with  galvanized  silver.  As 
the  wine  flows  out  the  bottle  fills  itself  with  gas,  the  equilibrium 
of  which  with  the  gas  in  the  gasometer  G  is  produced  by  lower- 
ing the  frame  to  its  first  position.  Now  the  liquor  is  poured  into 
the  bottle,  and  this  is  then  placed  under  the  stopcock  E,  and  filled 
again  from  the  vessel  S  through  the  silver-plated  copper  pipe  v  E' ; 
the  equilibrium  of  the  gas  being  first  produced  by  turning  the 
cock  E"  of  the  pipe  marked  ;;.  Then  the  bottle  is  corked  and  the 
wine  put  on. 

We  will  now  explain  the  working  of  this  apparatus  in  all  its 
details :  After  the  atmospheric  pressure  of  the  gas  sustained  by 
the  bottles  has  been  ascertained  by  the  Aphrometer  (represented 
in  Fig.  35),  the  vessel  S  is  filled  with  so  much  carbonic  acid  as  to 


336  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IMAKING. 

be  equal  to  that  in  tbe  bottles.  The  gas  is  prepared  in  tbe  follow- 
ing manner  (see  Fig.  46) : 

The  cask  A  is  filled  witb  chalk  or  carbonate  of  lime  (limestone) 
and  water.  The  opening  C  is  then  closed  hermetically,  and  sul- 
phuric acid  when  chalk,  chloric  acid  when  limestone  is  used,  is 
poured  through  the  leaden  funnel  B  into  the  cask.  The  carbonic 
acid  thus  developed  is  conducted  through  the  pipe  D  into  a  small- 
er cask  filled  with  water,  marked  E,  and  from  there  through  an- 
other pipe,  F,  into  the  glass  stand  G,  filled  with  small  pieces  of 
chalk,  which  hind  the  last  particles  of  free  acids.  Through  the 
pipe  X  the  pure  gas  is  led  into  the  gasometer  G  {Fig.  45).  This 
is  a  bell-shaped  vessel,  of  tin  or  tinned  copper,  which  hangs  in  a 
vat  of  the  same  metal,  marked  M  F,  filled  with  water  up  to  two 
inches  from  its  margin,  and  is  balanced  by  the  weight  V.  By 
turning  the  stopcock  d  the  gas  is  conducted  into  the  gasometer, 
flows  through  d'  into  the  forcing-pumj)  P,  while  by  a  third  stop- 
cock, marked  d'\  the  gas  returning  from  the  vessel  S  is  admitted 
again  into  the  gasometer.  The  pipes  which  connect  the  different 
cocks  are  made  of  India-rubber.  The  pressure  of  the  gas  is  meas- 
ured by  a  small  Manometer,  marked  m. 

By  means  of  the  forcing-pumj)  P  the  gas  is  driven  into  the  con- 
denser A!  through  the  pipe  i.  This  is  a  copper  cylinder  plated 
with  tin,  and  holds  1|-  hectolitres,  the  sides  being  from  3  to  4  mil- 
limeters thick,  in  order  to  have  sufficient  strength  to  sustain  a 
pressure  of  20  atmospheres,  which  is  the  amount  of  gas  required 
for  one  day's  work.  The  condenser  rests  on  a  board,  marked//', 
and  is  fastened  to  the  wall  by  means  of  an  iron  ring  g  g^  wound 
round  with  rope,  and  is  furnished  with  a  stopcock,  marked  r'\ 
which  serves  to  let  off  the  water  that  gathers  in  the  cylinder. 
The  atmospheric  pressure  is  measured  by  the  Manometer  M. 

Through  the  pipe  i'  t"  r'  the  carbonic  acid  is  let  into  the  vessel 
S,  and  the  pressure  regulated  in  the  following  manner :  The  pipe 
v'  v"  conducts  the  gas  into  a  cylinder  of  India-rubber  one  centi- 
meter thick,  which  is  closed  by  two  round  pieces  of  the  same  ma- 
terial, fastened  to  bronze  plates,  one  of  which  is  fixed,  while  the 
other  is  movable,  and  is  pressed  down  by  the  gas  putting  in  mo- 
tion the  pieces  z  and  y,  the  teeth  of  the  latter  piece,  turning  the 
wheel,  gradually  closing  the  cock  r\  through  which  the  gas  is  let 
into  the  vessel  S. 

By  the  elasticity  of  the  India-rubber  and  a  spiral  wire  which  is 
wound  round  the  cylinder,  the  plate  is  drawn  back,  and  so  the 
stopcock  opened  again ;  and  by  this  alternate  opening  and  closing 
of  the  entrance  to  the  vessel  S,  the  pressure  is  regulated.  To  still 
increase  the  power  of  the  regulator,  a  spring,  Z,  is  attached  to  the 
movable  bronze  plate. 

The  VcsspX  S  (Fig.  45). — By  pressing  down  the  treadle  ^?,  the 
piece/ which  is  furnished  with  a  spring,  is  pulled  down,  which 
moves  the  ring  A,  to  which  the  piece  lo  is  attached,  so  lowering 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  337 

the  stand  d  d  on  which  the  bottle  is  placed.  On  releasing  the 
treadle,  the  springs  r  r  press  the  bottle  against  a  circular  piece  of 
India-rubber  in  the  middle  of  c  c.  Take  now  the p^ateaw  c  c,  move 
it  forward  so  as  to  turn  it  over  the  body  K  of  the  stopcock,  which 
forms  part  of  the  upper  plate  c  c ;  thus  the  frame  c  c,  c'  c'  is 
brought  in  the  position  indicated  by  the  punctuated  lines,  and 
the  bottle  is  in  B.  After  this  semicircular  motion  the  gas  in 
the  interior  of  the  bottle  is  balanced  by  that  in  the  interior  of  the 
ball  S. 

This  is  plain  if  we  examine  Figs.  47  and  48,  in  which  the  stop- 
cock 11  is  represented  in  detail  (one  fourth  size  in  Fij.  47,  one 
half  size  in  Fig.  48,  with  the  same  letters  in  both  figures).  The 
body  E  is  represented  by  the  letters  A  B  D  E.  It  consists  of  a 
piece  with  a  plate  C  F  {Fig.  47),  and  the  picee  of  the  cylinder  d  d', 
furnished  with  a  thread  of  a  screw,  fastened  by  a  vice  of  bronze 
h  h\  the  use  of  which  is  to  keep  the  circular  piece  of  India-rubber 
in  its  place,  against  which  the  head  of  the  bottle  V  is  pressed. 
The  lower  metallic  mass  of  C  D  E  F  contains  two  round  grooves ; 
to  the  vertical  one  r  r'  is  screwed  a  silver  pij^e  r",  at  the  lower 
extremity  of  which  a  flexible  pipe  r'  r"  is  fastened,  long  enough 
to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  The  other  groove  z  v^  thrice  as 
broad,  is  intersected  by  the  first  at  d  d' ;  it  inclines  about  40°  to 
the  left,  and  extends  to  the  key  at  v. 

This  key  of  the  cock  is  immovable ;  it  consists  of  a  long  fur- 
row T  T'  T'',  and  its  conical  part  has  four  openings  from  D  to  E. 
The  first  one,  ?",  terminates  the  furrow  m  m\  which  is  to  receive 
the  carbonic  gas ;  the  second,  G,  opens  the  furrow  G  II,  through 
which  the  wine  runs  into  the  ball  S. 

These  two  openings  lie  in  the  vertical  plane  T  z  T' ;  the  two 
other  ones  are  45°  from  this  place  and  the  centre  of  the  cock  m 
{FigA9). 

The  one,  u,  lets  the  gas  escape  which  entered  by  m  m' ;  the 
other,  ?/,  is  the  entrance  of  another  branch  arm  3/  o,  of  a  second 
furrow  o  0,  with  an  opening  by  the  same  key,  8  or  4  millimeters 
back  of  VI  m'.  This  furrow  terminates  in  a  second  branch  arm 
0'  y'  (a  little  to  the  right  of  point  T),  and  the  opening  y  corre- 
sponds with  the  furrow  y'  N,  intersected  by  the  stopcock  N.  The 
furrow  m  in'  shov/s  a  stopcock  O  R  between  T'  T".  This  cock 
has  three  passages ;  the  furrow  T"  connects  with  the  furrow  X", 
which  lets  in  the  gas  from  the  regulator  or  condenser.  The  ver- 
tical furrow  ^"'  joins  the  furrow  X',  which  connects  with  the 
ball  S. 

Now  the  treadle  is  pressed  down,  and  the  bottle,  after  the  dregs 
have  been  removed,  is  inserted  in  the  frame.  The  grooves  r  r' 
and  V  z  are  closed  by  the  key  of  the  cock ;  the  wine  is  in  a  vessel 
which  is  hermetically  closed.  The  frame  is  taken  off,  in  order  to 
turn  the  bottle  upside  down,  so  as  to  give  it  the  position  v'  z'. 
While  this  is  going  on  the  body  of  the  cock  first  brings  the  open- 


338  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

ing  r  before  «,  and,  -without  stopping,  there  is  sufficient  time  to  let 
the  gas  compressed  in  m  m'  u  enter  the  flexible  pipe  r  r'". 

The  equilibrium  of  the  pressure  can  thus  be  brought  about  in 
the  bottle  and  in  the  ball;  one  moment  only  is  necessary  for 
it.  As  soon  as  the  bottle  is  brought  in  a  vertical  position,  the 
wine  enters  at  once  the  ball,  without  the  slightest  degree  of  spark- 
ling. 

When  the  bottle  is  emptied,  the  frame  must  be  moved  back  and 
kept  a  little  while  at  the  angle  of  48°,  in  which  position  there 
is  a  connection  between  the  opening  r  and  the  arm  y  o  of  the 
branch  groove  y  o,  o'  y'. 

The  object  of  this  proceeding  is  so  plain  as  not  to  need  any  ex- 
planation. The  pipe  ?/  o,  o'  y  connects  with  y'  tY,  a  second  pipe 
on  the  gasometer  G  {Fig.  45).  The  gas  compressed  in  the  bottle 
enters  the  branch  pipe  as  soon  as  r  is  over  y.  All  gas  exceeding 
the  pressure  of  one  atmosphere  enters  the  gasometer;  the  remain- 
ing gas  fills  the  bottle  completely,  and  can  not  expand  in  the  mo- 
ment when  it  is  taken  from  the  frame.  A  slight  motion  puts  the 
frame  back  into  position  B. 

When  the  bottle  has  got  its  dose  of  liquor  it  is  brought  under 
the  cock  A'  {Fig.  45),  where  it  is  held,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. It  is  now  wrapped  up  with  wire-cloth.  The  cock  v  is  all 
the  time  open.  The  person  that  attends  to  the  filling  opens  the 
cock  A",  by  which  the  gas  enters  from  the  ball,  and  establishes  the 
same  pressure  of  gas  in  the  bottle  and  in  the  ball.  Then  he  opens 
the  cock  R',  and  the  wine  at  once  flows  smoothly  into  the  bottle, 
settling  above  the  liquor  without  any  disturbance.  As  soon  as 
the  bottle  is  filled  the  cock  R'  is  closed  and  the  treadle  released, 
the  corking  quickly  done  with  a  temporary  cork,  and  the  bottle 
put  up  for  market. 

The  construction  of  the  cork  A'  deserves  an  explanation  for 
itself:  d  {Fig.  50)  represents  the  extremity  of  the  pipe  t'  W  of 
Fig.  45 ;  the  gas  from  the  ball  flows  through  this  channel  into  the 
bottle,  and  enters  it  at  t.  The  cock  R'  must  be  as  close  as  possi- 
ble to  the  extremity  P,  whence  the  wine  flows  into  the  bottle. 
This  is  indispensable,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  cock  has 
the  complicated  shape  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

The  wine  flows  out  of  the  ball  through  the  pipe  v  R'  {Fig.  45). 
The  extremity  of  this  pipe  at  R'  is  marked  by  the  letter  a,  Fig.  50. 
The  hollow  vice  into  which  the  bottle  is  put  in  order  to  press 
against  the  circular  piece  of  India-rubber  is  furnished  with  wings 
{Fig.  51). 

When  the  vice  has' been  tightly  pressed  around  the  India-rub- 
ber, it  becomes  necessary  to  guard  against  its  getting  loose.  The 
envelope  of  wire-cloth  is  suspended  to  the  vice,  and  it  is  continu- 
ously moved,  first  to  turn  it  backward  when  the  bottle  is  put  in, 
then  forward  when  the  gas  enters  the  bottle,  in  order  to  jorotect 
the  hands  of  the  workman  in  case  of  bursting.     To  prevent  the 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  339 

vice  from  getting  loose  it  is  fastened  by  a  check-pin,  which  is  rep- 
resented in  Fig.  50. 

By  the  working  of  this  apparatus  no  wine  is  lost.  81,080  bot- 
tles, with  an  addition  of  20  per  cent,  liquor,  put  up  in  this  way, 
render  100,000  bottles,  which,  at  a  price  of  5  francs  per  bottle, 
gives  a  surplus  of  99,500  francs. 

ADULTERATION  OF  WINE. 

The  following  general  rules  may  be  observed  by  any  person 
who  should  wish  to  prove  or  to  buy  wine : 

1.  The  judge  of  wine  will  be  principally  guided  by  the  smell 
and  the  taste. 

2.  If  several  wines  are  to  be  tasted  in  succession,  it  is  well  to 
rinse  the  mouth  every  time,  to  extinguish  the  taste  of  the  preced- 
ing wine. 

3.  It  is  well  to  observe  from  what  part  of  the  barrel  the  wine 
was  drawn.  On  the  top  the  wine  is  mild  and  weak ;  in  the  bot- 
tom it  is  hard  and  strong ;  in  the  middle  it  is  the  best. 

4.  When  the  wine  is  to  be  tasted  it  must  not  be  too  cold  or  too 
warm ;  8°  to  10°  E.  is  the  best  temperature.  At  the  trial  of  dif- 
ferent varieties  clean  glasses  should  always  be  used. 

5.  It  must  be  considered  at  what  season  of  the  year  the  wine  is 
tasted.  In  March  and  April  it  is  generally  in  motion,  and  chem- 
ical decomposition  happens,  which  temporarily  affects  the  taste ; 
the  same  is  the  case  during  thunder-storms  and  strong  gales. 

6.  If  a  glass  filled  with  wine  is  to  be  tested,  we  must  see  if  it  is 
transparent,  if  it  sparkle,  and  in  what  manner.  Old  wines  sparkle 
beautifully ;  young  wine  has  more  tendency  to  foam.  Then  may 
be  tried  if  the  smell  of  the  bursting  bubbles  are  pleasant,  fresh, 
animate  the  sensibility,  and  are  delicious  or  distasteful.  A  little 
wine  may  be  taken  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  then  rubbed,  and  tried 
by  the  sense  of  smelling. 

7.  A  good  wine  should  have  the  following  qualities :  It  should 
be  transparent,  light,  bright,  shining,  not  too  pale,  and  be  of  pleas- 
ant smell  and  taste.  The  after-effects  upon  the  tongue  must  be 
durable.  It  must  not  be  sour ;  at  the  same  time,  not  quickly  in- 
toxicating. Poured  in  a  glass,  it  should  sparkle  beautifully  ; 
measured  with  the  Areometer,  it  must  never  be  more  heavy  than 
water.  If  chemical  reagents  be  applied  to  wine,  the  following  re- 
actions, after  Mulder,  may  be  observed : 

1.  Chlorite  of  Iron. — It  colors  the  wines  blackish,  as  they  contain 
tannin ;  on  the  increase  of  the  blackish  color  may  the  quantity  of 
tannin  be  decided.  White  wines :  Bordeaux-Sauterne  produce  al- 
most no  coloring ;  Champagne  a  slight  indication ;  more  percep- 
tible are  Teneriffe  and  Madeira ;  the  same  in  Osomorer,  Magyar- 
ader,  Somlauer ;  strongly  in  Khenish  wines,  Steinbruch,  Szadaer ; 
very  dark  in  Cotes,  Bergerac,  Muscat,  and  Lacryma  Christi.    Red 


3i0  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-:MAiaNG. 

ivines :  Port  wine  is  the  least  affected ;  more  so  Tavella,  Hermit- 
ao-e,  Langlade,  Burgundy,  Beauue,  Erlauer ;  the  most,  Bordeaux, 
Biirgundy-Tommard,  Narbonne,  Benicarlo,  Rousillon,  St.  George, 
Apszer,  Szegszarder,  Ofner,  Adelsberger. 

2.  Ismglasn  forms  a  sediment  of  tannin. —  White  ivine:  no  sed- 
iment of  Bordeaux-Sauterne ;  hardly  perceptible  in  Teneriffe  and 
Madeira ;  light  sediment  in  Rhenish  wine,  Champagne,  Muscat, 
Cotes,  Bergerac ;  strongly  in  Lacryma  Christi.  Red  loine :  the 
leasr'in  Port  wine ;  little  more  in  Burgundy ;  more  so  in  Tavella, 
Hermitage ;  the  most  in  Langlade,  ordinary  Bordeaux,  St.  George, 
Burgundy  -  Tommard,  Narbonne,  Benicarlo,  Eousillon,  Apszer, 
Szegszarder,  Ofner,  Adelsberger, 

8.  Chloric  Water  will  form  a  sediment  and  change  color. —  White 
mine:  in  Muscat,  Bordeaux-Sauterne,  Rhenish  wine.  Cotes,  Ber- 
gerac ;  but  little  in  Tenerifie,  Madeira,  and  Champagne ;  strongest 
in  Lacryma  Christi.  Red  ivine:  strongest  in  Tavella,  Langlade, 
Port  wine ;  less  affected  Burgundy,  St.  George ;  the  least  in  Her- 
mitage, Bordeaux,  Burgundy-Tommard.  Through  the  blue  sedi- 
ments which  have  been  formed  will  appear  muddy :  Benicarlo, 
Eousillon,  Narbonne,  Tommard,  Hermitage,  Bordeaux,  Burgundy, 
Szegszarder,  Apszer,  Adelsberger. 

4.  Nitrate  of  oxyd  of  Silver  causes  white  sediment. —  White  nine: 
light  in  Rhenish  wines  and  Champagne ;  more  in  Madeira,  Mus- 
cat, Cotes,  Bergerac,  Bordeaux-Sauterne ;  yet  more  in  Teiieriffe ; 
very  much  in  Lacryma  Christi.  Red  ivine :  very  httle  in  Bor- 
deaux, Port  wine,  Hermitage,  Tavella,  Langlade,  Burgundy-Tom- 
mard, St.  George;  much  more  in  Narbonne,  Benicarlo,  Rousillon. 
Adding  nitric  acid  to  the  sediment  will  dissolve  the  same  again ; 
the  most  with  Tommard,  the  least  with  Benicarlo. 

5.  Ammoniac. — It  changes  the  color.  White  tcine :  all  will  ap- 
pear brown ;  the  least.  Champagne,  Cotes,  Bergerac ;  the  most  dis- 
colored are  Bordeaux-Sauterne,  Madeira,  Teneriffe,  Rhenish  wine, 
Muscat,  Lacryma  Christi.  Red  wine :  the  fluid  part  will  be  brown ; 
the  coloring  matter  will  be  altered.  Port  wine  and  Tavella  will 
obtain  the  color  of  Rhenish  wine.  Of  dirty  brownish-green  color 
will  be,  the  least  affected.  Burgundy ;  more  so,  Hermitage ;  the 
strongest,  Bordeaux,  Langlade,  Burgundy-Tommard,  St.  George, 
Rousillon,  Narbonne,  Benicarlo. 

6.  Oxalic  Ammonium  forms  a  sediment.— TFAz'te  vnne:  the  least, 
Champagne;  more  in  the  following  order:  Sauternc,  Rhenish 
wine,  Muscat,  Madeira,  Teneriffe,  Lacryma  Christi,  Bergerac ;  the 
most  in  Cotes.  Red  ivine:  the  least,  Langlade;  more  in  St. 
George,  Bordeaux,  Burgundy,  Port  wine.  Hermitage,  Rousillon, 
Tommard,  Narbonne ;  the  most  in  Benicarlo. 

Sufjar  of  Lead  forms  flocky  sediment.  All  sediment  dissolves 
in  nitric  acid,  through  which  red  wine  will  receive  a  lively  red 
color.  While  wine:  the  least  perceptible,  Lacryma  Christi ;  more 
in  Champagne,  Muscat,  Bordeaux-Sauterne ;  yet  more  in  Rhenish 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  341 

wine,  Madeira,  Tcneriffc ;  the  most  in  Bergerac  and  Cotes,  Red 
wine:  the  least  in  Port  wine  (dirty  brown) ;  more  in  Savclla  (dirty 
white) ;  yet  more.  Burgundy,  Langlade  (both  pale  blue,  violet) ; 
more  in  Hermitage,  Burgundy -Tommard,  Benicarlo  (dark  blue, 
violet) ;  the  most  in  Bordeaux,  St.  George,  Narbonne,  Rousillon 
(pale  blue). 

8.  Alum. — In  white  wine,  no  change ;  in  red  wine,  heightening 
of  the  red  color.  An  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  cali 
until  some  sediment  will  form,  shows,  Tavella,  dirty  sediment; 
the  others,  a  dirty  blue  sediment  (this  reaction  is  uncertain,  as 
the  color  will  depend  upon  the  quantity  of  alum  and  cali;  much 
alum.^ill  itself  color  the  sediment  violet  or  pale  red). 

The  adulteration  of  wine  may  be  in  many  forms,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  different  wines.     The  wines  may  be  divided : 

1.  Sweet  or  liquor  wine,  with  or  without  a  superfluity  of  sugar, 

2.  Sour  wine,  rich  in  tartaric  acid,  poor  in  sugar,  as  Rhenish 
wine  and  Moselle,  \ 

3.  Wine  rich  in  alcohol,  as  Burgundy. 

4.  Wine  which  contains  much  tannin,  as  most  French  wines  do. 

5.  Sparkling  wines ;  Champagne. 

Port  wines  contain  the  most  ingredients  of  alcohol,  which  orig- 
inated not  altogether  from  the  transformation  of  the  grape-sugar ; 
but  they  always  receive  an  addition  of  spirits  of  wine.  All  liquor- 
wines  are,  on  account  of  their  ingredients  of  sugar,  alcohol,  flavor, 
and  their  color,  subject  to  adulteration.  All  wines — even  the  most 
sweet — contain  free  acid.  Free  acid  of  vinegar  is  found  in  from 
^  to  If  thousandths.  Tavella  contains  the  least,  Madeira  the 
most.  At  the  same  time,  wine  contains  sulphuric  acid.  Free  tar- 
taric acid  is  from  2  to  3  thousandths  in  wine,  as  well  as  free  p3^ro- 
malic  acid. 

All  the  sugar  in  the  grape-juice  is  not,  daring  the  fermentation, 
transformed  into  alcohol.  In  Rhenish,  Moselle,  Burgundy,  and 
Bordeaux  wine,  the  sugar  is  not  perceptible.  By  experiment,  one 
ounce  contains :  Sherry,  from  4  to  20  grains  of  sugar ;  Madeira,  6 
to  20  grains ;  Champagne,  6  to  28  grains ;  Port  wine,  16  to  24 
grains ;  Tokay,  34  grains ;  Samos,  88  grains ;  Taratte,  94  grains  of 
sugar.  The  red  wines  would  taste  unpleasant  if  they  did  not  con- 
tain about  |-  per  cent,  sugar. 

Adulteration  iviih  Water. 

A  chemical  conviction  is  not  possible.  It  may  be,  for  instance, 
that  pure  wine  contains  12  per  cent,  alcohol,  and  the  wine  sup- 
posed to  have  been  treated  with  water  only  8  per  cent. ;  then  the 
taster  may  rest  assured  that  the  supposed  adulteration  has  taken 
place. 

Adulteration  with  Cider. 
This  process  is  chiefly  used  with  white  wine.     A  small  quan- 


342  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

tity  of  tliis  wine  forced  to  evaporate  will  leave  a  large  remainder 
behind,  which,  thrown  on  hot  coals,  will  invariably  smell  like  ap- 
ples or  pears.  Or  sulphuric  acid  thrown  over  the  sediment  will 
cause  the  same  smell. 

Adulteration  tvith  Alcohol. 

This  can  not  be  detected  chemically  if  the  alcohol  has  been 
added  some  time  previous.  Adulterers  know  the  quantity  of  al- 
cohol required  in  the  pure  wine,  and  are  not  apt  to  add  more  than 
required  to  evade  detection.  If  water  and  alcohol  were  added 
at  the  same  time  to  the  wine,  the  adulteration  may  be  proved  by 
comparing  the  specific  weight  of  this  wine  with  the  same  of  pure 
wine. 

Young  Wine  ivhich  has  turned  Sour. 

This  will  often  be  cured  through  soda,  pipe-clay,  gypsum,  etc. 
If  lime  or  clay  is  added  to  sour  wine  to  neutralize  the  too  much 
concentrated  tartaric  acid,  then  will  it  be  impossible  to  find  these 
substances  afterward  in  the  wine.  The  superfluity  of  the  tartaric 
acid  will  combine  with  the  lime,  and  gradually  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom. Did  the  wine  turn  sour  from  actual  formation  of  vinegar, 
and  these  substances  were  applied,  they  remain  suspended  as  acid 
of  vinegar.  Oxalic  ammonium  will  form  in  such  wine  consider- 
able sediment,  and  is  sufficient  evidence  that  soda,  lime,  gypsum, 
etc.,  were  used.  If  potash  has  been  added  to  sour  wine,  it  will 
remain  in  the  wine,  by  preceded  formation  of  vinegar,  acid  of  vin- 
egar, etc. 

Happily  there  are  now  cheap  modes  to  take  away  the  sour  taste 
of  wine,  and  only  few  adulterers  will  use  litharge ;  formerly  this 
was  much  practiced.  A  considerable  addition  of  sugar  will  lead 
to  suspect  that  it  is  intended  to  cover  the  sour  taste.  Through 
distilling  the  acid  of  vinegar  may  be  proved  ;  it  must  be  noticed, 
at  the  same  time,  that  every  wine  has  free  acid  of  vinegar. 

Through  Alum. 

By  this  the  color  of  red  wine  will  be  heightened,  and  made 
more  fiery.  The  wine  will  through  it  be  more  durable  for  trans- 
portation. At  the  same  time,  alum  covers  the  addition  of  water, 
and  imparts  to  the  wine  a  Bordeaux-like  flavor.  To  detect  alum 
lime-water  may  be  put  in  wine.  It  must  then  remain  quiet  for 
two  days,  after  which  tartaric  acid,  crystals  of  lime,  are  formed 
when  no  alum  is  in  the  wine.  The  absence  of  this  will  prove  the 
alum  in  the  wine. 

Lime. 

This  is  frequently  used  to  clarify,  to  discolor,  and  to  take  away 
the  sour  taste  of  the  wine.  If  lime  remain  dissolved  in  the  wine, 
oxalic  ammonium  will  form  a  white  sediment. 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  343 

Tannin. 

This  is  much  used  to  improve  the  taste  and  the  color,  as  well 
as  to  guard  against  casualties  of  the  wine.  The  quantity  of  tan- 
nin may  be  calculated  if  a  solution  of  gelatine  is  so  prepared  that 
in  100  parts  of  weight  of  the  same,  one  part  in  weight  of  tannin, 
which  was  dissolved  in  100  parts  of  distilled  water,  will  settle  to 
the  bottom. 

Tartaric  Acid. 

If  free  tartaric  acid  is  found  in  wine,  it  may  be  presumed  that 
it  came  there  artificially.  To  be  convinced  of  this,  take  one  part 
of  wine,  two  parts  of  dissolved  chlor-kalium,  and  the  same  heated 
under  continual  stirring  to  15°  C.  If  the  wine  contains  tartaric 
acid  as  suspected,  artificially  added,  in  eight  to  ten  minutes  a 
white,  crystalline  sediment  of  cremor  iartari  will  form.  Natural 
wine  will  only,  after  an  elapse  of  several  hours, 'form  a  sediment. 
That  the  crystalline  sediment  is  actually  cremor  tartaric  the  fol- 
lowing will  prove  :  this  sediment  must  be  dissolved  in  a  very  lit- 
tle distilled  water,  which  is  heated ;  then  is  added  some  dissolved 
lime.  It  will  form  a  new  sediment  of  tartaric  lime,  which,  if  a 
little  solution  of  muriate  of  ammonia  is  added,  the  lime  will  dis- 
solve. 

Manufactured  Wine. 

It  may  be  that  there  is  wine  in  market  which  contains  no  grape- 
juice,  and  in  which  potatoes  have  replaced  grapes.  For  such  wine 
are  taken  cider,  potato  sugar,  dissolved  with  water  in  a  particular 
proportion,  left  over  to  ferment,  during  which  a  higher  tempera- 
ture than  at  the  fermenting  of  grape-juice  is  required.  Afterward 
this  compound  is  completed  through  the  adding  of  alcohol,  sugar, 
and  aromatic  substances.  To  make  the  deception  striking  is  add- 
ed to  the  wine  cremor  tartaric  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  some  free  acid 
of  vinegar,  or  pyromalic  acid  and  tannin. 

Imitated  Champagne. 

The  real  Champagne  sparkles  differently  from  the  imitated; 
one  part  of  the  oxygen  is  dissolved  in  the  Champagne ;  it  sparkles 
much  longer ;  and  should  the  bottle  stand  open  some  time,  the 
wine  in  it  will  yet  contain  much  oxygen.  With  imitated  Cham- 
pagne this  is  not  the  case ;  the  oxygen  will  escape  soon.  If  Cham- 
pagne is  evaporated,  the  real  wine  will  only  leave  a  trifling  of  sed- 
iment ;  the  imitated,  under  the  same  circumstances,  considerable. 

Coloring  White  Wine. 

A  common  method  to  give  white  wine  a  beautiful,  deep,  gold- 
en-yellow color  is  the  adding  of  burned  sugar ;  or  a  small  quan- 
tity of  nitrate  will  do  the  same  service. 


344  GliAl'E  CULTURE  AND  ^YINE-iIAKING. 

Coloring  Red  Wine. 

From  experiments  made  by  Mr.  Mulders  there  is  in  all  natural 
red  wines  but  one  body  of  coloring  matter.  Mr.  Mulders  has  pro- 
duced this  substance  of  color  in  a  pure  state.  Extracted  with 
spirits  of  wine,  it  will  produce  a  red  tincture.  As  different  colors 
in  combination  with  different  acids  produce  different  colors,  so  is 
it  with  the  color  in  the  husks  of  blue  grapes.  Free  acid  of  vine- 
gar, pyromalic  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  tartaric  acid,  give  to  the  wine 
a  more  light  and  liery  red  color.  Burgundy,  which  contains  the 
least  free  acid,  has  a  very  dark  color. 


EXPLANATION  OF  PLATES. 


Fig.  1  represents  an  Imi:)rove(l  Safety -Faucet.  1  is  the  body  of 
it  without  the  stopper,  seen  from  above ;  2  is  the  perpendicular, 
cut  by  the  line  a  h  in  fig.  1 ;  3  is  the  side  view  of  the  stopper ;  4, 
the  same  seen  from  above.  The  pin  d  of  this  latter  turns  in  a 
circle-shaped  furrow  of  the  body,  running  concentric  with  the 
openings.  In  1  it  appears  visible  by  the  dotted  circle  e  e,  but 
clearer  in  e  e  of  2.  The  stopper  can  only  be  put  into  and  taken 
out  from  the  body  when  the  pin  d  is  put  in  the  direction  of  the 
fold/  and  pushed  through  this.  If  this  pin  stands  beneath  that 
fold,  the  cock  is  open  and  the  liquid  flows  out ;  if  it  gets  turned 
off  from  the  place /J  it  is  locked.  The  perpendicular  pin  g  serves 
as  a  mark,  which,  in  the  first  case,  appears  turned  off  from  the  cask; 
in  the  latter,  toward  it.  When  the  cock  is  fixed  into  the  cask,  the 
pin  in  o  can  only  be  moved  by  the  key  5,  made  of  bone,  hollow 
at  its  end,  and  exteriorly  triangular.  In  order  to  open  the  faucet 
or  to  lock  it,  the  key  is  put  upon  the  pin  h  and  the  triangular  hol- 
low about  it.  The  body  of  the  faucet  and  the  stopper  are  made 
of  wood ;  the  pins  cZ,  </,  /z,  of  brass ;  the  ring,  l\  of  iron ;  and  the 
mouth,  represented  in  1  and  2  by  ??,  ?i,  are  lined  with  cork. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  Safety-Cock  of  Christian,  made  of  metal — I  the 
side  view;  II  the  cut;  III  the  view  from  above.  On  the  upper 
end  of  the  plate  a  is  a  tube-shaped  piece  h^  in  which  c  is  movable. 
This  piece  c  is  pressed  against  the  stopper  e  by  the  action  of  the 
spring  cZ,  and  fits  into  the  screw/  which  runs  perfectly  around  to 
a  place  i  in  IV,  where  it  gets  interrupted  by  a  tooth-shaped  part 
of  the  metal.  This  tooth  i  leans  against  the  piece  e,  and  prevents 
the  turning.  From  the  other  side  the  stopper  e  is  held  fast  by  a 
pin  _/  in  III,  which  leans  against  the  end  of  a  section  I.  This  lat- 
ter is  so  constructed  that  the  stopper  e  can  make  the  necessary 
rotary  motion  if  I  don't  hinder  it.  The  end  of  e  is  a  screw.  In 
order  to  open  the  cock,  take  the  key  /c,  in  II  and  VI,  whose  hoi- 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  345 

low  is  the  motlier-scrcw  to  c,  and  that  draws  the  piece  I  back  "when 
screwed  in,  by  which  action  the  stopper  c  gets  free,  and  can  be 
turned  by  its  handle.  V  represents  two  views  of  c,  the  spring  d 
of  the  tube  i,  into  which  the  cap  m  is  firmly  to  be  fixed  after  c 
and  d  are  put  in. 

Fig.  3.  Oechsle's  Musi-Scale. — A  is  a  hollow  glass  cylinder,  filled 
almost  to  its  brim  with  must.  The  instrument  is  composed  of 
the  "  float"  a,  which  holds  it  suspended,  and  the  "  point  of  gravity" 
i,  having  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  instrument  continually  in  a 
perpendicular  direction.  The  scale  C  is  divided  into  degrees, 
from  50  to  100,  by  lines.  After  inserting  the  scale  into  the  must 
a  careful  observation  must  bo  taken,  w^hen  it  don't  play  any  more, 
to  what  degree-line  it  has  sunk  down.  This  line  indicates  by  de- 
grees the  weight  of  the  must.  The  instrument,  and  the  mode  of 
using  it,  are  described  at  length  in  Appendix  C,  pages  257,  266, 
which  see. 

Fig.4i  represents  the  Acid-Scale,  composed  of  three  parts :  I,  the 
"  Flask ;"  II,  the  "  Pipette ;"  III,  the  "  Burette."  The  object  of 
this  instrument  is  to  ascertain  the  quantity  of  acids  in  the  must. 
The  Acid-Scale,  and  the  mode  of  using  it,  are  described  at  length 
in  Appendix  C,  pages  264,  265,  which  see. 

Fig.  5.  The  Fermentation  or  Safety  Tube. — After  filling  the  cask 
about  nine  tenths  full  with  must  and  sugar  mixture,  this  is  put 
into  it.  Its  form  is  a  curved  tube  «,  whose  longer  limb  is  put  air- 
tight into  the  perpendicularly  perforated  bung  h,  and  the  shorter 
one  2  to  3  inches  deep  into  the  vessel  c,  half  filled  with  water. 
The  length  of  the  former  must  be  about  8  inches,  the  other  about 
6  inches,  and  the  upper  curving  part  also  6  inches  long. 

Fig.  6.  Closed  Fermentation  Tub. — A  represents  an  ordinary  tub 
of  optional  size,  whose  upper  lid  a  has  a  slanting  rim,  as  b  a  or /a 
show.  This  lid  has  two  openings  4  inches  wide :  the  one,  g,  to 
insert  the  safety  apparatus  B  into ;  the  other,  with  the  stopper  c/,  to 
fill  the  tub  through.  In  order  to  remove  the  lid  easily,  the  four 
upper  hoops  are  fastened  together  by  a  strong  screw,  e.  By  loos- 
ening these  a  little  the  staves  will  part  so  much  that  the  lid  may 
be  easily  taken  out  by  inserting  the  hands  through  both  the  open- 
ings g  and  d.  T\iq  fermentation  bottom,  K  and  I,  is  formed  by  a 
perforated  board,  h,  of  1  to  1^  inches  in  thickness,  fixed  upon  two 
lasts,  and  four  wooden  sticks,  ?*,  penetrating  these.  By  means  of 
the  wooden  pins  m  m,  and  several  perforations  of  those  sticks,  the 
bottom  k  can  be  put  higher  or  lower,  according  to  option.  The 
perforated  cock  r,  whose  downward  pointed  mouth  is  locked  by 
the  stopper  0,  serves  for  taking  the  proofs.  Close  over  the  bottom 
p  is  a  tap-hole,  into  which  a  tin  tube  is  put  when  the  wine  is  to 
be  drawn  off',  in  place  of  the  cock  q.  C  is  a  support  12  or  15  inch- 
es high,  facilitating  this  business. 

Fig.  7.  '' Fbullioscope,"  or  '' AlcoJiol- Scale  of  Mr.  Gr.  Conaty."— 
This  is  composed  of  a  small  kettle,  C,  of  red  copper,  that  may  hold 


346  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

50  to  60  cubic  centimeters  of  liquid.  This  goes  exactly  down  to 
the  middle  of  the  brass  stove  T,  heated  by  a  spirit  lamp.  It  is  to 
be  almost  filled  with  wine,  covered  by  the  round  lid  j>,  to  which 
the  thermometer  has  to  be  fixed,  and  to  be  brought  to  boiling. 
The  degrees  up  to  which  the  quicksilver  rises  at  the  boiling  point 
also  indicate  the  alcohol  parts  in  the  wine.  See,  also,  the  "  Vapo- 
rimeter"  illustrated,  and  its  mode  of  operation  described,  in  Ap- 
pendix C,  pages  289,  290. 

Firfs.  8,  9.  Se])arator  for  separating  the  grapes  from  the  stems. — 
A  cylinder,  C  D,  composed  by  wooden  sticks  lying  horizontal 
above  the  receiving  tub,  in  which  the  grapes  are  shaken  by  means 
of  wooden  dashers,  ah^c  cZ,  fixed  to  the  axle  M  G  {Fig.  9).  A 
box,  A  B,  stands  upon  this  cylinder,  into  which  the  grapes  are 
thrown.  Two  cross-sticks  put  through  the  hooks  c  c  serve  to  lift 
the  whole  apparatus  upon  the  tub.  The  berries,  getting  separated 
from  their  pedicles,  fall  through  the  interstices  into  this  latter,  and 
are  taken  out  through  the  door  p. 

Fig.  10.  An  apparatus  by  which  the  carbonic  acid  gas  escaping 
during  the  fermentation  of  the  wine-must  may  be  turned  to  use. 
The  end,  /,  of  a  conducting  tube,  let  into  the  fermentation  tub,  may 
be  so  arranged  that  it  is  brought  into  a  barrel,  e,  half  filled  with 
water.  This  extracts  all  foreign  vaj)ors  out  of  the  gas,  which  then 
is  conducted  by  a  tube,  i'^,  into  a  second  barrel,  C,  filled  with  crys- 
tallized carbonic  acid  natron.  The  gas  gets  absorbed  by  this  salt, 
and  settles  by  being  changed  into  double  carbonic  acid  natron  by 
the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid.  From  C  the  gas  goes  through 
the  tube  t"  into  the  barrel  C,  where  it  undergoes  the  same  change. 
This  double  carbonic  acid  natron  must  then  be  dried,  and  will 
form  an  amply  paying  equivalent  for  the  trouble  of  its  making. 

Fig.  11.  "  Fermentation  vat  of  masonry,"  sometimes  used  instead 
of  wooden  tubs. — MM  are  the  upper  walls  of  the  vault,  through 
which  a  circle-shaped  opening,  S,  goes  with  slightly  slanting  sides. 
Upon  these  lies  a  caoutcliouc  ring,  C  C,  about  1  centimeter  thick, 
serving  to  close  the  stone  slab,  a  a,  S,  air-tight,  which  has  3  iron 
rings,  a  a.  The  screw  V,  which  goes  through  the  iron  cross-piece 
F,  fixed  by  clamps  let  into  the  slab  stones,  holds  it  tightly  closed 
against  any  pressure  of  the  carbonic  acid  from  inside.  P  H  is  a 
double  door — P  the  inner  wooden  door,  H  the  outer  one,  of  cast 
iron ;  both  are  firmly  pressed  by  the  screw  V.  Z  is  a  spout 
through  which  the  sediments  are  drawn  off,  and  the  water  used 
for  cleaning  the  vat.  I  E  is  a  tube  to  let  the  fermented  wine  off; 
t  is  the  tube  to  let  the  gas  off  through  ;  x  another  opening,  serving 
to  screw  a  third  tube  into,  or  to  take  some  wine  out  from  above. 
T  is  a  thermometer.  The  benefits  derived  from  such  vats  are 
their  holding  the  warmth  better  than  wooden  tubs,  allowing  the 
fermentation  a  very  regular  course,  and  their  capability  of  being 
heated  from  outside  in  cold  weather,  in  order  to  bring  the  tem- 
perature of  the  walls  up  to  100°  C,  the  most  proper  for  musts  of 
low  temperature. 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  347 

Figs.  12,  13.  Instrument  used  in  Sulphuratmg  wine-casks. — In 
order  to  do  this,  a  piece  of  linen  is  dipped  into  boiling  sulphur  and 
allowed  to  dry.  This  then,  2  to  3  inches  long,  is  fixed  to  the 
hook,  lighted,  and  held  into  the  cask.  To  avoid  the  dropping  off 
of  the  charred  linen  into  the  wine,  the  following  apparatus  serves 
well  {Fig.  13).  C  is  an  earthen  vessel,  with  holes  through  it,  which 
has  to  be  fixed  to  the  bung  B  by  3  iron  wires  twisted  together 
underneath  the  rim  C  and  the  lower  end  of  the  vessel  at  m.  The 
sulphur-cloth  is  then  put  into  this  latter,  ignited,  and  let  down 
into  the  cask.  The  sulphur  burns  off,  the  sulphurous  gas  escapes 
through  the  holes  into  the  cask,  but  of  the  charred  cloth  itself 
nothing  can  fall  into  it. 

Fig.  14.  Sebille  Auger's  Hydraulic  Bung. — This  is  formed  by  a 
cone,  A  B,  made  of  tin,  around  which  runs  a  plate,  C  D,  filled  with 
water.  The  upper  end  A  is  covered  with  a  cap  E,  having  small 
holes  through  its  lower  end.  After  the  bung  B  has  been  insert- 
ed, it  fits  tightly  by  the  aid  of  the  small  segments  below.  The  gas 
rises  in  A  B,  from  there  into  the  cap  E,  where  it  escapes  through 
the  lower  holes  and  the  water  into  the  air. 

Fig.  15.  Masson  Toux's  Hydraulic  Bung  needs  no  farther  ex- 
planation, as  the  figure  gives  it  sufficiently. 

Fig.  16.  Maumenc's  Bung. — B  is  an  ordinary  bung,  perforated 
lengthwise,  with  its  uj)per  end  widened  a  little  to  allow  the  leaden 
valve  S  to  fit  into  it.  The  handle  m  w,  of  sheet  iron,  serves  this 
latter,  and  the  end  of  a  caoutchouc  tube,  c  c,  to  hold  it.  A  slight 
inside  pressure  is  sufficient  to  lift  the  valve  and  to  let  the  gas  es- 
cape. 

Fig.  17.  Si2Jhon  used  for  drawing  the  wine  off  from  one  cask 
into  another.  It  is  made  of  tin,  and  has  at  the  point  of  its  part 
A  a  small  tube,  ^,  with  a  mouth-piece,  5.  This  tube,  i",  goes  at  m 
into  the  elevating  arm.  Then  the  arm  C  is  let  into  the  wine,  hold- 
ing the  instrument  fast  by  the  hand  C  F.  The  cock  R  must  be 
closed,  and  the  air  drawn  from  out  the  instrument  by  applying 
the  mouth  to  the  mouth-piece  s.  The  wine  enters  the  vacant  space 
also  at  m^  and  rises  through  the  tube  to  the  mouth.  By  opening 
the  cock  E.  it  flows  over,  and  may  be  so  transferred  to  another 
cask. 

Fig.  18.  Apioaratus  for  Drawing  off  Wine  from  a  cask  without 
bringing  it  into  connection  with  the  air.  T  is  the  full  cask,  and 
T'  the  one  into  which  the  wine  is  to  be  transferred.  A  faucet 
cock  {Fig.  D)  is  put  into  T ;  into  this  a  head  of  the  leather  hose 
m  is  to  be  inserted.  Each  head  is  a  hollow  wooden  cock,  20  to  25 
centimeters  long,  6  centimeters  thick  at  its  upper,  3  centimeters 
at  its  lower  end,  and  bearing  upon  the  former  a  ring  to  make  it 
tightly  fit  into  the  hose  {Fig.  G).  Now  the  cock  is  taken  out  of 
T',  and  the  tube  h'  is  driven  in  by  a  wooden  mallet.  When  the 
connection  has  been  performed,  the  stopper  on  cock  C  is  turned, 
and  the  half  of  the  wine  in  the  cask  T  will  immediately  flow  over 


348  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  "WTNE-IMAKING. 

into  T'.  The  bellows  S  are  then  introduced  into  the  bung-liolc 
of  T.  At  the  end  is  a  draft  tube,  k,  with  a  valve  inside,  opening 
only  from  above  to  below.  This  draft  tube  is  to  be  put  air-tight 
into  the  bung-hole ;  the  lantern-shaped  end,  however,  has  to  be 
fixed  to  a  hoop  of  the  cask  by  the  hook  r.  The  bellows  forces 
the  air  to  the  surface  of  the  wine  without  clouding  it.  The  air 
compressed  in  the  cask  will  then  drive,  by  its  pressure,  all  the 
wine  from  out  of  T  into  T'.  When  the  air  enters  the  hose,  indi- 
cated by  a  piping  sound,  it  must  be  stopped,  the  cock  at  c  be  closed, 
and  the  bung  of  T'  carefully  put  on. 

Fig.  19.  Apparatus  to  produce  Carbonic  Acid  Gas.  (See  the  "Man- 
ufacture of  Sparkling  Wines.") — The  tube  F  coming  out  of  a  cask 
(not  represented  in  the  cut)  conducts  the  gas  from  below  to  the 
middle  of  the  cask  G,  which  is  filled  with  pieces  of  chalk,  below 
of  larger  size  than  above.  The  upper  lid  of  G  has  a  hole  to  in- 
sert the  copper  tube  H,  which  has  to  be  screwed  to  a  gutta-percha 
tube,  L,  of  several  yards  length.  Through  this  tube  the  gas  gets 
into  the  cask  P.  If  several  casks  are  to  be  treated  in  this  manner, 
the  one  P,  filled  with  the  diseased  wine,  must  be  taken  instead  of 
an  empt}^  one.  The  bung  is  taken  out,  and  the  conical  bung  M 
put  in  instead,  through  whose  middle  a  tin  tube  goes.  The  car- 
bonic acid  gas  goes  now  over  into  the  cask  P,  filled  with  wine. 
In  this  the  gas  exercises  a  pressure  observable  through  the  tube  v 
of  the  vessel  G.  This  latter  is  made  of  glass,  and  closed  by  a 
cork  stopper  in  which  are  two  round  holes.  One  of  these  takes 
in  a  copper  tube,  z,  glued  to  the  tube  H,  to  conduct  the  gas  into 
the  glass  vessel.  Into  the  second  hole  comes  a  straight  glass  tube, 
60  centimeters  long,  which  is  divided  by  degree-lines,  and  enters 
the  water  2  centimeters  deep,  with  which  the  vessel  is  half  filled. 
When  this  has  risen  to  20  centimeters,  the  cock  K  is  opened  to 
let  the  wine  off,  only  so  far,  however,  as  to  keep  the  water  in  the 
glass  tube  always  at  the  same  height.  The  wine  is  transferred 
by  the  vessels  S  into  new  well-sulphurized  casks.  No.  2 :  As 
soon  as  No.  1  is  empty,  the  bung  M  is  taken  out,  and  a  large  fun- 
nel placed  upon  its  hole ;  at  the  same  time,  the  cock  E  must  be 
closed.  Then  the  bung  M  is  put  upon  another  cask.  No.  3,  to  let 
the  wine  off.  This  is  poured  through  the  funnel  into  No.  1,  and 
the  operation  in  this  manner  continued  from  No.  4  into  No.  3,  the 
wine  of  No.  5  to  No.  4,  and  so  down  to  the  last  into  which  the  wine 
of  No.  2  is  transferred. 

Fig.  20.  An  apparatus  after  the  method  of  Mr.  11.  Payen,  im- 
proved by  Maumend,  to  produce  Tannin  Matter  from  Galls,  in  order 
to  improve  diseased  foaming  wines.  Nut-galls  are  powdered  fine- 
ly, and  filled  into  a  glass  eprouvette  N,  where  it  gets  fastened  by 
a  cotton  wick.  A  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether  is  then  filled  into 
the  globe  E,  which  has  to  be  warmed  by  water.  The  vapors  rise 
through  the  tube  t,  become  condensed  in  the  globe  B,  and  fall  as 
a  liquid  upon  the  nut-galls,  extracting  them  continually  in  this 


J.  BEYRE  ON  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SPARKLING  WINES.  349 

way.  The  vapor  not  condensing  goes  over  to  B'  or  B",  wLosc 
stoppers  have  safety-tubes  going  down  to  the  bottom ;  s  is  a  lid 
to  prevent  the  water  from  being  thrown  out  in  the  tube.  Very 
little  ether  condenses  in  B',  and  still  less  in  B",  but  in  case  it  does 
it  may  easily  be  prevented  by  closing  the  door  of  the  stove  a  lit- 
tle, and  pouring  cold  water  upon  the  globe  E.  The  ether  in  B" 
evaporates  immediately,  enters  B',  and  thence  B.  No  ether  at  all, 
therefore,  is  lost.  Two  layers  of  liquids  are  formed  in  the  globe ; 
the  upper  one  is  a  solution  of  gallic  acid  in  ether.  This  ether  is 
taken  off  and  evaporated  over  a  water-bath.  The  result  will  be 
the  desired  product = the  tannin. 

The  remaining  illustrations  {Figs.  21-50)  are  fully  described  in 
the  preceding  article  on  the  "  Manufacture  of  Sparkling  Wines," 
pages  827-335,  which  see.  Ilcrc  is  appended  simply  their  sub- 
jects : 

Fig.  21.  The  (Etiovieter,  or  Wine  Musi-Scale. — See  page  327,  and 
also  Appendix  C,  pages  257,  266. 

F^g.  22.  Double  Faucet,  for  bottling  wines. — See  page  327. 

Fig.  23.  Cailleis  Cleaning  Aj^paratus. — See  page  328. 

Fig.  24:.  Frames  for  holding  bottles. — See  page  328. 

Fig.  25.  Leroijs  Corking  Machine. — See  page  329. 

Fig.  26.  Maurices  Corking  Machine. — See  page  330. 

Figs.  27,  28,  show  the  manner  of  tying  the  cords. — See  page 
330. 

Figs.  29,  30,  represent  the  loires  and  shears  used  for  securing 
the  corks. — See  page  330. 

Figs.  31,  32.  Maurice^ s  Wire  Fastening. — See  page  331. 

Fig.  33.  Piling  Bottles. — See  page  331. 

Fig.  3-1.  Cellar  for  storing  wine. — See  page  331. 

Fig.  35.  The  Aphrometer. — See  page  332. 

Fig.  36.  Bottle  Stancl.—See  page  332. 

Fig.  37.  Another  mode  of  Packing  Bottles. — See  page  332. 

Figs.  38,  39,  40.  Removing  the  Dregs. — See  page  332. 

Fig.  41.  Moshach's  Funnel. — See  page  334. 

Fig.  42.  Cameauxh  Charging  Machine. — See  page  334. 

Fig.  43.  Machet  Varquant^s  Charging  Machine. — See  page  334. 

Fig.  44.  Tub  and  Pestle. — See  page  334. 

Fig.  45.  Jaunay  and  Maumene's  Apparatus. — See  page  335. 

Figs.  46,  47,  48,  49,  50.  Parts  of  Jaunay  and  MaumenSs  Appa- 
ratus.— See  pages  336-338. 


350  GRAPE  CULTURE  AXD  WINE-MAKING. 


APPARATUS  FOR  WINE-MAKING. 
A  %* 


351 


352 


GRAPE  CULTUIIE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

BgJ2. 


APPARATUS  FOR  WINE-MAKING. 
S 


853 


354. 

A  ~ 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Fij.24  r'T"' 


APPARATUS  :^0R  WINE-MAKING. 


600 


J!y.33 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


ArrAKATU8  FOR  WINE-MAKING. 


867 


Fuse. 


Fia.42. 


358 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAMNG 


Iij.4i'd 


APPARATUS  FOR  WINE-MAKING. 


359 


360 


GKAFE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKIXG. 


t,  iiii  i;S 


ByiV. 


APPENDIX  F. 

DRYING    FPailTS. 

EXTRACTED  FROM  TIIE  WORK  OF  EDWARD  LUCAS. 


APPENDIX  F. 


E.  LUCAS  ON  DRYING  FRUITS. 


General  Rules. — The  Drying-room. — Drying  in  Ovens. — In  heated  Rooms. — In  the 
Air  and  Sun. — Drying  Quinces,  Plums,  and  Cherries. — Expenses  of  Fruit-drying 
in  Germany. — Apples  and  Prunes. 

General  Rules. 

The  following  may  serve  as  common  rules  for  drying  of  fruit : 

1.  All  fruit  required  for  drying  must  have  attained  its  full  de- 
velopment and  ripeness  to  produce  a  good  article.  Stunted,  un- 
developed, as  well  as  stained  fruit,  is  unfit  for  this  purpose. 

2.  Over-ripe  fruit  is  not  adapted  for  drying.  An  exception  are 
few  varieties  of  hard,  fleshy  pears. 

8.  Worm-eaten  fruit  must  not  be  taken.  If  prunes  and  plums 
remain  long  on  the  tree,  the  worm-eaten  fruit  will  fall  off,  and  the 
gathering  will  be  a  choice  quality. 

4.  Sour,  as  well  as  pure,  sweet  kernel  fruit  produce  a  poorer 
dried  article  than  such  in  which  sugar  and  acid  are  contained  in  a 
balanced  proportion. 

5.  All  apples  intended  to  be  dried  should  be  peeled  and  freed 
of  the  core,  for  these  will  not  become  mellow  if  boiled.  Pears 
make  an  exception  in  this  regard,  for  which  reason  they  are  often 
dried,  not  being  peeled  nor  the  core  taken  out. 

6.  Small  and  middle-sized  apples  may  be  peeled  and  freed  from 
the  core,  and  then  dried  whole.  Large  apples  are  best  to  be  cut 
in  four  or  six  pieces. 

7.  If  peeled  fruit  is  brought  immediately  into  the  heated  dry- 
ing-room, it  will  preserve  a  fine  pale  color. 

8.  Plums  should  only  be  taken  for  drying  when  fully  or  over- 
ripe. 

9.  Kernel-fruit  drying  requires,  in  the  beginning,  a  temperature 
of  from  60°  to  80°  E. ;  afterward  from  40°  to  50°  E.  will  answer 
well. 

Fruits  which  can  boil  in  their  steam,  if  only  for  a  short  time, 
will  dry  better,  and  will  be  more  sweet  and  palatable  than  that 
which  is  not  steamed.  When  it  is  observed  that  the  fruit  is 
steamed,  the  operation  should  be  continued  at  a  more  moderate 
temperature. 

10.  If  fruit  is  dried  very  slowly,  and  at  a  continual  low  temper- 
ature of  heat,  it  will  be  sour.  Apples  intended  to  be  dried  in  the 
air  should  be  brought  into  a  heated  drying-room  first,  through 
which  they  would  gain  in  sweetness. 


3Gi  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

11.  Xo  variety  of  fruit  sLould  cool  slowly  in  the  drying-room; 
it  would  lose  its  appearance  and  beautiful  gloss.  The  nice  gloss 
is  attained  if  tlie  fruit  is  brought  hot  out  of  the  drying-room,  and 
suffered  to  cool  rapidly  exposed  to  the  air. 

12.  Fruit  which  is  dried  several  times  and  allowed  to  cool 
quickly  wall  attain  more  sweetness. 

13.  Fruits  destined  for  the  drying-room  should  never  be  piled 
on  top  of  one  another. 

14.  If  fruit  is  dried  too  much  it  will  be  tough  when  boiled. 

15.  Stone-fruit  must  be  dried  gradually  at  the  commencement 
to  prevent  the  running  out  of  the  juice. 

16.  Stone-fruit  required  to  be  freed  of  its  stones  should  be  par- 
tially dried,  at  which  time  the  stone  will  separate  from  the  flesh 
by  a  light  pressure. 

17.  Only  dry  air,  which  is  not  impregnated  with  moist  steam,  is 
fitted  for  drjnng  of  fruit.  For  this  reason,  the  air  must  be  regu- 
lated so  as  to  answer  the  purpose. 

18.  All  fruit  coming  from  the  drying-room  should  be  allowed 
to  dry  a  few  days  in  the  air  before  it  is  packed. 

19.  Fruit  intended  to  be  packed  air-tight  does  not  require  to  be 
dried  so  much  as  that  which  is  to  be  packed  in  the  common  style. 
Fruit  packed  air-tight  often  contains  one  eighth  of  its  weight  of 
water. 

20.  Dried  fruit  must  never  be  packed  when  it  is  warm.  Should 
must  or  worms  affect  the  fruit,  it  should  be  placed  in  a  bake-oven 
after  the  bread  has  been  taken  out,  to  dry  it.  If  the  fruit  is  kept 
in  dry  and  airy  places,  it  wnll  keep  from  six  to  ten  years  without 
losing  much  of  its  quality. 

The  Drying-room. 

To  form  a  general  opinion  of  the  advantage  of  the  different 
drying-rooms,  and  particularly  of  the  communication  of  heat,  a 
few  points  may  be  remarked : 

All  drying-rooms  have  to  expel  more  or  less  quantity  of  moist- 
ure out  of  fruit  intended  to  be  dried  by  the  means  of  heated  air. 
Those  moist  vapors  have  to  be  removed  from  the  drying-rooms, 
which  may  be  done  if  the  construction  has  openings  on  the  top 
for  the  escape  of  strongly-heated  moist  air ;  or  pipes  may  be  placed 
on  the  bottom  to  allow  the  moist  moderately  heated  air  to  escape. 

It  is  proven  that  kernel-fruit  will  improve  if,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  drying,  the  entire  steam  is  kept  in  the  room,  and  the  fruit 
almost  boiled  soft  in  the  same.  This  can  only  be  attained  com- 
pletely if  there  are  two  separate  drying-rooms  constructed,  of 
which  one  is  entirely  closed,  and  heated  from  60°  to  80°  R.,  and 
the  other  ventilated  and  heated  at  the  highest  to  50°  R.  In  Ger- 
many it  is  acknowledged  by  all  learned  men  that  fruits  boiled 
in  their  own  steam  dry  faster,  and  will  be  more  savory  than  that 
dried  at  a  temperature  below  the  boiling  point.  The  required 
heat  for  drying  may  be  generated  by  different  heating  apparatus. 


E.  LUCAS  ON  DRYING  FRUITS.  365 

The  frames  on  which  the  fruit  is  exposed  to  dry  may  be  light 
trelHs  or  wicker-work,  with  boards  a  couple  of  inches  high  around 
the  sides  to  prevent  the  fruit  from  falling  off  the  frames. 

The  description  of  a  small  drying-room,  which  contains  about 
800  pounds  of  fruit,  and  finishes  the  drying  in  24  hours,  is  as  fol- 
lows :  It  is  G  feet  6  inches  high,  3  feet  8  inches  long,  and  2  feet  6 
inches  wide.  The  lower  part  of  this  construction  is  the  hearth, 
1  foot  wide  and  6  inches  high.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  of 
which  each  contains  three  frames  for  the  reception  of  fruit.  The 
smoke  is  carried  off  through  a  sheet  iron  pipe,  8  inches  by  2:3- 
broad,  which  goes  in  snake  form  under  and  over  these  three  par- 
titions until  it  is  let  out  of  the  top.  This  will  show  that  the  heat 
is  pretty  equally  distributed  throughout  this  drj-ing-room.  An- 
other small  pipe  is  placed  on  the  top  to  promote  the  escape  of 
moisture. 

If  it  is  required  to  dry  fruit  in  a  bake-house,  it  is  essential  that 
the  heat  of  this  shall  not  reach  that  point  which  is  required  for 
baking  bread,  as  the  fruit  would  burn.  After  the  bread  has  been 
taken  out  of  the  oven  the  fruit  may  be  placed  in  it,  when  it  will 
dry  well.  Fruit  may  be  dried  in  heated  rooms ;  but,  as  the  va- 
pors evaporating  are  very  unhealthy,  this  mode  is  not  advisable. 

To  dry  fruit  in  the  air  and  exposed  to  the  sun  is  the  cheapest, 
but,  in  every  regard,  the  most  imperfect  method  of  any.  The  fruit 
is  threaded  on  a  string,  and  hung  up  in  the  air,  and  if  the  weather 
is  favorable  it  requires  little  or  no  attention. 

Quinces.  —  The  ripe  quinces  are  peeled,  cut  into  four  to  six 
pieces,  freed  of  their  seeds,  and  dried  at  a  heat  of  from  70°  to  80° 
R. ;  farther  they  are  treated  as  apples  or  pears.  They  will  retain 
their  beautiful  color,  and  will  keep  for  a  number  of  years. 

Plums  and  Prunes. — These  fruits  should  attain  the  highest  state 
of  ripeness  before  they  are  taken  from  the  trees.  The  gathering 
should  be  performed  ^nly  in  dry  and  fine  weather.  If  circum- 
stances do  not  allow  to  bring  the  prunes  immediatel}^  to  the  dry- 
ing-room, they  may  be  kept  in  a  good  ventilated  place  for  a  length 
of  time.  It  is  necessary  to  spread  the  fruit  as  much  as  possible. 
When  the  plums  are  brought  to  the  drying-room,  they  may  be 
dried  from  five  to  six  hours  at  a  heat  of  from  85°  to  40°  E. ;  after 
which  the  heat  must  be  increased,  and  the  escape  of  air  entirely 
prevented.  The  fruit  is  taken  hot  from  the  drying-room  and  al- 
lowed to  cool  in  tlie  air,  by  which  means  it  will  retain  its  beauti- 
ful gloss,  and  will  improve  in  weight  and  quality.  Some  prunes 
will  contain  from  20  to  22  per  cent,  of  water,  which  does  not  hin- 
der its  preservation.  A  means  of  making  prunes  appear  very 
large  is  this :  The  fruit  is  freed  of  the  stones  when  half  dry,  and 
a  small  plum  inserted  in  place  of  the  stone.  The  drying  process 
is  then  finished.  This  can  only  be  detected  by  the  most  minute 
examination. 

Cherries. — All  the  different  varieties  of  cherries  are  well  adapt- 


366  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

ed  for  drying,  more  especially,  however,  the  hard  and  fleshy  ones. 
Cherries  require  to  dry  slowly  ;  the  sun  will  bo  the  most  valuable 
help ;  and,  after  they  have  lost  considerably  in  bulk,  they  may  be 
taken  to  the  drying-room  to  be  finished. 

It  may  be  well  to  remark  that  all  dried  fruit  should  be  exposed 
to  the  air  from  four  to  six  days  after  leaving  the  drying-room. 
That  the  different  varieties  of  dried  fruit  are  to  be  kept  by  them- 
selves is  a  matter  of  course. 

Expenses  of  Fruit-drying  in  Germany. 

Apples  and  Pears. — An  experiment  made  with  a  drying-room 
containing  50  frames,  each  6  square  feet,  showed  the  cost  of  dry- 
ing 80  pounds  of  apples,  for  help,  at  6  kr.,  and  30  pounds  of  pears, 
at  9  kr.  120  pounds  of  apples  required  a  space  of  12  square  feet ; 
the  same  weight  of  pears  required  18  square  feet ;  it  required  1 
pound  of  wood  to  evaporate  1.65  pounds  of  water ;  40  pounds  of 
pears  lost  32  pounds  of  water ;  the  drying  of  this  fruit  required 
20  pounds  of  wood,  at  6  kr.  A  bushel  of  dried  fruit  would  cost, 
if  a  bushel  of  green  fruit  cost  30  kr. : 

1.  4  bushels  of  fruit,  at  30  kr 2  fl.  —  kr. 

2.  Expenditure  of  wood "    36" 

3.  Hired  help "     12  " 

4.  Expense  for  peeling "     48  " 

5.  Loss  of  the  peeling "     12  " 

One  bushel  of  dried  fruit 3  fl.  48  kr. 

A  bushel  of  dried  peeled  apples,  weight  19  pounds  2  ounces. 
"  "  "  pears,        "      27  pounds. 

"      not  peeled  "     29  pounds  8  ounces. 

The  worth  of  the  dried  fruit  is, 

a.  1  pound  dried  pears,  not  peeled 8  kr. 

b.  1       "       "         "      peeled 11  " 

c.  1        "       "       apples  of  good  (juality 14  " 

Per  hundred,  a.  13  fl.  20  kr. ;  b.  18  fl.  20  kr. ;  c.  23  fl.  20  kr. 

Prunes. — One  bushel  of  dried  plums  cos^40  kr.  for  fire-wood; 
hired  help  for  drying,  15  kr.  3|-  to  4  bushels  of  fresh  plums  pro- 
duce one  bushel  of  dried  fruit,  which  will  weigli  from  33  to  35 
pounds.  One  bushel  of  fresh  plums  require  30  square  feet  space 
in  the  drying- room.  The  average  price  of  one  bushel  of  fresh  or 
green  plums  is  30  kr. ;  so  one  bushel  of  dried  fruit  costs : 

1.  Z\  bushels  fresh  plumsj  at  30  kr 1  fl.  45  kr. 

2.  Fuel 45  " 

3.  Hired  help 15  " 

4.  Refuse 10  " 

5.  Interest  of  capital  invested 10  " 

3  florins. 

The  retail  price  of  33  pounds,  or  one  bushel,  is 4  fl.  24  kr. 

Net 1  fl.  24  kr. 

When  pears  boil  considerably  in  their  own  steam  at  the  com- 
mencement of  drying,  they  will  be  of  a  beautiful  red  when  cook- 
ed. If  they  are  required  to  be  transparent  on  the  tabic,  they  are 
not  so  much  steamed  at  the  commencement,  and  are  allowed  to 
cool  quickly  when  taken  out  of  the  drying-room. 


APPENDIX  G. 

THE  CULTUKE  OF  THE  SILK-WOKM. 


EXTIIAC TED  FROM  THE  WORK  OF  ANTON  ZIEGLER,  INSPECTOR  AND  DIRECTOR 

OF  THE  MULBERRY  CULTURE  AND  SILK-WORM  BREEDING 

IN  BAVARL\. 


APPENDIX  G. 

A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM. 

Introductory  Note  on  Silk  Culture  in  California. — Advantages  of  the  Culture  of  the 
yilk-worni. — The  Breeding  of  the  Ciiterjiillars. — The  Breeding-room. — The  Eggs 
and  their  Development. — The  Food  and  Feeding  of  the  Caterpillars. — The  differ- 
ent Periods  in  the  Life  of  the  Silk-worm. — Air,  Light,  Warmth,  and  Space. — 
Cleaning  the  Crates. — Putting  up  the  Si^inning-bushes. — Diseases  of  the  Silk- 
worm.— Enemies  of  the  Silk-worm. — Propagation  of  the  Caterpillar,  and  obtain- 
#  ing  the  Eggs. — Taking  off  and  assorting  the  Cocoons. — Killing  the  Cocoons. — 
Converting  the  Cocoons  into  Money. — Winding  and  Winding  Establishments. — 
The  Floret  Silk. — The  Magnaries. 

Introductory  Note. 

Silk  Culture  in  California. — This  important  branch  of  agriculture,  which 
makes  every  province  where  it  is  cultivated  prosperous  and  even  wealthy,  I  have  thor- 
oughly examined,  and,  after  comparing  the  circumstances  governing  the  culture  of 
the  mulberry-trees,  breeding  the  silk-worms,  and  manufacturing  silk,  I  am  thorough- 
ly convinced  that  California  possesses  more  advantages  for  this  culture  than  any  oth- 
er country  which  I  have  visited.  IMany  of  my  readers  will  at  once  condemn  this 
statement  on  account  of  the  high  price  of  labor,  but  this  charge  I  refute  by  the  fact 
that  in  Europe  the  high  tax  on  mulberry-trees  and  land,  the  very  high  price  of  the 
land  itself,  will  more  than  counterbalance  the  higher  price  of  labor  here,  where  Chi- 
namen— eminently  fit  for  this  purpose — could  be  got  for  a  trifle.  Then,  again,  in 
Europe  the  tree  grows  from  five  to  six  years  in  the  nurseries ;  then  planted  in  the 
field  ;  when  so  planted  it  takes  two  years  more  before  it  will  furnish  more  than  a  few 
pounds  of  leaves ;  in  fact,  a  tree  must  be  at  least  twelve  years  old  that  gives  a  good 
revenue.  This  is  not  the  case  in  California.  One  year  in  the  nursery,  then  [ilanted 
in  the  field,  will  give,  when  four  years  old,  more  leaves  than  the  mulberiy-tree  in  Eu- 
rope. Sum  up  the  high  taxes  on  land  and  trees,  the  valuation  of  the  land  and  the 
interest  on  it ;  the  culture  of  the  young  trees,  all  for  eight  years  more  than  here,  and 
your  high  price  for  labor  will  diminish  almost  to  nothing,  and  far  below  the  price  of 
labor  in  Europe.  Then,  again,  the  all-important  fact  that  in  California  the  silk- 
worm can  be  raised  in  the  open  air — at  all  events,  in  open  sheds,  covered  at  the  top, 
if  you  please,  with  corn-stalks,  or  even  straw  piled  on  rails — while  in  Europe  costly 
stone  or  brick  buildings  have  to  be  raised,  with  thermometers  hanging  in  them,  and 
even  with  this  precaution  a  thunder-storm  will  often  destroy  the  whole  brood,  losing 
labor  and  expense,  and,  in  fact,  the  season,  as  the  trees  will  not,  contrary  to  nature, 
bring  forth  new  leaves ;  but,  if  the  breeder  escapes  this  calamity,  the  extra  care  and 
labor  he  has  to  take  for  cleaning  and  airing  his  delicate  worms  is  as  much  more  ex- 
pensive as  raising  oranges  and  grapes  in  a  hot-house  to  that  of  the  open  air.  As  we 
have  no  thunder-storms,  we  could  raise  the  worm  on  the  tree  itself,  were  it  not  for 
the  birds  destroying  them.  They  can  be  raised  here,  without  doubt,  under  sheds, 
and  what  farmer  is  so  poor  who  could  not  make  a  shed  of  posts  and  rails,  and  cover 
it  with  canvas  or  straw  ? 

I  have  given  reasons  enough  in  the  above  lines  to  convince  reasonable  minds  that 
the  difference  in  the  price  of  labor  between  here  and  Europe  will  be  counterbalanced 
by  the  taxes  mentioned,  the  costly  buildings,  high  price  of  lands,  etc.,  etc.  But,  for 
argument's  sake,  admit  that,  on  a  large  scale,  with  high  labor,  silk-raising  would  not 
be  profitable,  would  this  be  a  good  and  sufficient  argument  to  throw  this  enterprise 
overboard  ?  I  say  no.  It  is  a  well-established  fact  in  California,  as  well  as  in  the 
Western  States,  that  no  farming  operation,  on  a  large  scale,  with  high  labor,  can 
be  carried  on  successfulJv.     Everv  man  who  attempted  it  failed,  and  was  ruined. 

Aa 


370  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Would  any  person  advise,  therefore,  to  abandon  firming  in  the  United  States,  as  a 
business  which  will  not  pay,  and  advocate  the  importation  of  seed  and  breadstuff's 
from  foreign  countries?  I  suppose  that  no  man  would  like  to  appear  before  the  pub- 
lic with  such  a  ridiculous  proposition  or  argument. 

So  it  is  with  silk-raising,  as  I  will  demonstrate.  Almost  everj'  fanner's  wife  will 
raisfe  chickens,  turkeys,  ducks,  or  geese ;  this  is  considered  a  recreation,  and  with 
pleasure  and  pride  does  the  industrious  and  good  housewife  call  together  her  feath- 
ered subjects,  showing  to  her  husband  and  neighbors  the  little  treasure  she  has  cre- 
ated by  her  industry.  I  call  it  treasure,  for  many  a  shilling  is  saved  from  the  hard 
earnings  of  her  husband  for  the  purchase  of  sugar,  tea,  coftee,  and  often  dresses,  by 
the  sale  of  eggs,  chickens,  turkeys,  etc.,  etc. 

Now,  then,  to  raise  chickens,  etc.,  it  requires  the  care  of  a  whole  year;  when  rais- 
ing silk-worms,  twenty-four  to  forty  days  will  be  amply  sufficient  time  bestowed  on 
them ;  and,  again,  it  is  much  easier  to  raise  silk-worms  than  poultry.  Every  farmer's 
wife  can  raise  the  silk-worm  successfully  without  the  least  difficulty ;  it  is  so  very 
simple  that  every  body  can  comprehend  it  by  reading  the  mode  which  I  will  give 
below. 

I  do  not  for  a  moment  advance  the  idea  of  discontinuing  the  raising  of  poultry^ 
No ;  the  housewife  can  raise  poultry  and  breed  silk-worms ;  they  do  not  interferP 
with  each  other  any  more  than  her  husband's  raising  wheat  and  ])otatoes  on  the  farm. 

This  will  be,  too,  an  additional  income  to  tlie  good  wife,  and  a  much  larger  and 
surer  one,  there  being  no  fluctuations  of  importance  in  the  price  of  cocoons,  the  price 
being  fixed  according  to  quality,  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3 ;  not,  like  poultry,  sometimes  not 
to  be  sold  at  any  price,  or,  if  not  for  cash,  for  some  unnecessary  trash  in  the  store. 
Cocoons  are  in  all  countries  cas/i,  and  I  warrant  that  it  will  be  so  in  California.  But 
I  see  my  fair  reader's  inquiring  looks  for  the  lines  containing  the  probable  jirofits  of 
such  an  undertaking.  I  will  give  an  approximate  estimate  from  data  collected  on 
my  travels  and  from  celebrated  authors.  I  will  here  suppose  that  California  will 
give  no  more  encouragement  tlian  the  least  favored  country  in  Europe — Bavaria.  I 
have  taken  this  northern  country  as  an  estimate  to  be  far  below  the  real  result  which 
must  ensue  in  California,  as  I  am  satisfied  that  this  state  is  better  than  the  best  in 
Europe  for  cultivating  the  mulberry.  Bavaria,  in  its  produce  of  leaves  to  tlie  tree, 
is  50  per  cent,  less  than  the  south  of  France  or  Italy.  A  farmer  possessing  40  acres 
of  land  can  divide  his  land  in  convenient  lots,  surrounding  each  lot  with  a  double  row 
of  trees;  this  will  be  no  detriment  to  his  crops  or  farm, but  will  serve  to  beautify  his 
property  very  much.  If  the  farmer  has  means  to  purchase  mulberry-trees  from  the 
nurseries,  it  will  bo  to  his  interest,  as  he  will  gain  a  year ;  if  not,  he  may  purchase  50 
cents  worth  of  mulberry  seed,  sow  them  in  a  bed,  and  raise  his  own  trees.  When  one 
year  old,  plant  the  trees  in  avenues  12  feet  apart;  300  trees,  4  years  old  from  plant- 
ing, will  give  10,000  ])0unds  of  leaves.  This  produces  125,000  cocoons,  which,  at  90 
cents  per  thousand,  is  $'112  .'JO.  This  sum  one  housewife  with  a  child  ten  years  of 
age,  without  extra  help,  can  save  by  40  days'  care  at  the  utmost.  The  price  here  is 
estimated  as  in  Germany,  so  40  per  cent,  may  be  safely  added.  This  income  will  be 
almost  doubled  every  year,  until  the  tree  reaches  its  highest  bearing,  which  is  about 
its  twenty-fifth  year,  when,  in  California,  no  doubt  400  pounds  of  leaves  will  be  the 
yield. 

When  the  happy  event  occurs  that  the  family  increases  and  grows  with  the  trees, 
then  those  little  creatures  will  lighten  the  labor  of  their  parent,  even  in  their  tender 
years ;  for  children  eight  years  of  age,  for  rearing  and  feeding  silk-worms,  arc  quite 
as  useful  as  older  ones.  The  wojk  is  more  play  than  any  thing  else,  and  therefore 
not  detrimental  to  health. 

Where  trees  are  producing  more  leaves  than  the  housewife  .and  her  family  can  at- 
tend, it  would  be  proper  to  lease  such  trees  to  women  who  have  none  of  their  own — 
to  wives  of  mechanics,  tradesmen,  etc.  In  Europe,  wherever  silk-worms  are  bred, 
every  body  has  them — wives  of  officers,  tradesmen,  merchants,  etc.  Nobody  thinks 
it  below  their  dignity  to  raise  them  ;  so  far  from  it,  that  ladies  enter  into  competition 
as  to  who  can  raise  the  finest  cocoons,  and  the  greatest  number,  from  a  certain  num- 
ber of  leaves. 

Reader,  do  you  not  think  that  something  should  be  done  to  enable  poor  but  hon- 
est females  to  earn  a  living  honorably?  Not  every  female  is  fit  to  make  a  house- 
maid. Some  have  been  so  unfortunate  in  life  as  to  have  been  brought  up  delicately. 
This  class,  oven  if  pride  should  not  prevent  them  from  living  out  as  kitchen-maids, 
have  not  strength,  arc  delicate,  and  would  soon  compel  their  employers  to  discharge 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.        371 

them.  But  the  occupation  of  rearing  sillt-worms  would  enable  females  to  earn  suf- 
ficient to  live  fur  at  least  half  of  the  year,  if  not  the  whole.  This  is  done  by  many  in 
Europe,  and  can  be  done  here. 

The  eullure  of  the  mtdberry  and  the  rearing  of  the  silk-worm  I  would  not  limit  to 
California,  but  extend  it  all  over  the  United  .States  where  the  trees  do  not  frcQze; 
but,  ofcour.se,  they  can  not  compete  with  California,  as  they  have  the  same  difficul- 
ties to  contend  against  as  the  European  breeders ;  but  they  have  the  very  same  chances 
as  the  Europeans,  without  the  high  taxation,  or  tariff  on  silks,  which  sets  them  far 
ahead  of  their  European  rivals.  I  am  well  aware  that  I  handle  a  subject  which, 
some  twenty-six  years  ago,  exploded  as  a  great  humbug,  and  has  been  a  subject  of 
ridicule  with  every  one  since,  and  whenever  an  enterjjrise  seems  to  receive  general 
attention,  persons  are  reminded  of  the  iiiorus  multicaulis  humhxKj ;  but  I  will  not  shrink 
from  advocating  a  measure  which  I  have  carried  on  in  my  native  country,  Hungary, 
with  great  success,  and  which,  in  my  recent  travels,  after  the  closest  examinations,  I 
have  found  profitable  every  where  the  tree  is  planted  and  can  live. 

I  am  not  familiar  with  the  exact  reason  of  the  failure  of  tlie  morus  mullicmills  in 
1835  and  1S3G,  but  believe  it  was  owing  partly  to  the  great  money  crisis  which  just 
then  depressed  the  whole  country,  and  partly  that  eveiy  one  planted  the  seeds  in  nurs- 
eries for  sale,  and  none  for  going  into  the  business  themselves ;  or,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  our  people,  they  all  started  to  get  rich  in  one  year.  No  merchant  should 
bo  frightened  wlien  his  neighbor  fails;  he  should  rather  examine  thoroughly  the 
cause  of  the  failure,  so  that  he  may  avoid  falling  into  the  same  error ;  for  it  is  well 
known  that  some  merchants  make  money,  and  that  commerce,  if  laid  out  by  certain 
rules,  will  make  the  person  following  it  prosperous;  so  with  the  mulberry,  if  we  do 
not  overdo  it;  if  we  remain  in  a  reasonable  boundary,  millions  will  be  added  from 
this  source  to  the  income  of  our  country. 

There  are  before  me,  in  many  languages,  elaborate  reports  to  different  govern- 
ments, lengthy  treatises,  books,  etc.,  on  the  culture  of  the  mulberry  and  breeding  of 
the  silk-woi-m,  which  to  treat  thoroughly  would  make  this  article  too  voluminous, 
therefore  I  will  give  only  a  short  extract  from  them,  more  especially  from  the  report 
of  Anton  Ziegler,  Inspector  and  Director  of  the  Mulberry  Culture  and  Sill^-worm 
Breeding  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria.  A.  H, 


Advantages  of  the  Culture  of  the  Silk-worm. 

Instead  of  giving  a  lengthy  introduction,  let  us  at  once  proceed 
to  our  subject  by  annexing  a  comparison  and  calculation  of  the 
costs  and  proceeds  of  a  mulberrj^  plantation : 

Suppose  we  take  one  "  tagwerk'"  (parcel  of  land),  suitable  for  a 
plantation — say,  for  instance,  a  hill-side,  protected  from  high  north 
winds  (as  we  do  not  wish  to  rob  the  grain  agriculture  of  its  more 
fertile  fields,  not  absolutely  required  by  the  mulberry).  The  net 
proceeds  of  this  same  piece  of  ground,  by  producing  grain  or  other 
cereals,  would  amount  to  about  10  florins  (1  florin=40  cents.); 
bearing  mulberry-trees  instead  of  these,  it  would,  however,  result 
in  a  much  larger  gain.  For  let  it  be  about  200  feet  long  and  200 
feet  broad,  furrowed  by  21  rows  of  9  groivn-up  trees  each,  planted 
24  feet  apart  from  each  other,  and  the  rows  9  feet,  and  we  shall 
have  189  trees  altogether. 

In  the  intervals  we  may  have  shrubs  (young  trees)  of  the  same 
kind  from  6  to  6f  feet  distant ;  in  21  rows,  therefore,  504  (allowing 
10  of  them  to  1  grown  tree).  This  willgive  us  249  of  the  latter 
in  the  entire  plantation. 

Suppose,  now,  they  have  been  transplanted  to  their  particular 
spot  when  6  years  old,  and  their  produce  will  result  as  the  an- 


372 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


nexed  table  shows,  according  to  manifold  experience,  allowing,  at 
tlie  same  time,  the  highest  figure  for  all  expenses  and  the  lowest 
for  their  produce,  and  remembering  that  an  industrious  man  may 
save  the  most  of  the  former  bj  the  aid  of  his  family : 


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In  the  foregoing  calculation  we  have  purposely  omitted  the  in- 
creasing value  of  the  timber  and  fruits,  as  well  as  seeds  of  the 
trees.  What  other  culture  could  be  able  to  show  such  lasting 
and  geometrically  increasing  gains?  If  each  farm  and  hamlet 
only  would  dedicate  3  "  tagwerks"  to  the  culture  of  the  silk- 
worm, it  might  result  in  an  increase  of  several  millions  to  the 
home  production,  and  consequently  to  the  national  riches. 

In  order  to  show  the  case  even  in  its  most  minute  relation,  let 
us  suppose  that  a  father  plants,  at  the  birth  of  his  child,  a  6-ycars- 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.        373 

old  mulbcrry-trcc,  and  takes  care  of  it  till  it  gets  to  be  16  years 
of  age.  Our  table  shows  us  that  a  tree  of  16  years  produces  80 
lbs.  of  leaves ;  these  give  food  to  1280  caterpillars,  which  give 
about  960  cocoons,  and  these  represent  a  capital  of  40  florins  (600 
cocoons =1  florin).  If  this  same  tree  is  taken  care  of  for  15  years 
more,  it  will  bear  200  lbs.  of  leaves,  and  feeds  3206  caterpillars, 
promising  a  yearly  income  of  4  florins  =  a  capital  of  100  florins. 
This  should  induce,  in  fact,  every  farmer  to  plant  a  certain  space 
of  his  land,  at  least,  with  mulberry -trees,  and,  wherever  it  be  con- 
venient, to  line  his  fields  with  hedges  of  them. 

The  Breeding  of  the  Caterpillars. 

This  begins  when  the  plantation  has  attained  such  an  age  that 
a  corresponding  quantity  of  leaves  may  be  relied  upon.  Prudence, 
however,  requires  us  to  make  the  first  trial  with  only  a  limited 
number,  in  order  to  instruct  one's  self  in  all  the  minute  cares  and 
details  that  are  required  by  the  business,  which  may  be  better 
learned  in  this  way  than  by  at  once  undertaking  it  on  a  larger 
scale.  This  exact  knowledge,  only  to  be  obtained  by  several 
years'  close  attendance,  will  be  found  the  more  necessary,  as  with- 
out it  a  too  large  expense  might  easily  be  incurred  for  eggs  by 
overcalculating  the  quantity  of  feeding  material,  which  might 
bring  the  silk- worm  raiser  into  serious  trouble,  as  he  would  be 
forced,  by  the  want  of  the  latter  perhaps  a  few  days  before  the 
time  of  spinning  arrives,  to  sacrifice  the  majority  of  his  caterpil- 
lars in  order  to  save  at  least  the  remaining  few.  In  this  way 
time,  trouble,  and  leaves  have  been  frequently  sacrificed  in  vain. 

The  breeding  of  the  caterpillars  requires  a  certain  amount  of 
care  and  attendance,  although  the  insect  may  not  perish  by  every 
sudden  change  of  temperature  or  small  want  of  the  former.  To 
know  how  much  they  may  be  able  to  stand,  cover  one  of  the  trees 
at  the  time  of  breeding  with  a  fish-net,  to  keep  the  birds  off,  and 
let  a  part  of  the  caterpillars  creep  out  on  the  twigs.  Those  falling 
off  must  be  picked  up  and  put  back  to  them. 

The  Breeding-room. 

This  requires,  above  all,  a  sunny,  dry  site,  which  must  be  high, 
not  exposed  to  the  influence  of  bad  odors,  and  have  a  contrivance 
to  be  warmed.  If  convenient,  it  is  better  situated  in  the  second 
story  of  a  house  than  on  the  first.  Care  must  be  taken  to  soften 
the  too  bright  sunshine  by  window-curtains,  and  to  prevent  mice, 
spiders,  etc.,  from  getting  into  it.  For  the  beginner,  any  such  con- 
ditioned room  will  do  in  which  he  may  raise  a  few  thousand  cater- 
pillars on  crates  or  other  fixtures  that  he  may  even  place  upon  a 
table.  A  gradually  increasing  breeding  requires,  of  course,  a  pro- 
portionately larger  room,  and  a  certain  rule  in  all  its  necessary 
arrangements.  Scaffolds  will  then  be  required  of  the  following 
description :  According  to  the  locality,  posts  are  put  up  (inside 


374  GR.VPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IMAKING. 

the  room),  about  5  feet  distant,  on  a  straight  line,  and  2^  feet  be- 
hind one  another,  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling  high,  some  feet  off 
from  the  windows.  These  are  connected  by  a  cross  lath  2  feet 
apart,  so  that  those  nearest  to  the  floor,  as  well  as  those  to  the 
ceiling,  are  separated  also  by  2  feet  distance  from  it,  in  a  manner 
that  they  may  serve,  at  the  same  time,  as  support  to  the  crates  or 
mats  (later  to  be  described).  In  case  more  than  one  such  stage 
is  made,  care  must  be  taken  to  leave  sufficient  room  between  them 
to  allow  a  ladder  to  be  moved  about,  serving  the  attendant  to  put 
the  feed  upon  the  upper  rows. 

The  feed-boxes  or  crates,  whose  shape  corresponds  to  that  of  the 
stage,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  taken  out  and  put  in  again,  are 
formed  by  a  frame  of  laths  2  to  4  inches  wide,  and  of  willow  or 
cane  wicker-work.  They  may  be  made,  however,  of  whatever 
material  happens  to  be  nearest  at  hand  and  cheapest — water-reeds, 
plank-shavings,  etc.,  etc.  For  cleaning  them  out,  it  will  be  found 
convenient  to  have  them  all  of  the  same  size,  so  as  to  fit  in  all 
parts  of  the  stages. 

The  Eggs  and  their  Development. 

To  get  good  eggs  must  be  a  chief  object,  whether  from  one's 
own  breed,  or  from  other  well-reputed  plantations  if  preferable. 
This  latter  will  be  found  best  until  some  years'  experience  has 
taught  the  art  of  breeding  for  one's  self;  and  even  then  it  might 
be  good  23olicy  to  exchange  from  time  to  time  with  other  breed- 
ers, as  it  will  lead  to  the  imjDrovement  of  the  stock.  A  negligence 
in  this  may  often  produce  great  disappointments  and  losses.  The 
most  reliable  sign  of  good  eggs  is  a  light-gray  color.  Crushed 
upon  a  finger-nail,  they  must  crack  and  emit  a  tough,  cloudy  liq- 
uid. But  only  the  very  creeping  out  of  the  young  caterpillars  is 
convincing  proof  If  healthy,  these  have  a  reddish-brown  color 
and  black  head ;  if  sickly,  they  appear  red  or  black. 

A  careful  breeder  will  finish  all  his  arrangements  at  the  proper 
time,  i.  e.,  in  the  winter  months.  He  will  put  the  eggs  into  a  clean, 
but  not  air-tight  vessel,  about  three  times  the  size  as  required  by 
the  quantity  of  eggs,  and  hang  them  up  in  a  cool  dry  place  (espe- 
cially good  cellars),  in  such  a  way  that  no  mice  can  get  at  them. 
They  may  also  be  put  upon  paper  or  linen,  and  this  sHghtly  roll- 
ed up.  From  three  to  four  weeks  they  need  looking  after,  and  a 
free  access  of  air  while  they  remain  locked  up.  Those  upon  pa- 
per, also,  must  from  time  to  time  be  rolled  the  other  way.  In 
the  winter  it  is  well  to  expose  them  to  the  dry  cold,  for  it  is  known 
that  even  the  most  severe  cold  will  not  kill  them,  but  will  be  of 
benefit.  Many  breeders,  for  this  reason,  leave  them  in  the  open 
air,  only  protecting  them  from  the  snow.  At  the  coming  of  spring 
they  are  taken  to  cool  places,  however,  until  they  creep  out. 

When  the  buds  of  the  bushes  and  mulberry  hedges  begin  to  ap- 
pear, the  worms  must  be  taken  out  of  the  vessel,  and  put  (in  par- 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  TUE  SILK- WORM.       375 

eels  of  two  ounces),  in  low  pasteboard  boxes,  into  the  not  icarmed 
room  destined  for  their  breeding.  After  leaving  them  so  for  five 
or  six  days,  one  may  begin  to  heat  it,  and  to  increase  the  temper- 
ature of  the  room,  by  adding  1°  each  day,  to  16°  or  20°  R.  This 
must  now  be  kept  up  day  and  night,  but  never  above  20°,  until 
the  development  of  the  caterpillars  takes  place.  Shaking  the  eggs 
lightly  every  day,  the  light-gray  color  will  disappear  more  and 
more,  and,  after  a  few  days,  the  lirst  young  caterpillars  will  make 
their  appearance.  Now  the  heat  in  the  room  is  to  be  increased  by 
two  degrees,  and,  within  three  days  at  most,  all  the  other  eggs  will 
open  to  let  the  insects  out. 

As  soon  as  the  first  ones  show  themselves,  the  eggs  must  be 
covered  by  a  piece  of  gauze,  and  thin  twigs  of  the  mulberry-tree 
strewn  over  them,  to  which  the  young  caterpillars  will  immedi- 
ately seek  to  creep.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  these  is  col- 
lected upon  them,  they  are  transferred  to  the  paper-covered  crates 
by  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  small  pincers,  and  arranged  in  such  a  way, 
leaving  small  intervals,  that  at  each  succeeding  addition  a  little 
more  space  may  be  allotted.  The  gauze  must  fit  exactly  into  the 
box,  and  cover  lightly  all  the  eggs.  Places  where  the  young  cat- 
erpillars lie  too  thick  upon  one  another  have  to  be  covered  by 
tender  leaves,  and  the  insects  creeping  on  these  transferred  to  an- 
other one. 

The  caterpillars  are  carefully  assorted  according  to  their  age,  so 
that,  for  instance,  those  which  crept  out  in  the  morning  are  not 
placed  together  with  such  as  come  out  in  the  evening,  or  those  of 
to-day  not  with  those  of  the  preceding  day.  After  three  or  four 
days  the  creeping  out  must  cease ;  all  those  that  have  not  come 
out  are  not  farther  to  be  considered.  If  the  breeding  comprises 
more  than  one  ounce  of  eggs,  it  is  advisable  not  to  lay  them  out 
all  at  once,  but  at  intervals  of  several  days,  thus  preventing  all 
the  caterpillars  from  becoming  ripe  enough  to  spin  at  the  same 
time.  Each  separate  parcel  may  be  called  a  breed.  In  this  way 
five  or  six  of  them  may  be  produced  in  the  same  year. 

Tlie  Food  of  the  Caterpillars. 

The  smaller  the  quantity  of  food  given  to  them,  but  the  oftener 
a  day,  the  more  it  will  benefit  them.  About  seven  or  eight  times 
within  24  hours  would  therefore  be  the  best  polic}^,  and  of  these, 
the  main  meals,  in  the  morning,  at  4  to  5  and  10  to  11  o'clock ;  in 
the  afternoon,  at  4  to  5  ;.  and  at  night,  at  10  to  11 ;  the  interven- 
ing meals  being  given  after  7  A.M.,  2  P.M.,  and  8  P.M.  At  11 
o'clock  P.M.  a  larger  quantity  of  leaves  may  be  given,  and  stopped 
during  the  balance  of  the  night,  while  the  caterpillars  have  not 
yet  shed  their  skin  for  the  last  time.  When  this,  however,  has 
been  done,  they  become  much  more  voracious,  and  must  now  be 
fed  even  during  the  night. 

In  the  beginning  the  caterpillars  require  only  very  tender 


376  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IVIAKING. 

leaves ;  when  growing,  they  want  stronger  ones ;  and  before  their 
spinning,  the  stoutest.  Before  the  time  of  the  third  shedding  of 
the  skin,  the  food  has  to  be  cut  finely  with  a  sharp  knife ;  during 
their  growing,  with  a  two-edged  blade,  thicker  and  thicker.  This 
must  be  done  immediately  before  the  meal-time,  because  otherwise 
the  juice  would  dry  up  and  the  leaves  would  wither. 

After  the  third  shedding  of  the  mandibles,  the  animals  have  at- 
tained sufficient  strength  to  chew  the  whole  leaves  for  themselves. 
These  are  better  collected  early  in  the  morning,  after  the  dew  has 
dried  off,  or  in  the  evening,  before  it  begins  to  wet  them ;  during 
the  heat  of  the  day  is  not  advisable.  In  case  of  rainy  weathei 
menacing,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  sufficient  quantity  to  last  for 
a  few  days.  If,  however,  it  has  been  unavoidable  to  cut  the  leaves 
during  a  rain,  they  must  be  dried  before  feeding  them.  If  left  on 
the  twigs  in  an  airy  place,  they  dry  quicker  than  if  broke  off. 

Wet  food  makes  the  caterpillar  apt  to  sicken ;  it  is  considered 
safer,  therefore,  to  let  them  rather  hunger  a  short  time  than  allow 
them  to  eat  it.  Leaves  that  have  dust  on  them  do  no  harm ;  but 
such  as  have  mildew  settled  upon  them  must  be  washed  off  and 
dried  again.  Do  not  feed  the  leaves  right  fresh  from  the  tree  or 
the  cellar ;  but  let  them,  in  the  first  case,  evaporate  for  several 
hours ;  in  the  latter,  at  least  half  an  hour.  For  the  gathering  of 
the  leaves  clean  sacks  or  baskets  must  be  used,  into  which  the 
twigs  must,  however,  never  be  pressed.  Immediately  after,  these 
must  be  taken  to  a  cool  place,  and  protected  from  the  sunshine 
and  air-draught. 

About  the  quantity  of  leaves  to  be  given  there  is  no  certain 
rule.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  caterpillars  out  of  one  ounce 
of  eggs  eat  up  about  800  pounds  of  leaves  in  the  manner  that  the 
first  half  is  allowed  until  the  fourth,  the  last  after  the  fourth  shed- 
ding of  the  skin  takes  place.  According  to  this  estimate,  count- 
ing 12,000  to  15,000  caterpillars  to  one  ounce  of  eggs,  one  single 
one  would  consume  during  its  existence  about  1^  to  2  ounces  of 
leaves. 

The  different  Periods  in  the  Life  of  the  Silk-worm. 

The  total  term  of  its  life  comprises  not  more  than  24  to  ZQ^  or, 
at  the  utmost,  42  days,  and  depends  partly  on  the  higher  or  lower 
state  of  temperature  in  which  it  lives,  on  the  care  it  enjoys,  and 
the  quality  of  the  food. 

Its  nature  forces  it  to  shed  its  skin  at  different  times.  This  pe- 
riod is  also  called  the  sleep  of  the  caterpillars,  because  then  they 
will  remain  perfectly  unmoved  upon  their  place,  without  partak- 
ing of  any  nourishment  at  all.  While  in  this  state  they  must  not 
be  fed,  nor  touched,  or  troubled ;  and  if  some  wake  up  sooner 
than  the  rest,  it  is  better  not  to  feed  them  till  all  are  alive  again. 

The  shedding  process  itself  is  very  interesting.  At  tlie  head 
of  the  caterpillar,  which  appears  very  much  swollen,  a  kind  of 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.       377 

mask  is  formccl.  This  is  gradually  removed,  and  the  insect  creeps, 
not  without  some  exertion,  out  from  its  old  skin,  tliat  is  glued  fast 
to  a  twig  somewhere  about  the  hindmost  feet.  The  shedding  usu- 
ally takes  place  four  times ;  the  exceptional  cases,  however,  only 
three  times.  The  closest  attention  has  to  be  paid  by  the  silk- 
worm breeder  to  the  equal  setting  in  of  this  process.  Each  breed 
has  therefore  to  be  carefully  separated  at  tlic  moment  of  the  creep- 
ing out  of  the  caterpillars,  and  all  the  insects  must  enjoy  an  equal 
share  of  leaves,  of  sufficient  room,  and  warmth. 

With  proper  care  and  treatment,  the  sheddings  will  take  place 
in  the  following  intervals :  1st,  on  the  5tli  day  of  the  age  of  the 
caterpillar ;  2d,  on  the  9th ;  8d,  on  the  15th  ;  4th,  on  the  22d.  On 
the  82d  day  of  its  life  it  begins  to  spin.  The  term  of  a  shedding 
is  usually  from  two  to  three  days,  and  shows  itself  by  an  increased 
appetite  the  day  previous,  which,  must  be  satisfied  by  sufficient 
food.  At  each  renewed  process  the  color  of  the  head  of  the  worm 
gets  lighter. 

After  it  is  over  the  worms  must  be  fed  on  twigs  sj^read  over 
them.  At  the  same  time,  they  are  transferred  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  crates  by  putting  the  twigs  to  which  they  cling  upon  them, 
and  the  regular  feeding  is  continued. 

At  each  shedding,  occasion  must  be  taken  to  classify  them  ac- 
cording to  their  size — this  producing  a  better  equality  in  their 
functions,  and,  finally,  in  their  maturity. 

Special  signs  of  a  well-performed  shedding  are  a  lively  appe- 
tite, quietly  remaining  in  their  places,  and  increasing  size  of  the 
body.  On  the  contrary,  a  restless  running  about  on  their  crates 
or  their  margins  indicates  always,  if  maturity  has  not  been  attain- 
ed yet,  a  sickly  state  of  the  worms.  These,  as  well  as  those  that 
have  not  strength  enough  to  strip  their  skins  entirely  off,  must 
be  taken  out. 

Air,  Light,  and  Warmth. 

Pure  air,  a  warmth  regulated  to  what  we  shall  see  hereafter, 
are,  besides  the  regular  feeding,  the  main  points  in  breeding  silk- 
worms. The  atmosphere  made  impure  in  the  room  by  the  evap- 
oration of  the  worms,  the  leaves,  the  manure,  or  other  influences, 
must  be  removed  as  soon  as  possible  by  frequent  airing,  taking 
care,  however,  that  no  humid  air  enters  from  outside,  as  well  as  no 
strong  draught.  Especially  is  this  necessary  in  the  latter  stage 
of  the  life  of  the  worms,  and,  above  all,  shortly  before  and  during 
the  spinning-time. 

Fresh  bunches  of  icerimith  (sage)  are  very  good  for  improving 
the  air,  being  suspended  on  the  windows ;  also  roses  put  in  the 
room  form  an  agreeable  aroma  to  the  worms.  In  case  the  exte- 
rior air  has  the  same  degree  as  that  inside,  it  is  better  not  to  let  it 
enter.  Quick-burning  fire  of  dry  straw,  or  vessels  with  freshly- 
burned  lime  placed  upon  the  floor,  improve  the  air.    Kitchen  salt 


378  GRArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-IMAKING. 

on  a  plato  ma}^  serve  very  well  as  a  sign  whether  the  inclosed  air 
needs  improving  by  its  getting  humid.  The  direct  influence  of 
the  sun's  raj-s  is  very  detrimental  to  the  worms ;  it  must  be  mod- 
erated by  window-curtains  made  of  paper  or  linen.  In  regard  to 
the  w\armth  of  the  room,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  worm, 
from  its  first  moment  of  existence  to  its  spinning  in,  requires  a 
gradual  reducing  of  it ;  so  that  if  it  needs  22°  R  at  the  time  of  its 
creeping  out,  it  only  wants  18°  at  the  spinning  in. 

In  order  to  let  them  properly  thrive,  it  needs  that  in  life  they 
are  not  too  much  pressed  together.  For  those  from  one  ounce  of 
eggs  the  following  spaces  are  considered  sufficient :  At  their  first 
period,  5  square  feet ;  second,  10  ;  third,  23 ;  fourth,  55 ;  fifth, 
120.  If  the  previously-mentioned  crates  hold  about  12  square 
feet,  about  10  of  them  would  suffice  for  the  worms  derived  from 
1  ounce  of  eggs. 

Cleaning  of  the  Crates. 

Cleanliness  is  half  the  food.  Would  the  breeder  keep  his 
worms  in  good  health,  he  must  remove  in  time  the  waste  of  the 
leaves,  and  the  easily  fermenting  manure.  This  is  done  in  the 
following  manner : 

The  caterpillars  are  cleaned  for  the  first  time  by  small  twigs 
strewn  over  them  at  their  first  shedding  of  the  skin.  The  ani- 
mals, collecting  thereon,  are  transferred  to  clean  places  by  means 
of  small  pincers,  and  then  fed.  After  one  brood  is  taken  off,  the 
act  of  covering  and  transferring  is  repeated  over  again,  until  all 
have  been  cared  for.  The  remaining  portions  of  food  and  ma- 
nure are  removed  on  the  following  day,  when  sure  that  no  worms 
are  forgotten.  The  same  manner  of  proceeding  is  adopted  after 
the  second  and  third  shedding.  After  the  fourth,  it  is  repeated 
every  second  day.  Persons  perspiring  freely  at  their  hands  are 
not  fit  to  do  this  important  business. 

The  taking  off  of  the  worms  must  be  attended  with  great  care, 
as  the  tender  animals  are  otherwise  very  easily  hurt.  The  best 
way  is  to  take  hold  of  them  close  to  their  head  without  pressing, 
and  to  loosen  them  tenderly  from  the  place  they  stick  on. 

A  newer  and  very  excellent  method  is  the  following:  After 
the  third  shedding,  spread  over  them  a  net  with  meshes  wide 
enough  to  allow  the  worm&  freely  to  pass  through  (the  nets  hav- 
ing the  width  and  length  of  the  crates).  They  will  soon  creep 
through  and  upon  it.  The  nets  are  now  fastened  to  several  small 
sticks  provided  with  hooks,  to  the  right  and  left  of  the  crates,  lift- 
ed up  by  means  of  these,  and  hung  upon  nails  driven  into  the 
posts  for  this  purpose.  Now  the  crates  can  be  cleaned  off,  and 
the  worms,  with  the  net,  let  down  upon  them.  In  this  simple 
manner  the  cleaning  of  many  crates  and  worms  may  be  done  in 
a  very  short  time.  Care  has  to  be  taken  that  the  dirt  and  dust 
of  the  upper  tier  of  crates  does  not  fall  upon  those  below. 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WOllM.        379 

The  putting  up  the  Spinning -hushes. 

After  the  tliird  s]icclding  process  is  passed,  it  is  "well  to  com- 
mence puttmg  up  the  bushes  needed  by  the  worms  to  spin  their 
cocoons  on.  These  may  either  be  placed  on  separate  stages  or 
scaffolds  of  boards,  or  on  the  crates.  In  both  cases  they  consist 
of  twigs  of  trees  that  have  neither  thorns,  nor  prickles,  nor  resin ; 
if  possible,  of  birch.  The  twigs  must  be  free  of  leaves,  perfectly 
dry,  and  without  any  smell. 

In  constructing  the  arrangement,  the  upper  crate  has  always  to 
serve  as  cover  for  the  bushes  beneath  it.  Thin  laths,  not  quite  as 
long  as  the  breadth  of  the  crates,  are  then  taken,  having  small 
holes  bored  through  them,  one  inch  apart,  to  let  the  bushes  in. 
These  must  be  about  half  an  inch  longer  than  the  distance  from 
one  crate  to  another.  Bushes  tied  from  small  twigs  can  also  be 
used  without  these  laths;  care  has  then  only  to  be  taken  that 
they  are  not  placed  too  close  together,  as  in  that  case  the  free  air 
has  not  the  necessary  access.  The  worms  will  also  sometimes 
use  paper  bags  and  other  hollow  things  for  spinning  places.  To 
prevent  the  falling  off  of  the  caterpillars,  all  twigs  extending  over 
the  scaffold  must  be  cut  off. 

The  Worm  ivhen  ready  to  spin  itself  in. 

This  may  be  known  by  the  following  signs : 

1.  It  refuses  food — even  avoids  it;  creeps  about  in  troubled 
haste,  with  head  erect,  especially  on  the  frame  of  the  crate,  as  if 
hunting  for  a  suitable  place. 

2.  A  thin  thread  of  silk  protrudes  from  its  mouth. 
8.  The  skin  of  its  neck  gets  wrinkles. 

4.  Held  against  the  light,  the  body  ajDpears  transparent,  and 
feels  soft. 

5.  The  worm,  when  taken  from  its  place,  tries  to  wind  itself 
around  the  finger. 

When  remarking  these  signs,  it  is  time  to  bring  them  to  their 
spinning  places,  as  they  would  otherwise  lose  too  much  silk,  get 
lazy,  and  either  spin  very  little  or  not  at  all.  The  right  moment 
must  be  found  out.  If  left  too  long  on  the  twigs,  the  worm  may 
fix  its  cocoon  either  on  the  sides  or  corners  of  the  crate,  and  there- 
by molest  the  others.  If  taken  off  too  soon,  it  is  prevented  from 
feeding  just  at  a  time  when  it  needs  the  most  nourishment.  Im- 
mediately before  the  spinning  in,  the  worms  discharge  all  the  ex- 
crements that  yet  remain  in  their  body.  If  too  many  are  put  on 
the  bushes  at  a  time,  they  will  hinder  one  another  in  spinning,  or 
two  of  them  may  spin  their  cocoons  in  one ;  these  not  being  very 
valuable.  Smooth  wooden  plates  are  used  for  transferring  them, 
and  they  are  distributed,  beginning  from  the  uppermost  row  along 
the  sides  of  the  bushes. 

If  the  first  breed  has  already  spun  their  cocoons,  fresh  worms 


380  GRATE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

must  be  transferred  during  three  or  four  days  until  nearly  all  the 
ST3ace  is  taken  up.  Some  worms  will  return  from  the  bushes  to 
their  food ;  it  is  therefore  advisable  to  distribute  good  juicy  leaves 
in  such  a  way  that  they  may  easily  reach  them.  Those  that  have 
not  begun  to  spin  on  the  bushes  after  two  or  three  days  are  best 
taken  out  into  the  open  air  for  a  few  minutes,  and  then  placed 
upon  other  branches  mixed  up  with  paper  bags,  wood  shavings, 
etc.  By  covering  them  up  with  paper  or  linen,  they  will  now 
soon  be  seen  spinning.  During  this  work  all  unnecessary  troub- 
ling or  shaking  them  must  be  avoided.  If  the  weather  be  fair — 
when  the  free  access  of  air  and  sunshine  is  very  advantageous  to 
the  worms — they  will  finish  their  cocoons  within  four  days. 

Diseases  ofihe  Silk-ivorm. 

The  so-called  Green  Pip  is  one  of  their  most  common  and  dan- 
gerous diseases.  Its  signs  are,  the  swelling  of  the  head,  a  yellow- 
ish color  spreading  over  the  whole  body,  and  a  yellow  moisture 
ejected  by  the  w^orm.  It  begins  ordinarily  to  show  itself  not  be- 
fore the  fourth  spinning  period  is  over,  and  is  partly  attributable 
to  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  or  a  too  crowded  space. 

Another  still  more  dangerous  disease  is  the  so-called  Calcino  or 
Muscardine.  The  worms  appear  as  if  covered  with  a  coat  of  lime, 
and  must  be  taken  off  directly,  as  they  will  infect  others. 

When  the  excrements  of  the  worms  are  found  to  be  more  moist 
than  dry,  it  will  be  well  to  feed  leaves  of  older  trees,  and  stop  giv- 
ing those  of  bushes  or  hedges.  Dead  caterpillars  are  always  to  be 
instantly  removed,  and  crates  upon  which  sick  ones  have  been  ly- 
ing can  only  be  used  again  after  a  careful  cleaning. 

Enemies  of  the  SiUc-iuorm. 

Of  these  are  indeed  many,  always  making  the  breeding  in  the 
open  air  troublesome,  or  even  impossible.  Among  them  are  ants, 
spiders,  wasps,  mice,  chickens,  cats,  and  nearly  all  carnivorous 
birds.  All  of  these  must  bo  carefully  excluded  from  the  breed- 
ing-room. 

Propagation  of  the  Caterjnllarj  and  obtaining  the  Eggs. 

After  the  cocoon  has  been  spun,  and  the  worm  inside  of  it 
transformed  itself  into  a  "  nymph,"  this  will  fifteen  or  twenty  days 
later  become  a  butterfly,  which  opens  the  cocoon  by  means  of  a 
caustic  and  softening  moisture.  This  it  performs  generally  in  the 
early  hours  of  the  morning.  The  male  is  recognized  by  the  pe- 
culiar vivacity  with  which  he  runs  about,  by  his  smaller  body,  and 
the  larger  dark  brown  feelers.  The  female  has  a  bigger  body, 
and  is  generally  quiet,  at  least  moves  very  slowly.  Both  do  not 
fly,  as  their  wings  are  as  yet  too  short. 

As  soon  as  the  butterflies  have  attained  their  perfect  form  and 
ejected  a  yellow  or  reddish  moisture,  their  pairing  is  accelerated 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.       381 

by  putting  the  females  upon  the  crates  about  one  foot  distant  from 
cacn  other,  and  the  males  coupled  to  them.  The  most  experi- 
enced breeders  consider  six  hours  sufficient  for  the  act  of  pairing 
to  produce  good  eggs.  Some  advise  to  separate  them  by  force ; 
but  this  ought  not  to  be  done  except  in  case  more  females  than 
males  should  have  crept  out,  or  if  the  act  lasts  longer  than  from 
morning  till  evening.  If  it  be  necessary,  they  must  be  separated 
with  great  care  by  taking  hold  of  their  wings.  In  case  they  sep- 
arate by  themselves  before  the  proper  time,  they  must  immediate- 
ly be  reunited.  If  there  are  more  males  than  wanted,  they  must 
be  kept  in  a  perforated  box,  to  be  used  on  the  following  day. 

The  female,  soon  after  impregnation,  will  begin  to  lay  eggs. 
For  this  purpose,  a  frame  with  cotton  or  woolen  stuff  tightly 
stretched  over  it  has  to  be  placed  in  a  slanting  direction  against 
the  wall,  and  the  female  placed  upon  it.  Slowly  crawling  upward 
on  this,  she  will  have  finished  depositing  the  eggs  in  2-i  to  48 
hours.  Now  she  is  to  be  taken  off,  because  the  eggs  which  come 
later  are  generally  of  no  account.  Those  laid  within  the  first  2-i 
hours  are  the  best.  The  butterflies  close  their  life  soon  after  hav- 
ing fulfilled  their  earthly  destination.  The  breeding-room  itself 
must  be  kept  somewhat  dark  during  their  pairing  and  laying. 

The  freshly-laid  eggs  are  of  a  yellow  color,  but  from  ^ay  to  day 
they  grow  darker,  until,  after  about  three  weeks,  they  appear  ash- 
gray.  In  order  to  loosen  them  from  their  places,  on  a  warm  win- 
ter day  moisten  the  cotton  in  a  vessel  filled  with  fresh  water,  and 
rub  the  eggs  softly  with  the  fingers.  They  sink  to  the  bottom, 
and  are  dried  in  the  sun  after  pouring  off  the  water. 

The  persons  who  breed  silk- worms  must  keep  themselves  very 
cleanly,  and  never  attend  them  without  previously  washing  their 
hands.  Sick  persons,  especially  those  who  have  fevers,  must 
never  do  it ;  they  must  not  even  enter  the  breeding-room.  Such 
as  incline  to  perspire  freely  must  neither  gather  leaves  nor  feed 
the  caterpillars.  Smoking  is  not  allowed  in  the  breeding-room, 
and  in  using  a  snufi'-box  great  care  is  to  be  taken  that  no  tobacco- 
dust  may  fall  upon  the  worms  or  their  places. 

Taking  off  and  Assorting  the  Cocoons. 

The  cocoons  must  not  be  taken  off"  before  the  ninth  day.  Their 
perfection  is  indicated  by  a  rattling  of  the  chrysalis  when  shaken. 
The  assorting  has  to  be  performed  at  the  same  time,  and  the  se- 
lection of  the  breed-cocoons.  This  occupation  requires  great  care, 
because  the  value  and  quality  of  the  eggs  depend  on  it.  The 
whole  crop  may  be  divided  into  five  classes : 

1.  Breed  Cocoons. — Those  of  the  strongest  texture,  surrounded 
by  a  rich  quantity  of  flock  silk,  of  a  regular  shape,  must  be  pick- 
ed out,  and  especially  those  that  were  among  the  first  spinners, 
and  show  a  white  color.  Their  being  taken  off  and  freed  of  the 
flock  silk  has  to  be  performed  with  the  utmost  care.     They  are 


382  GRM'E  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

then  spread  over  tlie  crates  in  a  temperate  room,  and  tlie  breaking 
through  of  the  butterflies  waited  for.  The  sexes  can  not  be  dis- 
tinguished with  certainty.  It  may  therefore  be  well  to  select  an 
equal  number  of  a  round  and  oblong  shape,  as  the  first  are  gener- 
ally believed  to  contain  males,  while  the  others  contain  females. 

2.  After  selecting  the  "  breed-cocoons,"  all  those  very  strong  and 
rich  in  silk,  like  the  first  day. 

3.  Those  of  medium  qucdity. 

4.  All  of  a  iveak  and  imjjerfect  texture. 

5.  The  double  cocoons,  distinguished  by  their  larger  size  and 
coarser  texture. 

The  breed-bushes  must  be  carefully  handled  for  assorting;  the 
cocoons  placed  very  tenderly  into  the  baskets  destined  to  receive 
them,  in  order  to  avoid  the  bursting  of  the  chrysalis  and  its  soil- 
ing the  cocoon. 

Killing  tJte  Cocoons. 

When  assorted,  the  nymphs  must  be  killed  to  prevent  their 
gnawing  through  and  spoiling  the  silk  for  the  purpose  of  unwind- 
ing it.     It  may  be  done  in  two  ways : 

1.  Bg  dry  heat  in  the  bake-oven.  The  cocoons  are  to  this  end 
put  into  l!fw  wicker-baskets,  and  placed  in  the  oven,  at  a  temper- 
ature of  30°  to  35°  R.,  upon  bricks  previously  arranged.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  heat,  a  noise  of  the  suffocating  nymphs  will  be 
heard.     Half  an  hour  later,  all  is  over  and  the  business  done. 

2.  By  steam.  A  kettle  filled  two  third  parts  with  water  is 
placed  upon  the  fire  until  it  boils.  Upon  it,  so  as  to  fit  its  size,  a 
sieve  filled  wnth  cocoons  is  placed,  and  this  covered  over  with  wet 
clothes  to  prevent  the  steam  from  escaping  except  through  it.  To 
see  whether  all  life  is  extinct,  after  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
take  some  of  the  cocoons  and  press  them  between  the  fingers. 
The  movement  of  the  nymph  will  show  if  it  is  not  dead.  If  put  in 
an  airy  place,  the  cocoons  will  soon  recover  their  prior  elasticity. 

As  mistakes  in  the  management  of  this  business  might  damage 
the  article,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  neither  to  increase  the 
heat  in  the  oven  too  much,  nor  to  expose  the  nymphs  to  bursting 
by  keeping  the  sieve  too  long  over  the  kettle. 

Not  very  strong  cocoons  are  better  suited  for  the  first  manner; 
those,  however,  whose  nymph  rattles  for  the  latter. 

Converting  the  Cocoons  into  Money. 

To  do  this  as  soon  as  possible,  and  to  the  best  advantage,  must 
be  the  chief  object  of  the  breeder.  Waiting  too  long  exposes  him 
to  a  twofold  danger: 

1.  Of  the  biting  through  of  the  butterflies  if  not  killed;  and, 

2.  Of  losing  in  weight  and  value  by  the  drying  in. 

To  realize  the  money  value,  therefore,  may  also  be  effected  in 
a  twofold  way : 


A.  ZIEGLER  ON  THE  CULTURE  OE  THE  SILK-WORM.        383 

1.  By  reeling  off  tlic  silk  with  one's  own  hands,  and  occasion- 
ally selling  it ;  or,  * 

2.  By  selling  the  cocoons  to  a  reeling  establishment  for  a  price 
adapted  to  the  quality  of  them. 

The  price  obtained  for  cocoons  varies  with  the  crop.  In  Ger- 
many the  average  price  per  pound  is  as  follows,  the  florin  contain- 
ing 60  kreutzers,  being  worth  40  cents  : 

•     For  perfectly  dried,  strong  cocoons 1  fl. 

For  the  second  quality 48  kr. 

For  double  cocoons 30  " 

The  unwinding  requires  an  cxpertness  only  to  be  obtained  by 
a  practice  of  several  years,  and  makes  expenses  necessary  that 
might  prove  not  very  advantageous  to  a  single  breeder.  The 
sale  of  the  cocoons  to  those  establishments  may  therefore  be  pref- 
erable. In  Italy,  for  instance,  it  is  the  general  custom  with  the 
farmers. 

In  case  they  are  to  be  sent  off  some  distance,  they  must  be  care- 
fully packed  in  baskets  or  boxes,  neither  pressed  in  nor  put  up 
too  high.  At  the  bottom  of  the  barrel  or  box  is  for  this  purpose 
placed  some  soft  paper;  upon  this,  one  hand  high,  the  cocoons; 
upon  these,  again,  paper,  and  another  layer  of  cocoons.  When  ar- 
rived at  their  place  of  destination,  they  must  be  directly  taken 
out,  spread  out  in  an  airy  place,  and  protected  from  insects  and 
animals. 

Wmding,  and  Heeling  Estahlishmenis. 

The  occupation  of  unwinding  the  cocoons  may  safely  be  con- 
sidered the  chief  one  of  the  silk  culture.  An  experienced  person 
will  produce  valuable  silk  even  from  middling  and  bad  cocoons, 
while  one  not  expert  damages  the  best,  or  obtains  a  silk  hardly 
salable.  Practice  only  can  teach  the  necessary  manipulations 
and  operations  required  by  this  seemingly  very  simple  business, 
of  which  we  will  here  only  speak  in  general  outlines.  In  Italy 
females  are  usually  employed  in  this  occupation ;  and  five  years 
are  generally  allowed  as  the  term  necessary  to  make  a  person  ex- 
pert in  it ;  and  the  product  of  a  known  hand  is  always  sold  at  a 
higher  price  than  that  of  one  less  so. 

In  order  to  unwind  the  cocoons  and  unite  their  threads  into 
one,  they  are  put  into  a  kettle  filled  with  hot  water,  15  or  20  at  a 
time.  The  water  must  be  kept  up  to  a  nearly  boiling  point. 
When  the  adhesive  substance  which  surrounds  the  web  is  suffi- 
ciently softened,  the  person  hunts  up  the  end  of  the  thread  by 
brushing  the  cocoons  lightly  with  a  small  broom  made  of  rice- 
straw.  The  threads  attach  themselves  to  the  points  of  it.  If  more 
than  the  above  number  of  cocoons  be  taken,  or  if  they  are  brush- 
ed too  roughly,  the  threads  may  become  entangled,  and  too  much 
of  the  web  may  be  lost.  The  person  takes  those  threads  in  the 
right  hand,  and  endeavors  to  obtain  successively  all  of  them  clear 


384  GKAPE  CULTUKE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

by  continually  waving  them  to  and  fro,  and  stretching.  After 
this  they  arc  given  over  to  the  left  hand. 

Now  the  operation  begins  of  winding  them  on  a  reel.  Accord- 
ing to  the  stronger  or  finer  quality  wanted,  5,  6,  7,  frequently  even 
10  or  12,  and  more,  such  natural  threads  are  spun  together  into 
one.  Of  such,  two  are  formed  and  drawn  through  a  piece  of  tin, 
pierced  by  small  round  holes,  that  is  fixed  above  the  kettle.  From 
here  they  are  conducted,  by  means  of  wire-pins  with  eyes,  or  a 
glass  fixture,  to  the  "ree/,"  after  being  crossed  or  twisted  a  little. 
An  equal  thickness  and  strength  is  the  main  consideration  in  a 
thread,  and  is  only  to  be  effected  by  a  strict  attention  paid  upon 
all  of  the  cocoons  in  the  water.  At  the  beginning,  as  well  as  at 
the  end,  each  thread  tapers  off  a  little ;  a  new  one  must,  there- 
fore, be  added  at  the  right  time. 

The  closest  attention  has  to  be  given  to  the  cocoons  in  the  ket- 
tle by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  work,  and  as  soon  as  the  thread 
of  one  is  found  broken,  it  must  be  replaced  by  another  one.  It 
will  not  do  to  wait  until  the  cocoon  has  entirely  run  off;  but  the 
rest  of  it,  formed  of  a  thin  skin,  must  be  taken  out  in  time,  pre- 
venting its  juncture  to  the  thread,  and  thereby  spoiling  it;  but 
this  must  not  be  done  too  soon,  because  too  much  of  the  valua- 
ble silk  would  be  lost. 

At  the  operator's  right  side  a  vessel  with  cold  water  is  placed, 
to  cool  the  fingers  from  time  to  time.  This  water  must  be  river 
or  rain  water.  If  well  water  can  not  be  avoided,  it  has  previous- 
ly to  be  exposed  for  several  days  to  the  influence  of  the  sun  to 
make  it  soft. 

The  unwinding  of  the  cocoons  begins  soon  after  the  assorting 
is  gone  through.  The  room  in  which  it  is  done  must  be  bright, 
airy,  and  spacious.  It  is  best  to  perform  the  operation  in  the  open 
air  under  a  shed ;  but  the  day  must  be  fine,  as  rainy  weather 
makes  the  silk  not  dry  well,  and  lose  its  lustre. 

Each  separate  reel  has  a  so-called  conductor^  by  which,  incessant- 
ly moving  to  and  fro,  the  threads,  in  strings  three  or  four  inches 
wide,  arc  conveyed  to  the  reel.  This  causes  that,  in  more  than  a 
hundred  revolutions,  the  thread  gains  time  to  dry  off  perfectly  be- 
fore another  one  covers  it.  Those  strings  should  not  weigh  more 
than  three  or  four  ounces,  to  promote  their  drying.  Before  they 
are  taken  off  from  the  reel,  the  silk  must  be  cleaned  of  those  stick- 
ing out  or  broken.  The  reel  is  for  this  purpose  first  loosened  and 
afterward  tightened  again.  A  few  hours  later  the  silk  can  be  re- 
moved. 

The  person  that  turns  the  reel  has  to  pay  close  attention  to  any 
motion  made  or  sign  given  to  her  by  the  one  spinning.  A  con- 
trivance, by  means  of  which  this  latter  one  may  cither  stop  at 
pleasure  or  start  the  reel  from  its  position  by  a  pressure  of  the 
foot  simply,  is  very  advisable.  A  closer  description  of  the  whole 
machinery  would  not  be  necessary  here. 


A.  ZIEGLEll  ON  THE  CULTURE  OF  THE  SILK-WORM.       385 

An  cstablislimcnt  especially  employed  for  reeling  purposes  in 
every  silk-worm-brceding  district  would  do  a  great  deal  of  good 
to  the  community,  as  in  it  the  girls  might  be  instructed  in  their 
work  by  competent  persons,  and  the  small  breeders  might  find  the 
necessary  help  not  to  waste  or  lose  a  part  of  their  product.  In 
Italy  there  are  many  such,  that  also  buy  from  the  farmers  their 
cocoons  at  the  regular  market  price,  and  work  them  up  on  their 
own  account. 

The  Floret  {coarse)  SiUcj  and  how  it  is  made. 

For  tliis  are  generally  used,  1.  Those  cocoons  that  are  bitten 
through.  2.  The  waste  silk  when  the  original  thread  is  hunted 
for.  3.  The  web  surrounding  the  cocoon.  4.  The  thin  skins  sur- 
rounding the  nymphs  and  remaining  after  the  unwinding. 

The  manufacturing,  and  its  converting  into  money,  claims  par- 
ticular attention,  but  is  not  profitable  to  a  single  breeder.  The 
following  is  the  manner  used  in  its  making:  1.  The  cocoons  of 
the  first  description  are  soaked  in  warm  water  for  a  few  days,  then 
washed  out  in  river  water,  dried,  and  rubbed  between  the  fingers, 
drawn  out,  and  spun  on  the  ordinary  reel.  2.  The  other  waste 
silk  lots  are  dried  over  a  coal  fire  until  they  become  nearly  brown, 
then  beaten  with  a  wooden  stick  and  torn  open  by  means  of  a  dull 
knife.  In  order  to  moisten  them  again,  they  are  then  taken  into 
a  cellar  for  a  couple  of  hours,  besmeared  with  oil  or  lard,  and  card- 
ed like  wool.  The  extracting  of  the  silk  from  the  cards  is  done 
with  wetted  fingers,  twisting  from  right  to  left. 

It  is  a  remarkable  phenomenon  that  this  floret  silk,  placed  upon 
a  suffering  part  of  the  human  body,  is  an  efficient  remedy  against 
rheumatism  and  gout. 

The  Magnaries. 

The  name  Ilagnary,  derived  from  ^^ magna"  signifying  "5i7^- 
worm''^  in  the  vernacular  of  the  Provengales,  is  given  to  an  estab- 
lishment in  which  the  breeding  of  the  silk- worms  is  carried  on  on 
a  large  scale. 

The  house  is  generally  formed  by  a  suterain  and  one  story,  and 
may  be  constructed  from  light  materials,  as  the  breeding  only 
takes  place  in  the  summer  months. 

In  the  souierai7i  are  frequently  kept  the  reeling  machines  {filan- 
da\  besides  the  ovens  and  rooms.  It  is  also  used  for  stripping  the 
leaves  of  the  twigs  for  the  food  of  the  worms,  and  drying  them  in 
rainy  weather.  In  the  upper  story  we  find  the  caterpillar-room, 
with  its  scaffolds  and  stages.  The  ceiling  has  several  openings, 
through  which  the  impure  air  can  be  let  out  by  means  of  a  vent- 
ilator. 

The  greatest  possible  care  is  taken  in  these  establishments  in 
regard  to  cleanliness,  light,  and  warmth — the  three  main  requi- 
sites for  the  welfare  of  the  worms. 

Bb 


386  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Since  the  manner  of  warming  a  house  by  means  of  hot  air  has 
been  known,  it  has  also  been  deemed  advisable  to  introduce  it  into 
these  establishments.  The  heated  air  escapes  from  the  stoves,  and 
is  conducted  by  pipes  to  the  breeding-rooms.  Those  pipes  have 
round  holes  five  or  six  inches  distant  to  allow  the  air  to  stream 
forth. 


APPENDIX  H. 

THE  MANUFACTUKE  OF  POTATO-STARCH 
AND  GRAPE-SUGAR 

EXTRACTED  FROM  THE  WORK  OF  DR.  P.  W.  PHILIPPI. 


APPENDIX  n. 

p.  W.  PIIILIPPI  ON  POTATO-STARCH  AND  GRAPE-SUGAR. 

Manufacture  of  Potato-starch. 

The  manufacture  of  potato-starcli  is  so  simple,  and  so  many  di- 
rections have  been  given  for  it,  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  en- 
ter upon  the  matter  fully.  Only  in  regard  to  the  wash  or  clean- 
ing apparatus  for  the  potato-mash  I  wish  to  engage  the  attention. 

The  plain  wash  cylinders  are  in  every  respect  excellent.  They 
are  almost  entirely  constructed  of  wood  and  metallic  wire  net. 
The  cylinder  consists  of  three  separate  pieces :  the  axle-tree,  with 
an  arm  made  of  wood,  and  the  two  halves  of  the  cylinder  form, 
which  are  each  separately  covered  on  the  inside  with  the  required 
number  of  metallic  gauze.  The  cylinder  is  divided  in  12  parts, 
each  division  4^  inches  apart,  consisting  of  wire  gauze  fastened  to 
fine  wooden  hoops  in  the  cylinder.  The  axle  rests  upon  a  wood- 
en;! frame  in  such  a  manner  as  to  allow  the  potato-mash  which  en- 
ters at  one  end  to  come  out  washed  at  the  other.  Under  this  cyl- 
inder, resting  on  the  same  frame,  is  a  box  with  tolerably  high 
sides,  not  to  allow  any  of  the  washed  substance  to  scatter.  This 
box  has  a  fall  of  five  inches.  The  rotation  of  the  cylinder  is  from 
12  to  16  times  per  minute.  The  water  which  is  required  to  wash 
the  potato-mash  is  brought  into  a  pipe  lying  horizontally  and 
above  this  cylinder.  The  under  side  of  the  pipe  is  sieve-like,  to 
allow  the  water  free  egress  and  fall  upon  the  turning  cylinder. 

This  process  may  be  repeated,  and  for  that  purpose  a  second 
cylinder  may  be  placed  under  the  first,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  re- 
ceive the  washed  substance  without  any  farther  labor  or  direction. 
It  will  be  advantageous  to  have  the  wire  gauze  of  the  second  cyl- 
inder more  fine  than  that  of  the  first.  Number  11  and  15  may 
be  used. 

Manufacture  of  Grape-sugar. 

1.  The  transformation  of  Starch-flour  to  Grape-sugar  hy  Acid. 
— The  first  object  is  to  procure  the  starch  as  clean  as  possible. 
Should  this  be  bought  for  this  purpose,  it  is  advisable  to  try  the 
following  experiment :  Take  one  pound  of  it,  and  dry  it  from  four 
to  six  hours  upon  clean  paper  at  a  heat  of  80°  E.  After  this 
process  it  must  be  weighed,  and  the  difference  will  show  the  quan- 
tity of  water  contained  in  the  starch ;  or,  take  a  few  ounces  of 
starch  in  a  small  glass  retqrt;  add  some  diluted  sulphuric  acid, 
and  boil  this  from  four  to  six  hours.     The  sediment  which  re- 


390  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

mains  after  this  process  is  tlie  impurities,  wliich  will  serve  to  form 
an  estimate  of  the  goodness  of  the  starch-flour. 

Steam  is  used  to  boil  the  sugar ;  and  to  complete  the  fabrication 
of  from  1000  to  1500  pounds  of  sugar,  it  will  require  an  engine  of 
four  atmospheres  proof.  The  vessel  in  which  the  starch  is  boiled 
may  be  of  good  oak  staves,  1^  inches  thick,  or  of  pine  staves,  lined 
on  the  inside  with  lead.  For  the  fabrication  of  1500  pounds  of 
grape-sugar  daily,  the  size  of  this  vessel  may  be :  the  height,  four 
feet  nine  inches ;  upper  width,  four  feet  three ;  and  the  diameter 
of  the  bottom,  the  same.  The  steam-pipe  enters  the  bottom  of 
this  vat,  and  is  coiled  there  in  a  few  turns.  The  upper  side  of 
the  coil  is  supplied  with  many  small  holes  for  the  escape  of  steam  ; 
the  end  of  the  pipe  is  closed. 

The  starch,  destined  for  grape-sugar  is  mixed  witli  water  to  a 
thickness  of  molasses,  in  a  vat  used  for  the  purpose.  At  the  same 
time,  18  gallons  of  water  are  poured  into  the  boiler.  For  every 
1000  pounds  of  starch-flour,  2-1  pounds  of  English  vitriol  are  added. 

The  steam  is  let  on,  and  when  boiling,  portions  of  thinned 
starch,  consisting  of  two  gallons,  are  added  slowly.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  this  fluid  does  not  cease  boiling,  and  also  that  the 
addition  of  the  starcb  is  done  very  regularly,  to  prevent  it  from 
forming  paste ;  and  also  the  fluid  must  not  boil  too  much,  for  oth- 
erwise it  may  run  over.  During  the  boiling  of  the  substance  4t 
may  be  often  skimmed. 

Starch-flour  boiled  with  vitriol  will  first  form  dextrine,  and  after- 
ward grape-sugar.  The  complete  transformation  into  sugar  will 
require  about  ten  hours. 

2.  Neutralization  of  the  Acid  and  Clarifying  of  the  Sugar.  —  For 
the  neutralization  of  the  acid  will  be  taken  carboniferous  lime- 
stone, in  form  of  ground  limestone.  One  third  of  the  substance 
required  will  be  put  in  the  neutralization  vat ;  at  the  same  time, 
put  into  the  vat  24  pounds  of  ground  bone-black.  Now  the  sugar 
solution  may  run  slowly  into  this  vat,  and  be  kept  well  stirred, 
to  help  the  generation  of  carbonic  acid  and  the  forming  of  gyp- 
sum. If  the  lime  is  exhausted,  more  must  be  added,  until  the 
last  of  the  sugar  is  drawn  off.  To  know  when  the  process  is  fin- 
ished, the  following  experiment  may  be  tried:  After  the  solu- 
tion has  been  stirred  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  take  out  a  small  por- 
tion and  filter  it.  Take  strips  of  blue  litmus  paper,  and  moisten 
them  with  the  filtered  fluid.  If  the  paper,  after  being  completely 
dry,  turns  reddish,  then  the  acid  is  not  fully  absorbed,  and  lime 
in  smaller  quantities  may  be  added,  until  this  process  will  show 
the  litmus  paper  in  its  original  blue  color. 

After  the  neutralization  of  acid,  it  is  necessary  to  free  the  solu- 
tion of  sugar  immediately  from  the  gypsum,  otherwise  the  sugar 
would  become  of  a  bitter  taste,  and  its  color  would  be  dark. 

3.  Filtration  through  Bone-black. — For  this  work  arc  required  a 
good  press  and  a  wooden  frame  containing  about  ten  small  linen 


p.  W.  PHILIPPI  ON  POTATO-STARCn  AND  GRAPE-SUGAR.  391 

filters ;  then  a  wooden  filter,  of  cylindrical  form,  which  is  lined 
on  the  inside  with  copper  sheets,  or  a  copper  filter.  This  filter 
has  two  copper  bottoms,  of  which  one  is  sieve-like,  and  fastened 
to  the  sides.  When  this  filter  is  used,  a  moistened  cotton  cloth 
must  be  spread  on  the  bottom ;  after  which,  a  layer  of  bone-black, 
about  ten  inches  high,  is  brought  on  the  same;  it  is  then  care- 
fully moistened  with  pure  water,  and  stamped  gently.  In  this 
manner  it  will  be  continued  with  the  bone-black  until  three 
fourths  of  the  filter  is  filled.  The  false  bottom  is  placed  firmly 
on  this  filling,  and  covered  with  a  cotton  cloth  moistened. 

The  neutral  solution  of  sugar  is  brought  in  the  linen  filter  first, 
from  which  the  results  will  be  put  in  the  last-mentioned.  The 
sediment  remaining  in  the  linen  filters  may  be  taken  out,  mixed 
with  a  little  water,  and  then  put  under  the  press.  The  cake  re- 
maining in  the  press  (gypsum  and  bone-black)  will  make  an  ex- 
cellent manure.  The  solution  of  sugar  received  from  this  filter 
has  lost  the  improper  ingredients  contained  in  it,  as  gypsum,  etc., 
and  is  ready  for  steaming. 

4.  The  first  boiling  of  the  Sugar. — The  apparatus  for  this  purpose 
vary  as  much  in  construction  as  in  efficiency.  So  much  is  certain, 
that  for  this  work  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  a  vacuum  apparatus. 

5.  Second  Filtration  through  Bone-hlaclc.  —  This  sirup  will  re- 
quire some  pressure  to  pass  through  the  filter,  and  apparatus  for 
this  purpose  has  been  devised.  The  work  of  Dr.  Philippi  con- 
tains drawings  of  the  apparatus  used  in  this  manufacture,  which, 
however,  we  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  reproduce. 

6.  The  last  Steaming^  and  the  concentration  of  the  Grape-sugar. — 
For  this  purpose  a  rotary  apparatus  is  preferable.  When  the  sirup 
is  concentrated  to  a  consistence  of  42°  B,,  it  is  drawn  off"  into  a 
cooling- vat,  and  well  stirred  for  half  an  hour.  The  forms  to  re- 
ceive the  sugar  now  must  be  invariably  of  wood,  and  must  be 
moistened  with  cold  water  before  the  sugar  is  put  into  them. 
When  the  sugar  has  sufficiently  hardened  not  to  receive  impres- 
sions from  the  pressure  of  a  finger,  it  may  be  loosened  in  the  forms. 
It  is  now  brought  into  a  room  heated  from  16°  to  18°  E.,  and  kept 
to  dry  from  5  to  10  hours,  after  which  the  sugar  will  be  ready 
for  market.  The  analysis  of  Professor  Dr.  Fresenius,  in  Wies- 
baden, showed  it  to  consist  of 

Diy  sugar 87.47 

Water 12.28 

Gypsum 0.25 

The  analysis  proved  farther  that  the  grape-sugar  was  of  an  ex- 
cellent light  color,  and  of  sweet,  pure  taste.  Dissolved  in  water, 
it  formed  a  very  clear  and  pale  sirup,  and  was  free  from  dextrine, 
copper,  or  other  metals. 


392  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Recovery  of  Bone-black. 

For  this  purpose  an  old  pipe  may  be  taken,  in  -which  a  false 
bottom,  with  many  small  holes,  might  be  placed,  from  4  to  6 
inches  above  the  original  bottom.  The  bone-black  is  filled  in 
this  pipe  upon  the  false  bottom,  and  the  steam  is  let  on  in  the  va- 
cant space  between  the  two  bottoms.  The  bone-black  is  boiled 
some  time,  by  which  it  will  be  sweetened.  After  this  process  the 
steam  is  shut  off.  For  100  pounds  of  bone-black  will  2  pounds 
of  calcinated  potash  be  dissolved  in  water ;  with  this  solution  the 
same  then  merely  covered,  and  boiled  by  steam  for  12  hours. 
The  water  is  drawn  off,  which  will  be  of  dark  yellow  color.  Pure 
water  is  poured  on  now  to  cover  the  bone-black  a  foot,  and  then 
brought  to  boil,  after  which  the  water  is  drawn  off  again.  Again 
it  is  filled  up  with  pure  water  to  cover  it  by  a  foot ;  muriatic  acid 
is  added  until  litmus  paper  is  colored  light  red  from  this  water. 
In  this  state  it  must  remain  a  few  hours,  when  the  fluid  is  drawn 
off  and  fresh  water  added  until  the  water  has  no  salty  taste  and 
blue  litmus  paper  is  not  discolored,  after  which  the  bone-black  is 
immediately  ready  for  use. 

All  the  waste  which  has  accumulated  during  the  steaming  of 
the  sugar,  and  the  water  with  which  the  apparatus  had  been 
cleaned,  might  be  saved,  fermented,  and  distilled.  The  alcohol 
gained  from  such  refuse  is  almost  free  of  fusel  oil,  and  of  an  ex- 
cellent taste  and  flavor. 

Note. — The  reader  must  understand,  however,  that  sugar  made  from  potatoes  is 
of  no  use  for  eating  or  cooking  purposes,  but  is  only  used  for  aiding  and  ameliora- 
ting wines.  As  the  potato-sugar  is  similar  to  the  grape-sugar,  it  is  by  the  Germans 
and  French  called  grape-sugar. — A.  H. 


APPENDIX  I. 

BEET-SUGAR 

EXTRACTED  FROM  THE  WORK  OF  K.  J.  EBERT. 


APPENDIX  I. 

K.  J.  EBERT  ON  BEET-SUGAR. 

The  Beet  and  its  Culture. — Estimating  the  Saccharine  Matter. — Manufacture  of 
Beet-sugar. — Cleaning  the  Beets. — Extracting  the  Juice. — Pressing. — Macera- 
tion.— Boiling. — Preservation  of  the  Juice. — Defecation  of  the  Juice. — The  Con- 
centration, Filtration,  and  Preparation  of  the  "Spodium." — Evaporating  Appa- 
ratus.— Tlie  First  Evaporation. — The  First  Filtration. — The  Second  Evaporation. 
— Second  Filtration. — Animal  Coal. — Boiling  in. — Crystallization. — Operations 
of  the  Filling-room. 

THE  BEET  AND  ITS  CULTURE. 

Of  all  the  manifold  varieties  of  the  ^'■Beia  ci'ela,^^  L.,  none  has 
been  more  extensively  used  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  for  the 
purpose  of  supplying  the  yearly-increasing  consumption  of  sugar 
than  the  "White  Silesian  Sugar-beet — Beta  alba. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  family,  and  even  more  than  they,  this  spe- 
cies requires,  above  all,  a  soil  that  is  composed  of  a  sandy  loam  or 
a  marl ;  the  lighter  it  is,  the  better,  in  general,  adapted  for  its  cul- 
tivation. Wet  or  swampy  and  moory  land  ought  by  all  means 
to  be  avoided.  A  good  loosening  of  the  ground  by  means  of 
deep  plowing  will  insure  the  prospect  of  a  good  crop,  as  the  root 
thereby  gets  a  chance  to  send  its  main  shaft  straight  down,  with- 
out branching  off  too  much.  As  to  manuring  the  field  (if  this 
be  necessary),  great  care  ought  to  be  taken  not  to  introduce  too 
many  saline  parts  (as  these  will  only  act  detrimentally)  into  the 
soil  by  the  wrong  kind  of  manure  chosen.  That  of  animals,  in 
general,  should  not  be  used ;  broken  or  pulverized  oil-cake  and 
bones  will,  however,  produce  good  results. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  beets,  this  has,  in  so  far,  an  influ- 
ence upon  the  quantity  of  the  saccharine  matter,  that  the  larger 
they  are  the  more  water  and  other  substances  they  will  hold,  and 
the  less  sugar.  Those  up  to  1  and  1^  pounds'  weight,  generally, 
are  found  to  be  the  richest  in  sugar.  It  is  mainly  developed  dur- 
ing the  period  of  its  actual  growing  until  the  beet  has  obtained 
its  perfection  and  stalks  are  forming. 

In  answer  to  the  question  "  how  they  shall  be  kept  after  being 
dug  up  from  the  ground,"  let  it  suffice  to  say  that  the  more  care- 
fully they  are  shut  out  from  the  injurious  influences  of  the  sun- 
shine, heat,  and  air,  the  better  they  will  keep.  To  cover  them 
up  about  three  feet  high  with  ashes  will  be  found  highly  useful, 
as  this  will  protect  them  also  against  the  moisture. 

In  judging  and  examining  a  beet,  it  must  show  a  small  head, 
and  be  of  a  long  and  well-shaped  form.     It  must  not  be  grown 


396  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

bigli  out  above  tlie  ground ;  and  the  less  its  root  branclics  out 
into  small  ones  the  better.  Corresponding  to  the  firm  meat  and 
close  texture  of  the  fibres  must  be  its  thin  and  white  skin.  It 
must  break  off  short  and  snapping ;  must  have  a  sweet  and  pleas- 
ant taste,  but  by  no  means  a  salt  or  harsh  one. 

Of  the  density  of  its  juice  we  can  only  ascertain  by  the  applica- 
tion of  certain  instruments,  the  best  of  which  are  "Balling's  Sac- 
charimeter"  and  the  "Araeometer,"  of  both  of  which  we  shall 
speak  hereafter.  A  very  simple  way  to  determine,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  the  quantity  of  pure  crystallizable  sugar  matter  in  the 
beet  is  given  by  Mr,  Pelouze  as  follows:  "The  beet  is  cut  into 
thin  slices,  and  the  sugar  extracted  therefrom  by  means  of  alcohol. 
Suppose  100  or  1000  of  such  slices  taken,  then  the  weight  of  the 
sugar  secreting  on  the  evaporation  of  the  alcohol,  expressed  in 
grains  and  divided  by  10,  will  give  the  number  of  per  cents." 

Dr.  L.  Gall,  an  eminent  chemist  in  Trtives,  proposes  to  ascertain 
the  loss  in  weight  which  a  liquid  of  sugar  mixed  with  yeast  suffers 
by  fermentation.  This  loss  corresponds  to  the  quantity  of  carbon- 
ic acid  formed,  because  this  latter  escapes.  It  will  consequently 
be  only  necessary  to  weigh  the  liquid  hefore  and  after  the  ferment- 
ation, 

IMANUTACTURE  OF  BEET-SUGAR. 

The  sugar-beet  is  composed  of  81  per  cent,  of  water ^  11  per  cent, 
of  sugar  matter^  4  per  cent,  o^  fibrous  matter^  and  4  per  cent,  of  va- 
rious other  substances.  By  the  subsequent  process  of  fabrication, 
these  11  per  cent,  of  sugar  substance  will,  however,  average  not 
more  than  about  7  per  cent,  of  raw  sugar^  and  again  of  these  only 
5  per  cent,  of  crysiallizahle  and  2  per  cent,  of  sirup  or  not  crystal- 
lizable sugar ;  or,  expressed  in  another  form,  100  pounds  of  beets 
will  result  in  7  pounds  of  raw  sugar. 

The  manufacturing  process  requires  a  number  of  operations,  of 
which  some  arc  merely  mechanical,  others  of  a  chemical  nature. 
The  first  comprise  the  cleaning  of  the  beets,  the  extraction  of  the 
juice,  etc ;  the  latter,  the  clarifying  of  the  juice,  its  concentration  and 
filtration^  the  boiling  and  crystallization^  and  the  I'cfining  of  the  sugar. 

Cleaning  of  the  Beets. 

The  reason  of  this  operation  is  too  obvious  to  need  explanation. 
It  is  conducted  in  a  wooden  trough  or  box,  especially  made  for 
this  purpose,  with  holes  in  the  bottom  to  let  the  dirt  flow  off.  This 
must  be  carefully  attended  to,  the  water  repeatedly  renewed,  and 
with  hands  and  liard  brooms  the  soil  adhering  to  the  beets  re- 
moved. After  this,  the  hard  top  crust  or  the  head  of  the  beets 
must  be  cut  off  by  a  knife,  also  the  remaining  injured  parts  look- 
ed after,  and  the  superfluous  roots  trimmed  off,  and  small  stones 
taken  out  that  may  stick  in  the  skin  or  meat  of  the  beet,  in  order 
that  they  may  not  injure  the  pressing  machine. 


K.  J.  EBERT  ON  BEET-SUGAIl.  397 

Extracting  the  Juice. 

This  is  done  cither  by  pressing  or  maceration.  The  former  pro- 
cess is  based  upon  the  principle  that  the  fibrous  cells  of  the  beets 
must  be  torn  in  order  to  let  the  sugar-matter  contained  by  them 
escape.  It  is  done  by  putting  the  beets,  either  singly  or  in  small 
quantities,  into  a  box  in  which  works  a  cylinder  of  wood,  upon 
which  a  number  of  teeth,  made  of  sheet-iron  or  steel,  are  fixed  in 
such  a  manner  that  at  each  motion  or  turn  of  the  cylinder  they 
press  the  beets  rolling  on  to  them  through  a  feeding-hole  against 
another  row  of  steel  or  wooden  teeth  fixed  at  a  certain  distance 
above  them,  and  in  this  manner  lacerate  the  fibres.  This  mass 
falls  into  another  box  placed  beneath,  through  the  open  bottom  of 
it,  and  is  thence  transferred  to  the  press  itself  Of  these  there  are 
several  in  use.    The  best,  however,  seems  to  be  the  hydraulic  press. 

Before  this  takes  place  the  mass  is  put  upon  the  so-called 
"press-cloth,"  or  into  "press-bags."  The  former  are  made  of 
hemp,  or  cotton,  or  wool,  the  latter  being  the  best ;  but  they  must 
not  be  washed  in  warm  water  when  being  cleaned,  as  then  they 
would  be  apt  to  get  filthy.  When  spread  on  such,  it  is  rolled  over 
with  a  wooden  mangle  and  taken  to  the  press,  where  it  comes  un- 
der the  piston  in  layers  one  upon  the  other  as  high  as  convenient. 
Great  care  must  be  taken  not  only  in  putting  the  mass  on  the 
cloth  in  a  solid  cake  form,  but  also  in  placing  the  various  layers 
themselves  so  in  the  press  that  all  parts  of  them  are  equally  brought 
under  the  powerful  action  of  the  machine.  After  all  the  "  cakes" 
have  given  up  their  fluid,  they  are  taken  out  and  others  put  in ; 
in  the  mean  time,  the  cloths  of  the  former  pressing  are  thoroughly 
cleaned. 

The  "  maceration"  process  differs  materially  from  the  first;  and 
its  principal  points  are  the  following : 

The  cut  and  lacerated  beets  are  put  into  an  apparatus  where 
hot  water  is  poured  over  them,  which  removes  the  sugar  from  the 
juice-cells,  or  absorbs  it.  If  the  sugar  contained  in  this  liquid 
should  not  prove  concentrated  enough,  when  a  reasonable  time 
for  extraction  has  been  allowed,  it  must  be  refilled  upon  the  next 
batch,  and  so  on. 

Besides  these  foregoing  we  have  still  the  method  of  extracting 
the  sugar  matter  by  the  application  of  rollers^  atmospheric  p)ressure, 
and  boiling  of  the  beets.  The  main  features  of  this  last  process 
are  the  following :  To  boil  the  washed  and  peeled  beets  in  a  cop- 
per kettle,  adding  about  ten  per  cent,  of  their  weight  of  water, 
and  then  to  press  the  juice  out  of  this  mass  in  bags,  which,  refil- 
tered  through  a  linen  cloth  into  the  newly-cleaned  kettle,  may  be 
directly  caused  to  evaporate  to  the  crystallizing  point.  In  this 
way,  says  the  inventor,  the  entire  liquid  (by  mixing  with  the  con- 
centrated juice  while  it  is  yet  hot  about  1|-  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
of  powdered  crystal  sugar)  changes,  in  a  warm  place,  into  a  granu- 


398  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

lous  mass,  wbicli  it  only  needs  to  fill  into  bags  and  press  it  out,  in 
order  to  obtain,  in  from  14  to  30  days,  the  entire  sugar  that  had 
been  contained  in  the  beets. 

Preserving  the  Juice. 

As  the  good  result  of  the  entire  process  depends  on  two  main 
points — cleanliness  in  all  the  appertaining  actions  and  instruments, 
and  ex23eclition  in  disposing  of  the  juice  to  the  boiling  kettle,  it  be- 
comes evident  that  the  greatest  possible  care  must  be  taken  in  re- 
gard to  them.  Referring  to  the  latter,  it  will  frequently  be  found 
inconvenient  or  impossible  to  attend  to  it  as  quickly  as  desired. 
In  this  case,  the  juice,  when  running  out  from  under  the  press, 
which  appears  first  of  a  clear  white  color,  is  conducted  to  the  re- 
ceiving-tub ;  it  will,  however,  be  found  to  have  changed  into  red; 
and  if  left  much  longer  in  contact  with  the  air,  into  hroivn  or  even 
black — a  sure  sign  that  the  sugar  matter  gets  rapidly  decomposed. 
This  is  caused  by  the  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with 
the  albuminous  matters  in  the  beets,  producing  acids  and  forming 
slime,  by  which  the  aptitude  of  the  sugar  to  crystallize  is  destroy- 
ed, and  finally  itself  entirely  dissolved.  Various  methods  have 
been  recommended  and  tried  to  avoid  this  evil ;  none,  however, 
with  perfectly  satisfactory  success.  The  best  of  them  might  be 
to  add  to  the  raw  juice  about  two  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the 
beets  of  acid  sulphurous  lime. 

As  to  the  first  point,  "  cleanliness^^''  we  may  add  that  immediate- 
ly after  one  pressing  process  is  finished  and  another  one  begins, 
all  the  implements  in  the  room,  without  exception — even  the  floor 
and  walls — must  be  carefully  cleaned  off,  and  the  refuse  and  offal 
removed.  The  wooden  instruments  have  to  be  washed,  first  with 
warm  and  afterward  with  cold  water,  and  all  wood  parts  of  the 
room  sprinkled  over  with  lime-water.  The  bags  and  cloths  must 
be  exchanged  for  fresh  ones. 

The  Defecation  of  the  Juice. 

This  causes  the  removing  of  all  substances  from  the  juice  which, 
being  contained  in  the  beets,  would  in  any  way  act  injuriously  to 
the  sugar  by  decomposing  it,  or  hindering  its  perfect  crystalliza- 
tion. It  is,  however,  not  a  mere  mechanical  operation,  but  one 
that  has  to  be  executed  by  chemical  application. 

The  most  efiicient  agent  for  this  purpose  we  have  in  lime  ;  and 
the  apparatus  necessary  for  the  defecation  is  called  "  the  defeca- 
tion kettle."  It  is  generally  made  of  iron  or  copper,  at  its  lower 
end  of  half  round,  and  thence  upward  of  more  cylindrical  form. 
The  bottom  is  a  double  one.  In  filling  this  a  space  of  six  or 
seven  inches  must  be  left  empty  to  prevent  the  running  over  of 
the  liquid. 

The  principal  points  of  this  process  are, 

During  the  Uealing. — To  close,  after  the  kettle  has  been  rapidly 


K.  J.  EBERT  ON  BEET-SUGAR.  399 

filled,  the  air-valve,  and  to  open  both  the  steam-valves  on  it  to  let 
the  steam  enter  the  hollow  bottom  spaee.  The  time  when  the 
lime  is  to  be  added  depends  much  on  the  quality  of  the  beets ;  a 
thermometer  must  be  at  hand,  however,  and  it  might  be  well  to 
appoint  it  at  60°  to  65°  E.,  that  is,  when  the  temperature  of  the 
boiling  fluid  has  attained  to  that  degree. 

During  the  adding  of  Lime. — When  this  is  done  the  steam- valves 
must  be  closed,  and  the  necessary  quantity  of  the  lime  dissolved 
in  water  quickly  added,  stirring  it  well  into  the  fluid.  After  this 
the  steam- valve  is  only  partially,  but  the  air-valve  fully  opened, 
and  the  foam  now  forming  on  the  surface  of  the  juice  pushed  back 
to  observe  the  action  of  the  fluid.  Soon  the  albuminous  flakes 
will  begin  to  rise ;  the  limy  foam  begins  to  burst  and  give  way  be- 
fore the  green  scum.  More  and  more  this  will  concentrate,  look 
dry,  fleecy,  and  light.  Finally,  some  parts  of  it  will  expand  them- 
selves considerably,  and  j  uice-fountains  burst  through  them.  Then 
the  boiling  liquid  is  defecated. 

In  regard  to  the  quantity  of  lime  to  be  taken,  f  to  1^  pounds 
of  it  would  be  quite  sufficient  for  100  pounds  of  beets. 

The  sediments  in  the  kettle  and  the  foam  remaining  can  be  put 
into  bags  and  pressed  out  again,  as  they  may  contain  sugar  matter 
and  sufficient  juice  to  pay  for  the  trouble. 

Treatment  of  the  defecated  Juice. 

Clear  and  transparent,  this  must  be  directly  taken  to  the  "  evap- 
orating pan,"  or,  which  is  better,  conducted  to  it  by  means  of  a 
pipe.  Before  it  enters,  it  answers  well  to  let  it  pass  through  a  fil- 
ter, in  order  to  free  it  of  its  lime  parts.  These  filters  may  be  con- 
structed from  a  tin  or  copper  vessel,  whose  perforated  bottom  is 
covered  with  woolen  or  linen  cloth,  and  a  thin  layer  of  bone-black. 
Some  also  neutralize  the  lime  by  the  application  of  carbonic  acid. 

The  Concentration^  Filtration,  and  the  preparation  of  the  ^^  Spodium." 

The  object  of  these  actions  is  to  remove  the  superfluous  water 
mixed  with  the  sugar  of  the  juice,  effected  by  a  continued  evapo- 
rating process  and  a  filtering  over  animal  coal.  The  first  reduces 
the  quantity  of  the  juice  to  one  ninth  of  its  original  volume ;  and 
as  this  can  not  be  done  by  one,  it  must  be  so  by  a  second  repeated 
evaporation,  and  the  latter  takes  place  after  each  of  these. 

The  evajjorating  aj^paratus  consists  mainly  of  a  copper  vessel 
resting  upon  a  wooden  stand,  of  a  depth  equal  to  about  the  fourth 
part  of  its  diameter,  closed  by  a  wooden  lid,  leaving  only  a  semi- 
circular opening  that  also  can  be  closed  by  a  hinge  cover,  and  of 
a  conduit,  through  which  the  steam  formed  by  the  boiling  may 
escape.  Close  by  this  there  is  a  pipe,  extending  through  the  lid, 
with  a  faucet  to  let  the  defecated  juice  pass  into,  and  another  one 
at  the  opposite  side  of  the  bottom  to  let  the  evaporated  off.  One 
of  the  most  important  inventions  of  late  years  for  the  purpose  of 


400  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  concentration  of  tlie  beet-juice  is  the  method  of  effecting  the 
evaporation  by  means  of  the  vacuum.  Besides  these  there  are 
several  other  constructions  of  pans ;  for  instance,  the  one  invent- 
ed by  Howard,  another  by  Tischbein,  and  Daneck's  apparatus. 

The  first  evaporation  is  usually  continued  until  the  juice  gets 
concentrated  to  about  10°  or  12°  of  Beaume's  scale.  The  vapors 
arising  during  it  will,  by  their  ammoniacal  smell,  indicate  the  pres- 
ence of  many  azotic  parts.  The  juice  is  then  drawn  off  by  means 
of  a  siphon,  and  conducted  to  the  filtering  apparatus. 

The  first  Filtration. — For  this  purjDosc  bone  or  animal  coal  is 
preferred.  These,  being  filled  into  the  apparatus,  need  a  first  clean- 
ing of  adhering  dirty  parts  by  cold  water ;  after  this,  a  second  wash- 
ing by  w^arm  "water.  Now  the  juice  is  j^ourcd  upon  them  and  left 
for  about  half  an  hour  in  connection  with  them.  When  it  has 
passed  through  this  oijcration,  the  juice  is  now  subjected  to 

The  second  Evaporation. — It  will  here  be  treated  in  the  same 
manner  as  at  the  first,  and  be  found  much  purer  and  freer  of  lime 
parts  than  before.  It  must  be  concentrated  up  to  20°  or  22°  B., 
and  is  then  allowed  the 

Second  Filtration  in  the  same  apparatus,  and  a  like  manipula- 
tion as  before.  Asa  matter  of  course,  the  juice,  now  being  con- 
centrated into  a  thick  fluid,  penetrates  the  coals  very  slowly,  and 
must  be  allowed  ample  time. 

The  Animal  Coal,  or  ^'' SpodiumJ'' — We  need  say  nothing  here 
about  the  manner  of  making  this,  as  it  is  a  very  simple  and  gen- 
erally-knowm  one.  Well-charred  coals  weigh  40  to  42  pounds  per 
cubic  foot.  The  net  produce  of  the  bones  amounts  to  about  40 
per  cent,  of  their  weight  when  fresh.  The  coal  must  have  a  deep 
black  color,  a  firm  texture,  and,  touched  by  the  lips,  stick  to  them ; 
if  so,  it  may  be  considered  good.     Pulverizing  it  is  not  advisable. 

Boiling  in  ofi  the  refined  Juice. 

This  is  generally  effected  in  two  different  ways ;  the  one  to  be 
called  the  boiling  in  to  the  string  or  clear  proof,  and  the  other 
boiling  in  to  the  grain  proof,  and  the  boiling  in  of  the  sirup. 

In  adopting  the  first,  the  juice  is  only  concentrated  to  the  crys- 
tallizing point  by  applying  a  quick  heat  and  a  very  careful  man- 
ipulation. This  tends  only  to  a  slow  and  regular  formation  of 
crystals,  and  to  the  producing  of  raw  sugar  in  large  crystals,  that 
still  needs  refining  before  it  can  be  brought  out  for  sale.  Before 
the  mass  gets  too  much  concentrated,  the  kettle  must  be  filled  up 
again  with  fresh  juice,  and  this  repeated. 

In  the  second  case,  which'  will  produce  grain  sugar  (mclis) 
merely,  a  firm  and  dense  texture  and  small  crystals  are  intended 
in  the  sugar.  The  boiling  must  be  continued  until  this  proof  is 
attained.  It  generally  turns  out  a  very  difficult  affair,  and  must 
be  aided  "by  an  addition  of  already-made  crystal  sugar  at  the  ap- 
proaching of  the  crystallizing  point  of  the  boiling  juice. 


K.  J,  EBERT  ON  BEET-SUGAR.  401 

The  boiling  in  of  the  sirup  can  only  be  directed  to  the  pro- 
ducing of  raiv,  but  not  of  grain  sugar.  As  the  sirup  boils  very 
slowly,  an  addition  of  water  will  be  found  advantageous. 

The  various  methods  of  proving  the  sugar,  when  it  has  attained 
the  desired  or  necessary  consistency,  cither  by  the  linger  or  water, 
or  the  drawing  out  threads,  the  perling  of  the  mass,  etc.,  must 
rather  be  learned  by  practice,  as  this  alone  will  show  the  proper 
moment.  There  are,  indeed,  several  instruments  to  determine  it, 
but  too  complicated  to  be  of  general  use;  as,  for  instance,  the 
"  Manometer,"  invented  by  L,  Walkhoff,  or  the  "  Vacuum- Are- 
ometer" by  Kwiech. 

The  Crystallization  of  the  Sugar. 

After  the  foregoing  actions  are  gone  through  with,  the  mass 
has  to  be  immediately  taken  to  the  "crystallization  forms."  The 
temperature  of  the  filling-room  must  also  now  be  increased  to 
from  24°  to  30°  R,  and  kept  at  it. 

The  filling  of  the  Forjns  in  order  to  get  raiv  Sugar  in  large  Crys- 
tals.— This  requires  no  other  manipulation  except  to  put  the  mass 
into  the  forms,  in  which  it  is  left  until  the  drawing-off  process  be- 
gins. The  quicker  it  cools  off  the  smaller  will  the  crystals  get ; 
the  slower,  the  larger.  The  shape  of  the  former  differs  according 
to  the  wants.  The  one  most  in  use  for  raw  sugar  is  that  of  a  box, 
square  or  round,  toward  the  bottom  somewhat  narrower,  with  a 
wire  sieve  inside,  beneath  which  the  separated  sirup  flows  off  by 
an  especial  pipe  or  tube.     It  is  called  "  Schiitzenbach's  Box." 

The  filling  the  Forms  to  get  Grain  Sugar. — In  this  case  the  mass 
is  put  into  forms  of  a  particular  shape.  Formerly  they  used  to 
be  made  of  baked  clay,  of  a  conical  shape,  and  placed  upon  pots 
(of  urn  shape,  with  an  opening  corresponding  to  the  point  of  the 
former),  in  order  to  receive  the  sirup  dropping  out.  They  are 
now,  however,  preferred  of  sheet-iron,  coated  inside  and  outside 
with  varnish,  holding  32  pounds  of  the  filling  mass.  These  have 
also  an  opening  at  the  point  of  their  inverted  cone  to  let  the 
sirup  off,  which,  before  the  filling  commences,  must  be  closed  bv 
a  linen  cloth  fastened  into  it  by  means  of  a  nail.  The  forms  are 
then  placed  upon  lath  scaffolds,  perpendicular  upon  their  centre 
of  the  point,  in  parallel  rows,  and  now  the  filling-in  begins.  They 
are  left  in  their  places  until  the  next  day,  and  then  put  upon  the 
floor  of  the  room.  ' 

The  Filling-in  of  the  boiled  Sinqy  to  get  the  After-product. — This, 
being  regularly  warmed  up,  is  put  into  other  iron  boxes,  and  left 
quietly  to  crystallize,  which  will  take  considerably  more  time  than 
the  former  methods. 

Drawing  the  Sirup  off  from  the  Forms. — The  time  during  which 
the  whole  crystallizing  process  finishes  is  of  various  duration.  In 
the  Schiitzenbach  boxes  it  will  generally  be  found  after  18  hours ; 
in  the  conical  forms  somewhat  sooner.     When  the  sugar  has  been 

Cc 


402  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKIXG. 

separated  from  the  sirup  in  firm  crystal  bodies  and  cooled  off  (in 
which  state  it  must  fill  the  whole  form  out),  the  openings  must  be 
cleared  by  drawing  the  cloth  pieces  out,  and  a  pointed  iron  rod 
introduced  through  them,  penetrating  several  inches  deep  into  the 
sugar  mass.  This  opens  the  way  for  the  sirup  bound  up  between 
the  crystals,  and  allows  it  to  flow  off.  The  Schiitzcnbach  boxes 
are,  for  this  purpose,  put  a  little  upon  their  sides  or  edges.  After 
from  36  to  48  hours,  the  sirup  of  wcU-boiled  sugar  will  generally 
be  all  run  out,  and  now  follows 

The  taking  out  from  the  Forms. — With  the  sugar  of  the  first- 
mentioned  quality  this  is  simply  done  by  turning  the  boxes  over 
on  a  table  of  stout  boards,  with  borders,  so  that  the  sugar  may  fall 
out.  The  dirty  upper  parts  of  it  are  then  taken  off,  and  the  pure 
remaining  mass  broken  up  by  wooden  j^estles,  to  make  it  dry 
quicker  and  obtain  a  clearer  color.  With  the  sugar  of  the  second- 
mentioned  quality  {melis),  after  the  forms  have  likwise  been  open- 
ed to  free  them  of  the  siruj^,  which  will  run  out  within  six  or  eight 
days,  a  different  manipulation  takes  place.  Being  taken  off  from 
their  beds  (small  boards  with  round  holes  in  them  to  hold  the 
points  of  them),  the  uppermost  (broad)  layer  of  the  sugar  must  be 
broken  up  by  a  small  hand-mattock,  and  the  new  surface  well 
leveled  i^gain  by  a  scraper,  so  as  to  leave  only  a  small  cavity  in 
the  very  centre  of  it.  After  this  operation,  the  forms  with  the 
sugar  yet  in  them  are  replaced  in  their  beds.  The  produce  of  the 
entire  mass  of  boiled  sugar  will  generally  result  in  60  per  cent, 
after  the  drawing  off  of  the  sirup,  or  five  eighths  of  its  weight  of 
crystallized  sugar  and  three  eighths  as  sirup. 

Covering  the  Sugar  with  Water. — The  refuse  of  the  sugar  gained 
in  the  prescribed  way  must  now  be  dissolved  in  pure  water,  and 
poured  over  the  sugar  in  the  forms.  Penetrating  this,  it  drives 
all  the  remaining  sirup  parts  out,  and  takes  up  their  places,  there- 
by acting  as  a  purifying  agent.  If  the  first  infusion  should  not 
suffice,  it  may  be  repeated  after  24  hours  or  86.  Frequently  a 
third  time  will  be  found  necessary  to  make  the  sugar  white  and 
nice-looking.  Before  this  is  added  the  surface  has  to  be  loosened 
again,  to  give  it  a  better  chance  to  enter.  After  this,  when  the 
last  sirup  coming  out  of  the  opening  appears  perfectly  clear  and 
colorless,  the  sugar  can  be  taken  out  of  the  forms.  If  good,  it 
must  show  a  uniform  whiteness,  no  yellow  spots  or  stripes,  and 
an  equal  grain  throughout.  The  raw  sugar,  as  first  product,  re- 
ceives a  similar  covering  with  water,  if  found  necessary,  in  the 
Schiitzcnbach  boxes,  placed  for  the  purpose  upon  stools.  The 
after-products  from  sirup  may  be  covered,  according  to  option, 
either  with  water  or  sirup. 

Refining  the  Sugar.— Those  kinds  of  sugar  that  are  destined  to 
go  through  the  process  of  being  refined  are  broken  into  pieces, 
and  dissolved  in  water  to  about  30°  concentration.  This  solution, 
after  being  warmed  up  to  50°  or  55°,  receives  an  addition  of  1  or 


E.  J.  EBERT  ON  BEET-SUGAR.  ^qo 

2  pounds  of  animal  blood  to  each  100  pounds  of  it,  must  then  be 
increased  in  its  temperature  to  60<^  or  65°  E,  and  have  another 
addition  of  4  to  6  per  cent,  of  finely-powdered  bone  coal,  and  the 
entire  mass  be  brought  slowly  to  boiling.     Soon  the  sigis  of  the 
intended  refining  will  show  themselves,  and  be  entirely  finished 
when  the  solution  appears  transparent,  clear,  and  a  white  foam 
with  transparent  bubbles,  rises  up  from  out  of  the  surface  of  the 
boilmg  substance.     This  must  now  be  drawn  off,  and  conducted 
over  coal  filters  before  it  can  be  farther  boiled.     In  order  to  re- 
move the  coal  remnants  and  other  impurities,  albumen  (white  of 
eggs),  stirred  in  water,  may  bo  mixed  to  it  while  boiUno-     As 
to  the  rest,  it  is  subjected  to  the  same  manipulations  as  before 
spoken  of  , 


APPENDIX  K. 

THE   SOEGHO   AND   IMPHEE. 

EXTRACTED  FROM  THE  WORK  OP  HENRY  S.  OLCOTT. 

New  Youk  (Sixth  Edition),  1858. 


APPENDIX  K. 

H.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SORGHO  AND  IMPIIEE. 

Introductory  Note. — First  appearance  of  the  Sorgho  and  Imphce  in  Europe. — Vari- 
ous Experiments. — Mr.  Leonard  Wray. — Introduction  of  the  Sorgho  into  Amer- 
ica.—  History  of  Sorgho  in  the  Southern  States. — Soils  required. — Yield  of  Seed 
and  Fodder. — Making  Sugar  or  Sirup  on  a  small  Scale. — Boiling  and  Clarifying. 
— Reducing  to  Sugar. — Mr.  Wray's  Patent. 

Introductory  Note. 

[We  have  reflected  much,  and  from  time  to  time  urged,  either  through  the  public 
press  or  in  speeches  at  agricultural  fairs  before  farmers,  the  necessity  of  raising  such 
articles  as  less  favored  countries  can  not  produce.  It  must  be  apparent  to  every  per- 
son that  with  our  liigh  labor  we  are  not  able  to  compete  with  our  countrymen  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  raising  wheat,  barle}',  and  oats.  Labor  for 
some  time  to  come  must  be  high ;  in  fact,  as  long  as  the  gold  grounds  will  furnish 
hope  to  a  man  of  getting  rich,  he  will  go  there  as  soon  as  he  has  earned  enough  on 
a  farm  to  keep  him  a  few  months  prospecting. 

With  this  circumstance  before  us,  we  naturally  inquire.  What  can  we  plant  to  make 
a  sure  living,  employ  the  least  part  of  our  land  and  working  stock,  implements,  etc.  ? 
It  is  positively  certain  that  raising  grain  will  not  only  pay  us  nothing,  but  will  make 
us  bankrupt. 

To  be  able  to  recommend  some  produce  which  would  pay  better  than  small  grain, 
we  have  made  a  European  tour  and  diligent  searches  for  a  profitable  produce.  AVe 
started  out  from  home  determined  to  examine  the  sugar-beet,  fields,  factories,  etc., 
to  ascertain  the  yields  per  acre,  profits,  and  manufacturing,  etc.,  and  the  results  of 
our  inquiries  have  been  given  in  the  preceding  pages.  It  was  well  known  that  the 
sugar-beet  has  been  cultivated  in  France  and  Germany,  and  that  sugar  has  been 
manufactured  from  the  same  for  many  years  ;  that  it  must  have  been  a  paying  busi- 
ness there  is  proved  by  the  increase  of  the  sugar  made  from  the  beet. 

We  reasoned  thus :  If  raising  the  sugar-beet  where  land  is  fifty  or  even  a  hundred 
times  as  high  as  in  California ;  where  the  land  must  be  manured  at  a  cost  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  dollars  per  acre ;  where  all  taxes  are  high ;  and,  above  all,  where 
sugar-beets  do  not  grow  so  well  as  in  California,  why,  then,  should  it  not  pay  here, 
and  pay  well?  Therefore  we  made  diligent  inquiries  while  there,  and  found  that 
the  culture  of  beets  pays  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  dollars  per  acre ;  the  fact  that  this 
branch  of  agriculture  spread  with  rapid  strides  is  sufficient  proof  of  its  excellency. 
In  all  the  European  domains,  France,  Germany,  England,  Hungary,  Sweden,  and 
even  into  Russia  it  has  extended  ;  and,  with  all  its  increase,  the  demand  for  sugar  is 
greater  and  greater  every  year,  and  the  price,  instead  of  diminishing,  increases. 

However,  finding  that  within  the  last  three  or  four  years  the  Sorgho  and  Imp/tee 
were  introduced  into  France  with  great  success,  and  in  many  places  where  the  sugar- 
beet  was  planted  the  Sorgho  and  Imphee  have  been  introduced  instead,  and  the  time 
is  not  far  distant  when  this  latter  produce  will  put  away  the  beet-root  altogether,  I 
became  convinced  that  the  Sorgho  and  Imphee  are  superior  to  the  sugar-beet  for  the 
purpose  of  making  sugar,  or  for  fodder  for  cattle. 

In  order  to  furnish  some  idea  of  the  value  and  importance  of  these  plants  to  our 
agriculture,  I  give  a  few  extracts  from  the  valuable  work  of  Mr.  Henry  S.  Olcott, 
"Principal  of  the  Westchester  Farm  School,"  ]\Iount  Vernon,  near  the  city  of  New 
York,  on  "  The  Sorgho  and  Imphee."  This  work  contains  full  information  respect- 
ing these  plants,  the  mode  of  culture,  and  the  processes  of  making  sugar,  embodying 
the  author's  own  experience  and  observation,  and  the  results  of  the  various  experi- 
ments made  in  the  various  parts  of  America  and  Europe.     It  also  contains  illustra- 


408 


GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 


tions  of  the  implements  and  ajiparatus  necessary  for  the  iiroduction  of  sugar  upon  a 
large  or  small  scale.  The  work,  being  published  in  New  York  at  a  moderate  price, 
is  easily  obtained  in  California,  where  I  am  happy  to  learn  that  a  large  number  of 
copies  have  been  sold.  Every  farmer  wiio  proposes  to  cultivate  these  plants  will  do 
well  to  provide  himself  with  a  co])y  of  Olcott's  work.  The  brief  extracts  which  I 
have  made  are  sufficient  to  show  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  the  agriculture  of 
our  State. — A.  H.] 


xui;  buuuuo. 


II.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SOKGllO  AND  IMi'IIEE.  409 

First  Appearance  in  Europe. 

Its  first  appccarancc  in  Eur()})e  dates  back  no  farther  than  the 
year  1851,  at  which  time  the  Count  do  Montigny,  consul  of  France 
at  Shanghac,  in  China,  sent  to  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris 
a  collection  of  plants  and  seeds  which  he  found  in  China,  and 
which  he  thought  would  succeed  in  his  own  country.  Among 
these  was  the  celebrated  Chinese  yam  {Dioscorea  batatas)  and  the 
Holcus  saccharatus,  under  the  name  of  "  the  sugar-cane  of  the 
north  orChina."  Curiously  enough,  there  was  received  in  France 
at  about  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  seeds  of  a  plant  having  ap- 
parently the  same  properties  and  almost  the  same  appearance  as 
the  Sorgho,  which  had  been  discovered  on  the  southeast  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  country  of  the  Zulu  Kaffirs,  by  Mr.  Leonard  Wray ; 
and  upon  comparing  the  plants  derived  from  these  widely  sepa- 
rate sources,  the  remarkable  fact  was  made  apparent,  that  in  abil- 
ity to  yield  crystallized  sugar,  to  afford  nourishment  for  stock, 
and  in  the  requirements  of  cultivation  and  other  peculiarities,  they 
were  almost  identical. 

Various  Experimenters. 

Experiments  were  likewise  instituted  by  members  of  the  Im- 
perial Acclimation  Society,  but  by  none  were  they  more  zealous- 
ly pursued,  nor  more  successfully  carried  on,  than  by  the  Compte 
de  David  Beauregard.  This  gentleman  was  so  confident  of  its 
value  that  he  made  strenuous  efforts  to  increase  his  stock  of  seed, 
planted  the  greatest  possible  area  of  land  with  it,  and  succeeded 
so  completely  that  it  is  from  his  third  crop  that  has  been  derived 
the  major  portion  of  the  immense  amount  that  has  been  planted 
in  the  United  States.  In  France  we  find  it  successively  spread- 
ing in  the  provinces  of  La  Drome,  Les  Pyrenees  Orientales,  La 
Haute-Marne,  La  Gironde,  Le  Gers,  etc.,  and  every  where  exciting 
the  greatest  attention  among  the  most  distinguished  agricultur- 
ists ;  and  thence  it  quickly  finds  its  way  to  Algeria. 

Mr.  Leonard  Wray. 

Mr.  Wray  is  widely  known  to  the  sugar-planters  of  the  world 
from  his  authorship  of  the  "  Sugar-Planters'  Companion,"  pub- 
lished in  Calcutta  in  1843,  and  the  "Practical  Sugar-Planter,"  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1848,  and  republished  in  French,  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  and  Dutch.  In  1850  he  left  the  East  Indies  for  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  w^hence  he  went  to  Kaffirland,  and  found  the 
Zulu  Kaffirs  cultivating  the  Imphee  around  their  huts,  not  for  the 
purpose  of  manufacturing  crj^stallized  sugar  or  obtaining  any  oth- 
er of  its  products  with  a  commercial  view,  but  merely  for  the  pur- 
pose of  chewing  and  sucking  the  stalks.  He  quickly  saw  of  what 
value  such  plants  were  likely  to  become  to  Europe  and  America, 
and  applied  himself  to  their  study,  their  culture,  and  manufacture 


410  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAiaNG. 

into  sugar,  etc.  After  having  fully  satisfied  himself  on  these 
points,  he  returned  to  Europe,  and  planted  patches  in  England, 
France,  and  Belgium;  applied  for  patents  in  various  countries; 
addressed  the  French  government  through  Marshal  Vaillant,  Min- 
ister of  War ;  exhibited  specimens  of  sugar  and  the  plants  to  Mr, 
Buchanan,  then  American  minister  at  London  ;  and  subsequently 
established  the  culture  of  the  Imphee  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  the  West 
Indies,  the  Brazils,  the  Mauritius,  Australia,  and  finally  in  this 
country.  The  gift  that  he  thus  made  to  our  agriculture  may  be 
estimated  when  we  reflect  that  we  have  almost  every  range  of 
climate  known  in  the  world,  from  the  torrid  and  fervent  heats  of 
the  tropical  zone  to  the  most  rigorous  winters  of  the  north ;  and, 
his  plants  requiring  in  some  instances  but  ninety  days  to  run 
through  the  whole  course  of  vegetation  and  ripen  their  seeds,  oth- 
ers of  greater  saccharine  richness  requiring  a  more  lengthened 
season  than  is  necessary  for  the  ordinary  sugar-cane,  he  has  thus 
given  to  the  farmers  of  every  section  of  the  country  the  opjDortu- 
nity  to  select  from  out  his  collection  of  varieties  some  one  pecul- 
iarly adapted  to  the  latitude  in  which  he  resides.  In  the  year 
1856,  Mr.  Wray  obtained  the  large  silver  medal  of  the  Exposition 
Universelle  at  Paris  for  his  Imphee  sugar,  alcohol,  seeds,  and 
plants;  and  the  French  government,  moreover,  granted  to  him 
twenty-five  hundred  acres  of  land  in  Algeria,  to  encourage  in  that 
colony  the  establishment  of  this  important  cultivation. 

Introduction  of  the  Sorglio  into  America. 

In  the  month  of  November,  185-i,  D.  Jay  Brownj  Esq.,  of  the 
United  States  Patent  Office,  returned  to  America  from  Europe, 
bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  the  seed  of  the  Chinese  sugar- 
cane. These  seeds  were  distributed  to  various  persons  through- 
out this  country ;  but  the  feeling  of  suspicion  with  which  all  new 
things  are  more  or  less  viewed  tended  to  confine  this  experiment 
of  cultivation  to  a  few  of  the  more  enterprising  farmers,  until  the 
formal  report,  addressed  by  Gen.  J.  II.  Hammond,  late  Governor 
of  South  Carolina,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Beach  Island,  South 
Carolina,  Farmers'  Club,  awakened  general  attention.  Upon  the 
publication  of  a  circular,  containing  the  experiments  of  Colonel 
Peters,  and  the  notice  of  the  sirup  which  was  exhibited  by  him 
at  the  Fair  of  the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  the  general 
excitement  upon  the  subject  was  at  once  considerably  augmented ; 
and  the  subsequent  appearance  of  the  reports  to  the  French  Min- 
ister of  War,  the  experience  of  American  farmers  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  the  excellent  pamphlets  of  Mr.  J.  F.  C.  Hyde,  of 
Massachusetts,  and  Mr.  Charles  F.  Stansbury,  of  Washington,  all 
have  united  in  lending  this  increase  to  the  all  prevalent  interest. 


II.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SORGHO  AND  IMPIIEE.  411 

History  of  the  Sorglio  in  the  Southern  States. 

Mr.  D.  Ecdmond,  Associate  Editor  of  the  Southern  Cultivator, 
gives  the  following  account : 

In  the  winter  of  1854-5,  I  obtained  per  mail,  through  a  seed- 
importing  house  in  Boston,  two  ounces  of  what  was  then  denom- 
inated "  Chinese  Sugar-cane,  or  Holcus  saccharatus."  I  am  not 
aware  that  any  of  this  seed  had  been  distributed  from  the  Patent 
Office  in  this  neighborhood  up  to  that  time,  nor  had  I  then  any 
other  evidence  of  its  value  than  the  newspaper  advertisement 
which  induced  me  to  send  for  it.  I  have  since  learned,  however, 
that  the  Patent  Office  distributed  a  small  quantity  of  seed  in  the 
spring  of  1854 ;  and  that,  prior  even  to  that  time,  the  plant  had 
been  tested  to  a  limited  extent  by  a  few  gentlemen  in  the  vicinity 
of  New  Orleans.  Nothing  satisfactory,  however,  was  known  of 
the  plant  here  at  that  time ;  and  wishing  to  have  it  thoroughly 
tested,  I  sent  small  samples,  per  letter,  to  various  agricultural  and 
horticultural  friends  in  Georgia  and  the  adjoining  States,  request- 
ing them  to  communicate  to  me  the  result  of  their  experiments 
with  it.  For  myself,  I  merely  planted  seven  or  eight  hills,  in 
rather  poor  ground,  in  my  garden,  and  watched  its  growth  with 
considerable  interest.  At  first  I  was  disappointed,  and  quite 
ready  to  rank  it  among  the  many  humbugs  of  the  day,  as  it  came 
up  very  weakly,  like  grass  or  Egyptian  millet,  and  grew  off  quite 
slowly.  In  a  few  weeks,  however,  it  began  to  shoot  upward  with 
great  rapidity,  and  in  less  than  three  months  attained  the  height 
of  ten  feet,  with  large  and  well-filled  heads  of  seed.  When  these 
seeds  were  nearly  ripe,  I  incidentally  cut  one  of  the  stalks,  peeled 
off  the  hard  outer  husk,  and  was  quite  surprised  to  find  a  solid 
pith  or  core,  of  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  crisp, 
brittle,  and  of  an  exceedingly  sweet  and  pleasant  flavor — entirely 
unlike  any  thing  of  the  corn-stalk  family  that  I  had  ever  tasted. 
It  was,  in  fact,  ready-made  candy ;  and  as  soon  as  the  younger 
members  of  the  family  and  the  negroes  "  got  the  taste"  of  it,  I 
was  obliged  to  interdict  its  farther  use,  in  order  to  save  seed. 
When  the  latter  were  fully  ripe,  I  cut  off  the  heads  and  saved 
them  carefully,  noticing,  with  some  surprise,  that  the  leaves  or 
blades  of  fodder  were  still  as  fresh,  green,  and  succulent  as  ever. 
The  stalks  were  then  cut  off  near  the  ground,  and  fed,  leaves  and 
all,  to  my  horses,  mules,  and  milch-cows,  all  of  which  ate  of  it 
with  the  greatest  apparent  relish  and  avidity.  Considering  that 
crop  disposed  of  for  the  season,  I  paid  no  more  attention  to  the 
stubble  or  stumps  until  I  happened  to  notice  that,  millet-like,  they 
were  shooting  out  anew,  and  pushing  on  for  a  second  growth. 
This  growth  I  watched  with  some  interest  until  the  first  frosts 
checked  it,  at  which  time  the  stalks  were  six  feet  high,  full  of 
broad  and  juicy  leaves,  and  with  the  second  crop  of  seed  just 
making  its  appearance  above  the  "boot." 


412  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Convinced  by  tliis  time  that  it  was  valuable  at  least  for  the 
production  of  soiling  forage  and  dried  fodder,  I  next  turned  my 
attention  to  its  saccharine  properties,  and  fortunately  induced  my 
friend,  Dr.  Robt.  Battey,  of  Rome,  Ga.,  who  was  at  that  time  pur- 
suing the  study  of  experimental  chemistry  in  the  well-known  lab- 
oratory of  Prof  Rooth,  of  Philadelphia,  to  test  it.  As  the  result 
of  his  experiments.  Dr.  Battey  sent  me  three  small  phials — one 
containing  a  fine  sirup,  one  a  sample  of  crude  brown  sugar,  and 
the  other  a  very  good  sample  of  crystallized  sugar.  This  I  be- 
lieve to  be  the  first  crystallized  sugar  made  in  the  United  States 
from  the  juice  of  the  Sorgho  sucre;  and  as  Dr.  Battey 's  opinion 
of  its  value  as  a  sugar  plant  fully  agreed  with  the  reports  of  the 
French  savans,  who  had  investigated  its  properties,  and  with  my 
own  convictions,  I  disseminated  the  seed  more  widely  during  the 
year  1856,  and  planted  nearly  two  acres,  for  the  purpose  of  rais- 
ing the  seed  largely,  and  more  fully  testing  the  saccharine  prop- 
erty and  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  bear  repeated  cuttings,  like 
the  Egyptian  and  other  varieties  of  millet.  It  was  planted  very 
late,  on  thin  land,  and  received  but  imperfect  culture,  and  yet  I 
that  year  cut  it  three  times^  and  saved  a  late  crop  of  fodder  from  it 
in  addition.  The  present  year  (1857)  I  have  cut  it  four  times  up 
to  the  present  date,  August  26. 

During  the  summer  of  1856,  particular  attention  was  called  to 
the  sirup-making  properties  of  this  plant  by  the  Report  of  Gov- 
ernor Hammond,  of  South  Carolina,  whose  experiments  had  been 
most  ably  and  carefully  conductetl. 

This  Report  was  read  before  the  "  Beach  Island  (S.  C.)  Farm- 
ers' Club,"  and  was  followed  by  that  of  Colonel  Peters,  of  Atlanta, 
and  others,  all  of  which  were  published,  and  presented  such  satis- 
factory results  that  the  agricultural  community  generally  were 
aroused  to  the  importance  of  the  new  "sugar-cane,"  and  desirous 
of  giving  it  a  trial.  The  largest  growers  of  the  plant  at  this  time 
(1856)  were  Absalom  Jackson,  Esq.,  of  Montgomery,  Ala. ;  Col. 
R.  Peters,  of  Atlanta;  Dr.  Whitten,  of  Hancock  Co. ;  Dr.Daniell, 
of  Decatur,  Ga.,  and  the  writer.  The  seed  raised  by  these  persons 
was,  we  believe,  nearly  all  saved,  and  very  widely  disseminated 
over  the  Union,  but  principally  through  the  Southern  States, 
where,  unquestionably,  the  plant  attains  its  fullest  and  most  per- 
fect development.  Twenty  or  thirty  thousand  packages  of  the 
seed  alluded  to  were  scattered  over  the  country,  and  in  the  South 
alone  probably  thousands  of  acres  are  now  growing.  A  large 
number  of  the  growers  are  preparing  to  convert  the  juice  of  the 
Sorgho  into  sirup  and  sugar ;  and  if  an  easy  and  economical  proc- 
ess for  crystallizing  the  latter  can  be  employed,  this  plant  will  at 
once  become  one  of  our  most  important  staple  productions.  I 
have,  within  the  past  two  months,  received  letters  from  gentlemen 
in  nearly  every  one  of  the  Southern  States,  who  were  raising  the 
cane  from  seed  which  I  furnished,  and  the  terms  of  praise  and 


II.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SORGHO  AND  IMPHEE.      413 

even  enthusiasm  'witli  wliicli  they  dwell  upon  its  good  qualities 
are  truly  gratifying  to  me.  Upon  the  whole,  therefore,  the  Sorgho 
may  be  considered  a  dceidcd  suecess  in  the  South,  and  the  results 
obtained  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  An  acre  of  the  stalks,  properly  cultivated,  on  fair  land,  will 
yield  from  three  hundred  to  six  hundred  gallons  of  excellent  sirup, 
equal  to  the  best  New  Orleans,  and  worth,  at  present  prices,  from 
forty-five  to  seventy  cents  per  gallon, 

2.  If  planted  early,  it  will  fully  ripen  iiuo  crops  of  seed  and  two 
crops  of  cane  for  crushing ;  as  new  shoots  are  invariably  thrown 
out  from  the  roots,  and  attain  full  development  after  the  first  cut- 
ting, which  takes  place  about  the  25th  of  July,  in  this  latitude,  in 
favorable  seasons. 

3.  From  25  to  100  bushels  of  seed  can  be  raised  to  the  acre, 
which  seed,  for  all  feeding  purposes,  is  at  least  as  valuable  as  oats. 

4.  It  bears  repeated  cutting  when  green,  and  is  inferior  to  no 
other  plant  for  "  soiling." 

5.  The  seed  and  fodder  are  fully  equal  in  value  to  an  ordinary 
corn-crop,  thus  leaving  the  canes  and  their  juice  a  clear  profit  to 
the  cultivator. 

6.  It  withstands  our  long  droughts  much  better  than  common 
corn,  retaining  its  green  color  and  succulence  even  after  the  seed 
matures. 

The  various  economical  uses  to  which  the  Sorgho  may  be  ap- 
plied are  so  fully  adverted  to  in  other  portions  of  this  work  that 
it  is  unnecessary  to  enter  farther  into  detail,  and  I  will  close  by 
expressing  the  conviction  that,  wherever  the  climate  is  suitable  to 
its  proper  development,  this  plant  will  fully  realize  all  its  most 
sanguine  friends  have  ever  claimed  for  it. 

Soils  Eequired. 

[Mr.  Olcott  givps  full  directions  for  the  mode  of  culture  of  the  Sorgho,  with  notes 
of  the  experiment  of  various  persons.     Wc  quote  a  few  paragraphs.] 

When  we  say  that  the  Chinese  sugar-cane  can  grow  iipon  all 
soils  on  which  a  fair  crop  of  Indian  corn  can  be  raised,  we  have 
almost  covered  the  entire  question,  and  given  the  desired  informa- 
tion. The  experiments  which  have  been  made  upon  it  in  Alge- 
ria, France,  and  this  country,  have  proved  the  fact  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  on  loose,  deep  soils ;  but  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  the  juices  of  plants  grown  upon  soils  largely  composed 
of  vegetable  detritus  is  more  abundant  in  fecula,  and  the  sugar 
manifests  a  somewhat  weaker  propensity  to  crystallize  than  upon 
any  others ;  but  in  such  cases,  as  it  contains  a  large  quantity  of 
fecula,  it  can  be  readily  converted  into  alcohol.  M.  Paul  Madinier 
says  that  for  it  are  especially  suitable  light,  sandy  soils  and  cal- 
careous soils,  but  particularly  those  formed  from  alluvial  depos- 
its. That  in  nearly  every  case,  especially  in  Algeria  and  the 
southern  part  of  France,  very  excellent  results  will  be  attained  by 


414  GKArE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

the  employment  of  irrigation  during  the  early  stages  of  its  growth, 
and  when'it  is  most  rapidly  developing  itself;  but  that  if  employ- 
ed at  a  later  date,  when  it  is  approaching  maturit}^,  it  proves  dele- 
terious, by  impeding  the  elaboration  of  the  saccharine  principle, 
and  rendering  the  canes  too  watery.  M.  Hardy,  the  intelligent 
director  of  the  Government  Nursery  in  Algeria,  says  that  the 
Sorgho  flourishes  extremely  well  on  soils  containing  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  he  advises  frequent  liming  of  such  soils  as  are  deficient 
in  it.  This  recommendation  finds  its  explanation  in  the  astonish- 
ing success  of  the  Sorgho  on  the  chalky  soils  of  Champagne, 
where  otherwise  they  obtained  very  mediocre  results ;  but,  says 
M.  Madinier,  if  calcareous  applications  seem  desirable,  it  is  by  no 
means  the  same  of  such  other  saline  manures  as  have  been  found 
by  experience  to  be  unfavorable  for  the  sugar-cane  and  the  sugar- 
beet,  Lacoste  urges  upon  his  readers  to  avoid  attempting  the 
Sorgho  culture  on  soils  where  the  soluble  inorganic  matters  are 
very  abundant,  because  they  would  thus  be  exposed  to  the  unde- 
sirable perplexity  of  producing  juice  in  their  plants  of  a  saline 
character,  and  completely  unsuitable  to  the  extraction  of  sugar. 
Count  Beauregard  says  that  the  Sorgho  will  flourish  well  on  al- 
most all  soils  if  they  be  underdrained  and  irrigated;  but  his  ex- 
perience shows  him  what  would  be  supposed  by  any  sensible 
man,  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  on  soils  of  the  best  quality 
that  are  best  cultivated. 

Yield  of  Steel  and  Fodder. 

In  respect  to  the  yield  of  seed  per  acre,  the  North,  says  M.  d'lv- 
ernois,  can  not  hope  to  equal  the  South,  where  sixty  bushels  are 
produced.  This  result  was  obtained  in  the  neighborhood  of  lly- 
eres.  Colonel  Peters,  of  Georgia,  obtained  twenty-five  bushels 
per  acre,  of  thirty-six  pounds  per  bushel.  Governor  Ilammond, 
of  South  Carolina,  weighed  a  peck  after  three  days'  drying  in  the 
sun,  and  found  the  weight  to  be  thirty-eight  pounds  per  bushel. 
I  have  weighed  several  lots  from  Vilmorin,  Andrieux,  &  Co.,  of 
Paris,  and  Count  Beauregard,  and  found  the  weight  to  vary  from 
forty  to  forty-eight  pounds.  Mr.  Hyde  says  the  yield  is  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels  to  the  acre.  Thus  we  see  that  on  par- 
tially exhausted  wheat  soils,  or  alluvial  soils,  both  of  which  are 
specially  adapted  to  the  Sorgho,  instead  of  a  poor  yield  of  wheat, 
we  may  plant  the  former,  and,  not  taking  any  thing  else  into  con- 
sideration, obtain  a  crop  of  from  twenty-five  to  sixty  bushels  of 
seed.  Mr.  Brown  said  that  nine  tons  of  dry  fodder  had  been  cut 
in  Kentucky  last  season  :  Hon.  Marshall  P.  Wilder,  president  of 
the  United  States  Agricultural  Society,  teUs  me  that  he  knows 
one  instance  where  19.844  lbs.  of  fodder  had  been  obtained,  the 
weight  taken  after  a  three  months'  drying.  The  weight  of  the 
green  stalks  varies  from  seven  to  forty  tons,  according  to  circum- 
stances.    The  director  of  the  Government  Nursery  at  Hamma, 


II.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SORGHO  AND  IMPIIEE.  415 

Algiers,  in  his  report  to  the  Minister  of  War,  says  lie  got  a  result 
of  83,250  lbs.  of  green  forage  per  acre.  Our  own  Patent  Office 
-Report  for  1855  says,  "  Aside  from  other  economical  uses,  its 
value  for  feeding  to  animals  alone,  in  every  section  of  the  Union 
where  it  will  thrive,  can  not  be  surpassed  by  any  other  crop,  as  a 
greater  amount  of  nutritious  fodder  can  not  be  obtained  so  cheap- 
ly in  a  given  space  within  so  short  a  time;  and  without  wishing 
to  present  the  question  in  an  extravagant  light,  it  may  be  stated 
that  this  crop  is  susceptible  of  being  cultivated  within  the  terri- 
tory of  the  United  States  to  an  extent  equal  to  that  of  Indian  corn, 
say  25,000,000  acres  per  annum ;  and  estimating  the  average  yield 
of  dry  gr  cured  fodder  to  the  acre  at  two  tons,  the  yearly  amount 
produced  would  be  50,000,000  tons,  which,  to  keep  within  bounds, 
would  be  worth  at  least  $500,000,000,  besides  the  profits  derived 
from  the  animals  in  milk,  flesh,  labor,  and  wool." 

Making  Sugar  or  Sirup  on  a  small  Scale. 

[Mr.  Olcott  gives  full  instructions  for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  on  a  large  and 
small  scale.     We  quote  only  his  directions  for  the  latter.] 

For  the  benefit  of  a  large  class  whose  facilities  or  inclinations 
have  induced  them  only  to  jDlant  a  small  patch  of  Chinese  sugar- 
cane by  way  of  experiment,  3- et  who,  nevertheless,  are  desirous  of 
making  a  trial  of  sirup  or  sugar  making  on  their  own  account,  I 
subjoin  the  following  description  of  a  process  by  which,  at  a  tri- 
fling expense,  both  sirup  and  sugar  may  be  manufactured  in  a 
small  way  for  family  use  by  any  farmer  or  householder  M'ho  has 
but  a  few  canes  growing  in  his  garden,  and  which  may  be  applied 
to  any  operation  on  from  five  to  twenty -five  gallons  of  juice.  Of 
course,  the  first  thing  is  to  permit  the  Sorgho  to  fully  ripen,  as  in 
that  condition  it  makes  the  best  sirup,  and  will  be  free  from  the 
grass/  flavor  complained  of  in  previous  experiments.  This  is 
known  by  the  seeds  becoming  black  and  hard.  When  fully  ripe, 
then,  with  a  corn-cutter,  a  large  carving-knife,  or,  what  is  better,  a 
small  hatchet,  cut  the  canes  off  close  to  the  roots,  strip  off  their 
leaves  as  far  as  the  joints  extend,  and  chop  off  the  rest  of  the  stalk, 
saving  the  seeds  for  future  planting  if  the  cane  proves  to  be  of 
good  quality ;  if  not,  give  them  to  the  chickens. 

The  next  thing  is  to  extract  the  juice  from  the  stalks  or  canes. 
This  must  be  done  by  pressing  them  between  rollers.  If  there  is 
a  cider-mill  on  the  premises,  it  will  be  all-sufficient.  Pass  them 
through  it  just  as  you  would  crush  apples,  catching  the  juice  in 
some  clean  vessel  with  as  few  chips  or  dirt  in  it  as  possible.  Now 
build  a  fireplace  with  stones,  or  set  up  two  forked  poles,  and  put 
another  across,  on  which  sling  your  pot,  which  may  be  of  sheet 
tin,  but  had  better  be  of  cast  iron.  Let  it  hold  say  ten  gallons. 
Get  a  small  tin  skimmer  at  a  tinsmith's  shop,  and  you  are  prepared 
to  commence  boiling;. 


416  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

Boiling  and  Clarifying. 

Every  thing  being  read}'-,  slack  a  tcacupful  of  lime,  mix  it  to 
the  consistency  of  cream,  and  set  it  by  for  use.  Light  your  fire, 
with  charcoal  if  you  have  it,  for  it  makes  no  smoke,  but  if  you 
have  none,  use  dry  kindling-wood.  If  possible,  so  arrange  your 
rude  fireplace  as  to  let  the  fire  reach  no  more  than  halfway  up 
the  sides  of  the  pot.  Put  five  or  six  gallons  of  juice  into  the  pot, 
set  it  on  the  fire,  and,  when  it  becomes  milk-warm,  add  one  large 
tablespoonful  of  the  cream  of  lime,  and  mix  it  thoroughly  through 
the  juice.  Now  take  the  whites  of  two  fresh  eggs,  beat  them  up 
with  a  teacupful  of  the  juice  from  the  pot,  and  when  thoroughly 
mixed,  pour  back,  and  stir  them  well  through  the  mass ;  bring  it  to 
the  boil  as  soon  as  possible ;  hut,  the  moment  you  see  the  first  sig7is  of 
boiling,  lift  the  jMt  off  the  fire,  set  it  on  the  ground,  and  let  it  remain 
quiet  for  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  You  will  have  perceived  that, 
after  adding  the  cream  of  lime  and  eggs,  as  the  simmering  went 
on,  a  thick  scum  began  to  rise ;  this  you  must  not  disturb,  but  al- 
low to  gather  on  the  top,  till  you  take  the  pot  from  the  fire  as  di- 
rected, and  allow  it  to  settle  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes.  At  the 
end  of  this  time  carefully  remove  the  scum,  and  you  will  find,  if 
3-0U  have  carefully  followed  these  directions,  that  the  juice  has  be- 
come clear  and  bright,  ready  to  boil  down  to  the  consistence  you 
require,  whether  of  sirup  or  sugar.  ■  Having  removed  the  scum, 
empty  the  contents  of  your  pot  into  some  clean  vessel,  which  have 
convenient.  Fill  up  your  pot  again  with  the  raw  juice,  and  pro- 
ceed as  before.  This  is  the  process  of  clarifying  or  defeccding,  and 
is  absolutely  necessary,  if  you  do  not  wish  to  have  a  dark,  dirty 
sirup,  tasting  of  cane-stalks,  and  almost  unfit  for  use. 

After  clarifying  and  skimming  the  second  potful  as  directed, 
set  it  back  on  the  fire,  and  boil  down  as  rapidly  as  possible.  As 
the  quantity  reduces  iDy  boiling,  keep  adding  fresh  juice  from  the 
first  clarification,  so  as  not  to  let  the  sirup  get  too  low  in  the  pot, 
or  it  will  get  burned.  If  any  scum  rises,  remove  it  with  3^our 
skimmer ;  and  by  following  these  directions,  you  can  not  fail  to 
make  good  sirup.  The  preceding  remarks  suppose  that  you  have 
only  one  jwt  to  operate  with ;  but  it  is  very  much  better  to  have 
two,  as  it  will  save  twenty  minutes'  time,  and  fuel,  with  each  ket- 
tle of  sirup  you  make ;  because,  as  I  have  shown,  you  have  to 
wait  twenty  minutes  after  taking  the  pot  from  the  fire  to  allow 
the  scum  to  rise  and  settle ;  so,  if  you  have  not  another  potful  of 
fresh  juice  to  put  on,  it  is  so  much  time  and  fire  wasted.  With 
two  pots  in  use,  you  replace  the  first  on  the  fire  as  soon  as  you 
take  the  other  off,  and  proceed  to  boil  down.  Should  you  wish  to 
make  a  very  extra  sirup  for  table  use,  get  a  flannel  bag,  of  almost 
any  shape,  sufficient  to  hold  two  or  three  gallons,  and  filter  the 
juice  through  it  after  you  have  skimmed  it;  then  boil  down  as 
before. 


H.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  THE  SOKGIIO  AND  IMPIIEE.  417 

It  is  a  matter  of  importance  with  those  who  have  never  boiled 
sirup  to  know  when  the  juice  is  boiled  enough.  There  being  noth- 
ing like  experiments,  I  would  advise  such  to  procure  a  cupful  of 
molasses,  heat  it,  and,  taking  up  a  small  quantity  on  a  spoon,  to 
watch  how  it  runs  down,  and  when  the  drops  come,  how  they . 
elongate  and  break  in  the  middle,  the  upper  half  springing  back 
with  a  jerk,  and  the  lower  forming  a  ball  and  falling  into  the  cup 
again.  Three  cents  in  money,  and  the  expenditure  of  five  min- 
utes' time  in  this  way,  will  go  farther  in  educating  the  eye  to  a 
good  judgment  than  an  elaborate  series  of  directions.  I  will  give 
one  other  method,  however,  of  knowing  when  sirup  is  cooked 
enough.  Dip  your  skimmer  into  the  boiling  liquid ;  take  it  out, 
and  allow  the  sirup  to  run  off  it ;  a  few  drops  will  remain  on  the 
edge,  falling  at  intervals.  If  these  break  with  a  long  string  be- 
tween, which  at  the  break  jerks  back  into  the  dipper  again,  and 
which,  when  taken  between  the  finger  and  thumb,  feels  like  mo- 
lasses^ it  is  fair  to  suppose  your  sirup  is  sufficiently  boiled,  and  you 
may  take  it  from  the  fire. 

Reducing  to  Sugar. 

For  making  sugar,  it  will  be  necessary  to  boil  this  same  sirup 
down  till  the  steam  escapes  from  it  in  little  pufis,  and  when  the 
skimmer  is  dipped  into  it,  the  falling  drops  break  short  and  fall 
solid.  These  simple  tests,  and  perhaps  a  few  failures,  will  enable 
one  to  make  good  sugar.  When  enough  has  been  boiled,  pour  it 
into  a  wooden  box  or  tub  to  cool  slowly,  standing  it  in  a  warm 
place.  Let  the  box  be  large  enough  to  allow  of  the  sugar  stand- 
ing only  1^  inches  deep ;  boil  another  lot,  and  pour  over  the  top 
of  the  first,  and  a  third  over  the  top  of  the  second ;  mix  them  all 
together,  and  allow  the  contents  to  cool.  If,  by  the  next  morn- 
ing, there  should  be  no  signs  of  erj^stals,  take  a  handful  of  raw 
sugar  and  stir  it  in ;  in  all  probability  it  will  start  crystallization  ; 
but  if  it  should  not  do  so  immediately,  do  not  despair,  for  it  may 
stand  for  an  entire  fortnight,  and  then  suddenly  strike  into  sugar. 

Mr.  Wraj/s  Patent. 

Leonard  Wkat,  of  London,  England.     Letters  Patent,  No.  17, 713,  Dated  June  30, 
1857.     Patented  in  Belgium,  June  20,  1854. 

To  all  7cJwm  it  may  concern : 

Be  it  known  unto  all  men,  that  I,  Leonard  Wray,  of  the  City  of 
London,  in  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
have  discovered  a  new  process  or  method  of  making  crystallized 
sugar,  sirup,  and  molasses  from  all  the  African  and  Chinese  vari- 
eties of  the  "Jw^^/iee"  or  '■'■Holcus  saccliaratus'^  of  Linnaeus,  often 
denominated  "  Sugar  millet"  "  Sorghum  saccharatum"  "  Sorgho 
sucre^"  etc.;  which  process  is  also  applicable  to  the  manufacture 
of  the  same  products  from  the  juice  of  the  maize,  broom-corn,  the 
sugar-maple,  etc. 

Dd 


418  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

The  process  constituting  my  said  invention  may  briefly  thus 
be  stated :  I  take  the  stalks  of  the  said  plants,  and  obtain  the  juice 
contained  in  them  by  any  ordinary  and  well-known  method.  This 
raw  saccharine  juice  I  then  treat  with  lime,  or  cream  of  lime,  un- 
til it  has  lost  all  trace  of  acidity,  and  even  becomes  sujEhciently  al- 
kaline to  aSect,  in  a  slight  degree,  turmeric  paper,  or  other  equally 
sensitive  test  paper,  when  I  at  once  remove  the  said  j  uice  into  a 
suitable  filtering  or  other  apparatus  for  separating  the  feculencies 
or  coagulated  matters  from  the  juice,  so  as  to  obtain  a  clear  bright 
liquor  or  juice,  without  having  subjected  it  to  any  heat  whatever. 
This  clear  bright  juice  or  liquor  I  then  put  into  a  suitable  vessel, 
and  apply  heat  until  the  temperature  rises  from  120  to  180  de- 
grees Fahrenheit,  when  I  treat  it  with  a  dilute  infusion  of  pow- 
dered nut-galls,  or  other  substance  containing  tannin,  neutralizing 
any  excess  of  tannin  that  may  have  been  accidentally  given,  or 
any  acid  which  may  have  become  liberated,  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  lime,  cream  of  lime,  or  lime  in  any  other  suitable  combina- 
tion ;  I  then  urge  the  heat  until  the  liquor  has  arrived  at  the  boil- 
ing point,  at  which  it  should  be  kept  for  a  few  moments,  when  the 
heat  is  withdrawn,  and  the  liquor  is  again  filtered  and  rendered 
clear. 

This  clear  defecated  liquor  is  next  evaporated,  and,  if  in  open 
pans,  the  scum  is  taken  off  as  it  rises,  and  the  evaporation  is  con- 
tinued, either  in  open  pans  or  in  any  low  temjjerature  apparatus, 
until  the  liquor  is  sufficiently  concentrated  to  permit  of  its  granu- 
lation or  crystallization  taking  effect  in  proper  receptacles,  into 
which  it  is  placed  for  that  purpose.  If  it  should  so  happen  that 
the  said  concentrated  juice  exhibits  a  disinclination  to  granulate 
or  form  crystals,  then  the  addition  of  a  few  ounces  of  well-grained 
dry  sugar  may  be  had  recourse  to,  which  will  immediately  cause 
a  granulation  of  the  concentrated  sirup.  It  must  be  well  under- 
stood that  I  make  use  of  charcoal  once^  tiuice^  or  thrice^  in  the  filtra- 
tion and  decolorization  of  the  juice  and  sirup;  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  I  do  not  use  it  at  all,  just  as  I  may  see  fit  and  expedient. 
When  the  new  sugar  is  properly  granulated,  its  molasses  is  sejDar- 
ated  from  it  by  the  usual  methods  now  employed. 

It  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  mere  idea  of  cold  fil- 
tration is  not  unknown,  because  numerous  attempts  have  from 
time  to  time  been  made  to  filter  the  raw  juice  of  the  sugar-cane 
before  applying  heat  thereto,  and  small  quantities  of  lime  have 
been  put  into  the  said  raw  juice  before  filtration,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  acidification  and  fermentation  of  the  juice  during  filtra- 
tion, and  before  it  could  reach  the  boilers  and  be  boiled  ;  but  my 
distinct  and  well-proved  method  is  that  of  adding  lime,  or  cream 
of  lime,  to  the  raw  juice  until  it  loses  all  traces  of  acidity,  and  it 
becomes  sufficiently  alkaline  to  affect  slightly  the  color  of  turmeric 
paper,  or  other  equally  sensitive  alkaline  test  paper.  The  chem- 
ical principle  involved  in  this  process  I  will  now  explain,  so  as  to 


II.  S.  OLCOTT  ON  TIIE  SORGUO  AND  LMPUEE.  41<j 

demonstrate  the  very  peculiar  and  distinctive  character  of  my 
treatment,  distinguishing  it,  therefore,  from  all  other  methods. 

The  juice,  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,l  have  always  found  to  be 
palpably  acid  ;  the  first  elTcct  of  the  lime,  therefore,  is  to  neutral- 
ize the  juice;  secondly,  to  regulate  (by  a  farther  addition  of  lime) 
as  large  a  quantity  of  the  feculencies  as  possible,  by  saturating  the 
acids  which  hold  them  dissolved  in  the  juice.  When  the  lime 
has  in  this  manner  combined  with  the  acids,  and  liberated  the 
feculencies,  whatever  lime  may  be  in  excess  tends  to  make  the 
juice  alkaline,  which  the  turmeric  paper  immediately  denotes, 
showing  the  necessity  of  instant  filtration,  which  yields  a  beauti- 
ful clean,  clear  bright  juice,  luitJiout  any  heat  liavimj  heen  used,  leav- 
ing in  the  filtered  juice,  besides  the  sugar  and  water,  only  a  little 
dextrine,  caseine,  and  saline  matter.  By  this  simple  process,  a  host 
of  troublesome  albuminous,  glutinous,  gummy,  waxy,  and  muci- 
laginous matters,  combined  under  the  general  head  oi  feculencies, 
are  got  rid  of  entirely,  before  they  can  act  injuriously  upon  the 
sugar  contained  in  the  juice,  which  they  infallibly  do  the  moment 
we  apply  heat  to  the  undefecated  mass.  Having  thus  obtained 
this  bright  raw  juice,  I  next  treat  it  in  the  manner  already  speci- 
fied, with  heat,  infusion  of  nut-galls  (or  other  analogous  substance 
containing  tannin),  and  cream  of  lime,  lime-water,  or  other  suitable 
combination  of  lime,  and  then  filter,  so  as  to  get  rid  of  the  dextrine 
and  caseine,  or  as  much  of  them  as  is  possible,  previous  to  subject- 
ing the  juice  to  continuous  heat. 

The  mere  idea  of  using  an  infusion  of  nut-galls  or  other  tan- 
nin substances  in  sugar-making  is  not  new,  inasmuch  as  these 
substances  have  been  recommended  and  even  been  tried  by  W. 
J.  Evans,  M.D.,  of  London,  in  whose  work,  the  "Sugar-Planter's 
Manual"  (18-i7),  it  may  be  found  at  page  101 ;  but  it  will  be  at 
once  observed  that  the  manner  of  employing  it  or  them,  as  laid 
down  therein  by  Doctor  Evans,  is  entirely  different  from  my 
own  method ;  for  he  applies  the  infusion  of  nut-galls  to  the  raio 
green  juice  in  the  clarifier,  just  as  it  comes  from  the  mill,  and 
j^revious  to  any  other  defecation  having  taken  place;  whereas 
I,  on  the  contrary,  first  defecate  the  cold  raw  green  juice  by  means 
of  lime,  cream  of  lime,  or  other  suitable  preparation  of  lime  (as 
hereinbefore  set  forth),  and  then  filter  the  juice  so  treated,  there- 
by getting  rid  of  the  great  mass  of  green  feculent  matter  con- 
tained in  it,  and  obtaining  a  clear,  bright,  and  almost  colorless 
juice  or  liquor,  previous  to  applying  any  heat  whatever,  and  pre- 
vious to  the  venturing  upon  any  application  of  the  infusion  of 
nut-galls  or  other  tannic  substances,  thus  forming  a  totally  dis- 
tinct method  of  using  and  applying  the  said  tannic  substances  to 
the  juice. 

My  process,  therefore,  consists,  yz?'5^,  in  the  cold  defecation  of  raw 
juice  by  means  of  lime,  or  other  suitable  combination  of  lime,  im- 
mediately followed  by  filtration,  as  hereinbefore  particularly  de- 


420  GRAPE  CULTURE  AND  WINE-MAKING. 

tailed ;  and,  secondhj,  the  treatment  of  the  clear  briglit  juice  or  liq- 
uor resulting  from  this  cold  defecation,  with  infusion  of  nut-galls 
or  other  suitable  tannic  substances,  aided  by  heat  in  suitable  ves- 
sels and  subsequent  filtration,  as  hereinbefore  described  ;  together 
making,  as  a  whole,  one  plain  consecutive  process,  which  I  have 
herein  fully  and  faithfully  explained  and  set  forth,  and  which 
has  never  been  suggested  nor  employed  by  any  one  else  before. 

These  comprise  the  whole  of  my  treatment;  and  I  submit  that 
they  constitute  an  entirely  distinct  and  new  process,  being  one 
whereby  excellent  crystallized  sugar  has  been,  and  can  always  be 
made  from  the  plants  I  have  before  named.  And  I  therefore 
claim  the  process  as  herein  set  forth,  and  desire  to  secure  the  same 
by  Letters  Patent. 


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5c  V  (^