ffi
bJD
GRASSES
AND
HOW TO GROW THEM
IN
NORTH AMERICA
By THOMAS SHAW
PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA .
AUTHOR OF
•FORAGE CROPS: OTHER, THAN
"THE ^TODY,;C5F DEEDS'" ,'
"SOILING CHOPS' AND THE SILO
"ANlMAI; BtfEEbltyG/ E7£ '%
ST. PAUL
WEBB PUBLISHING CO.
1910
COPYRIGHT. 1903, 1910
BY
WEBB PUBLISHING CO.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
In preparing this work, -the author desires to acknowl-
edge the assistance derived from "Grasses of North
America/' by W< J. Beal, "Forage Crops and Grasses,"
by Charles L. Flint, "Grasses and Clovers/7 by Henry
A. Dreer, "Farmers' Book of Grasses/7 by D. L. Phares,
and bulletins issued by several of the experiment sta-
tions in the United States and Canada, also by the Unit-
ed States Department of Agriculture.
For the sketches, the author is indebted to Prof. A.
M. Soule, Director Experiment Station, Knoxville,
Tenn., William T. Shaw, Corvallis, Oregon, and the
Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States De-
partment of Agriculture.
To all persons in the United States ivlw are inter-
ested in the growing of grasses or in grazing, this work
is most respectfully dedicated by the Author.
University of Minnesota, 1903.
334473
THE AUTHOR'S PKEEACE.
As is generally known a number of books have been
written on grasses in our own country and also in
lands beyond the sea. These furnish much valuable in-
formation with reference to grasses, but in all or near-
ly all of them, the tendency is to treat of grasses from
the standpoint of the botanist rather than from that of
the agriculturist. As far as the author has been able
to ascertain, no book has yet been written which takes
the economic grasses of this country in an orderly and
comprehensive succession, and points out to the farm-
er how to grow them. Much valuable information is
given in the agricultural press but it is more or less
fragmentary in character and in the nature of things
is soon lost to the view. Certain bulletins published
by the Agricultural Experiment Stations treat of grass-
es, but excellent as many of these are for the purpose
for which they were written, much of the information
which they give is only applicable to limited areas.
It will be the aim in this book to discuss all the grass-
es at present found in the United States and Canada
possessed of any considerable economic value, when
viewed from the standpoint of the needs of the stock-
man and the farmer. The discussion will include the
characteristics of each kind of grass, its adaptation to
climate and soil, place in the rotation, preparing the
vi PREFACE.
land for the seed and sowing the same, pasturing and
harvesting for hay and for seed and renewing the grass-
es where this may be practicable. It will also discuss
the questions of temporary, permanent and range pas-
tures respectively and that of meadows and making hay.
Although the clovers are largely grown for practically
the same economic uses as grasses, the discussion of the
former will be reserved for a separate volume.
In writing the book, the aim has been to prepare a
volume that would discriminate between the important
and the unimportant in economic grasses, and to present
information in an orderly and consecutive way with
reference to the former onlyj that would in some meas-
ure at least meet the needs of the farmer and the stu-
dent of agriculture.
University Experiment Station., St. Anthony Park,
Minn., 1903.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
CHAPTER I.
INTBODUCTOEY 1
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOB GROWING GBASSES 8
CHAPTER III.
TIMOTHY 49
CHAPTER IV.
KENTUCKY BLUE GBASS 79
CHAPTER V.
BERMUDA Ill
CHAPTER VI.
ORCHABD GRASS 131
CHAPTER VII.
RED TOP 147
CHAPTER VIII.
RUSSIAN BBOME 166
CHAPTER IX.
MEADOW FESCUE 190
CHAPTER X.
TALL OAT GEASS 206
CHAPTER XI.
MEADOW FOXTAIL 222
CHAPTER XII.
GBASSES USEFUL BUT DIFFICULT OF EBADICATION 232
CHAPTER XIII.
RYE GRASSES 265
CHAPTER XIV.
MISCELLANEOUS GRASSES 289
CHAPTER XV.
TEMPORARY PASTURES 335
CHAPTER XVI.
PERMANENT PASTURES 365
CHAPTER XVII.
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY 403
CHAPTER XVIII.
PASTURES ON THE RANGE 436
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Figure. Page.
1. Making Hay on the Tide Lands, near Fairhaven, Puget
Sound, Wash Frontispiece
2. Timothy 51
3. Kentucky Blue 81
4. Bermuda 114
5. Bermuda Turf 125
6. Orchard 133
7. Red Top 149
8. Russian Brome 167
9. Meadow Fescue 191
10. Tall Oat 207
11. Meadow Foxtail 223
12. Quack , 233
13. Johnson 248
14. Western Rye 265
15. Perennial Rye 274
16. Texas Blue 291
17. Rescue 310
18. Sheep's Fescue 315
19. Velvet 322
20. Permanent Meadow on Tennessee Experiment Farm.. 409
INDEX.
Page
Australian Saltbush, discussion of, 326-330
described 326
distribution 327
soils 328
place in the rotation 328
preparing the soil 328
sowing 329
pasturing 329
harvesting for hay :...* 330
securing seed 330
renewing 330
Bermuda, discussion of, 111-130
described 111-115
distribution 116, 117
soils 117
place in the rotation 118
preparing the soil 119
sowing or planting 120-122
pasturing 123
harvesting for hay 124
securing seed 127
renewing 128
eradicating 129
Blue Joint, discussion of, 331, 332
Blue Grama, discussion of, 333, 334
Carpet, discussion of, 318-321
described 318
- distribution . .319
soils 320
place in the rotation 320
preparing the soil '. 320
sowing or planting 320
pasturing 321
harvesting for hay 321
securing seed 321
renewing 321
Crab, discussion of, 260-264
described 260
x INDEX.
Page
distribution 261
soils 261
place in the rotation , 261
preparing the soil 261
sowing -. 261
pasturing 261
harvesting for hay 262
securing seed 263
methods of eradicating 263
Fowl Meadow, discussion of, 305-309
described 305
distribution 305
soils 306
place in the rotation 306
preparing the soil 307
sowing 307
pasturing 307
harvesting for hay 308
securing seed 308
renewing 309
General Principles for Growing Grasses, discussion of, . . . .8-48
described 8, 9
adaptation in grasses 10
place in the rotation 11, 12
preparing the soil 13-17
seasons for sowing 17-19
methods of sowing ~; 19-23
depth to bury seed 23-26
methods of covering 26-28
amounts of seed to sow 28-30
sowing with or without a nurse crop 30-35
sowing grasses alone or in combination 35-37
grazing of meadows 37-39
grazing of pastures. x. . ." 39-41
renovating meadows 41-43
renovating pastures . . . .' 43-46
grasses as soil improvers 46-48
Italian Rye, discussion of, 281-288
described \ 281, 282
distribution 283
soils 284
preparing the soil 285
sowing • • • • 285
pasturing 286
harvesting for hay 288
securing seed 287
renewing 287
INDEX. xi
Page.
Johnson, discussion of, 248-260
described 248-250
distribution 250'
soils 251
place in the rotation 252
sowing or planting 253
pasturing 254
harvesting for hay 255
securing seed 256
renewing 257
eradicating 257, 258
value of 259
Kentucky Blue, discussion of, 79-110
described 79-83
distribution 83-85
soils 86-88
place in the rotation 89
preparing the soil 90, 91
sowing 92-96
pasturing 97-99
harvesting for hay 100, 101
securing seed 101, 103
renewing 104-108
blue grass in lawns 109, 110
Meadow Fescue, discussion of, 190-205
described 190-194
distribution 194-197
soils 197
place in the rotation 198
preparing the soil 199
sowing * 199-202
pasturing 202
harvesting for hay 203
securing seed 204
renewing 204
Meadow Foxtail, discussion of, 222-231
described 222
distribution 225, 226
soils 227
place in the rotation 227
preparing the soil ' 228
sowing 228, 229
pasturing 230
harvesting for hay 230
securing seed 231
renewing 231
Meadows and Making Hay, discussion of, 403-435
described 403, 404
xil INDEX,
t
Page.
Hay crops for states and provinces 404
Northeastern States .*. 405-407
Southeastern States 407-409
Canadian Northwest 409
Upper Mississippi Basin 410-412
Irrigated Western Valleys 412
West of the Cascades 413-417
Miscellaneous discussions upon* 417-435
preparing the soil 417, 418
sowing 419
harvesting 420-422
curing hay 422-428
storing hay , 428-431
grazing 431-433
fertilizing and renewing 433-435
Orchard, discussion of, 131-146
described 131, 132
distribution 135, 136
soils 136
place in the rotation 137
preparing the soil 138
sowing 139-141
pasturing 141, 142
harvesting for hay 143
securing seed 144, 145
renewing 146
Perennial Rye, discussion of, 273-281
described 273-276
distribution ' 276, 277
soils 278
place in the rotation 278
preparing the soil 278
sowing 279
pasturing 280
harvesting for hay 280
securing seed 280
renewing 281
Permanent Pastures, discussion of, 365-402
described 365, 366
Different classes of 366-369
indigenous 367
introduced 367
indigenous and introduced 368
duration of 368
Adaptation to various soils 369-373
upland 369
slough lands 370
sandy lands 371
INDEX. xiii
Page.
dry areas 371
wet soils 372
growing in shade 372
growing in marshes 373
States and Provinces 373-384
Northeastern States 373-376
Southeastern States 376-378
Canadian Northwest 378
Upper Mississippi Basin 379-381
Semi-arid Belt 381
Irrigated Western Valleys. 383
Miscellaneous discussions upon 384-402
sowing 385-389
grazing 389-392
fertilizing and renewing 392-399
transforming brush lands 395-398
transforming native prairie 398
shifting lands 399-401
renewing 401, 4Q2
Quack, discussion of, 232-248
described 232-236
distribution . 237
soils 238
place in rotation •. 238
preparing the soil 239
sowing 239-240
pasturing 241
harvesting for hay 241
securing seed 242
renewing 242
eradicating 245-247
observations 247
Range Pastures, discussion of, 436-457
range states 436
range country described 436-438
soils 441
climate - 441, 442
grazing 443
carrying capacity 444
range country in Canada 444
Grasses failing 445-448
extent of 446
causes of 446-448
Renewing grasses 449, 450
practicability of 449
impracticability of 449
necessary modifications 450
West of Cascades 383
xiT INDEX.
Page
Difficulties of renewing 450-454
fencing 451
sowing seed 452
substitution 452-454
Future of 454-457
protection of 455
rearing stock 455
disposing of stock 455
fattening stock ."" 456
Red Top, discussion of, 147-165
described 147-151
distribution 151-153
soils 153
place in the rotation 154
preparing the soil 155
sowing 155-159
pasturing 159, 160
harvesting for hay 161
securing seed 162, 163
renewing 164
binding soils : 165
Rescue, discussion of, ; . . 309-313
described 309
distribution 310
soils .310
place in the rotation 310
preparing the soil 311
sowing 311
pasturing 311
harvesting for hay 312
securing seed 312
renewing 312
Rough Stalked Meadow, discussion of, 301-304
described 301
distribution 302
soils 302
place in the rotation . . 303
preparing the soil. 303
sowing 303
pasturing 304
harvesting for hay 304
securing seed 304
renewing 304
Russian Brome, discussion of, 166-189
described 166-170
distribution 170-173
soils : 173
place in the rotation .174-176
INDEX. XV
Page
preparing the soil 177, 178
sowing 179-182
pasturing 183
harvesting for hay 184
securing seed 185-187
renewing 188
destroying 189
Sheep's Fescue, discussion of, 313-318
described 313
distribution 314
place in the rotation 314
preparing the soil : . . . . 314
sowing 317
pasturing 317
harvesting for hay 317
securing seed 317
renewing 318
lawns 318
Tall Oat, discussion of, 206-221
described 206-210
distribution 210-212
soils 212
place in the rotation 213
preparing the soil 214
sowing 215-217
pasturing 217
harvesting for hay 218
securing seed 219
renewing • 220
Texas Blue, discussion of, 297-301
described '. 297, 298
distribution 298
soils 299
preparing the soil 299
sowing or planting 299
pasturing , 300
harvesting for hay 301
securing seed 301
renewing , 301
Temporary pastures, discussion of, 335-364
described 335, 336
Adaptation to various conditions ,337-342
upland pastures ;. .337
slough lands 338
sandy lands 339
dry areas , 339
wet soils 340
growing in shade . .341
xvi INDEX.
Page
States and Provinces 342-353
Northeastern States 342-344
Southeastern States 344-346
Canadian Northwest 346
Upper Mississippi Basin 347
Semi-arid Belt 348
Irrigated Western Valleys 349, 350
West of the Cascades 351
Pastures other than grasses and clover 352
Miscellaneous discussions upon 353-364
sowing 353-355
grazing 356, 357
fertilizing and renewing 358-360
influence on succeeding crops 361-364
Timothy, discussion of, — 49-78
described 49-53
distribution 54
soils 55, 56
place in the rotation : 57
preparing the soil 58, 59
sowing 60-69
pasturing 70, 71
harvesting for hay 72-74
securing seed Y5-77
renewing 77, 78
Velvet, discussion of, 322-326
described 322
distribution 323
place in the rotation 324
preparing the soil 324
sowing 324
pasturing 325
harvesting for hay. 325
securing seed 326
renewing 326
Western Rye, discussion of, ' 265-273
described 265-267
distribution 267, 268
soils 269
preparing the soil -. . . . 269
sowing 270
pasturing 271
harvesting for hay 272
pscuring seed 272
renewing 272
Wiraf, discussion of, 289-297
described 289 293
distribution 293
INDEX. xvii
Page
soils 293
place in the rotation 293
preparing the soil 294
sowing 295
pasturing 295
harvesting 295
securing seed 296
renewing 296
CHAPTEE I.
INTRODUCTORY
The grass crop of the United States is unquestionably
its most valuable crop and so it will continue through
all time. True, it is assigned the second place in
the United States Census Returns of Agricultural Sta-
tistics for 1899. Corn is given the first rank but these
reports do not take into account the value of the pasture
produced by grasses, nor do they include the ameliorat-
ing and renovating influence which these exert upon the
soil, and, consequently, upon the production of other
crops. The influence referred to relates to the mainte-
nance of the supply of humus in the soil and the effect
which the presence of the same exerts upon aeration,
friability, moisture and available fertility. It is at least
an open question if the influence, which the grass thus
exerts on subsequent production in other crops, is not
as valuable in the aggregate in short rotations as the
grass crop itself. It is an open question, therefore, as
to whether grass in its death does not give to the agri-
culturist a return equal to that given during its life.
So necessary is the grass crop to the maintenance of
an equilibrium in cultivated soils, that, in its prolonged
absence, it is not possible to maintain the same in cul-
tivated soils. Commercial fertilizers may be made to
maintain an equilibrium in fertility, but they do not
2 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
materially influence the mechanical condition of the soil,
which exerts an influence, on production, not second in
importance to fertility. To maintain such a condition,
grasses must be grown in the ordinary processes of till-
age. They are the balm which soothes the wound given
to Mother Earth by the ploughshare and other imple-.
ments used in tillage.
The question of grass production, therefore, is of
supreme importance to the farmer and because it is, any
practical information bearing upon the growth of grass-
es should merit his attention.
Grasses But Little Known. — Notwithstanding the
great value of grasses to the farmer, it would probably
be correct to say, that he knows less about them and
the best modes of growing them than about any other
crop or class of crops as are commonly grown on the
farm; nor is he altogether to blame for such lack of
knowledge. The farmers of this continent have not
had access to any book which deals with the question
of growing grasses, as applicable to all parts of the
United States and Canada. They have had access to
only such avenues of information bearing upon this
question, as have come from their own personal expe-
rience, that of their neighbors, or from the desultory
and inadequate discussion of these questions in the ag-
ricultural press.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the average tiller
of the soils knows about only a few grasses ; those that
are cultivated in his locality. Including clovers, these
are probably less in number than half a dozen. In
regard to some of these, though thoy have grown upon
INTRODUCTORY. 3
his land during all the years that he has tilled the
same, he has never learned the extent of the service, they
may be made to render him by stimulating them to high-
er production. Such, for instance is blue grass (Poa
pratensis) abused by overgrazing and neglected by be-
ing allowed to grow unfertilized; like Topsy in the
marvellous story, they just grow because they are al-
lowed to grow. The knowledge of these truths has
moved the author to write this book and if it brings any
added light to those who desire the same, one purpose
for which it has been written will have been well served.
Students of the agricultural colleges, as well as farm-
ers, labor at a disadvantage with reference to the ques-
tion of grasses. They pursue their studies in the ab-
sence of a text book which tells how to grow them.
When this is said, it must not be interpreted in the
slightest degree as reflecting on the excellent books that
have been written in America on the grass question;
these were written for a different purpose. A second
purpose in writing this book, therefore, is to put, in the
hands of the agricultural student, a book that will ren-
der some assistance to him in the study of this involved
and difficult problem.
Grasses Worthy of Cultivation. — The dearth of infor-
mation with reference to growing the more valuable
grasses, that are being cultivated, or that are susceptible
to profitable cultivation, is all the more surprising when
these are considered. In this book the aim has been
to discuss all the varieties that are considered really
worthy of cultivation on lands that are tilled in the
Urn tori States and those not yet cultivated but which
4 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
give promise of sufficient value when cultivated; the
former of these number only 24 and the latter 3. This
fact seems incredible when it is called to mind that the
number of the species. of grasses in the world runs into
the thousands and that in some of the individual states
it runs into the hundreds. It is well, probably, that
the number of the useful grasses is not greater in the
meantime, since the list would seem to include enough
to meet the present needs of the agriculturist. The
smaller the number of grasses that suffice to meet those
needs, the easier it is to acquire a knowledge of the
best methods of growing them. This does not imply,
however, that the necessities of the agriculturist will
not, in the future, call for an enlarged list of varieties.
When that time comes, the wisdom of the agricultural
scientists will be found equal to the occasion, either
in evolving new varieties or in improving older ones.
In the meantime, the fact cannot be gainsaid, that, to
the practical agriculturist, knowledge pertaining to
the valuable grasses of sufficient value to justify grow-
ing them under cultivation, is of far greater account
than knowledge pertaining to grasses, the low value
of which, will not warrant such cultivation ; hence, the
restriction of the present discussion to the former.
Grasses of Highest Value. — The very limited num-
ber of grasses, that are of highest economic value un-
der cultivation, is even more surprising than the num-
ber which may be profitably cultivated. But three va-
rieties of the entire number are worthy of a place in
the front rank. These are timothy (Phleum pratense),
king of the hay grasses on the American vonti~
INTRODUCTORY. 5
ucnt; Kentucky blue grass (Poo, prate iisis), king
among the pasture grasses of the northern states and
Canada, and Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylori), king
among the pasture grasses of the south. But six va-
rieties would seem worthy of a place in second rank.
These are orchard grass (Dactylus glomerata), redtop
(Agrostis vulgaris), Russian brome (Bromus mermis),
meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), tall oat grass (Are-
henatJierum avenaceum), and meadow foxtail (Alope-
curus pratensis}. The claim of meadow foxtail to a
place among these six may be disputed but leaving it.
out it would seem correct to say that the present needs
of the agriculturist in the lines of hay and pasture
could be pretty well met by these eight grasses. The
other grasses discussed are all possessed of considerable
value, but in the meantime would not seem worthy of
being placed higher than in the third rank in the little
array of grasses that merit the attention of the tillers
of the soil under American conditions.
Plan of the Discussion. — The subject opens with the
discussion in Chapter II of the General Principles
which govern the Growing of Grasses. This was deemed
necessary because of the desire to give prominence to
the question of growth, rather than to that which re-
lated to structure and classification of the grasses. In
the judgment of the author, this chapter is the key to
the discussion and therefore should be given more care-
ful thought by the reader than any other chapter in the
book.
Chapters III to XI inclusive treat of the nine grasses
that would seem to be possessed of highest economic
6 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
value among the grasses at present cultivated in the
United States. They may be considered, therefore, as
the major grasses. It is the aim in the discussion to
take these in the order of relative importance; whether
they have been so placed, may justly be regarded as open
to dispute because of the difficulties to be encountered
in making such a comparison. Though correctly placed
at the present time, the order of relative importance may
change, as public attention becomes more and more cen-
tered upon their relative adaptation and properties in
the future. It may be questioned as to whether meadow
foxtail is deserving of the attention given to it and yet
it has not only been extensively cultivated in north-
western Europe but is there highly prized. There
would seem to be no good reasons why it should not
render similar service in certain areas of this country,
when more attention comes to be given to the growth
of permanent pastures, for which it is more especially
adapted.
Chapters XII to XIV discuss what may be consid-
ered the minor grasses worthy of cultivation. Some of
these are of much economic importance, as, for instance,
western rye grass (Agropygrum tenerum), but distri-
bution of all, or nearly all, of them is more sectional
than is that of the major grasses. Chapter XII dis-
cusses grasses highly useful in producing food for ani-
mals but which are so difficult of eradication that it
would seem unwise ever to sow them on lands that -aro
again to be cultivated. It was thought best, however,
to include them since because of the extreme difficulty
in eradicating them, it is all the more important that
INTRODUCTORY. 7
their habits of growth should be well understood. Chap-
ter XIII considers Rye Grasses and probably includes
all of this family, at present, worthy of cultivatiOD
under American conditions. In Chapter XIV various
grasses are considered of still less economic importance
to the whole country. It may even be questioned as to
whether some of these are worthy of cultivation, as for
instance, velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) but it will be
found that each of them has a useful mission in some
locality and under some conditions.
Chapter XV discusses Temporary Pastures ; Chapter
XVI, Permanent Pastures; Chapter XVII, Meadows
and Making Hay, and Chapter XVIII, Pastures on the
Range. The discussion of each of these phases of the
grass question is of necessity brief, too brief probably
to be sufficiently comprehensive and succinct, but the
course adopted seemed necessary to avoid unduly swell-
ing the contents of the volume.
CHAPTER II.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHICH APPLY TO THE GROWING
OF GRASSES.
In discussing the question of grasses and how to grow
them it is quite impossible to lay down any hard and
fast rules which will be applicable in all instances and
without variation, owing to the differences in method
called for by a difference in the conditions which re-
late to growth. This difference may arise from varia-
tions in soils, in climates, in the rotations practiced,
and also from various other causes, including the va-
rious uses for which they are grown. To illustrate : —
while it may be advantageous to bury grass seeds to a
considerable depth in certain soils, it may be equally
advantageous to sow them on the surface in other soils.
While the best results may be obtained from sowing some
grasses in the spring in certain climates, to secure equal
results in certain other climates, it would be necessary
to sow them in the fall. Again, while in some instances
a stand of certain grasses can only be obtained after
a crop which puts humus in the soil, under other con-
ditions an equally good stand may be obtained by sow-
ing them, almost anywhere in the rotation, and while
it may be eminently proper to sow certain grasses with
but scant thickness, to grow seed crops it may be equally
proper to sow them quite thickly when the object is
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 9
to provide pasture for sheep. Differences of treatment
equally striking also arise in the laying down of perma-
nent pastures and in the management of the same. In
-some localities the best permanent pastures consist of
a single grass. In -others, the pastures are improved
as the number of the properly selected grasses grown in
them is increased.
The fact remains, nevertheless, that there are certain
principles which will be found so frequently applicable
when applied to the growth of grasses as to render very
substantial aid to those concerned in growing them when
intelligently applied. Because of this the attempt to
formulate these, or at least the chief of them, and to
emphasize certain facts of general application, is not
only justifiable but it is in a sense a necessity. It is
thus very evident that those who grow grasses intelli-
gently must always stand upon the watch tower of care-
ful consideration while thus engaged.
The more important of the principles which relate
to the growing of grasses are found in such phases of
the question as the following: — viz., Adaption; place
for them in the rotation; preparing the soil to receive
them; seasons for sowing; methods of sowing; depth
to bury the seed ; methods of covering ; amounts of seed
to sow; sowing with or without a nurse crop; sowing
alone or in combinations; for hay or for pasture; the
grazing of meadows ; the grazing of pastures ; renovating
meadows ; renovating pastures, and the discussion of the
question of grasses as soil improvers. These will now
be discussed in the order named. But before doing so
ti may be well to emphasize the fact, that these prin-
10 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ciples are general rather than specific in their applica-
tion. They do not apply equally to the growth of all
the different varieties, nor do they apply equally to the
growing of the same variety in all sections of the coun-
try.
Adaptation in Grasses. — In growing grasses it would
not be easily possible to give too much consideration to
the question of adaptation. It is not wise to attempt
to grow grasses for practical uses in localities not rea-
sonably well adapted to their growth, howsoever valuable
they be in themselves or as a food for live stock. At
the present time, however, the adaptation of several va-
rieties of even the more valuable of the grasses is not
fully known in this country. The place for experiment,
therefore, with a view to throw further light on these
is a very wide one, nor should conclusions be reached
too quickly in regard to such adaptation in any state
or province. Adaptation may be sectional because of
soil peculiarities and for other reasons. In Southwest-
ern Minnesota, for instance, the adaptation for blue
grass is only quite ordinary, whereas in several counties
in the northeastern part of the same state it is extraordi-
nary.
When determining which grasses shall be grown in
any locality, the aim should be to give the preference to
those useful varieties which have the highest general
adaptation for that particular locality. For instance,
Russian brome grass (Bromus inermis) has high adapta-
tion for the conditions that generally prevail over the
northwestern states and also the northwestern provinces
of Canada, while its general adaption to the southern
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 11
states is much lower. Consequently, this grass should
be given a much more prominent place in the states
and provinces first named. Because of this difference
in adaptation it may be eminently proper in certain in-
stances to give the right of way in production to cer-
tain grasses that are intrinsically much inferior to
others, could they be grown. In this fact the justifica-
tion is found for growing under some conditions such
varieties as couch grass (Agropyrum repens), Johnson
grass (Sorghum lialapenso) and Bermuda grass (Cyno-
don dactylon), all of which are weed pests of the most
perplexing type, when allowed to grow under other con-
ditions. It is not wise to attempt to grow grasses to
any considerable extent in any locality for which their
adaptation is lower than what may be considered as nor-
mal for them. Nor should valuable time and labor be
thrown away in the attempt to grow a large variety
of grasses in permanent pastures where the conditions
only favor the growth of a few varieties.
Place in the Rotation. — The aim should be to sow
grasses on clean ground. They should, therefore, as a
rule, be sown after a cleaning crop, that is to say, after
such crops as are cultivated while they are growing or
after a summer-fallow. These crops include corn, sor-
ghum, the non-saccharine sorghums, potatoes, field roots,
rape, tobacco and cotton. When thus sown for hay, a
crop is secured that is usually entirely free, or, in the
main, free from extraneous products which would lessen
the value for feeding at home and to a still greater de-
gree for exposing for sale on the market. When thus
sown for pasture, the pastures will be clean or meas-
12 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
urably so. When these are weedy when first laid down,
the tendency is that they shall become more so as they
become older, much depending of course upon the kind
or kinds of the weeds that infest them, and when weeds
increase in them they cannot be got rid of without great
labor. The tendency with biennial and perennial weeds
is to increase, especially the latter. But there are some
kinds of weeds more commonly of the annual class, and
which are eaten by live stock, that decrease in pastures.
Such are wild oats. And some kinds of grasses crowd
out not a few of the forms of weed life. Such are
Kentucky blue grass (Poa pratensis) and Russian brome
(Bromus inermis). Because of this power, there may
be instances in which these grasses can be sown on
weedy ground.
When grasses thus follow cultivated crops, if sown
on ground that has been prepared to receive the seed
by stirring the surface and pulverizing without having
ploughed it, the further advantage follows: viz., that
the land will be firm and consequently would lose less
by surface evaporation than if it had been prepared in
the ordinary way. This, in dry areas, is a matter of
much importance. When such lands are not ploughed
after the removal of the crop, the further advantage fol-
lows, that the weed seeds in the lower sections of the
cultivated soil are brought to the surface. In many in-
stances these will perish before the grass crop will be
broken up again.
Some grasses may follow immediately on the removal
of forests, as soon as the brush and valueless parts
of the trees have been burned. Kentucky blue grass
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 13
(Poa praiensis) is pre-eminently adapted to such a use,
as it will soon subdue the growth of extraneous and com-
paratively useless products that once spring up as it were
spontaneously on such lands. Other grasses may be
sown in certain areas of the unbroken prairie for the
purpose of crowding out and supplanting the original
grasses which grew upon them. Such is Russian brome
(Bromus inermis), but this grass will not crowd out
and supplant all kinds of prairie grass or even the same
kind in all places.
It is proper to follow grasses with such crops as
luxuriate in soils plentifully supplied with humus.
Such are corn, potatoes, flax and rape. Where the sod
is old, that is where grass has grown for several succes-
sive years, and is then broken up, it, may be advanta-
geous to grow on it some such crop as peas or vetches
to aid in subduing the sod, that is, in hastening its de-
cay. Oats are also capable of growing in good form
after nearly all kinds of grass, as they are a strong feed-
ing plant. It is common and usually preferable to de-
fer the sowing of the other small grains, as wheat and
barley, until the following year.
Preparing the Soil. — When preparing the soil for
any kind of grass the aim should be to secure a moist,
firm and finely pulverized seed bed. These requisites
would seem to be more important relatively than depth
of tillage, since many kinds of grass when once started,
have much power to send their roots and rootlets down
into the soil below the line to which cultivation is ordi-
narily carried.
Moisture in the soil is of course necessary to secure
14 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
germination and unchecked growth after the plants have
started. It is secured under dry conditions by plough-
ing the soil or disking it some time previous to the sow-
ing of the seed and then by harrowing it at intervals
to form and preserve what may be termed a dust mulch
to prevent the escape of subterranean moisture through
capillary action. This power to retain moisture also
increases with the increase in the proportion of humus,
that is of decaying or decayed vegetable matter in the
soil. The abundant presence of this element is not so
necessary to the successful growth of grasses as to that
of the small grains, since one object in growing grasses
in the rotation is to increase the humus in the soil.
Nevertheless, up to a certain limit, the presence of
humus is quite helpful to the growth of these also.
Firmness in the soil is secured by having a consider-
able interval between the ploughing of the soil or the
first disking of the same, and the sowing of the seed.
It is further aided by harrowing, rolling and rainfall.
It is beneficial, since it tends to exclude an excess of air
in the soil near the surface, and since it also conduces
to resistance to the influences that tend to promote the
escape of moisture by surface evaporation. It also ren-
ders soils which are liable to heave less susceptible to
the action of frost. This condition, therefore, is of
much consequence with such soils when grass seeds are
sown upon them in the autumn. With light spongy
soils, a firm condition is even more important in the
spring, and especially under conditions when moisture
may be more or less lacking. An excess of firmness
in certain heavy soils may be induced by excessive rain-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 15
fall, hence, in certain areas, to avoid such a possibility
the ground should not be prepared long before the
grasses are sown. As a rule, in dry climates that degree
of firmness in the soil that will best promote the growth
of grasses will increase up to a certain limit with the
increase in the interval between the breaking up of the
soil with the plough or disk, and the sowing of the seed.
Conversely, when rainfall is abundant, excessive firm-
ness will be hindered by the shortening of such a period.
The character of the soil of course has an important
bearing on the length of the preparatory period, when
growing such grasses, that will put the soil in the best
condition to receive them.
Under ordinary conditions, it would not be easy to
over-estimate the value of fine pulverization in the
seed bed on which grasses are to be sown. Its value
arises from excluding an excess of air from the soil
near the surface when the plants begin to grow, in
reducing evaporation, in securing a more abundant
germination in the seeds sown, and in furnishing
a feeding ground which the tender rootlets can easily
penetrate as they push out. This condition is likely to
be promoted by the influences that tend to produce moist-
ness and firmness in the soil. The influence of frost
on fall ploughed lands is specially helpful in securing
a fine pulverization. Some lands have it naturally in
a far greater degree than others, hence, in those which
have, the effort to secure such pulverization is not much
necessary on the part of the husbandman. On all soils
stiff in texture, the fineness of the seed-bed will be pro-
portionate to the labor put upon it when preparing them
16 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
as by using on them the harrow and the roller. The
roller will be found specially helpful when laying down
soils to grass. Before they are sown, it very greatly
aids in securing a fine pulverization. After they are
sown it firms the surface soil, pressing it around the
seeds and thereby hastening germination. But when
grass seeds are sown in the autumn on heavy soils and
in rainy climates, it would be easily possible to have the
pulverization so fine, that impaction of the soil to an
injurious extent would follow. Grasses like other plants
grow luxuriantly in proportion as the elements of plant
food are readily available and abundant in the soil,
hence, it is quite possible to so reduce the available fer-
tility in a soil through excessive cropping, that on these
a stand of grass cannot be secured unless they are first
enriched. ~No fertilizer that can be applied under these
conditions will equal farmyard manure, since it yields
up the elements of plant food in it but gradually, hence,
the nitrogen in the same is not leeched out of the soil
so readily as when applied in the form of commercial
fertilizers. It also improves the mechanical condition
of the land. In dry climates, when buried in the soil,
it should, when fresh, be applied to the crop preceding
grass, but its presence in the soil in a form so bulky
should liberate moisture unduly, through the resistance
which it OiTers to the influences that promote impaction,
but, when reduced, it may be applied though in but mod-
erate quantities, just before the preparation of the land
for the crop, or while it is being so prepared. Farm-
yard manure has in it of course all the essential elements
required to promote growth in grasses.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 17
If nitrogen is needed in the form of commercial fer-
tilizers, it is better to apply it on the surface after sow-
ing the seed, and after the plants have begun to grow
rather than before. If applied sooner there ib the haz-
ard that it would be washed down into the soil and sub-
soil before the grass roots could take it up, and this haz-
ard is proportionate to the amount of the rainfall at such
a time. It may be applied as nitrate of soda or sulphate
of ammonia or in various other forms. When phosphor-
ic acid is wanted, it may be furnished in the form of
mineral phosphate, ground bone or basic slag, and ap-
plied while preparing the soil, more especially when
about to harrow it not long prior to the sowing of the
seed. Potash may be applied in the sulphate or muriate
form, as Kainit, or as wood ashes, and like phosphoric
acid, it may be profitably incorporated in the soil near
its surface.
Seasons for Sowing. — Mature teaches some lessons
with reference to the seasons at which seeds may be
sown that may be studied with profit. She usually scat-
ters the seeds of grasses in the autumn. Sometimes
sprouting follows at once, and when it does the young-
plants become strong before the arrival of winter. But
the seeds thus sown do not always sprout in the autumn,
owing to want of moisture. They are, however, in
that condition which promotes sprouting in the early
spring, as soon as plant growth begins, because of the
abundance of the moisture that is pretty certain to be
present at that season. It follows, therefore, that the
best time to sow the hardy varieties of grasses is in the
autumn. But, when thus sown, sufficient time should
Grasses — 2.
lg GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
be given to the young plants to become firmly rooted
before the arrival of winter. When they cannot be
sown thus early, it is usually better to defer sowing until
just before the ground freezes in the late autumn, in
localities where the winters are stern. Where they are
open, there may be hazard in sowing thus late, as, dur-
ing mild spells, the seeds may sprout and perish later,
through heaving of the soil, or from other rauses. But
some varieties of grasses are so tender as to render advis-
able the sowing of these only in the spring.
Notwithstanding that a good catch of the hardy va-
riety of grasses is more assured when they are sown in
the early autumn, it may not always be desirable to
sow them then, for various reasons. The nurse crops
with which they are commonly sown may not be needed,
the weather may be uncompromisingly dry, and the op-
portunity may not be present for putting the ground
in that condition which is necessary to render growth
reasonably assured. When these grasses cannot be sown
in the autumn, the aim should be to sow them in the
early spring, as early as the conditions will admit of
sowing them. The varieties are but few indeed that
are so tender that they will take injury from the se-
verity of the spring weather. When sown early, they
become firmly rooted before the dry weather of summer
follows, and so can better withstand it. Hence it is
that grasses are frequently sown with advantage on the
lingering snows of winter or on the early snows of
spring. When sown on the undeparted snows of win-
ter, there is some hazard that a portion of the seed, at
least, may be carried away by the rapid melting of the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 19
snows, as, when warm rains hasten the departure of
these. At other times they are profitably sown quite
as early or nearly so, on ground in a honeycombed con-
dition. But where the conditions are such that nature
is not likely to provide a sufficient covering for the so- ds
after they have been sown, the sowing should be deferred
until the ground can be covered with che harrow.
The late sowing of grasses in the spring may succeed
in climates which have considerable rainfall in the sum-
mer, but it will not be successful in those opposite in
character. The most hazardous seasons in which grasses
can be sown are the late spring and the early summer.
Methods of Sowing. — Grasses are usually sown by
hand, by machines run by hand, or by the seed drill.
Which of these methods of sowing will be preferable will
depend upon circumstances. Hand sowing can be done
under some conditions in which neither the machines
run by hand nor those run by horses can be used, and
because of this, the necessity for more or less of hand
sowing will never cease to exist.
Sowing by hand is usually a necessity when the seed is
sown while the snow is yet on the ground, or the ground
is in such a condition that hand machines may not be
used on it. It may also be practiced when sowing cannot
be done by the machines referred to from want of adap-
tation in these for sowing certain of the larger kinds of
seeds. The sowing of grasses by hand is the most diffi-
cult kind of hand sowing. To do it well usually re-
quires not a little practice, backed up by dexterity in
acquiring a proper grip of the seed between the thumb
and two adjacent fingers and an easy and correct swing
20 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
of the hand. Because of the lightness of the seeds it
is not easy to secure evenness of cast in the same. The
difficulty in this respect may arise from the improper
character of the swing of the hand or from the in-
fluence of the wind on the seed while falling or from
both causes. Because of the influence of wind a calm
time should he preferred for the sowing of grass seeds
by hand and the lighter the seeds the calmer should be
the time chosen. But it is possible to sow some of the
heavier of the grass seeds by hand, while more or less
wind is blowing, if the sower takes advantage of the
direction of the wind to assist in carrying the seed.
More commonly the hand sower uses but one hand
when sowing grass seeds. When one cast has been sown
across a field he turns around, and on the return trip
makes the seed overlap more or less the cast sown on the
forward trip. Those who can sow with both hands make
the two casts at one trip, and consequently sow twice
the area in a given time. When both hands are used
in sowing, the seed is carried in a sheet, *or pack, or
box, in front of the sower and suspended from the shoul-
ders. Such a sowing sheet or sack is easily improvised.
WThen the ground has been ploughed in ridges of more
or less width, hand sowing is facilitated, as the sower
has the furrows to guide him in walking straight. When
these are but twelve feet distant, one ridge can be sown
during each forward or return trip by the person who
sows with both hands. In other words double hand
sowing will cover a strip of about twelve feet at one
time. Where no ridges are made the sower will prob-
ably find it necessary to set up stakes to guide him as
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 21
to the direction to take, but following the marks made
by the grain drill ma}7 sometimes be found a sufficient
guide.
The hand machine most in favor is usually spoken of
as the "wheelbarrow seed sower/' from the fact that the
distributor of the seed is wheeled over the ground on
a light hand barrow. The distributor usually sows
about 12 feet in width each time it passes along or across
the field, but some are made to sow a wider area. This
form of hand machine may be used when considerable
wind is blowing, as, when the seed falls from the same,
it has not far to fall, until it reaches the ground. It
sows seed evenly, may be used at any time during the
day, and can be managed by a person not skilled in
hand sowing, but it cannot be used with advantage
when the soil is in that condition that would cause it
to cling to the wheel or to the feet of the sower in any
considerable quantities. Other kinds of hand sowers
have been used, but none of these answer the purpose
better or even as well as .the hand sower referred to.
However, hand machines which are strapped to the
shoulder and are operated by a crank, find favor with
not a few, and they are certainly very suitable for scat-
tering seed over lands encumbered by "brush," that is
by a growth of young trees and bushes.
When grass seeds are sown with the grain drill they
are more commonly sown by means of what is termed a
"grass seed sower attachment," which is used in con-
junction with the drill while the latter sows grain, and
it is placed so as to drop the seeds in front of the grain
tubes or behind them, as desired. The grass seeds thus
22 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
sown fall upon the surface of the soil. When they fall
before the grain tubes they are partially covered. When
they fall behind them they have no covering except such
as may be given subsequently. Some "broadcast seed-
ers/' that is, seeders which sow grain by scattering
it broadcast are also furnished with grass seed attach-
ments. Grass seeds are sometimes mixed with grain
and sown with the same, but this method of sowing in
many instances buries the seed too clceplv.
The sowing of grass seeds with the grain drill or with
the grass seed attachment to the same, results in a con-
siderable saving of labor. But even this method of sow-
ing them cannot be said to be perfected. • When the seed
is sown along with the grain, in addition to being buried
too deeply in nearly all soils, it is deposited in the line
of the grain row, hence the young plants are crowded
and shaded more than if they could be deposited be-
tween the grain rows. And when the seed falls on the
surface, additional covering is necessary. If, therefore,
a seed drill were invented that would deposit grass seeds
between the grain rows and while the grain was being
sown, and that would cover the seed nt ai y desired
depth, in tho judgment of the author a great advance
would be made in the method of sowing grass seeds.
More perfect machinery is also wanted for the even
distribution of some of the lighter seeds, as for instance
the seed of meadow foxtail (Alo-pccurus pratensis).
Such seeds do not feed into the distributors of the grass
seeds now in use with that regularity that could be de-
sired. But one make at least of the hand sower which
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 23
is wheeled over the ground is being so improved that it
will sow almost all kinds of grass seed.
Depth to Bury the Seed. — The depth at which grass
seeds should be buried will be influenced by the size
of the seed, the character of the soil, the nature of the
climate, the season of the year at which the seed is sown
and the relative inherent vigor of the seed. As a rule
the relation between the size of the seed and the depth
at which to bury it is both close and intimate. The
larger the seed, the more deeply does it require to be
buried, and the smaller it is the more shallow the cover-
ing that best meets the conditions of growth. But the
inherent vigor of the seed has also a qualifying influ-
ence. The more vigorous the seed the better it can
withstand burial too deep, or too shallow to furnish the
best conditions for growth.
No one of these influences, probably, is so great as
that of soil conditions. As a rule, the lighter the soil,
in the sense of its being sandy, the more spongy it is in
the sense of the particles lying lightly upon each other,
and the less capable it is of resisting the influences of
surface evaporation, the more deeply should the seed
be buried and vice versa. It would probably be correct
to say that for all the cultivated grasses some covering
would be preferable to none at all. In some instances
the roller following the sowing of the seed, prior to
the falling of rain, will provide a sufficient covering,
and there are instances in which rain alone will pro-
vide a covering. Particularly is this true of seeds that
are sown on clay soils in the autumn where heavy
rains in that season and in the winter following tend
24 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
to pack ill-drained soils. Usually a light li arrow with
many teeth and which may be adjusted at any angle
desired mav be made to furnish a sufficient covering.
But there are soils in which it may be advantageous
sometimes to burv even small grass seeds, as timothy
and alsike clover, to the depth of two inches or even
to a greater depth.
The more moist the climate, the more shallow rela-
tively may grass seeds be covered. The reasons for this
will be at once apparent. The more frequent the rains,
the more copious the dews, the more humid the air, the
more moderate the temperatures, the nearer to the sur-
face can the young plants secure the requisite moisture,
because of the extent to which under the conditions just
stated the influences which produce it fall upon and
penetrate the soil, and because of the slow yielding up of
moisture to the influences which produce surface evap-
oration. Hence it is that grass seeds and indeed all seeds
cannot be best planted at the same depth in all localities
in which the climatic conditions differ, even though the
other conditions should be the same.
From what has been said with reference to the in-
fluence of soil and climate on the depth to which seed
should be planted, it will be apparent, that when grass
seeds are sown at those seasons when moisture is abun-
dant they will need less of a covering than when sown
at other seasons. Thus it is that the seeds of many
grasses will grow with reasonable certainty in certain
areas, when sown in the spring on late snows and on
ground honeycombed with the frost, without any other
covering than' nature can give them. When sown on
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 25
late snows the seeds are carried down with the melt-
ing of the snows, and are lodged in the small crevices
in the soil, or are brought so closely in contact with
the soil that when moist weather follows they germinate
successfully. Such germination is all the more success-
ful when the seeds are sown on ground on which a nurse
crop is growing, since the shade it furnishes at the sea-
son of germination is helpful to the growth of the young
grass plants.
When grass seeds are sown quite early in the spring,
they usually require less covering than when sown later.
The roots find moisture near the surface more readily
at that season, and the young plants are less liable to
be injured by the drought of summer. The later they
are sown, therefore, in the spring, the more deeply rela-
tively should the covering be. Unless when sown quite
early in the spring the aim should be to use a harrow
in covering the seed, and the necessity for careful har-
rowing increases with the advance of the season. When
grass seeds are sown in the autumn an intermediate cov-
ering is usually preferable, as, if covered shallow the
seed may not find sufficient moisture, and if covered
deeply the growth may prove insufficient to fortify the
plants to meet, in the best manner, the adverse condi-
tions of winter weather. But there may be good rea-
sons in some instances for covering grass seeds slightly
or deeply when sown in the fall.
The inherent vigor of the plants has much to do with
the depth to which the seed ought to be buried in order
to secure the most successful germination. Some grass
seeds have much power to grow without any covering at
26 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
all save wh'at nature can bring to them. Such, for in-
stance, is blue grass (Poo, pratensis). Because of this
power it will sometimes take possession of soils with-
out being sown at all save by the hand of nature. Par-
ticularly is this true of lands that have produced forest,
in areas which abounded at one time in the eastern and
middle states, and also in the provinces of Canada east
from Manitoba. On these areas this grass usually takes
complete possession of the soil, to the exclusion of near-
ly all the other forms of vegetable life, and without any
aid from man except in removing the shade of trees
with the axe, and also that of large and coarse forms of
vegetation, as bushes for instance, by allowing animals
to graze upon them. Timothy will grow on such lands
and in some instances without being covered artificially,
but it will usually grow more successfully when pro-
vided with a slight covering. Blue grass evidently
has greater inherent power to grow than timothy, a
fact that is evidenced in the ability of blue grass in
certain soils to crowd out timothy in pastures, to the
extent of taking complete possession of the soil. The
possession of inherent power to grow in a marked de-
gree in unfavorable conditions enables many forms of
weed life to get a hold on the soil without any covering
being furnished to the seeds other than nature gives
them.
Methods of Covering. — When grass seeds are sown
while the snows yet linger on the ground honeycombed
with the frost, no covering, can be given to them other
than that which nature furnishes, nor, as previously in-
timated, is it required. Nor is any other covering need-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 27
ed in many instances when these are sown in the au-
tumn, with or without a nurse crop, in a climate that
is humid, and especially when rains are frequent,
providing the seed is sown as soon as the ground
has been made ready to receive it and before rain has
fallen on the same. The first rain that falls would
seem to provide a sufficient covering for the seed. But
there are instances when a light harrow should be run
over the ground. In the renovation of pastures, seeds
which fall to the ground subsequent to maturity are
able to grow without any covering.
When the seed is sown in the spring on a winter crop
after the ground has become settled a heavy harrow
will usually cover the seed better than n light one, and
sometimes it may be even necessary to weight the har-
row. When it is sown in the spring wiih or without
a nurse crop, when the seed falls on the surface, in near-
ly all instances it is advantageous to cover with the
roller or the harrow. On heavy soils well supplied
with rain in the spring, covering by rolling will usually
suffice. But in loam soils when the rain is not abun-
dant, and more especially when the summers are hot
and dry, the seed should be covered with the harrow.
On firm soils the smoothing harrow will probably do the
work. better than a heavy harrow, as it will bury the
seeds less deeply. But .on soils the opposite a heavy
harrow is to be preferred because of the greater depth
to which it buries the seeds.
When the seed is deposited along with grain sown
with the drill, or with the broadcast seeder, it may not
be necessary to harrow the ground further, but if sub-
28 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
sequent harrowing will prove helpful to the growth of
tlie grain, which it does in some instances, it will also
prove helpful to the growth of the grasses sown along
with it.
A brush is sometimes used to cover grass seeds and
with good results as when but a shallow covering is
needed, but frequently it is not easy to get a small
bushy tree that will cover a wide strip at one stroke, and
that will leave the land smooth and even. This method
of covering grass seed is now seldom or never resorted
to when a good and suitable harrow can be secured.
Amounts of Seed to Sow. — It is not possible to state
the amount of seed of any kind of grass that would
prove satisfactory in all areas, since the amount that is
most suitable for one locality or for a certain kind of
soil would be too little for another locality or for a
different kind of soil, and would probably be an excess-
ive amount under yet other conditions of climate and
soil. While 9 pounds of timothy may be mentioned
as a suitable quantity to sow under average conditions,
under other conditions 6 pounds will suffice, and yet
again it may be advantageous to sow 12 pounds.
The following rules may be submitted as a general
guide in determining the amounts of seed to sow : 1. The
more stern and rigorous the climatic conditions, the
larger the amounts of seed that should be sown to allow
for the loss of some of the weaker plants. 2. The more
suitable the natural soil conditions for any kind of grass,
and the more perfect the preparation of the soil to re-
ceive the seed, the less the quantity that is required, for
the reason first, that these conditions insure growth
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. m 29
from a higher per centage of the seeds than if the con-
ditions were the opposite, and second, that the plants
require more room for development because of the great-
er size to which they grow. 3. The finer the charac-
ter of the fodder wanted from grasses fed in the green
or in the cured form, the larger the amounts of seed
that are required. 4. When sowing varieties which
have the power to multiply plants as they grow by means
of creeping rootstocks moderate amounts of seed are
to be preferred to large amounts, unless when these
are sown in short rotations, lest they should soon be-
come too thick and matted to produce returns that would
prove entirely satisfactory. 5. When grasses are sown
alone more seed is required of the variety sown than
if the same variety were sown in combination with
other grasses, and the larger the number of grasses in
the combination the less the relative proportion of each
that should be sown. 6. When laying down land in per-
manent pasture larger amounts should be sown of those
varieties which are known to have the highest adapta-
tion and value for the conditions under which they are
sown and vice versa. 7. The quantity of seed required
usually increases with the size of the seed of any va-
riety and the opposite of this is also true. 8. In semi-
arid climates sparse or only moderately thick seeding
is preferable to thick seeding, as the degree of the
moisture obtainable, is then more perfectly adjusted to
the needs of the individual plants. Notwithstanding
that it is not possible to state the amount of seed of
any given variety of seed that will answer equally well
for all areas, something will be said about the amounts
30 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
that will be at least approximately suitable under vary-
ing conditions when treating of the respective grasses
which will be later discussed with some degree of mi-
nuteness.
Sowing With or Without a Nurse Crop. — It is more
common to sow grass seeds with than without a nurse
crop. A nurse crop is one which is supposed to benefit
the crop sown along with it for a time, by the shade
which it affords, and in some instances by the shelter
which it furnishes from the sweeping winds of winter,
as, when grasses are grown along' with some kind of
winter crop. The practice rests on premises that are
correct. Notwithstanding, some writers favor sowing
the seeds alone and there may be instances in which it-
would be commendable to sow them thus. But as a rule
the practice of sowing grasses with a nurse crop is likely
to continue in favor with a great majority of those who
till the soil.
The benefits arising from sowing grasses with a nurse
crop include the following: 1. When thus sown shade
is furnished for the young plants while they are yet
tender until they become firmly rooted in the soil.
2. The shade thus furnished is adverse to the crusting
of the soil, a condition which when present is full of
hazard to young grass plants, especially when they are
exposed at such times to hot suns. 3. Usually the nurse
crop can be grown as well with the grasses present as
when these are absent, but to this there may be some
exceptions. For instance, when timothy is sown at
the same time as winter wheat, it sometimes grows so
vigorously that the yield of the wheat is somewhat re-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 31
duced. But when this happens, compensation is ob-
tained in part at least, by the added value given to the
straw. The leading objections to sowing thus are: 1.
That sometimes the grass or grasses are weakened and
partially destroyed by excessive shade in the nurse crop.
2. That in other instances the vitality of the grasses is
so weakened through the consumption of moisture by
the nurse crop, especially during the ripening period,
that when the nurse crop is removed when ripe, the
hot sunshine prevailing at the time will in some areas
and in some seasons kill a portion of the plants. Some-
times the destruction is total. 3. When the nurse crop
lodges some considerable time before it is ready to be
harvested, the grasses sown with it are pretty certain
to be smothered by the nurse crop. Such lodging may
be prevented by pasturing the grain crop for a time in
the early stages of the growth of the same.
The benefits from sowing without a nurse crop include
the following: 1. In some instances a more vigorous
stand may be secured, since the plants have the full
benefit of unimpeded sunlight and of all the moisture
in the soil. Especially is this true when the plants are
sown on clean soil and start well when they begin to
grow. 2. When hay of a certain kind is wanted it
may be obtained one year sooner, in some instances,
when sown without a nurse crop, as for instance, when
timothy is sown alone in the autumn, or when certain of
the rye grasses are sown in the spring. 3. A stand of
grasses may sometimes be secured when thus sown
under conditions of weather that would prove fatal to
grasses sown with a nurse crop, more especially wher
32 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
there is but little moisture in the soil. The objections to
sowing thus are: 1. In a majority of instances only a
partial crop of grass, is obtained the first season, hence,
the value that would have accrued from a nurse crop had
it been grown is reduced in proportion as the grass crop
is short in its yield. When it is necessary to take one
season to secure a stand of grass without getting a re-
turn from it, the question arises as to whether food for
stock should not be grown in some other way. 2. In
many instances, weeds grow, which if not checked would
shade the grass quite as much as the grain, and would
also mature seeds the plants from which the following-
year would greatly reduce and injure the hay crop. This
can be prevented of course by mowing them off and al-
lowing them to lie on the ground to form a mulch when
not too dense, but this of course entails considerable la-
bor. 3. It sometimes happens that the young plants,
when sown thus, are killed out partially or wholly in
spots by the hot sunshine on an encrusted soil. It is
evident, therefore, that the practice of sowing grasses
with a nurse crop is likely to prevail generally in the
future as in the past.
The nurse crops that may be used are various. They
include all or nearly all the small cereal grains; in
some instances rape and in others grains grown in mix-
tures for soiling food. Winter rye is one of the most
favorable crops with which to sow grasses, since these
may in many instances be sown in the fall or early spring
as may be necessary. It docs not stool as much as some
grains, hence it injures the young grass less by excessive
shade, and it is harvested early, thus giving the grass
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 33
plants the benefit of more sunshine and moisture than
would be possible when sown with a crop of grain in the
spring. Spring rye also answers the purpose well, but
the grass seeds can only be sown upon it in the spring,
and usually not so early as on winter rye. Winter
wheat makes nearly as good a nurse crop as winter rye,
but it stools more and is not harvested quite so early.
Other winter crops, as for instance winter barley or win-
ter oats make good nurse crops where these can be grown,
as in the southern states. But the fact is to be remem-
bered that when sowing grasses with winter crops adverse
influences which injure the nurse crop, as cold winds or
heaving through freezing and thawing alternately will
also in a measure injure the crops sown with these,
though probably to a less extent. Barley stands rela-
tively high as a nurse crop for grasses. It does not shade
them for so long a period as some other nurse crops, nor
is the shade so dense, since the growth of barley is not so
tall as that of other cereals ; more sunlight is admitted
during the maturing period of the barley. Oats are
probably less favorable to the growth of young grasses
than any of the other small grains except peas. They
stool more than other grains, and are of more leafy
growth, hence they provide a denser shade, and in matur-
ing they draw heavily on the moisture of the soil. But;
oats may in manv instances be profitably used as a nurse
crop by sowing a less quantity of the seed than is usual
and then cutting the oats for hay as soon as they are
fully in head. When they are thus harvested, the drain
of soil moisture so rapid during the maturing period is
prevented. To preclude such a drain, when it can be
Grasses — 3
34 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
done without loss, is usually greatly advantageous to
grasses sown with a nurse crop, since the weather is
usually both hot and dry as the harvest season ap-
proaches. The chief objection to flax as a nurse crop is
the late season at which it is sown, but some authorities
cherish the opinion that there is something in the flax
itself that is not favorable to the growth of grasses after
the crop has been removed. Nevertheless, the sowing of
grasses with flax is frequently attended with a fair meas-
ure of success. Experience in growing grasses with a
rape crop is limited, but in some instances it has suc-
ceeded. The same is true of sowing them with mixed
crops grown for grain or for soiling. The one objection
to growing them thus is found in the greater relative
thickness to which such crops are usually sown. But
in the case of soiling crops, the removal of these before
maturity is so far favorable to the growth of the young
plants. Peas and vetches, when sown to produce
grain are usually hurtful to grasses sown with them,
since they nearly always lodge some considerable time
before they mature. But in some instances grasses and
also clovers are sown along with grain or forage plants
sown alone or in combinations to provide grazing for
horses, cattle, sheep or swine. When such grazing is
grown it is more commonly on the humus soils of the
prairies and in areas in which the rainfall is less than
normal. Grasses and also clovers are sown on these in
the usual way when the forage crop is sown. As soon as
the grain has become well started the animals are
turned in to graze upon it. In some instances a better
and surer stand may be obtained than from sowing the
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 35
grass seeds in the ordinary way. For the further dis-
cussion of this question see page 180 in the book "For-
age Crops Other than Grasses," written hy the author.
Sowing Grasses Alone or in Combinations. — Whether
any kind of grass should he sown alone or along with
other grasses depends upon the object, or objects, for
which it is grown ; and also on the degree of its adapta-
tion to the locality.
When any variety is grown for seed it is usually sown
alone, but in some few instances certain varieties may be
sown in combination even when seed is sought. Tim-
othy is frequently sown with medium red clover. The
year after sowing the seed the crop is cut once, and in
some instances twice, for hay. During several subse-
quent and successive seasons it may be practicable to
harvest the timothy for seed. But to growing grasses
together for seed there is the strong objection, first, that
they produce seed less perfectly when grown thus, be-
cause of the thick growth produced by mixtures ; second,
that in many instances they do not ripen their seeds at
the same time ; and third, that it would prove a difficult,
if not, indeed, an impossible, task to separate many
kinds of seeds when thus harvested together, they arc
so nearly alike in size.
When grown for hay it is common to sow grasses in
mixtures and these mixtures frequently contain also
the seeds of certain of the clovers. These mixtures usual-
ly yield more and produce hay of finer growth than
when sown alone. But when sowing two or more va-
rieties together it is usually better to select those 'which
mature about the same time, that they may be har-
3j GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
vested when each variety has reached that stage of
growth when it is best fitted for making good hay.
Some of the less important of these, combinations will
be referred to later, when discussing certain of the more
important of the grasses.
When pastures are wanted the grasses sown to produce
them are generally sown in combination. To make per-
manent pastures they are nearly always sown thus.
Sometimes it may be advisable to sow but one variety to
produce pasture either temporary or permanent in char-
acter because of the peculiar adaptation of the same to
the climatic and also to the soil conditions. Kentucky
blue grass (Poa prat6nsis), timothy (Phleum pratense),
Russian brome grass (Bromus inermis) and Johnson
grass (Sorghum lialapense) are frequently sown thus.
But in a great majority of instances it is advisable to
sow grasses in combinations to make permanent pas-
tures and the larger the number of the grasses that can
be successfully grown in these the more valuable are
they. When sown thus they not only produce more pas-
ture than one variety would, but they produce it more
continuously through the season and for a longer period.
This arises first, from the denser character of the
growth ; second, from the different parts -of the season
when each variety is at its best, and third, from the
greater durability of some varieties as compared with
others. When determining the grasses which should
be sown in combination, the aim should be 'to sow only
such varieties as will produce relatively well under the
conditions present and that are not short lived. While
it may be proper in some instances to sow ninny vario
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 37
tics, in other instances and indeed generally but a lim-
ited number of varieties should be chosen, and yet again
but one variety. It would seem to be correct to say that
when determining which grasses should be sown in
combination pastures, adaptation should be the first con-
sideration, intrinsic value for the end sought the sec-
ond, and permanence in growth the third. Notwith-
standing there may be instances in which it is wise to
sow freely in the mixture some short lived variety to
provide abundant grazing while the slower growing
varieties are becoming established.
The Grazing of Meadows. — The way in which mead-
ows are grazed has a far more important influence on
their productiveness than is generally supposed. The
practice of grazing them closely in the autumn is quite
common and this is frequently done the autumn imme-
diately following the sowing of the seeds.
When thus grazed the vitality of the plants is less-
ened. The protection which the autumn growth fur-
nishes being thus removed, the roots of the plants are
more exposed to the severity of the winter weather than
they would otherwise be, and, in consequence, they
grow less vigorously than they otherwise would the fol-
lowing season. Severe grazing of newly sown meadows
in the autumn sometimes leads to their destruction be-
fore one crop of hay has been grown. Of course, all
grass plants are not equally injured by such grazing,
but there is probably no variety the yield of which will
not be lessened the following season when thus closely
grazed unless the season and other conditions are un-
usual Iv favorable.
38 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
When meadows are not thus closely grazed in the
autumn the grass starts much more quickly in the spring
than it would under conditions the opposite. The young
shoots are protected from the cold winds and the early
frosts which retard growth at that season. They are
thus protected by the aftermath of the previous season,
which acts also as a mulch and thus retards surface evap-
oration in a marked degree. The increase in the yields
from the protection furnished by aftermath is in sonic
instances as much as 50 per cent.
But it does not follow that meadows should never be
grazed after harvest. In some seasons the growth of the
aftermath will be so vigorous that during the following
winter the grass in at least portions of the meadow
would be smothered, and in other portions growth would
be retarded by the excessive amount of the mulch pro-
duced, and the hazard is greater with free-growing
plants, as clover, and in countries subject to heavy falls
of snow. Moderate pasturing, therefore, is frequently
helpful, but the aim should be to graze meadows early
rather than late in the autumn. Nor should they be
grazed when the ground is so wet that it will poach
through the sinking of the feet of the animals which
graze upon it. Grazing meadows thus on clay soils
especially would be highly injurious to them. It should
also be remembered that the more closely animals graze
the more will the meadows be injured by such grazing.
Because of this, grazing with cattle is less injurious than
grazing: with sheep. The grazing of meadows, there-
fore, after harvest is usually injurious in proportion as it
is late and close, as the plants grazed are lacking in in-
GENERAL, PRINCIPLES. 39
herent vigor and in ability to grow quickly, as the soils
are wet and heavy of texture, and as the winter weather
is severe ajid the summer weather dry.
The Grazing of Pastures.— Much of what has heen
said in the preceding section on the grazing of meadows
will also apply to the grazing of pastures. But the pro-
ductiveness of the latter is likely to he injured more hy
excessive grazing than that of the former. Grazing is
excessive when it lessens the possible production of the
pasture, but it may not be easy to determine in many
instances when that point is reached beyond which fur-
ther grazing would be excessive, since ivhat would be
in excess in a season characterized by drought would
not be so in one characterized by an abundant rain-
fall.
Close grazing injures pastures by weakening their
capacity to grow, by increasing their exposure to injury
through surface evaporation, by removing what would
prove a protection to them in winter, and in some in-
stances by preventing the plants from re-seeding.
That plants breathe through the medium of the leaves
is well known. It follows, therefore, that the strength
of the plant, when amply supplied with food and mois-
ture will be proportionate to the extent of the surface
through which it breathes. This explains in part at
least why a larger amount of food will be furnished by
grass plants from a given area under normal condi-
tions when mowed than when grazed. But this result
will probably be modified when moisture is insufficient.
Consequently, the closer the grazing the less ordinarily
will be the production of the pastures.
40 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
When grasses are kept constantly bare, surface evap-
oration is more rapid than it would otherwise be, and be-
cause of this the grasses will suffer sooner from a de-
ficiency of moisture. The earlier in the season, there-
fore, that close grazing begins, and the more persistently
that it is followed, for one season and for successive
seasons the more is productive power in the pastures
weakened. In climates in which the supply of moisture
is ample the mistake of too close grazing is not nearly so
serious as in those opposite in character, but in any
climate it lessens productiveness.
When the grasses enter the winter eaten down to the
ground, or nearly so, they not only suffer more from
exposure than they would were they protected by a self
provided covering, but as in the case of meadows, they
spring up more quickly and more vigorously in the
spring. The difference in both respects is marked. As
a result, earlier grazing is possible, and the animals thus
grazed are not so liable to injury from a too lax con-
dition of the bowels, as if turned out onto grazing in the
spring consisting only of fresh grass ; the old grass which
is eaten along with the new militates against such a con-
dition.
The hindrance to the re-seeding of grass plants in pas-
tures of but short duration is not serious, since they
are sown to be broken up again. 2s"or is it so greatly
important in permanent pastures laid down by man,
since the hand that sowed the seed which made these can
add more seed from time to time as occasion may require.
But with permanent pastures made by nature, as on
ranges, this question becomes one of great significance.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 41
.Range pastures cannot be kept from deteriorating where
re-seeding through the processes of nature is hindered by
close grazing.
Pastures are grazed under improper conditions if
grazed when too wet or when too much frozen. When
the soil is too wet the ground poaches, and in some in-
stances becomes impacted. Both conditions are adverse
to growth. The injury from such pasturing on very stiff
soils may extend over years. The reasons for the in-
jury to pastures from close grazing when the ground is
hard frozen are not so apparent, but the fact of such
injury cannot be doubted, nor should the fact be over-
looked that all the influences unfavorable to production
in pastures just so far encourage the growth of weeds in
these.
Renovating Meadows. — Since meadows are in a great
majority of instances of but limited duration, the at-
tempt is seldom made to renovate them. More com-
monly when the production on these falls below tne line
of profits, they are overturned with the plough. But in
some instances the stand of grass secured at the first is
only partial, and for various reasons it may be desirable
to improve it. In other instances the stand may be good
but the production is low from want of plant food in
the soil. In these it may be desirable to stimulate
growth, and in yet other instances, owing to the diffi-
culty of getting a stand, the aim is to prolong the period
of productiveness through what is termed self -seeding ;
that is, renewal from seed which falls from the plants ID
the meadow.
When the stand of grasses is but partial, as when, for
42 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
instance, it grows in the lower lands and fails on the
higher ground through drought or poverty of soil, a full
stand may sometimes be obtained by simply adding more
seed, and providing the same with a covering. If the
stand on the spots that need renewal is partial; that is
to say, if there are plants there but growing too thinly,
the seed should be sown on the surface and covered with
the harrow, but the ground should not be harrowed to
the extent of destroying many of the plants that are
already established. If the areas that require re-seed-
ing are devoid or nearly so of plants it may be helpful,
in some instances, to disk the ground before adding
more seed. The seed thus added should be sown in the
fall as soon as fall rains come. If a top dressing
of fine farmyard manure is added before or after har-
rowing in the seed, but not in such quantities as to hin-
der growth by smothering, the young grasses will grow
more vigorously and will go through the winter in much
better form. In the absence of farmyard manure certain
commercial fertilizers may be used with profit. Tim-
othy meadows Especially may be thus renewed with
much advantage.
When the growth of the plants is to be stimulated fer-
tilizers must be applied. For this purpose no better
fertilizer can be used than farmyard manure, could it
be obtained in sufficient quantities, as it acts as a
mulch in addition to the fertility which it supplies. It
may be used in the fresh form, especially when evenly
and not too thickly distributed, as with the aid of the
manure spreader or in the reduced form. When applied
it ought to be in the autumn rather than the spring on
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 43
lands that are not hilly- If applied in the spring in the
fresh form it is not easy to avoid raking up more or less
of the manure in the hay at harvest time. Artificial
fertilizers may of course be used in lieu of farmyard
manure. The kinds that ought to be used and the quan-
tities to use will be determined largely by the needs of
the soil and of the plants. Fertilizers rich in nitrogen
are especially helpful in growing grasses. Potash is
equally helpful in growing clovers, but in a majority of
instances complete fertilizers are the most satisfactory.
It is usual to apply these fertilizers just after growth
has begun or after each cutting.
The renewal of meadows through self-seeding is more
applicable to those in which medium red clover (Trifo*
Hum pratense) is one of the factors, than to those com-
posed entirely of grasses, since the former produces seed
in the autumn after one crop of hay has been harvested.
On certain light soils and in certain areas more or less
deficient in rainfall, meadows have thus been main-
tained for many years. But to maintain them thus it
was found necessary to graze them but little, or not at
all, according as moisture was present or absent. Mead-
ows composed entirely of grasses could not be renewed
thus, since after being mown they do not usually produce
seed again the same season. But it would be possible
to renew them thus by grazing for one season, but not so
closely as to preclude a part of the plants from maturing
and shedding seeds.
Renovating Pastures. — Pastures may be renovated
and improved by adding .seed directly or through the
medium of self -seeding, by dressing them with fertilizers
44 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and in some instances by re-ploughing them. The va-
rious phases of this wide question, however, will only be
touched upon here. The precise methods of securing
such renovation are more fully discussed in Chapters
XV and XVI.
In certain areas when moisture is more or less de-
ficient as in the semi-arid belt, and in lands immediately
adjacent thereto, the grasses become thinner and in spots
fail altogether when they are grazed closely for a term
of years. The same is also true of pastures in certain
soils of the south much deficient in plant food. As these
fail the soil remains uncovered, or is more or less pos-
sessed by noxious weeds. In tillable areas the remedy
is adding more seed in the late fall on the disked or un-
broken surface, or in the early spring, with or without
disking or harrowing according to circumstances. When
this is done it has not usually been found necessary to
cease pasturing unless for a short time after sowing
the seed. Where tillage cannot be given as on the range
the remedy lies in so restricting the grazing that the
grasses may mature seeds to a greater or less extent and
so re-seed the land. On the open range, that is, on that
part of the range country known as public domain, such
restriction has not heretofore been found practicable.
But on those portions of the range under private own-
ership this can be don6 when the range is fenced, either
by grazing so moderately that more or less seed from
the grass plants will mature every year or by pasturing
only in alternate years.
Top dressing with fertilizers may be made to greatly
increase the productiveness of pastures in areas sub-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 45
ject to cultivation. On the range such fertilization
would not be practicable because of the cost. Of these
fertilizers none are so effective probably as farmyard
manure, since as when applied to meadows it acts as a
fertilizer and also as a mulch, and the more quickly
it can be applied after it is made, the greater is the
benefit that follows from applying it. While it may
be applied at nearly any season, the greatest benefit,
probably, will accrue from applying it in the hte au-
tumn or early winter because of the protection which it
affords and because of the stimulus given to the growth
of grasses covered by it as soon as growth begins in the
spring. So great is the stimulus given to such dressings
by the growth of grasses that they crowd out many kinds
of weed life that may be present. The deeply rooted
objections in the popular mind to such applications,
because of the weed seeds which they bring to the pas-
tures, would seem to be cherished to an extent far
beyond the danger incurred. Such dressings are pe-
culiarly adapted to pastures which form a part of the
regular rotation, since the stimulus thus given to the
growth of the grass plants adds to the humus of the
soil when the pastures are overturned with the plough.
Artificial fertilizers are more commonly used in top
dressing pastures in the complete form, but frequently
the fertilizer is applied only in the form of nitrogen.
Sometimes phosphates only are used and sometimes
wood ashes. The needs of the soil should chiefly de-
termine the kinds of fertilizer to be used and the quan-
tity of the same.
Only with certain kinds of grasses can pastures be
46 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
renovated by breaking them up occasionally with the
plough and then in due time following with the harrow.
Included in the number are quack grass (Agropyrum re-
pens), Russian brome (Bromus inermis), Johnson grass
(Sorghum halapense) and Bermuda grass (Cynodon
dactylon). It will be observed that these all have the
power to multiply by pushing root-stalks through the
soil, but all grasses which have such power may not be
renewed thus. Because of this quality these grasses
are much liable to become sod bound; that is to say, so
thick that free growth is hindered. By breaking them
up occasionally, as referred to above, they start off with
renewed vigor. The frequency with which they should
be thus ploughed, the season for doing the work and the
method of doing it will be influenced by such conditions
as climate and soil. Since experience in renovating
pastures thus is limited ; the precise methods to be fol-
lowed are as yet but imperfectly understood.
Grasses as Soil Improvers. — Grasses, unlike clovers
and other legumes do not bring fertility to land.
On the other hand, they remove it in the hay, which
they furnish as in the case of non-leguminous cereals,
unless fed upon the farm which produced them and
the manure thus made is returned to the land. Even
when pastured there is a loss of fertility unless the
animals grazed upon the pasture remain upon them by
night as well as by day. But since inert fertility is
being gradually liberated in all soils, and since grasses
not only gather more or less of this in the processes
of growth, but actually hasten such liberation while
they are growing, the soil upon which they grow grad-
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 47
ually becomes richer in available fertility, except in
so far as the product of such growth is removed from
the land. This explains why the producing power of
grass-producing lands grazed by sheep is increased. It
also explains at least in part why poor soils become more
productive when they have become covered with a
growth of grass.
Grasses, however, improve the mechanical condition
of the soil. They put humus into it not only in the
decay of their rootlets, but also in the decay of the sod
which they have formed when it is buried with the
plough. The vegetable matter thus furnished yields up
plant food in a readily available form, binds light soils
so that they lift less with the winds, and renders stiff
soils more friable and consequently easier of access to
the roots of plants. And they greatly increase the power
of all soils to retain moisture in the cultivable area for
the benefit of succeeding crops.
The extent of the benefit thus conferred will increase
with the increase of the supply of vegetable mat-
ter thus furnished and with the slowness of the decay in
the same. When grasses have been grown upon a
piece of land.for a time the maximum production of hu-
mus is practically reached. If, therefore, when this
limit has been reached, the pasture is broken up, and the
same land is again laid down to pasture it is very evi-
dent that much more humus will be put into the soil thus
rotating grasses than by growing them for long periods.
In tillable areas, therefore, it is greatly important that
grasses shall be rotated with other crops. In climates
lacking in humidity and warmth and also in moisture,
48 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the decay of vegetable matter is relatively slow, hence,
the benefit from the decay of such matter is much more
lasting in these climates than in those opposite in
character. Consequently it is greatly important that
grass crops shall form a factor in rotation, even though
they should not bring fertility directly to the soil.
CHAETEK III.
TIMOTHY.
Timothy (Plileum pratense), has also been known
by the name Herd's grass and in some instances by that
of Meadow Cat's Tail. It is said to have been found
growing wild in a swamp in Piscataqua, N. H., prior to
the middle of the eighteenth century by one Timothy
Herd ; hence the origin of the name Timothy and possi-
bly also Herd's grass, although some authorities lean to
the view that the latter name was given because of its use
in providing grazing for the herd. It was known chiefly
by the name Herd's grass for several decades in New
England ; others claim that it was named Timothy from
Timothy Hanson of Maryland, who, it is said, and with
much probability, introduced it from England about
the year 1720. Other authorities state that in that
year Timothy Hanson took the seed from New York to
the Carolinas and thence to England, but there can be
no doubt that it is also indigenous to England. Yet
again it has been claimed that the seed was taken from
Virginia to England by one Peter Wynch in 1760 or
1761. It is quite possible, therefore, and highly prob-
able, that the seed was derived from the two sources;
that is, from England and America.
The plants tiller considerably, and when not crowded
will each produce several stems. The stems grow up-
Grasses — 4.
SO GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
rightly and usually attain the height of about two feet,
but in some instances they grow to a height of four to
five feet. They are surmounted by a handsome circular
spike or head, which is also elongated, and is usually
about three to four inches long, but sometimes they are
produced as long as 12 inches. When in full bloom a
field of timothy is an attractive sight, especially in the
early morning while the dew lingers. The whole field,
at such times, presents the appearance of a sea of fila-
ments standing out from the heads and sustaining deli-
cate and, in a sense, almost colorless flowers. The leaf
growth cannot be said to be large in proportion to the
stems, but it is fine and makes good grazing in the early
season. When the plants grow closely, the growth of
stem is fine, which of course increases the palatability of
the hay. The root growth is fibrous and bulbous. The
fibrous character is greater relatively in good and moist
soils and the bulbous in poor soils. In any event the
bulbs are small and the plants feed chiefly not very far
from the surface.
Timothy is perennial and under the most favorable
conditions will grow at least a score of good crops in suc-
cession, but under conditions that are not really favora-
ble, it is short lived. Ordinarily it will grow several
good crops in succession before it is necessary to break
up the sod. It grows rather slowly compared with some
of the other food grasses, and ordinarily it makes but
little growth the same season subsequently to its being
mown for hay.
There are several varieties of timothy, but these are
known only to botanists. At least the seed has not come
Fig. 2.
TIMOTHY fPhleum pratsnsc).
Oregon Experiment Station,
TIMOTHY. 53
into the market under names that would indicate specific
varieties. And yet it is claimed by botanists that some
of the varieties are so distinct and so specifically su-
perior to the variety commonly soAvn as to deserve suffi-
cient attention to grow them with a view of placing them
on the market on the ground of superior merit.
Timothy is grown rather for hay than for pasture,
and yet in certain areas of the prairie it is much relied
upon for pasture at the present time. Close grazing may
weaken the plants under certain conditions, but ordina-
rily it does not readily succumb because of such treat-
ment. Of all the grasses now grown for hay on the
^"orth American continent, timothy is unquestionably
the most generally useful and it is by far the most
extensive!;' grown. This arises in part from the wide
range in its adaptation, but more from its many good
qualities. These include the ease with which it may
be grown, cured and transported, the high palatability
and nutrition which it possesses, and the attractive ap-
pearance and readily marketable character of the hay.
The hay, though fed to horses, cattle and sheep, has been
found specially adapted to the needs of horses, and most
of all adapted to the needs of horses when at work.
This arises in pare from the suitability of the food con-
stituents which it contains, and in part from its meet-
ness to the digestion of horses at work. It may be
more suitably fed to cattle and sheep when grown along
with some variety of clover, since, when thus fed, the
fodder is in better balance. When fed to sheep it
should be of fine growth and cut early.
Distribution. — As has already been intimated, tim-
54 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
othy is thought to be indigenous to both Europe and
America. It is now also grown over considerable areas
in Western Asia and Northern Africa, and without ques-
tion a wide area of distribution awaits it south of the
equator.
Timothy calls for a climate, temperate rather than
torrid or frigid, and moist rather than dry. But few
climates, if any, ars too humid for the successful growth
of timothy, the other conditions being right. But the
climate is too dry even in some parts of the United
States and Canada. Especially is this true of the
mountain valleys eastward from the range of moun-
tains nearest to the Pacific and of the range country for
several hundred miles east from the Rockies. But in
these areas good crops can be grown under irrigation
and also without irrigation on many of the bench lands
which appertain to the mountains. That it is able to en-
dure much cold is evident from the fact that the winters
of Manitoba and Assiniboia do not destroy it. It can-
not so well endure hot summer temperatures, and this, in
part, accounts for the comparatively little success that
attends its growth in several of the southern states.
In the United States, timothy may be grown under
certain conditions in some portion or portions of every
state in the Union. If, however, a line were run across
the continent from Washington to San Erancisco, north
of that line would lie those states in which timothy may
be said to be a staple crop. In these states the highest
adaptability to its growth is found in those of them
adjacent to the Canadian boundary. Nowhere on the
continent probably does timothy grow so well as on the
TIMOTHY. 55
tide lands of the Atlantic and the Pacific northward
from the fortieth parallel. It also grows with great lux-
uriance in the river bottoms of Washington and British
Columbia in Canada and adjacent to the sea. In the
southern states, much of the soil is too low in humus
for the successful growth of timothy until the lack men-
tioned is supplied, notwithstanding the humid character
of the climate. But in certain areas, especially on the
plateaus of the mountains, good crops of timothy are
grown. The states which are lowest in adaptation for
the growth of timothy are those which lie to the south-
west.
Timothy grows more or less vigorously on suitable
soils in all the provinces of Canada, and with much
vigor in Ontario and Quebec. The tide lands of the mar-
itime provinces are capable of producing good crops of
timothy indefinitely. It does not grow well on the
western prairies as in other areas of the Dominion of
Canada. Especially is this true where the rainfall is
light, as for instance toward the Rocky Mountains when
approached from the east.
Soils. — Timothy will grow, but, of course, not equally
well, on- a wide range of soils. There is probably no
soil in the cultivable area of America in which it will
absolutely fail to grow to some extent, when the cli-
matic conditions are suitable. 'Nevertheless, to grow it
at its best, the soil should be rich and moist, and at
least fairly well supplied with humus. Consequently,
timothy usually grows luxuriantly on reclaimed swamp
lands and on the alluvial soils of river bottoms. To these
mav be added certain of the volcanic ash soils of the
56 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
west. It generally grows in good form on tlie humus
soils of the prairie, on upland loams and even on stiff
clays. But to grow the crop at its best in reclaimed
swamps it is necessary that the soil shall be muck rather
than peat. In the latter, if unreduced, it will not make
much growth, even though sufficient moisture should be
present. In river bottoms it is necessary that the soils,
if sandy, shall contain at least a fair proportion of
loam. In the volcanic ash soils of the western moun-
tain states, it would seem to be specially necessary that
ample moisture shall be present. In the humus soils of
the prairie sufficient clay is requisite to keep them from
lifting with the wind. Upland loams require at least a
fair amount of fertility, and stiff clays enough of humus
to prevent them from impacting and baking in a degree
seriously harmful to growth. The valley lands of the
east and the west, all across the northern half of the
continent, have specially high adaptation for timothy,
but nowhere probably higher than on river bottoms and
reclaimed lands beside the Pacific and the Atlantic. On
the foothills of the Alleghanies and of the Eockies it
grows well, a fact in a considerable degree accounted for
by the seepage from the mountains, which keeps the
ground moist. The return from certain of the humus
soils of the prairie is frequently disappointing, but this
arises probably more from a lack of moisture than a lack
of plant food in the soil. It would probably be correct to
say that the black soils of the prairie, so light that the
winds will sometimes carry them, are not really good
timothy soils.
Dry, sandy soils and soils low in fertility are ill
TIMOTHY. 57
adapted to the growth of timothy. This is true of the
last named class of soils, regardless of their composition
or mechanical condition. Good crops of timothy cannot
be grown on a hungry soil, any more than good crops
of wheat. Sandy soils low in humus are usually of this
character, and are, moreover, leechy ; hence, on these the
crop is usually characterized by lack of vigor in its
growth. The naturally hungry character of many of the
upland soils of the south is largely responsible for the
lack of adaptation in these to the growth of timothy.
Place in the Rotation. — Timothy should be sown on
clean soil. It should, therefore, follow such crops as
have been given clean cultivation during the period of
growth. These will include corn, sorghum, the non-
saccharine sorghums, all kinds of field roots, potatoes,
in some instances rape ; also cow peas and soy beans. It
may also be sown with much advantage on lands that
have been properly summer fallowed. It is, of course,
frequently sown on land that is not clean, and it may
grow with some vigor under such conditions, but the hay
produced will not be of nrime quality because of the
weeds that are mixed with it.
Timothy may be followed by almost any kind of a
crop, since, when sown alone it does not form a stiff sod ;
hence, the crops which immediately follow timothy are
usually able to gather sufficient food from the soil. But
the aim should be to follow timothy with some small
cereal grain crop which has much power to gather food
in the soil, since, under some conditions, overturned
sod does not decay quickly enough to enable certain
crops to gather food therefrom Avith sufficient quickness
58 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
to produce results such as may be desired. The oat crop
is a favorite one to sow immediately after timothy. The
same is true of flax, in areas where that crop is success-
fully grown. When the sod can be ploughed immedi-
ately or soon after the timothy has been harvested for
hay, or even earlier when it is being used as pasture,
winter wheat or some other winter cereal may be sown
upon it with much advantage. Peas or vetches will grow
luxuriantly after this crop, and they aid in reducing the
sod where this may be necessary to bring the land in
proper condition for sustaining successfully some cereal
that has less power to gather its food. Overturned tim-
othy sod is also advantageous to the growth of such
crops as corn, potatoes, the sorghums and rape. All of
these feed ravenously on the decaying vegetable matter
in the sod. But, since these are all grown as cleaning
crops, the growing of such cereals as oats, barley and
Canada field peas, the peas to be followed by wheat, are
more commonly made to follow crops of timothy.
Preparing the Soil. — In ordinary practice, when tim-
othy is sown with a nurse crop, that degree of pulveriza-
tion which prepares the soil sufficiently for sowing the
nurse crop is considered sufficient for the timothy also.
But this does not always hold true. Clay soils are fre-
quently covered with small clods on the surface, the
pulverization under these being so fine that the small
grains sown on them will start with sufficient vigor,
while the timothy seed, being planted nearer the surface,
will not germinate well unless the weather should prove
more than ordinarily moist. In nearly all instances,
therefore, it will prove advantageous to work the ground
TIMOTHY. 59
sufficiently to secure a fine condition of tilth on the sur-
face. The more nearly the condition of the pulveriza-
tion secured resembles that of a garden prepared for
the seed the better. To secure this may involve the per-
sistent use of the harrow and roller, but labor thus ex-
pended will ordinarily be well repaid in the better stand
of timothy that will follow. But to this rule there may
be some exceptions. For instance, when timothy is
sown in the autumn on stiff clays, and in areas subject
to beating autumn or winter rains, when the pulveriza-
tion is fine beyond a certain degree, the soil "runs to-
gether ;" that is, the fine particles in it adhere so closely
that in some instances it becomes encrusted — a con-
dition adverse to every form of plant growth. When
timothy is sown alone, as it sometimes is in the early
autumn, the ground may in many instances be prepared
by simply using the disk, the harrow and the roller.
Such preparation will usually suffice when the surface
of the soil is at least reasonably free from weeds. Such
a condition is frequently met with on soils from which a
heavy crop of peas or vetches have been harvested or
from which a cultivated crop as potatoes, have been re-
moved. But if the soil sustains weed growth in any
marked degree then it ought to be ploughed if possible a
considerable time before the seed is sown, and pulverized
by suitable cultivation. On soils that are liable to lift
with the wind, it would probably be better to sow the
seed amid the grain stubbles in the early autumn and
cover with the harrow. The stubbles will so far hinder
the winds from lifting the soil, and will also furnish pro-
tection to the younff plants in th^ winter season.
60 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
The more that soils are enriched for timothy, the bet-
ter will be the growth that will follow. It is more com-
mon, however, to stimulate growth by dressing the plants
with a fertilizer than to apply fertilizers to the soil
previous to sowing the seed. Farmyard manure is an
excellent fertilizer, but when applied on soils intended
for timothy, if in the fresh form, the results are likely
to prove more satisfactory on the whole if it is used when
preparing the crop that precedes timothy, since the un-
used increment still left in the soil is then easily accessi-
ble to the young timothy plants. But reduced farmyard
manures may be applied with advantage when preparing
the soil for the nurse crop with which the timothy is to
be sown ; coarse manures may also be thus applied, where
the conditions favor rapid decomposition in the soil
and especially when the period of soil preparation covers
a considerable length of time.
. Sowing. — The time at which timothy .may and ought
to be sown will vary much with variations in climatic
conditions. It would probably be correct to say that in
all places in which it can be grown with a fair measure of
success, the two best seasons for sowing it are the early
spring and the early autumn. When sown in the early
spring a stand is more assured than when sown later, and
the same is true of early fall sowing. In all the states
northward and in all the provinces of Canada, in which
winter rye and winter wheat can be sown with success,
timothy may sometimes be sown while the snow still lin-
gers. When thus sown, as the snow melts, it comes in
contact with the soil while the latter is yet "moist, and
nmcn of the seed is covered in the little openings on the
TIMOTHY. 61
surface by soil particles shifting position. If sown
while the "old snow" is jet several inches deep, the dan-
ger exists that much of the seed may be carried away by
the waters formed in the rapid melting of the snows
through a sudden drop in the temperature, and this con-
dition may be further aggravated by heavy rains.
Timothy may also be sown in the spring on ground in
a honeycombed condition, induced by alternate thawing
and freezing in the early spring, while there is yet much
moisture in the soil. When the seed is sown on soils in
the condition stated, the work can best be done in the
early morning when the air is still and while the ground
is yet frozen. By the time the ground has settled down
to a normal condition much of the seed is covered, and
a stand is reasonably assured. On some soils, however,
timothy seed cannot be sown thus since they do not
honeycomb. Where they do, a stand is more certain
than it would be if the sowing were deferred until the
ground was dry enough to render it necessary to cover
the seed with the harrow.
On soils which carry crops of winter wheat or winter
rye, also winter barley or winter oats, and which do not
honeycomb, the sowing of the seed in spring should be
deferred until it can be covered with the harrow. If
sown on such soils without any-covering and dry weather
should follow, the seed or, at least, much of it, would not
grow, and a stand would not be secured. But in a wet
season it would likely be different.
When the seed is sown with any kind of spring crop,
it should be put in when practicable at the same time as
the nurse crop or as soon as possible thereafter. The
62 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
earlier that such crops can be sown the more assured
the stand of the clover in a normal season, since more
time is then given to the plants to become well rooted
before the arrival of dry and hot weather, when the
summer is moist, timothy would succeed when sown
late, but since such seasons cannot be foretold, late
sowing is always attended with more or less hazard to
the timothy.
When timothy is sown alone, it may be best sown in
the late summer or in the early autumn. When sown
thus in the spring a stand may also be secured, but seed
sown thus in the spring seldom produces a full crop of
hay the same season, while the reverse is true of seed
sown in the fall. When sown with any of the wrinter
crops named above, the aim should be to sow the
timothy seed along with the nurse crop, or as soon
as possible thereafter. Early sowing in the autumn
enables the plants to become so strong that they can
well resist the adverse influences of winter weather.
Early sowing in the spring enables the plants to become
rooted and strong before the coming of the hot and usu-
ally dry weather of summer. When the seed is sown late
in the fall the vitality of the young plants may become
weakened if not destroyed by cold winds and low tem-
peratures which prevail in certain areas. On soils that
heave with the frost, the stronger the plants the better
can they resist the influences which produce such heav-
ing. Timothy when sown in the autumn would seem to
be able to withstand adverse influences at least as well as
winter wheat, winter oats or winter barley. Some farm-
ers in the northern states claim good results from sow-
ing timothy in August on overturned stubble land, and
TIMOTHY. 63
along with fall turnips. They claim that the turnips
protected the crop in winter and fed it the next summer.
Whether timothy should he sown alone or with a
nurse crop must he determined by the object sought from
sowing it. Where a full crop of timothy is desired the
first season after sowing, it ought to be sown alone in the
early autumn as intimated above. Sowing it thus in the
early spring would almost certainly insure a stand and
would also provide more or less pasture the same season,
but it would not seem to be good practice in farming to
sow timothy alone in the spring, unless where a full crop
could be looked for the same season.
All things considered, a good stand of timothy is
more certain when sown along with a winter rather
than a spring nurse crop, and it will also furnish more
pasture after the crop has been removed. The dry
weather of summer more frequently kills the timothy if
spring sown than does the harsh winter weather that,
which was properly sown in the autumn. Of the win-
ter crops, rye and barley are probably the best; and
after these wheat and oats in the order named (see page
32). If these crops are pastured rather than harvested,
the return in pasture the same season from the timothy
will be increased. When sown in the spring, the follow-
ing nurse crops are good in the order named, viz., spring
rye or speltz, barley, spring wheat and oats. Timothy
may also be sown with grain grown for pasture. Such
grain may be grown alone or in combination with other
grains, and the timothy also may be sown singly or in
combination with other grasses and clovers. (See page
35.)
64 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Timothy may be sown by hand with the aid of some
hand sowing machine, the grain drill, and sometimes the
broadcast seeder. When sown while the snow still lin-
gers in the spring, hand sowing is a necessity. It may
also be resorted to under all other conditions except when
the seed is to be mixed with that of the nurse crop amid
which it is to grow. But there are some objections to
hand sowing. First, it involves more labor than sowing
by some of the other methods named. Especially is this
true when the comparison lies between hand sowing and
sowing with a grain drill ; second, the seed can only be
sown when the air is reasonably calm and still, other-
wise it will fall irregularly. The fact remains, never-
theless, that one skilled in hand sowing can sow timothy
when. quite a breeze is blowing by shaping his course
accordingly, and by adjusting the swing of the hand or
hands to meet the exigencies of the occasion ; and third,
the number of persons relatively who can sow such seed
with regularity and evenness is not large and it is prob-
ably decreasing. In former, years when seeds were all
sown by hand, a considerable number of farmers could
sow admirably with both hands, but now, and especially
in the west, such seed sowers are not numerous.
If sown with hand machines, the kind must be deter-
mined by the sower and the conditions under which the
seed is sown. But the "wheel barrow seed sower" is
most in favor for such work. Unless when the wind is
blowing quite strong it will sow the seed evenly, and at
least as quickly as it can be scattered by a person using
both hands. Like hand sowing it does not bury the seed.
Timothy seed is frequently sown with the grain drill.
TIMOTHY. 65
In some instances the seed is mixed with the grain pre-
viously, in others at the time of sowing. Some farmers
wiio till soft and open prairie soils claim that this
method has proved satisfactory with them. But, on
heavy soils it would not prove satisfactory, since it
would bury it far too deeply. There is the further ob-
jection that it does not feed out evenly along with the
grain. Because of the smallness of the seeds, it feeds out
more quickly than the grain, but this can be partially
obviated by occasionally stirring the seeds more or less
by hand in the grain box while it is being sown. But
grain drills are now being introduced which convey the
seed into the drill tubes with sufficient regularity. There
is also the further objection that the seed being placed in
the line of the row with the grain, the plants as they
grow are crowded and shaded overmuch by the grain.
Grain drills with a grass seed attachment (see page 21),
deposit the grain very evenly. Under some conditions it
is better to have the seed fall before the drill tubes, but
under other conditions it should fall behind them.
When it falls before the grain tubes, further covering is
frequently unnecessary, but not in all instances. When
it falls behind these, covering with the harrow is usually
advantageous but not in all instances. Some growers
cover with the weeder.
Timothy seed may also be sown with the broadest
grain seeder. It may be thus sown by mixing the seed
with the grain. But some broadcast seeders have attach-
ments for sowing grass seeds, and, when they have, the
seed should be scattered with these. Whether it should
fall before the seeder or after it, will depend upon such
Grasses — 6.
66 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
conditions as relate to soil and moisture. Except on
certain prairie soils, scattering the seed before the seed-
er would usually bury it too deeply.
The depth to which timothy seed should be buried
will depend on such conditions as relate to climate, sea-
son and soil. The more moist the climate, the less the ne-
cessity for putting the seed down deeply into the soil
and vice versa. The dryer the slimmer climate, the
greater the necessity for putting the seeds down if sown
in the spring, and the colder the climate, the greater the
necessity for putting them down in the autumn. The
later in the spring that the seed is sown, the deeper
should it be buried, and the same is true of autumn
seeding on soils that lift. The heavier and firmer the
soil as a rule, the less deeply does the soil require to be
covered, and vice versa. Under some conditions the
seed does not need to be covered in any other way save
as nature covers it. Under other conditions it may be
advantageous to cover it as deeply as two inches if not
indeed, even more deeply. In a majority of instances
an ideal depth would be about half an inch.
When sown on the snow or on land in the honey-
combed condition, of course the seed cannot be covered
by any artificial process. When sown with a grain drill
or broadcast seeder and along with the grain, it must
also be buried as deeply as the grain. When sown on
winter crops in the spring after the soil has become
firm, the seed ought to be covered with the harrow or
weeder. The stiffer the soil, the heavier the harrow that
ought to be used, and the more erect should the teeth
be when in use, and vice versa. Stirring the surface
TIMOTHY. 67
soil thus to cover the timothy seed, will also be helpful
to the grain crop. When the seed falls before the grain
tubes of the drill, it frequently requires no other cover-
ing, but sometimes a stroke of the harrow will be found
helpful. When the seed falls behind the drill tubes, in
moist climates no covering is necessary other than that
given by the rains, but, on such soils, if sowing the tim-
othy is deferred until after rain falls, in nearly all in-
stances it would be advantageous to harrow. On prairie
soils and especially where the conditions are dry, when
the seed is sown thus, in nearly all instances the har-
row ought to be used.
The roller will sometimes furnish a sufficient cover-
ing. This frequently proves true of soils in moist cli-
mates, especially those of a heavy texture. But in
soils that will lift with the wind, the harrow should im-
mediately follow the roller, and in the autumn when
covering the seed, the roller should seldom or never be
used without the harrow following it.
Timothy may be sown in various combinations. The
most suitable of these is clover in one of its varieties.
It has peculiar adaptation for such a combination, for
the reason, first, that it has power to fight the battle
for existence and to hold its own place when sown along
with clover. Second, a greater return of the combined
crop is usually obtained than would be of either plant
grown singly. Third, the quality of the hay is im-
proved for general feeding because of its increased fine-
ness and wider adaptation to the needs of the various
classes of live stock. Fourth, the timothy luxuriates
on the food furnished by the dead clover roots. And
68 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
fifth, as timothy is usually longer lived than clover,
it is then possible to secure a longer succession of hay
or pasture crops than if timothy were sown alone.
Timothy has been more commonly grown in combi
nation with red clover than with any other variety, and
chiefly for the reason, probably, that red clover is grown
to a far greater extent than the other varieties. If
grown along with red clover, the conditions being equal-
ly favorable to the growth of both, the first year of cut-
ting, the hay will be chiefly clover, the latter being the
more vigorous growing plant early in the season. The
second year timothy will predominate as the clover is
generally short lived, and the third year the crop will
be all or nearly all timothy. But the combination of
timothy and mammoth clover or of timothy and alsike
clover, is superior to that of timothy and medium red
clover, and principally for the reason that it matures
about the same time as these, whereas it matures about
three weeks later than medium clover. It has higher
adaptation for being grown with alsike clover than with
the mammoth, since both alsike clover and timothy
grow at their best in soils rich in humus and moist it.
character. For certain uses, redtop added improves the
crop, especially in its yield. Timothy also matures
about the same time as meadow fescue, hence the two
may be sown in conjunction for hay where the condi-
tions are favorable, but this does not seem to have been
done to any great extent in America. On some irri-
gated lands in the west, timothy and alfalfa have br-^u
grown together with some success.
For permanent pastures timothy has an abiding placo
TIMOTHY. 69
because of its power to endure. The prominence given
to it in these should depend upon its relative adaptation
as compared with other grasses. It can usually be
given a place in these north of the fortieth parallel of
north latitude and in instances not a few considerably
south of that line. In the upper Mississippi Basin and
indeed in all the northern states and provinces of Cana-
da, it should be an important factor in permanent pas-
tures mixed in character.
The amounts of timothy seed to sow will of course be
much influenced by varying conditions. When sown
alone for hay or pasture it is seldom necessary to sow
more than 12 pounds of seed per acre, and on some soils
8 pounds will be found ample. In some instances as
in the semi-arid belt east of the Rocky mountains, bet-
ter results may frequently be looked for from sowing
6 pounds because of the scarcity of moisture. Eight to
ten pounds may be set down as average amounts.
When sown with medium red, mammoth or alsike
clover 6 pounds may be considered an average amount
to sow, but this may be increased to, say 8 pounds, or
reduced to 4 pounds according to the object sought.
Similarly the amount of clover seed in the combination
for a hay crop will vary, but the amounts respectively
of common red and mammoth may be set down ^s 6 to
8 pounds per acre and of alsike at 4 to 5 pounds.
When sown with red top only 6 pounds of timothy and
probably the same amount of red top will suffice. And
when sown with alsike clover and red top in combina-
tion 4 pounds of timothy would seem to be enough,
adding 3 or 4 pounds of red top and 3 pounds of alsike
70 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
clover. A mixture of timothy and alsike clover only
is usually preferred as hay for the market to a mixture
consisting of timothy, alsike clover and red top.
When the crop is sown to produce seed, a less quan-
tity will suffice than when it is sown for hay. When
the orop grows quite thickly, the size of the heads is
reduced; when it is sown to produce a fine quality of
hay, of course thick seeding must be resorted to. Tim-
othy is seldom sown alone for permanent pasture, but
if it should be thus sown heavy seeding ought to be
given. When used as a factor in permanent pastures
from 3 to 4 pounds per acre ought to suffice.
Pasturing. — In some sections of the prairie, as where
for instance the conditions have proved too cold, and
it may be too dry also for clover, and where blue grass
or Russian brome has not yet been introduced, timothy
is about the only cultivated grass used in providing pas-
ture, and yet it is not pre-eminently a pasture plant.
This has doubtless arisen from necessity rather than
from choice in areas not very long settled and in which
the question of pastures from cultivated grasses has
not yet been given much attention. The bulk of the
growth for the season is made before the arrival of mid-
summer and if not eaten down until well advanced in
growth, the plants are not highly relished by live stock.
Particularly is this true of it after the heads have ap-
peared. Although it stands pasturing well when the
conditions for growth are generally favorable, on cer-
tain of the soils of the prairie close pasturing will cause
it to fail within a very limited number of years. For
this, doubtless, lack of moisture is in part responsible,
TIMOTHY. 71
but on certain soils of the south it will soon fail under
close grazing even when moisture is sufficiently preva-
lent. Ordinarily the results will prove much more sat-
isfactory when timothy forms but one factor of the pas-
ture, although in providing pasture for horses it has
found some favor in certain localities though sown
alone. For pasture as also for hay it is more com-
monly sown with medium red clover than with any
other variety of clover or grass, since, when thus grown,
while the clover lives the grazing can be continued
through nearly all the year. But when it is desired tc
obtain pasture speedily through the aid of timothy, it
may be done in certain areas by sowing the seed in the
autumn along with winter rye. The rye is then pas-
tured in the spring, and when the rye pasture has failed
the timothy continues to provide pasture more or less
through the summer.
In pasturing timothy the grazing should begin reason-
ably early in the spring, but very close pasturing at that
season will materially lessen the yield if a dry season
should follow. On the other hand if the pasture is
under stocked it will be eaten closely in certain por-
tions and in other portions will form heads. When this
occurs the field mower should be run over the pasture
before the seed matures.
Usually close grazing in the autumn will materially
lessen production the following season, v whether the
plants are devoted to furnishing pasture or hay. Be-
cause of this many growers of timothy hay for mar-
ket do not graze the meadows in the autumn. The
mulch provided by the aftermath furnishes excellent
72 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
winter protection in bleak locations and is particularly
favorable to early and vigorous growth the following-
season. Bat there are localities as in certain of the
river bottoms west of the Cascade mountains, in which
timothy meadows are grazed much of the winter and
yet produce large crops of hay.
The growth of timothy pastures will be greatly stimu-
lated by top dressings of farmyard manure. These are
best applied in the autumn, but may also be applied
in the winter when the ground is frozen unless on hilly
land. Since timothy is non-leguminous it is wholly
dependent on the soil for its nitrogen. Consequently
fertilizers rich in nitrogen whether applied as farm-
yard manure or as commercial fertilizers will greatly
stimulate the growth. But in actual practice, nitrogen
in the latter form is usually applied to timothy meadows
rather than to pastures of the same.
Harvesting for Hay. — The stage of maturity at which
timothy ought to be harvested for hay will depend to
some extent on what it is intended for. For cattle
and sheep it is frequently cut when coming into bloom.
Particularly is this true when it grows amid a good
crop of medium red clover. In order to secure the
highest feeding value in the clover it is necessary to
cut the timothy while yet somewhat immature to fur-
nish the best results in feeding. But even when grown
alone for the uses named, it should be cut while not
yet in full bloom. It will then be less woody and more
palatable than if cut later, although there may be
some loss in weight. If cut when in full bloom, the
hay is somewhat more dusty than it would otherwise be;
TIMOTHY. 73
hence, so far it is objectionable for being fed to horses.
When the crop is to be harvested to provide hay for
horses, or that is to be put upon the market the aim
should be to cut it at the stage spoken of as the "second
bloom," which really means when it is about to go out
of bloom. This may be known by observing when but
a small part of the tops of the heads only continue to
produce blossoms. The bloom comes out a little late
on that part of the head and is likewise a little later
in departing. When cut at this stage all the weight
possible is secured in the crop, also all the nutriment
possible, and it is still relished by horses.
In a great majority of instances but one crop is ob-
tained per year, but under the influence of liberal and
timely applications of commercial fertilizers, nitroge-
nous in character, it is sometimes possible to get two cut-
tings a year, but the second will consist chiefly of rowen,
that is of grass that has not yet, reached the heading out
stage. From, two such cuttings of timothy and red top
grown together, from 5 to 8 tons per acre have been
cut from year to year for several years past, by Mr.
Geo. TX. Clark of Higganum, Conn. At least 4
tons may be secured from one cutting of timothy alone
in a single season. Two tons per acre are considered
a really good crop. But the average crop is about 1J
to 1-J tons. One ton per acre is considered a light crop.
In some location s, as on the river bottoms and re-
claimed tide lands of Western Washington, as many as
twenty crops of good yielding timothy have been grown
in succesGion without apparent diminution in the yield.
On certain prairie soils where moisture is lacking the
74 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
yield the second year of cutting is frequently much di-
minished. Under ordinary farm conditions where tim-
othy is grown as a staple crop it is usually cut for hut
two successive seasons, but in some favored situations
several successive crops are grown. When timothy only
occupies the land the first cutting commonly gives the
best yield, but when properly dressed with fertilizers
the yield ought not to diminish for several years.
The mower is almost the only implement used for
cutting timothy, but on new land where stumps abound
it may be necessary to cut it with the scythe. The fact
should not be lost sight of that under some conditions
as those of great drought the stand of the timothy may
be injured by too close cutting with the mower. When
the weather is settled and bright, the crop may usually
be cut one day and stored away some time during the
following day. WThen stored thus quickly the tedder
usually follows the mower, but with an interval of sev-
eral hours between. The crop is then drawn into win-
rows with the horse-rake and is loaded from these with
the hay loader or otherwise. In the advanced stages of
maturity, it may be possible under the most favorable
conditions to cut timothy in the morning and store it
away the same evening. But in such instances a free
use of the tedder must be made. In showery or damp
weather and especially when the crop is cut early, it
should be raked as soon as the work can be done success-
fully, and then put up into cocks until cured. When
thus put up, rain will not penetrate these or injure the
hay nearly so readily as though it were clover. When
clover and timothy are much mixed and especially when
TIMOTHY. 76
clover is abundantly present the safer plan is to cure
the hay in cocks. But a mixture of timothy is favor-
able rather than 'otherwise to the curing of clover since
it cures more readily.
Securing Seed. — When the timothy crop is intended
for seed, it may be necessary to spend some time in re-
moving weeds from the same either by hand pulling
or by using the spud, or what is usually better by
using both. This of course should be done before any
of the seeds mature.
Among the noxious weeds that sometimes infest tim-
othy meadows are: Pigeon weed (Lithospermum ar-
vense), sometimes called red root; Wild flax (Camelina
Sfitiva), sometimes called false flax; the Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense), blue weed (Echium vulgare),
French weed (Thalaspi arvense) and Hungarian mus-
tard (Sisymbrium sinapistrum) ; also couch or quack
grass (Agropyrum repens). All these mature their
seeds before timothy is harvested for seed.
Timothy is ready for being harvested for seed when
the seeds turn brown and as soon as ready it should
be promptly harvested and put in shock. If not har-
vested with reasonable promptness and if left stand-
ing long in the shock when harvested there is likely to
be considerable loss from the shedding of the seed. The
binder can best be used in cutting the seed crop. The
next best implement would probably be the self rake
reaper. When thus cut, however, the labor in handling-
would be greater. The crop may be threshed at once
or it may be stored for threshing as desired. It is
threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, but the
76 GRASSES AND HOW TO GltOW THEM.
wind must be shut off sufficiently to do the work prop-
erly. The hay or straw, as it is sometimes called \vjien
threshed, has some feeding value, hut it is very woody
and is not much relished by live stock. The stripper
has occasionally been used in gathering the seed but
when thus gathered the straw is virtually of no use for
grazing stock.
The seed should be carefully fanned before putting
it on the market. The aim should be to so clean it
that it will take the market as No. 1 and so bring the
highest price. This it will not do unless carefully
cleaned, and with a fanning mill well furnished with
sieves, no matter how good the quality of the seed may
be, it will be found difficult to remove some kinds of
weed seeds that may be present. It may also prove
difficult if not impossible even to remove all the clover
seeds that may be present should this be desired. Espe-
cially is this true of alsike clover, the seeds of which
are so nearly of the same size as those of timothy. But
some of the seeds of medium red and mammoth clover
may be so small that they even cannot be all removed.
When timothy is wanted for seed, therefore, it is not
wise to grow clover or the clovers along with it. But
for home sowing the presence of clover seed in many
instances would not be objectionable.
As many as 7 or 8 bushels of seed have been threshed
from an acre of timothy, but from 3 to 4 bushels would
be a good crop, 4 bushels being above the average. In
some instances not more than 2 bushels are realized per
acre. Several crops of seed may be taken in successive
years from such soils, but the tendency of such crop-
TIMOTHY. 77
ping* even in these is to decrease the yields, since pro-
ducing seed tells adversely on the vitality of the plants.
Growing timothy seed is hard on land.
Through the medium of timothy seed, many foul
weeds have been introduced, hence the importance of
getting good pure seed. At every seed warehouse, va-
rious grades may be purchased, but good pure seed
only should be bought by the farmer; notwithstanding
that it will be higher priced than the other grades. It
could not be otherwise. But in a majority of instances,
where timothy can be grown successfully, the farmer
can and ought to grow his own seed. When doing so
he simply requires to select a part of a field, usually
not more than two or three acres, in which the timothy
plants are vigorous and free from weeds. This when
ripe can be harvested and threshed as described above
and at the same time as the grain is threshed. If per-
fectly free from noxious weeds, winnowing such seed
further would not even seem much of a necessity. In
this way seed could be saved from year to year that
would be always fresh and pure.
Renewing. — The attempt is seldom made to renew
timothy meadows which at one time possessed a good
stand of plants, except by top dressing them with fer-
tilizers. But there are instances in which when the
seed is sown, only a partial stand is secured. Some
parts of the area sown, as the lower land for instance,
may have a good stand, and the higher land an imper-
fect stand or even no stand at all, and yet it may in
desirable to grow timothy on such areas. This may in
some instances be accomplished by sowing seed where
78 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
more plants are wanted in the early autumn, and cover-
ing with the harrow, even at the risk of sacrificing some
of the plants already growing. In others the seed is
sown in the early spring without harrowing and in yet
others it is sown later in the spring and harrowed.
Whether the attempt to thus complete the stand of the
plants all over the field will be preferable to ploughing
the land again and re-seeding it, will depend chiefly
upon the proportion of the entire area on which a suffi-
cient stand has been secured.
In pastures, timothy as other grasses is sometimes
renewed by adding more seed. This may be done in
the same way as meadows are renewed, as described
in the preceding paragraph, but in some instances the
ground is disked before adding the seed. In yet others
winter or spring rye is added on the disked parts to pro-
vide pasture speedily. And yet again timothy is sown
but not with much frequency and chiefly with the seed
of other pasture plants on pastures that have been disked
for the purpose of improving them.
CHAPTEK IV.
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS.
Blue grass is of several varieties. But two of these,
however, are of very much importance in furnishing
pasture or hay. These are the varieties known as (Poa
pratensis) and (Poa compressa). The former is more
commonly known as Kentucky blue grass, hut it is also
called June grass, from the fact, doubtless, that more
commonly it matures its seeds in June. It has also
been called Spear grass, and Smooth Stalked Meadow
grass. The latter is usually spoken of as Flat-Stemmed
Blue grass but is also sometimes called Wire grass and
Flat Stalked Meadow grass. A third variety commonly
spoken of as Texas Blue grass (Poa arachmfera), has
been found of considerable value in certain of the south-
ern states, but the discussion of this variety will be de-
ferred and taken up in Chapter XIV.
Poa pratensis varies in height from a few inches to
18 or 20 inches, but on average soils the height is about
15 inches, although under the most favorable conditions
it grows much higher.
The stem is erect, smooth and round, and the panicle
is also erect and spreading. The leaves are relatively
small and numerous. The whole plant is of a light
green color, but the spikelets frequently assume a brown-
ish purple tint, somewhat resembling the tint of red
80 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
top. The root-stocks are creeping, and when well set
they fill the sod with a close dense turf on a favorable
soil, hut it possesses the soil somewhat slowly, hence,
two or three years must usually transpire before it thus
possesses the soil. Poa compressa grows to the height
of about 1 foot, but, through liberal fertilizing may be
grown to the height of 2 or even 3 feet. The stems are
upright and flattened and are nearly solid. The pani-
cle is short and compact, but expands at the flowering
season. The leaves are short and fairly numerous.
The whole plant is of a dark bluish green color, and
the stems retain their color after the seeds have matured.
The root-stocks are creeping but under American condi-
tions do not fill the soil so completely as those of the
other variety.
Poa pratensis begins to grow reasonably early in the
spring and is at its best for pasture in the month of
May or June. It pushes up its seed-heads rapidly and
evenly and quickly matures its seed. The heads and
stems soon assume a yellow tint, and growth even of the
leaves practically ceases, if the weather is dry, until
the early fall rains come. The leaves then push out
again with much vigor and continue to grow until frost
comes, and where the climate is not severe they keep
green all winter. Poa compressa does not start quite
as early as Poa pratensis in the spring. It grows more
slowly and comes into flower several weeks later. It
usually matures seed in July. While it retains its
greenness for a long period, it does not grow so freely
in the autumn as Poa pratensis. Nevertheless under
favorable conditions it also furnishes good winter pas-
ture.
i /
FIG. 3.
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS (Poa pratensis).
Oregon Experiment Station.
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 83
Both varieties are very palatable. All kinds of stock
are exceedingly fond of both ; both are exceedingly nu-
tritious ; while both are hardy, Poa compressa is prob-
ably the hardier in so far at- least as it has greater power
to grow on poor, stiff, arid, dry soils. Poa pratensis
is the better pasture grass, but Poa compressa is much
the superior for hay. The former is highly prized
and is freely sown, whereas the latter has not been taken
at its true worth, and has usually grown as it were spon-
taneously. Consequently its distribution does not near-
ly equal that of the other variety. Taking it all in all,
Kentucky blue grass is probably the most valuable pas-
ture grass in America, but some authorities claim first
place in this respect for orchard grass. Unquestion-
ably, however, blue grass is more generally grown in
the United States than orchard grass, and the prefer-
ence thus shown for blue grass is not accidental since
blue grass is more palatable and nutritious and has a
wider distribution.
Distribution. — Blue grass (Poa pratensis) and also
(Poa compressa) are indigenous to Europe, and it is
thought also to certain parts of the United States. It
is thought to be native to the Wabash valley having been
found growing there in 1811 by the troops of William
Henry Harrison on their march to Tippecanoe. It
grows in considerable areas of Asia also and in certain
parts of New Zealand and Australia. It is becoming
in a sense cosmopolitan in the temperate zone. But
nowhere does it gr^w better than in certain parts of the
United States and Canada. In these it is more highl/
prized than in Great Britain, since in that country its
84 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
aggressive character enables it to crowd other valuable
grasses out of the permanence which ought to be re-
tained in the same.
These two varieties of blue grass grow best in tem-
perate climates. They can stand much cold in win-
ter and also heat in summer without succumbing to
either, but they do not grow well in a dry climate or
under conditions too dry for the successful growth of
the common cereals. It is found at its best where the
rains are moderate and frequent throughout much of
the year.
It is doubtless correct to say that blue grass is grown
more or less in every state and territory in the Union.
It would be equally correct to say that from the Missis-
sippi to the Atlantic it occupies more territory than
any other grass, and that in the greater portion of the
territory thus occupied it has been found more useful
in providing grazing than any other grass. The same
statement will apply with almost equal force to the
country westward from the Mississippi for a consider-
able distance, or until the areas are reached in which
the rainfall is light. From the line which forms the
eastward border of the area named until the Rocky
mountains are reached, and in the plains between the
mountains, as for instance, the bench lands in the Big
Bend country in Washington, the conditions are too
dry for the successful growth of blue grass. But in
the bench lands of the foot hills it is being found that
blue grass will yet fulfill a not unimportant mission.
This grass grows at its best in the United States in the
limestone soils of Kentucky and in the states lying
KENTUCKY BLUB GRASS. 85
northward from these until the lakes are reached.
These are the soils that grow hardwood timber, as for
instance hard maple, elm, basswood, ash, birch and
burr oak. The very highest adaptation for it, there-
fore, is found in what were the hardwood timber areas
of Kentucky, Missouri, Iowa, Indiana, Illinois, Ohio,
New York, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. It
also prevails in the New England and eastern states.
While in them the climate is very suitable for growing
it, the prevailing soils are such as only to produce q
moderate growth. In the southern states and especially
on the uplands and mountains blue grass grows freely.
But, because of certain soil peculiarities in some of
these, it has been stated that it is not so nutritious as
on the limestone soils of the central states. On soils
in the south that are sandy, the lack of fertility and
the summer heat are adverse to high production in blue
grass as pasture or as hay. On the moist Pacific slope
in Washington and Oregon this grass grows with: much
satisfaction where it has been introduced.
In Canada, blue grass grows in good form in all the
timber country from Winnipeg to the Atlantic. Nat-
urally infertile soils are against the most abundant pro-
duction in much of the soil in the maritime provinces,
but in Ontario blue grass grows with as much luxuri-
ance as in Kentucky, with the difference, however, thai
the season for its growth is shorter than in Kentucky.
In the prairie soils between Winnipeg and the moun-
tains, blue grass can be grown, but less satisfactorily
as Winnipeg is receded from until the Rocky mountains
are reached. In this area Russian hrome (Bromus in-
86 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ermis) will be superior. West of the mountains is a
country high in adaptation to the growing of blue grass.
But in no part, of Canada does blue grass grow better
than in Ontario. In some parts of that province its
growth is not excelled on any portion of the American
continent.
Soil.- — Blue grass is adapted to many kinds of soil.
In fact there is. scarcely any variety of the same in
which it will not grow to some extent unless it be soil
charged with alkali in a considerable degree, or sandy
soil low in fertility and deficient in moisture. The
wide range in adaptation to soil conditions which this
grass possesses, along with the even wider range which
it has of accommodating itself to climatic conditions
chiefly account for the fact, that on the '^orth American
continent it is now or is eventually going to be practi-
cally cosmopolitan in one of its varieties.
The highest conditions for the growth of blue grass
are found in clay loam soils and more particularly in
those underlaid with clay sufficiently retentive to retain
moisture at least in fair degree, and yet sufficiently open
to prevent water from lying unduly on the surface. In
other words the highest conditions for growing blue
grass are found in soils well adapted to the growth
of what are termed hard woods of varied character.
This explains, in part at least, why blue grass so quick-
ly takes possession of forest lands when cleared and
kept clear of timber.
Next in adaptation, probably, come rather stiff clays,
the producing powers of which have not been impaired
by working when unduly wet or by pasturing when in
KENTUCKY BLUB GRASS. 87
a similar condition. After these may be placed loam
soils, giving the precedence of course to clay loams,
rather than to sandy loams. The humus soils of the
western prairies, originally devoid of timber, cannot
be said to be possessed of the highest adaptation for
blue grass. On the other hand the adaptation of these
is not low. It is true, nevertheless, that ordinarily
blue grass does not make in these that thick, close, dense
growth that it makes in clay loam soils, nor will it with-
stand vicissitude so well. This explains, in part at
least, the greater difficulty in maintaining excellent blue
grass lawns in cities built on purely prairie humus
soils. On the soils of the far west volcanic in their
origin, blue grass will grow well where moisture is suffi-
ciently present, but in much of the area covered b\
these soils, water is wanting in that degree which hin-
ders seriously the growth of the grass.
The degree of the adaptation on muck lands for grow-
ing blue grass depends much on the nature of the muck
and on what lies beneath it. If the muck is consider-
ably mixed with soil washed down from higher land,
and if at the same time it is underlaid with clay, other
conditions being correct, blue grass will grow admir-
ably. On the other hand, if the muck is chiefly or en-
tirely composed of vegetable matter so little reduced
that many of the characteristics of peat appertain to
it, its adaptation to the growth of blue grass will be
considerably lessened. If it is underlaid with quick
sand, the degree of the adaptation will be still further
lessened.
In peat soils the adaptation for blue grass is lower
88 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
than in muck soils but much depends on the character
of the peat. If much reduced and the supply of moist-
ure is ample, such a soil may maintain a good growth
of blue grass, but, if the peat is but little reduced and
if the moisture is deficient, as it sometimes is in swamps
too deeply drained, the grass may not be able to main-
tain a stand upon it.
From what has been said about muck and peat soils,
it is very evident that the adaptation of these to the
growth of blue grass will vary exceedingly. In some
instances, more particularly when they are mixed with
deposits brought in from higher ground, and moreover
when the water-table lies at a correct distance from the
surface, such soils produce pasture with much abun-
dance and continuity. Under other conditions the re-
turns are meagre, and under yet other conditions this
grass may refuse to grow at all on peaty soils. When
soil saturation is unduly abundant and prolonged,
coarser grasses will be sustained, as for instance wire
grass. Nevertheless it is true that blue grass will live
under a thin covering of water at certain seasons for
several weeks.
Whether blue grass will grow at all on sandy soils
with but little earth in them will depend almost entirely
on the degree -of moisture present in them during the
growing season. On the other hand, there are certain
moist sandy loam soils which are highly adapted to its
growth. All degrees of adaptation are found between
these extremes in sandy soils, according as they are in-
fluenced by components other than sand, by moisture
and by temperature. But, as a rule, the adaptation of
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 89
really sandy soils to the growth of blue grass is low
rather than high. Poa comprcssa would seem to be the
hardier grass of the two since it will grow reasonably
well on dry, sandy, thin soils and gravelly knolls provid-
ing the rainfall is sufficient. JSTevertheless, moist grav-
elly clays are much better suited to its growth.
Place in the Rotation. — Blue grass in the strict sense
of the term, is not a rotation crop, since its highest use
is the production of pasture, and because it takes more
than one year to establish a good blue grass pasture. A
place is seldom given to it, therefore, in short rotations,
but of course as with alfalfa, it has a place in long ro-
tations. In other words there are certain crops which
it may be made to follow or precede with more of fit-
ness than if made to follow or precede other crops.
Owing, however, to its aggressive character it may be
made to follow almost any crop.
As with all other grasses it will become established
more quickly and will grow more vigorously when sown
on clean rather than on foul land. The aim should be,
therefore, to sow it after some cleaning crop as corn,
sorghum, the non-saccharine sorghums, potatoes, beans,
cow peas and soy beans when these crops have been
given clean cultivation. But there may be conditions
in which it may be proper to sow blue grass on soil that
is foul with certain forms of weed life, and also worn,
as for instance, when the pasture is wanted at the
earliest moment practicable, and no other soil properly
prepared is at hand on which to sow it. Observe, how-
ever, that it is only in exigencies that this course is to
be commended. When once it has obtained a foothold
yo GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
on such soils, it will soon prove more than a match for
nearly all lorms oi weed lile.
I'rcparuiy UIQ tioil. — The preparation that is best
suited LO liie sowing of blue grass will vary with the
soil, the climatic conditions, and the season lor sow-
ing, bandy soils and also humus and muck soils are
usually possessed of a pulverization sufficiently tine to
secure good germination in the seed. The labor in
preparing these is one of smoothing and levelling rather
man one oi pulverizing after they have been ploughed
or disked, in some instances impaction, through the
use of the roller, will be helpful. Loam soils may call
for more of pulverization, but usually the labor in pre-
paring these is not great. Clay soils are the most diffi-
cult by far to prepare, owing to the labor called for in
pulverizing them. In many instances they are cloddy,
hence much harrowing and roiling alternately are usual-
ly necessary to secure a tilth sufficiently hne. This
work may in some instances be greatly facilitated by not
failing to take advantage of propitious seasons for se-
curing the requisite fineness of pulverization, as for in-
siance, alter the falling of gently saturating rains, but
not too soon after these fall. Where rainiall is abun-
dant and well distributed, a fine pulverization is not
so necessary as under conditions the opposite.
On lands newly cleared of timber, no further prepa-
ration is necessary or even possible usually, than clear-
ing off the encumbering logs and brush. And even
such clearing may not always be absolutely necessary,
as among logs and brush not dense or tall, it may be
quite possible to start blue grass growing. On stubble
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 91
lands where blue grass is sown in the autumn, it may
in some instances be advisable to plough the land, as
when it is very foul with weeds. In other instances,
disking may suffice, as when the surface is clean but
unduly firm. And in yet other instances no prepara-
tion may be necessary, as when the surface is clean, soft
and moist.
When the seed is sown on clay soils in the autumn, a
pulverization of soil less fine will answer than if sown
on the same in the spring, especially when these are
exposed to alternations of freezing and thawing during
the winter, and to the sweep of cold winds. But when
sown on these in the spring also, pulverization too fine
would be possible, especially in climates where occa-
sionally downpours of rain occur, as these would encrust
clay surfaces when fine beyond a certain degree.
When the seed is sown in the spring, fine pulveriza-
tion is more necessary than in the autumn, and for
reasons that will be apparent from what has been said
above. But, happily the degree of the pulverization
that is best suited to the nurse crop will also be best
suited to the blue grass sown with it. That it is so is
fortunate, since, unless when sown for permanent pas-
ture, it is more common to sow blue grass with a nurse
crop, the reasons for which are given later. (See page
94.)
It is not usual to fertilize land on which blue grass
is to be sown with a view specially to promote the growth
of the blue grass. Since it is able to get and to main-
tain a hold on nearly all kinds of soil without such aid,
fertilizers are usually reserved for crops which have
92 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
less power to gather plant food in the soil. Fertilizers
that are suitable for timothy will also be suitable for
blue grass. (See page 72.) The method of fertiliz-
ing the pastures by top dressing them, would seem to
be preferred to that which fertilizes the land on which
the seed is to be sown, as the young plants grow too slow-
ly to make the best use possible of the fertility thus ap-
plied. But lands that are well filled with vegetable
matter are much more favorable to the growth of the
young plants than land in which the same is deficient.
Sowing. — In northern areas it is more common to
sow blue grass in the spring than in the autumn, and
probably for the reason chiefly, that it is more conven-
ient to sow it then, especially when sown as it usually
is in the north, along with other grass mixtures. But
it may in some instances be sown with much advantage
in these areas in the fall. In fact it is possible to sow
it successfully under some conditions during almost any
part of the season of growth. When sown in the spring,
the earlier that it is sown the more successfully it is
likely to grow. When sown in the autumn, the sooner
that it is put into the ground after moisture comes, the
more certain is the stand likely to be. In the states
of the middle south as for instance, Kentucky, where
probably this grass grows at its best, it is commonly
sown in the autumn, especially when sown by itself to
provide permanent pasture.
Nature teaches an important lesson with reference
to the sowing of this grass. Where not grazed too close-
ly it sows a crop of seed every year. The seed matures
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 93
upon the stalk and then falls down or is wafted by the
winds to adjacent areas. Under normal conditions the
seed thus wafted would seem to have much power to
grow. Of this fact evidence is furnished in the almost
absolute certainty with which blue grass ultimately
takes possession of waste land in a locality into which it-
has once been introduced and in which any of the seed
is allowed to mature.
The seed thus scattered must, in great part at least,
grow without a covering, hence the plan of growing blue
grass seed as soon as practicable after it is gathered,
even though it should be sown in the chaff, would seem
to be a commendable one. In southern latitudes, there-
fore, it would seem to be the better plan to sow blue
grass seed in the late summer and early autumn, since
in these it is nearly always practicable to sow it at that
season. The power which this grass has to grow with-
out a covering, especially when it is fresh and sown in
the chaff, explains why a stand can usually be obtained
with much certainty by cutting the grass like hay as
soon as the seed matures and scattering it over the
ground where a stand is desired. The hay thus scat-
tered affords protection for the young plants that grow
from the seeds when they come in contact with the
earth. Blue grass has thus been introduced on to sod-
bound native prairie where close pasturing has followed
this method of scattering the hay. It may be scattered
thus from the stack in winter if desired.
Blue grass is nearly always sown by hand, partly
for the reason that but few if any machines yet intro-
duced sow it satisfactorily, and also because the danger
94 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
would be present that in some soils at least, drill ma-
chines would cover the seed too deeply. When sown
in mixtures, it is common to mix the blue grass seeds
along with the seeds of other grasses before these are
sown. It is usually covered with a light harrow, since,
as previously intimated, a deep covering for this grass
is not necessary, although the proper depth at which
to cover it will vary with conditions. On soils which
incline to cloddiness, the roller will in many instances
provide a sufficient covering, but on such soils it ought
not to be covered thus, unless the harrow is made to
follow the roller.
In very many instances, blue grass is sown with a
nurse crop. The exceptions include lands more or less
deforested, rugged lands difficult of tillage and by-
places generally. Even when sown to provide perma-
nent pasture, it is frequently sown thus, but to this
(here are some exceptions also, especially in areas the
most favorable to its growth. In northern areas, win-
ter rye is probably the best nurse crop with which to sow
it, and chiefly for the reason that it may be sown on the
rye in the early autumn which is really the best season
for sowing it, all things considered, only a moderate
seeding of the rye should be used. If the rye is grazed off
in the spring, the blue grass will develop more quickly
and strongly than if the rye is harvested. In areas
with winters sufficiently mild, blue grass may also be
sown with winter barley and winter oats, also winter
wheat. When sown in the spring with a nurse crop
that is to mature, spring rye or barley is the most favor-
able to the growth of the grass. But if sown with
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 95
tli in seeding of oats cut early for hay, the results will
probably be quite as good.
Blue grass should not be sown in short rotations, since
it is slow in becoming well established. In rotations
of some considerable duration, it is frequently sown in
combination with medium red, mammoth or alsike
clover, or with all three combined, with white clover
and timothy added. The clovers and timothy are in-
tended to furnish grazing until the blue grass becomes
well established. Blue grass, orchard grass and white
clover make an excellent combination for such rotations
where the conditions favor the growth of all three. On
low-lying soils such as are found in sloughs, blue grass,
red top, timothy and alsike clover make a good combi-
nation for hay or for pasture. In latitudes in which
the winters are stern, blue grass, Russian brome grass
and white clover grown together, promise much for
such rotations, but experience in growing them thus is
not of sufficient duration to determine fully the value of
such a pasture crop. It is not yet known whether blue
grass or Russian brome if sown together would obtain
the mastery or if both would continue to grow indefinite-
ly. On lands once covered with forest, it is probable
that blue grass would crowd the Russian brome, but
that on real prairie soils the reverse would prove true.
When sown in mixtures intended for permanent pas-
tures, the relative prominence given to the blue grass
should increase with its relative adaptation to the local-
ity, and, even when blue grass is intended to be virtually
the sole grass in the pasture, white clover ought to be
sown along with it. The clover probably aids the growth
96 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
of the blue grass rather than hinders it, since it brings
nitrogen to the soil. It also grows most vigorously after
the blue grass has begun its summer rest, hence the sea-
son of pasturage is prolonged. The two will also grow
thus together for an indefinite period.
The amounts of seed to sow will vary with soil and
climatic conditions and with the combinations in which
the seed is sown. When sown alone on good soils and
without a nurse crop it is seldom necessary to sow
more than 20 to 28 pounds of good clean seed per
acre, but if sown in the chaff not less probably than 3
or 4 bushels per acre would be required. When sown
with Russian brome grass and white clover without a
nurse crop 6 pounds of the brome grass and 1 pound of
the clover, and 10 pounds of the blue grass per acre will
usually make a sufficient seeding. But to increase the
grazing the first year, it will doubtless be found profit-
able to add 3 to 4 pounds of timothy per acre. When
sown on low lands with timothy, red top and alsike clo-
ver, 4, 4 and 3 pounds each per acre of these respective
forage plants, with 7 pounds of blue grass ought to
suffice. When the mixture consists of blue grass, tim-
othy and medium red or mammoth clover, 7 pounds of
the blue grass, 6 of timothy and 3 to 4 pounds of medi-
um red clover per acre ought to suffice. When sown in
combination with many varieties of grass and clover,
as in making permanent pastures mixed in character,
usually not more than 5 pounds of blue grass per acre
will be required. Where white clover is not already es-
tablished in any locality, that is, where it has not been
grown long enough to lodge many of its seeds in the
KENTUCKY BLUB GRASS. 97
soil, it will always or nearly always be in order to add
a little white clover to any of the mixtures referred to.
In some instances it may not be necessary to sow blue
grass in these, since, in certain soils on which it has
been grown for some time, these would seem to be so
filled with the seed that blue grass within two, three or
four years, will have possessed the soil to the extent of
crowding the other grasses to their injury.
When purchasing blue grass seed, much attention
should be given to the character of the same in regard
to cleanliness, more particularly in regard to freeness
from chaff. The standard weight of blue grass is 14
pounds to the measured bushel, and yet as handled by
seedsmen the weight varies from 8 to 30 pounds per
bushel. This point should not be overlooked when deter-
mining the amount to sow.
Pasturing. — Under certain conditions blue grass will
readily establish itself, though live stock should have
constant access to the fields where it has been sown.
There are other conditions where such treading wouLi
injure both the soil and also the grass. But, generally
speaking, grazing closely while the plants are young
does not injure blue grass as it would other grasses. In
fact such close grazing may be advantageous to it by
removing shade, as when the seed is sown on the un-
broken prairie. Until blue grass becomes well establish-
ed on clay soils, it should not be grazed when these are
unduly wet, or the soil will poach and will also become
impacted to the injury of the grazing. However, when
blue grass has covered the soil with a thick sod it may be
Grasses — 7.
98 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
grazed even on stiff clays with but little injury to the
land at nearly all seasons of the year.
Blue grass may usually be grazed closely all the while
without destroying the stand of the same. But when
grazed thus a maximum of pasture under the conditions
existing cannot be secured, and the drier the climate
the less, relatively, will the grazing be that is pro-
duced. When kept eaten down closely, the capacity of
the plants to grow is lessened, through a less vigorous
vitality than they would otherwise have, and through
the increased exposure of the soil to the evaporating in-
fluences of the sun. Such exposure in winter is also
adverse to the most vigorous growth and this influence
is intensified with increase in the severity of the cold
when the ground is uncovered. Grazing in winter under
such conditions is also to some extent harmful, but blue
grass pasture seldom succumbs entirely because of close
grazing, on account of adverse climatic conditions,
where it has once become established.
To obtain the largest possible amount of pasture from
blue grass it should not be grazed closely at any season.
So great ordinarily is the increase in the yield of the
pasture, when thus managed, that in some instances it
is not grazed at all in the spring. When thus left un-
grazed at that season, the grass reaches a maximum of
growth usually in May or June, according to the lati-
tude, and matures more or less seed. The seed stems
dry so as to be of little service for food, but the mass of
fine leaves near the ground usually retain their green-
ness during the summer and renewed growth follows
the falling of autumnal rains. Such pastures furnish
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 99
excellent summer and autumn grazing, especially for
horses and cattle. They usually lay on flesh quickly
while being thus grazed. In climates sufficiently mild,
these pastures also furnish good winter grazing for these
classes of animals. For sheep and swine they are not
so palatable, because of the presence of weedy seed
stems, nevertheless sheep are likely to do well on such
pastures more especially in the winter. They and also
horses will even paw off the light snows and maintain
themselves in good form from such grazing where the
climatic conditions are not too severe.
When blue grass pastures are grazed off closely in
the spring and early summer, and the stock is then re-
moved during the greater part of the season, the grass
will usually make a good growth. Where the winters
are mild, such grazing will be found particularly adapt-
ed to the grazing of sheep. But when covered with
white frost, animals turned upon them early in the day
should first have access to some kind of fodder, lest dis-
orders in the digestion should be produced. Where the
winters are stern, these pastures should furnish excel-
lent grazing in the early spring. They begin to grow
considerably earlier than when they have not been thus
protected, and the growth is more vigorous. The fresh
blades growing up in the grass add to its palatability,
and the blades and stems that have cured on the ground
counteract the tendency in the new growth at such a
season to produce in animals a too lax condition in the
digestion. Moreover these pastures furnish abundant
grazing at that early season when it cannot so well be
obtained from any other source. Blue grass whon re-
100 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
tained for pasturing for prolonged periods crowds out
nearly all kinds of weeds. Among the exceptions are
ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis), blueweed (Echi-
um vulgare), the oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucan-
themum) and in some instances the Canada thistle
(Cirsium arvense). When these are present in any
considerable numbers it may be advantageous to clip
them annually with the scythe or with the field mower
to prevent them from maturing seed, as live stock are not
likely to graze them off.
Harvesting for Hay. — Blue grass being rather a pas-
ture than a hay plant, is not usually made into hay,
unless in the absence of better hay products. It is not
sufficiently bulky, hence the yield per acre is not large,
and unless cut with much promptness as soon as it
reaches the proper stage, it becomes woody. To secure
a large amount of blue grass hay would necessitate
mowing over a relatively large area in proportion to
the bulk. But this does not mean that blue grass does
not produce a large amount relatively of pasture per
acre, since, in growing pasture, it virtually produces
two growths in the year, that is, in the spring and in
the autumn. JSTor do the above remarks , apply equally
to the variety Poa compressa, which, in suitable soils,
will yield at least -a ton per acre of good hay. The crop
is not bulky, but it weighs very heavily in proportion to
its bulk and the hay is much relished, especially by
horses. Moreover it has the peculiar property of gum-
ming the knives of the mower while it is being cut.
Blue grass is ready for being cut when in early bloom.
Tt is not difficult to cure, hence, in good weather it may
KENTUCKY ,BJ;aj]E Glts. '> - \ \ ] ,' 101
be cured in the winrow after having lain in the swath for
a period more or less prolonged. Running the tedder
along the winrow will facilitate the curing process, but
usually the crop is not bulky enough to call for the use
of the tedder, before it is raked in winrows. Of course
it may be cured in the cock when desired, and when thus
put up, the cocks are not readily penetrated by rain.
This accounts for the fact that hay cut in fence corners
and by-places, which is frequently chiefly blue grass,
has long furnished a favorite material for topping stacks
of grain, clover and in fact nearly all kinds of farm
crops.
On certain soils, blue grass conies into meadows with-
out being sown, and so as to furnish a large part of
the hay crop. In these instances it is usually ready for
cutting earlier than other grasses. The best time to har-
vest the crop under such conditions should be deter-
mined by the extent to which the other hay plants are
present, and by their proportionate value for hay. The
aim should be to cut the crop at that stage which will
give the largest amount of good food, though some of
the plants should be over mature and some of them un-
der mature.
Securing Seed. — While it would seem to be true that
blue grass is capable of maturing seed in any climate in
which the plants will live, it is also true that the prac-
tice of harvesting it for seed is confined to but limited
areas. At the present time the larger portion of the
seed sold in the market as Kentucky blue grass comes
from certain counties of Kentucky, Iowa and Missouri.
Of course, some other states furnish more or less. The
102 /\ r(3R.A:SgBS- AND HOW TLO GROW THEM.
reason why the states named furnish so much seed is
owing probably to the relative abundance of the seed
production in these, but is also owing in part, doubt-
less, to the fact that in other areas, prolific also in the
production of seed, the farmers have not yet come to
realize the profit that may accrue from harvesting blue
grass seed. Special care is also necessary in handling
and storing the seed, as shown later, and this may also
act as a deterring influence. But, whatever the reasons
that deter farmers from harvesting the seed for market,
with the aid of a stripper operated by hand or by horse
power, they may without difficulty collect seed for sow-
ing on their own farms and of the finest quality, which
may be sown in the chaff.
The seed, as just intimated, is harvested with a strip-
per, of which there are two leading kinds, viz., the ro-
tary and the comb. The former is simply a box on
wheels with a revolving cylinder in front with numer-
ous wire nails in it. This revolves rapidly and throws
the seed into the box. The latter is a platform hung on
wheels and has in front a heavy steel comb. It is im-
portant that the pastures be kept free from weeds, as
any leaves of these which grow in the grass will be
thrown into the box along with the seed. Portions of
the heads are also thus mixed with the seed. The revolv-
ing stripper, which is usually about as wide as the field
mower, can harvest more acres in a day than the field
mower, since it may be driven faster. The seed is
ready for being harvested as soon as the heads turn
brown. The harvesting season usually lasts from say 10
to 14 days, but this is influenced by locality and is some-
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 105
times of even less duration. The yield of course varies
greatly; the approximate average may be put ai 7 to 8
bushels per acre, but in some instances as many as 25
bushels have been harvested.
Great care must be used in curing blue grass seed or
it will lose its germinating power. It heats very read-
ily, so much so, that what is gathered should be emptied
from the sacks at the end of each half clay's work. It
should be spread on a tarpaulin or on clean ground to dry
in the sun, or on a drying floor with the opportunity for
more or less draught to pass over it. On the floor it
would not be well to spread seed more deeply than two
inches at the first. The depth may be gradually in-
creased, but at no time probably should it be more than
say 15 to 20 inches. So quickly does the newly stripped
seed heat when not thinly spread, that it has been known
to entirely lose its germinating power within 24 hours
of the time at which it was harvested. While newly
harvested seed may possess 95 per cent in germinating
power, seed put upon the market is considered good when
the germinating power is 50 per cent. After the seed
has been dried sufficiently it is usually shipped to cer-
tain centers where it is cleaned with machinery espe-
cially adapted to the work.
This grass will furnish seed in suitable localities for
successive years. Nor does the reaping of seed hinder
grazing the land subsequently the same season. It is
claimed that after the seed is harvested, more grazing
will be obtained from such a pasture than from one
that has been grazed closely from spring until fall. The
claim is probably correct, since the harvesting only re-
104 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
moves the seed, and as has been shown previously, close
grazing all the time tends to lessen production.
Renewing. — The renewing of blue grass pastures, im-
portant as it is, calls for further experimenting before
all is known that ought to be known with reference to it,
but some things regarding this question have been settled
with at least a measure of definiteness. Among these
are the following:
1. That in many localities blue grass pastures at
length become "sodbound?' that is, the plants become
so numerous and the roots so matted, that the free
growth of the grass is so hindered that the maximum
of production is reduced in proportion as this condition
exists, and it becomes further aggravated in dry weath-
er. 2. That this sodbound condition may be so dealt
with as to greatly improve the yield of the pasture crops.
This has been attempted in various ways, but chiefly
through the aid of the disk harrow, and also the com-
mon harrow, has it been successfully accomplished. The
following has probably been the most successful of all
the ways that have been tried of renovating blue grass
pastures which have been sodbound: The disk harrow
is run over the sod at that season when the frost is only
out sufficiently to allow the disks to cut down to the
depth of two or three inches, and yet the frost below pre-
cludes the sinking of the feet of the horses to any con-
siderable depth. The disk is then run straight crosswise
or at an angle over the land previously disked. The
disks are set so as to leave the cuts of sod somewhat on
edge. The harrow then follows at once or a little later.
If other seed is to be sow^n, as white clover, or orchard
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 105
grass or both, or indeed any kind of clover, it should
usually be sown before the harrow. The necessity for
using a roller will depend upon conditions. And there
may be some soils, as for instance, very stiff clays,
where such treatment would injure the land through
poaching, unless alternate freezing and thawing fol-
lowed quite soon. This method of renewal has succeeded
well on prairie soils. But the attempts to improve blue
grass pastures by simply running the harrow over them
have not proved markedly successful. 3. That when
the stand of the seed on blue grass pastures is thin or
spotted, it may be renewed in some instances by simply
adding more seed. In other instances by pasturing so
lightly that some seed will mature and fall, and through
its subsequent distribution by the winds will strengthen
the pasture. And in yet other instances by disking those
portions of the pasture with but little grass on them
and sowing and adding more seed along with rye or some
other grain. When more seed is scattered over the
pastures, the early autumn will probably prove the best
season for sowing it, using, if possible, fresh seed, and
harrowing or not harrowing, according to conditions.
The next most favorable season for doing this is the
early spring. Winter rye will usually be found the most
suitable grain to sow on the disked portions of pastures,
as, if sown in the early fall, it will furnish grazing both
fall and spring, while the grass sown along with it is be-
coming rooted. And 4. Blue grass pastures may be
greatly strengthened by spreading over them farmyard
manure, fresh or -at any stage in its decay. The man-
nure may be applied at any season of the year. But
106 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
tlie best results probably are secured by spreading it in
the fall and also in the early winter. It then acts as a
protecting mulch, and since the soluble portions wr'h
down into the surface of the soil and are taken up by
the grass roots, the result is a free and abundant growth
of grass. Nor does the manure when thus applied affect
injuriously the palatability of the grass. This it does
to some extent, if applied after the grass has made much
growth in the spring.
Commercial fertilizers are seldom applied to blue
grass pastures and chiefly for the reason that they can-
not be spared for such a use. In other words, it is con-
sidered more necessary to use them for other crops. But
should the circumstances justify the application, the
growth of the grass may be much stimulated by their use.
The needs of the soil should determine the fertilizer to be
used. Usually nitrogen may be applied with advantage
in the spring after growth has begun. One or two dress-
ings may be given as necessary, with an interval of sev-
eral weeks between them. On nearly all soils blue grass
will be benefited by dressing it with phosphates fall and
spring, and the same is true of dressings of potash. The
increased growth, from dressing with wood ashes is also
marked.
Blue grass will, on certain soils, come into the mead-
ows and pastures to the extent of finally crowding out
the grasses composing them, without having been sown
in the same, unless by the hand of nature. This it will
do under all or nearly all conditions quite favorable to
its growth. For instance, where timothy and clover are
sown and cut for two or three successive seasons for
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. Io7
meadow, tliis grass is pretty certain to appear more or
less the second year, and if grazing follows in subsequent
years it will not be very long till the pasture is one of
blue grass. This would seem to indicate that many of
the seeds of this grass are lying in such soils in a dor-
mant state, and ready to grow when the conditions favor
such growth.
It is possible also to so transform the grasses of the
prairie without ploughing them that they will ultimately
become essentially blue grass pastures. This may be
done by scattering seed over them, not necessarily in
large quantities at one time, in the autumn or early
spring. The best time probably for sowing such seed
is just after it has been gathered. Especially is this
true of areas in which the summer climate is dry, as
for instance, the bench lands of Rocky mountain areas.
The seed thus used may be sown quite as well in the
chaff as in the cleaned form. In due time some of the
plants will grow. If only a part of them are allowed
to mature their seeds, as when the grazing is not too
close, these fall down and are scattered more or less and
produce fresh plants. The transforming process is
hastened by the increase of plants through the root-
stalks pushed out from the growing plants. It may be
still further hastened by adding more seed the second
autumn or the third. The advantage from sowing the
seed in small quantities at one time and repeating the
sowing another season lies in the fact that the risk of
losing all or nearly all the seed is lessened, should it all
be sown at one time, and a very dry season follow. When
the seed is sown thus it would not seem necessary to
108 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
scatter more than three or four pounds pur acre at.
one time. The period required to transform pasture
thus will of course vary greatly, but the transforming
work is usually done in a few years. There are, how-
ever, localities which include wide areas, as on certain
of the ranges, especially those of the south and west,
where such transformation cannot be made, owing to
the aridity of the conditions.
When blue grass is newly introduced into any locality
it may be established readily in by-places with but little
expense, if the seed grown even on limited areas is
saved by means of a hand stripper and scattered over
these as soon as it has been secured. Seed thus sown
has strong germinating power.
On certain soils that are springy in character, blue
grass will come in and take possession, when the forest
is cut away. These soils are usually composed of muck
and more commonly they are located at the base of a
hill, or lie between land that on either side is more or
less elevated. Seepage waters come into these
depressions, of course, from subterranean sources, and
rising from below saturate them to excess at certain sea-
sons of the year. At other seasons they can be grazed.
Partly through the action of frost and partly because of
treading .by animals grazing on them, these lands as-
sume the form of innumerable hillocks resembling ant
hills. ^These lands usually furnish a large amount of
grazing. If, however, the seepage waters coming down
from the higher land were sufficiently intercepted by a
drain or drains skirting the same at the base, and run-
ning parallel to them, the capacity of such grazing lands
KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS. 109
would be irmcli increased. The surface would also
gradually assume a level form.
Blue Grass in Lawns. — Wherever Kentucky blue
grass can be grown successfully it is a favorite grass for
lawns. The dense, fine, almost velvety sward it make??
pre-eminently fits it for such a use. Its crowding habit
of growth enables it to keep at bay almost all forms of
weed life when it has once become set; that is to say,
well established. Cessation of growth and turning
brown for a time in summer when unirrigated, are the
weakest points in this grass as a lawn grass.
In making lawns on the farm the ground should be
first cleaned on the surface, as by summer fallowing for
the whole or even for a part of the season. It should
then be well-levelled. The seed ought then to be sown,
preferably in the early autumn and covered with a rake
or a light harrow. It may be sown unmixed or mixed
with white clover, and with or without a nurse crop of
grain sown thinly, according as conditions may call for
the same. . The nurse crop and weeds if present should
be cut back occasionally the first season. If the farm
house lawn can be cut with the field mower much labor is
saved in keeping it in order.
In making blue grass lawns in cities substantially the
same process may be followed, with the difference that
these being small it may be necessary to do much of the
labor by hand, and the seed may be sown any time
between spring and early fall when the ground can be
watered. It is important with all lawns that the earth
shall all have evenly settled before the seed is sown, and
it should be thickly sown to promote quick setting.^
110 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
When a blue grass lawn is well established under
suitable conditions and with ordinary care, it is there
to remain. If a more vigorous growth is wanted it may
be secured by top dressing with farmyard manure or
with compost well decomposed and preferably applied
in the autumn. In some instances the dressing should
be raked off in the spring. Wood ashes and commercial
fertilizers may also be applied, but these do not afford
winter protection as does the manure or the compost. If
commercial fertilizers are applied, those nitrogenous in
character are to be preferred.
CHAPTEE V.
BERMUDA GRASS.
Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon) is also known by
the names Dog's Tooth grass, Scutch grass, Wire grass,
Reed's grass, Bahama grass, and Indian Couch grass. In
Australia it is called Couch grass and in India Darva
grass. The name Dog's Tooth grass is a literal rendering
of Cynodon, the first word of the botanical designation.
The name Bermuda grass has doubtless been applied to
it from the abundant growth which it makes in the Ber-
muda islands, although it did not originate in these. Dr.
Phares says it is the same as Creeping Dog's Tooth grass
in England, Chiendent in France, and Doob or Durva in
the East Indies. Some writers claim that it is the Sa-
cred Durva grass of the Hindoos, celebrated in the sa-
cred vedas as the shield of India, in the absence of which
the cattle would perish, but the evidence in support of
this view is not regarded as entirely satisfactory.
Bermuda grass is a creeping perennial, the creeping
stems of which produce nodes or joints at short intervals.
Each node is capable of producing a new plant, though
completely separated from all the others. These stems
have been known to extend 12 to 15 feet in a single sea-
son under the most favorable conditions for growth.
When the joints come in contact with the earth, they
send down fibrous roots into the soil as do the run-
112 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ners of white clover. It also produces -underground
stems near the surface to the depth of 4 to 5 inches and
extending outward several feet. From the overground
creeping stems are numerous ascending or upright leafy
branches from 4 to 10 inches in height. Other grasses of
like appearance have only a single leaf to each joint,
while this grass has two, three, and even four leaves to
the joint. From 3 to 5 digitate spikes are borne on each
stem at the top when it blooms. These are widely
spreading, often purplish in color and 1 to 2 inches
long. The leaves are flat, also spread widely and grad-
ually taper to a slender acute tip. The roots, other than
the underground root-stalks, are fibrous and feed deeply,
but the usual depth for ploughing is deeper than the
root-stalks are wont to go.
This grass, much written and spoken against, and
much feared by many planters because of the difficulty
of eradicating it in cultivated land, is steadily growing
in favor in the south, and justly so, owing chiefly
to its great value as a pasture grass under southern con-
ditions. Lands well laid down to Bermuda grass are in
many instances considered the most valuable property
of the southern farmer. It is strictly a summer grass,
as it grows best when the heat is greatest, the other
conditions being right. It starts late in the spring, grows
slowly at first and turns brown with the earliest frosts
of autumn, but it grows right on through the whole of
the summer. While it grows best in good soils, no grass
in the south will furnish so much valuable pasture when
grown on poor sandy, gullied or worn soils. It has much
power to withstand heat and drought. Though ap-
td
1 1
! o
in hcj
w S
BERMUDA GRASS. 115
parently dead from drought it will quickly revive when
moisture comes. It will also withstand inundations
better probably than any other valuable grass grown in
the south. But it does not succeed well in the shade,
hence it is not well adapted for being grown in groves
and while it is becoming "set" it must be protected
against brome grass and briers. It will not grow in cold
or even cool weather, nor can it live in a soil deeply
penetrated by frost. Under favorable conditions it cov-
ers the soil so densely as to exercise a salutary and con-
siderable influence on the retention of moisture, and it
is also favorable to the action of earthworms, so helpful
to soil improvement.
This grass is beyond question the most valuable pas-
ture grass in the south. It will furnish grazing on soils
too poor to grow cultivated crops, will furnish more
and better grazing than any other southern grass and
will also stand closer grazing and more tramping under
all conditions than any other. All kinds of live stock
kept upon the southern farm are fond of it, at all stages
of development until smitten by frost. It also makes
excellent and valuable hay, more palatable and nutri-
tious than that made from blue grass.
Bermuda grass also renders excellent service in pre-
venting erosion in soils and in binding the same. It
will hold together the most arid and loose sands when
once set in them. It has no superior in forming a sod
on ditch banks and ravines. It is specially helpful in
filling up gullies little by little, since it grows up
through the deposit of soil which it arrests from water
passing through it. It aids in holding up steep banks
116 GRASSES AND H6W TO GROW THEM.
and in preventing land slides, and nothing can surpass
it for sodding the levees of alluvial lands. It is also
used as a lawn grass in the south where blue grass will
not so well serve the purpose. The chief objection to it
is the brown shade which characterizes it during the sea-
son of frost.
One of the chief objections to Bermuda grass is the
difficulty found in eradicating it on good soils. Many
growers of this grass, however, affirm that they do not
desire to completely eradicate it where it is grown in
rotation with other crops, since the residue of the grass
plants remaining in the soil after .other crops have been
grown in the rotation, makes the re-establishment of
this grass much easier than it would otherwise be.
Distribution. — It is thought that Bermuda grass is a
native of tropical Asia. It is now grown in n\any trop-
ical countries. It has been grown to a considerable ex-
tent in various areas of southern Asia widely distant
from one another. Howsoever introduced, it has been
grown in the southern states for fully three quarters of
a century. Its growth there is said to have been first
noted by General Bethune, who gave considerable at-
tention to its distribution in the south.
In the United States it is grown chiefly south of the
37th parallel, that is, south of a line running along or
near the northern limit of the states of North Carolina,
Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Mexico and Arizona,
including the southern portion of California. It would
seem to be grown in every state south of this line and
eastward from Texas. In these states it is probably
destined to become the best pasture grass grown, and in
BERMUDA GRASS. U?
them it is also likely to be much grown for hay. Its
growth has been much retarded in the cotton growing
states by the trouble found in completely exterminating
it in soils much used for growing cotton and corn, but
now that the fact is becoming recognized that the lands
well set to Bermuda grass are yielding higher revenues
than the former, its growth is rapidly extending. It is
certainly destined to become the leading pasture grass
in all the states south of the parallel named, in areas
susceptible of cultivation.
Bermuda grass has also been grown with much success
in Virginia where the farmers are laying down to this
grass considerable areas that were formerly devoted to
wheat culture. In Southern Kentucky, Missouri and
Kansas, it has been introduced to some extent, but only
with variable success because of the cold in winter. Even
in some parts of Tennessee and Oklahoma, winter weath-
er injures it. It will succeed well in Southern Califor-
nia, and reasonably well in much of that state, but it is
not a success in Oregon. North of the states named this
grass would not seem to have any economic mission be-
cause of low temperatures. It will live much further
north, but does not make sufficient growth to enable it to
compete with grasses better adapted to northern condi-
tions.
Bermuda grass has no economic mission whatever for
Canada. It is doubtful if it would endure the cold win-
ters in any province of Canada except possibly in Brit-
ish Columbia and close beside the Pacific.
Soils. — Bermuda grass will grow and thrive in almost
any kind of soil, but of course not equally well. It
118 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
thrives best on rich soils, alluvial in character, such as
is found in river bottoms arid in drained depressions
into which deposit has been washed from the higher
lands. It is much better adapted to sandy lands than
to stiff clays, but in the latter it will grow when once it
gets a start. It may be made to cover any of the soils
so depleted in fertility that their cultivation has been
abandoned, providing other forms of growth, as broom
sedge and bushes are not allowed to crowd and over-
shadow the grass while it is becoming set. It may be
made to bind shifting sands so light that they will blow,
though of course from the shifting character of these it
is not easy to get the plants started. It will also tolerate
considerable alkali in the soil, insomuch that on soils too
alkaline to grow other grasses, it will yield some profit
grown as pasture and on subsoils laid bare through the
removal of the top soils in filling gullies, it will grow,
providing they are given a light dressing of farmyard
manure. The service that it may be made to render in
turning those gullied soils and worn lands into profita-
ble grazing and in preventing them from washing in the
future, is, in the aggregate, beyond all computation.
Place in the Rotation. — Strictly speaking, Bermuda
grass is not a rotation plant. Because of the difficulty
found in eradicating this grass and because of its con-
tinuity in growth, its highest use is found in permanent
pastures. But it can be and is used in rotations. For
instance, it may be followed by corn, cotton or wheat
or other grains, growing these in some sort of alternation
for a limited number of years. Those who grow it
thus and who wish to lay down these lands to Ber-
BERMUDA GRASS. 119
inuda grass again, are careful not to carry the extermin-
ating process too far before this is attempted. The
roots remaining in the soil will again produce Bermuda
pastures if properly protected. There is the objection
to this plan, however, that it does not admit of what may
be termed clean cultivation.
Because of the increased crops that have been ob-
tained after breaking up lands on which Bermuda has
grown for several years, some have concluded that it is
a soil enricher. This, however, is not correct in the
sense intended. If pastured or mown for successive
years, the land meanwhile receiving no dressing of ferti-
lizer, in any form, as with timothy in the north, the fer-
tility content would be lessened in its entirety. The
better crops which follow this grass are due, therefore,
to the much humus put into the soil by the grass, in
other words, to the mechanical and chemical influence
which it exerts on the soil in its decay, and to the fer-
tility which is thus made more readily available.
Preparing the Soil. — When land is to be laid down
to Bermuda grass, the cleaner and richer it is, and the
better its mechanical condition, the sooner will a stand
of the grass be secured, and the greater will be the re-
turns from it. When planting it on cultivated land,
therefore, any attention that is judiciously given to the
cleaning of the land will be time well spent. The con-
ditions for planting after a well cared for corn, cotton or
tobacco crop, are very suitable.
For spring planting the preparation that is given to
making the land ready for a corn crop is deemed suita-
120 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ble also for planting Bermuda grass, but such prepara-
tion should be made early in the season.
When the crop "is planted on rough land possessed
with sassafras and broom sage, the only preparation
given is to remove these for a time by cutting and this
may be absolutely necessary even when judicious grazing
is possible. The same is also true of stony and rough
land. . Poor land that has been gullied is prepared by
ploughing, which should be deep rather than shallow,
by filling the gullies with the scraper and applying a thin
coating of farmyard manure when the top soil has been
removed before planting the grass.
Sowing or Planting. — As the seed of Bermuda grass
is low in germinating power and as the price is high,
running all the way from, say 50 cents to $1.00 per
pound, it is not much sown in the United States. It is
not only low in germinating power, but the young
plants from the seed grow so slowly that they are
much liable to injury from the crowding of weeds,
unless well cared for. The plan, therefore, of plant-
ing portions of the roots has come to be generally
adopted.
Nevertheless it may be advisable to sow seed on a
limited area, in order to get a stand of plants to be
used as cuttings in laying down pastures. It should be
sowed only on clean and good land and while the same is
moist. It is recommended to sow the seed broadcast and
to cover it with a rake. A pound of seed should sow
one-fifth to one-third of an acre. Weeds must be kept
away from the young plants until they attain some con-
siderable size. The method of sowing the seed in drills
BERMUDA GRASS. 121
would doubtless be preferable. It would call for less
seed and would make it practicable to keep the land
clear Avith considerably less labor. Lawns may be thus
seeded where Bermuda cuttings or sods cannot be ob-
tained.
The following are chief among the methods com-
monly adopted in planting the grass :
1. Portions of sod are obtained and are cut into
pieces about 2 inches square with a sharp spade or corn
knife. Shallow furrows are made both ways in well
prepared land and the pieces of sod carried in baskets
or otherwise are placed in the intersections of these.
The top side of the sod is kept upward. Sometimes
the earth is adjusted to the pieces with a hoe or they
are covered lightly with the plough, the land then being
smoothed with the harrow.
2. In the fall while breaking the land with a turning
plough, drop small pieces of sod in every third furrow
behind the plough 1 to 2 feet distant, the next furrow
slice being made to cover these. Then sow rye on the
land and in the spring graze down by cattle to aid in
removing the shade from the crop and to firm the land.
Horses and sheep should not be thus grazed while the
grass is setting, as they bite off many of the creeping
stems and thus interfere with the spread of the grass.
3. In light furrows made between the rows of corn
when ready to be laid by, drop small pieces of the sod
1 to 2 feet apart and cover with a small harrow or
plank leveller, such as may be run between the rows of
corn.
4. The plants are dug up and shaken free from earth
122 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and run through a cutting box, the aim being not to
make the lengths shorthand these are scattered over well
prepared land and covered with the harrow, followed or
preceded by the roller as may be advisable under the cir-
cumstances. It has been recommended to sow it thus
with oats, but there is the objection that the shade from
the oats will hinder growth. If the oats are cut for
hay, however, the injury thus resulting may not be any
more than from weeds growing amid the plants.
5. In unprepared land on which broom sage and sas-
safras may be growing, pieces of sod drawn in a wagon
may be planted in openings in the ground made with a
hoe, the earth being adjusted with the foot. These
openings may run from 3 to 6 feet apart each way. The
closer they are the more quickly will the grass possess
the land. Attention must be given at the same time to
removing the shade of broom sage or sassafras if growing
there, by grazing or cutting down according to the
season of the year. This method is adapted to the
planting of large areas of run down land when it is de-
sired to change them into Bermuda pastures at a mini-
mum expenditure of labor.
6. Small areas are sometimes planted by barefoot
boys who drop the pieces of sod into the soil when soft
and push them down into the same with the foot.
Spring planting should begin as soon as the danger
from frost is over and may continue on into the sum-
mer, but early planting is much to be preferred. When
planting in the autumn it is necessary to cover more
deeply than when planting in the spring. Planting
when moisture is absent should be avoided, and fresh
plants or cuttings only should be used In some in-
BERMUDA GRASS. 123
stances cultivation is given to the land for a time be-
tween the rows of Bermuda sets with a view to clean the
same. In other instances pasturing with cattle has the
same object in view, and in yet other instances the crab
grass which grows on the land is cut for hay.
A real difficulty is frequently experienced in trying to
get Bermuda grass to grow on shifting sands, from the
very fact that they do shift. About all that can be
done probably to prevent this, is to plant the grass at
those seasons when growth is possible and when high
winds are less likely to prevail.
Pasturing. — Bermuda grass is unquestionably the
best pasture grass in the south, viewed from the stand-
point of palatability, productiveness and endurance.
There are reasons for believing that in its proper sphere
it will produce more grazing and more meat than blue
grass under the most favored conditions. When well set
on good land, it has maintained a mature cattle beast
to each acre and produced more than 200 pounds of
beef during six months of grazing. Sheep can graze
upon it from 7 to 9 months in the year according to the
locality. One explanation of its ability to produce
these results is found in its power to grow right through
the summer months. The first frosts, however, injure it
for grazing, since they turn the leaves brown, and se-
vere frosts northward from the Gulf of Mexico take
the succulence out of the stems and leaves. Further
south the stems remain green all winter and so may be
made to furnish grazing, but the propriety of grazing
closely at that season is somewhat doubtful, lest the
roots should become too much exposed to the frost. The
124 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
aim should be rather to grow Texas blue grass or some
other grass to provide winter grazing.
With many other grasses close grazing should be
avoided , but Bermuda should be grazed somewhat close-
ly during the season of growth, except when it is becom-
ing established, at which time close grazing would hin-
der the runners more or less from pushing out and form-
ing new plants. It should be thus grazed for the reason,
first, that it is then more palatable; second, to prevent
the stems from becoming hard and wiry and so indigesti-
ble that their nutritive value is much impaired; and
third, to keep down briers and weeds that might other-
wise injure it by their shade. With this object in view,
it has been recommended to graze sheep on it early in
the season. When grazed close, no other grass is able
to dislodge Bermuda grass unless it be carpet grass
(Paspalum platycaule) found in Louisiana and other
parts. When the grazing does not keep the grass down,
the plan of mowing it when necessary in conjunction
with the pasturing has frequently been advantageously
adopted. The wiry condition of the stems when too long
ungrazed has, it is claimed, in some instances, led to loss
in the animals grazed upon them.
In seasons of much drought the plants will, on some
soils, appear to die, but when rain comes they will re-
vive again with surprising quickness. Overflow during
the growing season rather encourages the growth of this
grass, but for a time it usually injures grazing by the
sediment deposited on it.
Harvesting for Hay. — Bermuda grass should be cut
for hay when the greatest number of stems are in bloom.
BERMUDA GRASS. 127
Soon after they have reached that stage the upper por-
tion dies and the leaves below fall off. The tedder
should follow when necessary as soon as the crop is
wilted, to secure evenness in the curing of a grass so
fine, and as soon as ready, frequently the same day that
it is mowed, it should he put up into cocks and remain
in these until cured. In handling the hay, a fork with
many tines should be used, because of the fineness of
the hay.
The number of cuttings in the season will depend
upon the soil and weather. These run all the way from
1 to 5 and the yields also vary accordingly. They run
all the way from half a ton to 2 tons per cutting. The
hay per season ordinarily runs from 1 to 5 tons. By
using nitrate of soda 10 tons have been reaped and in
one instance recorded as many as 13 tons per acre were
reaped in one year. The more frequent the cuttings, the
cleaner is the hay likely to be.
Securing Seed. — Bermuda grass produces little or no
seeds in the southern states, hence nothing can be said in
the meantime about growing it for seed in the same.
The seed in the market is grown in a still warmer cli-
mate than that of the southern states. Since the grass
will soon be grown in so many centers that.it will not be
difficult to obtain portions of the sod for planting, the
question of seed production would not seem to be one
of great importance in the United States. In view of
the fact that a stand of the grass can be more quickly
obtained from root cuttings than from seed, and of
the further fact that on some soils some difficulty at-
tends its eradication, it would seem to be on the whole
128 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
fortunate for southern agriculture that the plants do
not bear seed freely.
Renewing. — Bermuda grass, like quack grass, be-
comes sod bound after a few seasons of pasturing or
mowing, hence where practicable it is recommended to
break it up by ploughing and smoothing the ground
quite soon thereafter with the harrow ; ploughing it thus
loosens and aerates the soil, breaks up the matted roots
and brings new life to the plants. The frequency with
which this ought to be done, the best season for doing it,
and the exact mode of doing the work will depend upon
conditions such as relate to climate, soil and the dense-
iiess of the sod. Usually it is recommended thus to
break up the sod with the plough every 4 or 5 years.
Northward the work should not be undertaken just on
the approach of winter, lest too many of the plants
should perish. Far south it might be desirable to have
many of them perish to thin them. The depth of the
ploughing should be gauged by the character of the soil,
but it ought always to be as deep as experience has
demonstrated that it can be done with safety to the
plants. The more dense the sod, the less the danger of
destroying too many of the plants by deep ploughing
and harsh treatment.
But even under conditions where Bermuda grass
cannot be thus dealt with, it will continue to produce
well for many years, as has been demonstrated on free
grazing lands in proximity to the cities.
The renewal of this grass is sometimes effected by
ploughing the land in September or October and sow-
ing it with red clover, winter oats or the sand vetch
BERMUDA GRASS. 129
(Vicia villosa). These are grazed when ready, but in
some instances the clover is cut for hay, the Bermuda
grass furnishing grazing later in the season.
The grass may also be renewed in a sense by either
of the following methods: 1. Apply such commercial
fertilizers as the circumstances may call for. 2. Fatten
cattle on the pastures, and feed to these more or less of
such food as corn, cotton seed meal or oilcake while being
thus grazed. 3. Fatten sheep or lambs on the same, fed
liberally with grain or oilcake or with both.
Eradicating. — At one time this grass was the dread
of the planters or of many of them because of the per-
sistence with which it grows on good soils subjected to
cultivation. At the present time some persons who
grow it in the rotation do not try to completely eradi-
cate it. They believe that the extra cultivation re-
quired to keep it in check in cultivated crops is more
than compensated by its influence in binding soils and
in other respects benefiting them. When Bermuda is
wanted again, enough plants remain in the soil to quick-
ly form a sod. The fact remains, however, that clean
cultivation is preferable to that which is partially clean,
hence it is well to be able to eradicate the grass should
this be desired. When such eradication is attempted,
climate, soil and season materially influence the meth-
ods to be adopted, and also the results. It is much more
easily eradicated when the winters are cold, in soils
that are low in fertility and in summers that are dry.
The following methods of eradicating this grass will
prove more or less successful: 1. Plough on the near
approach of winter and expose the roots. Then grow
Grasses — 9.
130 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
two crops of corn or one of corn and one of cotton, to
which thorough cultivation is given. 2. Sow oats and
sand vetches together, or clover, in the autumn, and cut
the same for hay. Follow with cow peas for hay and
then grow two cultivated crops successively on the land.
3. Plough shallow in June, turning the furrows edge-
wise rather than over. Later with a rotary or some
other harrow, free the roots as far as practicable from
the earth. Sow cow peas. Follow with oats and vetches,
cow peas again, and then corn or cotton. 4. In small
areas swine will virtually dig out this grass.
Some persons claim that hecause of the difficulty
found in eradicating this grass, it should never be sown
on land that is to he again cultivated. The author does
not sympathize with that view, as, unlike Johnson grass,
it can be eradicated without great cost. But the indo-
lent farmer should never allow it to come into his
cultivated ground.
CHAPTER VI.
ORCHARD GRASS.
Orchard grass (Dactylus glomeraia) is also known
by the name of Cocksfoot, a name frequently applied to
it in England from the fanciful resemblance of the clus-
ters of the panicle to the foot of a cockerel. The stem
is strong and inclines somewhat to coarseness, unless
when the plants grow thickly. It usually grows from
2 to 2^ feet high, but under favorable conditions may
reach from 4 to 5 feet in height. The leaves are large,
long and numerous. The panicle is open and spreading
and from 2 to 6 inches in length. The leaves are a dark
green in color, but the panicle is frequently tinged with
violet spikelets. The roots are fibrous, the fibres going
down deeply into the soil, which gives it considerable
power to withstand drought. On good soil and suitable,
the plants have the appearance of much strength and
vigor.
Orchard grass is an annual. It is ready for pasturing
earlier in the spring probably than any other grass of
much economic importance in the United States, ex-
cept Russian brome grass. It comes into flower in
May or June according to the locality, and then quickly
reaches the mature stage. It continues to grow with
more or less vigor during much of the summer, and
again makes an abundant growth in the autumn as soon
132 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
as the autumn rains fall. The rapidity of the growth
during spring and fall is very marked on favorable soils,
hence the abundance of the production furnished by
this grass. It is reasonably hardy, but will not with-
stand exposure to extreme conditions as well as blue
grass or Russian brome grass.
Orchard grass has the habit of growing in bunches or
tussocks unless thickly sown, hence the aim should be
to sow it so thickly as to prevent this when it is grown
for pasture, otherwise it ought to be grazed so closely
that these tussocks will not overshadow other grasses that
may be growing between them to the extent of destroy-
ing these grasses. It has also much power to grow in
the shade, as in orchards or parks. In New England
especially, the practice has been quite common to sow it
in orchards, hence, probably, the name orchard grass.
It is an excellent pasture grass when properly man-
aged, but is not so nutritious or palatable as blue grass,
although it furnishes more grazing during the season
and also ranks high for its nutritive qualities. For per-
manent pastures it is possessed of a high value. Owing to
its peculiar habit of growing in tussocks and also be-
cause of the coarseness of the leaves, it is not well adapt-
ed to the making of lawns.
It makes good hay when cut and cured at the right
time, but it has never become so generally popular for
such a use as timothy, either on the farm or in the mar-
ket. This is owing, doubtless, to the quickness with
which the stems become woody if not cut at the right
time, to its being more difficult to cure, to the less de-
gree of its palatability and to its greater bulkiness.
FIG. 6.
ORCHARD GRASS (Dactylis glomerata}.
Oregon Experiment Station.
ORCHARD GRASS. 135
Orchard grass is very enduring under favorable con-
ditions. Meadows composed of this grass have been
mown for a dozen years and more. Instances are on
record wherein pastures of orchard grass have endured
for 40 years. But ordinarily it does not maintain its.
hold upon the ground unimpaired for periods so long.
Distribution. — Orchard grass is indigenous to Eu-
rope, and is probably grown in every country of the
same. It is also grown in Northern Africa, certain
parts of Asia and in many parts of North America. It
is said that it was introduced into England from Vir-
ginia in 1764. In Britain it soon became greatly pop-
ular especially for pasture purposes.
Orchard grass is best adapted to a temperate climate
in which the extremes of cold are not excessive. It can-
not be grown as far north as blue grass or Russian
brome grass, but is successfully grown further south
than either of these grasses. Nor can it so well with-
stand the sweep of cold winds in unsheltered places,
especially on western prairies. Like nearly all the cul-
tivated grasses it grows more successfully under moist
than under dry conditions, and yet it has considerable
power to grow under conditions somewhat dry when
once established. In Central and Western Kansas, for
instance, it will stand more drought than blue grass.
In the United States orchard grass grows with no
little satisfaction on suitable soils in nearly all the coun-
try east of the dry belt, that is to say, east of a line
running from north to south, say 300 to 400 miles
west of the Mississippi river. The exceptions are the
wind swept areas of northwestern prairies, the light
136 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
sandy soils of the Lake Superior region and the soils
of the southern states that have been much worn. It
should prove satisfactory in such areas of the lower Mis-
sissippi basin as contain alluvial soils and more particu-
larly those that are considerably impregnated with clay.
The highest centres of adaptation are probably found
in the states of Indiana, Pennsylvania, Kentucky and
Tennessee. In New York and the New England states
it has long stood high in favor with the farmers, also
in certain parts of Ohio, Virginia, Kansas and some
other states.. It grows well on the moist foothills of
the western mountain states and even in some of the
higher valleys, and without irrigation. Prof. H. T.
French has spoken well of its merits as a pasture grass
in certain parts of Idaho. West of the Cascade moun-
tains, except on gravelly soils, it grows with much lux-
uriance north of San Francisco. The western ranges
are probably the lowest in adaptation for orchard grass
of all the areas in the United States.
In Canada, the highest adaptation for orchard grass
is found in the deep loam soils of Western Ontario, but
even in these it is not likely to supersede blue grass for
pasture or timothy for hay. In Quebec and in all the
maritime provinces of Canada it grows satisfactorily, the
soils being right, and along the Pacific it is quite at
home as far north as Alaska. But it is not likely that
it will ever prove a decided success on the prairies be-
tween the Rocky mountains and Lake Superior.
Soils. — Orchard grass grows best in deep, rich, moist
clay loam soils, possessed of a sufficiency of lime, but
it will also do well on sandy loam soils which rest on
ORCHARD GRASS. 137
clay somewhat dense in texture. Even on clays some-
what stiff it will give reasonably good returns as hay or
as pasture. In fact this grass will do well on almost
any kind of soil that is rich, well drained and porous.
On the average prairie soils of the Mississippi basin it
groAvs freely, but in the northern portions of the same
which are much exposed to the sweep of winds in win-
ter, it docs not endure well. Other soils of the prairie
are so rich as to produce a coarseness of leaf and stem
that are not desirable, but this may be counteracted to
some extent by thick sowing. While orchard grass has
high adaptation for moist soils, it will fail under con-
ditions of excessive wetness or dryness in the land,
hence it is ill-adapted to undrained sloughs or to sandy
soils deficient in moisture. In the gray soils of the
Rocky mountain valleys it grows luxuriantly under ir-
rigation. Where the other conditions are suitable and
the soil is low in fertility, this grass will readily respond
to the free application of fertilizers.
Place in the Rotation. — Since orchard grass, like
blue grass, is relatively better adapted for pasture than
for hay, it is scarcely possible to assign it a place in a
fixed rotation. When grown for hay or for the seed,
the length of the rotation will depend upon the contin-
uance of the profitable productiveness of the grass. This
varies much in different localities, but, usually, the
tendency in the grass to improve for several years after
it has been sown, has led to the practice of maintaining
orchard grass meadows and pastures for several suc-
cessive years. When grown with red clover for hay,
the rotation will be shortened or lengthened accordingly
138 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
as the sod is broken when the red clover ceases to pro-
duce abundantly, or at a later period. When grown for
pasture and more especially in permanent pastures, the
duration of tho rotation will of course be largely depend-
ent upon the duration of the pasturing period.
It is evident, Therefore, that orchard grass is not well
adapted to short or to regularly fixed rotations. When
sown, however, as in the case of timothy, it may best
follow cultivated crops which have been sown to clean
the land or after summer fallow when summer fallowing
is practiced. As with timothy also, it may be best fol-
lowed by corn or by some small cereal, as oats or flax
which grow best on soils supplied with vegetable matter
in an early stage of decay. Potatoes also will grow well
after this grass.
Preparing the Soil. — When orchard grass is sown
along with such cereals as rye, wheat, oats and barloy,
the preparation of the soil best suited to the growth of
these crops will also be the preparation suitable for or-
chard grass. It is considered preferable to plough the
land in the autumn in localities where such a method
of handling the land is generally advantageous. As
with other grass seeds a fine tilth is usually preferred,
but under some conditions, when sown in the fall, it
would be possible to make the seed bed too fine for the
best results to follow. For autumn sowing, simply disk-
ing the land on some soils will suffice. On other soils it-
would be necessary to stir it more deeply by using the
plough, and there may be instances in which the sub-soil-
er may be advantageously used with the plough. Not-
withstanding, on other occasions, the grass will grow if
ORCHARD GRASS. 139
sown after harvest on stubble land and without being
covered with the harrow. When sown in groves or in
woodland the stand is much more certain if the leaves
have been previously raked off or burned where they
may have been lodged. In such situations a stand has
been secured even when the young plants have been pas-
tured off from the first.
Sowing. — Orchard grass is more commonly sown in
the early spring, but it may also be sown at various
seasons. As with clover and timothy it is sometimes
sown on the late spring snows, or on ground honey-
combed with frost. But sowing is probably more fre-
quently deferred until the ground is dry enough to admit
of covering the seed with the harrow. In moist situa-
tions it may be sown almost any time during the spring
when it occupies the land alone. It has also been
sown in the late summer or the early autumn. But
it should not be sown late in the autumn lest the young
plants should perish through the rigors of the winter
following.
Whether the seed should be sown alone or with a
nurse crop, depends in part on conditions as to moisture
or the opposite, and the quickness with which a strong
stand is required. Under conditions of ample moisture,
it is more common to sow with a nurse crop, but quite
frequently the other method of sowing is also adopted.
When it is, it is necessary to keep the weeds well clip-
ped back lest they should smother the young plants.
Eye, barley and wheat in both the winter and spring
varieties are the favorite nurse crops, but it is not infre-
quently sown also with oats seeded both autumn and
140 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
spring. When sown with autumn grains it can usually
be sown earlier in the spring and on a firmer seedbed
than when sown with the same grains of the spring
varieties, hence the young plants can better with-
stand drought, and the shade of the nurse crop is re-
moved earlier. When sown with oats the oats should
be thinly sown and also cut early.
The seed is more commonly sown by hand than by
any other method, but it is not improbable that in some
soils the plan of mixing and sowing it along with the
grain when the latter is drilled in would prove satis-
factory. Much care should be taken to sow the seed
evenly to avoid any vacancies that will encourage the
forming of tussocks.
When the grass is sown alone, many urge sowing not
less than two bushels of seed per acre, that is about 28
pounds. But the amount sown varies from 2 bushels
down to 1 bushel. When sown alone to provide hay,
not less, probably, than 2 bushels per acre ought to be
sown to insure a fine growth of stalks and leaves, but,
when sown to grow seed, the quantity may in some in-
stances be profitably reduced to 1 bushel, lest the size
of the seed heads should be too much reduced by over-
crowding. When sown along with red clover to provide
meadow, a method of sowing which is extensively prac-
ticed and which meets with much favor, some authorities
advocate adding as much as 12 pounds of red clover
seed per acre to the 2 bushels of orchard grass seed.
Others again claim good results from sowing 1 bushel
of orchard grass and 8 pounds of red clover. A few
pounds of tall oat grass or of perennial rye grass are
ORCHARD GRASS. 141
sometimes added per acre especially when growing
meadow. When this is done' the amount of orchard
grass seed is correspondingly reduced. In the south
orchard grass and red top are frequently sown together
for pasture. When thus sown, 14 pounds of orchard
grass and 7 pounds of red top would probably suffice.
In some instances timothy is added, but rather with the
object of covering the ground more perfectly and thus
increasing the pasture than of making hay. When
sown in permanent pastures the amount of seed to sow
will depend upon the character of the pasture but will
vary all the way from a few pounds up to a bushel ac-
cording to the conditions.
Much care should ,o exercised in purchasing orchard
grass seed lest it be adulterated with the seeds of one
or the other of the rye grasses. The author has been
told by a very competent seedsman who has been
long prominent in the seed business, that not less than
four-fifths of the orchard grass seed of commerce is
much adulterated with the seeds of the afore-mentioned
grasses. These are cheaper and their detection is not
easy because of their similarity.
Pasturing. — Since orchard grass comes up early in
the spring, the pasturing may begin correspondingly
early. Since also the leaves become a little coarse and
Jess tender with advancing age, and since it soon reaches
that stage where seed stems are thrown up, it is well to
pasture this grass with reasonable promptness and close-
ness in the early part of the season. When the season
advances and becomes more dry as it advances, as is
very frequently the case, the growth is less vigorous, but
142 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
as soon as the fall rains come growth begins again and
is strong and free in proportion as moisture and plant
food are present in the soil. The growth of orchard
grass is more prolonged and continuous than that of blue
grass, and it provides more pasture, but the pasture is
not equal to blue grass in palatability or in nutritive
qualities.
Where the spring grazing is not reasonably close, the
seed stems formed will not be eaten readily by live stock.
If left standing they will of course produce seed, which
tends to lessen production in the pasture. This may be
avoided as in the case of timothy by running the field
mower over the field, the cutter bar being raised high.
Weeds that may be growing in the pasture will thus also
fall before the mower.
From Central Indiana southward, orchard grass is
frequently grazed during much of the winter. This
may be done in a judicious manner without injury to
the grass when once it has become well established. It
may even be pastured with some freedom by horses and
sheep, when covered to a considerable depth with snow.
But care must be taken not to pasture it when the ground
is so soft that the feet of the animals which feed upon
it will sink into the same, and the more the clay incre-
ment in the soil, the greater will be the injury that will
follow such pasturing. ^Torth of the latitude named
this grass is also sometimes pastured in winter, but
where the cold is severe, much grazing injures the plants
more or less by removing needed protection. The pala-
table and nutritive qualities of the grass are also in-
jured by temperatures low beyond a certain degree.
ORCHARD GRASS. 143
Pasturing orchard grass the season that it is sown
should be avoided unless the plants are vigorous and
the growth luxuriant. But where both the conditions
named are present, pasturing may follow without hazard
in the autumn and in mild climates also in the winter.
Harvesting for Hay. — Since orchard grass quickly
matures after the heads appear, it should be cut for hay
with promptness as soon as it comes into flower, or, what
some consider better, as soon as the flowers have fallen
in part or in whole. If not cut until a later stage, the
stems quickly become woody and the hay loses much
in palatability. For this reason and for the further
reason that orchard grass matures for hay in a busy
season, no more of it should be kept for hay than the
grower can harvest at the proper time. When cut it
should be cured in the winrow or cock rather than in
the swath. Complete curing by the last named method
would also result in a loss in palatability. When cured
in the cock the natural greenness of the hay is best main-
tained, but the labor in curing is greater than when
cured in the winrow. In curing heavy stands of this
grass the tedder may of course be made to render good
service. Since orchard grass takes much more injury
from rain than timothy, every necessary attention should
be given that will hasten the curing of the hay. Such
attention is all the more needful because it is generally
ready to be harvested late in May or early in June,
when showers are usually not infrequent.
After the first cutting the grass springs up again with
much vigor when the conditions for growth are favor-
able. When it has grown again for several weeks it
144 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
may be cut a second time for hay or pastured as may
be desired. If the weather has been so dry that many
of the heads did not appear with the first cutting, they
will appear during this second period of growth, hence
the crop of the second cutting will be much akin in char-
acter to that of the first cutting. Otherwise it will con-
sist of "rowen," that is of leaves which have grown
up after the first cutting. The leaves sometimes make
an inch of growth in a day. A third cutting is occa-
sionally obtained under conditions that are quite favor-
able, and in the case of irrigated land rich in character,
a fourth cutting. The character of the hay of the differ-
ent cuttings subsequent to the first will be much alike,
since under normal conditions the plants head out but
once a year. It may also be added that on unirrigated
land the rule is to cut but once a year and then to pasture
subsequently.
The yield in hay of course varies. From the first cut-
ting it may be put at about 1|- to 1-J tons per acre.
From three cuttings as much as 4 tons per acre have
been obtained in one season. On certain soils especially
those of the eastern and southern states, the growth
will be greatly stimulated by the application of suitable
commercial fertilizers (see p. 16) just after each cut-
ting of the crop. On irrigated soils the fertilizers ought
to be applied as soon as the irrigating waters have dis-
appeared.
Securing Seed. — When orchard grass is ripe, the
heads assume a light yellow tint, and the steins turn yel-
low for some distance below the head. When ripe, the
harvesting should be done with much promptness, other-
ORCHARD GRASS. 1 5
wise the seeds will shatter much during the process of
harvesting.
Two methods of harvesting have met with more or less
general favor. By the first, the binder is set high, ui
least a foot from the ground, and is run over the crop.
The object sought is to secure the stems and heads which
are bound in sheaves in order that the parts beneath
the cut portion may be mowed and made into hay, for
which it is fairly well adapted, because of the abundance
of the leaves. By the second method the binder is also
used. The sheaves are carried by the bundle carrier,
that a number may be dropped off in one place. These
are set up in round shocks, and the top of the shock
is bound with a band drawn from one of the sheaves.
If the weather is good, threshing from the shock is labor-
saving, and is attended with but little loss of seed, but
the crop may of course be housed or stacked and
threshed later. When drawing the sheaves, the wagon
rack should be covered with a canvas to prevent losing
the seed that drops from the head, with the same object
in view the aim should be to lift each round shock entire
by using a suitable fork. It would dso seem to be labor
saving to harvest the seed with a stripper suitably made.
The seed may be threshed with a common thresher,
but special sieves are used. In winnowing the seed spe-
cial screens are also necessary, and care must be taken in
handling the same to avoid heating until it is dry.
The yield per acre varies from 5 to 20 bushels. The
average yield is probably about 8 or 10 bushels. While
the weight of the seed varies somewhat, the average
weight may be put at say 14 pounds to the measured
Grasses — 10.
146 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
bushel. The yield of the seed frequently increases from
year to year for several years, and the stand also thick-
ens from the shattering out of the seed. Much of the
home grown seed is now produced in Kentucky, Indiana
and Idaho.
Renewing. — Since orchard grass is one of the most
abiding of grasses on soils which are adapted to it, or
these it is not difficult to renew it. When not pastured too
closely, some of the seed will mature. When this falls,
young plants spring up and renew the pasture. But
where this cannot be done, the pasture may be thickened
especially on favorable soils, by sowing seed in the early
fall or spring and covering the same with the harrow.
Under conditions of abundant moisture harrowing may
not be necessary. The amount of seed to sow will of
course vary with the needs of the pasture. If the
weather following such attempts at renewal should prove
unfavorable, it may be necessary to sow again when
the opportune season arrives. When the ground is kept
well covered with plants, the herbage will be finer and
consequently better than when the plants are fewer
and the yield in pasture is also greater. On soils
which are liable to heave, the roller can occasionally be
used with much advantage, as may be necessary, and
this is true also of orchard grass kept for meadow or for
hay. This must be done in the spring when the ground
is not too moist to poach, nor too dry to prevent the
proper firming of the plants.
CHAPTER VII.
EED TOP.
The name Red Top is applied in a somewhat loose
sense to many species of grass growing in the North
temperate zone, all or nearly all of which are character-
ized by panicles or heads more or less tinged with red-
dish hrown or purple, as they approach the ripening
period. These belong to the genus Agrostis, of which
it is said there are about one hundred species. Of these
the two so-called varieties Agrostis vulgaris and Agros-
tis Alba, are by far the most useful. These are not
recognized as being botanically distinct. When grown
on dry soils the stems are short and the panicles have a
lighter shade, hence probably the distinction Alba.
Red Top in the United States is known by many
names, nearly all of which are more or less sectional.
fThese include Herd's grass, Bent grass, Creeping Bent,
Rhode Island Bent, English Bent, White Bent, Fine
Bent, Burden's or Borden's grass, Dew grass, Summer
Dew grass, Fiorin, Finetop and Tall Red Top. Creep-
ing Bent (Agrostis stolonifera) and Rhode Island Bent
(Agrostis canina), are considered by some authorities
as only modifications of the form Agrostis vulgaris
growing under different soil conditions. Others look
upon them as varieties or sub-varieties. It may truth-
fully be said of the entire genus Agrostis, that it passes
148 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
into forms which have been given specific names; of
these names the term Herd's grass has by far the widest
application. It is the common designation for red top
in Pennsylvania, and in all or nearly all of the south-
ern states. The name Herd's grass is thought to have
been given because of its very general adaptation to
the needs of the herd. In all or nearly all the northern
states, it is known only or chiefly by the name of red
top. In England the term Bent is applied to all, or at
least to several, of the forms of this grass.
Ked Top is a perennial grass which grows from a few
inches to five feet in height under varying conditions
of soil and climate. But the average height is probably
18 to 20 inches. In the southern states, it grows
taller than in those north. The stems are erect, slender,
smooth and round. The linear leaves are probably not
so numerous as in timothy. The panicle is oblong and
spreading, and though it varies considerably in color
under different conditions of growth, the panicle is gen-
erally characterized by a purple tint which seems to
deepen with increasing luxuriance in the growth of the
grass. The roots are more or less creeping and gather
food near the surface, rather than from the subsoil.
The form known as Creeping Bent has long, prostrate
and creeping stems, which take root at every joint.
This habit of growth gives it much power to grow on
moist soils, or even on somewhat dry sandy soils where
other good grasses grow shyly, and eventually to cover
them with a stiff sod. The form known as Rhode Is-
land Bent, sometimes called Brown Bent and Dog's
FIG. 7.
RED TOP (Agr.ostis vulgaris).
Tennessee Experiment Station.
RED TOP. 151
Bent, has fine root leaves and is able to form a close
turf on soils low in fertility. This grass in one or the
other of its forms would seem to have greater power to
grow on a variety of soils than any other cultivated
grass. Notwithstanding, it grows better on moist than
on dry soils, hence the frequency with which it is found
in sloughs, in ditches and in by-places generally. Be-
fore the introduction of timothy, it was a chief reliance
for hay. Since that time, it is grown more for pasture,
alone or in mixtures where meadows are more or less
permanent. It starts later in the spring than blue
grass, grows more slowly and is later coming into flower.
It is now more highly esteemed as a pasture grass
than a hay plant, because of its power to endure, and
because of the degree of its permanency, but in many
areas it is still considered an important hay plant. Al-
though quite suitable as pasture or hay for horses, cattle
and sheep, when the growth of the pasture is well ad-
vanced, it is not so highly relished by the stock.
Though some claim it equal to and even superior to
timothy for hay, the claim will scarcely hold good
when viewed from the standpoint of palatability or suit-
ability for marketing. But in nutrition, it is placed
next to blue grass.
It is chiefly valuable as a fertilizer because of the
humus which it puts into the soil when plowed under.
Because of its permanency it may be made helpful in
keeping weeds at bay. It may also be made helpful un-
der some conditions in binding soils that are gullied and
in helping to fill up the same. (See p. 120.)
Distribution. — Red Top is indigenous to Eur-ope and
152 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
also to America. In the cultivated form it was doubt-
less introduced at first from England. It was called
English grass by certain of the early writers. But this
grass is doubtless indigenous to certain low lands in all
or nearly all the Northern States from New England
westward to Dakota, more especially Michigan, Wiscon-
sin and Minnesota, and in some states south from
there. This fact has been disputed by some botanists,
but it cannot be successfully gainsaid. In Britain this
grass does not hold so high a place relatively among
the economic grasses as in America, and in the Northern
States it has never held so high a place relatively as in
those further South. This is probably owing to the
freer growth of certain other useful grasses in the North,
as timothy and blue grass. Red Top is very hardy.
In no part of the United States will it succumb to the
cold. It is also able to endure in Canada as far north
as cultivation has been carried. It would also seem
able to endure more heat than timothy or blue grass.
It does best under moist conditions and yet it has very
considerable power to endure drought.
It would probably be correct to say, that no grass
in America is possessed of so wide a distribution. It
will grow iji one or the other of its forms in some por-
tion or portions of almost every state and territory in
the Union. In the South especially, it has a more gen-
eral distribution than any other grass. The moist cli-
mate of that region is favorable to its growth. It grows
best there in the river bottoms but will also grow high
up on the sides of the mountains. Notwithstanding the
favorable climatic and soil conditions, in considerable
RED TOP. 153
areas of the south and more especially in Kentucky and
Tennessee, it would doubtless be correct to say, that
even larger crops can be grown alone or in conjunction
with other grasses, in certain of the Northern and Mid-,
die states. These include Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Min-
nesota, Wisconsin and Michigan; especially in the
slough lands of those states does it grow with much
luxuriance. In the New England States, considerable
prominence relatively is given to red top in the valley
lands. In New Jersey it is a favorite grass. In the
southwestern states, it does not flourish without irriga-
tion, nor has it been found to render much service in
any of the semi-arid country east of the Rocky moun-
tains. In the irrigated western mountain valleys, hay
fodder crops that are considered superior are given at-
tention to the practical exclusion of red top. r
In no parr of Canada has much attention been given
to the cultivation of red top. Notwithstanding, in
the low lands of Ontario and Quebec, it grows freely and
on the tide lands of the maritime provinces and British
Columbia even larger crops may be grown. In many
parts of Manitoba and the N. W. territories of Canada
fairly good crops can be grown. It will also grow, but
more shyly, on the uplands of the maritime provinces,
because of the want of nutriment in the soil.
Soils. — No useful grass in America will grow on a
greater variety of soils and yet some soils have far
higher adaptation for red top than others. Highest
in adaptation probably, are the tide lands which border
on the Atlantic and the Pacific. Next in adaptation
come the slough lands composed largely of humus, or
164 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
river bottoms, made up of alluvial soils considerably
tempered with clay. After these would probably come
the humus soils of the prairie, and the loam soils of
the same. Then would come clays and after these,
sandy loams. It will do well in the sandy soils of river
bottoms when enough moisture is present. While it
will grow well on certain of the sandstone soils of the
south, so deficient in lime as not to maintain blue grass
in good form, it will grow much better on the deep cal-
careous soils of the same. It is one of the best grasses
to grow on thin soils, and it will even grow, though in
a dwarfed form, on poor gravelly soils*. No other use-
ful grass would seem so well adapted for being grown
in wet situations, even in places so moist, as to be sat-
urated with water for a considerable portion of the late
autumn and the early spring. It will even stand shal-
low submergence for several days, when the weather is
cool; and for a longer period than almost any other
useful grass, when it is warm. But it does not stand
drought as well as Russian brome grass or some of the
wheat grasses.
Place in the Rotation. — Red Top usually requires
several years to become "set," that is, to form a sod as
dense as it can become under the attendant conditions
of growth, consequently it is not a good rotation plant ;
and yet it would not be correct to say that there is no
place for it in rotations. But that place is more on
uplands than in reclaimed marshes, since in the soils
of the latter it is more abiding than on uplands. Speak-
ing in a general way, on these and in fact on all soils, it
is helpful in bringing humus to them, and, because of
RED TOP. 155
this, the mechanical and chemical effects of red top
sod, especially on worn soils, is very helpful.
The crops which may best be made to follow red top
are those which feed ravenously on humus soils, such
for instance as corn, the non-saccharine sorghums, po-
tatoes and rape. But certain of the small cereal grains
may also be thus grown with profit. Legumes should
only be sown thus when the sod may be so stiff as to
call for reduction before growing on the land such crops
as wheat, oats and barley.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for
red top is much the same as that which fits it for re-
ceiving orchard grass. (See p. 138.) But clean culti-
vation preceding red top is even more important than
the same preceding orchard grass, since it takes longer to
become established. When it is to be sown alone, as
for the production of seed, it is specially important that
it should be sown on clean land, that is on land on
which a cultivated crop has been grown under clean con-
ditions. In fact such conditions are the most favorable
to its growth in all soils. But on the galled soils of the
south it is sometimes sown and top dressed with or
without manure, according to the degree of the deple-
tion, in order to cover them with a grass sward, which
in turn, will form in them the basis of successful crop
production.
Sowing. — Both north and south the seed is sown in
the autumn and in the spring. In the south autumn
sowing is growing in favor, since a better stand of the
plants is then more uniformly obtained. When a hay
crop is wanted the first summer after sowing the seed, or
156 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
even when grazing is wanted tlms soon it ought to be
sown in the autumn and on clean land. This method
will also succeed in the north under conditions favora-
ble to autumn growth, but, since it is seldom sown in the
north except in conjunction with other grasses, it is
more common to sow it in the spring. When sown in
the spring, early sowing is preferable, especially on up-
lands. On marshy lands, considerably saturated with
water, and on which it is desired to add red top to the
grasses that may be already growing there, it is well to
sow when the frost begins to leave the surface of the
bare ground.
The seed is usually sown by hand. Under some con-
ditions it may be sown mixed with the grain, but, on
many soils, this method of sowing would bury the seed
too deeply. By mixing the seed with certain sub-
stances, as for instance earth, salt, or wheat bran, it
could be sown with the grain drill, but it is usually
sown in the chaff. In order to secure a more even dis-
tribution of the seed, some growers scatter half the seed
to be sown by going first in one direction and then sowing
the balance by going again over the land crosswise.
When wanted for meadow, the seed is frequently sown
alone without a nurse crop., and, as previously intimated
in the autumn. When sown in the chaff, it is almost
invariably sown in the autumn, and in no other way
can a stand be so. certainly secured. The seed is then
fresh, its germinating power is at -the best, and the
chaff scale aids in keeping the seed in that damp con-
dition which is favorable to quick and sure germination.
But it may also be sown in the autumn, along with a
RED TOP. 157
nurse crop, as for instance, winter rye, winter wheat or
winter barley, and in conjunction with timothy. When
sown in the autumn, a stand is on the whole more as-
sured than when sown in the spring. In the spring,
red top may be sown with any of the small cereal
grains, but when thus sown the aim should be not to
shade the ground too densely by using a more or less
reduced quantity of the seed of the nurse crop. When
sown on galled or impoverished lands, in order to cover
them with a sod, it is also usually sown alone.
When sown in combination with other grasses red
top and timothy make a favorite mixture on soils neither
high nor very low. On low soils no combination of
grasses for hay is more popular than red top, timothy
and alsike clover. These are adapted to the same soils
and mature about the same time. When sown for pas-
ture, this grass may be sown alone, but better in com-
bination with other grasses and with certain of the
clovers, according to the nature of the conditions of cli-
mate and soil.
The extent of the covering required depends largely
on soil conditions; sometimes in both fall and spring-
sowing, no covering is required. In other instances, the
roller will furnish a sufficient covering; usually, how-
ever, a light harrow furnishes the best covering for the
seed.
The amount of seed to sow will vary with the object
sought in sowing, as in providing hay or pasture, with
the cleanness of the seed and with the nature of the
combination with which the seed is sown. When sown
alone with a view to make pasture quickly, more seed
158 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
would be required than if sown to provide hay or t6 fur-
nish seed. From half a bushel to a bushel of clean seed
is the amount sown by many growers, but some sow con-
siderably more, even as much as two bushels. The nor-
mal standard bushel weighs 14 pounds, but as the seed
comes into the market, the measured bushel varies from
an amount considerably below the standard to as high
as 44 pounds. It is very evident, therefore, that the
amount of seed to be sown will vary greatly with the
character of the seed used, a fact that should not be over-
looked when purchasing seed or when sowing the same.
When sown in mixtures for hay or for pasture, the
amounts of seed to use will lessen with the number of
the varieties sown and with the amounts of seed used
in these. When clean seed is used, 6 pounds of red top
and 6 pounds of timothy would suffice per acre. If red
clover is added, 4 pounds of red top, 4 of timothy and 6
pounds of common red or mammoth clover would suf-
fice. When sown with alsike clover and timothy, 3
pounds of the alsike, 4 pounds of timothy and 4 pounds
of red top should be enough.
When sown in mixtures for pasture, orchard grass
and red top go well together on southern uplands. Four-
teen pounds of the former and 7 of the latter should
make a sufficient seeding. In the north 011 land somewhat
low, 4 to 5 pounds of clean blue grass seed per acre may
be profitably added to the mixture of alsike clover, tim-
othy and red top given above for hay, even though the
pasturing should not begin until two or three crops of
hay have been harvested. But red top may usually be
added with profit to any combination of grasses used
RED TOP. 159
north or south in making permanent pastures. Usually
from 3 to 5 pounds of good clean red top seed should-
be enough to sow per acre in such combinations. It
should be remembered, however, that the amounts of
seed named are only approximate estimates, and that it
may be necessary to vary them to suit varying condi-
tions.
In the south red top is sometimes used in making
lawns. For such a use it has a higher adaptation than
blue grass. When so used, much of what was said as
to methods to be followed when sowing blue grass on
lawns will also apply to red top.
Pasturing. — Although seldom sown alone in the
northern states or in Canada to provide pasture, it is a
chief reliance for such a use in many parts of the
southern states. It is highly valued there as a pasture
grass because it is nutritious and fairly well relished by
stock ; because it will provide much grazing in the year,
even in addition to a crop of hay; because it furnishes
good winter as well as summer grazing ; because it forms
a good sod that stands grazing well; and because it is,
for the conditions named, one of the most enduring
grasses.
As already intimated, it ranks nearly as high as Ken-
tucky blue grass in its nutritive properties and, until
well advanced in growth, it has a fair amount of succu-
lence. But when it approaches the ripening stage, stock
do not eat it. Nevertheless, when properly grazed, it
will furnish good pasture for all kinds of stock, even for
dairy cows whose needs call for succulent food much of
the vcar.
160 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Although it is a little slow in starting in the spring
and after it has been cut for hay, because of continuity
in the growth, the amount of grazing furnished is rela-
tively large. Some farmers in the states which circle
around Kentucky, claim that they get from 5 to 7
months' pasture from it in addition to a crop of hay. It
is probable, however, that when thus grazed, the pro-
duction of both hay and pasture is less than it would
be if not grazed so much. Unless on soils low and
quite rich, the best crops of hay will be obtained from
lands not grazed closely in the autumn.
In warm spells in winter, it may be grazed in the
south, at least in many instances, without injury to the
grasses after it has formed a good sod. When not close-
ly grazed in summer, the dead grass of that season falls
down and provides a mulch for the young grass, amid
which young blades grow up, even in the winter. In the
spring, such pastures are especially prized for areas that
are producing lambs. These pastures are so highly use-
ful to southern farmers, that they study to provide
them for their live stock. Although red top eventually
forms a stiff sod, considerable time is necessary before
this can be secured. Consequently heavy grazing the
first season after sowing in the spring or even in the
autumn should be avoided. The variety Agrostis stol-
onifera forms so stiff a sod even on lands considerably
saturated with water, that they will not poach when
grazed by live stock. But even on sterile soils, ordi-
nary red top will eventually furnish a dense sod.
All authorities are agreed as to the enduring charac-
ter of this grass. To southern farmers this is a matter
RED TOP. 161
of much moment, since with them blue grass and tim-
othy are not so valuable relatively, nor are they so en-
during as in the north. In southern pastures, red top
will endure where eventually both timothy and blue
grass will fail. Because of this property, red top
should be given much prominence in the permanent pas-
tures of the south.
Harvesting for Hay. — Before the general introduc-
tion of timothy, red top was a principal reliance for hay.
In the southern states, it is still one of the principal hay
crops, or at least one of the chief factors in the same.
In the North, it is seldom sown for hay except in mix-
tures. While some farmers claim that it is superior to
timothy for hay, timothy is usually, and doubtless with
good reason, considered superior as a hay plant. It
weighs more heavily in proportion to the bulk, and in
the North especially, larger average crops can be ob-
tained. But red top has the advantage of having small-
er and softer stems.
It is ready for being cut when in fullest bloom, or
at a period somewhat later, especially when it is to be
fed to horses. If allowed to stand too long, the palata-
bility will be lessened. It is cut, of course, with the
field mower. It is more easily cured than many kinds
of grass. If mown in the afternoon and tedded the
next morning once or twice, it may then be raked and
put into cocks. After standing a day or two it is ready
for being stored. In good weather the curing process
may be completed in the winrow, which has the advan-
tage of making it possible to lift it with the hay tedder.
When cut toward the period of full maturity, it is pos-
Grasses — 11.
162 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
sible by using the tedder freely to cut in the meaning
after the dew has lifted and to store the same evening.
The average yields of red top lie between one and
two tons per acre. On ordinary soils the yield would
not usually be much more than one ton, and on rich
low land it would seldom be less than 2 tons. Under
the most favorable conditions, as much as 4 tons per
acre have been harvested. In mixtures, as when grown
with timothy and alsike clover, the average crop would
probably exceed two tons per acre.
Securing Seed. — Illinois and New Jersey would seem
to be the centers of seed production at the present time.
The crop is ready for being harvested in about 20 days
from the time when it is in full flower, but this will vary
with the weather. It should not be left unharvested for
a very long period after the grain is fully grown within
the chaff.
At least three methods of harvesting the seed have
been adopted. By the first of these it is cut with the
self-rake reaper, and laid off in loose sheaves. By the
second it is cut with the binder and the sheaves are stood
up in long shocks. By the third the seed is secured by
the aid of the stripper. The first method can be best
practiced only when the weather is good. It facilitates
rapid curing. The second method is safer when the
weather is broken, and it facilitates the easy handling
of the crop. The stripper may be used in the same way
as in harvesting the seed of blue grass. The last named
method is by far the most expeditious of the three, but it
leaves the straw in the field where it grew. This, how-
ever, is not a total loss, as when it falls down in the au-
RED TOP. 163
tumn it will serve as a mulch to protect and encourage
the growth of winter and early spring grazing.
When the crop is cut with the binder, which is the
method usually adopted, it may be threshed at once.
As it will keep well in the mow or the properly made
stack, threshing may be deferred when desired until the
busy season for work is over. In threshing with the
ordinary threshing machine, the wind must be partly
shut off, as the seed and chaff are light. Special screens
must also be used in threshing. When the seed is be-
ing stripped care must be taken as with blue grass to
store it in a way that will prevent heating and the loss
in germinating power that would follow. (See pp. 102
and 103.)
Ordinary winnowing mills well equipped with sieves
and' properly run may be used in separating the chaff
from the seed, but to do this work in the very best
form and with dispatch, special sieves are desirable.
For home use, and especially when the seed has been
stripped, no better plan can be adopted than to sow the
seed in the chaff. As red top seeds freely, the seed may
be cheaply secured by the farmer in this way and conse-
quently liberal quantities of the seed may be sown.
The states that are said to furnish red top seed in the
largest quantities at the present time are those of Illi-
nois, Indiana, Kentucky and Tennessee. Since how-
ever this grass is indigenous to the low lands of Michi-
gan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, it would seem probable
that in time much seed would also be grown in these
and in some other states. The production of seed may
ho set down at 8 to 20 bushels per acre.
16 1 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Renewing. — Since red top is one of the hardiest of
grasses, and since, under fair treatment, the sod tends
to improve, renewal, in the sense of obtaining a stand
and maintaining it, is only necessary when the catch
is imperfect, or when it is desired to stimulate the
grass by the application of fertilizers.
Where the stand of the young plants is not sufficiently
numerous, it may usually be improved by simply adding
more seed. This may be done in the early autumn, in
advance of or simultaneously with the coming of the
first rains, in the late autumn, too late to admit of the
seed sprouting before the arrival of spring, or in the
early spring. Whether harrowing is necessary must be
determined by the circumstances. If the seed is sown
in the early autumn and especially if fresh seed is
sown in the chaff, it is usually not greatly important that
the harrow shall be used. The thickening of the stand
of seed may also be hastened by allowing the plants pres-
ent to ripen their seeds and then let the winds strew
them over the ground. This method will be found quite
effective especially on moist soils. In this way hillsides
given to washing with the rains may be clothed after
scattering plants have obtained a foothold on the same.
For renewing in the sense of stimulating growth, no
fertilizer is equal to farmyard manure applied as a top
dressing, since it acts quickly, its action is prolonged,
and in addition, for a considerable period it provides a
mulch for the grass which is helpful to it both summer
and winter. But commercial fertilizers will also ren-
der good service. (See p. 17.)
In some soils with high adaptation to the growth of
RED TOP. 165
this grass it will come into land on which it has been
previously grown without being sown, where cultivat-
ing to produce crops may have ceased, and will in time
form pastures as blue grass does. It will also come into
pastures in which it has not been sown and add to their
productiveness. And yet its eradication to the extent of
not being harmful to grain crops is easy. The agress-
ive power which thus inheres in red top is not equal
to that of blue grass.
Binding Soils. — In the southern states especially,
red top has been found useful in binding soils that
wash, in making the further gullying of the land to
cease, and in filling up gullies that have been made. It
is claimed that for such a use no grass will equal it in
the South except Bermuda grass. Into the sides of these
it sends its long rhizomes which produce fresh plants.
In time they cover the bottom of the gully. The plants
growing there will catch and hold soil that is being
carried down by the water. The process is repeated
from year to year until, in time, much of the depression
is filled.
CHAPTEE VIII.
RUSSIA!^ BROME GRASS.
Russian Brome grass (Bromus inermis) is also
known in America by the names Austrian Brome, Hun-
garian Brome and Awnless Brome, but more common-
ly it is designated simply Brome grass, or Bromus. The
name Austrian Brome grass was given to this grass in
the earlier references made to it in the reports of the
experimental farms of Canada, where it was first tested
and from which it was first distributed to any consider-
able extent in America. It was so given doubtless be-
cause of the extent to which it has been grown in Aus-
tria during recent years, and because of the high adapta-
tion which it has for the light soils of that country.
Similarly, doubtless, the origin of the name Hungarian
Brome grass is to be accounted for. The term Awnless
Brome grass is owing to the absence of awns on the
panicles. But the name Russian Brome grass would
seem to be more appropriate because of the longer period
during which it has been grown in Russia.
Russian brome grass grows to the average height of
about 24 inches, but under some conditions it will reach
the height of fully 5 feet, and under others it will not
come into head at all. The leaves are medium large
and the leaf growth is very abundant for a considerable
distance from the ground. The leaves furnish a dense
k
FIG. 8.
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS (Bromus inermis).
Tennessee Experiment Station.
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 169
mass of foliage which completely hides the earth. The
roots push through the ground like those of quack grass
(Agropyrum repens), hence, they soon fill the soil.
Because of this quality, Russian brome, though it should
grow but thinly at the first, will soon so possess the soil
with its roots, that a thick and dense sward will be pro-
duced. The stems are surmounted by a panicle open
and spreading and that is usually 4 to 6 inches long, but
in some instances is considerably longer.
This grass can endure any amount of cold. It would
also seem able to stand almost any amount of heat such
as is experienced in the temperate zone. It is probably
unequalled by any of the cultivated grasses in its ability
to grow in light soils and to withstand drought unless
it be Western Rye grass (Agropyrum tenerurn). It
comes up in the spring earlier than any of the valuable
grasses. It grows through much of the summer when
a reasonable amount of moisture is present, and it con-
tinues to grow until frost somewhat severe causes a ces-
sation in the same. It comes into head in the month of
June, in northerly areas, and earlier in those that are
southerly. In from three to five weeks after it comes
into head, the seeds are mature. Recent experience in
growing it at the Indian Head Experiment Farm, Assa.,
Canada, would seem to indicate that it will grow well in
shade.
Russian brome grass is essentially a pasture grass,
but it also makes good hay. All kinds of stock are fond
of it, and no other grass, unless it be orchard grass, will
furnish grazing for so large a portion of the year. Its
producing and feeding value for hay is about equal to
170 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
that of timothy, but the latter is more marketable be-
cause of its greater weight in proportion to the bulk, and
it is also preferred in the meantime for feeding horses.
The greatest weakness of Russian brome grass probably,
is the Tendency which it has to thicken to such an extent
that growth is checked in consequence.
Distribution. — Russian brome grass is indigenous to
Asia and Europe, ranging from the Atlantic to Siberia.
In Europe it has been cultivated for more than a century
and for a long time to a greater extent in Russia than in
other divisions of that continent. During the last half
of the nineteenth century, it was introduced into Hun-
gary and by a long series of experiments its superior
adaptation for light lands in that country was demon-
strated, as also its ability to withstand well, long periods
of drought. In both Europe and Asia it was first grown
northward rather than southward, and on soils light
rather than heavy. Since it has been introduced into
Xorth America it has shown at least equal adaptation
for like conditions. There is probably no grass among
the hundreds that have been tried on this continent
which may be grown successfully over a wider area and
under a greater variety of conditions.
Russian brome grass was first introduced into the
United States in 1882 by the experiment station of Cali-
fornia. It was first introduced into Canada by Dr.
William Saunders, director of Experiment Farms in
that country, in 1886. In experiments conducted with
it at stations in the various provinces, it was found pre-
eminently adapted to the conditions of the northwestern
provinces of that country. The general distribution of
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 171
seed began there as early as 1890, and was continued for
a number of years, with the result that it is now quite
generally grown over the Canadian Northwest.
While the first introduction of Russian brome grass
into America is to be credited to California, the fact
remains, nevertheless, that the first general seed distri-
bution of the grass over large areas is to be credited to
Canada. It was in that country that it was first exten-
sively tried. There also the seed was first grown for the
seed trade in America, and it was from that country
the seed merchants of the United States first obtained
supplies of American grown seed. Moreover, the at-
tention of the American public was largely drawn to its
merits through the many references made to it in Cana-
dian publications. Of all the foreign grasses intro-
duced into America during recent decades, this grass
promises to be the most generally useful. Until within
the past few years nearly all the seed sown has been
imported from Europe and Asia. But now much seed
is being grown not only in the Canadian Northwest but
also in certain of the northwestern states of the Union.
This grass will grow better where moisture is abun-
dant and the temperature moderate than under condi-
tions the opposite ; but it has at the same time, unusual
power to successfully withstand cold and drought.
When once established, temperatures, howsoever low, do
not seem to destroy it. Reference has already been
made to its great drought resisting qualities, but its
value as a drought resisting grass lies more in its ability
to live under dry conditions than to grow under the
same. It keeps alive under conditions that would de-
172 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
stroy many other grasses and it will then grow vigor-
ously when moisture is brought to it. It can be made
to render excellent service in states where the rainfall
is not more than 12 to 15 inches.
There is no state in the Union in which brome grass
will not grow more or less vigorously, but as with timo-
thy, it has highest adaptation for the states which lie
north of the line that marks the northern boundary of
Tennessee. Owing to its recent introduction it can
scarcely be said that its distribution in the United States
has been fully determined, but the reports that come
from the experiment stations north of this limit named,
nearly all speak more highly of the results obtained
from growing it than do the stations located in states
south of the said line. As in the case of timothy, the
best crops of this grass can be grown in those states that
border on the Canadian boundary line, but the centers
of distribution in this country are more likely to extend
westward from the Mississippi until the Cascade moun-
tains are reached, and southward from the said bound-
ary through two or three tiers of states. In other words
it will be found in the northerly areas of the semi-arid
belt, and in areas that border upon the same to the east
and the west. Its highest utility will probably be found
in North and South Dakota. But it is likely to render
much service also to Western Minnesota, Kansas, Ne-
braska, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Idaho, Washing-
ton and Oregon, and it may be other states south from
these. The centers of distribution are likely to cul-
minate in these states, not because Russian brome grass
will grow better in them than in states further to the
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 173
east, but because it will grow better in them than other
useful grasses.
This grass will grow at least fairly well in all the
provinces of Canada, but the center of distribution is
likely to be found in the prairie provinces, since in these
other grasses do not grow so satisfactorily. The best
crops of this grass, grown on the continent, will probably
be grown in Manitoba, Assiniboia, Saskatchewan and
Alberta. Much of the upland soil in the Canadian
maritime provinces bordering on the Atlantic, like the
soil of New England, is too low in fertility to grow this
grass in best form without first being enriched.
Soils. — But few kinds of grass will grow so well on
so great a variety of soils. The popular idea in Amer-
ica, at least, is, as previously intimated, that it has spe-
cial adaptation, for sandy soils, deficient in moisture.
This view is only partially correct. While it has rela-
tively high adaptation for these, the richer and the more
moist the soil, the better will this grass grow in it. The
best crops of Russian brome grass, therefore, in tillable
areas, will be obtained from rich alluvial deposits, or
from valley lands with a deep moist soil and abounding
in humus. Next in order in adaptation may be placed
clay loam soils, open in texture and rich in the elements
of plant food. After these the ordinary soils of the
prairie so largely made up of vegetable matter; then
clays ; after clays sandy loams and gravelly loams ; and
last of all sandy and gravelly soils deficient in loam and
also in moisture. In the states which include the range
country, this grass will of course grow at its best in
the valleys where it can be irrigated, but in many of
174 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
these it will grow better than almost any other kind
of grass that has been tried without irrigation. In
slough lands it grows luxuriantly when these are
drained, and will live and flourish though covered with
shallow waters even for weeks in succession while the
weather is cool, and yet on dry sandy soils, when once
established, it has great power to maintain its hold.
The luxuriance with which it grows is greatly influenced
by moisture. Because of this, the returns in pasture or
in hay will greatly fluctuate where the weather condi-
tions are fitful, hence, in certain areas of the range,
while in some seasons it may not be profitable to mow
it, in other seasons it may give a bountiful return.
Place in the Eolation. — Russian brome grass is of so
recent introduction into this country, that its place in
the rotation has not yet been very clearly defined in
the practice of those who have grown it. As it has
been grown more under conditions where the rainfall is
light, the inclination has been not to break up the sod
where it has once been established for a number of
years. Notably has this been true of the semi-arid coun-
try in the west, where it has been grown thus far chiefly
for hay. In such areas" it is quite frequently sown on
the newly broken prairie prepared as for wheat. But in
time it will probably be found that it will be good prac-
tice to follow it with some variety of corn adapted to
the soil and weather conditions where this crop can be
successfully grown, following the corn with one or more
grain crops and again sowing with brome grass. The
number of the crops that should be taken before the
brome grass is again broken up cannot be stated definite-
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 175
Ij until experience has thrown more light upon this ques-
tion, but it will probably be found that it would not
be advisable to take more than two crops of hay and
one or two of pasture, before breaking up the sod. In
any event, the sod should not be allowed to become so
filled with the roots of the grass before this is done as to
preclude the possibility of making a good seed bed- for
corn or other crops on the overturned sod without too
great an expenditure of labor.
In areas where crops of grain are regularly grown,
and more especially in those in which a regular rota-
tion is attempted, brome grass may come anywhere in
the rotation, but as with other grasses, a stand is more
assured on land that is clean. But, if not smothered
by weeds when the plants are young, this grass has more
power to crowd them out later than most other grasses.
When once established, if not broken up for a number
of years, in certain of the prairie soils the roots will fill
these so completely that when the ground is ploughed
the furrow slice is a mass of roots so bound together that
pulverization cannot be secured without great labor. Be-
cause of this, in such areas, the sod should be ploughed
before it became so filled with the interlacing roots.
The number of years required to induce such a condition
will vary with soils and with the precipitation. Us-
ually the grass may be cut two seasons and pastured
one before the sod becomes so stiff as to become thus dif-
ficult of pulverization. But when it does occur, it is
probable that rape, or flax, or buckwheat sown on it
would aid in more quickly reducing the sod.
In all arable areas deficient in rainfall, where this
176 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
grass flourishes, it may be turned to excellent account
in supplying the land with humus. In areas where the
soils are so light that they lift with the wind, it may
be made to render valuable service by counteracting this
evil through the binding influence of the roots. Its value
for both uses is assuredly very great. Where Russian
brome grass is grown in such areas, it should therefore
be followed by such crops as corn or the small cereal
grains. If the roots are so many that a good seed bed
for small grain cannot be made without too much labor,
corn should be the first crop grown, since more time
would be available in preparing the seed bed, and the
cultivation following would accelerate decay in the sod,
which would then be in good condition to receive some
small cereal grain crop the following year. In areas
where corn does not grow well or is not needed, winter
rye will reduce a stiff sod more quickly and effectively
than the other small cereals. The beneficial effects of
the decaying sod mechanically and also on the reten-
tion of moisture would thus be felt for a number of
years, how many, would depend on the degree of the
precipitation. It would, at least, be felt long enough
to influence favorably the growth of two or three crops
following.
In the southern states, when Russian brome grass can
as a rule be sown with much greater advantage in the
autumn than in the spring, it may be made to follow
any crop of the season that has been removed sufficient-
ly early to admit of properly preparing the ground. It
may therefore follow with much propriety any kind of
winter cereal as wheat, rye, oats or barley, grown alone
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 177
or in combinations for the grain or for pasture ; it may
in turn be followed by any crop which is greatly benefit-
ed by an abundance of humus in the soil. The roots of the
grass are less likely to possess the soil so completely in
the South, because of the less fertility which in many
places, southern soils possess. Decay in the overturned
sod is much quicker, hence the roots are not so likely to
possess the soil to the extent of frustrating the effort to
grow a crop successfully upon them the same season that
they are broken.
Preparing the 8oil. — The most important requisite
in preparing the ground for Russian brome grass would
seem to be cleanliness. As the young plants grow slow-
ly the first season, if not sown on land that is reasonably
clean, the danger is imminent that weeds will over-
shadow the young plants to their injury, if not to their
destruction. It may, therefore, be sown with advan-
tage after a crop that has been cultivated, as corn, for
instance, or on ground, that has been summer fallowed
during a part of the season or the whole of the same.
In northerly latitudes and on prairie soils, the plan
has proved satisfactory which ploughs the land the previ-
ous autumn and then uses upon it occasionally the har-
row or cultivator or both, until the seed is sown. In
this way the ground may be cleaned sufficiently to admit
of sowing the grass in June, but it is more common on
land prepared thus to sow the seed from August onward
according to the climatic conditions.
When this grass is sown along with a crop of grain,
the preparation of the soil that is best suited to the needs
of the grain will also be that best suited to the needs of
Grasses — 12.
178 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the grass. This means that as a rule the pulverization
should be fine; but in certain soils and under certain
climatic conditions, it is not desirable to have the ground
pulverized very finely when the seed is sown in the
fall. This is true of clays north or south. On soils
that drift it is better to sow on a rough surface if the
seed is to be covered with the harrow to bury it more
deeply and also to have it rough to prevent blowing.
When the seed is sown just before the advent of winter,
which, in northerly latitudes would seem to be a good
season for sowing, under certain conditions it has been
recommended to sow on land ploughed but harrowed only
slightly or not at all. When thus sown the ground may
be smoothed with the harrow, when the plants have be-
come so firmly rooted that thfe harrow will not pull them
out.
When sowing Kussian brome grass on the open range,
for the purpose of supplanting the grasses which may
grow there, the land is first disked in some instances,
especially when the sod is at all dense. In other in-
stances, where the native grass plants do not completely
cover the ground, the seed is sown without any prepara-
tion having been given to the land. It is not certain,
however, that the best method or methods of thus super-
seding the grasses of the prairie have yet been ascer-
tained.
Deep ploughing has been recommended in certain
areas, when preparing' the land ; but ordinarily tin's would
not seem to be necessary, unless wliore such tillage was
practiced to insure soil moisture. The roots of Russian
brome grass have much power to push through the soil
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 179
and also down into it, hence, on the average prairie soil,
such deep tillage would not seem to be specially neces-
sary, if necessary at all, in preparing the land for this
grass.
Sowing. — Under some conditions Russian brome
grass may be sown during any month of the season of
growth. Under average conditions, however, the favor-
ite season for sowing is the early spring, especially
when sown with a nurse crop. But, in the northwestern
provinces of Canada, it is frequently sown in June. It
is also frequently sown in August or September, on land
that has been summer fallowed. There is usually enough
rainfall in these months, especially in June, to sprout the
seed. It also grows on clean land and makes a crop the
following season. In the southern states, when sown in
the autumn, a good stand is more assured than when
sown in the spring, but to this there may be some excep-
tions. When sown thus, the plants grow during much of
the winter ; whereas, if sown in the spring, hot and dry
weather following might prove fatal to the seed. In
areas with low winter temperature, and a small amount
of precipitation, many growers prefer sowing the seed in
the autumn. It is then ready- to grow in the early
spring, and thus get the full benefit of all the moisture
that comes at that season ; when sown in the late autumn
a full crop cannot be made the following season ; when
sown alone in the upper Mississippi basin, early in June,
would be a good time to sow the seed on suitably pre-
pared land, as by that time many of the weed seeds in
the surface soil would have germinated and been de-
stroyed. But when thus sown it would be necessary in
1 iO GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
some instances to run the mower over the ground once
or oftener the same season to keep weeds from maturing
seed.
The seed has more commonly heen sown by hand
than hy any other method. It does not feed well into
the ordinary drill tubes alone or mixed with grain unless
perfectly clean, owing to the chaffy character of the
seed. But it would seem probable that the seed could be
sown with the drill by mixing it with some heavy sub-
stance as earth. It would also seem probable that some
form of hand machine would be introduced in the near
future that would do this work satisfactorily. Sowing
the seed by hand is slow and tedious. Owing to the
lightness of the seed, only a narrow cast is made and it
can only be sown in a still time. There is the further
objection that the seed will fall unevenly, unless when
sown by a skilled sower.
Opinions differ widely as to whether Russian brome
grass ought to be sown alone or with a nurse crop. This
question is much affected by locality and the season at
which a crop is sown. Where the rainfall is sufficient,
and when the seed is sown in the early spring, ordi-
narily it ought to be sown with a nurse crop, as if sown
alone, weeds will probably shade the grass as much or
more than a nurse crop would, unless cut back with the
mower. In the North, winter rye, winter wheat, where
it can be grown, or any of the small spring cereals, as
wheat, oats, barley or even flax, are suitable nurse
crops. The least suitable is oats, because of the leafy
character of the growth, and yet oats make a very suita-
ble nurse crop if sown quite thinly and cut for hay wliilo
RUSSIAN BROMB GRASS. 181
yet immature. In the southern states, any of the winter
cereals will answer as well as nurse crops. When the
rainfall is short and when the seed is sown later than
the early spring, it is more commonly grown alone so
that the young plants may have the full benefit of all the
moisture in the soil. The plants are delicate when
young, in the sense that they grow slowly, and that then
they are easily destroyed by dense shade. This fact
should never be lost sight of when sowing Russian
brome grass, and the amount of seed sown in providing
the nurse crop should be regulated accordingly. The
harrow is generally used in covering the seed. A mod-
erate covering is preferred in moist climates, but in dry
areas and light soils the covering should be deeper, espe-
cially when the seed is sown in the spring.
The amount of seed that ought to be sown will vary
with the object sought from sowing it, and also with
soil conditions. When wanted for pasture, as quickly
as the same can be provided in good form, more seed is
required than when hay is sought; and on soils low in
fertility more seed ought to be sown than when the con-
ditions are the opposite. Some authorities recommend
sowing as much as 30 pounds of seed per acre, a seeding
that would certainly be excessive. A sufficient stand
has been obtained from sowing as small a quantity as 3
pounds per acre, but not until the second year after .
sowing the seed. As the tendency is ever present with
Russian brome grass to thicken from season to season, if
the plants grow too thickly at the first, the yield of seed
is lessened even the first season, and subsequently the
yield in hay and pasture will be less also than if the
182 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
plants were more numerous. When seed is wanted the
season after sowing, 1 .to 12 pounds per acre should
suffice on average soils; To produce hay the year after
sowing the seed, from 12 to 15 pounds should be enough,
and for pasture 15 to 18 pounds. When sown in com-
bination with other grasses, the quantity may be made to
vary from 2 to 3 pounds, upwards, according to the ob-
ject sought.
But little is yet known, based on American experi-
ence, as to the value of Russian brome grass for growing
in mixtures to make permanent pasture. Since it is
aggressive, it may be expected ultimately to crowd out
nearly all other kinds of grasses. Kentucky blue grass
is probably the only highly valuable pasture grass that
would not ultimately be entirely dispossessed by it, and
in northerly areas where the conditions are highly favor-
able to the growth of the Russian brome, even blue
grass may not be able to withstand its encroachments.
In Hungary it is sometimes grown along with alfalfa
and some Montana experience has also proved reason-
ably successful in growing it thus. In Manitoba, how-
ever, it has been grown successfully with timothy in such
rotations sowing about 6 pounds of each per acre.
Because of the slow growth of Russian brome grass
when it is young, when it has been sown with a nurse
crop, the stand secured may appear feeble in the autumn
after the grain has been harvested. The heavier that
the growth of the grain has been and the drier the
autumn, the more feeble will the grass appear. Be-
cause of this, the temptation sometimes arises to bieak
up the fit'ld, under the impression that the stand of
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 183
grass is not worlh saving. This should not be dons
hastily or without the most careful examination, as, if
the plants are present in reasonable numbers, even
though small, the return the next year may prove quite
satisfactory.
Pasturing. — The value of Russian brome grass for
pasture will depend in a great measure, on the favorable
or unfavorable character of the conditions for growing
the grass. On northwestern prairies, it will furnish
much more grazing relatively than the native grasses of
the prairie, and probably more than any of the other
cultivated varieties. In southern areas it would seem
to be less valuable relatively, but in these its relative
adaptation for pasture has not been generally proved.
It is probable, however, that in these it will lose its suc-
culence in prolonged periods of dry and hot weather, as
it does on certain of the western ranges until awakened
by the autumn rains.
This grass will stand close grazing better than many
other grasses, because of its inherent vigor, and the
character of the root growth, but, as with these, it will
yield much more pasture when it is not closely grazed.
In some instances, especially on sandy land, it has been
known to receive serious injury through excessive pas-
turing, and more especially when grazed thus the same
year that the seed was sown. Ordinarily, however, it
has much power to stand close grazing without suc-
cumbing. The aftermath in meadows is also much
more abundant than from many other grasses, hence it
is common to graze it down, but, when thus grazed, the
effect will doubtless be to lessen the return from the hay
184 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
crop the following season. While it will stand severe
tramping better than many other kinds of grass it should
not be forgotten that American experience with refer-
ence to this is as yet but little in evidence. Its greater
value for pasture compared with range grasses, arises
not only from the earlier period when it is ready for be-
ing grazed, the larger return which it produces and the
excellence of the grazing which it furnishes in the
autumn, but also from its high palatability. As a pas-
ture it has probably no superior in its own special do-
main.
Harvesting for Hay. — When Russian brome grass is
to be made into hay, it may be cut from the stage at
which it is fully out in head until the blossoms disap-
pear, according to the use that is to be made of it. As
in the case of timothy, it is cut at a somewhat more ma-
ture stage for horses than for cattle or sheep. If cut
too soon, the hay will be lacking in body and weight.
If cut too late it will be woody. But in instances in
which the seed stalks are not plentiful (see p. 185) the
injury to the hay from deferred cutting is much less than
when the opposite is true. A favorite time for cutting
is when the plants are first coming into bloom. Much of
what has been said as to the mode of cutting and curing
timothy (see page Y2) will apply also to the cutting and
curing of Russian brome grass. The hay, when prop-
erly cured, is eaten with a relish and its feeding value
is much akin to the feeding value of timothy. The
large amount of leaf growth in it adds much to its pal-
atability. The hay is usually free from weeds, espe-
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 185
cially after the first cutting, as there is a tendency in
this grass to crowd out weeds when once it is established.
The yields of hay vary exceedingly with variations in
soils and in seasons. Ordinarily the best yields are ob-
tained from the first cutting, but sometimes the second
cutting, that is, the cutting obtained the third summer
after the sowing of the seed is more productive because
of the thickening of the grass with age. Usually only
one cutting is made in a season, but the aftermath is
generally abundant. After the second cutting, the
yields of hay usually decrease from the over-thickening
of the grass. The average crop may be put at about 1^
tons per acre, but under favorable conditions it is fully
2 tons. Four to 5 tons have been cut from an acre and
again the yield has been as low as J ton.
Securing Seed. — Russian brome grass is ready for be-
ing harvested about three weeks subsequently to the
stage of full bloom, but this will vary somewhat with the
weather. The crop is sufficiently mature when the seed
kernel is full of meat, but the meat in the same is still
soft and pliable like rubber. The heads have then as-
sumed that purple glue tinge which indicates ripeness.
It should be cut with much promptness when mature, as
the seed when over-ripe shatters easily.
Different modes of harvesting the seed have been
recommended. Some advocate cutting the seed crop
with the binder. It is set so high as to cut and bind
into sheaves the seed stems that rise above the leaves,
but without cutting the leaves which mass so thickly for
some distance above the ground. The sheaves when cut
are removed and put up in shocks until dry, but they
180 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
may of course be shocked up in the same field. The
residue of the grass uncut is then mowed with the mow-
er and made into hay. This method may be the best
to follow when the seed stems rise up thinly, which is
apt to be the case after the crop has been cut for two or
three successive seasons.
A second method cuts the crop and cures it as though
it were being cured for hay. When thus managed, the
cutting and handling of the crop when being cured
should not be done in the driest and hottest part of the
day, to avoid undue shelling. This method should only
be resorted to, at least in climates where the harvest
weather is usually good, when the facilities for harvest-
ing by one or the other of the methods given are not
present.
A third method uses a stripper. This method is prob-
ably a good one, but it has not as yet been much prac-
ticed. It should certainly prove an expeditious way of
getting the seed, as it would preclude the necessity of
threshing the crop, and there would seem to be no serious
objections to it. It is probable, however, that as with
blue grass seed, much care would have to be exercised
in drying the seed, lest its germinating power should be
injured through overmuch heating. After the seed had
been thus removed, the crop would still furnish fairly
good hay because of the abundance of the foliage below
the seed heads.
A fourth method cuts the crop with the binder. The
sheaves are not tightly bound. They are cured in
shocks, preferably in those that are long rather than
round. When dry the crop is threshed at once or is
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 187
stored away in mows or stacks for being threshed later.
This method has been found to work well, especially
with crops in which the seed stems are numerous.
Russian brome grass may be threshed with the ordi-
nary threshing machine, but when threshing it, the wind
has to be nearly or entirely shut off. It is cleaned with
the ordinary fanning mill, but when cleaning it thus,
due attention must be given to the amount of wind used
and to the adjustment of the sieves.
The yields of the seed vary exceedingly. Usually the
best yields are obtained from the first cutting, if the
plants are sufficiently numerous. If not, the best yields
will probably be obtained from the second cutting, other
things being equal. Later, the yields will almost cer-
tainly decrease because of the thickening or matting of
the grass. The best' yields of seed up to the present have
been secured in the prairie provinces of the Canadian
Northwest, in North Dakota, in the more northerly of
the Rocky mountain valleys, and from the bench lands
of the range states south from the Canadian border. As
many as 600 pounds of seed have been secured from an
acre in the areas specified, but 300 to 400 pounds would
probably be an average from crops of the first cutting.
The seed of this crop as of all other crops not long
introduced is high, but it may be obtained by those who
can afford to wait, without much outlay. If 15 to 20
pounds of seed are secured and sown on properly pre-
pared land, the individual could expect the next year
to secure, say, 400 pounds of seed from the acre. This
would sow nearly 27 acres using 15 pounds to the acre.
The seed crop thus grown could, if necessary, be threshed
188 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
with a flail, and in many instances at least, the seed
thus threshed could be sown in the chaff with positive
advantage, the same season in which it grew. In fact,
under certain conditions, it could be sown at once.
Renewing. — If the stand of Eussian brome grass is
unduly thin at the first, it may be improved by adding
more seed in the autumn and covering or not covering
with the harrow acccording as sound judgment may
dictate. Under some conditions it may be prefer-
able to add the seed in the spring. But even though
the stand should be thin, if it is fairly regular it
will thicken up sufficiently. But its behavior in this
respect is much influenced by soil and climate. Where
moisture is deficient, it does not thicken to nearly the
same extent as under conditions the opposite.
This grass may be renewed in very many instances by
simply ploughing it and then smoothing the surface with
the harrow. The results will be greatly influenced,
however, by the way in -which the work is done. In
ploughing, the aim should be to cut narrow rather than
broad furrows and to lay them over at a sharp angle
rather than flat, and to plough but moderately deep as
ploughing is done in the locality. The preferable time
for such ploughing is when the ground is moist. When
thus treated the grass will start off with renewed vigor.
How frequently this mode of renewal may be practiced
and how long it may be expected to prove effective, can-
not be stated on evidence br-sed on American experi-
ence, but there would seem t<j be no good reasons for con-
cluding that it would not succeed indefinitely or at least
&>r a. long time. This mode of renewal would seem to
RUSSIAN BROME GRASS. 189
be well worthy of attention on the part of farmers and
ranchmen in areas wherein agriculture is more or less
dependent on the successful growth of this grass. The
interval between the sowing of the seed and the first re-
newal by this process and between subsequent renewals
should be determined by the necessity for the same, as
evidenced by undue matting of the grass accompanied
by a deficiency in growth.
Destroying Russian Brome Grass. — In some localities
some difficulty has been found in getting rid of this
grass when meadows or pastures are broken ; especially
is this true of rich and moist soils. Where this danger
exists, either of the two following methods will prove
effective: — First, backset the sod as in breaking up the
prairie, that is, plough it shallow in June and deeper
later ; or, second, plough reasonably deep and with care,
and follow with a well cultivated crop of corn. But it
would seem to be correct to say that no one who desires
to sow this excellent grass should be deterred from sow-
ing it from fear that it would make trouble by persist-
ently remaining in the soil.
CHAPTER IX.
MEADOW FESCUE.
The term meadow fescue includes any one of the
numerous species of grasses of the genus Festuca. The
varieties of this genus are numerous. The most valua-
ble of these are Festuca pratensis and Festuca ovina,
the former being equally valuable for grazing and fod-
der, and the latter for grazing only. Meadow Fescue
(Festuca pratensis) sometimes confusingly referred to
as Festuca elatior and vice versa is also called Tall Fes-
cue, Tall Meadow Fescue, English Blue grass, Randall
grass and Evergreen grass. Festuca pratensis and Fes-
tuca elatior are really two varieties of Fescue. Some
consider the latter as the species and the former as the
variety, but Festuca pratensis would seem to be more
serviceable to American conditions than the other. The
terms Tall Fescue and Tall Meadow Fescue, are, or
ought to be, restricted to the variety Festuca elatior. In
Virginia meadow fescue is commonly spoken of as Ran-
dall grass. In Mississippi, North Carolina and some
other states it is called Evergreen grass from the green
color which it maintains even amid the snows of win-
ter.
Meadow fescue is a perennial which is somewhat slow
in coming to maturity. It is by far the most important
and valuable of the many grasses of the fescue family.
FJG. 9.
MEADOW FESCUE (Festnca finttcnsis).
Tennessee Experiment Station.
MEADOW FESCUE. 193
Especially in Europe has it been assigned a prominent
place in producing live stock, where the fescues are more
numerous and important than in America. The variety
pratensis grows usually to the height of about 2 feet.
The stems are round and smooth. The panicle is erect
and nodding, and somewhat resembles that of chess
(Bromus sacalinus). The leaves are fairly numerous and
large. The roots are fibrous and go down deeply into
the soil, in some instances, it is said, as deeply as those
of clover. Compared with this variety Festuca elatior
is considerably larger, taller and coarser, sometimes
reaching the height of 4 and even 5 feet. The leaves
are much longer and broader, some of them attaining
the length of 2 feet. The head is more open and less
erect, but is more numerously flowered. The roots are
stronger and more woody, and the plants grow more in
tufts like those of orchard grass. But since the distri-
bution of these varieties is about the same and since the
conditions of growth are very similar, what follows with
reference to distribution and growth may be considered
as applying equally to both.
Meadow fescue grows slowly and takes two or three
years to attain to a maximum of production. It does
not grow so early or so quickly in the spring as some
other grasses, but it continues to grow far on into the
autumn and in climates sufficiently mild even into the
winter. It comes into bloom a little earlier than tim-
othy. Like orchard grass it: has considerable adaptation
for growing in shady places. All authorities who have
written upon it are agreed that it is an excellent pas-
jture grass, because of its ability to grow during much
^Grasses — 13.
194 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
of the year, because of its ability to withstand condi-
tions, wet and dry, warm and cold, because of the con-
siderable degree of palatability which it possesses and
because its nutritive properties rank at least fairly
high. Because of its permanency in conjunction
with the good qualities named, it should be given
a foremost place among grasses sown for permanent
pasture. It ranks high, also, as a hay plant. Amid
suitable conditions it furnishes a large amount of good
hay that is much relished by live stock, but when
grown for hay it is more commcnly as a factor in the
crop than as the sole crop, owing to the considerable
period which it requires to attain to a maximum of de-
velopment, it is better adapted to meadows of a con-
siderable degree of permanency than to those of short
duration. The variety elatior is less well adapted for
producing hay because of the coarse character of the
stems and leaves and of the tendency which it has to
tussock, but it is thought that it produces more pasture
than the other variety.
Meadow fescue is relished by all kinds of domestic
animals and is very suitable for them. In America,
however, it is not grown very often alone except for
seed, hence its productive value for pasture or hay has
not been so fully determined as that of some other
grasses. From Kentucky and Virginia southward, its
relative value for winter grazing ig even greater than for
summer grazing owing to the fresh and succulent char-
acter of the pasture which it furnishes at that season.
Distribution. — Meadow fescue is indigenous to Eu-
rope and western Asia. It is much grown in Great
MEADOW FESCUE. 195
Britain, Lapland, Norway and Sweden, and more or
less of it is. grown in all the intervening countries until
the Mediterranean is reached. It is a favorite meadow
and pasture grass in the countries specifically designated
and it is grown to a much greater extent relatively in
these than in North America. Although introduced
into America, it is thoroughly at home on this conti-
nent, and may be grown with more or less success in
some part or parts of every state in the Union and of
every province in Canada.
That meadow fescue is well adapted to endure low
temperatures is well attested by the fact that it grows
so well in Lapland and Norway. That it is well able
to endure warm climates is witnessed by its behavior in
the south, for which its adaptation is considered higher
than for the north. But it should be noticed that its
highest value in the south is found in cool rather than
in hot weather. It grows better of course in moist than
in dry climates and yet it is able to endure much
drought because of the deep feeding of the roots.
The ability which this grass has to grow and to
maintain its greenness when the cold is not too ex-
treme, is one of its most valuable features. Because of
this it is especially valuable as a pasture plant for
autumn and winter grazing in all the southern states
where it has been grown. Its value for such a use
has been much praised in Virginia, the Carolina?, Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, Mississippi and Kansas. At the agri-
cultural experiment station at Kansas it has been tested
for more than twenty years and as a result has been
assigned a foremost place with orchard grass in adapta-
196 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
tion for Kansas conditions. Its behavior in furnishing
hay and pasture Las also been favorably reported from
New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey and
in several of the 'New England states. It has been
recommended by high authority as being suitable for
Indiana, and there would seem to be no good reasons
why it should not be equally suitable for the conditions
of the neighboring states. In the states bordering on
the Mississippi, except in Kentucky and Tennessee, it
has not been much tested, but it should grow fairly
well in all of these. In the semi-arid states it should
stand dry weather better than some other grasses, yet it
is at least doubtful if it has any important mission
for these in the purely range country, but where winter
wheat will grow nicely in these as it does over large
areas so will meadow fescue. In the more northerly of
them the conditions would be against winter grazing in
the lines on which it is conducted in the Atlantic and
Gulf states. Meadow fescue will doubtless grow well
in the irrigated valleys, but it is not specially needed
in these, since they grow alfalfa and clover so well.
No place probably in the United States or indeed in
North America has higher adaptation for meadow fescue
than the strip of coast land along the Pacific from Cal-
ifornia to Alaska.
Meadow fescue proved to be one of the most satis-
factory grasses grown as permanent pasture at the On-
tario Agricultural College experiment station at Guelph.
It was not only one of the most abiding but also one of
the most productive of these, and yet as a pasture or a
meadow grass it is not much grown on Ontario farms or
MEADOW FESCUE. 197
indeed on farms in any part of Canada. It is not well
known in the various provinces of that country, al-
though it is pretty certain that it could he grown with
profit in tillable areas from Lake Huron to the Atlantic.
In the northwestern provinces of Canada, Russian
brome grass and western rye grass (Agropyrum tene-
rum) are likely to remain higher in favor than meadow
fescue. Four reasons may be given why this useful
grass is not more generally sown — first, the seed is
relatively high ; second, it is frequently adulterated with
one of the rye grasses, which it very much resembles;
third, its merits are not universally known ; and, fourth,
it takes so long to reach a maximum of production that
it is not well suited for being grown in meadows of
short duration.
Soils. — Meadow fescue will grow, but of course not
equally well, in a great variety of soils. Although
when once established it has much power to maintain its
hold on soils lacking in moisture during at least a por-
tion of the year, it . will grow much better relatively
where considerable moisture is present, even where
the land is annually covered by the overflow of rivers.
It is best adapted to good, strong, moist loams well
stocked with the elements of production, and underlaid
with a subsoil which the roots can easily penetrate to a
considerable depth. The best returns have been obtained
from this plant when grown on such soils in states which
have a considerable rainfall. On the deposit soils of
river bottoms it has also proved highly satisfactory
where the sand element in these has not been too pro-
nounced. In alluvial bottom lands it grows luxuriantly
198 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
at present. On sandy loams it grows with no little
vigor, the growth being modified, of course, by the
character of these, and the same is true of the humus
soils of the prairie except where these are too lacking
in density and moisture. Although sandy, gravelly and
rocky soils are not high in adaptation for meadow fes-
cue, it will maintain its hold on these and produce much
grazing where the moisture is ample as witnessed in
the good grazing furnished by it on the mountain lands
of Tennessee. Although this grass grows much better on
slough or marsh lands that are drained, it will succeed
in these even when the degree of saturation during a
portion of the year is considerable.
Meadow fescue is ill adapted to lands that are low in
fertility. If these are at the same time leechy, the adap-
tation even in moist climates is lessened and in dry cli-
mates it renders growth almost prohibitory. Nor will
it grow well on good strong soils laden with plant food
when the rainfall is low beyond a certain degree, as
witnessed in the semi-arid belt ; yet it will endure more
drought than timothy, as observed in the relatively bet-
ter returns obtained from it in Eastern Kansas, Idaho
and Eastern Washington.
Place in the Rotation. — Meadow fescue is not well
adapted to short rotations, since as intimated previously,
it takes from 2 to 4 years to reach that point when a
maximum of production will be realized. When sown
in meadows it is sown only in those that are to be mown
for several years in succession before breaking them
up; and when sown in permanent pastures it ceases
altogether in the true sense of the term to be a rotation
MEADOW FESCUE. 199
plant. In this respect it will occupy about the same
place as Kentucky blue grass, and much that was said
about the place which the latter occupies as a rotation
plant may apply equally to meadow fescue (see page
89). Like all grass plants, it is best sown on clean
land, whatever the process may have been that was
adopted in cleaning the same, and is followed by crops
that feed eagerly on the gathered supplies of available
plant food furnished by the grass roots in their decay.
These include the small cereal grains, corn, the non-
saccharine sorghums and rape.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for
meadow fescue is not different from the preparation of
the same for several other grasses that are being dis-
cussed. Usually it requires a seed bed, moist and finely
pulverized, but there may be instances, as on the light
soils of the prairie so light that they lift with the wind,
when a rough surface would be preferable to a smooth
one. There may be other instances as when the seed is
sown in the autumn when a surface to some extent
cloddy would be preferable to the same too finely pul-
verized; yet again there are instances as when sown in
the spring on loam soils in which pulverization cannot
be too fine for best results. Unless where the soil runs
together in the sense of impacting or washes away,
autumn ploughing aids much in securing a fine seed bed
in the spring.
Sowing. — -The time or times at which meadow fescue
may be best sown will depend much upon the locality.
It is hardy, hence at the North the seasons for sowing it
are about the same as for sowing timothy, that is, during
200 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
August or September, and in the spring from the time
the ground is uncovered until the small cereal grains
have been sown. In the South it is usually sown August
1st to November 1st. As with timothy in the North,
when sown in the autumn it should be sown early
enough to secure a good growth in the plants before
entering the winter. In the North it is more commonly
sown in the early spring and on ground where it can
be covered with the harrow. In the South it is of tener
sown in the fall.
Like the seeds of nearly all grasses except timothy,
it is usually sown by hand, but it is practicable under
certain conditions to sow it with the grain drill and
with the hand seed sower run like a wheelbarrow when
sown alone. It may be sown before the grain drill on
properly prepared land or after it, and in either case the
harrow should follow to cover the seed unless in climates
that are quite moist. When sown before the drill a
more complete covering is secured.
Because of the slow growth made by the young plants,
it is important that the seed shall be sown with a nurse
crop, otherwise weeds will have to be mown twice or
of tener, in the season. Any of the small, cereals may
be used as the nurse crop. Winter rye and winter wheat
are the most suitable, all things considered, since in
these it may be sown autumn or spring. In the South
winter barley is a good nurse crop and winter oats may
also be used.
Notwithstanding the value of this grass for meadow
and for pasture, it cannot be said that it is widely sown
for either purpose. The relative slowness with which it
MEADOW FESCUE. 201
establishes itself probably explains wliy it is not more
sown for hay. The great extent to which the seed is
adulterated by those of the more short lived rye grasses
probably furnishes one explanation why it is not more
sown for pasture. For either purpose it is almost in-
variably sown with other grasses. For meadow the best
single grass with which to grow it is timothy in the
North, since the two ripen nearly at the same time. If
clover is added, alsike is preferable to other varieties,
since it ripens later than the medium red and does not
smother the crop with which it grows to the same ex-
tent as rank mammoth clover does. These three should
furnish excellent crops of hay on suitable land, although
the author cannot cite any instances in which they have
been grown thus. Eussian brome grass, orchard grass
and tall oat grass would not be so suitable to grow along
with it for meadow; nor would medium red clover,
since all three mature considerably earlier.
, The important mission of this grass in America
is in growing pasture in combination with other grass-
es and more especially in those pastures that are
abiding. In these it has much power to take care
of itself, though crowded when once it is established.
It will be found more valuable relatively in pastures in
the southern, central and far western states than in
those north, since for these it seems to have higher
adaptation than in those North, especially in areas with
Kansas and Idaho as centres. Along with tall oat
grass and orchard grass it furnishes good pasture not
temporary in character and the same is true of it in
certain areas of the South where it fits in particularly
well with orchard grass in providing such pastures,
202 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
since both have considerable permanency. The meadow
fescue readily fills the space between the tussocks of the
orchard grass.
When sown alone 2 bushels of seed or 28 pounds is
about the right quantity to sow per acre on average soils.
Some recommend a larger amount. When sown with
timothy for hay 14 pounds of the former and 6 pounds
of the latter would suffice ; when sown with alsike clover
and timothy 7, 2 and 4 pounds respectively should make
a suitable mixture; when sown for permanent pasture
the amount of seed will of course vary. If meadow
fescue and orchard grass are sown together to provide
such pasture about a bushel of the seed of each should
be used. If tall oat grass is added, 8 or 9 pounds of each
of the three should be enough. If sown in mixtures
with a larger number of grasses it would not seem nec-
essary to sow more than 5 or 6 pounds of this grass
per acre, because of its abiding character in permanent
pastures.
Pasturing. — Meadow fescue stands grazing well when
it is once set. It does not furnish grazing so early as
some of the other good grasses, but it grows better than
blue grass in the summer and as previously intimated,
it has much power to grow in cold weather and also to
retain its genuineness. It grows more or less in Mary-
land, Virginia, Tennessee and some other states through
much of the winter; hence, it furnishes good winter
grazing for horses, cattle and sheep, but more especially
for horses and sheep, since these can graze upon it though
covered with snow, both pawing down to it through
the snow. It is claimed that it will grow thus on moun-
MEADOW FESCUE. 203
tain lands in the South higher than those on which blue
grass is found.
For temporary pastures meadow fescue should not
be looked upon as a reliance, since these would be
broken up before the grass had reached the limit of
capacity to produce. But few grasses, however, if in-
deed any, excel meadow fescue for permanent pasture,
where the conditions are at all favorable to its growth.
Its duration under some conditions is very great. One
instance is on record in Tennessee in which this grass
has furnished good grazing for 50 years. Whether it
would endure thus long in northern areas does not ap-
pear to have been well established. It is probable, how-
ever, that it will survive longer in southern latitudes
than in those north where the winters are stern.
Harvesting for Hay. — Meadow fescue comes into
flower a few days earlier than timothy. It should be
cut ordinarily about the blossoming stage, but not quite
so early for horses as for cattle and sheep. The method
of cutting and curing is about the same as that adopted
in cutting and curing timothy, that is, it is cut with
the mower and is cured in the winrow. (See p. 74.) It
makes a good quality of hay. The yield of hay ordinar-
ily runs from 1 to 2 tons per acre, but in some areas it
produces much larger yields. As high as 4 tons have
been cut per acre. Since it is seldom grown alone for
hay, its value for market purposes does not appear to be
well established in this country, but, since it weighs
reasonably well, it should prove at least a fair merchant-
able hay. When the seed can be obtained plentifully
at lower rates and in purer form, and when the value of
204 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
this grass for permanent meadows becomes better known
more of it will be sown.
Securing Seed. — Meadow fescue produces seed abun-
dantly. The chief centres of seed production at the pres-
ent time in the United States are Northeastern Kansas
and Idaho. It is also grown in certain areas in Missou-
ri and Nebraska, but not so extensively as in the areas
named. One seed firm at Lawrence, Kansas, handled
50 car loads of home grown seed in 1902. The yields
in the localities named average about 200 pounds per
acre, but in some instances they run from 300 to 400
pounds. The first two or three seed crops are the most
•productive, but where the weeds and other grasses are
kept out seed crops that should be remunerative may
be taken for a longer period. The quality of the seed
grown in these centres is most excellent. It is fortunate
that the seed supply from the centres named is increas-
ing. It will, in time, doubtless render it unnecessary to
import seed, much of which in the past has been so large-
ly adulterated with the seed of perennial rye grass,
sometimes to the extent of 75 per cent. -The prejudice
thus begotten against sowing this grass in certain quar-
ters is unfortunate as it has reacted against its distribu-
tion.
Meadow fescue ripens quickly after it comes into
flower. It should therefore be harvested with prompt-
ness. There is no better way of harvesting the seed
crop than by cutting it with the binder and threshing it
with the ordinary grain thresher. It is not difficult ta
clean the seed with a good fanning mill.
Renewing. — Information with reference to renewing
MEADOW FESCUE. - / 205
this grass based on American experience is very meagre.
In meadows it is of less importance than in permanent
pastures because of the comparative infrequency of the
former. In permanent pastures in which it is desired to
give this grass considerable prominence if the grazing is
not close the heads which escape the grazing will pro-
duce seed, which, when it falls down, will in due season
germinate under many conditions and will in this way
increase the grass in the pasture.
CHAPTER X.
TALL OAT GRASS.
The term oat grass means any cultivated species ot
A vena. Tall oat grass (Arrhenatherum avenaceum) is
the most valuable variety of the oat grass family. It is
also known by the names Tall Meadow Oat grass, False
Oat grass, Evergreen grass, Grass of the Andes and
French Rye grass. It is the Avena Elatior of Linnaeus.
It inclines to what may be termed the tussock habit of
growth. Under some conditions it reaches the height
of 7 feet and under others does not exceed 2 feet. Un-
der average conditions the height to which the plants
usually attain is about 3 feet. The foliage is abundant
but is somewhat coarse. The stems are also more or
less coarse, which detracts from its value for hay. The
panicle is long, narrow and nodding, and leans slightly
to one side. It considerably resembles that of the
common oat, but is more slender in every way. The
roots are long and fibrous, going down deeply into the
soil, but in some instances, as when the soil is not
suited to the needs of the plants, they become bulbous.
Tall oat grass is a perennial in its habit of growth and
somewhat long lived. The seed is large and has strong
germinating power. The plants grow rapidly in the
early spring. They furnish much pasture in the north-
ern states in May, and in the southern states as early
FIG. 10.
TALL OAT GRASS (Arrhenatherum avenaceum)
Tennessee Experiment Station.
TALL OAT GRASS. 209
as April or even earlier. It is ready for being cut
for hay at least as early as orchard grass, that is to say
in June in the northern states and considerably earlier
in the southern states. After being cut for hay it
springs up vigorously and makes an abundant aftermath.
It seeds freely, but ripens the seeds unevenly, and sheds
them very quickly when ripe. In the North even it will
make two crops of hay under quite favorable conditions
and in the South three are frequently obtained. In the
North from two to three cuttings of greed food may
readily be obtained from this grass in one season and
in the South even a larger number are sometimes made.
When sown in the spring it may frequently be cut for
hay^the same season. In the autumn it again grows
freely and in the South it keeps green all winter ,and
furnishes, according to some authorities, more pasture
at that season than any other grass. Since the roots go
down deeply into the soil it stands drought well, and is
possessed of considerable power to gather plant food,
even in poor soils. Moreover it is easier to secure a
stand of tall oat grass than of almost any other variety
of cultivated grass.
The testimony regarding the palatability of the hay
and pasture furnished by tall oat grass is by no means
uniform. Some claim that both pasture and hay are
much relished by farm animals. Others claim that
they do not take to it readily. Amid this conflict of
statement it would probably be correct to say that the
palatability of the pasture or hay does not rank high,
owing in part to the coarseness of both leaves and stems,
Grasses — 14.
210 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
but more to a somewhat bitter taste which characterizes
it. In nutritive properties it ranks at least medium.
The contrast is somewhat striking between American
and English testimony with reference to this grass. The
former speaks encouragingly as to its value as a culti-
vated grass. The latter is pretty generally of such a
character as to discourage its growth, and this in spite
of the fact that it is extensively grown in France and
other countries in western Europe. Sir J. B. Laws,
after discussing it, evidently in an impartial manner,
concludes that its value is questionable. English opin-
ion with regard to it would seem, to be influenced by the
large number of the other cultivated grasses which can
be grown there, some of which are in several respects
superior to tall oat grass for English conditions. Fur-
thermore, tall oat grass prefers a climate not too moist.
Distribution. — Tall oat grass is common in Europe
and also in western Asia. It is probably indigenous to
both pf these continents. It was introduced into this
country from Europe and probably many years ago. It
has long been grown in Virginia and in certain portions
of ISTew England it was cultivated to some extent as ear-
ly as the first quarter of the last century when it was
valued somewhat highly, more especially because of the
early and rapid growth which it makes in the spring.
It is a hardy grass and can endure much heat and
cold. Its adaptation for southern conditions would
seem to be much higher than for those in the North, but
this probably arises more from congeniality in the soil
conditions than from those of climate. It will grow well
in a climate that is moist, as is evidenced bv its be-
TALL OAT GRASS. 211
havior in France, but it grows at its best under condi-
tions of both climate and soil that are not over moist.
An over moist climate is also much adverse to the prop-
er preservation of the hay made from this grass.
Tall oat grass though not much grown in the northern
states, is susceptible of a wide distribution throughout
the republic. Many good words have been spoken in its
favor in the South and West. In some of the southern
states it is placed at the head of the list of the cultivated
grasses. As previously intimated it has been grown
successfully for many years in Virginia. In Georgia it
has been given first place among the valuable grasses.
In Nebraska, though not very extensively grown, it is in
good repute and in Idaho it is grown considerably both
on the upland and along with alfalfa on irrigated land.
Coming northward it has done well on certain of the
sandy soils of Michigan and in some areas of Pennsyl-
vania. It is not probable that this grass will be grown
to a very great extent east of the Rocky mountains and
north of the fortieth parallel, because of the success
with which other grasses may be grown in nearly all of
the area named that are considered superior. Never-
theless, in the light soils found in certain areas of
Michigan, Wisconsin and other states, this grass should
be further tested. For such soils it has this advantage
over Russian brome grass, that it germinates more
quickly and will produce much more abundantly the
season that it is sown. In the semi-arid belt it will grow
better than almost any other variety, unless it be the
Russian brome, but in much of this areu the conditions
are too dry even for tali oat grass. In nearly all the
212 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
southern states it grows more readily probably than
any cultivated grass that does not make trouble by
persistently remaining in the soil. The food produced
by it in the South is usually much more than from an
equal area in the North. In the southwestern states
it can be grown in but few localities without irrigation
because of drought. But it would seem to have consid-
erable adaptation for the dry portions of certain of the
northern mountain states, as Washington, Idaho and
Oregon. But even in these it is not likely to be so much
grown as meadow fescue, because of some superior qual-
ities possessed by the latter.
In Canada there would seem to be no very large place
for tall oat grass. In the provinces from Lake Huron
eastward, other grasses with superior qualities grow so
well that the necessity for it is not felt, although it
could be grown successfully in parts of all of these
provinces. In the provinces west from Lake Superior
it would seem that it has not been much tested, but it is
not likely that in these it will supplant Russian brome
grass, the qualities of which are in some respects su-
perior. More especially is this true- of the latter with
respect to palatability, permanency, and the extent to
which it fills the soil with vegetable matter.
Soils. — Tall oat grass, though more indifferent to
soils than some other grasses, will nevertheless grow
much better on some soils than others. The soils best
adapted to growing it are those that are somewhat
dry, porous and sandy or gravelly in texture. As the
roots feed deeply, it is important that the subsoil shall
be porous. Whatsoever the character of the surface
TALL OAT GRASS 213
soil, therefore, this grass ought not to be sown where
a hard pan subsoil comes up near the surface of the
ground. The favorite soils for tall oat grass are those
that are sandy in texture and yet possessed of enough of
loam to furnish food for free growth in the plants, and
that are moreover underlaid with a porous subsoil, pref-
erably clay. It will grow well in the alluvial soils
of river bottoms when sandy in character and not sur-
charged with moisture. But it will also grow reason-
ably well on light sandy soils though underlaid with
sand or gravel, unless where the conditions are extreme-
ly dry. It will even grow reasonably well on gravelly
soils under similar conditions. Its adaptation for the
soils of the Rocky mountain areas is relatively high as
it is also for much of the light soil found in the South.
On the vegetable soils of much of the prairie it also
behaves well, as shown by experience in growing it in
Iowa and Kansas, more especially when these are not
so light as to lift with the wind. Stiff clays are not well
adapted to the production of this grass, and on slough
soils several of the cultivated grasses will grow much
better. Where these are undrained it would not be wise
to try to grow it on them. Nor does it grow well on soils
otherwise favorable to its development when unduly sat-
urated with water during any considerable portion of
the year.
Place in the Rotation. — Since tall oat grass makes a
strong growth the first season that it is sown, and since
it has also considerable power to maintain its hold upon
the soil, it is adapted to both short and long rota-
tions. It may be sown to provide hay or pasture for
214 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
but one or two seasons or it may be sown alone or along
with other grasses to provide pasture that is to endure
for a number of years. As with all other grasses it is
best sown on a clean soil, consequently in the rotation
it should naturally follow crops that have been cultivated
and kept clean during the season of growth. But since
it has much power to grow while the plants are yet
young, it can fight its own battle better than some other
grasses, should it be necessary to sow it on soil not
well cleaned. Especially would this be true if the weeds
in these soils were annuals, as, subsequently to the cut-
ting of the first crop the oat grass could be so dealt with
as to prevent these from re-seeding.
Tall oat grass could be followed by almost any crop
that would grow in the locality, but it would be prefera-
ble to follow it with a crop that requires much vegetable
matter in the soil in an easily accessible form to grow
it at its best, as corn, the non-saccharine sorghums, po-
tatoes and certain kinds of garden produce; also the
small cereals non-leguminous in character. In Britain
one form of oat grass known as the bulbosum, is difficult
to get out of the soil when the sod is broken, but no dif-
ficulty of this nature occurs with tall oat grass.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for
tall oat grass is essentially the same as for other grasses
that have been discussed. North or south, east or west,
the aim should be to have a clean seed bed. North or
south, simply cultivating or disking and then harrowing
the land after a crop that has been cultivated will be a
sufficient preparation for receiving the seed, whether
sown fall or spring. When the oat grass is sown at either
TALL OAT GRASS. 215
of the seasons just named it will usually be found
preferable to defer sowing until time has been given for
the sprouting of many of the weed seeds in the surface
soil. But sowing should not be too long deferred in
either case, lest dry weather should destroy the young
plants in the first instance, and harsh weather should
do the same in the second. When sown with a nurse
crop the preparation of soil that is most suitable
for the nurse crop will also be most suitable for the
tall oat grass. This will mean that on nearly all soils
the finer the pulverization for spring sowing the bet-
ter, but that for autumn sowing it is not always ad-
vantageous to have a very fine seed bed. Since tall oat
grass is a large seed and has strong germinating power,
it will make a stand under conditions that would be
fatal to some grass plants that are more delicate when
young, but with this as with all other plants, the labor
expended in preparing a suitable seed bed will be wisely
expended.
Sowing.— Tall oat grass may be sown north, south,
east or west, in the autumn or the spring. On suitable
soils it will probably endure the cold of winter as
well as timothy, when sown in the fall, but when thus
sown it should be in the early autumn, that the plants
may be strong before the arrival of winter. Dr. D. L.
Phares claims that below parallel 30 it may be sown
with safety from November 1st onward to the middle of
December. In the South especially, it is usually consid-
ered preferable to sow after the fall rains begin, more
particularly September or October. When sown thus
early, full crops may be reaped the following year. But
216 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
it may also be sown in March and April and furnish a
good cutting of fodder the same season. In the North
the seed will usually he sown the same time as winter
wheat or rye; it will usually be sown with one
or the other of these crops, if sown in the autumn. In
the spring the seed may be sown at the same time as the
small cereal grains as a matter of convenience, since
it will more commonly be sown with these, but it may
also be sown later if desired.
Tall oat grass may be sown as already virtually in-
timated with any of the small cereal grains. But in
seasons of good growth the oat grass sometimes grows
so strong as to hinder the yields of the grain. Espe-
cially is this result likely to follow when it is sown
with winter wheat. The value of the wheat straw in
such instances is greatly enhanced, but it may be at too
much of a sacrifice to the grain. The feeding value of
the straw of winter rye would thus also be considerably
enhanced, but it may be at too great a sacrifice of the
rye. The feeding value of the winter rye straw would
be considerably increased without so much injury to
the grain yield as in the case of wheat. When sown
with winter barley or winter oats, a good fodder crop
of the two should be produced the following spring.
It may also be grown in some localities with either of
the rye grasses.
This grass is usually sown by hand, more especially
when sown in the chaff ; since the seed is large it is not
difficult to sow it thus. It should be covered with
the harrow when thus sown, but it does not require to be
so deeply covered as grain. Where the seed is clean it
TALL OAT GRASS. 217
may be sown along with grain, but to this method of
sowing there is the objection that frequently it buries
the seed too deeply.
For producing hay, tall oat grass may be sown with
orchard grass and medium red clover, as they are ready
for cutting about the same time. It is also sometimes
sown with alfalfa, but when thus sown it is rather to
lessen the tendency in the alfalfa pasture to produce
bloat than to increase the yield of the pasture. It may
of course be sown alone to provide pasture, but is
usually sown in conjunction with other grasses. It is
more frequently sown for pastures in permanent mix-
tures than in any other way. When sown alone, not less
than two bushels of clean seed, 24 pounds, ought to be
used, but when grown for seed a somewhat less quantity
will suffice. In the chaff the quantity ought to be con-
siderably increased. When sown with orchard grass
one-half the quantity should suffice; when sown with
red clover one-third of the amount ; when sown for per-
manent pasture usually 3 to 5 pounds will suffice but the '
amount of seed required will of course vary with the
object sought.
Pasturing. — There is considerable conflict in opinion
with reference to the value of this grass for pasture.
English testimony on this point is in the main unfavor-
able while American testimony is in the main favorable.
The latter testimony in some instances speaks enthusi-
astically, probably too much so with reference to its
value for pasture. The strong points in its favor are,
its early, quick and continuous growth. A chief weak-
ness consists in the bitter taste which characterizes it
218 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and which docs to some extent lessen its palatability. If
sown in the early spring it will produce pasture the same
season. The aftermath, after cutting it for hay or
seed is also abundant. Its highest value for pasture,
however, is found in the South, in some parts of which
it may he grazed all the winter. Some consider it
the best pasture grass for winter which grows in the
South. In the North this grass is not likely to be grown
to any considerable extent to provide pasture unless in
permanent pastures, since other pasture grasses grow
there which are considered superior. Even in perma-
nent pastures it is not so enduring as some other grasses.
But in the central states and in some parts of the west
where it is grown in conjunction with orchard grass
and some other grasses its value for pasture is rela-
tively higher.
Harvesting for Hay. — Tall oat grass is ready for
being harvested for hay very early in the season. Even
in Ontario, Canada, it should be cut for hay sometime
between the middle and end of June. It should be cut
promptly when the blossoms begin to come out freely,
as it rushes rapidly to maturity and soon loses much in
palatability and in relative digestibility. It is of course
cut with the mower, and may be handled and cured
much the same- as timothy (see page 72). But in cur-
ing it, every reasonable effort should be made to protect
it from rain or heavy dews, as it very easily takes injury
from either of the sources named. It is not difficult to
cure after it has been cut for seed. A reasonably good
crop of hay can be obtained from it, even as far south
as the Ohio river3 while, south of that line, it is not un-
TALL OAT GRASS. 219
common to cut two crops of liay in one season. The
yield of hay may be set down as running from 1 to 3 tons
per acre as the soils vary on which it is grown and
also as the season admits of cutting one or two crops.
Testimony regarding its value for hay is conflicting.
Some growers think well of it. They claim that it is
more soft and palatable than timothy, for instance. The
first claim is correct, but because of this it would be less
valuable for market uses. The second does not general-
ly hold good, and because of the great promptness nec-
essary in cutting and curing it the difficulty of curing
any considerable area of it in best form is greatly en-
hanced.
Securing Seed. — Tall oat grass seeds freely. The
seeds begin to ripen in from six to twelve days from the
time of blossoming. The length of the interval is much
influenced by the weather, but it is always short. The
seeds on the top of the heads begin to ripen first and
as soon as these show indications of falling off the
cutting should not be delayed for a single day or a
considerable proportion of the seed may be lost. The
delay of only a few days in harvesting has resulted in
the entire loss of the seed crop.
From what has been said it will be apparent that not
only promptness but much care must be exercised in
harvesting the crop, otherwise much of the seed will be
lost. One of the best methods of cutting is to set the
binder high so as to cut off the stems above the mass of
the lower leaves, and to shock the sheaves thus made in
long rather than in round shocks, until dry. These
may then be drawn on racks covered with some kind cf
220 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
cloth or canvas to catcli the seed that shells. The seed
may be threshed with a common threshing machine, but
certain special attachments to the same facilitate the
work and prevent the loss of seed. The seed being rela-
tively large is more easily separated from the chaff by
winnowing than the seed of certain other grasses. When
the seed crop is harvested the residue of the crop left un-
cut may then be cut and made into hay. The seed crop
may also be harvested by setting the binder so low as to
cut the entire crop. But to harvest it thus would consid-
erably prolong the period necessary to cure it sufficient-
ly for threshing, which would probably result in the loss
of much seed, and the labor of threshing would also
be considerably increased. The seed weighs 12 pounds
to the bushel. The yield runs from_10 to 20 bushels per
acre. Certain of the lands in the Palouse country in
Washington now furnish seed of an excellent quality.
Renewing. — American experience in the renewal of
this grass either in pastures or for meadows is not plen-
tiful. The very meagre records, however, which bear
upon this question show that it responds readily to top
dressings with farmyard manure. Reasoning from gen-
eral principles, it would seem to be easy of renev/al on
congenial soils, since it readily produces seed. The seed
sheds easily and the germinating power of the seed is
good. Where the stand for meadow or pasture has
become too thin, therefore, it would seem reasonable to
suppose that, adding more seed, fall or spring, but more
particularly in the early fall, and cohering the same
by plentiful harrowing would produce renewal in the
crop. In some situations also where the soil and cli-
TALL OAT GRASS. 221
matic conditions are both highly favorable, renewal may
possibly be brought about by grazing in a way that will
admit of the falling of seed on the ground where it has
matured. In permanent pastures mixed in character,
and in which some of the other grasses are more aggres-
sive, it would not be easily possible to renew tall oat
grass.
CHAPTER XL
MEADOW FOXTAIL.
Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis) is a grass
plant that has attained much popularity in England and
also in some other parts of the continent of Europe. In
appearance it bears no little resemblance to timothy, but
the leaves are shorter and the heads also are shorter,
broader, softer and more velvety. The whole plant is
more smooth and soft than timothy. Moreover it is
ready for being grazed much earlier than timothy. It
also comes into flower several weeks earlier than that
plant.
This perennial grass in its habit of growth is consid-
erably like timothy. The plants grow singly and dis-
tinct and when not too crowded each throws up several
spikes, but when overcrowded many of the plants will
not come into head at all. While the height attained va-
ries much, the average height may be put at from 18 to
24 inches, but in rich situations the stems may attain
the height of 3 feet. The leaves are quite numerous and
the spikes are from 2 to 4- inches long and about one-
four! h of an inch in diameter. The root is short and
creeping, but it has considerable power to retain its
hold upon the soil. It grows very quickly, especially
early in the season, and is one of the first grasses to
furnish pasture. At the Ontario Agricultural College
FIG. ii.
MEADOW FOXTAIL (Alopccurus pmtensis.}
U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, D. C.
MEADOW FOXTAIL. 225
experiment station the heads appeared in some seasons
before the end of May, or earlier than those of hlue
grass. In Tennessee they sometimes appear early in
April. In favorable situations it grows up quickly
again after being grazed and also after being sown for
hay, but in somewhat dry conditions as in some parts of
the Mississippi basin it behaves differently.
Meadow foxtail is much relished by all kinds of
stock, whether grazed or fed as hay. It is not only pal-
atable, but its abundant leaf growth and softness make
it grateful to animals which feed upon it But it is
slow to become established, hence it is not well adapted
for short rotations. It will rather be grown in pastures
and meadows more or less permanent in character.
Where the conditions are just right for its growth, it
is peculiarly well adapted for permanent pasture.
Distribution. — Meadow foxtail is a native of Europe.
It has higher adaptation, however, for those parts of
that continent in which the climate resembles that of
England. Authorities agree as to its high value for per-
manent grazing in Britain, where it forms one of the
principal grasses in such pastures. It has long been in
favor in that country. In 1824 Sinclair states that it
constituted part of the produce of all the richest pas-
tures that had come under his notice in Lincolnshire,
Devonshire and in the vale of Aylesbury. It also grows
in western Asia and northern Africa. It is not indigen-
ous to America, nor can it be said that it has obtained
a very extensive foothold in any part of the same.
While this plant is fairly hardy it is not well adapted
to extreme conditions of heat or cold, drought or exces-
Grasses — 15.
226 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
•sive wet. It grows best in a climate moist and cool,
moister than much of the climate of the Mississippi
basin and cooler than that of the southern and south-
western states, unless in such portions of the same as
are elevated. It is also a grass that succeeds well under
irrigation, hence there may yet be a place for it in the
mountains of the West, although from the nature of the
production there that place is likely to be limited.
This grass has been grown more or less in the New
England states and those adjacent and its adaptation for
these has been commended. Notwithstanding it has
been but little grown in a large way. The inference
would seem just, therefore, that it is not more extensive-
ly grown for the reason that some other grasses, notably
blue grass, has been found better adapted to the condi-
tions in these states. The assumption will also proba-
bly be found correct that in the elevated areas of the
Allegheny mountain region southward from New Eng-
land it may be made to render good service in perma-
nent pastures. West of the Cascade mountains it should
also grow well in Washington and Oregon. In other
parts of the United States the conditions would seem
to be of a character not highly favorable to the growth
of this grass.
In Canada it is not likely to come into much promi-
nence. It will grow reasonably well in Ontario and the
provinces eastward, but not sufficiently well, apparently,
to make it prominent among economic pasture grasses.
At the Ontario experiment station at Guelph it proved
considerably less satisfactory in permanent pasture than
meadow fescue and tall oat grass. It is not likely to
MEADOW FOXTAIL. 227
have any important mission in Manitoba and the coun-
try westward to the Rocky mountains, but it may yet
render substantial service in certain parts of British
Columbia.
Soils. — All authorities agree in representing that
meadow foxtail will thrive best on a rich, moist, deep,
strong soil, with an underlying subsoil porous and yet
moist. It will probably grow best on rich, calcareous
loams and rich sands when thus underlaid. Richness
and moistness are important essentials in the soils in
which it grows, and linked with these there should be
more or less of friability. In Britain it has given good
results on land more or less springy at certain seasons.
It has high adaptation for rich porous soils that can be
subjected to irrigation. It has been claimed that it
will grow on any soil except the driest sands and gravels,
but the claim does not hold good except where moisture
is abundant as in the climate of Great Britain. In the
Mississippi basin its growth is not altogether satisfac-
tory on the loose soils of the prairie, though these
should abound in the elements most essential to plant
growth. On sands and gravels in the dry portions of
the West it would probably not succeed at all, until the
irrigated mountain valleys are reached. Even in Brit-
ain it does not well maintain itself on soils dry beyond a
certain degree.
Place in tlie Rotation. — Since meadow foxtail is slow
in becoming established, and since it has the power to
maintain itself for many years without failing, it is not
essentially a rotation plant. It cannot be used at all
in short rotations. Its special mission is to furnish per-
228 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
manent pasture and in a less degree permanent meadow.
When these meadows and pastures are broken, however,
it should be followed as in the case of other grasses by
crops that luxuriate in decaying vegetable matter such
as the small cereal grains, corn and potatoes. It is espe-
cially important that this grass shall be sown on a sur-
face made clean by the processes of cultivation, because
of the long time that it takes to become established.
Otherwise weeds will crowd and smother the plants.
Preparing the Soil. — In preparing the soil for mead-
ow foxtail, fineness, firmness, moistness, richness, and
cleanness should be sought, especially the conditions
last named. The plants being delicate at the first grow
slowly, hence, unless the conditions are quite favorable
when this grass is sown alone . it is much liable to be
smothered with weeds ; when the soil is not naturally rich
it should be fertilized with reasonably well decomposed
farmyard manure or by applying artificial fertilizers
particularly such as are reasonably rich in nitrogen.
When sown with other grasses to provide permanent
pasture the preparation that will be suitable in making
a seed bed for such pastures will also be suitable for
meadow foxtail. (See p. 385.)
Sowing. — The seed of meadow foxtail may be sown in
the autumn or in the spring in climates not so stern as
to preclude autumn sowing. In the New England and
middle states it is better to sow -in the spring and early
in order to take advantage of all the moisture of the
season. In the southern states and beyond the Cascade
mountains it may be sown in the autumn, preferably as
soon as the autumn rains come.
MEADOW FOXTAIL. 229
The seed is very light, weighing only five pounds
to the bushel when sown in the chaff in which form it is
usually sown, consequently it can only be sown by hand.
When sown in permanent mixtures the seed is of course
mingled with the seeds of at least such of the other
grasses in the mixture as call for hand sowing.
When sown alone for meadow or for seed, it is prob-
ably better to so .7 it with than without a nurse crop, but
the latter must not be of a character to form a dense
shade. This can be regulated when sowing with any of
the small cereal grains by sowing them more or less
thinly according to the kind of the grain. If the seed
is sown without a nurse crop much attention should be
given to keeping weeds so cut back that they will not
crowd the grass nor mature seeds.
When sown alone authorities claim that not less than
3 bushels per acre should be used when sown in the
chaff. If the seed was of the best this would seem to
be an excessive quantity, as according to Flint, an ounce
contains 76,000 seeds, but for various reasons it is not
easy to secure good, reliable, pure and fresh seed, hence
under ordinary conditions it may be well to sow the
quantity named. As with timothy the plants do not
thicken when once set, hence, liberal sowing at the first
is a necessity. When sown to provide permanent pas-
ture the amount of seed to use will vary with the prom-
inence to be given to this grass in the pasture. As the
plants are feeble when young and therefore much liable
to be overshadowed by those that are more vigorous a
liberal use of seed would be advisable in permanent pas-
tures. It should not be necessary, however, to sow more
230 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM,
than 5 pounds of seed per acre in any instance, and
seldom necessary to sow so much. From 2 to 3 pounds
of good seed should furnish many plants in the mixture.
For various reasons it is not easy to secure really good
seed. This no doubt accounts in part at least for the
unsatisfactory results that have frequently followed
the sowing of this grass under American conditions.
The high price of the seed has also heen against its
extensive use.
Pasturing. — The high value of meadow foxtail in
producing pasture under conditions favorable to its
growth cannot he questioned. Its earliness, permanency,
persistency in growth and high palatability recommend
it for such a use. Moreover it withstands cropping well.
It is these qualities which have made it a favorite pas-
ture grass in the permanent pastures of Britain and
more especially in the sheep grazing districts. While
it may be cropped down quite early in the season at
which time it grows with much vigor, it does not grow
so well later, hence it is much better to sow it with
other grasses when sowing it for pasture. Since it lux-
uriates on rich soil it is peculiarly responsive to dress-
ings of fertilizer in various forms.
Harvesting for Hay. — Although frequently grown for
hay in Europe, it is questionable if this grass will ever
become highly popular as a hay plant under American
conditions, since where the conditions are most favor-
able to its growth in this country they are also quite
favorable for the growth of timothy, which is king
among the hay plants in America. It is very light, com-
pared with timothy and is lacking in what may be
MEADOW FOXTAIL. 231
termed "body," that is substance, firmness and weight.
The slowness with which it matures also so far unfits it
for a hay crop.
It should be cut for hay when in bloom as then it
is claimed the plants are possessed of a maximum
amount of nutrition. When in full bloom a field of
meadow foxtail is handsome to look upon. It is claimed
that the hay has a higher nutrition than timothy. It
may be cut and harvested in the same way &s timothy.
(Seep. 72.)
Securing Seed. — The author has not been able to
obtain any information with reference to harvesting
the seed crop under American conditions. The seed
used in this country would seem to be all or nearly all
imported. Much of it is also adulterated with velvet
grass (Holcus lanatus) or with rye grass. The seed crop
ripens unevenly. Some of the heads are approaching
ripeness while other heads are still in flower. The
seed crop is also said to be peculiarly liable to injury
from insects and also blight. Moreover it is not easy to
thresh and prepare for market. These difficulties in the
way of procuring seed explain in part at least why the
seed is high.
Renewing. — When this grass is sown for meadow and
the stand is imperfect it would probably be better to
refit the land and sow again than to add seed, without
thus preparing the soil, as the young plants are unable
to flourish in soil where the conditions are not highly
favorable. The same reasoning will apply in the main
to the renewal of the pastures.
CHAPTEK XII.
GRASSES USEFUL BUT DIFFICULT OF ERADICATION.
In this chapter three grasses will be discussed which
are now almost universally looked upon as weeds. These
are Quack grass (Agropyrum repens), Johnson grass
(Sorghum halapense) and Crab grass (Panicum San-
guinale). All three are possessed of much economic
value and yet they are so difficult of eradication that
they have become in a sense the dread of the farmers in
localities into which they have been introduced, In
the judgment of the author, they should never be sown
on land that is to be tilled again. However, there are
localities where they have become so entrenched that
it may be the part of wisdom so to manage them that
the highest return possible will be secured, rather than
going to the expense of eradicating them. In other in-
stances and generally they should be given no rest by
those who cultivate the soil until eradication is com-
plete. In the hope that some light may be thrown
upon the difficult and perplexing problem of dealing
with these in a manner at once intelligent and effective,
these grasses will be considered separately and with
some minuteness.
QUACK GRASS.
Quack grass (Trilicum or agropyrum repens) is prob-
ably more frequently designated Couch grass by those
QUACK GRASS. 235
who have written with reference to it, but the tendency
now is to call it Quack grass. It is also known by the
names Twitch, Quitch, Squitch, Witch, Scutch, Quake,
Dog, Durfee, Chandler, Fin's, Eye or Creeping Wheat
grass. Dogs occasionally eat of the leaves, since with
them it acts medicinally as an emetic, hence the name
Dog grass. The terms Eye and Wheat grass have doubt-
less arisen from the resemblance of the plants to those of
rye and wheat. It varies much and is closely allied to
varieties that are not so persistent in the habit of retain-
ing a hold upon the soil.
This perennial grass thickens very quickly in the soil
where it once gains a foothold, and to the extent of be-
coming so matted or sodbound that the yield of pasture
or hay is seriously lessened when the grass is undis-
turbed by cultivation. This result arises from the pe-
culiar character of the root growth. The strong, stiff
creeping root-stocks or rhizomes branch out in every
direction and so completely fill the soil that other
grasses or weeds cannot grow in the same. The roots
are numerously jointed and at each joint is a bud capa-
ble of producing a fresh plant. The plants also grow
from seed. The stems grow from 1 to 3 feet in height,
the average being l£ to 2 feet. The heads or spikes are
rather slender and usually straight, bearing considerable
resemblance to those of wheat. The leaves are of a dark
green shade. They bear considerable resemblance to
those of timothy near the ground, but they are larger and
stronger and of a darker green.
The good qualities of quack grass may be summed up
as follows: 1. It will grow more or less well in almost
236 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
any kind of soil. 2. It is easily introduced and when
once established will endure indefinitely, since it can
withstand excessive cold or heat, drought or wet to a
remarkable degree. 3. It pushes up quickly in the
spring, grows abundantly until matured, makes much
aftermath when mown and grows up freely in the late
autumn. 4. It is much relished as pasture by all kinds
of live stock, especially if grazed before the plants be-
come woody, and produces as much good hay as timothy,
when cut in season, and more nutritious in character. 5.
It crowds out nearly all kinds of weeds where it grows.
6. It may be made to render much service in binding
soils along gullies and embankments. And V. Though
it may tend to lessen the fertility of soils when pastured
for successive years, yet when buried in the soil it exerts,
in many instances, a favorable influence on the same
mechanically.
Notwithstanding these good qualities, the author de-
sires to say with all possible earnestness, that this grass
should not be sown on arable farms or at least on such
portions of them as are to be tilled, for the reason that
it hinders cultivation; lowers the yields in the crops,
and requires great labor to eradicate it when this may
be desired. Where it may be legitimately grown is
discussed later. (See p. 238.) It also adds greatly to
the labor of tillage by the toughness of the sod which it
forms. This makes the land difficult to plough. Be-
cause of the extent to which the roots fill the soil, it is
even more difficult to provide a loose seed bed than to
plough the land ; because of the extent to which the roots
fill Ihe soil, it is even more difficult to provide a loose
QUACK GRASS. 237
seed bed than to plough the land, and because of the
vigor with which it grows among grain crops, it more
or less reduces the yields. The methods of destroying
it are discussed below. (See page 245.)
Distribution. — Quack grass is native to Europe. In
Great Britain and other countries, it has long been pro
scribed by the farmers because of the great labor which
it has caused ; because of its persistent presence in cul-
tivated fields. When it was introduced into this country
is not known. There is, however, a species of grass much
like it which is native to certain parts of the far west-
ern plains and which is there regarded as a good pasture
grass.
Quack grass flourishes best in a climate that is tem-
perate and moist and yet it will grow, but of course with
much less vigor, in a climate both warm and dry. But
it will grow better in temperatures that are moderately
cool than in those which are hot.
It will grow in almost any part of the United States
which it is possible to cover with a mantle of vegetation.
It would seem, however, to grow more vigorously in the
northern and central states than in those southward. It
has spread to a greater extent probably in the prairie
states in the upper Mississippi basin than elsewhere,
but for many years it has also given trouble to the farm-
ers of New England.
In Canada this grass will also grow with great vigor
in all areas where the soils, when tilled, will grow cereal
grains. But nowhere in that country does it grow with
more vigor than in the provinces of Ontario and Que-
238 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
bee, since in these both the soil and climatic condi-
tions are exceedingly favorable to its growth.
Soils. — As implied in what has already been stated,
quack grass will grow in almost any kind of a soil. But
it also has its favorite soils. It grows probably in
greatest luxuriance in clay loam soils, moist and friable,
but it also grows with much vigor on the black loam soils
of the prairie so largely made up of decayed vegetation.
It grows with much persistency even in stiff clays. In
rich lands it luxuriates and also in the alluvial soils of
river bottoms. In sands and gravels low in fertility it
can fight the battle of existence, but from these it is
much more easily dislodged than from soils rich and
friable.
Place in the Rotation. — No place can or should be as-
signed to such a plant in any regular rotation because
of the trouble which it gives in being removed from
the soil. It would not be wise even to sow it in pas-
tures mixed in character which are intended to be per-
manent as it would certainly crowd out all or nearly
all the other sorts because of its aggressive character.
But the author is by no means convinced that it should
never be sown. It may be wise, in some instances, to
sow it on infertile sands too poor to sustain other grasses
in good form. There may also be a place for it on cer-
tain lands in the semi-arid region east of the Rocky
mountains, especially in such of them as can be broken
by the plough. It would seem reasonable to suppose
that this grass would furnish much more food from a
given area when managed as described below (see p.
QUACK GRASS. 239
242), than is now obtained from the grasses which at
present occupy the soil.
Preparing the Soil. — As applicable to cultivated
farms, it is not necessary to discuss this question; as
on the cultivated portions of these the seed of quack
grass should not be sown. But if it should be de-
sired to sow the same on parts of the semi-arid range
country when it is not expected that the soil shall
ever be regularly tilled there can be no question but
that a stand of the grass would be more quickly obtained
on ploughed land than on the unbroken sod. Whether
on such sod the seed would grow the author has not
been able to ascertain, but the chances are that some
of the plants would obtain a hold if the seed were sown
in the fall ; when thus started, even though the plants
were thin and scattered, the habit of growth in the grass
would justify the conclusion that they would spread to
the extent of occupying all the land. It is also ques-
tionable, if under those conditions, the plants would
ever become so thick and matted in their growth as in
climates with sufficient rainfall.
This grass may also be sown on sands too low in fertil-
ity for regular cropping and on gravelly, stony and
rocky places which never can be tilled.
Sowing. — This grass will doubtless grow sown fall or
spring, but it is difficult to obtain seed. Because of the
weedlike character of the grass, many seedsmen do
not keep it in stock, as it should not be sown on lands
that grow other crops. When the seed is sown, there-
fore, of necessity it will be without a nurse crop. After
a seed bed has been prepared, where this is practicable,
240 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the seed can best be sown by hand and covered with the
harrow. Hand sowing is also of course necessary when
tillage is impracticable. Thin sowing would seem pref-
erable, as, although the grass produced the first year
or two should be less than maximum yields, these would
be more in the years that immediately follow than if
the grass had been sown thickly at the first, as the pas-
ture would not so soon become sod bound to the extent
of necessitating renewal (see p. 242). It would not be
necessary to sow more than 12 pounds per acre. The
seed weighs 20 to 24 pounds per bushel.
Where it is impossible to obtain seed at a reasonable
price, it may be possible to obtain the roots jof this
grass without other cost than that of taking them out of
the ground. This could best be done by the aid of a
plough, which would turn a clean cut and narrow furrow
and only deeply enough cut to make the roots easy of
access. They could then be shaken free from the ad-
herent earth with a fork. In a larger way the roots
could be drawn to the surface by a spring tooth harrow
and collected with a horse rake. If the roots thus se-
cured could then be run through a cutting box so as to
cut them in lengths not too short, material would thus
be furnished for scattering thinly over prepared land
and then covering the same with the harrow. The out-
come would be quick setting of the plants. They should
not be allowed to remain long out of the ground unless
kept in a damp condition. This method would seem
specially well adapted to securing a stand of the plants
on infertile sandy soils.
QUACK GRASS. 241
Pasturing. — As quack grass grows up with much
vigor in the early spring and as it becomes somewhat
woody after the seed stems begin to push up, it ought
to be kept grazed with reasonable closeness. If the
seed stems are not kept from forming, much of the grass
will be left uneaten unless the stock that graze upon it
are compelled to eat it in order to satisfy their needs.
The capacity of this grass to furnish grazing does not
seem to have been tested in an experimental way, but
there is no doubt that it is relatively high. Close graz-
ing in the autumn would also seem justifiable because
of the extreme hardihood of the grass. The nutrition in
the pasture is higher than that of timothy. If grazed
when succulent it has been pronounced excellent for
milk production. The pastures may be greatly improved
on some soils by harrowing early with a heavy harrow,
while the ground is soft. In other instances it would
be necessary to use a disk harrow. Nitrogenous ferti-
lizers judiciously applied will also greatly stimulate the
growth of the pastures.
Harvesting for Hay. — Authorities are agreed as to
the good quality of the hay made by quack grass, pro-
viding it is cut not later than the blossoming stage. It
is thought to be as valuable as timothy for feeding on
the farm, but it is not so marketable as the latter. It
would seem correct to say that it should not be sown
for the express purpose of providing hay, but may of
course be legitimately used for hay where it has already
possessed the soil. When so used it ought to be cut be-
fore any of the seeds mature, otherwise these may be
the means of starting the grass in fields where it is not
Grasses — 16.
242 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
wanted. The cutting and curing of the hay may be
managed in the same way as the cutting and curing of
timothy. (See p. 72.) From 1 to 4 tons are produced
per acre. The average is probably about 1^ tons.
Securing Seed. — This grass is seldom, if ever, grown
for seed in the United States, hence the author is unable
to state the best method of securing seed based on
American experience. According to Beale, it does not
readily produce seed until the plants become dwarfed
and crowded because of a matted condition of growth
or through more or less of impoverishment of the land.
It is also quite probable that the tendency in the plants
to produce seed is less on the humus soils of the prairie
than on soils essentially clay in texture. It is also
certain that more or less of the seed matures in the
grain crop amid which this grass grows, and in this
way aids in the distribution of the same. The capacity
of this grass to produce seed under prairie conditions,
would seem to have been under-estimated, otherwise
there would be no adequate explanation of the abun-
dant presence of this grass in the soils of the upper Mis-
sissippi basin. If seed crops should be wanted, they
can probably be obtained by cutting crops which mature
seed with the binder and threshing them as orchard
grass is threshed. (See p. 145.)
Renewing. — When quack grass becomes sod-bound to
the extent of lessening the grazing furnished by it, it
may be renewed by ploughing and then harrowing the
land ploughed. The depth to which the land should be
ploughed, the best season for doing the work and the
frequency with which this should be done depend upon
QUACK GRASS. 243
conditions which relate chiefly to soil and climate ; con-
sequently, -uniformity in the exact methods followed in
renewing the grass would not be wise. Ordinarily the
land should not be ploughed more deeply than the mass
of the roots go. The work may be best done in the early
fall or early spring and at intervals of say 2 to 4 years.
If ploughed quite late in the fall, the upturned roots
would be injured by the frost in cold climates and
ploughed late in the spring, much of the usual season for
growth would be lost. The work should be done with
a strong team because of the toughness of the sod. It
should also be done with a plough that will turn a
smooth furrow that a reasonably smooth surface may be
made with the harrow. Such renewal is very helpful
in increasing growth in the pasture. By such a method
of renewal, accompanied by an occasional dressing with
fertilizers, this grass could doubtless be grown for many
years.
Eradicating. — Quack grass seeds are frequently in-
troduced along with those of seed grain, amid which
they have grown, more especially along with wheat and
oats. It may also be introduced in stable manure pur-
chased in cities, towns and villages. A few plants are
thus lodged in the fields in one or more centres. In
these there may be but a single plant at the first.
Through the aggressive character of the root growth,
the plants in each center soon grow into a small patch
and then into a large one. While the fields are being
cultivated, the roots are being carried to other parts of
the field by implements used in tillage. These form
new centres from which growth radiates, insomuch that
244 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
in time if the spread of the plants is not checked the
field is completely possessed by the grass.
In combating this grass, the following are among the
most effective of the measures that may be adopted :
1. Plough after the crops have been harvested. Work
the roots to the surface by using some form of spring
tooth or other harrow. Then rake with the horse rake
and burn when dry. Follow with one or two crops of
corn planted in hills and to which the most thorough
cultivation is given.
2. Sow rye in the autumn. Let the rye mature the
following season or graze it which is preferable and
follow with a smothering crop as sorghum or corn sown
thickly. If necessary grow corn on the same land the
next year, managed as outlined above.
3. Manure the land heavily with reasonably well
composted manure. Give to it careful and thorough
preparation. Grow on it corn or sorghum, preferably
the latter, sown thickly with the drill and as grain is
sown and then follow with corn grown as described
above.
4. Plough the land carefully after the grass has made
a good start in the spring. When ploughing it turn
narrow rather than wide furrows. Then use the disk
until a good seed bed is formed and then sow barley
thickly, using 2^ to 3 bushels of seed per acre. Plough
again as soon as the barley crop is removed.
5. Summer fallow the land, ploughing the same or
stirring the surface after it has been ploughed with
sufficient frequency to prevent the plant from breathing
through the leaves for a single season.
QUACK GRASS. 245
6. Divide the infested area into two or three fields.
Grow on these for forage such crops as winter rye, bar-
ley and oats sown together, rape or kale and corn or
sorghum ; not fewer than two of these crops are to he
grown in succession each season. These are to he
grazed off by sheep, alternating the grazing in the dif-
ferent fields, and the process is to be continued as long
as may be necessary.
7. Small patches may be virtually destroyed by en-
closing swine on them and leaving them until they have
consumed the roots, of which they are fond.
Methods 1, 2 and 3 can best be pursued in areas
where corn is a leading crop, but, where it is not, field
roots may be substituted for corn. Method 4 can be best
adopted in prairie areas north of parallel 45 where bar-
ley can be successfully grown where sown thus late.
Observations. — 1. Quack grass has been destroyed in
some soils by one ploughing if done just at the setting in
of a prolonged summer drought. The furrows should be
narrow and left on edge as much as possible and not
disturbed subsequently with the harrow or other im-
plement until the grass dies through want of moisture.
2. In seasons of much rainfall it is virtually impos-
sible to destroy quack grass without excessive labor, as
at such times stirring the soil usually encourages the
growth of the grass.
3. Whatever method of eradication may be adopted,
it is usually necessary to dig out stray plants with a
pronged fork in order to complete the work. With this
object in view, such a fork should be carried in some
246 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
way when practicable by work hands engaged in the
various processes of cultivation.
JOHNSON GRASS.
Johnson grass (Sorghum Jialapense or Andropogon
halapensis) is a large, strong, coarse grass of the sor-
ghum type that has been grown for many years in many
parts of the South. It is also known by the names
Means grass, Cuba grass, Guinea grass, Alabama Guinea
grass, Syrian grass, Egyptian grass, St. Mary's grass,
Green Valley grass, Arabian Millet and Egyptian Mil-
let. It was introduced into South Carolina in 1835 by
Governor Means of that state, who obtained the seed
from Turkey, hence the name Means grass. Some years
later William Johnson of Marion Junction, Alabama,
who obtained the seed from Governor Means, gave much
attention to placing its good qualities before the farmers
of the South, hence in time it came to be known gener-
ally as Johnson grass. It has frequently but erroneous-
ly been called Guinea grass, since these grasses have but
little in common, except that both under favorable con-
ditions produce a large amount of hay, and both are
easily injured by close pasturing. Unlike Johnson grass,
Guinea grass has no creeping root-stocks and will not
produce seed in the United States. It is also more deli-
cate in winter.
This grass is perennial and it closely resembles young
cane until the plants are a foot high. The stems are
usually from 3 to 6 feet or more in height, but they
have been known to grow to the height of 10 to 12 feet.
They are amply supplied with leaves, large, long and
FIG. 13.
JOHNSON GRASS (Sorghum halapense),
Tennessee Experiment Station.
JOHNSON GRASS. 249
broad. The head is open and branching, from 6 to 12
inches long, and somewhat resembles that of barnyard
grass. The root-stocks are creeping and so numerous
and large that they almost completely fill the soil to a
considerable depth. Full sized roots are sometimes
found 2 feet below the surface. Some of them are half
an inch .in diameter and they are supplied with latent
buds about an inch apart, hence the smallest portion if
left in the soil is sure to grow.
Johnson grass does not start in the spring until the
weather is warm, and ceases to grow in the autumn as
soon as it gets cool. In the summer it grows very rapid-
ly under favorable conditions, and will furnish two to
five cuttings of hay in one season. While the weather
remains warm it may be cut as soiling food once a
month. While stock are fond of it as hay or pasture
when grazed sufficiently early, it does not endure close
grazing well, but is essentially a hay and soiling plant.
It is also a hot weather plant which can endure much
drought, but which succumbs to excessive wetness. It
is commonly obtained from seed, but may also be grown
by planting the roots. The seed bears some resemblance
to flax seed.
The strong points of this grass may be summed up as
follows : 1. It may be grown indefinitely as permanent
meadow. 2. On good soil it yields enormous crops of
hay annually in the aggregate, which may be grown at
a profit, 3. It not only makes good hay but is a grand
soiling plant, owing to the number of the cuttings which
it will furnish. 4. It is relished by live stock as pasture,
soiling food or hay. 5. A winter crop of some other
250 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
fodder may be reaped on the same land early in the
season with more or less frequency and tAvo cuttings of
Johnson grass at a later period. 6. Swine can obtain ,
much food from its roots.
The weak points of Johnson grass are : 1. It will not
grow satisfactorily in a cold climate. 2. Although
stock are fond of it as pasture, close and continued
grazing soon lessens its productiveness, but does not
entirely remove it. 3. Where it has been grown it is
likely to continue to grow more or less among crops
sown subsequently and to their serious injury. 4. Un-
der favorable conditions for growth it is almost impos-
sible to eradicate it.
Distribution. — Johnson grass is native of western
Asia. It also thrives well in northern Africa and
southern Europe. It was introduced into the United
States as already stated in 1835.
This grass is adapted only to climates that are rea-
sonably warm. It will not grow at all satisfactorily
under conditions where the frost penetrates the ground
to any considerable extent, as down to the bottom of
the frost line, it is claimed, the roots will perish. In
latitudes where the roots are thus injured but not de-
stroyed to their full depth, the growth that follows from
below the frost line is late and unsatisfactory. Even in
the southern states the growth in the spring is relatively
late and slow, and with the first frost of autumn it
ceases to grow. The hope, therefore, which some ranch-
men have cherished, viz., that it will succeed in the cold
areas of the semi-arid belt is never likely to be realized.
It will stand dry weather well when once established,
JOHNSON GRASS. 251
but will yield much better crops where the rainfall is
normal.
The most favorable conditions for growing Johnson
grass in the United States are found in North and
South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Tennes-
see, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma and
Texas. In Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri
and Kansas it has been grown with some success as far
north as the latitude of St. Louis or about 38 degrees
north. But there would seem to be no good reasons for
growing it in these states since they produce other forage
crops both numerously and abundantly. Above the
fortieth parallel the attempt should not be made to grow
it for economic uses. On the southwestern ranges the
conditions are too dry for growing it with much success,
nor is it a good pasture grass, viewed from the stand-
point of maintenance, under close grazing. Doubtless
it will grow well in the milder of the mountain val-
leys in the West and beyond the Cascades, but it would
certainly be a mistake to grow it in these, because of
the abundance of superior forage which may be grown
in them from plants that are easy of eradication.
In Canada there is no place for this grass. The cli-
matic conditions are too cold. Any attempt to intro-
duce its growth into any of the provinces of Canada for
economic uses would be unwise.
Soils. — Johnson grass will grow on a variety of soils,
but it will succeed best on loams rich and deep, since
its roots gather food from all parts of the soil down to
a considerable distance. It would probably be correct
to say that it will grow in good form on ground that
252 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
will produce good crops of corn, and that where
il is grown the other conditions being right, the
yield will be proportionate to the richness of the soil.
Excellent crops may usually be grown 011 rich alluvial
soils and calcareous loams if well drained. It is impor-
tant, that all lands on which it grows shall be free from
superfluous water, as soils that contain an excess of
water are much adverse to the growth of Johnson grass.
While it will grow on sandy and light soils, even on
sandy dunes and barren fields, the yields are small and
Unsatisfactory.
Place in the Rotation. — It can scarcely be said of
Johnson grass that it is a rotation plant, since, usually
when grown for hay, it is grown indefinitely from year
to year. Because of the persistence with which it grows
up in other crops that follow it, and from year to year,
it ought not to be grown in the alternations of any reg-
ular rotation. Wherever it is grown, the aim should
be to grow only Johnson grass and to so stimulate its
growth by fertilizers that a maximum of production
will result. But there is a sort of alternation in which
it is frequently grown, that is to say, a crop of grain
such as winter oats harvested early in the season, and
two successive crops of hay taken the same season from
the Johnson grass, these growing up from the roots of
the grass that are in the soil. This is made possible
and also practicable by the slow growth of the Johnson
grass in cool weather, and by the favorable influence
which, under certain conditions, breaking up the root
system has upon the growth of the plants. Clover has
JOHNSON GRASS. 253
field. The first cutting would be taken for hay, after
which the Johnson grass would take possession, the de-
caying clover roots meanwhile feeding the grass.
Preparing tlie Soil. — When the seed of Johnson grass
is sown to obtain a stand of the plants, it should be on
clean soil, or the weeds will greatly hinder the growl li
of the grass for a time. It grows rather slowly and deli-
cately at the first, notwithstanding the rapidity with
which it grows later. Similar preparation should also
be given to the soil when it is planted from cuttings, not
because it will be unable to make a stand under those
conditions, but because it will require a considerably
longer time to do so. Some growers have even gone
the length of summer fallowing the land for one season
before sowing this grass, but clean cultivation given to
some crop requiring the same ought to answer the pur-
pose sought just as well.
Sowing or Planting. — Johnson grass may be propa-
gated from seed or by means of cuttings from the root-
stocks. The former is the simpler method and the less
expensive when good seed can be obtained, but in some
instances the seed produced is not very satisfactory.
Many of the seeds are defective and many will not ger-
minate, but this does not hold true of all seed.
It would be easily possible to sow the seed too early
in the spring as the young plants are tender. Spring
sowing may extend from April to July, April being a
favorite month. Autumn sowing may extend from
August to* October according to the locality, September
being a favorite month. The seeds are slow of germina-
tion, especially in cool weather. But little return will
254 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
be obtained from spring sown seed the same season, but
seed sown in the autumn should produce two cuttings
of hay the following year. The seed may be sown by
hand and covered with the harrow or it may be put in
with the drill. It should not be buried deeply. It is not
customary to sow the seed in combination with other
grasses, but it may be sown with a nurse crop. It is
usually recommended to sow one bushel of seed per
acre. Some again consider a peck to half a bushel suffi-
cient. But the amount of seed that may properly be
used is much influenced by the condition of the land.
Heavy seeding is recommended in the spring that the
grass may hold its own against weeds. When the land
has been well prepared much less seed will suffice than
when the opposite is true. When the land is weedy the
seed is sometimes sown in rows far enough apart to ad-
mit of horse cultivation, with a view to encourage
growth in the plants.
When propagated from cuttings, roots are obtained
and planted in shallow furrows made with the plough.
They are covered with the harrow. The roots may be
made with the spade or corn knife, but most rapidly if
shaken free from dirt by running them through ^ cut-
ting box. Another method is to plant the roots between
the hills of corn, or in furrows made between the corn
rows when the corn crop is being made ready to lay by
for the season. In yet other instances the plants are
put in one way between the hills of corn, the cultivator
being used but one way in cultivating the corn, and so
as not to disturb the Johnson grass.
Pasturing. — While this grass is much relished by
JOHNSON GRASS. 255
stock before the heading out stage, and while it is also
valuable for milk production, it does not stand well con-
tinued pasturing and yet long pasturing does not com-
pletely destroy it. It only reduces the return in pasture.
The plants thicken up again in time when the pasturing
ceases. When the pasturing is thus reduced, the land
is frequently ploughed and sown with winter oats. One
effect of the ploughing is to aid in renewing the grass.
It is of but little use for pasture after the seed forms ;
it becomes so woody.
Swine are fond of the ro.ots. They search for them as
diligently, it has been claimed, as for sweet potatoes or
artichokes. An occasional ploughing will greatly aid
the swine in searching for the roots.
Harvesting for Hay. — Johnson grass is ready for be-
ing harvested for hay when it comes into bloom. It
ought not to be allowed to pass this stage before being
cut, as later it turns woody very quickly. In such a
condition live stock do not eat it readily. Some advocate
cutting it as soon as the heads appear and before it comes
into blossom.
The plan is considered a good one which cuts it in the
forenoon, following in due time with the tedder and
raking and putting into cocks the same afternoon or
evening. It is drawn when ready and stacked or housed,
and is fed or baled from the stacks as circumstances war-
rant. When curing, it is the aim to preserve the green-
ness to the greatest extent possible.
In the Gulf States from 3 to 5 cuttings may be ob-
tained from it each season. The first of these is ready
about the middle of May. Each of the subsequent cut-
256 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
tings is' ready at intervals of 4 to 6 weeks from the time
of the cutting immediately preceding. The yield from
each cutting is from 1 to 3 tons according to the rich-
ness of the land. Further north from 2 to 3 cuttings
only can be obtained, because of the shorter season for
growth. As many as 15 tons have been grown per year,
but under conditions that were most favorable to its
growth, and when the same has been further stimulated
by suitable fertilizers. The average yields, however,
will probably not exceed 4 to 5 tons per acre per season.
Fertilizers may be applied early in the season or be-
tween the cuttings as prudence may dictate. The kind of
fertilizer will of course depend on the land, but nitrog-
enous fertilizers are usually most helpful to the growrth
of this grass. One hundred pounds of gypsum per acre
and a similar amount of complete fertilizer applied be-
fore or after the first cutting have given good results.
Of course where this grass is to be cut from year to
year indefinitely, the question of proper fertilization
becomes one of the very first in importance.
In some sections of the South, more especially in the
Gulf States, some growers have large areas laid down
to this grass. They bale the hay. For this hay there
is a good demand in the South, and large profits are
made in some instances from growing it. Notwithstand-
ing the coarseness of the hay, it is quite palatable, hav-
ing in it a considerable quantity of saccharine content.
Securing Seed. — This grass seeds freely, but under
some conditions and in some seasons, the seed does not
fill out well. A good crop of seed would be about 9
bushels r>er acre. The first cutting of the grass for the
JOHNSON GRASS. 257
season is preferred for seed, but it may be obtained from
the second. It may be cut for seed with the binder and
harvested with the ordinary grain separator. The bind-
er may with advantage be set to cut the crop high, to
avoid unnecessary work in threshing. The seed, when
properly winnowed, should weigh 25 pounds per meas-
ured bushel. Owing to the strong feeling that exists
against this grass,. because of the difficulty in destroying
it, the demand for the seed has been very greatly cur-
tailed, and this has had the effect of discouraging the
growth of seed.
Renewing. — As with all plants that increase by means
of root-stocks, pushing out horizontally into the soil, the
tendency is constantly present in this grass to such in-
crease in the number of the plants as to cause them to
mat to the extent of decreasing growth. When this oc-
curs, ploughing the land and smoothing the surface will
renew growth in the same. And since growth in John-
son grass entirely ceases during the season of frost the
plan has been adopted in some instances of ploughing the
land in the fall and sowing on it a crop of winter turf
oats as previously intimated. But the grass should be
well set before this is attempted. The method which
grows clover early in the season for promoting the
growth of the grass has already been referred to.
Eradicating. — Testimony is almost unanimous in the
opinion that Johnson grass cannot be entirely eradicated
where it has once obtained a foothold. That is not the
opinion of the author, who cherishes the view that if
the plants are not allowed to grow above ground for a
single season, they will die. To prevent them from
Grasses — 17.
258 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
breathing thus would doubtless involve great labor, but it
should prove effective. It has been claimed that pastur-
ing will eradicate it, but the claim is not well supported
by facts. Close and constant pasturing will greatly de-
crease it, but some of the plants remain ready to in-
crease and take possession should the land be again cul-
tivated. It is also claimed that swine will eradicate
it if allowed to dig up its roots for the purpose of feed-
ing on them. To accomplish this, however, may require
several seasons, and though successful is only applica-
ble to limited areas.
But it is easily possible to adopt measures that will
prevent it from gaining a foothold on a farm on which
it has not yet appeared, and from spreading on one
where it may be growing.
The chief agencies in spreading it are the following:
1. Carrying portions of the root to new centers of dis-
tribution by means of the plow, harrow, cultivator or
other implements of tillage. 2. Sowing the seeds along
with those of grain amid which Johnson grass may have
matured. 3. Seeds scattering from plants that may
have grown up and matured in a crop of grain or in
corn or cotton after these have been laid by. 4. In the
droppings of cattle that may have eaten the seed. The
last named is one of the most common mediums by which
the seed is carried.
The preventive measures are: 1. Exercise such care
in tilling land where the grass already exists in certain
places as will prevent carrying the roots to new centres.
2. Exercise even greater care in the purchase of seed
grain or in cleaning the same. 3. Prevent seed from
JOHNSON GRASS. 259
maturing in fields where other crops are grown. 4. Do
not allow stock to feed on hay or pasture which contains
mature seeds.
Value of Johnson Grass.— Because of the many con-
flicting views that exist in the South with reference to
this question, it is not easy to determine as to the place
for this grass. That quite a number in several states
have found its cultivation largely profitable is certainly
true. That it has proven more valuable than the cotton
crop in many instances is equally clear. There is also
ample evidence to show that under some conditions,
when cotton follows this grass, its presence has not very
seriously interfered with the cultivation of the cotton.
And that it has considerable value as a hay and soiling
plant cannot be questioned. Many have grown it for
botli uses with much profit and for many successive
years. Nevertheless the difficulty of removing this grass
from the soil is so great that numbers who have sown
it are willing to give a handsome reward to have it erad-
icated from their farms. Its presence on certain lands
has certainly tended to lessen their value. This in
itself should furnish a strong argument against extend-
ing its growth. There is not the same necessity for
growing it now in the South as formerly, since other
hay and pasture plants are now better known, which
may be grown without experiencing serious difficulty in
removing them from the land. While, in some in-
stances, it may be well to make the best of the presence
of this plant where it has possessed the land, it should
certainly be the aim to prevent its further distribution
260 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and to eradicate it completely where it is present only in
patches, small or large.
CRAB GRASS.
Crab Grass (Panicum sanguinale) is one of a some-
what numerous family of plants. It is doubtless so
named from the fancied resemblance which its spikelets
bear to the claw of a crab.
The stems grow from 1 to 3 feet high. They have
been known to reach the height of 7 feet, but the aver-
age height in good soil is a little more than 2 feet.
They are much branched and are somewhat decumbent
at the base. Under favorable conditions roots are
formed at the lower nodes. From three to six flower
spikelets from 3 to 6 inches long proceed from the top
of the stem. These produce seeds freely. The roots
are fibrous.
Crab grass is an annual which grows best in sum-
mer and in the hottest weather. It springs up in stub-
ble fields where grain has been grown, and in a few
weeks, if encouraged by frequent showers, will produce
one or even two crops of hay. It will also grow up
quickly in corn that is laid by, so as to cover the ground
deeply with a coating of herbage. It is very trouble-
some in cultivated crops and in gardens, more especially
when these grow in fertile soils, but in grass crops that
are at all permanent in character it soon gives way to
other grasses. It furnishes excellent hay and grazing,
being at once palatable and nutritious. This singular
plant has the characteristic of being one of the best hay
plants of the South and at the same time one of the
most troublesome weeds.
CRAB GRASS. 261
Distribution. — Crab grass is said to be native to the
South and also introduced from the old world. It cer-
tainly finds a very congenial home in the South. It
grows in -all the states thereof from Virginia to Texas.
North of the Ohio river it is but little known. Above
that line it is not grown to provide hay or grazing.
Soils. — Crab grass grows most luxuriantly in good
soils. The richer the soil the more luxuriantly will it
grow, but it will grow reasonably well in any soil that
will produce crops of grain, corn, tobacco or cotton.
Place in the Rotation. — This grass being at the same
time a weed is not grown in any regular rotation.
When used for hay and pasture, such utilization is sim-
ply making the best of an intruder, which grows as it
were spontaneously in the cultivated fields. It may
also be utilized in putting humus in the soil by plough-
ing it under in the autumn. This of course ought to be
done before it matures seed.
Preparing the Soil. — Since the seed of this grass is
seldom or never sown, 'of course no preparation of the
soil is necessary. Nevertheless when it is desired to get
grazing from it as early as possible, land in which the
seeds are present, if ploughed in May, harrowed and
rolled, will soon be covered with a luxuriant growth.
Two mowings may be obtained from land treated thus.
Sowing. — Since the crop grows spontaneously it is
seldom or never sown. In fact it would not seem wise
to sow a plant which is troublesome to destroy. The
aim should rather be to get rid of it. The seeds will
live long in the soil — how long is not known.
Pasturing. — This grass furnishes excellent grazing
262 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
from June or July onward until autumn. In a few
weeks after a grain crop is cut, it furnishes fine pasture,
coining in at a season when in its absence it would fre-
quently be necessary to resort to soiling crops. But it
will riot provide grazing in winter.
In the "Farmers Book of Grasses," Dr. D. L. Phares,
the author, gives an interesting experience in growing
this grass for hay in alternation with Burr clover (Med-
icago maculata), grown to provide winter and spring
grazing. The clover was sown on prepared land in the
autumn and'grazed from December to. April. The clov-
er then matured enough of seed to provide another crop
before the plants died in May. They had no sooner dis-
appeared than the crab grass sprang up thickly and was
mowed in July or August and again in October. The
yield of the crab grass was 2^ to 3 tons per acre from the
two cuttings. The second cutting was much lighter
than the first, but of finer quality. The clover would
then spring up again and furnish grazing for the winter
to be followed in turn by the crab grass. This was con-
tinued for several years without diminution in the
yields of the clover or the crab grass. The clover was
apparently able to keep the soil supplied with a suf-
ficiency of nitrogen.
Harvesting for Hay. — Crab grass hay is harvested
like other hay. It should be cut when the flowers are
formed. It cures readily and quickly in good weather,
but takes great injury from rain or even from heavy
dews. In showery weather the cocks should if possi-
ble be protected by caps, and when stacked .they should
be topped out with other grass that turns the rain bet-
CRAB GRASS. 263
tor than crab grass. The yields of hay reaped in stub-
ble fields run from 1 to 2 tons per acre on average land.
The hay contains but little fiber and stands well in nu-
tritive qualities and is much relished by stock. It has
been claimed by good authorities that more hay is made
from this grass in the South than from any other grass.
Since it is so frequently used for this purpose, and
since it costs only the harvesting of the crop, it has been
called "the poor man's hay." In some instances after
corn has been harvested it is cut for hay, but usually it
would be a better plan to graze the grass under such con-
ditions than mow it. When crab grass grows up strong-
ly amid cow peas intended for hay, the grass will facili-
tate the curing of the hay when the crop is cut.
Securing Seed. — As the seed of crab grass is seldom,
if ever sown, it is very seldom if ever saved for sowing.
If wanted, however, it could easily be obtained by cut-
ting with the binder and threshing the crop.
Methods of Eradicating. — It has been claimed that
hay made from this grass has been more valuable acre
for acre than the revenue obtained from cotton or corn.
Nevertheless because of the trouble which it gives in
cultivated crops, it would seem to be wise to discourage
its growth.
To eradicate it is no easy task since it seeds so quick-
ly and profusely, and the seeds retain germinating pow-
er for so long a period in the soil. The season for at-
tacking it is that time of the year when it matures
seed, and the aim should be to adopt those methods of
eradication that will most quickly cause the seeds to
germinate with a view to destroying them. The fol-
204 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
lowing methods arc submitted among others that might
be given : 1. Sow forage crops and graze them off as
described in method 6 given for eradicating quack grass
(see p. 247). Proceed thus for a term sufficiently long
to effect the end sought. 2. Sow cow peas or some crop
that requires cultivation from year to year and in alter-
nation with grain crops for a period sufficiently long.
No crab grass seeds should be allowed to mature in the
cultivated crop.
CHAPTEEXIII.
THE RYE GRASSES.
Of the rye grasses but three would seem deserving
of the attention of those who till the lands of the United
-States and Canada. They are considered in the present
chapter ; these are Western Rye grass (Agropyrum ten-
erum), Perennial Rye grass (Lolium perenne) and Ital-
ian Rye grass (Lolium Italicum.)
Western Rye grass, native to the prairies of the
American and Canadian Northwest, is possessed of con-
siderable merit and is likely to be extensively cultivated
in northern areas. Perennial and Italian Rye grasses
have long been high in favor with the agriculturists of
Europe. They have not been assigned an equally im-
portant place under American conditions but have suf-
ficient adaptation to certain of these conditions to merit
attention;
WESTERN" RYE GRASS.
Western Rye grass (Agropyrum ienerum) is some-
times called Slender Wheat grass: The term Rye grass
has doubtless been applied to it from the somewhat close
resemblance which it bears to that plant. Although
of the same family as quack grass, it does not send out
underground stems like the latter. The name Slender
Wheat grass has doubtless been applied to it because of
266 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the resemblance which the long, slender and smooth
heads bear to those of wheat. It is the only grass
among the hundreds growing wild on the prairies of the
West or Northwest which, up to the present time, has
been found of sufficient value to give it a place among
the cultivated grasses.
Western Rye grass is a perennial. Properly speak-
ing, it is a bunch grass. It is the famous bunch grass
of the bunch grass ranges of the Canadian Northwest.
When growing on the ranges the height at maturity is
from 12 to 18 inches, but under cultivation it grows to
the average height of about 3 feet; in some instances,
it attains to the height of 4 feet. When the plants do
not grow too closely, they produce many leaves around
the crown but these are not so numerous,, nor do they
grow as high as those of Russian brome grass. Several
stems rise from one plant. These grow erectly and
produce a head with an average height of about 6
inches but sometimes they are considerably longer. The
roots are fibrous and abundant; the long tendrils from
the same push away far downward into the soil. It
is the root system of growth, doubtless, that gives the
plant the marked ability which it possesses of with-
standing drought.
Western Rye grass is one of the hardiest of grasses;
none of the cultivated grasses excels it for growing un-
der dry conditions. Under very dry conditions it will
give better yields than Russian brome. It does not be-
gin to grow so early in the spring as some other grasses,
nor does it grow with much vigor in the autumn. It
conies into flower from July first and onward and is a
WESTERN RYE GRASS. 269
great producer of seed. It will thrive under a great
variety of conditions and will produce relatively large
quantities of -hay. Moreover, like timothy, the hay is
easily handled ; the seed is easily sown and the crops of
hay and seed are easily managed.
While it is a good pasture grass, the season of abun-
dant growth is not of very long duration. If pastured
before the heading out stage, it is much relished by
stock but not so much at a later stage of growth. The
hay is eaten readily by stock, if cut early, -but is not
highly relished, if harvested later; and it produces but
little aftermath.
Compared with Russian brome grass, its great rival in
the entire American Northwest, the Russian brome
starts earlier in the spring, produces a more abundant
leaf growth through the season and especially in the au-
tumn and furnishes hay that is better relished. But the
Western Rye produces somewhat heavier yields of hay
under like conditions; especially under dry conditions,
it grows somewhat better on soils more or less impreg-
nated with alkali; furnishes -seed that is more easily
secured and gives no trouble as the Russian sometimes
does by remaining in the land. Both are strongly
drought resistant, but in this respect the rye grass prob-
ably excels ; both will grow well in moist conditions but
in this respect the Russian brome excels ; both are good
soil binders but here again the Russian brome is some-
what ahead.
Distribution. — Western rye grass is indigenous to
America. Although it has doubtless grown wild on
the Western prairies during forgotten centuries, it was
270 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
not until 1880 that attempts were made to improve it by
cultivation. In that year, Mr. Kenneth Mclvor of Vir-
den, Manitoba, Canada, gathered some of the seed with
a view to test its qualities under cultivation. It was
Mr. Mclvor who first drew the attention of the public to
its merits. In this way the Canadian and American
departments of agriculture became interested in the dis-
tribution of the seed for experimental purposes in vari-
ous provinces and states.
This grass will grow under a great variety of climatic
conditions but is relatively better adapted to cool
than to hot temperatures. Although it will grow more
readily and vigorously in moist climates, it has peculiar
adaptation for growing on the dry prairies of the West.
No amount of cold seems to injure the plants.
Western Rye grass grows on the western prairies
from California and New Mexico on the south to Brit-
ish Columbia and Athabasca on the north. It has also
been found as far east as New Hampshire. On the
plains of the western and more especially the north-
western prairies, it has rendered the best service in pro-
viding grazing for the live stock of the ranchman. Its
most congenial home in a state of nature is the foothills
and the bench lands of the Rocky mountains. In the
western states it has rendered excellent service on the
ranges from Nebraska northward. East of the Mis-
sissippi river other grasses, already introduced, so com-
pletely meet the requirement of farmers, that it is not
probably western rye grass will be much grown in these.
In Canada although it will grow well under cultiva-
tion from sea to sea, it will be most helpful in the
WESTERN RYE GRASS. 271
provinces west from Lake Superior and especially in lo-
calities more or less deficient- in rainfall. East from
Lake Superior, timothy will meet the needs of the farm-
er better than western rye grass.
Soils. — There are but few grasses, if indeed any,
which adapt themselves so well to a wide range of soils
and soil conditions. As with other grasses, the better
the soil the better the crop yields will be, but it will
also give fair returns from sands and humus soils, so
light as to lift with the winds. It has peculiar adapta-
tion for being sown on prairie soils, and its great value
on these consists in the comparatively good yields that
may be obtained from it, under conditions too dry for
the most successful growth of grasses that are more pala-
table. It will grow on heavy soils, as well as on those
that are light, and will even give good returns on soils
so impregnated with alkali that they will not grow a good
crop of grain. When grown for a term of years on these,
grain crops may then be grown successfully, but much
alkali will, of course, prevent the successful growth of
either.
Preparing the Soil. — In preparing the soil for this
grass, it is better usually to plough in the autumn, and
then to harrow at intervals in the spring, until the
grass is sown about the end of May. By that time
many of the weed seeds near the surface have been
sprouted. When sown with a nurse crop which is to
be harvested, it must, of course, be sown early. On soils
that drift, the plan has succeeded well, which ploughs
the land, not too early, so as to escape as far as practica-
ble the usual season of soil drifting; to plough somewhat
272 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
deeply and then to sow along with some grain, any time
between June and the early autumn when the ground is
moist. Preparing the land and sowing the seed of this
grass must be considered with special reference to the
needs of areas, frequently short in rainfall, since it is in
these that western rye grass will render the most im-
portant service.
Sowing. — Under the conditions where the necessity
exists for sowing western rye grass, it can he sown with
the best assurance of success somewhat late in May or in
June, and on soil prepared by ploughing in the fall and
giving successive harrowings in the spring. When thus
sown, it is considered preferable to sow without a nurse
crop ; and then to mow once or twice to prevent weeds
from seeding, leaving the plants cut to mulch the soil.
The seed should be sown when the land has been mois-
tened by rain. In some instances, pasturing has not
been found hurtful. In many places, however, espe-
cially where the annual rainfall is reasonably ample,
it has succeeded quite well when sown in the spring on
fall ploughed land and with a lightly seeded nurse crop
as 2 to 4 pecks of oats. In a normal season, the oats may
be cut when ripe, but in a dry year they should be cut
somewhat high for hay, as soon as fully out in head.
When sown early on soils that blow, the grain should be
allowed to reach, the height of 2 or 3 inches before sow-
ing the rye grass seed ; but when sown on such soils after
June first, it will answer to sow at the same time as the
nurse crop. It may be sown by hand or with a hand
seeder specially made to sow such grass seeds, which
is wheeled over the ground when in use and covered
WESTERN RYE GRASS. 273
with the harrow; it may be sown with some makes of
grain drill as, for instance, the "Superior" with a "ver-
tical feeder." To feed out well, the seed must be well
cleaned. It should be put in from 1 to 3 inches deep,
according to the soil and season ; when sown on soils
that will drift after the grain is up, it is better to sow
across the grain rows than in the same direction.
More commonly this grass is sown alone, and when
sown for seed, it must be sown thus. For hay, it may,
sometimes -be preferable to sow it with Russian brome
grass ^s the latter aids in making a thicker stand by
growing between the bunches of the rye grass, while the
former aids in the quick curing of the hay. For pas^
hire, western rye grass may be sown alone but better
probably with Russian brome grass and in some areas
with the said grass and timothy.
When sown alone, about 15 pounds of seed per acre
is the correct quantity to sow ; when sown with Russian
brome grass 7^ pounds of each may be sown for hay,
using a little more seed for pasture ; when timothy is
added, the proportions would be about 6 pounds each
of Russian brome and western rye and 4 pounds of tim-
othy.
Pasturing. — Western rye grass furnishes pasture
abundant and nutritious in the spring and summer
months, but loses its succulence in the autumn, having
a tendency, like various other range grasses, to cure in
the soil. It is more nutritious than Russian brome
grass or timothy, either as pasture or hay. Some grow-
ers pasture their meadows for a time in the spring but
under some conditions this would be hazardous.
274 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Harvesting for Hay. — Western rye grass should be
harvested with much promptness or it will lose rapidly
in palatability. When allowed to get ripe or nearly so,
before it is cut, it will not be eaten readily by farm ani-
mals. It should be cut as soon as fully out in head
which will be early in July. When grown along with
Russian brome, the latter will be further advanced but
it will not seriously injure it for hay.
It is harvested for hay with the mower and is han-
dled in the same way as timothy; it is easily handled,
being straight like timothy. The yield under ordinary
conditions will run from 1 to 2 tons per acre, but under
superior conditions of cultivation has yielded as high
as 3 to 4 tons per acre.
Securing Seed. — Western rye grass seeds freely.
Good average crops will produce 300 to 400 pounds of
seed per acre and the seed weighs 20 pounds per bushel.
But seed very clean and good weighs 25 pounds. The
crop should be harvested with the binder and when the
seeds are fully ripe. This may be known by the change
in the color. It should then be harvested promptly or
there will be loss of seed from shelling. It is threshed
with the grain thresher and winnowed with the fanning
imill, much the same as timothy. (See p. 75.) The
!seed is nearly as easily cleaned as that of an ordinary
oat crop.
Renewing. — It is not usual to try to renew western
rye grass, when it begins to fail, but rather to break it
up by ploughing and sow again, if necessary. It will fur-
nish remunerative crops of hay or seed for three or four
seasons. The ground then becomes so settled and dry
PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 275
that it does not yield so well; but it wiU maintain its
hold on many soils for, at least, half a score of years.
Like all cultivated grasses on the prairie, it is quite re-
sponsive to top dressings of farmyard manure. There
is probably no better way in which such manure can
be applied where this grass is grown.
TEIIEXNIAL RYE GHASSES.
Perennial Rye grass (Lolium Perenne) is also called
English Rye grass, Rye grass, Ray grass and Darnel.
In some localities it is chiefly known by the name Eng-
lish Rye grass, and this name has doubtless come to be
applied to it because of the extent to which it has been
cultivated in England. In that country there are sev-
eral varieties and sub-varieties named chiefly after
seedsmen or seed-firms.
This grass is perennial and stoloniferous in its habit
of growth, but like timothy, under ordinary conditions
it is not a long lived perennial, seldom enduring for a
longer period than seven years and usually for a period
considerably shorter. The stems are numerous and
slender and grow from 1 to 3 feet high, the average be-
ing less than 2. feet rather than more. Each stem has
4 to 6 joints, which sometimes assume a brownish tint.
The leaves are numerous and succulent and of a darker
green than those of Italian rye grass. The heads are
slender and from 3 to 10 inches long though commonly
not more than 6 inches. In general appearance peren-
nial rye grass has some resemblance to quack grass
(Triticum repens). The roots do not feed deeply.
Stems push out laterally and from these the joints of
the upright stems ascend.
276 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Although perennial rye grass has long stood in the
front rank among cultivated grasses in Britain, it may
not become greatly popular in this country, for the rea-
son, prohahly, that in the sections best adapted to its
growth, timothy has stood higher in favor. While it
is of a vigorous habit of growth, starts early in the sea-
son and produces reasonably good grazing and hay, it
has some weaknesses. Being a shallow feeding plant, it
is easily injured by drought ; being a gross feeding plant
it is exhaustive on the soil. It is too short lived to an-
swer well for permanent meadows or pastures and can-
not stand temperatures that are quite low in winter,
nor great heat in summer. Moreover it is relatively low
in nutrition and in a dry season produces but little aft-
ermath after it is mown.
But under favorable conditions, that is on somewhat
heavy soils, it is a great producer, more especially of
hay, and it produces seed abundantly.
Live stock are fond of it both as hay and pasture, but
its relatively low nutrition is against it for both uses.
It is not well able long to withstand the crowding of cer-
tain other grasses; hence, under United States condi-
tions it is usually better to sow it alone or along with
other grasses or clovers intended for meadows of limited
duration. It has also been recommended for lawns but
for this purpose it is usually too short lived.
Distribution. — Perennial rye grass is native to Eur-
ope and probably parts of Asia and Africa. In the mild
and temperate climates of England, France and other
countries of Europe, it has long been cultivated, in Eng-
land for more than two hundred years and in France for
FIG. 15.
PERENNIAL RYE GRASS (Lolium fierenne).
Oregon Experiment Station.
PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 279
a longer period. In Britain it is said to have been pop-
ularly grown at least one hundred years before the
growing timothy and orchard grass became general. In
some parts of the United States, particularly in the
East and South, it has been grown to some extent for
nearly a century, but at no time does it appear to have
become greatly popular, under United States condi-
tions, for the reason probably that timothy and orchard
grass, the two great rivals of perennial rye grass in its
own special domain, are considered superior. This
grass grows at its best in climates that are temperate and
moist. It is not well able to withstand extremes of
heat or cold or drought, consequently its growth in the
United States is likely to be confined to areas somewhat
limited in comparison to the whole area.
Since this grass is best suited to a climate temperate
and moist, it grows fairly well in much of New Eng-
land, in the North Atlantic States, south of New Eng-
land and in the states which border on Lakes Erie and
Ontario. But the most popular conditions for its
growth are probably found in Washington and Oregon,
west of the Cascade mountains. In the upper Missis-
sippi basin it does not very well withstand the extremes
of heat and cold. At the Minnesota Experiment Sta-
tion, St. Anthony Park, the author was able, to secure a
good growth of this grass in summer, but it died in
winter. In the southern states, the summer heat is
too great for this grass, and in the semi-arid belt and
southwestern states, it is quite unsuited to the average
conditions pertaining to plant growth.
In Canada, perennial rye grass is never likely to be
280 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
given an important place except in Southern Ontario
and western British Columbia the winter climate is too
cold for growing it in the very best form, and in these
orchard grass and especially timothy are considered su-
perior.
Soils. — The best soils for perennial rye grass are
those that are moist, that contain a considerable content
of clay, and at the same time are rich in nutriment.
Light sands, low in fertility, are ill adapted to its
growth. 'Nor is it well able to fight its battle on the
stiffest clay. In Europe the many variations which
characterize this grass have given it varied adaptation
to soil conditions which are not easily specified. But
few grasses respond more readily to applications of ma-
nure, solid or liquid, or to suitable dressings with com-
mercial fertilizers.
Place in the Rotation. — Where the conditions are fa-
vorable for the growth of this grass, its place in the ro-
tation would be much the same as for timothy. (See p.
57.) Briefly stated it would be in a rotation extend-
ing from 3 to 7 years. It would come in properly after
a cleaning crop, and would precede a crop which feeds
well on decaying vegetable matter in the soil.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil suit-
able for perennial rye grass is about the same as what
is suitable for timothy. (See p. 58.) Stated briefly
the seed bed should be clean, finely pulverized near the
surface, firm and moist, and may be made fall or
spring. But since the seed is relatively high in germin-
ating power, a stand may be more easily secured though
PERENNIAL RYE GRASS. 231
liiu preparation has been defective than with some other
grasses.
Solving. — Perennial rye grass may be sown in the
autumn or in the spring. Early sowing is to be pre-
ferred both seasons when practicable, that the plants
may enter the winter in a strong condition in the one-
case, and that they may better withstand dry weather in
summer in the other. August and September would
be favorable months for autumn sowing. In the spring-
it is usually considered preferable to defer sowing until
the seed may be sown by hand and then covered with the
harrow.
The seed may be sown alone or in certain combina-
tions. When wanted for soiling food, it is usually
sown alone ; when wanted for hay it may be sown with
advantage with red clover, as both mature early; when
wanted for pasture it may be sown alone, but better
with grasses not too aggressive in character. In the
Xorth, perennial rye grass, medium red clover and tim-
othy would make a suitable combination on average
soils, and in the South perennial rye grass, orchard grass
and tall oat grass. As with all varieties of grass, it is
commonly sown by hand, and covered with harrow or
roller or by using both.
.When sown alone not less than 1 bushel of seed is
required nor more than 2 bushels. When sown with
red clover 12 pounds of the rye grass and 10 pounds of
the clover should ordinarily suffice. When timothy is
added to the mixture the amounts of rye grass and clover
respectively should be reduced. With orchard grass
and tall oat grass in the South 12 pounds of the rye
282 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
grass should ordinarily suffice, but there may be good
reasons for varying the same considerably.
Pasturing. — Perennial rye grass furnishes much pas-
ture early in the season but not in the latter part of the
same. Although it is relished by live stock before the
time of coming out in head it is not so relished after
that stage is reached, consequently when it is pastured
it should be kept grazed down with at least reasonable
closeness. Nor does it stand grazing as well as some
other grasses. Consequently it is more frequently grown
for hay or for soiling than for pasture. But on heavy
soils it is much better for grazing than on those opposite
in character.
Harvesting for Hay. — Perennial rye grass should be
cut for hay when in blossom and in the early stage of
bloom. Beyond this stage it becomes woody quickly.
The method of cutting and curing are usually the same
as for timothy. (See p. 72.) When grown alone this
grass is probably better adapted to soiling than to any
other use, since it is ready early in the season and when
cut about the stage of coming into head or sooner quick-
ly grows up again.
Securing Seed. — This grass is a heavy producer of
seed. On rich soils it is claimed that it has produced as
much as 40 bushels of seed per acre. This amount,
however, is far beyond the average. There is perhaps
no better way of harvesting this crop for seed than by
cutting it with the binder, and curing in the long rather
than in the round shock, and threshing with the grain
separator. But there would seem to be no good reasons
why the seed should not be gathered with the stripper.
ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 283
This, of course, would leave the haulm upon the
ground, but in any event it is not of very much value
for food. Because of the abundance of the seed pro-
duction, the seed does not command so high a price as
that of many of the other grasses. The temptation,
therefore, is ever present with seedsmen who are so
minded, to mix the seed with that of other grasses which
are higher. With some of these the fraud is not easily
detected by the unskilled. Seed crops tend much to ex-
haust the fertility of the land which, of course, is so far
an objection to growing them.
Renewing. — Since rye grass is grown in short rather
than in long rotations it is not usually necessary to try
and renew it, when the stand secured is only partial. It
is usually considered more profitable to prepare land
and sow again.
ITALIAN EYE GKASS.
Italian Rye grass (Lolium Halicum) is so named
doubtless from the fact that it has long been grown in
Northern Italy, from which it has been distributed
into various countries. It is also sometimes called Ray
grass. It does not seem to have been introduced into
Western Europe until a period considerably later than
the introduction of perennial rye grass.
Italian rye grass grows to the height of 2 to 3 feet.
The leaves are abundant. The heads are slender, from
6 to 12 inches long and sometimes nodding. The fib-
rous roots have much power to gather food from the
land on which it grows. The leaves are of a dark green
and have a peculiar "glint" which makes a field of this
grass look very beautiful when swayed by the wind.
284 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
This crass may be distinguished from other rye
grasses by having short, armed or bearded spikelets, and
by the quicker, larger and more vigorous character of
the growth. It also differs from perennial rye grass
in having broader leaves, in the better feeding quality
of the grass and in its being less permanent.
Italian rye grass is biennial or perennial, frequently
lasting two to three years. Under some conditions, how-
ever, it is an annual. The difference in duration arises
doubtless from a difference in conditions of climate and
soil and from a difference in the treatment of the plants.
In climates with stern winters it is an annual. It
would seem to stand foremost in rapidity of growth
throughout the entire season of vegetation. As many as
eight or ten cuttings have been made in a single season
under forced conditions of growth. It has been known
to produce soiling food in five to six weeks from the date
of sowing and every few weeks subsequently, until
the arrival of winter. But to grow thus rapidly the con-
ditions for growth must be very favorable. It will en-
dure any amount of forcing by way of irrigation and
fertilization, the returns being usually proportionate to
i he attention thus bestowed upon it. It forms a dense
turf while it lasts, but it is of course short lived. It
is one of the earliest grasses in spring and one of the
last to cease growing in the autumn. Some writers
claim that it will endure both heat and drought well.
Others say that it does not well endure drought and this
view would seem to be correct. It cannot live through
the cold winters of the northern states unless under
very exceptional conditions.
ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 295
It is quite palatable, even more so, it is thought, than
perennial rve grass. It is valuable both as pasture and
hay, but is not adapted to either permanent pastures or
meadows. Its highest use is in furnishing soiling food
for dairy cows and other stock. Under some condi-
tions a sufficient area of this grass would furnish soil
ing food during all the season of growth. In this re-
spect it is probably only rivalled by alfalfa. In nutri-
tion, Italian rye grass does not stand so high as some
other grasses.
Distribution. — Italian rye grass is native to Europe.
In Lombardy it is thought its cultivation first began
many years ago, and more especially in the irrigated
- districts of that country. It has been cultivated in
France for at least a hundred years, and in England
and Scotland for more than half a century. For sev-
eral decades it has been tried in some parts of the Unit-
ed States. Notwithstanding, its cultivation has not be-
come very general in any section of the country.
It has been claimed that it is equally well suited to
all the climates of Europe. This claim is somewhat
extravagant, as it will not endure extreme cold. It
succeeds best in moist equable temperatures, hence the
best results should be obtained from growing it, the
soil conditions being correct, in the Central North At-
lantic states and in those of the Pacific coast north-
ward.
In the United States good crops of Italian rye grass
may be grown on suitable soils in nearly every state in
the Union, but in the southwestern states and in the
Rocky Mountain states far northward, it would be nee-
285 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
essary to irrigate to grow it successfully, unless on the
higher bench lands adjacent to the mountains. In the
northern states from Montana eastward, it must, as
a rule, be grown for what it will produce in one season,
as in these it will succumb to the cold in winter. In
the southern states it will endure longer. But it should
render the best service North or South when grown for
what it will produce in one season, as it so frequently
succumbs to the cold of winter. It should render best
service North or South where it can be grown under
irrigation and to provide soiling food.
This grass could doubtless be grown in Ontario and
Quebec, but could not be expected to endure the cold
of winter in these Provinces of Canada. It is not like-
ly to prove a marked success in the maritime provinces
of that country, or on the western prairies, but it ought
to succeed at least reasonably well in British Columbia.
Soils. — Italian rye grass will grow well on a va-
riety of soils. Being a gross feeding plant and a rapid
grower, it does best on lands rich in the ingredients that
promote growth and in a mechanical condition favor-
able to the same. It will grow well, therefore, on moi3t
alluvial and calcareous loams or marls, on moist rich
loamy sands, on clays of medium tenacity, or on slough
lands, that have been drained and that are not too peaty
in character. It will not grow so well on tenacious
clays, nor will it give very good results on dry soils
or worn lands of any kind, or on wet soils, notwith-
standing that it is so well fitted for being grown under
irrigation. It would not be easy to make land too rich
for growing this grass at its best.
ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 287
Preparing Hie Soil: — Tlie preparation of the soil for
this grass is much the same as for orchard grass (see p.
138. ) It is particularly essential that the seed bed shall
be moist or the rapid growth expected from the grass
will not be forthcoming. In order to accomplish this
considerable labor may sometimes be necessary when
preparing the seed bed for being sown in a dry autumn.
Sowing: — In the Northern States and in Canada,
the seed of Italian rye grass must be sown in the
spring, otherwise the young plants will in many in-
stances perish in the winter. In order to make the
most of the one season's growth, it should of course be
sown in the early spring ; in the Southern States,
after the autumn rains begin to fall, from August on-
ward. It is then ready for cutting or pasturing early
the following spring. October is a favorite month in
which to sow. It is commonly sown by hand and is
seldom sown in mixtures.
There would not seem to be any advantage from sow-
ing it in mixtures of any of the winter cereals. The
sand vetch would answer better, as the food would then
be in better balance, and still better probably to sow
with crimson clover, as the two plants would be ready
for the first cutting about the same time. It is not ad-
visable to sow the seed along with other grass seeds to
make permanent pasture as it is short lived, and, in
dying, would for the time being make vacancies in the
pasture. But there may be conditions when it would
be advisable to sow it for temporary pasture with a view
to tide over, for the time being, a shortage in pasture.
The seed weighs 18 to 22 pounds to the bushel. The
288 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
amount to sow should be varied with the soil and the use
that is to be made of the food. Thick sowing ie neces-
sary on very rich soils where growth fine in character is
wanted. The amounts of seed mentioned as the proper
amounts to sow, run all the way from 20 to 50 pounds
per acre, biit, in the judgment of the author, from 20
to 30 pounds should be sufficient. When sown with
crimson clover, 10 pounds each of the rye grass and
clover under average conditions would be proper
amounts to sow.
Pasturing. — Although as previously intimated, Ital-
ian rye grass is not valuable as permanent pasture,
it furnishes excellent temporary grazing. When de-
voted to such use, however, it should be kept well grazed
to prevent the plants from reaching the earing stage, as
like other grass pastures they will then produce more
and better grazing. In the far South it will produce
winter grazing at a time when both Johnson grass and
Bermuda grass are dormant. The color of the butter
made from the milk of cows grazed on it hae been
praised. Because of its great power to take up fertiliz-
ers quickly, its growth may be stimulated by applying
certain of these, as may be desired, either when grazing
this grass or growing it for hay.
Harvesting for Hay. — Owing to the rapidity with
which Italian rye grass grows, it may be made to pro-
duce two or more cuttings a year of hay and several
cuttings of soiling food. When irrigated, the water
should be applied at once after each cutting. It is then
also that liquid manures and other forcing fertilizers
ought to be applied. This is frequently done in Great
ITALIAN RYE GRASS. 289
Britain and also in some countries on the continent.
It should be cut for hay when coming nicely into
bloom and for soiling food after it has made sufficient
growth to make it worth while cutting it. In Louisiana
it has been cut for hay as early as April. And in some
parts of the South it has been cut for soiling food in
December, from seed sown earlier in the autumn. Un-
der favorable conditions several tons of cured hay are
harvested per acre. The mode of harvesting for hay
is about the same as would be suitable for timothy
(see p. 72).
Securing Seed. — This grass, like perennial rye grass,
seeds freely. A seed crop and one hay crop at least
should be obtained the same season, and also a seed
crop and more than one soiling crop. Whether seed
should be taken from the first or second cutting should
depend on conditions such as relate to climate and
growth. The aim should be to have the seed crop ma-
ture when the weather is usually favorable for harvest-
ing the same. It should also be taken from that cut-
ting for the season in which is found fullness of growth
without excessive rankness. The seed may be harvest-
ed with the binder, dried sufficiently in long shocks and
threshed with an ordinary grain thresher. The yield
of seed from an ordinary crop should be not less than
20 bushels per acre. The seed is grown to some ex-
tent in the counties of Polk, Beriton and Del 'Xorte,
California.
Renewing. — It would seem possible to renew this
grass by scattering seed over the sod every year or every
second year, at a suitable season and harrowing it care-
290 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
fully. But it is questionable if, as a rule, such re
newal would be profitable, as after a time, the fertility
of the soil would be much depleted unless heavily fer-
tilized, and its mechanical condition would become such
as to prove less favorable to abundant production than
if the seed were sown on newly ploughed ground and in
proper rotation. Sowing afresh, therefore, on properly
prepared land is preferable to renewing.
CHAPTER XIV.
MISCELLANEOUS GRASSES.
In this chapter will be discussed several grasses, each
of which is possessed of more or less value under cul-
tivation. Wire grass (Carex vulpinoidea) is placed at
the head of the list, because of its great value, but recent-
ly discovered by the manufacturer. Then follows Texas
blue grass which promises much to the farmers of the
South in furnishing winter grazing. After these come
certain grasses which have been found of more or less
value to agriculturists in various parts of the country,
but which are not so generally grown, as nearly all
those previously discussed. These are Rough Stalked
Meadow grass, Fowl Meadow grass, Rescue grass,
Sheep's Fescue, Carpet grass, Velvet grass and Aus-
tralian Saltbush. Lastly, the discussion of those grasses
is taken up which give promise of considerable value
under cultivation and yet the degree of that value has
not been demonstrated through cultivating them. But
two are included in the list, viz., Blue Joint (Cala-
magrostis canadensis) and Blue Grama (Bouteloua
oligostacliya) .
WIRE GRASS.
Wire grass (Carex vulpinoidea) is a grass, the
growth of which is confined to marshes. It is not to
be confounded with various other grasses, which grow
292 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
on dry soils and which are frequently designated wire
grass, as for instance Kentucky blue grass (Poa pra-
tensis). Wire grass is so named, doubtless, from the
tough character of the stems, so tough that they resist
distension in a marked degree without breaking.
This grass is a perennial, which grows to the height
of about two feet generally. Usually much of the
growth is made while the soil, which produces it, is yet
covered with water for a short distance above the sur-
face. The water gradually subsides as the season ad-
vances and has entirely disappeared from the surface
by the time that the grass is ready for being harvested.
The stems are relatively numerous. The panicles pro-
duce seed if the spring should happen to be so dry as
to stunt the grass in its growth; but in ordinary sea-
sons and under condition? which favor vigorous growth,
it is said that it does not produce seed. It has a creep-
ing root-stock and the roots form so strong a turf that
heavy loads can be driven across wire grass meadows,
which rest upon a cushion of miry peat oftentimes
several feet deep.
This grass does not begin to grow until the frost
leaves the ground for some distance below the surface ;
but it grows rapidly in the late spring and early sum-
mer; and is ready for being harvested in July. It re-
tains its greenness for several weeks; hence, the sea-
son of harvesting is frequently prolonged. It is prac-
tically useless as food for live stock, owing to the woody
character of the stems. It has been used to some ex-
tent by upholsterers, but now it is chiefly used in the
manufacture of binder twine, furniture, mats, rng* mid
WIRE GRASS. 293
articles of clothing, all of which are enduring. The ar-
ticles made from it are not only useful, but they are
unique and attractive; even ladies' hats are now being
manufactured from this material.
Distribution. — Wire grass is native to America.
While more or less of it is found in various states and
provinces, the chief centres of production at the present
time are the numerous and large marshes of Northern
Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin and Manitoba in Can-
ada. The area of this grass is decreasing in some quar-
ters with the gradual recession of the waters of the
marshes. In others it is increasing as in the gradual
lowering of the waters of lakes with sedgy shores.
Soils. — This grass grows only in poat soils, or, more
properly in marshes or bogs, in which the peat is de-
cayed more or less but only on and near the surface. It
is essential to the life of this grass that a certain de-
gree of watery saturation shall be preserved during
much of the year; and yet the water should not rise
much above the surface of the ground, for any consid-
erable length of time or the grass would perish. On
the other hand where too little water is present and
for too short a portion of the year, wire grass will give
way to other forms of grass, possessed of higher food
value.
Place in the Rotation. — Of course, wire grass -is not
a rotation plant, in the ordinary sense in which the
term is used, and yet there is a sort of rotation in which
nature has placed it. In the gradual evolution of the
lower forms of plant life, it has a place between the
mosses and bushes, which cover muskegs and marshes;
2J4 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and the rushes and sedges which grow around the edges
of certain lakes on the one hand, and the redtop and
blue joint grasses on the other.
Preparing the Soil. — While nature sows wire grass,
the sowing can only prove effective where the conditions
are favorable to the sowing of the grass. Where the
watery saturation is excessive, as in muskegs or in cer-
tain shallow lakes, the waters must he lowered hy na-
ture or hy man. In settled states, recession in the
waters advances with the advance of cultivation into
lands not previously tilled, hence, the growths men-
tioned, as preceding wire grass are gradually being sup-
planted by the same. Particularly is this true of peat
bottomed lakes. When the recession advances beyond a
certain degree, the wire grass fails to be supplanted
in turn by blue joint or, redtop. These changes made
by nature are slow. In many instances, it is possible
to hasten them, as when the outlets of these watery sit-
uations are of such a character that the waters may be
in part drawn off. When thus lowered sufficiently,
fire may be made to run over the surface of the mus-
keg in the spring, while the frost is still near the sur-
face to kill the tea bushes and burn the moss. If this
were done in the dry autumn, the fire would burn down
into the peat. With the bushes dead and the moss burn-
ed, nature does the rest. Where she gets seed enough
to sow whole marshes so as to transform them into
meadows in two or three seasons is in a sense one of the
mysterious things. Equally mysterious is the source of
the seed supply, which, under certain conditions, will
transform a wire grass meadow, in a few seasons, into
WIRE GRASS. 295
one of blue joint or redtop. Something approximating
to the above, is the preparation of soil, required for
the introduction of wire grass. Where the grass has
not been cut the previous year, it is necessary to burn
it off with fire. This is best done in the spring while
the frost is yet up to the surface of the ground. Dead
grass amid the green crop would render the latter un-
fit for manufacturing purposes.
Sowing. — From what has been said, it will be ap-
parent that, up to the present, nature has been found
sufficient to the task of sowing the seed; the attempt
by man to sow it has never probably been made; yet
man has a duty to perform, where these meadows are
to be made permanent. Attention must needs be given
to the water supply and to the removal of the same.
This cannot always be done, but in many instances, it
can. Many of those wire grass meadows are found in
lowlands, where shallow lakes abound. This makes
it possible to lower the water so as to drain the meadow
in getting it" ready for harvesting; such draining is
further facilitated by the presence of certain open
ditches cut through the meadows where needed. It is
also possible by damming up the outlet to flood the
land sufficiently at certain seasons of the year, since in
some of those meadows the fall is not more than one
foot per mile.
Pasturing. — Wire grass does not furnish good pas-
ture. Live stock will not eat it, if they can get other
grass, owing to its toughness and probably to its want
of palatability.
HarvestinQ. — The harvesting of wire grass begins
296 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
early in July or as soon as the grass is fully headed
out and it may be continued until the autumn, when
necessary, but the late cut grass is not nearly so valu-
able as that cut early. The cutting is done by self-
rake reapers which leaves the grass in sheaves, where
it dries on the ground. Men follow the reapers and
straighten the sheaves for the "gleaners." When the
grass is dry enough, the gleaners follow ; lift the sheaves
from the ground and bind them. They are then drawn
on wagons to hay sheds and are finally baled for ship-
ment to the factory. The horses which do the work
on the meadows are shod with bog shoes, and the wag-
ons have wide tires. Late in the season, the grass is
cut and bound with binders.
Securing Seed. — No attempts have probably been
made to secure the seed of wire grass and it is ques-
tionable, if it will be necessary to give attention to the
matter for many years, if indeed ever. The grass
seems to require dwarfing or stunting in order to make
it produce seed. The seed is triangular in outline,
and ripens in July. It could most conveniently be
gathered probably by the stripper but may be also
harvested and threshed like the seed of other grain.
Renewing. — The only sense in which it would seem
possible to renew this grass, where it begins to fail
would seem to be by regulating the water supply. As it
is necessary to keep the grass practically free from other
grasses, where redtop and blue joint come in around
the edges of the meadow, the only practical way to re-
move them would be to submerge them until they
would vanish. There are also certain grasses of the
TEXAS BLUB GRASS. 297
sedgy order which grow amid the wire grass in the
depressions. How to get rid of these is not easily ap-
parent without lowering the water unduly for other
portions of the meadow; nor has it been determined
how long a wire grass meadow can he maintained and
whether the same can be mowed every year without in-
terruption. It is probable, however, that with the
proper regulation of the water supply, those meadows
may be rendered permanent for many years.
It is fortunate that valuable uses have been found
to which this grass has been put. The discovery is
making highly productive thousands and tens of thou-
sands of acres of peat lands that must otherwise have
remained unproductive for many years.
TEXAS BLUE GRASS.
Texas blue grass (Poa arichnifera) might well be
named the blue grass of the South, as it promises to
do for much of the Southern country what blue grass
has done for the North. As it becomes known it is
more prized in the South, where, along with Ber-
muda grass, it furnishes grazing practically all the
year.
This grass has considerable resemblance to Kentucky
blue grass, not only in appearance, but also in its habit
of growth. It is taller, however, the stems of the latter
growing to the height of 1 to 3 feet. The leaves are long
and slender. The panicles are 4 to 6 inches long and
densely flowered. The roots are creeping.
Texas blue grass is a hardy perennial and one that
has a vigorous habit of growth.
2^)8 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
It grows quite vigorously during much of the win-
ter in nearly all parts of the South. It has been
stated that it has been known to grow 10 inches in
as many days in Texas at that season. It blooms in
April or May according to the latitude. Even as
far north as Tennessee, it will keep green and furnish
grazing through all or nearly all the winter. It soon
forms a dense turf which stands grazing well. Al-
though the plants produce seed readily, the seed is woolly
in character, hence it is not easily handled or sown.
It is more easily propagated by means of root cuttings.
It is much relished by all kinds of stock and stands
grazing well, hence it is well adapted for permanent
pasture. It will make food for hay, if cut in season,
but its highest use is to provide winter pastures. After
being cut for hay or grazed in spring, it pushes up
readily^ when the fall rains come after the rest of sum-
mer.
It is the complement of blue grass in the South, a
plant with nearly all the good qualities of the former
and adapted to southern conditions.
Contrasted with Kentucky blue grass, the Texas blue
is taller and of stronger but coarser growth. The
rhizomes are also larger and stronger. It stands more
drought and heat than blue grass, and is even better
fitted for winter grazing, but it will not stand low tem-
peratures as well as the other.
Distribution. — Texas blue grass is a southern grass.
It is native to Texas and probably some other parts of
the South. It is said that it was first brought into
cultivation by Geo. H. Hogan of Texas. It has been
FIG. 1 6.
TEXAS BLUE GRASS (Poa arichnifera).
U. a. Department of Agriculture;
Washington; D. C.
TEXAS BLUE GRASS. 299
tried in all the states of the South and Southwest, and
for all or nearly all of these it lias much promise.
It has been found hardy as far north as Ames, Iowa.
In Kansas, it has given no little satisfaction
It has not been fully determined as to how far north
it 'may be grown with profit, but it would seem safe
to say, that it would not be necessary to grow it where
full crops of Kentucky blue grass can be grown, since
the latter will doubtless be more valuable in its own
proper field.
Soils. — Texas blue grass will grow on any good soil.
It does best on alluvial soils, but all soils that will
grow corn and cotton will grow this grass. It will
also grow on worn lands, but it requires a longer time
to establish it on these.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil is
virtually the same as for Bermuda grass (see p. 110),
especially when the root cuttings are planted. This
means that it is possible to establish it on worn land,
that is now growing such products as sage brush and
sassafras.
Sowing or Planting. — Texas blue grass is frequently
sown, but owing to the woolly character of the seed it
is not easily sown. It may be sown in the spring or
the early autumn, preferably the latter, and with or
without a nurse crop, but preferably with one, if the
nurse crop is not too thickly sown. The woolliness of
the seed makes it difficult to sow even by hand. It
rnay be, however, that the improved seeder which is
driven like a wheelbarrow will sow it all right and
300 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
with ease to the sower. About 10 pounds of seed per
acre ought to suffice.
This grass can be established at least as quickly and
even more surely by planting the divided roots. The
preparation of the land and the planting of the roots
may be done in much the same way as Bermuda grass
is planted (see p. 120), but the root cuttings of the
Texas blue grass should be planted closer because of
the less power which it has to multiply rapidly. Two
feet by one has been mentioned as a suitable distance,
for planting the root cuttings. Whether it will an-
swer best to sow it alone or in mixtures does not ap-
pear to have been fully determined. Some have
thought that by growing it along with Bermuda grass
the two would furnish grazing all the year, but ex-
periments with that aim in view have thus far not
been markedly successful.
Pasturing. — This grass would seem to be especially
well adapted to the growing of pasture in the South.
In these, it will grow more rapidly than Kentucky
blue grass and will produce much more grazing. It
has been claimed, that in this respect, it is not sur-
passed by any other grass, in the South. It grows
early, and although it does not grow quickly in dry
summer weather, it comes on at once after the autumn
rains begin to fall, and grows through much or all of
the winter, accordng to the locality, thus furnishing
winter forage freely. It keeps green through nearly
all the year, even as far north as Tennessee. It forms
a thick turf and stands grazing well. It is particularly
ROUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS. 301
well adapted for permanent pastures in its own par-
ticular domain. ,
Harvesting for Hay. — This grass, being a much
stronger grower than Kentucky blue grass, furnishes
more hay. It should be cut like other grasses when
in bloom. It may be harvested the same as timothy.
Securing Seed. — This grass, like the Kentucky, seeds
freely and may be harvested with the binder.
Renewing. — Although information is not plentiful
with reference to this question, it would seem to be
quite practicable to renew this grass by disking it
once or twice or oftener when it becomes sodbound
and applying fertilizer. Breaking up the roots with
the plow as in renewing Bermuda grass would be too
severe treatment 'for Texas blue grass unless done with
care and skill.
BOUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS.
Rough Stalked meadow grass (Poa trivialis*) is also
known by the names Rough meadow grass, Roughish
meadow grass, Green grass, Common meadow grass
and Orchiston grass. The designation Rough Stalked
is given to it because of the roughness of the stems
below the panicle. The name Orchiston grass has
been given to it because of its abundance in the grass
lands of Orchiston near Salisbury, England.
This grass is closely related to Kentucky blue grass,
but it is taller and more slender and has a rougher
stem. The root is also fibrous, whereas that of June;
grass is creeping. It is a perennial and grows to the
height of 1 to 3 feet. The stems are decumbent at
302 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the base. The leaves are numerous, flat, and from
o to 0 inejies long. The panicle is open and resem-
bles a narrow pyramid in form. It is quite open and
from 3 to 8 inches long.
It is best adapted to moist conditions. It grows
well amid the shade and protection furnished by other
grasses, produces a sweet and fairly nutritious hay,
and is greatly relished both as hay c/r ss pasture by
horses, cattle or sheep. In Britain, it is much pre-
ferred to June grass, although it is considerably later
in its habit of growth. It multiplies only by means
of the seed, hence in a few years it dies out, even in
permanent pastures.
Distribution. — This grass is found in Europe, North
Africa and Siberia. It has been introduced into Amer-
ica. It is said that it has been longer cultivated than
any other poa and the statement is probably true. It
is still in high favor in England and also on the Con-
tinent.
Rough stalked meadow grass prefers a moist and
temperate climate. It has not been very extensively
grown in this country, but where tried under suitable
conditions has proved itself to be a useful grass. On
low lands, it should do well from Lake Superior to the
Gulf of Mexico. The little attention that has been
given to its introduction in the United States is owing
in part at least to the difficulty of obtaining good seed
and to the high price of the same.
Soils. — Rough stalked meadow grass, like redtop, is
adapted to soils low and moist. This does not mean that
it will not give returns on productive upland or prai-
ROUGH STALKED MEADOW GRASS. 303
rie soils, but that the best returns will be obtained from
moist humus soils of the slough order from which the
surface water has been sufficiently removed. It should
not be sown on clayey, gravelly or sandy knolls.
Place in the Rotation. — Rough stalked meadow grass,
like redtop, is not adapted to short rotations. Much
of what has been said of the place for redtop in the
rotation will also apply to this grass.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil
for rough stalked meadow grass is about the same as
for redtop. (See p. 155.)
Sowing. — The best time to sow rough stalked mea-
dow grass in the North is the early spring, and in the
South, the early autumn, providing enough of moist-
ure is in the soil. It may be sown by hand or with
the improved seed sower that is wheeled over the ground.
The seed is not easily sown by hand, owing to its woolly
character. It proves more satisfactory when grown in
mixtures. It may be profitably sown with orchard
grass, redtop, fowl meadow grass and timothy, when
providing pasture. In providing hay, orchard grass
should be omitted as it ripens considerably earlier than
the other grasses named. The most suitable of these
for sowing in conjunction with rough stalked meadow
grass are redtop and fowl meadow grass. If sown
along with Kentucky blue grass, the latter will in time
crowd it out. The yields of hay will be much in-
creased by sowing rough stalked meadow grass along
with other varieties that are grown under like condi-
tions. This grass has also been recommended for sow-
ing in certain low lying woodland pastures.
304 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
The seed weighs 14 pounds to the bushel. When
sown alone one bushel ought to suffice ; when sown with
other grass, the amount of seed required will be in-
fluenced by the number of the grasses sown, and by
the use that is to be made of them, also by adaptation
in soils. In mixtures it will seldom be necessary to
sow more than 7 pounds per acre and frequently much
less than this amount will suffice.
Pasturing. — While this grass stands pasturing rea-
sonably well for a season, close grazing will injure it
in time, especially in warm situations. The after-
math is said to be more nutritious than the hay.
Harvesting for Hay. — The hay is cut and harvest-
ed in about the same way as timothy. (See p. 72.) The
yields are heavy on good soils, and it has been said are
always greatest in mixtures. It has been claimed that
in England it will yield more than rye grass, but this
statement will probably apply only to certain locali-
ties. Testimony is agreed as to the high quality of
the hay.
Securing Seed. — As the seed of rough talked mead-
ow grass is very largely if not entirely imported,
American methods of saving it cannot be given. It
would seem reasonable, however, to suppose that it
could be saved by much the same plan as Kentucky
blue grass. ' (See p. 101.)
Renewing. — When this grass fails, it will probably bo
found better to re-sow than to try renewal by adding
seed from time to time, but to this there may be some
exceptions.
FOWL MEADOW GRASS 305
FOWL MEADOW GRASS.
Fowl meadow grass (Poa serotina) belongs to the
same genus as Kentucky blue grass. It is also called
False redtop, Duck grass and Swamp wire grass. Be-
cause it sends forth flower stems from the lower joints
after the main panicle has bloomed the term serotina,
ever-flowering, has been applied to it. It is said to
have been introduced into a low meadow near Dedham,
Massachusetts, by wild ducks and other water fowl, hence
the name Fowl Meadow grass.
The stems of this grass are somewhat weak, hence
they are considerably given to lodge. They grow from
2 to 3 feet high. The leaves are narrow, smooth and
plentiful. The head is from 6 to 14 inches long and
is erect and spreading, when in bloom but more or less
contracted and drooping, when ripe. The roots are
slightly creeping. Fowl meadow grass is perennial. It
is nutritious, makes excellent hay and also yields abun-
dantly on suitable soils. The hay is highly palatable to
stock, but owing to its softness is not considered quite
equal to timothy for horses, nor does it furnish quite
so marketable a hay as timothy. It is somewhat late
coming into flower and does not grow much aftermath.
Its highest use is for being grown along with certain
other grasses on low lands for making hay.
Distribution. — Fowl meadow grass is native to Eu-
rope and also to many parts of America. It has been
grown under cultivation in New England for more
than one hundred and fifty years. Jared Elliott wrote
commendingly about it in 1749, when contrasting its
merits with those of timothy. It forms a considera-
. 306 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ble proportion of the hay crop in New England, but
does not appear to he cultivated to any very great ex-
tent in other states although indigenous to several of
these. In the southern states, it grows well on suit-
able soils, but has not been very extensively tried on
these. On low lands in the central states, more atten-
tion should be given to growing this grass in mixtures
than has heretofore been accorded to it. In Ontario
also and other parts of Eastern Canada, the grass grows
in good form. Its cultivation in Europe does not ap-
pear to have been greatly successful.
Soil. — Soils well supplied with humus are best adapt-
ed to the growth of this grass. It will even succeed
in slough lands, over-moist for some other grasses. It
succeeds admirably on bottom and intervale lands that
are occasionally overflowed, and yet it does not stand
submergence for any considerable period, especially
when the weather is warm. But it will succeed in
sands too wet for the ordinary processes of comforta-
ble tillage. It will also grow well on uplands which
consist of moist wnrm soil. It should not be sown on
dry soils, on stiff nard clays, or on sandy or gravelly
soils.
Place in the Rotation. — This grass is not really a
rotation grass, but like redtop it may be made such
under certaiii ti^diCOfis. (See p. 154.) Its highest
adaptation is found in meadows of some permanency.
When grown in bottom lands that are readily tillable,
it may come after any crop to which clean tillage has
been given, as corn or potatoes, and- may be followevi
by any crop or succession of crops adapted to such
FOWL MEADOW GRASS. 307
lands and especially to such as flourish best on plenti-
ful supplies of humus. A hay meadow of this grass
will last for many years, if properly managed.
Preparing the Soil. — The preparation of the soil for
fowl meadow grass is much the same as for redtop.
(See p. 155.) It may also be introduced into lowlands
congenial to its growth by sowing the seed without
poughing the land, but such introduction will of neces-
sity not be rapid.
Sowing. — This grass may be best sown in the early
spring in the northern states and Canada, but in the
southern states it would doubtless be better sown in
the autumn. It may be sown alone, or what is better
in the mixtures that have adaptation for lowlands, as,
for instance, along with timothy or redtop when sown
for hay and along with one or both of these when sown
for pasture with blue grass added. Alsike clover may
also be added for both uses, but alsike and fowl mead-
ow grass would not go well together for making hay,
except with some stiffer grass as timothy to support
them. The seed is usually sown by hand and covered
with a light harrow. It weighs 12 to 14 pounds per
bushel, but when very well cleaned weighs 19 or 20
pounds. When sown alone not less than 2 bushels of
seed should be used. When sown along with other
grasses the amount will of course vary with the kind
and proportions of the other grasses sown.
Pasturing. — From spring until the early autumn
fowl meadow grass furnishes good grazing, but after
a hay crop the aftermath is not abundant. As a pas-
308 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ture grass it serves a better purpose in mixtures than
alone.
Harvesting for Hay. — In the northern states fowl
meadow grass blossoms in July and August. It is
best cut when in flower. But if not harvested at that
time, the stems fall down and especially from the lower
joints other flower stems are sent up. Because of this
habit of growth the grass suffers little through deferred
cutting. In fact it has been claimed that the highest
production in weight and nutrition is obtained for the
hay that is cut late. It may be cut any time from July
to October and is harvested in the same way as tim-
othy, but will probably require more time on an aver-
age to cure because of its softness. Jared Elliott
claimed that it would make better hay for shipping
than timothy but the testimony of the intervening years
has demonstrated that the opposite is true.
Securing Seed. — It is not so easy to secure the seed
of this grass as of some others, owing to the lodging
habit which characterizes it. To cut it with the binder
set high would seem to be one of the best ways of cut-
ting the grass for seed, but the author cannot cite any
instance based on actual experience in which the work
has been done in this way. The part left uncut could
then be pastured or even cut for hay. Much care is
required in threshing and cleaning the seed. Average
yields may be set down at 6 to 7 bushels per acre. As ii
is not easy to distinguish the seed from that of some
other varieties of grass, it is much adulterated. That ie
one reason why it, and several other more or less useful
grasses, are not sowtf to a greater extent than they are.
RESCUE GRASS. 309
Nevertheless, when the cultivation of a grass popular
a century and a half ago does not extend greatly, the
conclusion would seem to be correct, that the grasses
more generally cultivated stand higher in the popular
estimate.
Renewing. — A grass that produces seed during so
large a portion of the season has no little power to
re-seed the soil on which it grows if not grazed too
closely. When thus treated it should endure for a
long time.
RESCUE GKASS.
Rescue grass (Bromus unoiloides) is also known by
the names of Schraeder grass, Australian grass and
Arctic grass. It is closely allied to Chess or Cheat
(Bromus secalinus). A grass which grows vigorously
even under hard conditions and which produces good
hay and pasture, but which when once introduced is
likely to appear in future grain crops grown on the
same land. But the hazard is not so great that res-
cue grass will remain in the land >vhere it was grown.
This grass grows erectly and from 1 to 3 feet high.
It produces an abundance of leaves. The panicles are
large, much branched, loose and nodding. They pre-
sent a beautiful appearance as they sway to and fro in
the wind. The plants tiller much under favorable
conditions of growth. The roots are fibrous. The
whole plant bears considerable resemblance to Bromus
secalinus, but it is probably more leafy, and hence so
far a better pasture grass. The seeds resemble those
of the former so closely that they are frequently sold
under the name of rescue grass.
310 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW TH&M.
Rescue grass is an annual, but if eaten closely it
will live for a longer period than one year, in some
instances for 2 or 3 years. It is essentially a winter
grass and should usually be sown for the purpose of
providing winter pasture. Although it does not grow
rapidly at first, it does later, hence, in the far South,
it. may be made to furnish grazing in January and
February, and later may produce a crop of hay. It
matures in March and April in Texas. It furnishes
good grazing and good hay, but if allowed to go to
seed the seeds will germinate later and appear in the
next crop.
Distribution. — Rescue grass is said to be a native
of South America. It has been grown to some extent
in all the states of the South, but has been grown to
a greater extent in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama
and Georgia than in the other states. It will endure
the xsold of winter in latitudes considerably higher, but
there would seem to be no good reasons for growing
the plant where it will not provide grazing in winter.
Soil. — This grass will grow best of course in rich
strong soils, but it will grow, though more feebly, in
poor and thin soils. If grown on the latter, it should
be stimulated by liberal fertilizing.
Place in the Rotation. — Rescue grass being essen-
tially an annual and a winter grass may come any-
where in the rotation, whether it be a long or a short
one. When winter grazing is much desh-ed, it may
be grown from year to year, alternating with cow peas.
The latter fertilizes the soil for the rescue grass and,
if ploughed under, will furnish a supply of humus.
FIG. 17.
RESCUE GRASS (Bromus unoiloides}.
Tennessee Experiment Station.
RESCUE GRASS. 3U
Preparing the Soil. — As the seed of rescue grass
should he sown in the autumn, the ground may be pre-
pared any time previously during the summer. After
winter crops, ploughing and subsequently pulverizing
will make a timely and suitable seed bed. But if any
considerable amount of the seed is allowed to drop
in the pastures, and if some such crop as cow peas
is made to follow the seed which has fallen, it wil]
germinate in the autumn and produce grazing or hay
and, in some instances, both if desired.
Sowing. — Rescue grass is best sown in the autumn.
Ordinarily it is not sown until the fall rains come, as
it does not germinate earlier, hence it is commonly
sown in September or October. But in some seasons
it starts earlier. In other seasons it will not start un-
til December or January. Moisture and reasonably
cool weather are two of the essentials necessary to the
successful growth of rescue grass.
It is commonly sown alone, but may be sown along
with crimson clover and certain other plants. When
sown alone about 30 pounds of seed will suffice per
acre. If sown with other plants the amount of seed
should be correspondingly reduced.
Pasturing. — While this crop furnishes excellent win-
ter grazing, it would not be correct to claim that it will
furnish more grazing in the aggregate than winter oats,
but it has been claimed that it has greater power to
furnish grazing in cool weather, as for instance, in Jan-
uary and February, when such grazing is most needed.
It is then especially serviceable in providing food for
brood mares with autumn foals, milch cows, ewes with
312 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
young lambs, calves and brood sows. In some loose
soils, the stock grazing upon it will to some extent
pull it out of the soil.
It is possible to grow rescue grass for pasture for suc-
cessive years on the same land and with undiminished
yields, by simply allowing some of the seed to drop in
the pasture, and then ploughing and enriching the land
in early summer by applying manure or artificial fer-
tilizer, or by growing cow peas as already intimated.
This plan may be commendable when winter grazing
is wanted, located quite near to the buildings.
Harvesting for Hay. — As already intimated, rescue
grass may be grazed in the winter and then allowed
to grow hay or mature seed later. The hay crop in
Texas and Louisiana from this grass is ready for be-
ing harvested in March or April. It is cut and cured
like orchard grass. (See page 143.) The hay is not
difficult to cure. The proper season for cutting is
that of early bloom. While this grass makes good hay,
it is in no way superior to that made from winter
oats, and some are of the opinion that the average
yields are not equal to those obtained from oats. Good
yields of hay may be set down at 2 tons per acre, but on
good bottom lands the yield will be considerably larger.
Securing Seed. — It is not difficult to secure seed from
this grass. When ripe it may be cut with the binder
and threshed and cleaned like wheat. The yield may
be set down as varying from 20 to 35 bushels per acre.
The seed weighs 14 pounds per bushel.
Renewing. — From what has been 'said above it will
be apparent that the renewal of this grass may be
SHEEP'S FESCUE! 313
brought about by simply allowing the seed to drop
in the pastures. There is the objection to this, how-
ever, that the seed may remain ungerminated in the soil
and grow in succeeding crops. Because of this, some
writers advise against the sowing of rescue grass for
any purpose and the advice should certainly be heeded
by the careless farmer. Those who cultivate carefully,
however, should have but little to fear from the intro-
duction of this grass upon their farms.
SHEEP'S FESCUE.
Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina) is a low growing
grass which has the habit of bunching in dense tufts.
The leaves are short, very fine, slender, and almost
bristle-like in their erection, and not infrequently are
characterized by a grayish color, tinged with red. The
stems are slender, not particularly numerous, and grow
from 6 to 12 inches high, but usually do not attain
a height of more than 8 inches. The heads are short
and slender, somewhat one-sided, and they spread more
or less when in flower. The roots are fibrous. The
extent to which sheep have been grazed on it has doubt-
less given to it the name Sheep's Fescue.
There are several varieties of this plant which bear
no little resemblance to one another. One of the best
of these is Hard Fescue (Festuca durinscula). The
latter is taller than Sheep's Fescue, less densely tufted
and equally if not even more hardy.
Sheep's Fescue is a perennial. It has much per-
manency, more particularly in lands where the growth
is not overshadowed by larger plants. It is very hardy.
314 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Though too small to grow as hay, it has been found
quite useful under some conditions in providing pas-
ture for sheep and cattle, hoth of which are very fond
of it. It is also highly nutritious. In America, it
has not been much introduced into cultivation; but it
may be advisable to sow it under some conditions.
Distribution. — This grass is probably native to Eu-
rope, Asia and North America. It has rendered much
service in providing grazing on the arid plains of Asia.
It will grow in many sections of the United States and
Canada, and, where the conditions are hard, may fre-
quently be made to render considerable service in fur-
nishing pasture. It has special adaptation to Rocky
mountain areas. Being extremely hardy, it is on the
whole better adapted to northern than to southern
Conditions. Its chief value lies in furnishing pas-
ture on dry soils where better grasses refuse to grow.
It has much power to grow on dry, sandy or gravelly
soils, on clay hills and on rocky mountain slopes with
but a thin covering of earth.
Place in the Rotation. — Sheep's Fescue is not a ro-
tation crop, since it is not commonly sown on prepared
land; but of course it may be grown in rotations in
pastures of more or less permanency.
Preparing the Soil. — This grass is indigenous to
many sections. In these the question of soil prepara-
tion and of sowing is not greatly important. In such
areas, the grass usually grows, as it were, spontane-
ously, and if not kept grazed too closely will scatter
the seeds so as to thicken the grazing. Scattering seed
on unbroken land, which is not covered with a close
til
FIG. 18.
SHEEP'S FESCUE (Festuca ovina).
Teaaossae Experiment Station.
SHEEP'S FESCUE. 317
grass turf, will usually result in establishing the grass
in the same.
Sowing. — The seed may be sown in the spring or
in the autumn. When sown on unbroken lands, it is
usually sown alone. But it is also sown sometimes
with mixtures intended for permanent pastures, and
in making lawns.. If sown alone to make a lawn,
seed would be required at the rate of 2 bushels per
acre. To form a dense pasture quickly of Sheep's
Fescue alone, would call for about the same amount
of seed. When sown in permanent mixtures, it is
not usual to sow large quantities of seed, usually not
more than 3 or 4 pounds per acre; but there may be
instances in which it would be advisable to sow. much
larger quantities of seed.
Pasturing. — This grass well withstands close and
prolonged pasturing. It has much power to retain
its hold upon the soil, and when grown amid other
pasture grasses helps to form a dense turf. In the
Highlands of Scotland, this grass has helped to furnish
grazing for sheep for centuries.
Harvesting for Hay. — Sheep's Fescue is seldom or
never harvested for hay under American conditions.
The yields in the form of hay are usually so much
less than those of some other hay grass grown in the
locality, that hay is seldom sought from the latter.
But of course it can be cut for hay. When so cut ic
must be handled with many tined forks, because of the
.shortness and fineness of the product.
Securing Seed. — The supply of. seed is all or nearly
All imported. The grass seeds freely in proportion to
Grasses — 21.
318 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the number of the seed heads. And seed could of course
be grown under American conditions, but whether its
growth would be highly profitable at the present time
is questionable, owing to the limited demand for the
seed. In the latitude of New England, the seed ma-
tures in July. There is probably no way of harvest-
ing it, that will prove so satisfactory as gathering the
seed with the stripper. It weighs 12 to 14 pounds
per bushel. The yields are not very large as the seed
heads are not very numerous relatively.
Renewing. — To renew this grass means the appli-
cation of more seed. This may be done in pastures
by simply allowing some of the seed to ripen and be-
come strewn with the wind, or by adding some more
seed at the proper season or seasons. In the absence
of positive experience, it will probably be found that
sowing soon after the seed matures in the summer or
in the quite early spring, will secure the end sought.
For Lawns. — Sheep's Fescue has been much used
for lawns under certain conditions. When thickly set
it makes an attractive lawn, and has the merit of grow-
ing slowly, thus lessening the number of the cuttings
required, but a lawn made of this grass is not darkly
green as other grass lawns. This, however, has the
charm of novelty in addition to the dense character of
the sward.
CARPET GEASS.
Carpet grass (Paspalum platycaule) 'is sometimes
called Louisiana grass. It is so named doubtless for
the reason that it is native to Louisiana, and has been
grown there with considerable success. The specific
CARPET GRASS. 319
name means flat stem, so given because of the flatness
of the stems and leaves. It is also called Blanket grass,
for the reason probably that it forms a close dense
covering which spreads over the earth like a blanket.
The softness and denseness of the covering is like that
furnished by a carpet, hence the name commonly ap-
plied to it.
This grass is extensively creeping in its habit of
growth. It is a perennial. The stems near the ground
are broad and thin. The leaves are not only broad,
but short and bluntlike. The stems lie almost on the
ground and frequently root at the nodes. From these
they send up many leafy or flower bearing branches
from 5 to 25 inches high, but more commonly not
more than 12 inches. These are naked and at the apex
nearly always divide into 2 or 3 small spikes or flower
bearing branches from 1 to 2 inches long. The creep-
ing stems spread rapidly and soon form a dense sod,
which crowds out other plants. It is evergreen at the
far South. It can well withstand protracted drought.
It forms a very dense sod and has been found helpful
in binding soils that wash.
It is much relished by live stock and makes good
hay, but, owing to its strongly creeping habit of growth
has to be cut low. It is not so nutritious as Bermuda
grass.
Distribution. — Carpet grass is now grown more or
less in all the southern states, but it grows at its best
in those which border on the Gulf. It will also grow
in the southwestern states in the presence of enough
of rainfall. It will also grow as far north as the north-
320 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ern boundary of Tennessee, but will succumb to severe
winters in portions of the state. There is no useful
place for it further north than the state ramed.
Soils. — This grass will grow in almost any kind of
soil, but, like every other variety, it grows best in good
soils. However, its ability to grow in soils so light
that they wash and to bind them speaks well for its
growing powers.
Place in the Rotation. — Since carpet grass is per-
ennial in its habit of growth, it is not really a rotation
plant when grown for permanent pasture, but of course
it may be made such by breaking up the sod. Since,
however, it takes some time to form a sod, it is not
considered good practice to make the rotations short.
It is adapted to the same rotation as Bermuda grass.
(See p. 118.) But, unlike Bermuda grass, it is easily
removed from the soil. Since it is easily injured by
the shade of stronger plants, it can be best started in
clean soil. It is not adapted to woodlands.
Preparing the Soil. — Much that has been said about
preparing the soil for Bermuda grass will also apply
to carpet grass. (See p. 119.) But on many of the
soils of the South it is able to establish itself without
covering.
Sowing or Planting. — This grass is propagated by
means of the seed and also by means of root cuttings,
much of what has been said about the propagation of
Bermuda grass will also apply to carpet grass. (See
p. 120.) When the seed is good, it is not necessary
to sow it thickly because of the ability of the grass to
spread and thicken in the soil. But it would be easily
CARPET GRASS. 321
possible to carry the idea of thin seeding too far. It
should not be planted in conjunction with Bermuda
grass, as it has a tendency to crowd out the former,
which is the more valuable.
Pasturing. — Although carpet grass furnishes good
grazing it ought to be grazed rather closely, in order
to get the most that can be gained from it. This is
necessary because of the creeping habit of the growth.
It grows earlier in the season than Bermuda and also
later, consequently it is better adapted for winter
grazing.
Harvesting for Hay. — For the same reason that it
is necessary to graze carpet grass closely, it is also
necessary to mow closely for hay. The hay is not
equal to that obtained from Bermuda grass as it is
more composed of stems. Though not a handsome lawn
grass, it is sometimes grown in lawns. But, when
closely shorn in these, it forms a very perfect-like sod
which is attractive.
Securing Seed. — This grass seeds freely. In this one
explanation is found of the frequency with which it
comes amid other crops and in by-places. The seed is
not yet handled by seed houses. It is doubtless correct
to say, that when sown, only a few pounds of seed are
required per acre.
Renewing. — If some seeds are allowed to mature
and fall to the ground, it is not difficult to cause the
grass to thicken where the plants are few and strag-
gling. The habit of rooting at the joints also facili-
tates renewal, where, from the overshadowing of large
plants, growth had been injured.
322 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
VELVET GRASS.
Velvet grass (Holcus lanatus) is also known by the
names, Meadow Soft grass, White Timothy, Salem
grass, Velvet Lawn grass, Velvet Mesquit grass, Soft
grass, Yorkshire grass and Yorkshire Fog. The three
names mentioned last have been applied to it in Eng-
land. It is also known by various names on the Con-
tinent. The name Velvet grass has doubtless been given
to it because of the resemblance which it bears to the
softest velvet, in appearance and touch.
This grass grows from 1 to 2 feet high, but in some
parts of the South where it has improved by acclima-
tion, it grows from 2 to 4 feet high. The stems are
round and grow erectly. The leaves are plentiful.
The panicle is 2 to several inches long and is vari-
ously tinted, but more commonly the tint is a whitish
green, pinkish or purple. The roots are fibrous. This
beautiful grass is so striking in its appearance and
is so different from other grasses, that it is sure to be
noticed and admired wherever seen.
Velvet grass is perennial in the North, but not strict-
ly so in the South. Notwithstanding its beauty, it
ranks low in economical value. It grows so readily
on some soils when introduced as to almost assume the
character of a weed. Live stock are not fond of it
either as pasture or as hay, since it is spongy, insipid
and deficient in saline properties. But its nutritive
value is said to exceed that of timothy or orchard grass.
Yet since it will grow on soils too poor to grow many
other grasses, it has a useful mission in some sections
of the country. It is not to be confounded with Creep-
I. 'iff*
FIG. 19.
VELVET GRASS (Holcus lanatus).
Oregon Experiment Station.
VELVET GRASS. 323
ing Soft grass (IIolcus mollis), which is regarded as
a troublesome weed. The latter has a creeping root
and an open and spreading panicle.
Distribution. — Velvet grass is native to Europe. In
the moist climate of Great Britain, it grows so vigor-
ously as almost to assume the character of a weed. It.
was introduced many years ago into several of the
states, more especially those south and west. It is a
fairly hardy grass but is best adapted to climates moist
and free from great extremes, especially of cold and
drought.
In this country it has been grown much more in the
southern and western states than in those northward.
In these it has not only been tolerated, but its growth
lias been encouraged in instances not a few. It will
grow well in New England also, and in all or nearly
all the states where the rainfall is normal. But the
attempt should not be made to grow it, where other
grasses can be grown successfully, that are relished
by live stock, and that are at the same time sufficiently
productive. In limited areas in nearly all the south-
ern states, it has been cultivated to some extent, and
in some instances with advantage. In eastern Oregon,
along the coast of which, it has been cultivated, it has
become so aggressive in meadows as to be troublesome.
In the dry areas of the semi-arid country, it is not
likely to prove helpful. It will grow in Canada, in
Ontario and eastward, 'also along the Pacific, but is
not needed in these areas, where better yields can be
obtained from grasses that are superior.
Velvet grass will grow in almost any kind of land,
324 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
however poor, but it grows best on moist peaty land.
It will grow on light thin lands, on dry sandy and
gravelly soils, or on retentive clay hills, when insuffi-
cient moisture is present. When properly sown on these,
it will not only produce crops, but when ploughed un-
der, it prepares the land for growing other and better
crops.
Place in the Rotation. — From what has been said,
it will be evident that velvet grass is not properly
speaking a rotation grass. When grown it should
rather be to produce pasture or hay on poor soils.
When ploughed up, however, it should of course be
followed by such crops as experience has shown can
be grown with profit under the conditions.
Preparing the Soil. — It is not necessary to take so
much pains in preparing the land for this crop as for
many grasses that are grown, but, when sown, the aim
should be to so prepare the land when practicable,
that a good stand would likely be secured. Under
some conditions, however, velvet grass will ultimately
possess land if the seed is simply scattered over the
same in the late summer or early autumn.
Sowing. — The time for sowing velvet grass varies
with the locality. In the North, all things considered
the early spring would be the best season, but, doubt-
less, sowing late would sometimes answer. In the
South the seed may be sowed also in the early spring,
but it is better to sow it in the autumn from August
onward, according to the nature of the weather. In
the extreme South, when sown in August, the crop
may be cut for soiling food in January and February,
VELVET GRASS 325
and later if desired for seed. It -is usually sown alone,
as Avlrcn sown with better grasses it is likely to crowd
them, and it is also less relished by the stock as pasture
or hay. The seed being very light is sown by hand
and because of its lightness must be sown with care.
It may also be propagated by dividing the roots and
planting them, but this process is unnecessarily slow
and tedious. In the South it may be successfully sown
under some conditions at the last cultivation given to
corn, the sorghums or root crops. From 10 to 14
pounds of seed are usually sown per acre.
Pasturing. — While this grass is not considered a
good pasture grass, because of its low palatability, there
are localities in which it will not only be eaten by live
stock, but in which its presence is much preferable to
no grass. In the presence of better grasses the stock
will pass it by ungrazed. This allows the seed to
ripen and scatter before the winds which it does read-
ily because of its lightness. It is thus increased in
pastures. Under these conditions, the aim is to get
rid of it rather than to allow it to increase.
Harvesting for Hay. — Like nearly all kinds of grass,
velvet grass should be cut at the blossoming stage.
Under average conditions it comes into flower in June,
but in some locations in May. Its presence in good hay
is not desirable, for the same reason that it is not de-
sirable in pastures, but under some conditions it can
be grown where hay cannot be made from grasses of
superior quality. In these it is much better than no
hay. Fertilizing mixed pastures or meadows in which
this grass is growing, tends to increase its growth, the
326 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
opposite of what usually follows such applications on
inferior grasses where these may happen to be growing.
Securing Seed. — Velvet grass seeds freely and is
therefore quite productive of .seed. Several bushels
are obtained from an acre. The seed is light, weigh-
ing not more than 6 to 7 pounds per bushel, under the
methods of cleaning that have prevailed. The demand
for the seed is not brisk, consequently not much atten-
tion is given to the production of the same. The crop
may be harvested much in the same way as meadow
fescue. (See p. 204.)
Renewing. — Velvet grass will renew itself, if some
of the plants are allowed to go to seed in the pastures.
This would mean of course, that grazing should not be
close when such a result is desired. Velvet grass pas-
tures may be thus maintained for many^ years.
AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH.
The Saltbush is essentially a product of the semi-
arid country, although it will grow even more readily
under favorable Conditions. It is of several species.
The variety which seems to meet with most favor in
this country is that known as the Australian (Atriplex
Semmibaccata). It is so named, doubtless, from the
fact that it was introduced from Australia.
In its essentia'l characteristics and habits of growth
it is more like a bush or shrub than like a grass. The
plants are spreading and drooping rather than erect.
Stems rise up numerously from the crown of the plants.
They are slender and covered with many branchlets,
and these in turn are thickly covered with long rather
AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 327
than broad leaves. After growing upward for a short
distance, the branches reach outward and many of
them droop. In this way branches from a single bush
have been known to extend a distance of 8 feet in every
direction from the crown of the plant, but usually they
are much less in size, especially when they are crowded.
The stems become quite woody for some distance from
the base as the plants grow older, hence the outer por-
tions are much more suitable for food. The roots go
down deeply into the soil and subsoil. In hard pan
soils they are not much branched, but under conditions
the opposite the branches are numerous and spread
out in every direction.
Australian Saltbush is perennial. It furnishes pas-
ture and also hay for horses, cattle, sheep and goats,
where other plants that furnish these in more desirable
forms will not grow. The best service which it thus ren-
ders is m soils so impregnated with alkali that they
will sustain but few forms of vegetable life.
Distribution . — Plants of the Saltbush species are
native to both the old and new worlds. The Austra-
lian Saltbush is doubtless native to Australia and was
introduced into California in 1888.
It is adapted to warm climates. How far north
it may be grown has not been determined, but unless
beside the Pacific, it is questionable if it will endure
the winters further north than Spokane in Washing-
ton. It will of course thrive much better under favor-
able conditions as to moisture than under thbse the
opposite. 'Nevertheless, its growth has been satisfac-
tory where the rainfall has not exceeded 5 inches.
328 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
This plant may be expected to render the best of
service in the warmer and drier portions of the semi-
arid belt, including the states of California, Nevada,
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona.
It may be said with safety that it has no mission for
Canada nor is it likely to be grown in any part of
the» United States where range grasses will grow rea-
sonably well.
Soils. — Australian Saltbush will grow best on good
soils, but it will also grow on soils that are shallow and
underlaid with hardpan, when it has once been estab-
lished. It is likely to take its place side by side with
the sage bushes that grow on the sandy stretches of
the semi-arid west, and to reclaim to productiveness
wide stretches which the alkali present in the soil has
heretofore kept destitute of vegetation. It must not
be understood, however, that this plant will grow in
all alkali soils. •
Place in the Eolation. — Australian Saltbush is of
course not a rotation plant. When once established
the aim is to keep it growing. It is probable, how-
ever, that where it has been grown for some time on
alkali soils, it will so improve them that they will thence-
forth sustain one or more of the grasses proper.
Preparing Ihe Soil. — The best methods of growing
Australian Saltbush under American conditions have
not been fully worked out. Since, however, moisture
is necessary to induce germination, and since precipi-
tation is light, where this plant grows the plan which
works the ground on the surface during the summer,
something after the manner of caring for a bare fallow
AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 329
to prepare it for autumn seeding, would probably be
the best.
Sowing. — Some authorities have recommended ger-
minating the plants in the greenhouse and then plant-
ing them out. But this plan will not answer for large
areas, owing to the cost. The seed should be scattered
on land prepared as described, in the autumn, at which
season some precipitation may be looked for, and to
cover it with the harrow. But, on some alkali soils,
better results will be obtained from sowing the seed
on certain alkali lands on undisturbed surfaces, and
pressing the same into the surface soil by running
over it a heavy roller. Under yet other conditions,
as when the plants are liable to be disturbed by weeds,
it has been recommended to sow the plants in rows
several feet apart and to give them some cultivation
for a time. It is not usually necessary to seed heavily,
since, when the plants have once become established,
they will scatter seeds and will thus form additional
plants if allowed to do so.
Pasturing. — Grazing with horses, cattle, sheep or
goats may take place at any season that the animals
will eat the plants. There is no dispute as to the
plants being nutritious since they are relatively rich
in protein, but much difference of opinion is expressed
as to the palatability in the same. It is pretty cer-
tain that domestic animals, unless it be goats, will
prefer grass when they can get it, but that in the ab-
sence of grass they will feed upon the Saltbush pastures
with readiness. The best service probably which these
plants will render is in producing winter grazing.
330 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Harvesting for Hay. — In a dry climate there should
be no real difficulty in making Australian Saltbush
into hay in much the same way as other hay is har-
vested. It makes a coarse woody hay, but in situations
where better hay cannot be obtained, it is vastly better
than none, since range animals will feed upon it with
more or less of relish in the winter season. However,
it is better adapted relatively to furnish winter graz-
ing in mild climates than to furnish winter hay.
Securing Seed. — But little is known as to the best
methods of securing the seed of this plant under Amer-
ican conditions. This phase of its cultivation has not
been well worked out. Fortunately it seeds freely.
The plan of cutting it with a self -rake reaper and
threshing with a separator would seem to be quite
feasible. The author has not been able to get any
information as to the yields of the seed or to the mode
of preparing the same for market.
Renewing. — Australian Saltbush has not been grown
long enough in this country to admit of gleaning much
information on this question. But the fact that it is
able to increase by self-sowing is significant. This
should make it possible to control the renewal of pas-
tures by simply allowing the plants occasionally to pro-
duce more or less seed.
PROMISING GRASSES NOT YET TESTED.
When the ranges of the west and northwest came to
be opened up, the expectation was cherished, -that among
the many grasses growing on them, some would be
found that would so respond to cultivation, as to prove
more valuable for some conditions, than many of the
BLUB JOINT GRASS. 331
older cultivated grasses. This expectation has been real-
ized only in a slight degree. The only range grasses
that are coming into general cultivation to any con-
siderable extent at the present time are western rye
grass (Agropyrum tenerum), in the North and Texas
blue grass in the South. Notwithstanding the value
of these grasses, they cannot be placed in the very front
rank.
Among those not yet tested under cultivation, or only
partially tested, are but two varieties, which are pos-
sessed of any considerable promise when cultivated.
These are Blue Joint (Calamagrostis canadensis) and
Blue Grama (Bouteloua oligostachya). It is of course
possible that other range grasses may" yet be brought
to the front, but the hope of this does not seem bright
at the present time.
Blue Joint (Calamagrostis canadensis). — This grass
is perennial. It grows to the height of 3 to 6 feet and
is surmounted by a panicle, rather narrow and purplish
in color. It bears considerable resemblance to that
of redtop, but it grows much higher and larger. The
leaves are large and very abundant. The roots are
creeping and the root system is very heavy.
Unlike other grasses, known as blue joint, on the
range it grows only in moist situations and produces
much more abundantly than these.
Blue Joint grows with great rapidity in May and
June, and is a great yielder, giving generally from 2 to
4 tons per acre of excellent hay, that is much relished bv
live stock.
It is distributed over nearly all the northern states,
Grasses— 22.
332 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
but, uncultivated, its growth is confined to marshy
ground and to lands situated along creeks and rivers,
that are sluggish in their flow. It is found in the
Mississippi basin as far south as northern Missouri,
but is most abundant in the marshes of Michigan, Wis-
consin, Minnesota and Manitoba in Canada.
Blue Joint prefers marshy lands, too wet for redtop
and too dry for wire grass. It thrives best on de-
composed or partly decomposed peat, but has also re-
sponded encouragingly when tested at the experiment
station at Ames, Iowa.
In a natural state, its place in the rotation has been
given. Under cultivation, it would probably answer
best as permanent meadow; nor can anything be said,
at present, based on experience as to the best methods
of preparing the land and sowing the seed.
The plants seed with considerable freedom and ma-
ture their seeds in July. It should be cut for hay
not later than the early flowering stage, or it will lose
much in the palatability, but in this respect it does not
lose to the extent of many other grasses. The hay is
eaten with much relish by all classes of farm stock
and is said to be of average nutrition. While in a
state of nature, though eaten readily by stock at the
proper season for grazing, which is late in May or
early in June, the ground is usually too soft for such
grazing. It is probable that the seed could be best
secured by setting the binder as high as possible and
binding into sheaves.
This grass should certainly be carefully tested in
an experimental way on low lands, to which cultiva-
BLUE GRAMA. 333
cion may be given and which are underlaid with peat.
It is possible, that under conditions more dry than
those where it now grows at its best, it would not en-
dure long. Notwithstanding it is certainly worthy
of further investigation.
Blue Grama (Bouieloua oligosiacliya). — This grass
belongs to a somewhat numerous family, which have
special adaptation for warm, dry range^conditions. It
has also been called Mesquit of Mezquite. It is the
most promising of all the grama grasses, although the
variety Tall Grama (Bouteloua racemosa) has been
well spoken of. Blue grama grows to the height of
6 to 18 inches, but seldom exceeds the height of 12
inches, under range conditions; under cultivation it
grows higher. The leaves are numerous, narrow and
firm. The spike is 1 to 5 inches long. It has strong
rhizomes and forms a dense turf.
It is a hardy grass and specially drought resistant.
It is much relished by live stock as pasture or as hay.
It seeds freely and has the property of growing when
rain falls and then seeding and curing as the weather
becomes dry.
This grass extends from the Mississippi to the Pacific
and from British Columbia to Mexico. In Montana
it is called Buffalo grass and frequents the bench lands
at elevations from 3000 to 5000 feet above sea-level.
It grows at its best between latitudes 36 deg. and 42
deg. north.
It has great power to grow under dry conditions,
but will also grow better where moisture is more abun-
dant Its highest utility will likely consist in re-cloth-
334 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW
ing ranges, where other grasses have failed, through
overstocking, hence it is not likely to be a rotation
grass. When cultivated, it will grow and thrive un-
der conditions more dry than would be suitable for
other cultivated grasses.
Blue grama is a nutritious and palatable grass and
stands grazing better than almost any other rang^ grass.
This is owing, in part at least, to the dense turf which
it forms, notwithstanding that it is a bunch grass. The
hay is considered about the best produced on south-
western ranges and, in some areas, is about the only
hay obtainable. The seed can be obtained, under cul-
tivation, like that of other grasses, by stripping or
reaping and threshing, but information with reference
to growing it is very meagre.
Blue grama is certainly deserving of careful experi-
ment, more especially in the range states. At the
Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company's station
at Walla Walla, Washington, in 1899, it gave the most
satisfactory results in growing hay and seed, among
the many varieties tested at that station.
CHAPTEE XV.
TEMPORARY PASTURES.
Pastures are of two kinds, temporary and perma-
nent. The former, sometimes called rotation pastures,
are grown to provide grazing for but a limited num-
ber of years; in some instances, for only one season
and seldom for more than three seasons. The second
are grown to furnish grazing for an indefinite num-
ber of years, usually for a long period and in some
instances, as in the case of range lands and lands that
are untillable, for all time. The term rotation pastures
is applied to the former because they form a part of
a regular or irregular rotation grown in conjunction
with grain and other crops.
Temporary pastures are usually, but not always,
grown in some sort of alternation with crops grown
to provide hay or soiling food, but usually the former.
In nearly all instances, when hay is taken from these
crops, it is taken from the first crop. Sometimes the
crop is made into hay for two successive seasons and
then pastured for one or more years. In some in-
stances but one crop of hay is taken and one of pasture ;
in others several crops of both are taken. More com-
monly, however, hay is grown for two successive sea-
sons and the crop is then pastured for one or more
seasons. The hay crops are taken first because larger
336 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
yields are obtained then than could be obtained later,
and because weed growth is thus better kept in check
than it would be if the first crop were grazed.
When growing these pastures, a due regard must
be had to the quick setting of the grasses and varieties
must be chosen that reach a maximum of production
quickly, as for instance timothy. Grasses that do not
reach the zenith of productiveness for several years,
as for instance blue grass, should not be sown in these
pastures. In very many cases, clover, in one or more
of its varieties, is made to form a part of these pastures.
In growing them no combination is more frequently
used than timothy and clover. Careful attention" should
also be given to the choice of varieties that mature at
nearly the same seasons of the year. The necessity for
this arises from the advantage to the hay crop when
all the grasses composing it can be harvested at the
proper season. In laying down permanent pastures,
the opposite course should be adopted in order to fur-
nish continuous growth throughout the season.
When pastures are wanted for but one season, they
are usually furnished by growing clover of one or
more varieties, millet in one of its varieties, sorghum,
one of the non-saccharine sorghums, vetches, rape, kale
and the small cereal grains sown alone or in conjunc-
tion. The growing of these for pastures is discussed
in "Forage Crops Other Than Grasses" by the author.
Readers who desire information with reference to the
growing of these pastures are referred to the said vol-
ume.
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 337
GEASSES ADAPTED TO VARIOUS CONDITIONS.
Since grasses differ much in the degree of their
adaptation to various conditions, a brief discussion with
reference to such adaptation will follow. The question
will be discussed from the standpoint of conditions such
as apply to soil, climate and ability to grow under shade.
For Upland Pastures. — In the northern states and
Canada, cultivated grasses, best adapted to ordinary
upland soils in producing temporary pastures, are tim-
othy, orchard grass, Russian brome, redtop, and west-
ern rye grass. Meadow Fescue and tall oat grass are
not included, since several years are required to grow
them at their best. Timothy, though not of highest
value in producing pasture through the season, is, never-
theless, extensively sown for such a use, since it will
grow over a wide area, sets quickly and has special
adaptation for being sown with the red clovers on up-
land soils. When Russian brome is wanted for tem-
porary pastures, it should be sown thickly so as to get
a full stand the year after sowing. The method most
commonly adopted in obtaining temporary grazing in
the North is by sowing timothy and red clover, as a
full stand of these may be obtained the year after
sowing them. Blue grass and white clover come into
these pastures in many sections without being sown.
In much of northwestern Canada, this combination
is not successful since clover, heretofore, has failed to
grow satisfactorily. When these pastures are to be
maintained for four to six years, more attention should
be given to adding the seed of orchard grass and redtop
than has been given to the sowing of these in the
338 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
past. The grasses of lesser value for the conditions
named are Italian rye, tall oat and perennial rye
grasses.
In the southern states those grasses best adapted to
such conditions are tall oat, orchard, redtop and in
some parts timothy and rescue grass. Those of less
value for pasture include Italian rye, perennial rye,
velvet grass and in some parts carpet grass. Bermuda
and Texas blue grasses are both adapted to permanent
grazing.
For Slough Lands. — In the northern states and Can-
ada, the cultivated grasses, best adapted to slough lands
and such as are low-lying but drained, are timothy,
redtop and Russian brome. Any one of these alone
or in combination may be made to furnish good graz-
ing in such situations better than they will furnish on
ordinary upland. The grazing may be further im-
proved by sowing alsike and white clover with these
pastures. The mixture, most frequently sown on such
lands, is a combination of timothy, redtop and alsike
clover. The cultivated grasses less frequently sown
on such lands include fowl meadow, rough stalked
meadow and Italian rye grasses.
In the southern states, redtop is the best pasture
grass for such situations. Timothv and also Italian
O f
rye grass will answer in some localities. In the South,
however, it is relatively more important that temporary
grass pastures shall be supplemented by pastures fur-
nished by sowing certain grasses alone or in mixtures.
Further reference will be made to the sowing of these
in the present chapter.
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 339
For Sandy Lands. — The range of adaptation in cul-
tivated grasses for sandy or gravelly lanjds is not wide
and it narrows as the conditions become drier. For
temporary grazing on such lands, winter rye, not a
grass in the ordinary use of the word, will furnish
more pasture than anything else. Of the true and
valuable cultivated grasses, Russian brome stands first
in adaptation for such situations, but even this grass
will not provide abundant grazing on such lands. Where
moisture is ample, the production on these lands may
be greatly stimulated by fertilizing them and then
sowing red clover along with the grass. This is one
of the situations in which sowing quack grass seed
may in some instances be admissible in the North, and
velvet grass in the South, where Russian brome grass
does not succeed so well. In these southern pastures,
Japan and Buffalo clovers will prove helpful in sup-
plementing the grazing.
It may also be found, especially in the dry uplands
of the West and Southwest, that it may be advisable to
introduce tall grama (Bouteloua racemosa) and blue
grama (Bouteloua oHigostachya) , but more experience
in growing these is wanted before pronouncing defi-
nitely with reference to this question.
For Dry Areas. — For dry areas such as those of the
semi-arid belt east of the Rocky mountains and in cer-
tain of the plains within the mountains, it is at least
questionable if any of the cultivated grasses will be
found any improvement over those which nature has
placed there. Nor has the fact been fully demon-
strated, that any of these can be established over wide
340 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
areas of the range in the absence of cultivation. It
may yet prove, however, that Russian brome and blue
grama may be found able to supplant the grasses
growing in certain areas of the prairie where the for-
mer have in part succumbed to close pasturing. This
question is further discussed in Chapter XVIII. (See
p. 452.)
For Wet Soils. — Soils, that are saturated with water
during any considerable portion of the year, are ill
adapted to the growth of grasses that are valuable,
when viewed from the standpoint of food producing
properties. Those that are covered with water an-
nually for any considerable time have still lower adap-
tation for such production. The deeper the water that
covers, and the longer the period of such covering,
the less valuable is the grass production that follows.
If better grasses are to be grown, the lowering of the
water should first engage the attention of the grower.
Where this cannot be done, the work of improvement
is well nigh hopeless. Grasses and sedges that grow
under these conditions are usually coarse, low in nu-
tritive qualities and still lower relatively in palatabil-
ity. Some grasses, however, grow in such situations
that may possess considerable feeding value. Such
is what is popularly termed blue joint (Calamagrostis
canadensis) which grows in certain of the swamps of
Minnesota, saturated in winter and ordinarily dry in
summer. Others are valuable for manufacturing. Such
is wire grass (Carex vulpenoidea) which grows in peat
swamps and others again are valuable only for litter.
It is interesting to note the improvement that takes
TEMPORARY PASTURES. . 341
place in the grasses that grow on soils that were marshy
as drainage progresses. The impassable muskeg, for
instance, in the northern states will sustain only the
Labrador Tea shrub. Lower the waters of the mus-
keg, and wire grass dies to make way for some
better grass — how much better will be determined
by the character of the underlying peat. The evolu-
tion that may be accomplished by the drainage of
some marshes is very great. But this does not apply
to all marshes, as in some the peat is of such a char-
acter that it cannot be speedily made to sustain a vig-
orous vegetation for a prolonged period, after the re-
moval of the water.
Some grasses will grow well in lands so low as to be
saturated for several days and even weeks, when the
weather is cool, providing the water does not rise above
the surface or does not cover it more than two or three
inches. The four valuable grasses best adapted to
such situations are Russian brome, redtop, fowl meadow,
timothy; alsike clover is also possessed of such adap-
tation. During warm weather, such saturation is usual-
ly injurious.
For Growing in Shade. — Grasses differ much in their
adaptation for growing in shade. As the country grows
older, it is legitimate to expect that park-like pastures
for live stock will more and more abound. If this ex-
pectation is realized, the question of adaptation in
grasses to such conditions will become increasingly
important. Orchard grass, heretofore, has stood high-
est in the popular estimate for being grown under,
such conditions; meadow fescue can also endure con-
342 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
siderablc shade. It may yet be found, however, that
Russian brome will rival even orchard grass in its abil-
ity to grow beneath the boughs of trees. At the Indian
Head experimental farm, Assiniboia, Canada, this grass
is virtually covering the ground amid the windbreaks
on the farm. Kentucky blue grass has considerable
power to grow in such situations. In growing any
grass beneath the shade of trees, the fact, that the feed-
ing value of the same is lessened in proportion as the
density of the shade increases, should not be overlooked.
GRASSES FOR THE STATES AND PROVINCES.
The attempt will be made to name the grasses that
are suitable for furnishing temporary meadows and
pastures, adapted to the various states of the Union
and the different provinces of Canada. To facilitate
this work these \vill be divided into several groups. In
making these divisions the plan will be to include the
states' and provinces in the same group in which the
production is similar or approximately so.
Fvr the Northeastern States. — -The northeastern
states are intended to include in this discussion ail
those states that lie north of the Ohio and Potomac
rivers and east of Lake Michigan and Illinois.
The grasses which have suitable adaptation for these
are those which have suitable adaptation also for the
provinces of Canada east from Lake Huron to the At-
lantic. The grasses which will best furnish temporary
pastures in these include timothy, orchard grass and
redtop, valuable, all things considered, in the order
named. Notwithstanding that the value of orchard
grass for grazing may be intrinsically superior, timothy
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 343
fits so well with medium red, mammoth and alsike
clovers for growing hay that it is almost invariably
sown with one of these and mowed for one or two
years ; then pastured for about the same length of time
before the sod is broken.
For the relative amounts of seed to sow when tim-
othy is sown with medium red clover, with mammoth
clover, or with alsike clover, see p. 69. If sown with
two of these, the quantity is reduced. As previously
intimated, timothy and medium red clover are more
commonly sown on uplands; timothy and alsike are
sown on lowlands. Orchard grass is more commonly
sown in conjunction with medium red clover. For the
proper amounts of seed to sow, see p. 140; for the
amount to sow alone, see p. 140. Redtop, as previous-
ly intimated, has highest adaptation for low lying lands
not only because it grows better in these, but because
these are usually grazed for a longer period than up-
lands before being broken, which better suits the con-
siderable time required by this grass to become estab-
lished. But upland soils also may be so congenial to
the growth of this grass, that it may prove profitable
also to sow it in these, when the pastures are not of
short duration. When medium red or mammoth clov-
ers are sown on upland soils along with timothy, or-
chard grass and redtop to provide hay and pasture
about C pounds of either of the clovers per acre and 3
pounds of each of the other grasses should be sufficient.
Redtop is usually sown on lowlands with timothy and
alsike clover. For the amounts of seed to sow, see
p. 158.
344 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
In the area named, Kentucky blue grass and white
clover are much prone to come into the pastures even
though temporary in character, hence, it is not neces-
sary to sow them.
The grasses with less adaptation for such pastures
in these states include Russian brome, tall oat, rough
stalked meadow and fowl meadow grasses. Russian
brome will grow well over all this area as pasture or
as hay, but it is slow in becoming established. It
is less easy of establishment than some of the others
named, and it is less necessary to grow it than under
other climatic conditions. A few pounds of tall oat
grass seed sown along with clover and timothy or
clover and orchard grass may prove helpful. Two
pounds of alsike clover seed may also render good serv-
ice when sown with one or more of these grasses and
clovers, in certain upland soils.
In all the area now being considered, these grasses
may be sown alone or with a nurse crop, but prefer-
ably with the latter, as then a crop is secured while
the pastures are becoming established.
For the Southeastern States. — This group of states
comprises those which lie between the Ohio and Poto-
mac Rivers and the Gulf of Mexico, also the states of
Arkansas, Louisiana and that portion of Texas which
is adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico.
The grasses in it, best adapted to the production of
temporary pastures and meadows include orchard, tall
oat, redtop and timothy, valuable probably in the order
named, when considered in their adaptation to the
whole region. These grasses are sown singly or in
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 345
combination, with or without a nurse crop. The best
season for sowing is the autumn, after the fall rains
come and early enough for the grass to get a firm hold
upon the soil, before the advent of winter. In cer-
tain parts of this area, especially those that lie to the
northward, red and alsike clovers may supplement these
grasses, but toward the Gulf the conditions are not
highly favorable to the growth of these. When these
grasses are sown alone 28 pounds of orchard grass
should suffice per acre; 24 pounds of tall oat grass;
28 pounds of redtog and 12 pounds of timothy. For
temporary pastures, orchard grass shoufd probably be
given the first place and for temporary meadows tall
oat grass; but for those more permanent in character,
redtop would probably be more valuable; in portions
of Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee, timothy should
be given first place. In combination, orchard and
tall oat grasses grow well together, using 14 pounds
of seed of the former per acre and 12 pounds of the
latter. White clover or Japan clover (Lespcdeza
striata) usually comes into these pastures when not
broken for two or three years. If red clover is sown
with orchard and redtop grasses, not more than 4 to
6 pounds of the seed will be required and some re-
duction may be made in the amounts of the seed sown
of these respective grasses.
Southward tall oat grass and rescue grass will give
the best probable results among grasses and Japan
clover among clovers. Rescue grass is an annual and
when sowing it for pasture or to provide hay use 30
pounds of seed. When Japan clover is sown alone
346 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
use 12 pounds of seed per acre. When sown together
use half the amount of the seed of. each and sow the for-
mer in the autumn and the latter in the spring. Orch-
ard grass may also have a place. In all these states,
however, unless it be those lying northward, the plan
of growing temporary pasture and fodder from cer-
tain annuals sown in the autumn is to he commended,
since these furnish excellent winter and spring graz-
ing. (See p. 356.) The best common grazing is ob-
tained from Bermuda grass.
Next in adaptation to the grasses named would be
Italian and perennial rye grasses; these have scarcely
received that attention in the South which their merits
claim.
For the Canadian Northwest. — This division in-
cludes all the provinces of Canada between Lake Su-
perior" and the Rocky mountains. The conditions are
much the same also in the Red River valley in Minne-
sota and 'North Dakota.
The three best grasses for pasture and meadow in
all this region are Russian brome, timothy and west-
ern rye grass probably in the order named. The first
named is decidedly in the lead as a pasture grass. All
in all, it is also important as a producer of hay for
feeding on the farm, but timothy must be assigned
first place in growing hay for market. These grasses
may be sown alone or in combination. When Russian
brome is sown alone to provide pasture or hay quickly,
sow 18 pounds of seed per acre; of timothy, 12 pounds ;
of western rye, 18 pounds. When Russian brome and
timothy are sown together apply 9 and 6 pounds of
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 347
these respectively; this combination meets with con-
siderable favor. When Russian brome and western
rye are sown together use 9 and 9 pounds respectively.
This combination is specially adapted to areas where
the conditions are dry. When Russian brome, tim-
othy and western rye are sown together, about 6 pounds
of the seed of each would be ample to sow. Whether
clover in any of its varieties can be sown to advantage
in this area, or in any part or parts of it, to supplement
the grasses named, has yet to be demonstrated.
For the Upper Mississippi Basin. — This group of
states includes Wisconsin, Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa,
Missouri and eastern Kansas, Nebraska and a limited
portion of eastern North and South Dakota.
In the northern portion of this area, the leading
grasses for temporary grazing and also for hay are
timothy, redtop, Russian brome, medium red and al-
sike clover. On the uplands, timothy and red clover
are more commonly sown, as in the states comprised
in the northeastern group. On the lowlands, timothy,
redtop and alsike clover are the grasses most frequently
sown. In portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, in-
cluding much of eastern Minnesota and wide areas in
Wisconsin, once covered with hardwood forest, the adap-
tation of the soil for the various kinds of clover and
for blue grass is remarkably high. Hence, in these
areas blue grass and white clover come into the pas-
tures, when of any, considerable duration, without be-
ing sown. The same is true of blue grass in much
of the lowland soil. The adaptation of meadow fescue
and meadow foxtail have not been well tested in these
Grasses — 23.
348 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
areas, but Russian brome has been sufficiently tested
to demonstrate that it stands high in adaptation both
for hay and pasture. What has been said of those
portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin, will also apply,
in the main, to Iowa and Illinois except that adapta-
tion for growing clover in these, though high, is not
so high as the portions of Minnesota and Wisconsin
that were specified. Orchard grass and tall oat grass
have but medium adaptation. In southwestern and
western Minnesota and in the Dakotas, timothy and
clover pastures are of short duration, although the
production of both are improving and Russian bromc
is growing in favor. In Missouri, timothy and clover
do well in providing hay and grazing, but in the parts
of Kansas and Nebraska included, while clovers flour-
ish, timothy does not quite equal orchard grass in fur-
nishing pasture; the same is true of Russian brome.
Alfalfa is coming to be the leading plant in providing
hay and swine pasture in eastern Kansas and Ne-
braska; its cultivation for these is rapidly extending
in the other portions of the area now being considered.
For the Semi-Arid Belt. — In this group of states
are included all those that lie east of the Cascade and
Coast mountains, exclusive of the irrigated valleys
and west of the states included in the upper Missis-
sippi and southeastern groups.
In the greater portion of this area, the pasture and
hay grasses are such as nature provides; the former
on the uplands and the latter in the depressions. These
vary with the locality and the degree of the humidity.
They include a great variety of grasses, nearly all of
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 349
which are possessed of high nutrition, but the major
portion are of a somewhat dwarfed habit of growth
and they grow more sparsely as moisture decreases.
Acre for acre, as compared with sown pastures, these
pastures are relatively low in producing power; wheth-
er in this respect they can be improved by other grasses
is problematical. This question is further discussed
in Chapter XVIII.
On many of the uplands, however, at the base of
the mountains, usually spoken of as the "foothills,"
pasture and hay from such plants as alfalfa, timothy
and other grasses can be grown, but the range of such
production has not yet been ascertained. The chief
supplies of fodder, required to supplement grazing
in the winter in these areas, will come from the irri-
gated valleys found with more or less frequency in
much of the range country. However, on the uplands
of Washington, Idaho and Oregon, taking Moscow as
a centre, pasture or meadow may be obtained from
orchard grass, Russian brome, tall oat grass or meadow
fescue.
The Irrigated Valleys. — The reference here is not
only to the valleys now irrigated in the region that is
being considered but to those also that are susceptible
of irrigation, and that will unquestionably be irrigated
in the future that is not far distant. These include
all the irrigable valleys in the entire Rocky mountain
districts of the United States and Canada.
These valleys are capable of producing for pasture
or for hay all or nearly all the valuable grasses and
clovers that can be grown on the continent ; nor is the
350 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
character of the adaptation greatly different until the
streams leave the mountain districts, since the cli-
mate within reasonable proximity to the coast is mild
and even in character. When, however, the river val-
leys leave the mountains, more especially those that
flow inland rather than seaward, the mean tempera-
ture diifers considerably with latitude. The grasses
and clovers that may be grown there along the entire
coast under irrigation are nearly the same. In the
valleys that extend eastward from the mountains, such
grasses as are adapted only to mild climates could not
be grown successfully in the northern valleys; nor is
this to be regretted since these are not so valuable in-
trinsically as those that are more rugged and enduring.
All grasses and clovers are not equally well adapted
to irrigation. Those that have such adaptation in a
marked degree are happily sufficiently numerous to
meet all the needs of those, who till the soil. Promi-
nent among the grasses that have high adaptation for
irrigation are timothy, redtop, Russian brome, orchard
grass, meadow fescue, perennial and Italian rye grasses ;
among the clovers are alfalfa, medium red, mammoth,
alsike and the white. In productive power and dura-
tion of life, alfalfa is king among the clovers and in
productive power king also over the grasses. With
such a wide range of valuable grasses to choose from,
those who till these valleys can not only secure hay of
any combination desired, but they can also secure enor-
mous yields of the same. Heretofore, but little at-
tempt has been made to grow these plants in combi-
nation. In growing for hay, the aim should be to
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 351
combine those which mature at nearly the same period;
alsike clover and timothy furnish" one of the best of
these combinations, more especially when the quality
of the hay is considered. In growing temporary pas-
tures, there is probably no better combination than
medium red clover and orchard grass. In growing per-
manent pastures, all the grasses and clovers enumer-
ated above could be used if desired or any combination
of these that might be preferred.
With so much range land as is usually found bor-
dering on these valleys and extending back from them,
the land of the valleys is not likely to be devoted to the
extensive growing of pastures for some time to come.
But their capacity to grow these, notwithstanding, is
very great; it would be interesting to know the limit
of such possible productivity. In 1900, at the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station Farm at Bozeman, Mon-
tana, cattle were grazed on 5.04 acres of irrigated land
for an average of 109 2-3 days; the increase in weight
made was 456_0 pounds. This valued at 4 cents per
pound gave a net profit from the pasture of $36.19 per
acre. In growing such pastures, the element of danger
from bloat caused by eating green clover will be largely
eliminated by growing grasses in combination with it.
West of the Cascades. — This region includes thfc
relatively narrow strip of land between the Rocky
mountains and the Pacific and extending from Cali-
fornia to Alaska.
All the grasses that have been discussed in this work
can be grown in some part of this area. The temper-
ature is mild and even, during- much of the year and
352 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the climate is also moist. During nine or ten months
of the year, the gentle rains are frequent. This, of
course, is greatly favorable to the production of good
pastures.
It is simply a matter of choice as to which grasses
shall be grown for temporary hay and pasture produc-
tion. In growing hay those plants should be chosen
for being grown singly or in combinations which take
the market most readily. At present timothy, with a
moderate quantity of alsike clover in it, . makes an
excellent market hay. For temporary pastures, me-
dium, red clover, orchard and Italian rye grasses should
answer well; sowing per acre, 6 pounds of clover, 7
pounds of orchard grass and 7 pounds of rye grass.
Pastures Other than Grasses and Clover. — In all or
nearly all sections of the United States and Canada,
the necessity exists for growing more or less pasture
for the various classes of live stock, kept upon the farm
in addition to such as are obtained from clovers and
the grasses proper. This necessity arises from the fre-
quency with which the grass and clover seeds sown fail
to make a stand or with which they may fail, or par-
tially fail, through adverse winter weather. It is pres-
ent in proportion as these hazards are frequent and
severe; as the locality is favorable or otherwise to the
production of grass pastures. These include the small
cereal grains, leguminous or non-leguminous, the sac-
charine and non-saccharine sorghums, the various mil-
lets, cow peas and soy beans, rape and kale and for
swine such roots as artichokes and peanuts. The most
valuable of these pastures for cattle are the small cereal
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 353
grains, the sorghums, rape and kale, cow peas and soy
beans and the millets, probably in the order named. The
most valuable for sheep are rape and kale, the small
cereal grains, the sorghums, the millets, cow peas and
soy beans, probably in the order named. The most
valuable for swine are the small grains, cow peas and
soy beans, artichokes and peanuts and the sorghums,
in the order named. The most valuable by far of the
small cereals in providing grazing is winter rye; the
most valuable of the pure pasture plants is rape and
the most valuable of the sorghums are the saccharine.
This whole question, however, is discussed at length
by the author in the book, "Forage Crops Other than
Grasses/7 published in 1900. Headers who desire fur-
ther information on this aspect of the grazing question
are referred to the said book.
MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS UPON TEMPORARY
PASTURES.
A discussion is now submitted with reference to the
management of temporary pastures; also with refer:
ence to the influence which these exert upon the soil
and, through it upon the production of other crops.
Sowing Temporary Pastures. — This question has
been touched upon in Chapter II. (see page 36). In
sowing temporary pastures, preparation of the land,
its condition as to cleanliness and fertilization, the
season for sowing and adaptation of the grasses to the"
needs of the land, the climate and the live stock which
will graze upon them are chiefly to be considered. The
following rules may be submitted with reference to the
354 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
i
preparation of the land: 1. On average soils aim to
have the seed bed fine and smooth at the time of sow-
ing the seed. 2. Seek fine pulverization in lands not
naturally friable when preparing the seed bed in spring,
but be content with pulverization less fine when pre-
paring the same for autumn sowing in climates of
much rainfall in winter. 3. On soils so light as to lift
with the winds, sow on an uneven surface and aim to
leave the surface rough. 4. Aim so to prepare the
land that it will have sufficient moisture near enough
the surface to germinate readily the seed when it is
sown.
Since nearly all grasses start more feebly and grow
more slowly at the first than the small cereal grains,
it is more important relatively that they shall be sown
on clean land, however it may be cleaned. Since tem-
porary pastures tend to put humus in the soil and also
available fertility, it is not as necessary that the soil
shall be well supplied with humus and fertility as
when sowing many other crops; the growth of the grass,
nevertheless, will usually be proportionate ' to the
amount of Hth in the soil. It is not usual to apply
fresh farmyard manure in large quantities the same
season that lands are laid down to grass, .since the
growth of weeds would thereby be encouraged to the
detriment of the young grass plants. If, however,
these have been applied to some cultivated crop grown,
the previous season, the influence is beneficent to the
growth of these. The weed seeds in this manure have
been destroyed and the residue of fertility from the
manure is readily available. On some poor sandy soils,
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 355
however, it may be necessary first to bury a green crop,
as of rye, to put humus in the soil before the grains
are sown; or it may be necessary to apply some arti-
ficial fertility on the same.
As a rule, the best results will be obtained from
sowing the hardy grasses in the autumn, north or
south. In the North it is important that these shall
be sown early in the autumn ; clovers at the North can
be sown in the spring or summer only; in the South
they may frequently be sown with advantage in the
autumn, as soon as the fall rains come. Plants, other
than grasses, sown to provide grazing but for one sea-
son should more commonly be sown as early as possible
in spring, but to this there are some exceptions. Win-
ter rye is sown in the autumn both north and south ;
in the South all the small cereal crops grown for such
grazing are better sown in the early autumn. Usually
in climates with sufficient rainfall, grasses and clovers
are preferably sown with nurse crops, whether sown
autumn or spring in the North ; in the South these are
frequently sown in autumn without nurse crops, since
when-thus sown they are soon ready for grazing.
The question of adaptation of the grasses to the needs
of the land involves the study of the habits of growth
in each variety of plant grown and of adaptation of
soils to the growth in the same. The more rugged
grasses only should be grown under hard conditions
of soil and climate. Under favorable conditions of
both, varieties less rugged but probably intrinsically
more valuable, may be grown. Unless for purposes
of experiment, grasses of proved adaptation to the
356 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
climatic conditions only should be grown.
proper are considered better adapted relatively than
the clovers to furnish grazing for horses. Bo ih are
very suitable for cattle and sheep, and, when grown
in combination, the danger from bloat is practically
eliminated. The latter are more suitable for swine.
Plants grown only for pasture, as rape, are most suit-
able for sheep. Those which furnish the most succu-
lence are best adapted for milk production, while not
too much succulence gives better results in growing
meat.
Grazing Temporary Pastures. — When grass pastures
are sown in the autumn they may be grazed the follow-
ing season, and in some instances southward the same
autumn. When sown in the spring, and especially
when sown with nurse crops, they should not be grazed
the same season. To this also there may be some ex-
ceptions, as when, for instance, the growth may be so
strong as to endanger the grasses through smothering
under snowfall. When the cereal grains are sown for
pasture, they should be pastured from the time they
will furnish plentiful grazing. Grasses and clovers
sown along with them, especially on porous soils, as
the black loams of the prairie, will be benefited by such
grazing through the firming of the soil, and the more
lacking the supply of moisture, the greater will be the
benefit. On some soils and in some sections autumn
sown cereals may be grazed during the winter with
benefit to the crop. Winter wheat, for instance, is thus
frequently grazed in Kansas; winter rye may be thus
grazed even further north. On rich prairie soils wheat
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 357
and oats are made to yield more in moist seasons when
grazed by sheep for a time in the spring. This benefit
comes largely through increased stooling in the plants.
The following rules apply to the grazing of grass
pastures: 1. Never graze these if it is possible to
arrange otherwise when the pastures are so wet that
the land will, poach or become impacted as a result.
2. Close grazing lessens production in the pastures, but
in dry seasons the reduction resulting will be much
more than in wet seasons. 3. The palatability of all
kinds of plants is lessened for grazing if allowed to
form the seed head, and to prevent this it may be nec-
essary sometimes to use the mower. 4. Close grazing
in the late autumn weakens the vitality of the plants;
one result of which is they will not start so quickly or
so vigorously in the spring.
The observations now submitted apply rather to pas-
tures produced by the small cereal grains: 1. The
further from the earing stage they are kept the more
pasture they will furnish and the longer the period
during which it will grow. 2. While being grazed,
grass pasture should be accessible on which the animals
can be pastured in time of wet, when grazing would
be hurtful to grain pastures. 3. Because of the suc-
culence of grain pastures and to avoid unnecessary
tramping, the animals grazed on grain pastures should
be grazed on grass pastures at night and also during
a portion of each day.
In pasturing some animals grown for pasture, haz-
ard of loss is incurred. It arises from the following
sources: 1. When rape and succulent clovers are
358 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
being grazed loss from bloating is sometimes incurred.
2. When cattle are being grazed on sorghum and Kaffir
corn, particularly of the second growth, animals some-
times die suddenly while grazing on the same. 3.
When cattle graze on cornstalks in the late autumn and
winter, they frequently die in considerable numbers.
To meet the first danger the animals should be grad-
ually accustomed to the pasture. They should not be
turned on the same when hungry, and but cautiously
when the plants are wet. As the cause of hazard from
the second source is not certainly known, it cannot be
fully met, but it has been noticed that the danger is
greatest when the growth of the plants has become
stunted from drought. The cause of the hazard from
the third source is likewise not known, but the incurred
loss can certainly be avoided by harvesting the corn
at the proper season as it should be harvested, and then
feeding it to the live stock. The question of grazing
is discussed at some length in the book, "Forage Crops
Other than Grasses," referred to above.
Fertilizing and Renewing. — It is not usual to apply
commercial fertilizers to stimulate the growth of pas-
tures of short duration. These are more commonly
applied when preparing the land, when sowing the seed
or while the grasses sown are to be used in producing
hay and before they are to be used as pastures. But
where it is desired so to use them there can be no
objection to such action, providing they are used with
discretion and judgment. When used, the kinds to
apply, the respective amounts, and the methods of ap-
plying them will be the same as those submitted for
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 359
fertilizing permanent pastures. (See page 392.)
When temporary pastures are to be fertilized, farm-
yard manure, reduced or unreduced, will usually give
better results than anything else that can be applied.
It is pre-eminently adapted to such a use, as it stimu-
lates growth in the grass during all the season of growth
by the nutriment which it furnishes; in winter it pro-
tects the roots from the adverse influences of cold
winds and frost; in summer it acts as a mulch, thus
protecting the plants more or less from the influences
of drought. By increasing root development in the
soil, it adds much to the available plant food for the
crops that follow. The fertilizer may be applied by
spreading it over the pasture evenly at any season of
the year that may be convenient, but to apply it during
the first months of grazing will to some extent cover
a part of the new growth made, so that it cannot be
eaten by the stock. Late autumn and early winter are
the most suitable seasons for such applications, because
of the lessened pressure of farm work; because of the
protection which it gives to the grasses and because of
great stimulus which it gives to the growth of these
as soon as the growth begins in the spring through the
nutriment carried down to the grass by the spring rains.
When the snowfall is not too heavy, it may be applied
with much advantage during all the season when the
ground is frozen.
The chief objections to applying farmyard manure
thus have been urged : First, when applied fresh, many
weed seeds which will grow later are carried in it ; sec-
ond, much of it is lost through the wasting of early
360 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
rains ; and, third, the pasture resulting will be distaste-
ful to stock. The answers to these objections are : First.
it is only where careless farming prevails that noxious
weed seeds abound; second, the loss of fertilization
through washing is not great except on side hills being
less than the loss which occurs by handling manure in
any other way; third, while the grazing for a week or
two may be distasteful to live stock, this distastefulness
soon leaves it entirely, so that the forage will be all
eaten by the stock. To destroy weed seeds on well
managed farms by fermenting the manure would be
a very expensive process, because of the great loss of
nitrogen in the manure during the fermenting. It is
probably the most expensive process that can be adopt-
ed in fighting weeds. The practice which draws manure
from the stables and applies it on the land is an excel-
lent one.
When the beneficent results from applying farmyard
manure are considered, it is somewhat surprising that
more attention is not given to the manufacture of the
same, in areas where tlie necessity for purchasing com-
mercial fertilizers exists. It would seem quite possible
for the farmer to purchase live stock, if necessary, and
to purchase food, especially grain food, on which to
feed them, without loss, thus getting the fertilizer as
a reward for the labor. That would be a much cheaper
method of obtaining fertilizer than buying it in hard
cash.
The renewing of temporary pastures is not nearly
so important as the renewing of permanent pastures,
because of the temporary character of the former. The
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 361
renewing of permanent pastures is discussed in Chap-
ter XVI. (see page 392). The methods of renewing
these will also apply, in great part, at least, to the re-
newal of temporary pastures.
Influence on Succeeding Crops. — Although the true
grass crops are not nitrogen gatherers in the sense in
which clover and other legumes are, yet it is important
that they shall be grown in rotation, in all or nearly
all instances, when tilling arable soils. Growing them
thus in the rotation is less necessary when clovers form
a part of the regular rotation, but even when clovers
are grown, it will usually be found advantageous to
grow grasses also. Among the benefits which result
from growing grasses in the rotation are the following :
1. They supply the land with humus. 2. They fur-
nish plant food in a more readily available form. 3.
They tend to check the growth and increase of weeds.
It is not easy to over-estimate the value of a supply
of humus in the soil. It would probably be correct to
say that it is well nigh impossible to grow good crops
without keeping the land sufficiently supplied with
humus, or in other words, vegetable matter. Such mat-
ter in the soil promotes aeration in stiff soils and ren-
ders them more friable, increases the power of all soils
to hold moisture, aids in the chemical transformation
of inorganic substances in the soil and renders sub-
stantial service in preventing soils from being washed
away by an excess of water or from being lifted by the
winds. Some soils, more especially those composed of
fine clay particles or fine deposit when long cultivated
without any replenishment of humus, become so im-
362 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
pacted that the air does not readily penetrate them
sufficiently, to the great detriment of the crops which
grow upon them. Grass roots growing in the same
render them more friable by separating the particles,
and, consequently, more easily tilled. The labor of
pulverizing these soils is lessened in proportion as these
are present. The aid thus rendered to aeration will
be readily apparent, since the humus substances that
have been distributed between the earth particles are
easily penetrated by the air. The extent to which such
vegetable substances increase the power of soils to hold
moisture is very great. They act like a sponge in the
soil, arresting moisture going downward or upward and
holding it for the growing crops. The service thus
rendered in leechy soils is even more valuable than in
those that are retentive; hence, interjecting these crops
frequently into the rotation is one of the surest safe-
guards against drought. The way in which they trans-
form inert plant life in the soil in their decay into
active or valuable plant food cannot be discussed here.
The fact only can be stated, and it is one of much
significance to the farmer. The influence of certain
grass plants in preventing washing and gullying is fur-
ther discussed in Chapter XVI. (see page 399). The
extent to which the lifting of light soils by wind is les-
sened is largely dependent on the kind or kinds of
grasses grown and the frequency with which they are
grown. Those grasses with a strong and matted root
system, as quack grass, best serve this end. The influ-
ence of some of these grasses in thus preventing soils
TEMPORARY PASTURES. 363
from lifting after they have been ploughed up is, in
some instances, felt for at least three years.
While the grasses proper do not, like clovers, add
in the same way to plant food in the soil, they do add
materially to the supply of available plant food. Dur-
ing the processes of growth they search out and take
up plant food from the soil and subsoil, a part of which
is retained in the roots broken up and in the stubbles
that are buried. These, in their decay, furnish such
food for the crops that follow them in a form that is
easily accessible. The grass crops, in a sense, act the
part of scavengers in the soil for the crops that come
after them. Sir J. B. Lawes has estimated that when
grass lands are broken 5 to 10 tons of dry matter, roots,
leaves and stubbles are deposited in one acre by the grass
crop.
Grass crops check the growth of weeds in the soil in
various ways. In some instances they crowd them out,
as in the case of blue grass; in some, as when mowed
and properly pastured, they prevent them from seed-
ing; and in others, as when they are broken for a few
years, they cause the seeds of many weeds to perish
that are lying in the soils. Pastures and meadows of
any lengthened duration render most effective service
in this way, as is evidenced by their comparative clean-
liness when first broken up.
So beneficent are the influences from introducing
grass crops frequently into the rotation, that it is
probably correct to say that the instances are few in
which successful crop husbandry can be long conducted
in their absence. Due attention to this question would
Grasses — 24.
364 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
go far toward revolutionizing farming in wide areas
of the United States and Canada. Particularly would
this be true of much of the South, of the corn belt in
the Mississippi basin and of nearly all of the wheat belt
in the American and Canadian Northwest.
OHAPTEK XVI.
PERMANENT PASTURES.
Permanent pastures, as the name would indicate, are
those which are grown continuously on the same land
for a successive number of years of considerable dura-
tion, or for all time. Sometimes they are practically
composed of but a single grass; in other instances and
more frequently, they are composed of a variety of grass-
es which have much power to remain in the land. The
dominant idea, underlying their growth, is to crowd
into the pasture, as many of the enduring grasses that
furnish valuable grazing, as can be grown successfully
together for a term of years, and which at the same time,
make the bulk of their growth at different periods of the
growing season. But since some of these are slow in
attaining a maximum of growth, taking as much as three
or four years, in some instances, to accomplish this, seed
of short-lived varieties is frequently sown also to aid in
providing a full supply of grazing, while the slow ma-
turing varieties are attaining a maximum of develop-
ment. When the pasture is once secured, it is, or ought
to be, the aim to maintain it in undiminishing product-
iveness by keeping it free from weeds and by stimu-
lating growth with fertilizers.
Permanent pastures composed of mixed grasses have
not been extensively grown on this continent. It is,
366 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
therefore, scarcely possible to speak of them from the
standpoint of successful experience. The attention of
agriculturists has not been centered on them for the
reason among others, that land has been abundant and
because of this, the necessity has not been greatly felt
for growing pastures on the intensive plan.
That permanent pastures, in one form or another,
may be grown and should be grown in all parts of the
continent is certainly true. That they may be grown,
in some localities with more of relative advantage than
in others, is also true. That they can be grown on this
continent, as successfully as the permanent pastures of
Great Britain and Holland, is not true, except of those
sections of the country which have a similar climate. It
can only be true of such areas as have a climate that
is moist, and in which rain falls in ample supply dur-
ing the greater portion of the growing season, and where
the growing season covers a large portion of the year.
The advice to use formulas for laying down these pas-
tures, similar to those used in laying down the same
in Great Britain, where the conditions are not the
same, has not been good; it has given rise to more or
less of prejudice against the idea of permanent pas-
tures, mixed in character.
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF PERMANENT PASTURES.
Permanent pastures in America may be divided into
three classes. These are pastures composed of grass-
es indigenous in character; pastures composed of one
or more grasses that have been introduced; and pas-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 367
hires composed of grasses, indigenous and introduced.
Which of these should be grown must be determined by
the individual needs of each farm and the conditions
relating to growth which appertain to the same.
Indigenous Permanent Pastures. — These are pastures
made up of a single grass or of a variety of grasses, that
are native to the locality. In some instances, they are
substantially composed of a single grass ; as for instance
blue grass; in other instances, many grasses grow in
them; such are the pastures of the open range. These
pastures are established by the hand of nature, and usu-
ally in areas where cultivation is not practicable. Under
such conditions, it is questionable whether the attempt
should be made to change the character of these pastures
by scattering the seed of other grasses. Of course, it is
different where cultivation is carried on. But such pas-
tures may be maintained in undiminished productive-
ness, by the way in which they are grazed, and by sup-
plementing careful grazing by such measures, as the re-
moval of encroaching shade when necessary and fertiliz-
ing when practicable.
Introduced Permanent Pastures.— These may be
composed of a single grass, as in the case of Russian
brome or of a very limited number, as in the case
of Kentucky blue and white clover, introduced into
areas from which the forest has been cleared away.
They may also be composed of a number of grasses
suited to growth in the district in which they are
grown. The number of varieties that may thus be
grown will vary with the* conditions. Usually, how-
ever, it is difficult, under any conditions, to maintain
368 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
imdiminislied growth in each of a number of grasses,
comprising more than half a dozen varieties for a long
term of years.
Indigenous and Introduced Permanent Pastures. — •
These are composed of grasses, native to the country
or introduced, and in various combinations. Such, for
instance, is a permanent pasture, composed of Kentucky
blue grass, indigenous to Kentucky and certain of the
adjoining states, with orchard grass and white clover
added to the same; redtop, indigenous to the low-lying
lands of Minnesota, with timothy and alsike clover add-
ed; and western rye grass, indigenous to the American
and Canadian Northwest, with Russian brome added.
In growing permanent pastures, it should be the aim
to utilize valuable indigenous varieties to the greatest
extent practicable, since there can be no doubt about
the permanence of these.
Duration of Permanent Pastures. — Although the
name would imply, that these pastures shall be grown
indefinitely, the idea must not be pressed too far. Some
of them are, of necessity, permanent as, when growing
on the uncultivable range, or in arable areas, where
cultivation is not practicable, because of stones or rocks
in the land, or because of the hilly or broken character
of the land. Some of them are, practically, permanent
from choice, as when grown on land, pre-eminently
adapted to growing these. Such are some of the pas-
tures of England, more than a hundred years laid down.
Again, permanent pastures are of limited duration.
They are sown on ordinary lands and are composed of
a limited number of grasses, which in time so decrease
PERMANENT PASTURES. 369
in yield as to render it desirable to supplant them with
others, for which the ground has heen so prepared, that
they are likely to produce more abundantly than the
former, if left unbroken. Under arable conditions,
this form of permanent grazing is likely to be much
more extensively adopted than any other. The per-
manency of such pastures will be largely determined
by the degree of production.
GRASSES ADAPTED TO VARIOUS SOILS.
In laying down permanent pastures, due regard must
be had not only to climatic conditions but also to those
of soil. The mistake of trying to grow a grass on soil
uncongenial to it, is equally great with that of trying
to grow any kind of grain, under similar conditions.
It can only result in failure. Adaptation to soil con-
ditions with these grasses, grown in combination will
now be considered.
For Upland Pastures. — On ordinary soils, combina-
tions of grasses that will give the best results will vary
considerably with latitude and longitude. The best
single pasture for such a use in the northeastern states
and the eastern provinces of Canada, is Kentucky blue
grass; in the southeastern and southern states, Ber-
muda grass; in the region which has eastern Kansas
for its center, probably orchard grass ; in the American
and Canadian Northwest, Russian brome grass north-
ward and tall oat grass southward; and west of the
Cascades, small white clover or even the medium red
which has much permanency. In the locality first des-
ignated the best mixture on such uplands would include
370 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Kentucky blue grass, timothy, orchard grass, redtop.
meadow fescue, and tall oat grass, useful probably in
the order named. Whether Russian brome grass would
serve a good purpose in such pastures has not yet been
determined in practice. There are some grounds to
fear that it might be aggressive overmuch. The clovers
would include small white and, in some instances, the
medium red and alfalfa. In that designated secondly,
the principal grasses would include orchard grass, tall
oat grass, redtop and, in some instances, timothy or
blue grass. The clovers would include the small white.
Japan, buffalo and alfalfa, according to the locality.
In tha* named thirdly, orchard grass, tall oat grass and
meadow fescue, with white clover and alfalfa would
probably make the most suitable mixture. In that
named fourthly, would be Russian brome, western rye
and timothy and, in some instances, redtop. In that
named fifthly, would be Russian brome, tall oat and
meadow fescue. And in that named lastly, may be
included almost every valuable grass and clover grown
in the United States.
For Slough Lands. — The best single grass for mak-
.ing a permanent pasture in low lying lands in the
North, is probably Russian brome, with redtop as a
close second. In the Soutfi, redtop is deserving of first
place. The grasses that will figure most prominently
in mixtures in these places, include Russian brome,
redtop, fowl meadow, timothy, Kentucky blue and prob-
ably perennial rye and meadow foxtail. These are
named in the order of all round relative value, but the
comparative scarcity of the seed of fowl meadow grass
PERMANENT PASTURES. 371
may keep it from being given a prominent place in such
mixtures. In the South, the best yielding grasses in
such a mixture will include redtop and white clover
and probably perennial rye but in many parts of the
South, nearly all the grasses named may be used in
the mixture. West of the Cascades all may be in-
cluded.
For Sandy Lands. — To obtain permanent grasses,
that are suitable for sandy lands, furnishes a problem
that is not easily solved. The three best grasses for
the purpose are Eussian brome, Western rye and Ber-
muda grasses ; the clovers will include the Japan and
buffalo. For the South, there is no other clover that will
prove satisfactory on light sandy land, but in wet sea-
sons the small white may grow well ; alfalfa may also be
sometimes used. For the North and West, the best of
the three grasses named, viewed from the standpoint of
utility and permanence, is Russian brome. The dis-
tribution of Western rye has not been so well worked
out as that of Russian brome, hence its value for south-
ern conditions is not yet well understood. For such soils
in the South, Bermuda grass is without a peer. Its
adaptation for these is pre-eminent.
For Dry Areas. — The problem of furnishing suita-
ble permanent grasses for dry areas is even more diffi-
cult than that of furnishing the same for sandy soils
where the conditions may not be so dry. Of the really
valuable grasses grown under cultivation, Russian
brome is probably the best for the North and West and
Bermuda for the South. On dry hard clay soils, Cana-
dian blue grass grows with much tenacity. Southward,
372 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
velvet grass grows under dry conditions and the same
is true of Texas blue grass. Tall oat grass has also
served a good purpose in permanent pastures in dry
areas in the mountain bench lands. For arid plains,
the Australian saltbush has served a good purpose and
it may be that blue grama will be helpful on dry range
lands. The best clovers for dry areas are the Japan
and the buffalo, but under some conditions, alfalfa could
be grown in the mixture.
For Wet Soils. — For soils that are so wet that they
cannot be tilled at certain portions of the year, Rus-
sian brome, redtop and fowl meadow are probably the
three best grasses and next to these Kentucky blue.
There is perhaps no good pasture grass, that will stand
conditions of prolonging wetness in the soil better than
Russian brome ; redtop and fowl meadow are also good
but, of course, neither will endure wet beyond a certain
degree. In hot weather, watery saturation is more hurt-
ful than in cool weather. On lands that are springy in
character, blue grass makes good pasture, even when
the soil is thrown up in hummocks. For providing per-
manent pastures under irrigation, Russian brome, Ken-
tucky blue, red top, timothy, alsike clover and alfalfa
have high adaptation.
For Growing in Shade. — Orchard grass has long been
assigned the premier place for being grown in the shade
among the cultivated grasses of America. Russian
brome, however, has considerable adaptation for such
situations; whether this adaptation will equal that of
orchard grass has not been determined in America.
Tall oat grass will also grow fairly well in such situa-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 373
tions and the same is true of Kentucky blue. In the
IVoitl', a combination of orchard grass, Russian brome
and Kentucky blue would answer well in groves and
parks; and for the South, a combination of orchard,
tall oat and probably perennial rye.
For Growing in Marshes. — In marshes where water
stands much of the year, it is doubtful if any pasture
grasses can be introduced that will give a better return
than those which nature may have planted there. Wire
grass (Car ex vulpinoidea) is by far the most valuable
grass for such situations and it is not a pasture grass.
(See p. 295.) Blue joint (Calamagrostis canadensis)
will grow in situations that would be too wet for red-
top and makes good hay but the results from grazing it
on lands so wet as those congenial to its growth, would
probably prove hurtful to the future growth of the
GEASSES FOR THE STATES AND PROVINCES.
The grasses best suited for permanent pastures,
grown alone or in various combinations, as adapted to
groups of states within the union or to groups of prov-
inces in Canada will now be considered. The group-
ing of these will be the same, as in Chapter XV. which
discusses Temporary Pastures.
For the Northeastern States. — For the states and
provinces of this group see p. 342. The best perma-
nent pasture in all these states, spontaneous in char-
acter, is Kentucky blue grass and small white clover.
These grasses, especially where they have been once
grown, will soon take possession of grounds that have
374 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
been cultivated, to the exclusion of all or nearly all
other grasses and clovers, though they should not be
sown again. This follows on the condition that young
trees are not allowed to crowd them or overshadow them
by their shade; such a result will not follow, where
live stock graze through the season. These two grasses
would then take possession of the soil in two or three
years to the exclusion of the growth of trees; they will
likewise take possession of land from which timber has
been removed, when thus given a chance to grow. But
the transformation in both instances will be more rapid,
if seed is scattered in the early autumn or early spring,
even though it should not be harrowed. For this pur-
pose, it should seldom be necessary to sow more than
7 pounds of Kentucky blue grass and 3 pounds of
white clover per acre. The pastures, on broken and
rugged land in the states and provinces of this group,
will usually be composed of these two grasses. For
average soils in this group, if a limited number of grass-
es is chosen with a view to provide mixed pastures for
a more or less definite term of years, the following
would probably serve the purpose best:
Lbs. Per Acre.
Timothy 4
Orchard 4
Redtop 3
Russian brome 4
Medium red r 3
Mammoth 2
Total 20
If Russian brome is omitted, as its behavior in mixed
pastures under American cultivation is not yet well un-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 375
derStood, add one pound each, in lieu thereof, to the
timothy and red top and two pounds to the orchard
grass. The red clovers are sown in these as in all the
mixtures in which they are included to aid in furnishing
pasture the year following that in which the grasses are
sown, with the expectation that they will soon entirely
disappear. On certain soils, where alfalfa grows read-
ily it may he sown in lieu of mammoth clover, using
the same amount of seed per acre. Where the lands
are naturally dry, it may be well to substitute meadow
fescue for redtop, using the amount of seed named
as suitable for redtop. Kentucky blue grass and white
clover would be likely to come into the mixed pastures,
at all permanent in character, in two or three years,
in all or nearly all the states and provinces in the group
now being considered. Before many years, they would
probably be the leading factors in the same, hence it
is not usually necessary to sow them. The same is also
true of them in some of the other groups of states.
Where it is not, however, it may be advisable in some
instances to add a few pounds of blue grass seed and
a little white clover seed to the formulas given.
For low lying lands, naturally moist, but on which
water does not lie to any appreciable extent, the follow-
ing grasses would answer for mixed pastures of con-
siderable duration, but not laid down for an indefinite
period :
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 6
Redtop 6
Russian brome 5
Alsike clover 3
Total . ..20
376 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
When mixed pastures are to be laid down for a long
term of years, in these states and provinces, good, well-
prepared and naturally moist land should be chosen.
The following varieties may be used in the mixture and
all of them, it is thought, with some profit :
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 3
Orchard 3
Redtop 3
Meadow fescue 3
Tall oat 2
Meadow foxtail 2
Fowl meadow 2
Medium red clover 2
Mammoth clover 2
Alsike clover 2
Total 24
Those who do not care to hazard meadow foxtail and
fowl meadow, because of the difficulty of getting good
seed, could probably with certainty of success, sow 4-
pounds per acre of Russian brome instead. This grass
was not included in the formula for the reason, only
that experience in growing it in such mixtures in Amer-
ica, is as yet practically wanting.
On sandy lands in these states and provinces nothing
better probably can be sown for permanent pastures
than Russian brome, using 15 pounds of seed per acre,
and for stiff hard clays nothing would seem to serve the
purpose better than Canadian blue grass (Poa com-
pressa), sowing 12 pounds of seed per acre along with
3 or 4 pounds of medium red clover.
For the Southeastern States. — For the states includ-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 377
ed in this group, see p. 344. The hest permanent pas-
ture produced by a single grass in this group of states
will not be the same in all of these. In the uplands
of the Alleghanies, it will be Kentucky blue grass or
meadow fescue. In West Virginia, a large part of
Kentucky and a part of Tennessee, it will be Kentucky
blue grass. In all or nearly all, the territory in
areas designated, it will be Bermuda grass. But in
Eastern Texas and also some other localities, it may
be Texas blue grass. The behavior of Texas blue grass
and Bermuda grass, growing together, has not apparent-
ly been sufficiently tested to justify drawing conclu-
sions, as to the outcome; if these two would grow to-
gether, they would furnish permanent pasture, winter
and summer.
For permanent pastures of limited duration on aver-
age soils in these states, the following grasses will an-
swer for much of the area, but not equally well for all
of it:
Lbs. per Acre.
Orchard grass -5
Redtop 5
Meadow fescue 5
Tall 'oat grass 5
White clover 2
Japan clover 2
Total 24
Under some conditions, it may not be necessary to
sow the clovers named, as the seed may be in the soil
already; but in such instances it would seem advisable
to sow at least G pounds of each of the grasses named ;
2 pounds per acre of sheep's fescue may also improve
378 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the grazing. This mixture will not likely provide suf-
ficient pasture on poor soil to justify sowing it on the
same. Bermuda grass will serve the purpose better.
On bottom lands and alluvial soils, such as are found
in river basins, the same formula will answer but it
may prove helpful to add to it 2 pounds each per acre
of perennial rye grass and meadow foxtail.
For the Canadian Northwest. — For the provinces in-
cluded in this group, see p. 346. The best single per-
manent pasture grass for this entire area is Russian
brome. How long it may be grown on the same land
without decrease in the yield, has not yet been proved
but when renewed by suitable harrowing and ploughing
every few years (see p. 188) it would last for many
years.
The best mixture of grasses for permanent pastures at
the present time is the following:
Lbs. per Acre.
Russian brome 6
Western rye 6
Timothy 6
Total 18
In dry areas, it would probab]y be preferable to sow
only Russian brome as timothy will not do well in
these; where Russian brome is sown alone, it may be
renewed, as indicated above so as to make it perma-
nent. In some of the moister sections of the group
of provinces, it may be helpful to add a few pounds
cf redtop to the above formula and in others a few
pounds of Kentucky blue grass ; but it would not avail
to sow either, where the rainfall is light nor is it wise
PERMANENT PASTURES. 379
under such conditions to sow large quantities of seed,
as the moisture is not enough to sustain a dense sward.
In the irrigated districts toward the mountains, Rus-
sian brome grass, alone or with alsike and white clover,
would make excellent permanent pasture.
For the Upper Mississippi Basin. — For the states in
this group, see p. 347. In eastern Minnesota, all of
Wisconsin, much of Illinois, Missouri, and Iowa, the
best permanent pasture grass is Kentucky blue ; in east-
ern North and South Dakota and in a part of Nebraska,
Russian brome, and in Kansas and part of Missouri,
orchard grass and in some localities Russian brome.
In northeastern Minnesota ancT also in northern Wiscon-
sin, Kentucky blue grass and white clover make excel-
lent permanent pasture and in the same medium red
clover will endure for a term of years.
In the blue grass region of the area named north of
parallel 40 degrees, the following combination of grasses
may be expected to give good results:
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy ................................. 4
Redtop .................................. 6
Russian brome ........................... 4
Orchard grass ........................... 2
Meadow fescue ........................... 2
Tall oat grass ............................ 2
Medium red clover ........................ 2
Mammoth clover ......................... 2
Total
South of parallel 40 and also in the blue grass re-
gion, the above formula should be changed to that given
below
Grasses — 25.
*80 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 3
Redtop 3
Meadow fescue 4
Orchard grass 6
Russian brome 4
Tall oat grass 2
Medium red clover 3
Total 25
Where blue grass is not already plentiful in the soil,
it would be advisable to add 5 pounds of good pure
seed per acre to each of the above formulas. In some
instances, it may also be advisable to add one pound of
small white clover per aere.
For low humus soils north of parallel 40, the follow-
ing mixture should prove satisfactory :
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 6
Redtop 6
Russian brome 6
Orchard grass 2
Meadow fescue 2
Alsike clover 3
Total 25
For the same class of soils south of parallel 40, the
following formula is submitted:
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 3
Redtop G
Orchard grass 0
Meadow fescue 3
Russian brome 4
Tall oat grass 2
Alsike clover 2
Total . ,.26
PERMANENT PASTURES. 381
For average soils in eastern Kansas and the territory
adjacent, the following formula is submitted as being
at least approximately suitable:
Lbs. per Acre.
Redtop 4
Orchard grass 6
Meadow fescue 4
Russian brome 3
Tall oat grass 3
Medium red 2
Alfalfa 3
Total ' 25
For the eastern Dakotas, the mixture for permanent
pastures would be the same as for the Canadian North-
west, (See p. 378.)
For the Semi-Arid Belt. — For the states included in
this group, see p. 348. In that portion of these states
which cannot successfully be cultivated, it is problem-
atical if the range grasses, which now occupy the soil,
can be supplemented by others that will serve the pur-
pose better. But in such portions as may be culti-
vated, not including the foot-hills, the following mix-
ture should furnish such pastures from the northern
border of Oklahoma to the Canadian boundary and
east of the Rocky mountains :
Lbs. per Acre.
Russian brome 10
Western rye 10
Total 20
On the bench lands of the foot-hills, the mixture
would include the grasses now submitted:
$82 GRASSES AND. HOW TO GROW THEM.
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 4
Russian brome 6
Western rye 4
Alfalfa 4
Total 18
In the winter wheat growing area west of the Cas-
cades, which has Moscow, Idaho, for its center, the fol-
lowing, it is thought, are the best grasses to grow to-
gether :
Lbs. per Acre.
Russian brome 7
Meadow fescue 5
Tall oat 5
Alfalfa 3
Total 20
It is questionable if these grasses will stand grazing
indefinitely without renewal where the precipitation is
so light as in the area now being considered.
For the Irrigated Western Valleys. — In the absence
of experience, it would not be possible to state which
grass or combination of grasses would prove most sat-
isfactory in providing .permanent grazing on the irri-
gated lands of mountain states. The most productive
single plant is alfalfa, but it can be grazed safely by
horses, mules and swine, when grown alone. A limited
amount, however, can be grown with other grasses,
without incurring much hazard to cattle and sheep, also
while being grazed. The various clovers assume more
of permanency in their habit of growth in such situ-
ations; hence it' would be possible to grow grazing for a
number of years from medium red clover but the same
PERMANENT PASTURES. 383
objection, though in a less 'degree, would apply to the
grazing of these alone, that applies to the grazing of
alfalfa. 'No single grass probably would furnish as
much grazing especially in the more northerly of these
valleys, as Russian brome grown under irrigation, but
timothy and indeed all the leading grasses should suc-
ceed well.
The following mixture should give good results:
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 6
Russian brome 5
Meadow fescue 5
Tall oat 3
Alsike clover 3
Alfalfa 2
Total 24
A good permanent pasture could also be grown from
the following simple formula :
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy 12
Alsike clover 3
Alfalfa 3
Small white 2
Total 20
For Areas West of Cascades. — For the area comprised
in this region, see p. 351. Several grasses, possessed
of much permanence, may be grown alone for grazing
on these Pacific slopes and in the tide lands beside the
sea. These include timothy, orchard grass and alsike
clover; timothy and alsike clover may be grown al-
most indefinitely on river bottoms and tide lands, but
medium red clover would distribute the grazing more
384 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
evenly. The formula for sowing would be at least
approximately :
I.bs. per Acre.
Timothy ................ . ................ 10
Medium red .............................. 5
Alsike ................................... 3
Total ................................ 18
To provide grazing of the most permanent character
rhe following mixture is submitted:
Lbs. per Acre.
Timothy ................................. 6
Orchard ................................. 3
Meadow fescue ........................... 3
Tall oat ................................. 2
Meadow foxtail .......................... 2
Sheep's fescue ........................... 2
Medium red .............................. 3
Alsike ................................... 3
Total
Small white clover may be expected to come into
any permanent pasture in this region, though not sown,
and in some sections also Kentucky blue grass.
MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS ON PERMANENT PASTURES.
Because of the permanency of the pastures, that are
now being considered, it is highly important that when
these are laid down, the work shall be done in a way,
that will most effectively secure the object sought.
Questions which appertain to the laying down of these
pastures and to their proper maintenance will now be
discussed.
PERMANENT PASTURES. 385
Solving Permanent Pastures. — Much that has been
said in Chapter XV., with reference to the sowing of
temporary pastures, will also apply to the growing of
permanent pastures. See p. 353. Since the latter, how-
ever, are to continue for years it is of far more im-
portance relatively, that a good stand of the plants
shall be secured. To insure the same, every care should
be taken in the preparation of the land, in the sowing
of the seed and in the care of the pastures, until well
established.
Grasses for permanent pastures should be sown on
land that is at least reasonably clean, in a good condi-
tion of tilth and well supplied with plant food. To
secure the requisite cleanness, they should either come
after the bare fallow or after a cultivated crop to which
clean cultivation has been given. When sown in the
autumn, they should, as a rule, be sown on summer
fallowed land. When the work of preparation has
been well done, the land will, unless in exceptional in-
stances, be in an excellent condition of preparation for
receiving the seed. If a crop of clover is ploughed un-
der in the spring and the land subsequently summer
fallowed by working it only on the top, the grass plants
sown subsequently in the autumn should start with
much vigor.
When sown in the spring, it may also in some in-
stances be wise to summer fallow the land the pre-
vious season, and to bury at least one crop, as for in-
stance peas, to supply the land with the necessary hu-
mus and plant food. In other instances, it will an-
swer to sow the seed after one crop of corn well cared
386 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
for has been grown on the land or, what would proba-
bly be better, after two crops have been grown in suc-
cession on the same. If these pastures are not laid
down on clean land, their subsequent value will be great-
ly lessened and the labor of caring for them will be
greatly increased. There may also be instances when
these grasses may be made to follow a crop of Canada
field peas or of cow peas, the latter having been culti-
vated while growing. One objection to sowing the
crop on corn land is found in the corn roots which in-
terfere somewhat with the proper covering of the seed.
It is a great mistake to sow grasses for permanent
pastures on land low in fertility. They will not start
vigorously on such land and no subsequent fertilizing
will secure as good growth in the plants as -if they had
been given a good start at the first. If farm yard ma-
nure is used as a fertilizer, it should be applied a year
in advance, unless it is known to possess but few weed
seeds. Fertility, applied by ploughing in^a nitrogen
gathering crop is usually very effective in promoting
growth in the young grasses, since these in addition
to supplying plant food act favorably on the mechan-
ical and chemical condition of the land, but where it
is necessary commercial fertilizers may be applied.
Those of course should be used such as the weeds of
the land require in each particular locality and they
ought to be incorporated with the soil near the surface
a short time before the seed is sown or applied when it
is sown or subsequently. As a rule, the phosphoric acid
and potash are applied previous to or at the time of
sowing the seed, and the nitrogen a little later ; but they
PERMANENT PASTURES. 387
should be used in quantities sufficient to secure good
growth in the young grass plants.
The soil should be well and deeply stirred. In some
instances, subsoiling will be helpful and in others it
is not necessary. It should be the aim to have some
time elapse between the last ploughing given to the land
and the sowing of the seed and to stir frequently in
the interval with harrow or cultivator to secure a clean
seed bed. After Canada field peas, cow peas or corn,
potatoes or other root crops it is usually preferable to
use such implements in preparing the land as stir the
soil on and below the surface but which do not over-
turn it; it is greatly important to have the seed bed,
fine, firm and moist when the seed is sown.
Usually, autumn sowing will be preferable; this is
true of the South and, in many instances, of the North,
though not of all. In the South, they should be sown
as soon as the rains of fall come ; in the North, if sown
in the autumn, it should, if possible, be not later than
August that the plants may have time to make a good
growth before winter. Advantage should be taken of
the moisture brought to the soil by rain, when sowing
the seed. When sown in the spring, in the North, the
work should be done as early as the ground is suitable
for being worked. In the semi-arid country, the seed
should be sown in the early spring or preferably in the
late autumn.
The seed may be sown by hand, after all the kinds
selected have first been mixed; but when this is sown
the work should be done by an expert as it is very
necessary that the seed should be evenly distributed.
388 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
When sown by hand, the plan of sowing half the seed
when first going over the land and then crossing it
when sowing the other half is quite certain to secure
a more even distribution of seeds that differ in weight
than by sowing them all at one cast. When sown with
a hand seeder, now in use, which is wheeled over the
ground, a more even distribution of the seed will be
secured. It may be necessary, in some instances, to s^w
the coarser seeds together and then to go over the land
a second time sowing those that are finer. This may
be necessary because the small and large seeds are not
likely to feed out evenly, when sown all at once; the
opportunity is thus also furnished for running the har-
row over the land after the first distribution of seed
has been made in order to cover the seeds more deeply.
In all or nearly all instances, some covering with the
harrow is necessary ; whether the roller- should follow
will depend upon soil and climatic conditions. There
may be instances in which the seeds may be sown with
the grain drill as when only one or two varieties are
sown which require a fairly deep covering.
Usually these grasses are not sown with a nurse crop.
Whether a crop shall be obtained from the ground,
the season that grasses are sown, is not greatly im-
portant relatively ; the great matter is to secure a good,
vigorous and uniform stand of the grasses. When
not sown with a nurse crop, the mower should be run
over the ground as often as necessary to prevent the
weeds and stronger plants from producing undue shade.
Close attention should be given to the matter and it
should be done frequently enough to make it unnec-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 389
ccssary to remove any of the weeds or grass so cut from
the land. If a nurse crop is sown and in some in-
stances, it may be an advantage to have it very thinly
sown and always cut for hay. Such a crop may be
helpful in preserving lands from drifting or in pro-
tecting the fall sown grasses in the winter.
Grazing Permanent Pastures. — Uniformity in the
method of grazing permanent pastures and in the man-
agement of the same cannot be practiced. Where the
conditions are not the same, the general treatment of
pastures will not be the same. Wherever they are,
the aim should be to keep them clean and productive and
so to manage them that the survival of all the plants
sown shall be encouraged.
Usually, it is not considered good practice to graze
permanent pastures the same year that they are sown
but to this there may be some exceptions, as on soils
lacking in firmness and where the rainfall is not plenti-
ful. Close grazing, especially the first season, has the
effect of hindering development in root growth the
vigor of which is encouraged by growth in the top.
The plan of mowing and leaving what is cut to mulch
the soil is much better. When the seed is sown in
the spring, the pasture should be ready for grazing the
next season, but when it is sown in the fall it should
furnish moderate grazing the following year; care
should be taken not to graze it off too early in the
spring. The second year these pastures should not be
cut for hay as the development of the crop would tend
to smother the weaker grasses.
The closeness of the grazing, that may be allowed
390 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
without injuring the grass, is much influenced by soil
and climate. The more moist the climate and the more
temperate, the closer may he the grazing. Close graz-
ing where the summer heat is prolonged hinders growth
through the escape of moisture ; and in the autumn in
stern climates, it weakens the vitality of the plants
by exposing them too much in the winter. On the
other hand, insufficient grazing would result in por-
tions of the pasture remaining uneaten, until the grasses
had produced stems and formed heads, after which
they are not relished. When this does happen, the
mower should be used as soon as the heads appear and,
where these portions of the pasture are at all consid-
erable, should be made into hay. Where the patches
are small, if they can be cut from time to time the
stock will likely consume much of it in the wilted form.
In dry areas where the soils are loose, close grazing
should be avoided and at no time should permanent
pastures be grazed when so wet that the danger of
poaching is present. The close grazing of Bermuda
grass .tends to keep out weeds which might overshadow
the grass and is, so far, to be commended but not be-
fore the pasture hasi>ecome well established.
On the whole the practice of grazing different classes
of animals simultaneously on the same pastures, is to
be commended, viewed from the standpoint of the in-
fluence which" it exerts on the pastures. The tastes of
these are different ; hence, the pastures are likely to
be more uniformly eaten. Where for good reasons
which may exist, it is not prudent to graze them, thus,
PERMANENT PASTURES. 391
the plan of grazing them in succession will also tend
to secure more of uniformity in the grazing.
While the practice of mulching permanent pastures
with dressings of farm yard manure is not a good one,
unless the manure is so fermented that the weed seeds
in it are, in the main, destroyed, that of feeding soil-
ing food on these pastures is beneficial where the work
is judiciously done. The food thus fed should be
strewn on fresh ground every time that it is fed until
the pasture is gone over with a view to secure an even
distribution in the droppings of the animals.
Every care should be exercised to keep weeds out of
permanent pastures. This is best prevented by prop-
erly cleaning the soil before laying them down. Some
forms of noxious weed life will gradually disappear
as the grass plants take possession of the soil. This
is true of nearly all kinds of annuals and of many bi-
ennials. It is different with many perennials especially
those which multiply chiefly from underground stems;
among the most persistent growers in these pastures are
the oxeye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare), the Canadian
ihistle (Cirsium arvense) and iron weed (Vernonia no-
veboracensis). On stiff clays Canada thistles will ulti-
mately disappear where the grazing is close and con-
tinued for successive years, but on the other soils they
will rather increase; oxeye daisies are also likely to
increase. The same is true of ironweed and some other
weeds unless cut by the mower, at least once a year,
and grazed closely with sheep early in the season. If
annuals and biennials are not allowed to blossom in
such pastures, they will soon disappear. When peren-
392 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
nials are not too plentiful, they may be removed by
cutting them with the spud when practicable below th«-
surface of the ground, with sufficient frequency, to ac-
complish the end sought in a single season. Where they
are too numerous to be thus dealt with, there is no
other way but to tolerate their presence until the pas
ture is broken; but where a proper use is made of the
mower, the scythe and the spud, noxious weeds will
be, at least, reduced in permanent pastures, if not en-
tirely removed. Those who may desire to get more-
information \vith reference to destroying weeds are re-
ferred to the book, "Weeds and How to Eradicate
Them," written by the author in 1803.
Fertilizing and Renewing. — The necessity for having
the soil in a good condition as to fertility when perma-
nent pastures are laid down has been dwelt upon ( see-
page 392). When the land has been thus enriched, usu-
ally no further fertilization is necessary for a few
years — how many can only be determined by the needs
of the land. But it is evident that no soil can furnish
grazing indefinitely, especially for cattle without more
or less of depletion in fertility because of the flesh,
bone and milk product sold. The necessity for fertiliz-
ing the pastures, therefore, will always exist, and the
production from the same will be measurably propor-
tionate to the extent of the enrichment. Inattention
to this essential in the management of permanent pas-
tures furnishes one reason why they are not more
in favor with the American farmer.
Usually commercial fertilizers are preferred for such
manuring but farm yard manure, if it could be ob-
PERMANENT PASTURES. 393
tained practically free from weed seeds would be great-
ly serviceable for such dressings. Muck from swamps
and peat from bogs, when the latter is sufficiently de-
cayed are also helpful on certain soils; the same is
true of the material from compost heaps, of marls, lime
and gypsum. When applying these dressings, the cost
of the labor and the distance to which they need to be
drawn must be carefully considered. Light dressings
and frequent are to be preferred to heavy and infre-
quent dressings, as in the former instances there is less
loss through fertility being carried away by excess of
water.
After the pastures are laid down, commercial fer-
tilizers can of course be only applied on the surface.
By whatever name these may be known in the market
the important food elements in them for the grasses are
not morfi than three, viz., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash. The first is more commonly applied in the
form of nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or flesh
meal from slaughter houses and it is helpful in promot-
ing growth in grasses and clovers. The second is used
in such forms as ground bone, ground rock containing
phosphates and basic slag and is especially helpful to
the grasses. The third is used in such forms as muri-
ate and sulphate of potash, kainit and wood ashes, and,
although quite helpful to both grasses and clovers, it
tends more to stimulate growth in the latter.
Whether one or two or all three of these shall be
applied as top dressings; the quantities of each that
shall be used and the frequency of the dressings must
be determined by the needs of the soil. In some in-
394 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
stances, only one is needed; in others, two; in yet oth-
ers, all three. Dressings that are suitable for Con-
necticut soils may not be suitable for those of Caro-
lina; and dressings that may be suitable for soil in
one field may not be suitable for soil which is different
in an adjoining field or in the same field. The farmer,
therefore, who does not know the precise needs of his
land should experiment upon small areas, until be ascer-
tains which fertilizers and how much it will pay him to
apply.
Usually not more than 100 to 200 pounds of nitro-
gen fertilizer is used per acre during one year. Two
separate dressings of 50 to 100 pounds each are pre-
ferred to one dressing of 100 to 200 pounds; the first
being given soon after growth begins and the second,
during some moist season in the summer. When ap-
plied in a very dry time the food in the fertilizer does
not reach the plants until rain comes and when ap-
plied at a time of too much moisture, or when growth
is stagnant, the plant food may too soon leech out of
the soil. Finely ground bone or phosphatie rock is
a favorite dressing for grass pastures in the unreduced
or reduced form. In the latter form, they act more
quickly but for a period less prolonged. The dress-
ings are usually applied in the early spring. They
seldom exceed 200 pounds per acre and frequently not
more than half that quantity is used. Potash is also
applied in the spring and in some instances the har-
row follows the application, as in the case of phos-
phoric acid. Wood ashes are commonly applied at the
rate of about 50 bushels per acre in the unleeched form
PERMANENT PASTURES. 395
and 200 bushels when leeched. Nitrogen is sometimes
applied every year, since its effects are not abiding,
but phosphoric acid and potash, being of slower action
are not usually applied every year. Attention is called'
to the importance of noting carefully the percentage of
plant food, as given by reliable analysis in the various
fertilizers purchased; this, of course, has an important
bearing on their value.
Transforming Brush Lands. — On many parts of the
continent are what are termed "brush lands." These
are covered more or less with bushes such as witch
hazel and willow to the extent of preventing the growth
of grasses. These areas are more frequent on the bor-
ders of prairie land and on some kinds of prairie. In
other instances, the forest has been cut away and a
dense growth of underwood in the brush stage, or a
little larger than brush, is taking possession of the
land. In yet other instances, fire has but recently
passed through the forest, killing the standing timber
and consuming much of the debris which covers the
earth; and a thicket of young trees is again covering
the ground. The largest areas of these lands are found
in the northern states, and the question of transform-
ing them into pastures, without clearing the land en-
tirely by hand labor, is one of considerable importance.
The method of doing this work would be, in outline, as
follows :
Introduce goats to browse upon the brush; the An-
gora variety or their grades are to be preferred because
of the relative value of the mohair. The goats will do
their work more quickly and more effectively, if con-
Grasses — 26.
396 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
fined by suitable fencing to a limited area, as much
as they will clean up in one or two successive years.
If some of the young trees are so large that the goats
cannot reach the browse, it may be necessary to fell
them with the axe, leaving the trimming to the goats.
At the end of the first year, in the late fall or early
spring, grass seeds should be scattered over the land;
these, of course, cannot be harrowed. Nevertheless,
they will usually germinate on such land, except where
the moisture is too much lacking which is sometimes
the case amid the eastern ranges of the Rocky moun-
tains.
From what has been said with reference to grasses
adapted to various parts of the continent (see pp. 373-
384), the varieties best suited to the several localities
may be ascertained. To simplify the matter, it would be
correct to say, that where it is desired to remove the
trees and bushes entirely, the following formulas would
answer for nearly all areas in the North and South
respectively :
For the North — Lbs. per Acre,
Timothy 5
Kentucky blue 5
Medium red clover 3
Alsike clover 1
Small white clover 1
Total 15
For the South-
Meadow fescue 3
Tall oat 2
Perennial rye 3
Orchard 3
Japan clover 3
Small white 1
Total 15
PERMANENT PASTURES. 397
In the South, the autumn months would be more suit-
able for sowing the seed. In the North, the hazard of
losing the seed, through dry weather, would be lessened
by sowing half the quantity one season, and the other
half the following season ; but such hazard to seed sown
on new land is not very great.
At the end of the first season or the second, accord-
ing to the extent to which the brush has been destroyed,
sheep should be introduced and the goats moved on to
fresh feeding grounds, as browse, with some grass, re
the natural food of the goats, and grass is the natural
food of the sheep. The latter will also prevent the
bushes and young trees from regaining a foothold on
such pastures and will so crop down weeds that the
grasses sown will before very long make clean and ex-
cellent pasture.
When grasses are sown thus on areas of "slashed
over" forest lands, which have been run over by fire, or
amid the standing and fallen dead timber of the fire
swept forests yet uncut, the germination is so sure
and the growth so rapid that these may be readily trans-
formed into pastures, by simply sowing the seed and
introducing live stock to graze upon the land. In
clearing timber lands, if they are thus laid down to
grass, they at once become productive and will continue
so until broken with the plough, and without the neces-
sity of applying fertilizers for several years at least.
Meantime the stumps, if of the hardwood, will in time
decay and leave the land ready for the plough without
entailing any considerable labor in their removal. This
398 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
method of clearing land is one of the simplest and
least expensive that can be adopted.
When it is desired to transform forests into pas-
tures of the park or grove order, the method of so
changing them will, to some extent, depend upon the
growth of trees present. When all the trees are large,
change can be made, with less hazard to the trees that
are left, by gradually cutting down and removing such
as are not to remain, and by scattering the seeds of
such grasses as will grow in shade in the openings.
(See p. 372.) Meantime grazing should begin to keep
down weeds and second growth of trees. Fire should
not be introduced to consume the debris, unless care-
fully guarded from injuring the trees that are to re-
main. When the forest is of trees of relatively small
growth and thick with brush, goats may be introduced
to kill the brush as described above (see p. 395) be-
fore grass seeds are sown. But they may also bark
some trees, which it may be desirable to retain. If
fire is allowed to run over the ground in the early
spring, to consume the fallen leaves before the grasses
are sown, the stand of these will be made much more
certain.
Transforming Native Prairie Pastures. — In certain
areas, it may be desirable to transform native prairie
pastures into those composed of grasses, that will pro-
vide more pasture than is furnished by the former, and
without breaking the land with the plough or other im-
plement of tillage. There are localities where- such
transformation can be more surely made when imple-
ments for stirring the ground are not used than where
PERMANENT PASTURES. 399
they are. In these, the soils are light and the normal
precipitation is also light. Such areas are sometimes
found along the eastern border of the semi-arid belt
and probably also in other localities.
Such transformation may be made by sowing the
seed of the grasses desired in the early spring. Close
pasturing should follow. Where this cannot be done
the mower should be used once or twice to remove
shade ; where neither is done the seed sown will almost
certainly be thrown away.
The best grasses to sow in areas where they will
grow are blue grass and small white clover; timothy
and the red -clovers may sometimes be sown on upland
prairie, alsike clover being added in low lands. There
is much less hazard in sowing a few pounds of seed
per acre, two or even three years in succession, than in
sowing all the seed in one year.
Permanent Grasses for Shifting Lands. — Some soils
are of such a character, • that when cultivated for any
considerable time; more or less of the soil is carried
down to lower levels and, in some instances, much of
It is carried quite away, in solution in the water, that
runs over the surface of the land. Gullies are formed
with more or less frequency and of ever increasing
size. These seriously interfere with the tilling of the
land and with crop production ; they are at all times
most unsightly. The best of the soil is thus carried
down to the lower lands or washed away entirely. To
so great an extent has this eroding process been al-
lowed, especially in some parts of the South, that the
further cultivation of the soil has been abandoned.
400 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Prominent among the influences that favor such ero-
sions are: 1. Unevenncss in the surface of the land.
The steeper the descent, the more easily does the soif
moved downward. 2. The sandy character of the soil.
The finer the sand, the more easily does it move. 3.
The frequency and violence of the precipitation. Areas,
where violent thunder storms occur or occasional cloud-
bursts, are much liable to suffer from erosion. 4. Lack
of porosity in the subsoil which prevents the quick de-
scent of water in the soil, and the nearer the hard sub-
soil comes to the surface, the greater is the loss of sur-
face soil. 5. Lack of vegetable matter in the soil. The
less of this in the soil, the less the water which it ab-
sorbs and the less is the obstruction to the removal of
soil particles.
Important among the counteracting and preventive
influences are the following: 1. Ploughing deeply so
that the absorptive power of the ground will be in-
creased. 2. Making parallel surface drains at such dis-
tances as may be deemed proper along the sides of hills
to arrest and carry descending water along rather than
down the hill. 3. Constructing underdrains down the
depressions laid not far from the surface and of con-
siderable capacity to aid in carrying away the water.
4. Laying such lands down to permanent pasture and
maintaining them as such. 5. Planting them with for-
est trees. Where such lands are not to be planted to
forest, the aim should be to keep them in permanent
pasture.
The best grasses for such pasture in the Northwest
is Russian brome ; in the North, a mixture of Kentucky
PERMANENT PASTURES. 401
blue and white clover ; and in the South, Bermuda; Be-
fore these are sown on gullied lands, the aim should
be to fill them by llie aid of the plough and scraper;
then to fertilize them before sowing the seed. Some
nurse crop, as rye, may be helpful in holding the soil
until the grasses get started. On steep side hills, it
may prove advantageous to strew litter or straw thinly
over the newly sown land.
Gullies may frequently be prevented from washing
deeper by perseveringly throwing in them rubbish, such
as brush and cornstalks, for a time, to arrest the silt
and then by sowing in them, and along the sides such
soil-binding grasses as Russian brome in the North,
and Bermuda in the South. The tendency in these
will be to further arrest silt and to grow up through it,
thus raising the land in the ditch gradually to a higher
level.
Renewing. — When permanent pastures form a good
even sod, made up of a number of grasses, it is ques-
tionable if it should be disturbed with the plough. or
disk, especially in moist climates. Renewal, in such
instances, should rather be attempted through fertiliz-
ation. It may be advantageous sometimes to stir the
surface of blue grass pastures with the disk and to
add some seed of one, two or three varieties of clover.
The best time probably for doing this work, especially
on prairie soils, is the early spring, just when the frost
has come out far enough to admit of cutting down to
the required depth with the disks. When disked one
way, it may be profitable, in many instances, to disk
both ways, driving at an angle the second time. A few
402 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
pounds of clover seeds should then be scattered over
the land, and of one or more grasses, if desired. The
ground is then smoothed down with the harrow. On
some soils, it may be helpful to partly smooth the
ground, before sowing the seed. The grazing may go
on without interruption.
Reference has been made to the renewing of Russian
brome (see p. 188), of Quack grass (see p. 242) and
of Johnson grass (see p. 257), by using the plough and
harrow. Bermuda grass may also be renewed (see p.
128). Some advocate renewal by simply using the or-
dinary harrow. To use it thus is of questionable ad-
vantage, the impression made on old sod is so slight.
In some instances on light soils or on good soils un-
derlaid with gravel, the grasses fail in certain parts
from drought or from excessive pasturing. The rem-
edy is to disk the ground where the pastures have failed,
and to sow seed again along with rye or other grain.
Here also, the pasturing may go on as usual, if the seed
has been plentifully sown.
CHAPTER XVII.
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY.
The hay crop in the United States for 1899, as re-
ported by the United States Census, taken in 1900, was
as follows :
Tame and Cultivated grasses 30,605,316 tons
Wild, Salt, Prairie grasses 13,904,206 "
Alfalfa 6,222,568 '
Millet and Hungarian grasses 4,223,500
Clover 4,133,409 vl
Grains cut green for hay 3,262,957 "
The above enumeration does not include what is
designated as forage crops sown for forage and corn
stalks, and is submitted to indicate the relative eco-
nomic importance of the different classes of plants, as
grouped for the production of hay, at the time when
the census was taken. From this table, the great rela-
tive importance of the tame and cultivated grasses, as
factors in producing hay, will be at once apparent ;
and it may be expected to increase relatively rather than
decrease, since the source of supply for wild hay will
gradually decrease until it will ultimately almost dis-
appear. The grains cut green for hay and the mil-
lets which are annuals, also furnish a relatively large
amount of the hay used, the sum total being 7,396,366
tons. In 1899, each of the following states produced
more hay from grains cut green than they produced of
404 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
cultivated hay, viz., Arizona, Arkansas, California, In-
dian Territory, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico,
Oklahoma and South Dakota, hence the relative impor-
tance of knowing how to grow these in the best form and
in the best combinations.
Since in Chapter XV. the grasses and other plants
grown for pasture and temporary meadow are dis-
cussed together, in the present chapter only the grass-
es will be discussed in their relation to providing hay
from permanent meadows and other plants from which
hay is made in relation to hay producing only. Not-
withstanding the importance of the latter as a source
of supply to the farmers of the South and West, they
will be discussed briefly, as the author purposes to treat
of these more fully in a subsequent work dealing with
cereals.
In the following discussion, it may happen in some
instances, larger quantities of seed may be named, as
suitable for sowing in permanent meadows, than have
previously been named for temporary meadows ; since
it is more important in the latter to secure a good
stand of the seeds. It is also important, when laying
down such meadows that, when grasses are sown in
combinations, a careful regard must be had to sowing
those together which mature about the same time.
HAY CROPS FOR STATES AA'D PROVINCES.
In order the more intelligently to discuss this ques-
tion, the states and the provinces will be divided into
groups. The divisions will be the same as those adopt-
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 405
ed in Chapters XV. and XVI., when discussing Pas
tures, Temporary and Permanent.
For the Northeastern, tilaies.— For the states inc'lud-
ed in this group, see p. 342, and for grasses for tem-
porary meadows, see p. 343. The best plant for up-
land soils and also for river bottoms, where it will grow
in this group of states and provinces, is alfalfa. On
the upland, it will succeed best on good soils, well en-
riched and underlaid with clay, not too dense to be
penetrated by the roots. The seed should be sown in
the spring about the end of the grain growing season,
by hand or with such machines as will do the work prop-
erly. It is preferably sown alone but may be sown
with various nurse crops and at the rate of 15 to 20
pounds of seed per acre. This subject is further dis-
cussed in "Clovers and How to Grow Them" by the
author. The best permanent hay grass for soils inclin-
ing to light, is Russian brorne, sown at the rate of 20
pounds per acre (see p. 181). The best grasses for
permanent meadows on productive upland soils are tim-
othy and redtop, sown at the rate of 6 pounds of the
former and G or 7 of the latter. The best average per-
manent meadow grasses, sown in combination for low-
lands are timothy, redtop and alsike clover, sown at the
rate of 4, 4 and 3 pounds, respectively, per acre. On
some low lands, fowl meadow makes excellent perma-
nent meadow, and possibly also meadow foxtail.
Annuals grown for hay in this group are crimson
clover, the various kinds of millet, oats, peas and vetch-
es; crimson clover and the millets ars usually sown
alone; oats are also frequently sown thus, but often also
406 GRASSES AND HOW TO GLIOW THEM.
in conjunction with the Canada field pea or vetches or
both combined.
Crimson clover is sown on prepared land in August
and September, using 15 pounds of seed per acre. It
is only adapted to the more southerly of the states of
this group. It is usually ready for harvesting in May.
For further facts, the reader is referred to the book,
"Clovers and How to Grow Them,'7 by the author.
Of the four classes of millets, viz., Foxtail, Barnyard,
Broomcorn and Pearl, the first named is the best for hay
production in this group; the varieties known respec-
tively as Hungarian and German are especially suitable.
These are sown preferably on clean land in the late
spring, subsequent to the corn planting season and on
through June. They require fro*n 60 to 75 days to
reach the proper stage for cutting. From 2 to 4 pecks
of seed per acre are sown, according to the firmness of
the hay wanted. It is sown by hand or with the grain
drill, and when sown by hand it is covered with the aid
of the harrow and roller. When sown with the drill,
the seed should be buried from 1 to 2 inches only, the
soil being right as to moisture. The sowing of millets
is further discussed in "Soiling Crops and the Silo/7 by
the author.
The oats are sown alone to a very considerable ex-
tent, to provide hay, more especially for dairy cows.
They are sown in the ovdinary way, in the spring as
soon as the land is ready, whether sown alone or with
peas or vetches or both. From 2^ to 3 bushels of seed
should be sown per acre, using at least 25 per cent
more seed than to grow a crop of grain, in order
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 407
to insure greater fineness in the hay. When sown
with peas or vetches, ahout 1| bushels of each per acre
will suffice, when sown with both peas and vetches, 5
pecks of oats, 3 of peas and 3 of vetches will probably
suffice. The aim should be to sow as much of peas or
vetches in the mixture as are likely to be sustained by
the oats, as these furnish not only the more valuable
hay plants, but also the more palatable. This can only
be determined by experience in growing them.
For the Southeastern States. — Eor the states included
in this group, see p. 344, and for grasses for temporary
meadows, see p. 344. The best permanent meadow
plant, on average soils, in this group is Bermuda grass
and on low lands, Johnson grass. The former of these
is discussed in Chapter V and the latter in Chapter
XII, p. 248. The most valuable grasses for permanent
meadows, sown in combination, on the better class of
upland soils, are orchard, redtop, tall oat and meadow
fescue. Of these, orchard and tall oat go best together,
since they mature about the same time; likewise red-
top and meadow fescue; of the two first, 28 and 12
pounds respectively should be sown per acre, and of the
two last, 10 and 18 pounds respectively. The perma-
nency of these has its limits as in time they will fail.
In ^certain areas, more especially on bottom lands suffi-
ciently drained, and also on certain upland soils on an
open clay foundation, alfalfa makes good permanent
meadow. As stated above, from 15 to 20 pounds of seed
are sown per acre, but in these states the crop is prefer-
ably sown in the fall. This, at least, will hold good
in many localities.
408 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Among the best annuals grown for hay are crimson
clover, usually grown alone, winter oats, winter barley
or winter rye, grown alone or in combination with the
sand vetch, cow pea and soy bean ; on the best class of
soils, millets of the Foxtail and Barnyard varieties.
These grain crops are more important relatively in fur-
nishing hay to southern farmers, than grain crops arc-
to farmers in the North, owing to the greater abundance
of other hay crops in the Xorth. Crimson clover is
grown as described above (see p. 406), but may be sown
later and cut earlier ; of the small winter cereals men-
tioned, oats is by far the most valuable for hay. Rye
is more hardy and yields well but is lacking in palatabil-
ity. It may be wise, however, in some instances, to
sow it with the sand vetch in order to sustain the lat-
ter. These small cereal grains should be sown in the
autumn, as soon as the fall rains come, using not less
than 2 bushels of seed to the acre, when sown alone, and
in many instances they will also furnish grazing for thci
winter and later will grow up into hay ; when winter
oats are sown with the sand vetch, use 1 bushel of the
seed of each per acre and, in some cases, less of the seed
of the vetches; when winter rye is used instead of oats,
sow -J bushel of rye and 1£ bushels of the vetch ; enough
rye only is wanted to sustain the vetch. Cow peas are
sown subsequently to the corn planting season and are
usually sown with the grain drill. When sown for hay
all the tubes or every other tub:* is open, or only as
many open as will suffice to make room for properly
cultivating the crop. The amount of seed varies from
2 bushels per acre to 2 pecks, according to the soil, the
o
3
H H
n> r
i p
c«
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 409
variety and the object sought. The variety sown would
also be adapted to the needs of the locality. When the
crop is not cultivated, the harrow should be used on
it with more or less freedom, in the early stages of
growth. What has been said about the sowing of cow
peas will equally apply to soy beans, grown for hay.
Millets can only be sown upon the better class of soils.
Their relative importance in furnishing hay in this
group is not so high as in some other groups, owing in
a large measure to soil conditions. Sorghum is best
sown just at the close of the corn planting season on
well prepared and fertilized land. From 1 to 2 bushels
of seed are drilled in with the grain drill in order to
make the growth fine. The crop may be cut twice for
hay. The chief objection to it is that it is difficult to
cure for hay, nor is it relished so much by stock, as when
grown" as fodder and fed when more mature. In sev-
eral of the southern states, however, it is much grown
for hay ; considerable crab grass is also grown for hay
(see p. 262).
For the Canadian Northwest. — For the states and
provinces included in this group, see p. 346, and for
grasses for temporary meadows, see p. 346. The best
grass for permanent meadows in this area generally is
Russian brome. Next to it, especially in dry areas, is
western rye, and, in areas more moist, timothy. These
are best sown for permanent meadow in the late sum-
mer and on summer-fallowed land but may also be sown
in the spring or in the quite late autumn on clean land.
When sown early in the spring, it may be with a nurse
crop, thinly sowi and cut for hay at the heading out
Grasses— 27.
410 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
stage. When Russian brome arid timothy are sown, use
10 and 6 pounds of seed respectively; when Russian
brome and rye grass are sown, use 9 and 10 pounds
respectively. For methods of sowing, see p. 179.
The best grain crops for hay alone or oats and Cana-
da field peas, and probably oats and vetches, especial-
ly northward as indicated by the abundance of wild
peas growing in northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.
Oats and peas may be sown with the drill in the mixed
form, using about -J bushel of oats to about 2 bushels
of peas and about -J bushel of oats to 1J bushels of
vetches per acre. The proportion may need to be va-
ried somewhat in different areas to meet requirements.
They should be sown on fall ploughed land and early
in the spring; millet also does well in much of this
area.
For the Upper Mississippi Basin. — For the area in-
cluded in this group, see p. 347, and for temporary
hay meadows, grown in them, see p. 347. The best
single plants for permanent hay meadows in Wiscon-
sin, Illinois, Iowa and Minnesota are Russian brome,
on dry soils, and timothy and redtop, for moist lands.
In laying these down, sow of Russian brome 15 pounds
per acre; of timothy, 12 pounds 'and of redtop 12
pounds; alfalfa will also grow in many parts of theso
states, and when it does will make excellent permanent
meadow. But by far the best combination for perma-
nent meadows is timothy, redtop and alsike clover, sown
on moist soils, at the rate of 4, 4 and 3 pounds re-
spectively per acre. In Missouri, the best permanent
meadow grasses are much the same as in these states,
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 411
except that Eussian brome has a much less important
place. In western Minnesota and eastern North and
South Dakota, Kussian brome is the best permanent
meadow grass and timothy is probably next to it;
alfalfa is also likely to have its place in these. In
eastern Kansas arid Nebraska alfalfa is far the best
permanent meadow plant ; and next to it are meadow
fescue, Eussian bromc, tall oat grass and orchard grass.
The latter two may be sown together for permanent
meadow, since they mature about the same time, using
12 pounds of seed of the former and 28 pounds of the
latter per acre, but the meadow from these will not
be very enduring. Meadow fescue, sown at the rate
of 18 pounds per acre, or Kussian brome sown at the rate
of 15 pounds per acre, will be more abiding, but the
former will not produce very large yields of hay.
The annual hay plants for this group of states north-
ward, include oats, peas and millets, more particularly
of the small varieties. The prairie soils of nearly all
the area in this group has high adaptation for millet.
Southward in the same, cow peas and soy beans are
coming to be grown. For growing oats and peas, see p.
407; millet, p. 336; soy beans and cow peas, p. 407.
For the Semi-Arid Belt. — For the area included in
this belt, see p. 348, and for the temporary meadows in
the same, see p. 348. The best permanent hay plant
for the dry land on which crops can be grown is Rus-
sian brome with western rye grass a close second, sowing
15 pounds of the seed of each, when sown alone, and
about half the amount of each when sown together. On
some of the bench lands northward, timothy is the best
412 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
hay plant at the present time; on others of these, al-
falfa ; of the former, sow 10 pounds of seed and of tho
latter 15 pounds. On the unirrigated wheat growing
lands of Washington, Idaho and Oregon, a combination
of Eussian brome, orchard and tall oat grasses, using
5, 9 and 4 pounds of seed respectively, will probably
make the best combination for permanent meadow; al-
falfa will also grow well on much of this land.
In these areas and in others similar in some other
states, especially California, a very large amount of
hay is furnished by the small cereal grains. For this
purpose, much wheat is grown, but oats and barley are
also extensively used and in some localities, winter rye
and speltz. These may of course be grown alone or in
combination. When grown for hay, about 25 per cent
should be added to the amount of seed usually sown
for grain. The sand vetch, though not much grown as
yet in this area, will grow well in much of it and would
make a splendid addition to the hay crop, sown at the
rate of 1 bushel per acre, along with about the same
portion of grain. The dry climate and freedom from
rust in the grain makes the hay from the same more
palatable than it is in parts of the United States and
Canada where there is more moisture.
For Irrigated Western Valleys. — For the states in-
cluded in this group, see p. 349, and for the plants
grown for temporary meadows, p. 350. In these val-
leys, many kinds of grasses may be grown for perma-
nent meadow. Of these, alfalfa is unquestionably the
most important. For all or nearly all these lands, from
near Alaska to Lower California, it has wonderful adap-
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 413
tation that is, in a sense, remarkable; from two to
live crops a j^ar, according to latitude and altitude, are
regularly grown. Although the crop is commonly sown
alone, there may be combined with it various other
grasses. Those which grow quickly and which, like the
alfalfa, will furnish more than one cutting, should be
chosen. Italian rye grass would be one of the best
but that it is short lived; perennial rye lives longer
but does not grow so fast ; orchard and tall oat grasses
may also be thus grown. Twenty pounds of alfalfa
seed is ample when sown alone, but when one of the
other grasses is added a few pounds of the seed of each
will suffice, more or less being used, according to the
object sought; the amount of alfalfa seed should be cor-
respondingly reduced.
After alfalfa, the best permanent meadow, for these
valleys for the present time, is timothy ; if hay is wanted
for the market, more especially when it has to be trans-
ported in the baled form, sow about 12 pounds of seed
to the acre. When the hay is wanted for home or local
feeding, sow 10 pounds of timothy and 3 pounds of alsike
clover, or 6 pounds of red clover in lieu of the alsike,
or 3 pounds of the former and 2 pounds of the latter.
Such mixtures prove very satisfactory and last for many
years, especially the mixture of timothy and alsike
clover. The yield may be further increased on many
soils by sowing timothy, redtop and alsike in combina-
tion, using 6, 4- and 3 pounds of the seed respectively
per acre. Various other grasses may be grown, but
none probably will prove so satisfactory as those that
have been named.
414 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Various grain crops also may be grown for hay alone-
or in combination. The necessity for growing these
thus does not exist where grasses can be grown so abun-
dantly and of such high excellence.
West of the Cascades. — For the area included in this
division, see p. 351, and for the grasses for temporary
meadow, see p. 352. The list for permanent meadow is
a long one. It includes timothy, red top, orchard grass,
meadow fescue, perennial rye grass, Russian brome, al-
sike and red clover, grown singly or in various combina-
tions. The clovers here assume more or less of a peren-
nial habit of growth. The amounts of seed to sow, when
these are sown alone, would be about the same as men-
tioned for such sowing, when discussing each variety,
but minimum rather than maximum quantities, would
suffice, owing to the moist character of the climate, so
favorable to the growth of grasses. One of the simplest
and best combinations is timothy and alsike clover, espe-
cially when the hay is to be marketed ; to produce such
hay from 10 to 12 pounds of timothy may be sown on
bottom and tide lands, and 2 pounds of alsike clover;
where the yield is for home consumption, redtop should
be added; the proportions of seed then required would
be about 4 pounds each of timothy and redtop, and S
pounds of alsike.
For the higher land, timothy and medium red clover
would make meadow that would last for several years, if
desired, sowing 8 pounds of the former and 6 pounds of
the latter. The production would probably be strength-
ened by substituting 3 pouuds each of medium red and
mammoth clover for G pounds of medium red. On the
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 41 ">
light and poorer soils, Russian brome, tall oat and per-
ennial rye grasses could be sown at the rate of 7, 5 and 7
pounds of the seed of each respectively. \7arious kinds
of grain mixtures may be grown for hay. Of. these
oats, vetches and peas are the best; the oats may, of
course, be grown alone, sowing not less than 2^ bushels
of seed to the acre. More valuable hay, however, is
produced when peas or vetches or both are grown along
with the oats. In the mixture, 1^ bushels of peas or
the same of vetches would be the proper amounts to sow,
at least approximately. When both are sown, one-half
of the amount of each would suffice ; the variety of vetch
sown is the common kind (Vicia sativa).
The common vetch is sometimes sown alone for hay,
but the better plan is to sow enough grain with it to
sustain the plants. In this part of the United States,
it is considered a very excellent hay plant. When cut
at a stage a little short of ripening, it makes particularly
excellent food for sheep. It has high adaptation for
all cultivable portions of this region.
MISCELLANEOUS DISCUSSIONS.
The discussions that now follow relate to preparing
the soil for meadows ; sowing the seed ; harvesting, cur-
ing and storing the hay ; grazing the meadows and fer-
tilizing and renewing them.
Preparing the Soil. — While as previously intimated,
careful preparation of the soil is advantageous in grow-
ing all kinds of grasses, it may be added, that it is espe-
cially so, when preparing the same for permanent mead-
ows, because they are permanent. It would not be pos-
416 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
sible, within the limits of this work, to discuss in detail
the preparation that would best suit all soils and cli-
mates in the various states. A clean seed bed, suitable
to the needs of the climate, and well supplied with easily
accessible fertility is all important.
Very large yields of grass, composed mainly of tim-
othy, redtop and red clover have been obtained by Mr.
Geo. M. Clark of Higganum, Conn. He gives very
fine and thorough pulverization to the land in summer
previous to sowing the seed with a view to securing a
clean and moist seed bed ; sows large amounts of seed
and applies suitable fertilizers liberally at the time of
sowing the seed and subsequently. By his method two
cuttings per annum have been harvested with a total
yield of over 5 to more than 8 tons of hay. In prepar-
ing the land, the cutaway and spike harrows are chiefly
used with a view to chopping and finely pulverizing the
land.
While this method has proved eminently satisfactory
for that part of Connecticut, to uphold the plan, as
some writers do, as being that which should be generally
followed in laying down permanent meadows would cer-
tainly be misleading. To engraft it on the practice of
the farmers in certain parts of Kentucky, for instance,
where excellent crops of these grasses can be secured
for several years, would be encouraging prodigality in
labor and waste in applied fertility; results can be ob-
tained in certain parts of Kentucky, by sowing the
grasses on clover sod, ploughed and prepared, with only
a fractional part of the labor involved in the other case.
To spend a similar amount of labor on land to be laid
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 417
down on the western prairies, which lifts with the wind
would simply be encouraging the wind to blow it away ;
and to expend so much labor on a seed bed in the rainy
South without subsoiling would not be wise. While the
aim should be, in preparing such lands, to have them
clean, finely pulverized, moist and rich, these results
should be sought by that system which will involve a
minimum expenditure of labor ; pulverization to the ex-
tent of hazarding or inviting subsequent impaction
should be avoided; waste in the methods of applying
fertility should be avoided. Those methods of prepara-
tion will be best which will best meet the needs of the
locality whatever these may be.
Sowing. — What has been said in Chapter XVI, as to
the time for sowing permanent pastures, will apply
about equally to permanent meadows. (See p. 385.)
Over much of the country, especially south and west,
early autumn sowing will prove most satisfactory.
In laying down permanent pastures, the question of
securing the proceeds of a nurse crop at the same time
is one of but small importance relatively. The all im-
portant matter is to secure a good stand of the grasses
because of the permanency of the meadow. As in lay-
ing down permanent pastures, nurse crops, when used,
should in many instances be cut early to mulch the land,
or later and while immature, for hay.
While the quantities of seed named in each case is
in the main correct, it is only intended to be approxi-
mately so, which may be said of the quantities of seed
specified throughout the book. Some successful grow-
ers sow much larger quantities of seed than those named ;
418 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
especially, when laying down permanent meadows, and
under their conditions, it is the proper thing to do.
They are favored with a moist climate and are careful
to maintain an equilibrium in fertility, and, consequent-
ly, the soil sustains both denseness in growth and vigor
in the same; hence, the yields are relatively high and
the quality of the hay is fine ; the yields would be quite
as large probably, though considerably less seed were
sown, but the quality of the hay would riot be so fine.
But to sow quantities so large without maintaining a
high state of fertility, would mean reduced yields, as
the food supply in the soil would be inadequate to meet
the needs of so many plants. To sow very large quan-
tities of seed on lands, where the normal supply of
moisture is low, would mean more or less of failure,
since so many plants would be unable to get enough
moisture to produce strong growth. To overstock
meadow lands thus is akin in principle to overstocking
pastures with animals brought to graze upon them.
Harvesting. — The grasses proper are, in nearly all in-
stances, cut with the field mower, when harvested for
hay. The same is true of clovers, sorghums, millets
and all varieties of cow peas and soy beans. It is neces-
sary to cut them thus to facilitate curing. When seed
is wanted, except in the cases of sorghums, cow peas
and soy beans, the binder is used. The sorghums, when
sown broadcast, are sometimes cut with the mower for
autumn feeding, and sometimes with the binder; when
grown in drills to which cultivation has been given, they
are now more commonly harvested with the corn har-
vester. The best machine probably for harvesting cow
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 419
peas for any use, is the pea harvester ; seed crops of
soy beans may be cut with the binder.
Nearly all the small cereal grains are harvested with
the binder, when cut for hay, whether grown alone or in
mixtures ; when thus cut, they are more easily handled
and with less labor, while being cured, stored and fed.
But when harvesting them, the sheaves should be made
small and tied rather loosely to facilitate drying. If
bound tightly, more or less mould is likely to appear in
the sheaves underneath the band that ties them. How-
ever, when those cereals grow in mixtures and are much
lodged and tangled, it will usually be preferable to cut
them with the field mower. When vetches are grown
alone for hay, they can be best harvested with the pea
harvester but may be cut with the mower.
The proper stage at which to cut nearly all grass-
plants is when in bloom, a little prior to that stage
for cattle, especially milch cows and sheep, and for
horses, a little later than the full bloom stage. Grasses
which quickly lose in palatability when nearing matur-
ity should be cut when rather less advanced than others,
such are orchard grass and western rye; others again
do lose much when cut later than the blossoming stage,
such is Eussian brome. The clovers should be cut when
in full bloom, except alfalfa, which is best cut when
coming into bloom. The best time to cut the sor-
ghums, grown thickly for hay, is when seed is in the
dough stage; when two cuttings are wanted in the sea-
son, it must be cut earlier; the difficulty in curing it
increases with earliness in the stage of cutting. The
millets are ready for cutting, when all the heads have
420 GRASSES AND HOW TO GKOW THEM.
appeared and when those first out are beginning to as
suine a yellowish tint.
Cow peas are cut for hay, when pods that first ap-
peared, are maturing. Soy beans are ready, when the
pods are reasonably well filled but not ripe, though for
some uses they are cut earlier.
Oats are ready for being cut for hay, when the straw
for a few inches below the head and for the same above
the ground, has assumed a yellow tint, the other portion
of the stalk being yet green ; or, when the grain is full}'
formed and in the milk stage, but not yet advanced
in the dough stage. Wheat should be cut at a stage
of development a little earlier, lest the straw becomes
too woody. Barley is cut a little short of the milk stage
or the beards will stiffen too much. Bye, to prevent
undue woodiness and want of palatability, is better cut
when coming into head. Vetches are ready to make
into hay when nearly all the flowers have been succeeded
by pods, but while the crop is not yet ripe.
Where large areas are to be harvested, it may not be
possible to cut the entire crop at the most suitable stage
for harvesting. Something will probably be sacrificed
from cutting a part of the crop too early or too late;
of the two evils, the former is usually the lesser, hence
the wisdom in such instances of beginning to harvest
early. Such action is further supported by the general
principle, that it is advantageous to be forehanded with
work.
Curing Hay. — When curing hay of any kind, the
aim should be to expose it no more than is absolutely
necessary to the sun, as palatability decreases with in-
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 421
crease in bleaching; to protect it, as much as possible,
from rain and dews, which take from it aroma and cer-
tain other properties, in proportion, as these are pres-
ent; and to cure it to the greatest extent practicable
through the agency of air and wind, as such curing
favors the retention of the natural color. Hay that is
over sun-cured, not only loses in palatability and in
many instances many of the leaves, but it loses unduly in
weight. Hay, exposed to excessive rains, especially
when from leguminous plants, soon becomes practically
valueless for food. On the other hand, hay properly
cured chiefly through the agency of air and wind pre-
serves the green color, the aroma, the palatability, the
weight and the nutrition to the greatest extent to which
it is possible to secure these.
From what has been said, it will be apparent that to
secure these results in the most perfect form, hay must
be cured to the greatest extent possible, in cocks rather
than while spread over the ground exposed to sunshine ;
or in winrows where much more of the surface is ex-
posed than in cocks. There is also the additional haz-
ard, that if rain falls while the hay is in winrows, the
loss from such exposure is usually much greater than
when it is in cocks; thje relative loss from clovers and
other legumes being thus exposed is greater than the
loss from the grasses proper. The more nearly cured
the hay is, when exposed to rain or dew, the greater the
relative injury that conies to it from such exposure.
When mixed grains are rained on, while they lie upon
the ground, where the mower left them, the further in-
jury follows that they are more or less covered with
422 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
particles of soil. The same is true of such crops as
cow peas or soy beans. The wisdom, therefore, of get-
ting mown hay into well put up cocks, as soon as possi-
ble after it has been mown, is clearly apparent.
Notwithstanding th^t the very best hay is thus made,
much good hay is made by curing it in the winrow or
in bunches, made from the winrow by the aid of the
horserake. In fact more hay is cured by this process,
than by the other and in many instances the practice
is not only justifiable but commendable; it is not only
labor saving but enables the haymaker to do the work
so much more quickly that the hazards from losses of
exposure to rain and from the overrnaturing of a portion
of the crop are lessened : the cost of harvesting is very
materially reduced. The time and labor called for in
putting hay into cocks are no more than would be re-
quired to put it on wagons ready for removal ; when
placed in cocks, the hay cannot be put upon wagons by
the hay loader, as it can when made in wirirows. The
loss of quality in the hay, therefore, by this mode of
curing may be more than made up in the benefits accru-
ing as stated above.
It is relatively more important that clovers and other
leguminous hay plants be cured in cocks than that the
grasses proper be cured thus; since when cured other-
wise, they lose more leaves, part with more of their
aroma, take much more injury from rain and dew;
when thus cured, the danger from over fermentation in
the mow is also lessened. The practice, therefore, which
aims to cure these in the cock is to be commended, un-
less hi time of settled harvest weather or in rainless
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 423
harvest climates. When harvesting clovers and other
legumes, the method of procedure would, in outline, be
as follows: Cut with the mower as soon as the dew
has lifted. When the crop has wilted somewhat, run
the tedder over the mown hay and probably a second
time, with an interval of a few hours between. The
mower leaves the crop lying closely on the ground as
the horses and mower pass over all the cut portion.
The tedder tosses it into the air and in such a way that
when it falls down atopsy turvy," it lies more loosely
over the ground, so that the air, stirring and passing
through it, greatly facilitates quick curing. It is then
raked with the horserake, as soon as the rake will draw
it easily and cleanly into winrows ; when the rake will
not do this satisfactorily, it is too green to be raked.
It should be put into cocks ' as soon as raked ; these
should be small or large according to the degree of cur-
ing in the hay. The higher and narrower they are,
compatible with firmness, the more symmetrical they
are ; and the more carefully they are combed down
around the sides, the more quickly they will cure and
the better they will turn rain. One well used to such
work will put the hay into such cocks quickly; while
the unskilled and careless may spend their time to little
purpose by doing the work slowly and in a slovenly man-
ner.
The length of time between the cutting of legumes
and getting them put into cocks varies with the weather
and the maturity in the hay. Frequently these may be
made the same day the crop is cut ; at other times, not
until the second day ; and in very bad weather, not until
424 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
the third day. The length of time that the hay should
remain in the cocks will depend chiefly on the weather,
but usually it remains thus for two or three days.
While in the cocks, it "sweats" more or less which means
that it ferments slightly and, as a result, is less liable
to ferment excessively in the mow. No time should
be lost in storing hay as soon as it is ready.
This may be determined by taking a wisp of hay
from within the heap and twisting it in the hands.
If no moisture exudes, the hay is ready to store. An-
other method of judging is by the comparative weight
of the hay in being handled, which can be easily judged
by a skilled hand. Before drawing the hay for storage,
it is usual to spread out the cocks, more or less, for ex-
posure to the sunlight for a few hours, before drawing
them and more especially the parts of the same near-
est to the ground. This should not be done much in
advance of the storing, in showery weather.
Cow peas and soy beans are frequently left longer on
the ground, before putting them up in cocks, especially
the former, since they cure but slowly. The cocks are
made small and narrow in proportion to the height to
facilitate drying out. They too are frequently turned
over, more or less, before they are drawn, to secure in
them quicker and more thorough drying. In some in-
stances, they are stacked soon after being cut. The
procedure is, in substance, as follows : Poles are plant-
ed in the ground to the height of about 9 feet and one
foot into the ground. One pair of strips of wood is
fastened to the stack pole at right angles to each other
arid one foot from the ground. These are laden with
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 425
pea hay. A second pair is in due time placed 3 feet
from the ground and similarly laden. A third pair is
placed 6 feet from the ground, and likewise laden to the
top of the pole. These little stacks, not more than 6
feet across, are covered with crab grass. This is only
one of many devices, used in the curing of cow peas.
Caps may advantageously be used in curing clover
hay, in showery weather, when the quantities to be cured
are not large. They may be made of strong cotton cloth,
also of other material, about 4^ feet square, with pegs
attached to the corners or some kind of weight, as a
small stone sewed in each corner. When in use, they
are spread over the cocks, and the pegs are fastened
into the hay at the sides of the cocks or into the ground.
One work-hand should apply them as fast as two put
up the hay. When not in use, they should be carefully
laid away and, if made of good material, should last for
as many as a score of years. In time of heavy rainfall,
however, they fail to preserve the bottom of the cock,
from serious injury, from the absorption of moisture
from beneath.
The plan of storing clover and cow pea hay, as soon
as a little wilted, has been tried and, in many instances,
with success. The crop is cut and wilted a little and is
then drawn and tramped down firmly into mows. Care
is taken not to store any of it when wet with dew or rain.
The principle involved is much the same as in making
ensilage. The requisite conditions, however, must all
be carefully observed or serious loss may follow ; hence,
the unskilled, in this method of curing hay, should thor-
oughly post themselves regarding all the details requi-
Grasses— 28.
426 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
site to success before they attempt to cure it thus. In
dry weather, the advantage from curing by this method
is to be questioned.
The grasses cure much more quickly than the clovers.
The practice is common, therefore, of drawing them
together with the hay rake, after the tedder has gone
over them, and drawing the hay from the winrows. It
is lifted or may be lifted from these with the hay loader.
To facilitate such lifting, the winrows should be small.
The duration of the exposure will depend upon the
kind of grass, its maturity and the weather. In good
weather, it can usually be cut one day and stored the
next. In showery weather, what is cut should be put
up in cocks, as these will shed rain better than those
composed of clover. Millet and mixed grains are some-
times cured in winrows and sometimes in cocks ; which
method should be followed will depend upon conditions.
These crops take more injury from rain than many of
the grasses but less injury than clovers ; hence, in show-
ery weather, they should be cured in the cock.
Storing Hay. — Hay is stored in the mows of barns
or in the lofts of stables, in hay sheds or in stacks. The
aim should be, on the part of those who feed the hay on
the farm, to store it under cover to the greatest extent
practicable, in order to avoid the expense of handling
a second time before it is fed and the loss from the shed-
ing of leaves and heads, which, in nearly all instances,
accompanies the second handling of hay. In handling
cow pea, soy bean and clover hay, this loss is very much
greater, than in handling hay from grasses. Further-
more, the aim should be to store it in such proximity
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 427
to the place of feeding, that it will be conveyed to the
animals which feed upon it with the least possible
amount of labor.
When stored in large quantities in barns, stables or
indeed anywhere, it is lifted from the load and dumped
in the mow, hay shed or stack, as the case may be, by
means of horse-forks or, what is usually better, slings
where they can be used. With the latter, the entire
load may be taken up and put in place by means of two
or three separate draughts. When taken up with the
horse-fork, more or less hay falls back again with each
draught and has to be relifted. When lifted by either
method, careful attention should be given to the even
and systematic distribution of -the hay in the mow, that
it may pack evenly and be taken out again in the regular
way. To accomplish this calls for great diligence and
fidelity on the part of those who work in the warm mows,
when hay is being stored rapidly.
Hay sheds are usually oblong in shape and may be
of any size desired. They are usually made by setting
upright posts in the ground and putting plates on them
and on these rafters sustaining a ridge roof. Suspended
from the ridge a track may be constructed, if desired,
to carry a fork or sling in storing the hay. These are
usually open on every side. Where hay has to be han-
dled a second time, these sheds may be made to render
excellent service, since they may be erected in the midst
of a permanent meadow and thus furnish safe protec-
tion for the hay which is stored with the least possible
loss of time in conveying it to the place of storage.
When stacking hay, poles should first be laid under-
428 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
neath and only sufficiently near to sustain other poles
laid across them; upon this, a covering of old straw
should be laid. When the stack rests on the ground,
the hay at the bottom of the stack will be injured from
one to two feet from the ground, according to the loca-
tion and climate, by imbibing moisture from the earth.
When building stacks, whether of the long or round
form, it is greatly important that the centre shall be
kept considerably higher from the ground upward than
the sides, otherwise water will seep in from the sides
and penetrate downward. It is also greatly important
that the stack shall be kept evenly tramped, that the
settling may be even. Where the settling of the stack
is even everywhere and a little sloping downward all
the way from the centre to the outer edges, it would not
be easy for any considerable quantity of water to pene-
trate a stack even though topped out only reasonably
well.
Marsh grass where it can be obtained furnishes the
best grass covering for stacks. It is most suitably put
on in the green form and combed down all around with
a rake to straighten the stems downward. Blue grass,
such as obtained in fence corners, is also good, since
it is not easily penetrated by rain. Small weights
should be suspended to wires or ropes, running over
the ridge or crown of the stack to hold the covering in
place. Sometimes stacks are covered with cloth such as
is used in making tents or of any material that will
turn rain and that is not too costly.
When clover, cow peas or vetches are stacked in a
climate of much rainfall, unless the tops of the stacks
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 429
are carefully protected, there will be much loss. The
aim should be, therefore, to put these crops under cover,
when possible, and to protect the stacks carefully where
this cannot be done.
What has been said about storing the grasses proper
will apply about equally to mixed grains, cut with the
mowers, and to millets except that these are more easily
injured by rain. But rain does not harm them as much
as clovers. Sorghum hay is more difficult to keep and
where it is groAvn, which is usually in rather dry cli-
mates, is frequently stored in quite small stacks from
which it is fed.
In large ranches, especially in the West, native hay
from the sloughs and alfalfa from irrigated lands are
frequently drawn from the winrows on wide sweeps,
with one horse attached to each end. These load by
simply driving the horses for a short distance, one on
each side of the winrow. The load thus gathered is
drawn over the ground and deposited on the stacker,
which carries it up to the stack. Hay is rapidly stored
in this way, but such methods would be ill adapted to
stacking in wet climates, as they would 'result in the
spoiling of much of the hay.
It is the practice with some to sow about a peck of
coarse common salt over each load of hay. They con-
tend that it tends to preserve hay, stored a little green,
and it does in some degree. They also claim that it
adds to the palatability of the hay and in some small
degree it does. Nevertheless, when the hay is properly
cured and stored, it is doubtful if the advantage will
cover the outlay for the application of salt.
430 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Grazing Permanent Meadows. — As the primary ob-
ject in growing and maintaining permanent meadows
is to secure hay, rather than pasture, whatever will main-
tain them in a condition to produce hay is of paramount
importance. Pasture should be sought from them only,
therefore, to remove a superabundance of covering, such
as would hinder their productiveness and, in some in-
stances, their existence unless they are grazed. This
will mean, therefore, (1) that the grazing of hay plants
should not be done at any season of the year, if such
grazing would endanger the life, vitality or productive-
ness of the plants; (2) that, if admissible, at certain
times, it should never be done at such times as it may
work harm ; (3) that it should not be done when mowing
will answer the purpose as well or better.
Some meadow plants should seldom or never be grazed
while being grown for meadow. Timothy is one of
these, alfalfa is another, and Johnson grass, a third.
This does not mean that these plants should not be pas-
tured at all, but the aim should be to avoid pasturing
them to the greatest extent practicable. Timothy will
sometimes endure winter pasturing very well and remain
productive, as in bottom lands or on tide lands in the
Puget Sound region. In the other instances, it will
produce fair crops from year to year, if never grazed,
while if grazed closely in the autumn, the yields will
be reduced fully 50 per cent ; the same is true of alfalfa ;
it is also true of Johnson grass, that it may seldom be
pastured closely with injury. It is almost certain that
where alfalfa and timothy will endure pasturing in the
autumn and winter, the returns would be greater if
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 431
these crops were not so pastured. While it may be ad-
missible to pasture meadows in the autumn, where cli1
mates are mild, where the aftermath is so strong that it
threatens to, at least, partially smother the plants and
the weather is so moist that it could not be cured, it is
never admissible to graze aftermath so closely that it will
not protect sufficiently the roots of the plants in winter.
It may be admissible to graze the same kinds of meadow
much more closely in the autumn and winter in mild cli-
mates, than in those that are cold. In fact, it may be
death to some meadow plants to graze them in winter
at all in cold climates; such is alfalfa. Again where
snowfall is abundant, and almost certain, grazing rank
meadow plants in the late autumn may prove helpful,
whereas similar grazing of the same kind of plants,
when they are almost certain to be exposed, would be
about sure death to them.
Should aftermath or rowen be abundant, the mower
will remove it more evenly than grazing and it may be
cut high purposely, the better to afford winter protec-
tion. In such instances, mowing would be preferable
to grazing.
Ordinarily the aim should be to have permanent
meadows go into the winter season, with enough of a
covering to protect them sufficiently against adverse
winter weather, such as may be expected in the locality.
Some plants under certain conditions will not provide
more aftermath, from year to year, than is necessary
to form such a covering. When they do not, they should
never be pastured, while in permanent meadow. But
the richness of the ground, and the character of the
432 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
manuring^ and the influence which these exercise on
production will make pasturing meadows admissible
under some conditions, where under other conditions,
it would not be at all admissible.
Fertilizing and Renewing. — The question of fertiliz-
ing permanent meadows has, in most instances, a close
relation to their productiveness. Some of these, as al-
falfa meadows for instance, will, in certain locations,
produce well for many years without any applied fer-
tilizers. The plants are, in a sense, the scavengers of
the fertility they require from the soil and air. When
these fail, they usually fail because other grasses or
weeds come in and crowd the plants. Again, other
plants that cannot obtain nitrogen from the air will
grow for many years and produce abundantly without
applied fertilizers ; such are certain grasses grown on
tide lands. Yet again, the same plants, grown under
other conditions, would not produce hay crops vigorously
for two years in succession without being dressed with
fertilizer.
If farmyard manure is applied, it should be in a well
reduced form and is preferably applied in the autumn
and should be evenly spread. Fresh manure would be
objectionable because of the weed seeds in it and be-
cause of the extent to which the unreduced portions
would rake up in the hay.
Commercial fertilizers are peculiarly suitable for ap-
plying on permanent meadows from year to year. On
these, there is a place in one locality or another for the
application of nearly every kind of useful commercial
fertilizer brought ..into the market. But which should
MEADOWS AND MAKING HAY. 433
be applied alone or in combinations, the amount to apply
and the quantities in which they should be applied, can
only be determined by the attendant conditions in each
instance. In a work such as this generalizing on such
a subject is all that would be prudent or even possible
to do.
The needs of permanent meadows seldom call for the
application of other kinds of plant food than nitrogen,
phosphoric acid and potash ; some need only one of these,
some want two and some want all three. As to the
chief of the forms in which they usually come into the
market, see p. 393. It is seldom that more than 800
pounds of commercial fertilizer are applied on perma-
nent meadow lands in one year, and more frequently
less than one-half or one-third the amount is applied.
In the East and South, it is, of course, much more es-
sential to apply these than in the West and North. For
many situations, equal parts by weight of nitrate of
soda, finely ground bone, phosphatic rock and muriate
of potash, serve a good end ; more frequently in purely
grass meadows, a large portion of nitrogen or phosphate
is wanted, in some instances, more of one of these than
of the other two combined. The phosphate and potash
are probably best applied in the autumn and a part of
the nitrogen in the spring and the remainder soon after
the hay is cut. The object of the second dressing is to
stimulate the grass to, produce another cutting. In or-
der to make large dressings of fertilizer profitable, it is
necessary to have a good thick stand of the grasses,
otherwise much of the strength of the fertilizer may go
toward sustaining weeds.
434 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
Permanent meadows seldom require renewing, when
properly fertilized. Alfalfa, however, sometimes be-
comes weedy ; when it does, disking in early fall or iu
spring, according to locality, sowing more seed, and then
harrowing are very frequently followed by renewal. In
some instances, as on sandy or gravelly soils, the grasses
may fail in certain parts. When they do, disk them in
those parts, sow more seed at the best season of the year
for sowing it, and dress with fine manure. Treat simi-
larly spots that may have winter killed because of ice.
Yet again, when ploughing and harrowing may be neces-
sary, as in the cases of Russian brome and Bermuda
grass, renew these in that way as often as necessary.
CHAPTER XVIII.
PASTURES ON THE RANGE.
The pastures of the western ranges are of immense
extent, as are also those of western Canada. Roughly
speaking, it would be correct to say that they embrace
considerably more than one-third of the entire surface
of the United States and even a larger proportion of
the northwestern provinces of Canada.
The Range States. — The distinctive range states in-
clude Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, 'New Mexico, Ari-
zona, Utah, Nevada and Idaho. The range country
also includes western North and South Dakota and the
western portions of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and
Texas, also the eastern portions of California, Ore-
gon and Washington. The range pastures cover from
about one-third to two-thirds of the states named, as
being partly range, the other portions being arable.
The Range Country Described. — This region is cov-
ered with immense areas of mountains, table land and
plain, with a considerable area classed as valley land
beside the streams. The plains, which lie in great part
eastward from the mountains are destitute of trees,
except beside the streams which flow through them
and which are fed by the melting snows upon the moun-
tains. They are usually, but not always sufficiently
even in surface, to admit of cultivating the soil and
436 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
growing crops upon it. Over the greater portion of
this area, these cannot be grown because of the limited
precipitation, which characterizes all this region. It
varies from 12 to 15 inches per annum downward to
almost nothing. This entire area is covered with short
grasses, which make their growth soon after the pre-
cipitation for the season comes, and then cure where
they grow, in which condition they furnish excellent
winter grazing, when present in sufficient quantity.
Between the most easterly and westerly ranges of the
Eocky mountains are vast stretches of mountains, table
lands or bench lands as they are more frequently called,
and plains. These also are covered, more or less, with
grasses, being dense or thin according to the measure
of the precipitation and the extent to which sand, sta-
tionary or shifting is present; to proximity to seep-
age waters from the mountains and to the heat of the
summer climate. Northward in this area, the precipi-
tation is usually more than southward, and the summer
heat is less intense; consequently, the grazing is usu-
ally more abundant. Grass production decreases with
the abundance of sand or gravel, and where the sands
shift, it is 'virtually absent.
But where seepage waters abound and come near
the surface, grass production is abundant. The
sides of the mountains furnish much grazing until
trees clothe them, a condition which increasingly pre-
vails with increasing altitudes, until the upward limit of
tree growth is reached, beyond which are realms of
rock and snow. The production of this region is not
unlike that of the plains east of the mountains, but
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 437
especially southward, it is less abundant, a large por-
tion of the country being destitute of vegetation or
producing only cactus plants and sage brush, neither of
which are valuable as food.
Soils of the Range Country. — The soil in the larger
portion of the range country is abundantly supplied
with plant food. Much of it is possessed of amazing
productive power could it only be supplied with moist-
ure. The secret of this fertility lies chiefly in its
origin. Much of it has been made by volcanic action.
But it has also been made more fertile, through the
accumulation of vegetable matter, which decayed upon
its surface through long ages, of which it lost but
little from precipitation, washing over its surface or
reaching down into the subsoil. To the summit of
the mountains, nearly all the soil is fertile ; even the
shifting of sands can be made to produce liberally,
if kept wet by fertilizing waters. Northward, sand
is not nearly so much in evidence as southward. In
some parts, are considerable areas, so strongly impreg-
nated with alkali that nothing will grow on them, es-
pecially is this true of the regions where salt lakes
abound.
Climate of the Range Country.— The climate in
much of the range country is dry; more dry usually
east of the eastern range of the Rocky mountains, than
elevated portions. The snow-fall is usually light also,
north; and more dry in the lower valleys, than on the
elevated portions. The snow fall is usually light also,
but much of the range country is exposed to occasional
winter blizzards, in some instances of great severity,
438 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
and which bring much suffering to the herds and
flocks, which frequently ends in great financial losses.
In some instances, these blizzards come quite late in
spring, as late as May in Montana. At such times,
sheep and lambs sometimes perish in large numbers.
The temperature of the range country is considerably
milder in winter, than corresponding latitudes east-
ward, owing doubtless to the influence of the Pacific.
With sufficiently plentiful surplus of grass, horses and
cattle could winter safely on the pastures in all the
range country, were it not for two influences, which,
when they act in conjunction, make the wintering of
stock, more or less hazardous. These are snow-fall,
partially melted with "chinook winds," and then sud-
denly coated with a crust of ice, caused by rapidly
falling and low temperatures. These "chinooks" are
warm winds, which blow at irregular and not infre-
quent intervals. Were it not for these, no live stock
could graze north in winter. The pastures are thus
rendered inaccessible, insomuch that if low tempera-
tures prevail for any considerable period of time, the
animals cannot graze and so literally starve. When
the weather immediately following is of unusual se-
verity, as sometimes happens, particularly in ranges
northward, they perish in great numbers. Driven be-
fore the winds, they seek the shelter of willows and
other bushes by the streams and die slowly from cold
and hunger. The sufferings of live stock, thus ex-
posed and left to die a lingering and cruel death, forms
one of the darkest chapters in the industrial history
of this country. These cold winters only come occa-
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 439
sionally but they come with sufficient frequency to man-
ifest the wisdom of furnishing food supplies to meet
such exigencies.
Grazing on the Open Range. — Until within a com-
paratively recent period, the range country was al-
most entirely public domain. Even now the same may
be said of by far the greater portion of it. Every
citizen, therefore, had an equal right to graze live
stock on the range; when it was -comparatively unoccu-
pied, the business proved highly remunerative. This
led to so great an increase in the number of those who
engaged in ranching, that in time the ranges became
overstocked with results as stated later. (See p. 445.)
A common practice at the first was to purchase chiefly
young store stock and animals for breeding; to brand
them; and to turn them out at large on the ranges.
Horses and: cattle were managed thus but, of course,
sheep had to be accompanied by a herder. The many
losses, attendant upon this method of ranching, from
various causes, have led to a modification of the sys-
tem of ranching, somewhat as follows : Individuals
took up claims in some favored spot, where water and
shelter were obtainable, and where wild hay could be
obtained on the low lands, or tame hay, grown usually
through the aid of irrigation. Steadings were built
and live stock were introduced, usually in a small way
at first, and these were bred from, and the animals
sold when ready, or shipped to the eastern markets.
The stock were grazed in summer upon the adjoining
ranges, sometimes owned privately but more frequently
public domain. Seldom were they allowed to stray
440 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
away far enough to become lost, and in winter when
necessary, they were fed hay, provided for them in sum-
mer. This method of ranching is rapidly superseding
the open range system, and in time will probably super-
sede it entirely.
Carrying Capacity of Western Ranges. — When the
ranges were first grazed by domestic animals, their car-
rying capacity was considerably more than at the pres-
ent time. The grazing was much more abundant then
than now on the greater portion of the range. The
grasses or many of them were famed, and justly so,
for their nutrition. But they were short and thin
in proportion as moisture was" wanting. In places
only where moisture was plentiful was there a stiff
turf formed. Upon much of the range, the grass
plants grew independently, as it were, without any
crowding and the relative number of the plants de-
creased with increasing hardness of conditions, until
in some localities but few plants appeared among the
sage bushes, and finally that stage was reached in places,
where the country was desert. At no time probably
could one cattle beast be sustained for a year on less
than 10 acres on an average, from produce grown upon
the untilled range. At the present time, the carrying
power of the range is much less than it was years ago.
But the change in ranching referred to, is likely to
modify this process and in the end greatly increase
the carrying power of the range.
The Range Country in Canada. — It would not be cor-
rect to say of any province in Canada that it is en-
tirely a range country, as in all the provinces where
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 441
ranges exist, a considerable proportion of the land will
grow crops under suitable cultivation. The range coun-
try occupies parts of Assiniboia, Alberta, Saskatche-
wan, Athabasca, and British Columbia. The relative
area is probably greater in Assiniboia and Alberta than
in any of the other provinces of Canada. The ranges
are on the whole more productive than the average of
the American ranges, and since the summer climate
is cooler they are covered with a more abundant turf.
Moreover, they are less injured through overgrazing as
they are newer. The ranchmen, profiting by Ameri-
can experience, came early to an understanding as to
which parts should be grazed by sheep and which by
cattle and this also has had the effect of protecting the
ranges, as well as preventing feuds between sheep and
cattle owners and their herdsmen. As on the ranges
in American states northward, some food is usually
needed in winter; strange to say the mean winter tem-
peratures on the Canadian ranges of Assiniboia and
Alberta, especially the latter, are not so low as those
of Montana and Dakota, although further north. The
explanation is found in the greater extent to which
"chinooks" prevail in winter. Some authorities claim
that these have access to the interior through the lower
elevation of the mountains east of Port Simpson.
•GRASSES FAILING ON THE WESTERN RANGES.
On many portions of the range, the grasses have
failed to such an extent that, as previously intimated,
their sustaining capacity has been much reduced. The
Grasses 29.
442 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
extent of such reduction, the causes that have led to it,
and the necessity, because of this, for a change in the
old-time system of grazing, will now be discussed.
The Extent to which Grasses Have Failed. — While
the carrying capacity of the range has been much re-
duced in the aggregate, this reduction, by no means, ap-
plies equally to all parts of the range. On such por-
tions of it as are possessed of a clay loam soil, and
over which the grasses have formed a reasonably stiff
turf, the sustaining power of the pastures is not much
reduced. Much of the range country in the northern
states and also in Canada is of this class. On those
areas, however, covered with soils, volcanic in origin
and which are easily disturbed by the treading of live
stock, the grasses have, in many places, grown thin
gradually, until they have almost or entirely disap-
peared. Wide areas exist, which at one time produced
reasonably good pastures, that are now absolutely bare.
These areas are chiefly found in portions of the central
and southern range states. In other localities, plants
of little or no economic value have taken possession of
the grazing lands in a greater or lesser degree.
There has also been a shrinkage in the producing of
what has been termed hay meadow lands, from which
winter food supplies have been gathered. Through
such shrinkage, the carrying power of the range has
been reduced in the aggregate, according to some esti-
mates looked upon as conservative to the extent of 20
to 30 per cent.
Causes of Failure in Range Grasses. — Chief among
the causes that have led to reduction in the producing
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 443
power of the ranges are the following: 1. Injury
from close grazing. 2. Injury from the treading of
animals while grazing. 3. Injury from too constant
grazing.
On many parts of the range, the conditions are such
that under the most favored treatment, the grasses have
to struggle for existence, when cropped closely because
of that inseparable relation which exists between top
and root development. The shade which the grasses
provide for themselves, when undisturbed is removed,
and the hot sun so saps away the moisture that more
or less of the plants succumb.
Far greater, however, is the injury from treading, es-
pecially is this true of soils, which readily disinte-
grate. The treading of animals upon them turns them,
more or less, into dust and the plants perish. These
results follow more readily and certainly from the
grazing of sheep, than from the grazing of cattle, and
they are intensified with increase in the range flocks.
They not only feed closely together, but they are con-
stantly on the move. When they huddle together in
the heat of the day, in order to get the head lowered
into the shade, furnished by the bodies of their fellows,
they still keep up the movement of the feet. In those
light and dry soils, the grasses are thus trodden out of
existence. Through such grazing wide stretches of
range lands, where growth at the best was almost peril-
ous, have been turned for the time being into deserts.
The sheep has been characterized as the animal with
the golden hoof and justly so, because of the beneficial
influence which it has ordinarily on pastures, in clean-
444 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ing, enriching and improving them generally, but this
is not true of sheep in certain of the range pastures.
The golden hoof in these is turned into an instrument
of destruction. To these results, however, there are
exceptions for, on some portions of the range, judicious
pasturing with sheep is beneficial in degree, rather
than harmful. Such are the portions of the range
that have a close turf.
But the injury from too constant and unintermittent
grazing has been greater than from too close grazing.
Although many of the range grasses are perennial, they
are propagated by means of seed only. The very dry
portions of the range are ill-adapted to the sustenance
of plants that increase chiefly by means of creeping
root-stocks. With these the number of the plants is
too great for each one to get enough of the scant sup-
ply of moisture to sustain them. The fact is sigificant
that in the greater portion of the range country, the
grasses have fibrous, rather than creeping roots. They
multiply by means of seed. The further fact is sig-
nificant that these are free producers of seed, thus ac-
centuating the fact that the necessity for re-seeding the
ranges is ever recurring, where the productive power
of the grasses is to be maintained. The grama grasses
especially, which are among the best of the range grass-
es, are free producers of seed. When the grazing is
constant and close, seed production is hindered in pro-
portion as these influences are present. Such grazing
has done more harm to the range pastures than prob-
ably all other influences combined. The question nat«
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 445
urally arises in this connection, can the grasses of the
range be renewed? ,
RENEWING THE GRASSES OF THE RANGES.
It is very evident from what has been said, first, that
the sustaining power of range pastures has decreased,
and second, that unless the protection is provided in
some form this power must further decrease. It may be
well, therefore, to consider: (1) Is renewal of range
pastures practicable? (2) Is it practicable, without
modification in the systems of grazing ? (3) Which are
the modifications that will make it practicable ?
Is Renewal ^Practicable? — Unquestionably the re-
newal of range pastures is practicable, however diffi-
cult the work may prove. Nature without man's aid,
clothed these areas with food plants, each locality with
those best adapted to it. What nature has done, it
can do again without man's aid, but unaided by man,
the work of re-clothing with vegetation, in part or in
whole, will be slow. With man's aid, as when he scat-
ters seed upon it, renovation will be much more rapid.
In the judgment of the author, it is both possible and
practicable to restore the productive power of tlie ranges,
although such restoration, in many instances, will not
be easy and, in nearly all, will be slow.
Renewal Not Practicable without Modifications.—
That the renewal of the ranges is not practicable under
the old system of open range grazing, will be at once
apparent to those who understand the range country.
It will not be practicable for the reasons, first, that
while the range remains public domain and its priv-
446 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ileges are common property, it is almost certain that
it will be overstocked; second, that while it is public
domain and thus overstocked, the grasses cannot re-
seed the land sufficiently to maintain themselves without
diminution; and third, that while it remains public
property, the incentive to protect the range grasses is
not practicable. Without modications in the system
of ranching, therefore, the thing that hath been is that
which shall be. The sustaining power of the ranges
must grow less and less.
Modifications That Are Necessary. — If the range
pastures are to be protected and renewed, it is very evi-
dent from what has been said that this can be done only
under private ownership. Such ownership would not
only interest the individual, in protecting the grasses,
but also in improving them. Two methods at least can
be given attention, both of which should materially
farther the end sought. The first is the fencing of the
ranges and thus protecting them, and the second is
supplementing the seed produced, when the grazing is
alternated, by adding more seed or by sowing seed in
some instances even where the ranges are not fenced.
That the renewal of the ranges is attended with no little
difficulty will now be shown.
DIFFICULTIES IN THE WAY OF BENEWING THE BANGES.
The chief difficulties in the way of renewing the
ranges arise from the vastness of the area occupied,
from the relatively low production of range pastures,
and from the scant supplies of moisture. These ob-
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 447
staclcs will materially influence all attempts at renewal,
whether these are made through fencing in the ranges,
through adding seed of suitable grasses, or whether re-
newal is attempted by substituting other grasses for
those now on the range.
Renewal through Fencing. — In the judgment of the
author, renewal through fencing and alternating the
grazing is by far the most practical method of the
three. The ranges are protected, not only by a fence
running around each ranch, but when the ranches are
subdivided so that one year some of the pastures may
be allowed to re-seed the ground, the stock in the mean-
time, grazing in other enclosures, the seed that falls
from the former should prove effective in sufficiently
thickening the grasses. The next year, the stock can
be grazed on these, while in the other pastures seeds
are maturing. How frequently it would be necessary
to have them thus re-seed the land, has not been dem-
onstrated, but there is no doubt that the necessity for
such protection, and re-seeding would decrease with
the increase in supplies of moisture and vice versa. In
some places, it would probably be necessary to thus
rest the grasses every second year and yet again every
third year would suffice.
Such fencing, however, is relatively costly. Materi-
als for fencing are not plentiful and transportation of
materials long distances is expensive. These things,
taken in connection with the relatively low sustaining
power of the range, will be found a considerable item
in the expenses of the ranchman and, so far, a re-
ducing factor in his profits. The further difficulty will
448 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
also have to be met of finding ample supplies of water
for the live stock in each area so enclosed. The method
of re-seeding, through limited stocking of the enclosed
range, would also prove effective and it may be the
cheaper of the two in the end. By low stocking is
meant keeping down the number of animals kept with-
in the enclosure, so that a portion of the plants would
produce seed from time to time.
Renewal through Sowing Seed. — The obstacles in the
way of sowing seed by hand are serious. First, about
the only range grass producing seed that is cultivated is
western rye (Agropyrum tenerum). The cultivation of
this grass is as yet very limited, hence the amount of
seed put upon the market is small. The amount of
seed that will yet be grown for many years to come
will be an almost inappreciable factor in re-seeding the
range. It would be possible for the ranchman to grow
his own seed, especially if he could command irrigat-
ing waters, but difficulties would attend harvesting the
seed under range conditions, except in a wholesale way.
Renewal by this method must be very slow for years to
come.
Renewal "by Substitution. — Even greater difficulties
attend the renewal of the ranges by substituting other
grasses for those now on the range. This has been
advocated, not only where the grasses have failed, but
where they have not, and with a view of increasing the
productive power of the range. First, no variety, the
adaptability of which to range conditions has been
proved, is as yet cultivated except in a more or less
limited way. It will, therefore, be impossible to obtain
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 449
much seed for several years. If the seeds of these
grasses are to become so plentiful, as to exercise an ap-
preciable influence on range improvement, they must be
grown under conditions such as will produce large quan-
tities of seed. If such renewal should effect im-
provement for many years the progress must needs
be very slow. Second, the number of grasses which
promise any improvement, through substitution is very
limited. Only three of these at the present time would
seem possessed of such promise. These are western
rye, blue grama and Russian brome. While in some
instances, all three may be an improvement upon range
grasses; in others, this is, by no means, an assured
fact. To illustrate: It is by no means certain, that
western rye grass will prove more suitable for the
central range states, than the species of buffalo grass
(BuMoe dactyloides) which has grown on them to so
great an extent in the past, nor is it an assured fact,
that Russian brome would be an improvement over
the grasses now on northern ranges, though it should
be grown on these. The former would doubtless make
a better turf on the central ranges and the latter on
those of the North, but in either case would the moist-
ure be enough to sustain the grass growing on such a
turf to make it more productive than grasses which oc-
cupy the soil? Would the Russian brome furnish the
winter grazing desired, in as good form as the bunch
grasses, which now grow and cure upon those ranges ? A
negative answer to each question must be looked for.
Again would Russian brome not grow so thickly under
some conditions, that it in turn would require renewal
450 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
through ploughing occasionally? This would not be
practicable under range conditions except in a limited
way because of the great extent of the ranges. Third, is
it possible to supplant other grasses by these without
ploughing the land ? When a turf now covers the
ranges, this is doubtful. If the land has to be ploughed
to make such substitution possible, the element of im-
practicability comes again to the front.
Substitution through sowing the seed of blue grama
grass is more hopeful, especially in the central and
southwestern range states, where the turf is not usu-
ally dense. This grass would seem to have special
power to establish itself under such conditions, even
when the precipitation is light. But the impossibility
of getting supplies of seed in a large way, at the pres-
ent time, is an insurmountable obstacle in the way of
such substitution ; sometime in the future, however,
this may be different. All the evidence points to the
conclusion, under existing conditions, that the best way
of improving range grasses, at present, is by some sys-
tem of alternation in grazing, which makes possible the
re-seeding of the land by grasses now growing upon
the same. The production of lands, that can be tilled,
can almost invariably be improved by substitution but
it is not so of much of the land that cannot be tilled.
THE FUTURE OF THE WESTERN RANGES.
The changes that are being brought about by -the irri-
gation of irrigable lands will exercise an important in-
fluence upon the productive power of the ranges. The
vast quantities of food thus grown, along with the pri-
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 451
vate ownership of the lands, will make it possible to
greatly increase the productiveness of the range coun-
try. 1. It will make the protection of the ranges easi-
er. 2. It will enable the ranchman to rear much of
the stock which he grazes. 3. It will enable him to
dispose of it at an earlier age. 4. It will enable him
to fatten a considerable proportion of it at home.
Making Easier the Protection of the Ranges. — Irri-
gation will make such protection possible, by increas-
ing the food supplies. In winter especially, animals
will be fed instead of grazed. This will spare the
grasses for summer grazing and it will also make it
easier to re-seed them by allowing seed to ripen in the
pastures. The immense quantities of alfalfa and other
food that can be grown on irrigated land will make this
easily practicable.
Rearing Stock on the Ranges. — Until recently, ranch-
men favored purchasing young animals to grow upon
the range. This, at least, was true of cattle. They
did so because of the difficulty in getting food sup-
plies to feed young stock, also their dams, on the range
in winter. The produce of the natural meadows grad-
ually grew less with retrogression in pasture produc-
tion, owing to cutting too frequently, in conjunction
with over grazing. Experience had demonstrated that,
if calves were to be reared on the range, feeding them
the first winter was an imperative necessity. This is
now easily practicable in all irrigated centres.
Disposing of Stock at a Young Age. — The winter
supplies thus grown, will enable the ranchman to dis-
pose of animals at an age younger than would be prac-
452 GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM.
ticable in the absence of these. Cattle sold at three
years, in the absence of such supplies, may be sold at
two years, when they are present. A whole year of
what is usually termed the food of maintenance may
thus be saved, in the rearing of each cattle beast, grown
on the ranges. This arises from continuity in growth,
made possible in winter, as well as in summer. Young
cattle, grazing on the open range, will do little more
than maintain themselves during the winter months;
when fed upon alfalfa, they make substantial gains. It
will be possible, therefore, to save, in the aggregate,
the food of maintenance for one year of every cattle
beast, grown on the range. In other words, it will
make it possible to use such quantities of food, in the
aggregate, at one time used as food of maintenance, in
growing meat, thus making the ranges just that much
more productive.
Fattening Stock on the .Ranges. — Formerly stock
could not be fattened on the ranges in the very best
form, since grass was the only food grown. 'Now in
addition to the fodder, grown under irrigation in the
valleys much grain is also being grown. This makes
it possible to finish live stock in the range country,
before shipment and the proportion that will be thus
finished will increase with the increase of such pro-
duction thus adding to the profits of the ranchman.
But it is not probable that the time will ever come,
when all the stock, grown on the range, will or can
be finished there. The disproportion between the un-
irrigable and irrigable lands is too great to admit of
such a result, hence it will always be possible for the
PASTURES ON THE RANGE. 453
range to supply, more or less of feeding stock to farm-
ers further east. Viewed, therefore, from the stand-
point of actual production in the range grasses in their
aggregate form; that of the great possible increase in
production in the range country, and the relation, which
range grasses must bear to this increase; and from
that of the almost insuperable difficulties in the way
of substituting other grasses, for those now growing
on the range, the proper preservation of these, as pre-
viously intimated, is certainly a matter of national im-
portance.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY
BERKELEY
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