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THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA 


gale  'Bicentennial  publications 


With  the  approval  of  the  President  and  Fellows 
of  Tale  University , a series  of  volumes  has  been 
prepared  by  a number  of  the  Professors  and  In- 
structors, to  be  issued  in  connection  with  the 
Bicentennial  Anniversary,  as  a partial  indica- 
tion of  the  character  of  the  studies  in  which  the 
University  teachers  are  engaged. 

This  series  of  volumes  is  respectfully  dedicated  to 

2Tt) t tfrauuatcs;  of  ttje  SUmtocrsttp 


GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA 


Its  Character  and  Origin 


E.  WASHBURN  HOPKINS,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 


Professor  of  Sanskrit  at  Yale  University 


NEW  YORK:  CHARLES  SCRIBNER’S  SONS 
LONDON:  EDWARD  ARNOLD 


Copyright , 1901, 

By  Yale  University 

Published , June,  rqoi 


UNIVERSITY  PRESS  • JOHN  WILSON 
AND  SON  • CAMBRIDGE,  U.  S.  A. 


PEEFACE. 


The  sub-title  of  this  book  places  analysis  before  specula- 
tion. In  recent  studies  of  the  great  epic  this  order  has  been 
reversed,  for  a method  calling  itself  synthesis  has  devoted 
itself  chiefly  to  dwelling  on  epic  uniformity,  and  has  either 
discarded  analysis  altogether  or  made  it  subject  to  the 
results  of  “ synthetic  ” speculation. 

The  best  way,  of  course,  to  take  up  the  historical  investiga- 
tion of  a literary  product  the  origin  of  which  is  well  known 
is  to  begin  with  the  source  and  afterwards  to  study  the 
character  of  the  completed  whole.  But  if  the  origin  be 
unknown,  and  we  wish  to  discover  it,  we  must  invert  the 
process,  and  begin  our  study  with  an  examination  of  the 
character  of  the  work.  When  the  results  of  our  analysis 
become  plain,  we  may  group  together  those  elements  which 
appear  to  have  existed  from  the  first,  and  thus,  on  the  basis 
of  analysis,  reconstruct  the  past.  To  begin  with  a synthesis 
(so  called)  of  whatever  is  preserved  in  the  product,  and  so 
to  postulate  for  the  beginning  exactly  what  we  find  to  be  the 
completed  whole,  is  a process  that  leads  us  only  to  the  point 
from  which  we  started.  As  vaguely  incorrect  as  is  the  des- 
ignation synthesis  for  the  method  so  called  is  the  method 
itself,  which  thus  does  away  with  all  analysis.  Analysis  is 
an  examination  of  constituents.  As  a method  it  is,  like  any 
other,  obnoxious  to  error,  but  it  is  not  on  that  account  an 
erroneous  method.  It  is  in  fact,  as  turned  upon  history, 
nothing  but  inevitable  critique ; and  synthesis  without  such 
critique  becomes  merely  the  exploitation  of  individual  opin- 
ion, which  selects  what  pleases  it  and  rejects,  without  visible 
cause,  what  is  incompatible  with  the  synthetic  scheme. 


vin 


PREFACE. 


In  the  case  of  the  great  epic  of  India,  the  peremptory 
demand  that  we  should  reject  the  test  of  analysis  is  the  more 
remarkable  as  the  poem  has  never  been  completely  analyzed. 
The  literature  mentioned  in  it  has  been  ably  collected  in  the 
well-known  memoirs  of  Professor  Holtzmann,  who  has  also 
indicated  what  in  his  opinion  may  be  supplied  from  allusions ; 
but  the  poem  has  not  been  thoroughly  examined  to  see  what 
literature  it  reflects  from  the  age  of  the  later  Upanishads  or 
Yedic  schools;  it  has  not  received  a careful  investigation 
from  the  metrical  side ; its  philosophy  has  been  reviewed 
only  in  the  most  haphazard  fashion  ; and  its  inner  relation  to 
other  epic  poetry  has  been  almost  ignored.  Yet  critic  after 
critic  has  passed  judgment  on  the  question  of  the  date  and 
origin  of  this  poem,  of  which  we  know  as  yet  scarcely  more 
than  that,  before  a definitive  answer  can  be  given,  the  whole 
huge  structure  must  be  studied  from  many  points  of  view. 
And  last  of  all  the  synthesist  comes  also,  with  his  ready-made 
answer  to  a problem  the  conditions  of  which  have  not  yet 
been  clearly  stated. 

Thus  far,  indeed,  the  synthetic  theory  has  not  succeeded 
in  winning  over  a single  scholar  to  accept  its  chief  con- 
clusions, either  as  regards  the  contention  that  the  epic  was 
composed  500  B.  c.,  or  in  respect  of  the  massed  books  of 
didactic  material  and  their  original  coherence  with  the  nar- 
rative. Though  the  results  of  the  method  have  not  proved 
to  be  entirely  nugatory,  yet  they  are  in  the  main  irrecon- 
cilable with  a sober  estimate  of  the  date  and  origin  of  the 
epic;  but  the  hypothesis  is,  in  truth,  only  a caricature  of 
Biihler’s  idea,  that  the  epic  was  older  than  it  was  thought 
to  be.  In  its  insistence  upon  the  didactic  element  as  the 
base  of  the  whole  epic  tale  it  bears  a curious  resemblance 
to  a mediaeval  dogma,  the  epitaph  of  which  was  written 
long  ago.  For  there  were  once  certain  ingenious  alchemists 
who  maintained  that  the  Legend  of  the  Golden  Fleece  was  a 


PREFA  CE. 


IX 


legend  only  to  the  multitude,  whereas  to  the  illuminati  it 
was  a didactic  narrative  teaching  the  permutation  of  other 
metals  into  gold;  on  the  tomb  of  which  brilliant  but  fal- 
lacious theory  was  finally  inscribed:  X070?  05  ecm  tjj  fiev 
roXfiT)  jjieyas  ttj  S'  airoSei^eL  /cei'd?.1 

But  though  this  theory  has  failed  as  a whole,  yet,  owing  to 
the  brilliant  manner  in  which  it  was  first  presented  by  its 
clever  inventor,  and  perhaps  also  to  its  sharing  in  the  charm 
which  attaches  to  all  works  of  the  imagination,  it  has  had 
a certain  success  with  those  who  have  not  clearly  distin- 
guished between  what  was  essential  and  adventitious  in  the 

O 

hypothesis.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann,  to  whom  we  owe  the 
theory,  has  shown  that  epic  legends  and  didactic  motif  are 
closely  united  in  the  epic  as  it  is  to-day ; but  this  is  a veiy 
different  proposition  from  that  of  his  main  thesis,  which  is 
that  complete  books  of  didactic  content  were  parts  of  the 
original  epic.  One  of  these  statements  is  an  indubitable 
fact;  the  other,  an  historical  absurdity. 

This  historical  absurdity,  upheld  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahl- 
mann in  a rapidly  appearing  series  of  somewhat  tautological 
volumes,  is  of  much  wider  application  than  has  perhaps 
occurred  to  the  author.  For  in  the  later  additions,  which 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann  regards  as  primitive  parts  of  the 
epic,  are  found  those  sections  which  reflect  most  clearly  the 
influence  of  Buddhism.  If  these  sections  revert  to  500  B.  c., 
all  that  Buddha  as  a personality  stands  for  in  the  history 
of  Hindu  religious  thought  and  practice  belongs  not  to  him 
but  to  his  antecedents,  and  therewith  vanishes  much  of  the 
glory  of  Buddha.  Though  the  author  has  not  publicly  rec- 
ognized this  obvious  result  of  his  theory,  yet,  since  it  is 
obvious,  it  may  have  appeared  to  some  that  such  a darken- 

1 Almost  identical,  in  fact,  is  the  verdict  on  the  synthetic  argument 
delivered  by  the  veteran  French  critic,  M.  Barth:  “conclusion  audacieuse 
. . . the'orie  absolument  manque'e  ” (Journal  des  Savants,  1897,  pp.  337,  448). 


X 


PREFACE. 


ing  of  the  Light  of  Asia  added  glory  to  the  Light  of  the 
World,  and  this  is  possibly  the  reason  why  the  synthetic 
theory  has  been  received  with  most  applause  by  the  reviewers 
of  religious  journals,  who  are  not  blind  to  its  bearings.  But 
however  important  inferentially,  this  is  a side-issue,  and  the 
historian’s  first  duty  is  to  present  the  facts  irrespective  of 
their  implication. 

On  certain  peculiarities  (already  adversely  criticised  by 
disinterested  scholars)  characteristic  less  of  the  method  of 
investigation  than  of  the  method  of  dialectics  which  it  has 
suited  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dahlmann  to  adopt,  it  is  superfluous  to 
animadvert  in  detail.  Evidence  suppressed  by  one  seeker, 
in  his  zeal  for  truth  as  he  sees  it,  is  pretty  sure  to  be  turned 
up  by  another  who  has  as  much  zeal  and  another  method; 
nor  has  invective  ever  proved  to  be  a satisfactory  substitute 
for  logic.  As  regards  the  claims  of  synthesis  and  analysis, 
each  method  has  its  place,  but  analysis  will  always  have  the 
first  place.  After  it  has  done  its  work  there  will  be  time 
for  honest  synthesis. 

The  material  here  offered  is  by  way  of  beginning,  not  by 
way  of  completing,  the  long  task  of  analyzing  the  great 
epic.  It  is  too  varied  for  one  volume,  and  this  volume  lias 
suffered  accordingly,  especially  in  the  chapters  on  philosophy 
and  the  interrelation  of  the  epics.  But  the  latter  chapter  was 
meant  only  as  a sketch,  and  its  worth,  if  it  has  any,  lies  in 
its  appendix  ; while  the  former  could  be  handled  adequately 
only  by  a philosopher.  The  object  of  these  and  other  chap- 
ters was  partly  to  see  in  how  far  the  actual  data  rendered 
probable  the  claims  of  the  synthetic  method,  hut  more  par- 
ticularly to  give  the  data  without  concealment  or  misstate- 
ment. For  this  reason,  while  a great  deal  of  the  book  is 
necessarily  directed  against  what  appeared  to  be  errors  of 
one  sort  or  another,  the  controversial  point  of  view  has 
not  seldom  been  ignored.  Pending  the  preparation  of  a 


PllEFA  CE. 


xi 


better  text  than  is  at  present  available,  though  Dr.  Winter- 
nitz  encourages  the  hope  of  its  eventual  appearance,  the 
present  studies  are  intended  merely  as  signboards  to  aid 
the  journey  toward  historical  truth.  But  even  if,  as  is 
hoped,  they  serve  to  direct  thither,  they  will  be  rendered 
useless  as  they  are  passed  by.  Whether  they  are  deficient 
in  their  primary  object  will  be  for  travellers  on  the  same 
road  to  say. 


January,  1901. 


CONTENTS, 


PREFACE vii 

CHAPTER  ONE. 

Page 

LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  TIIE  EPIC  POETS  ....  1 

The  Vedas 2 

Divisions  of  Veda 7 

Upanishads 9 

Upavedas  and  Upangas 11 

Sutras 15 

Dharmafastras 17 

Vedic  citations  in  the  Epic 23 

Upanishads  in  the  Epic 27 

The  Cveta^vatara  Upanishad 28 

The  Kathaka  or  Katha  Upanishad 29 

The  Maitri  Upanishad  in  the  Epic 33 

The  Atharvafiras  Upanishad 46 

Ajvalayana  Grhya  Sutra 47 

Puranas  and  Itihasas 47 

Drama 54 

CHAPTER  TWO. 

INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS 58 

CHAPTER  THREE. 

EPIC  PHILOSOPHY 85 

Epic  Systems 85 

Heretics 86 

Authority 


XIV 


CONTENTS. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY — Continued.  Page 

Vedanta 93 

Nyaya 95 

Vaiyesika 96 

The  Four  Philosophies 96 

Kapila  and  his  System 97 

Samkhya  and  Yoga 101 

Fate  and  Free-Will 103 

Samkhya  is  atheistic 104 

Yoga  as  deistic  and  brahmaistic 106 

Difference  between  Samkhya  and  Yoga Ill 

Sects 115 

The  different  Schemata 116 

The  Gunas 119 

Plurality  of  Spirits 122 

The  Twenty -fifth  Principle 125 

Samkhya  is  Samkhyana 126 

The  Samkhya  Scheme 127 

The  Twenty-sixth  Principle 133 

Maya,  Self-Delusion 138 

Panca<;ikha’s  System 142 

The  Thirty-one  Elements  (Pancafikha) 152 

The  Secret  of  the  Vedanta 157 

Details  of  philosophical  speculation 162 

The  Sixty  Constituents  of  Intellect 163 

The  Seventeen 165 

The  Sixteen  (A)  Particles 168 

The  Sixteen  (B)  or  Eleven  Modifications 169 

The  Eight  Sources 170 

The  Vital  Airs  and  Senses 171 

The  Five  Subtile  Elements.  Gross  and  Subtile  Bodies 173 

The  Colors  of  the  Soul 179 

The  Five  Faults  of  a Yogin 181 

Discipline  of  the  Yogin 181 

The  Destructible  and  Indestructible 182 

The  Gods  and  the  Religious  Life 183 

Heaven  and  IIcll  — Death 184 

The  Cosmic  Egg  and  Creations 187 

The  Grace  of  God 188 


CONTENTS. 


xv 


CHAPTER  FOUR. 

Page 

EPIC  VERSIFICATION 191 

Epic  Versification 191 

£loka  and  Tristubh.  The  Padas 194 

Rhyme 200 

Alliteration 202 

Similes  and  Metaphors.  Pathetic  Repetition 205 

Cadence  in  ^loka  and  Tristubh 207 

Tags 211 

Common  forms  of  Qloka  and  Tristubh 214 

The  Epic  £loka.  The  Prior  Pada  of  the  £loka.  The  Pathya . . 219 

The  Vipulas 220 

The  Posterior  Pada  of  the  Qloka 239 

The  Diiambus 242 

Poetic  Licence 244 

The  Hypermetric  £loka 252 

Dialectic  Sanskrit 261 

Prose-Poetry  Tales 266 

The  Epic  Tristubh.  i,  The  Regular  Tristubh  in  the  Mahabharata  273 

Bird’s-eye  View  of  Tristubh  Padas 275 

The  Ramayana  Tristubh 276 

The  Scolius 277 

Catalectic  and  Hypermetric  Tristubhs 281 

ii-iii,  The  Catalectic  Tristubh 282 

iv-ix,  The  Hypermetric  Tristubh.  iv-vi,  Simple  Hypermeters  . 286 
vii-ix,  Double  Hypermeters  or  Tristubhs  of  Thirteen  Syllables  298 

Defective  Tristubhs 299 

v,  b,  and  ix,  Mora-Tristublis 301 

The  Tristubh-Stanza.  Upajatis.  Upendravajras  and  Indravajras  309 

The  Syllaba  Anceps  314 

Emergent  Stanzas 317 

The  Fixed  Syllabic  Metres 321 

Rathoddhata 322 

Bhujamgaprayata 323 

Drutavilambita 324 

Vaijvadevi 325 

Atijagatis.  Rucira 326 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION  — Continued.  Page 

The  Fixed  Syllabic  Metres  (continued)  — 

Praharsini 329 

Mrgendramukha 331 

Asambadha 332 

Vasantatilaka 333 

Malini 334 

Cardulavikridita 336 

Ardhasamavrtta  (Matrachandas).  A — Puspitagra  and  Aparavaktra  336 

B — Anpacchandasika  and  Vaitaliya 341 

Matrachandas  in  the  Mahabharata 343 

Matrasamakas 353 

Ganacchandas 354 

The  Distribution  of  Fancy  Metres  in  the  Epic 356 

CHAPTER  FIVE. 

ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC  ....  363 

CHAPTER  SIX. 

DATE  OF  THE  EPIC 386 


APPENDIX  A.  Parallel  Phrases  in  the  two  Epics  . . 403 

“ B.  Illustrations  of  Epic  ^loka  Forms  . . 446 

“ C.  Illustrations  of  Epic  Tristubh  Forms  . 459 

FINAL  NOTES 471 


INDICES 


477 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


As  most  of  the  references  in  this  volume  are  to  the  Mahabharata,  all 
numbers  without  alphabetical  prefix  refer  to  this  epic  (Bombay  edition,  or 
with  prefix  C.  to  Calcutta  edition);  but  when  necessary  to  distinguish  a 
reference  to  the  Mahabharata  from  a reference  to  the  Ramayana,  I have 
prefixed  M.,  which  therefore  does  not  refer  to  Manu,  but  to  the  great  epic. 
To  bring  the  two  parallel  editions  of  the  epics  into  line,  I have  used  R.  or 
RB.  for  the  Bombay  edition  of  the  Ramayana  also  (rather  than  for  the 
Bengal  text),  and  for  clearness  I employ  G.  for  the  Gorresio  (Bengal)  text 
thus : — 

M.  or  MB.,  Mahabharata,  Bombay  edition. 

R.  or  RB.,  Ramayana,  Bombay  edition. 

C.,  Mahabharata,  Calcutta  edition. 

G.,  Ramayana,  Gorresio’s  edition. 

Other  abbreviations,  such  as  those  usually  employed  to  indicate  native  texts, 
or,  for  example,  ZDMG.  and  JAOS.  for  the  Journals  of  the  German  and 
American  Oriental  Societies  respectively,  require  no  elucidation  for  those 
likely  to  use  them.  Those  using  the  old  edition  of  RB.  must  add  one  to  all 
references  to  sargas  after  vi,  88,  and  two  to  all  after  vi,  107.  Sanskrit 
words  usually  anglicized  have  so  been  written. 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


CHAPTER  ONE. 

LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS. 

Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  the  great  epic  mentions  post- 
epical  as  well  as  prae-epical  works.  To  solve  the  paradox 
it  is  necessary  to  assume  that  the  text  has  been  interpo- 
lated, a fact  admitted  as  a last  recourse  even  by  him  who 
holds  that  the  epic  was  originally  what  it  is  to-day.  But 
interpolations  to  be  referred  to  when  everything  else  fails 
will  not  suffice.  A large  part  of  the  present  epic  is  inter- 
polation, some  of  it  self-interpolated,  so  to  speak.  For,  not 
content  with  receiving  accretions  of  all  sorts,  narrative  and 
didactic,  the  Bharata,  in  default  of  other  sources  of  inter- 
polation, copied  itself.  Thus  the  same  story,  hymn,  and 
continuation  are  found  in  iii,  83,  116  ff.  and  ix,  38,  39  ff. 
The  matter  of  xii,  223  is  simply  enlarged  in  227,  while  xii, 
248-9  repeats  xii,  194  and  then  reappears  again  in  xii,  286. 
An  example  of  reproduction  with  variations  is  found  in  ix,  51, 
50,  as  compared  with  iii,  133,  12  ff.  In  one  case  a youthful 
prodigy  encounters  venerable  sages  and  teaches  them  the 
Veda;  in  the  other  a priest  and  king  are  instructed,  but  with 
the  same  setting  of  proverbial  lore.  So  xii,  185  is  a repro- 
duction of  iii,  213,  1-19;  xii,  277  (8),  of  xii,  175,  etc. 

It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  a work  thus  mechanically 
inflated  should  have  absorbed  older  literature.  But  to  under- 
stand the  relation  between  the  epic  and  the  older  literature 
copied  by  the  epic  it  is  essential  to  know  the  whole  literature 
referred  to  as  well  as  cited.  In  this  chapter,  then,  beginning 
with  the  Vedas,  I shall  follow  the  course  of  revealed  and 

1 


2 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


profane  literature  as  far  as  it  is  noticed  in  the  epic  itself, 
reserving,  however,  for  the  two  following  chapters  the  Iia- 
mayana  and  the  philosophical  systems. 

The  Vedas. 

Allusions  to  Vedic  literature,  veda,  chandas,  mantra,  gruti, 
are  naturally  common  in  every  part  of  the  Mahabharata,  but 
except  in  the  didactic  or  later  epic  these  are  usualty  of  a gen- 
eral character.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  bulk  of  Cruti  or 
revealed  works,  if  not  all  of  it,  was  composed  before  the  epic 
began.  Nevertheless,  it  is  interesting  to  see  which  portions 
of  this  hereditary  literature  are  especially  mentioned,  and 
particularly  important  to  observe  how  the  epic  cites  from 
older  works.  Even  the  fact  that  it  does  cite  verbatim  the 
words  of  the  holy  texts  is  of  historical  moment  when  it  is 
remembered  that  in  other  places  even  women  and  slaves  are 
exhorted  to  hear  the  recital  of  the  epic.1  We  find  indeed  in 
the  course  of  the  epic  narrative  that  a woman  is  taught  Vedic 
mantras,2  but  the  mantras  are  from  the  Atharva  Veda,  which, 
without  being  particularly  slighted,  is  less  regarded  than  the 
older  Vedas,  as  is  shown  by  this  incident;  for  no  woman 
would  have  been  taught  Rig  Veda  verses,  for  example. 

The  Vedas  are  all  mentioned  by  name,  though  the  Atharva 
Veda  is  not  always  recognized  in  the  formal  enumeration. 
The  order  of  precedence  is  not  fixed,  though  its  peculiar 
holiness,  vimala,  is  not  the  reason  why  the  Sanaa  Veda  in  the 
Gita  and  Anugasana  heads  the  list.3  Usually  the  Rig  Veda 
stands  at  the  head  and  the  Atharva,  if  mentioned,  at  the  foot, 
though  the  order  Rk,  Yajus,  Atharvan,  Saman,  and  even 
Atharvan,  Saman,  Rk,  Yajus  is  found;  but  the  last  order 
occurs  only  in  the  didactic  or  later  epic.  The  four  together 
comprise  the  vedag  caturmurtih,  or  fourfold  Veda,  which,  in 

1 Compare  i,  62,  22;  95,  87 ; iii,  85,  103;  xii,  341,  116,  etc. 

2 Tatas  tam  grahayamasa  sa  dvijah  Mantragramain  . . . atharvayirasi 
^rutam  (v.  1.  atharvangirasi),  iii,  305,  20. 

3 For  in  v,  44,  28,  it  has  this  epithet,  yet  stands  last  in  the  list : “ Not  in 
R.  V.,  nor  in  Y.  V.,  nor  in  Atliarvas,  nor  in  the  spotless  Samans.” 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  3 


distinction  from  the  threefold  Veda,  is  often  joined  with  the 
“Veda  of  the  bow.”  The  epic  even  has  caturveda  as  an 
epithet  of  a man, — “one  that  knows  the  four  Vedas” 
(=  caturvaidya), — as  earlier  triveda,  traividya,  is  used  in 
the  same  way  of  one  learned  in  the  three  (caturvidyam  is  a 
pseudo-epic  term  for  the  Vedas).1 

The  tradition  of  “lost  Vedas”2  and  “divided  Vedas ” is 
well  known.  There  was  at  first  but  one  Veda,  but  after  the 
Krta  age  men  became  men  of  three,  men  of  two,  men  of  one, 
and  men  of  no  Vedas,  triveda,  dviveda,  ekaveda,  anrk,  iii,  149, 
14-29,  and  v,  43,  42,  ^astresu  bhinnesu  being  Vedas ; bhinnas 
tada  vedah,  xii,  350,  42  (by  Apantaratamas).  The  last  pas- 
sage is  peculiar  in  the  use  (9I.  41—47)  of  ved alcliyane  (jrutili 
karya,  and  in  the  name  of  Kali  as  krsna  (as  well  as  tisya).3 

The  Veda  is  either  recited,  declared,  or  made,  srsta,  krta. 
The  latter  word  contradicts  the  dogma  declared  in  the  well- 
known  words:  na  hi  cchandansi  kriyante  nityani  cchandansi, 
“ the  Vedas  are  not  made,  they  are  eternal ; ” but  the  sense  is 

1 The  word  triveda  remains  the  usual  form  (tritayam  sevitam  sarvam,  ix, 
64,  21).  Besides  caturveda  as  an  epithet  of  a god  (illustrated  in  PW.)  we  find 
in  the  late  passage  iii,  313, 110  if. : patliakah  pathakag  cai  ’va  ye  ca  ’nye 
$astracintakah  sarve  vyasasino  murkha,  yah  kriyavan  sa  panditah;  catur- 
vedo  'pi  durvrttah  sa  fiidrad  atiricyate,  yo  'gnihotraparo  dantah  sa  brahmana 
iti  smrtah.  On  the  order  of  names  referred  to  above : the  lead  of  the  Atharva 
is  found  also  in  the  Mahabhasya  (IS.  xiii,  p.  432) ; the  epic  passage  is  xiii,  17, 
91.  The  name  is  here  atharvana  or  atharvana,  xiii,  93,  136  ; 94,  44.  Exam- 
ples of  the  usual  order  are  rco  yajunsi  samani,  i,  1,  66 ; ix,  36,  34 ; xii,  252,  2 
(rco  yajunsi  samani  yo  veda  na  sa  vai  dvijah) ; rgvedah  samavedaf  ca  yajur- 
veda?  ca  atharvaveda9  ca,  ii,  11,  32  ; iii,  189,  14,  atharvanah.  In  v,  18,  6-7, 
it  is  said  that  the  name  Atharvaiigiras  will  eventually  belong  to  the  Atharva 
Veda.  The  word  samani  is  not  restricted  to  this  Veda.  Thus  Dliaumya,  a 
Purohita  and,  therefore,  as  Weber  has  shown,  presumably  an  Atharvan 
priest,  sings  incantations  of  destruction,  samani  raudrani  yamyani  (gayan),  ii, 
80,  8.  On  the  expression  atharvavede  vede  ca,  see  below.  For  the  order  of 
names,  compare  my  Ruling  Caste,  p.  112 ; and  see  Holtzmann,  Das  Mahabha- 
rata,  iv,  p.  5;  for  further  passages  (for  the  AV.  in  particular),  Bloomfield, 
SBE.  xiii,  p.  liii. 

2 On  this  aeonic  occurrence  (xii,  210,  16  if.),  compare  vedafrutih  pranasta, 
xii,  346,  9,  the  story  in  348,  and  the  quotation  in  the  text  below.  The  modi- 
fied vrata,  rules,  vikriyante  vedavadah,  are  referred  to  in  xii,  233,  38. 

3 The  former  as  Ivali  is  still  starred  in  pw.  The  latter  is  masculine  in  R. 
vi,  35,  14  (also  starred  as  such  in  pw.).  The  word  occurs  also  in  xii,  341,  86. 


4 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


not  opposed,  as  the  maker  is  God  (vedakarta  vedango  veda- 
vakanah,  iii,  3,  19),  who  only  emits  the  Vedas  as  he  does  all 
else  when  the  new  aeon  begins.  The  more  decided  “make” 
is  found  of  seers,  however,  in  the  Harivaiiga,  mantrabrahmana- 
kartarah,  mantrakrtak,1  seers  and  descendants  of  seers,  just 
as  there  is  a Mahabharatakrt  and  Itiliasasya  karta,  or 
ivrcov,  though  he  too  is  divine.2  The  gods  who  are  credited 
with  the  making  of  the  Vedas3  are  Fire  and  Sun,  as  All-God 
(above),  or  especially  Brahman,  and  in  the  later  epic  Vishnu. 
It  was  Brahman  who  “ first  recited  the  Vedas,”  vedan  jagau, 
v,  108,  10.  With  a natural  inversion,  “Brahman  created 
brahman  ” (whereas  in  reality  brahman  created  Brahman),  ac- 
cording to  another  passage,  xii,  188,  1-2.  Compare : ya  ime 
brakmana  prokta  mantra  vai  proksane  gavam  ete  pramanam 
bhavata  uta  ’ho  na,  v,  17,  9-10.  The  Self-existent,  according 
to  xii,  328,  50,  created  the  Vedas  to  praise  the  gods,  stutyar- 
tham  iha  devanaih  vedah  srstah  svayambhuva.  Krsna,  who  is 
krtagama,  in  xiii  149,  97,  takes  the  place  of  the  more  general 
term.  Compare  xii,  340,  105 : 

yada  vedacrutir  nasta  maya  pratyalirta  punah 
savedah  sagrutlkag  ca  krtdh  purvaih  krte  yuge 
(atikrantah  puranesu  grutas  te  yadi  va,  kvacit), 

and  nirmita  veda  yajnag  cau  ’sadhibhih  saha,  ib.  341,  66,  with 
xiii,  145,  61,  agama  lokadharmanam  maryadah  puivanii’- 
mitah.4 

1 jayantv  ’lia  punah  punah  Mantrabrahmanakartarah  dharrae  pra^ithile 
tatha,  H.  1,  7,  56. 

2 Ivrsna  Dvaipayana,  also  called  Kuruvahfakara,  xii,  347,  13;  xiii,  18, 
43-44.  The  recitation  of  the  Vedas  is  a matter  of  scientific  study.  When 
they  are  “loudly  recited  in  the  proper  way,”  sayaiksya,  they  fill  (other)  winds 
with  fear,  and  therefore  should  not  be  recited  when  a high  wind  is  blowing, 
xii,  329,  23-56. 

8 For  the  gods  and  especially  for  the  part  of  Brahman  in  creating  the  Vedas 
and  the  transfer  of  his  office  to  Vishnu  in  the  epic,  see  lloltzinann,  ZDMG. 
xxxviii,  p.  188,  and  Das  Mahiibharata,  iv,  p.  6. 

4 The  v.  1.  sarva  is  wrong.  The  word  iigama  usually  refers  to  Veda,  but  not 
always.  Compare  xiii,  104, 156,  iigamanam  hi  sarvesam  acarah  grestha  ucyate ; 
i,  2,  36,  itihasah  yresthah  sarvagamesv  ayam ; xii,  59,  139,  agamah  purana- 
nam.  It  means  any  received  work,  particularly  the  Vedas. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  5 


In  late  passages  the  two  earliest  forms  of  the  text  (the 
latest  forms  are  unknown)  together  with  the  accents  of  the 
texts  are  especially  mentioned.1 

In  the  important  numerical  analysis  of  xii,  343,  07-98,  the 
Rig  Veda  is  said  to  “have  twenty-one  thousand”;  while  the 
Sama  Veda  has  “one  thousand  branches”;  and  the  adhva- 
ryava  or  Yajus  has  “fifty-six  and  eight  and  thirty-seven 
(one  hundred  and  one)  branches.”  Probably  “twenty-one 
branches”  is  the  real  meaning  in  the  case  of  the  Rig  Veda. 
Here  too  are  mentioned  the  gTtis,  songs  or  verses  (a  rather 
unusual  word)  found  in  the  branches  in  their  numerous  divi- 
sions, tjakhabhedah,  (jakhasu  gltayah.2 

It  is  evident  from  this  statement  that,  as  Weber  says  of  the 
passage  in  the  Mahabhasya,  we  are  dealing  with  a period 
when  the  number  of  Yajur  Veda  schools  is  greater  than  that 
recognized  in  the  Caranavyuha,  which  gives  only  eighty-six. 
Another  verse  of  this  book  recognizes  ten  thousand  rcas : 
“ This  ambrosia  churned  from  the  wealth  of  all  the  dharma- 
klryanas,  the  satyakhyana,  and  the  ten  thousand  rcas,”  xii, 

1 rgvedah  padakramavibhusitah,  xiii,  85,  90;  atliarvavedapravarah  puga- 
yajniyasamagah  sarhhitam  irayanti  sma  padakramayutam  tu  te,  i,  70,  40. 
Galava,  Babhravyagotra,  Pancala,  the  grammarian,  through  the  especial  grace 
of  the  deity  and  being  instructed  in  the  method  of  Vamadeva,  became  a 
shining  light  as  a krama  specialist,  xii,  343,  100  ff. ; laksanani  svarastobha 
niruktam  surapaiiktayah,  xiii,  85,  91  (together  with  nigraha  and  pragraha); 
svaraksaravyanjanahetuyuktaya  (gira),  iii,  297,  20. 

2 The  verse  translated  above  is  ekavih?atisahasram  (rgvedam  mam  pra- 
caksate).  Twenty-one  thousand  what!  Not  stanzas,  for  the  Big  Veda  has 
only  half  so  many  (Miiller,  ASL.  p.  220).  On  the  other  hand,  the  passage 
agrees  closely  with  one  in  the  Mahabhasya  (IS.  xiii,  p.  430),  where  the  cor- 
responding words  are  “twenty-one  fold,”  after  vartma  (school):  ekafatam 
adhvaryufakhah,  sahasravartma  samavedah,  ekavin?atidha  bahvrcyam  (a 
word  implied  in  Mbit,  xv,  10,  11,  “Samba  the  bahvrcah”),  navadha  atharvano 
vedah.  The  epic  text,  closely  corresponding,  is : ekavinfatisahasram  rgvedam 
. . . sahasra^akham  yat  sama  . . . satpanca5atam  astau  ca  sapta  trihfatam 
ity  uta  yasmin  £akha  yajurvede,  so  'ham  adhvaryave  smrtah,  pancakalpam 
atharvanam  krtyabhih  paribrmhitam  kalpayanti  hi  mam  vipra  atliarvana- 
vidas  tatha.  There  can  scarcely  be  a doubt  that  for  the  text  above  we 
should  read  ekavinijat^akham  yam,  as  the  parallel  suggests,  for  the  text  as 
it  stands  is  unintelligible.  I regret  that  Weber  has  not  noticed  the  epic  pas- 
sage, so  that  I cannot  cite  his  opinion. 


6 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


247,  14,  where  the  commentator  says  that  this  is  a general 
number,  implying  a fraction  over  10,5804 

In  the  account  of  the  later  epic  we  have  a parallel  to  that 
of  the  Vayu  Purana,  where  the  latter,  lxi,  120  £f.,  is  account- 
ing for  the  successive  editions  of  the  Vedas : 

avartamana  rsayo  yugakhyasu  punah  punah 
lcurvanti  samhita  hy  ete  jayamanah  parasparam 
astagltisahasrani  grutarsmaih  smrtani  vai 
ta  eva  samhita  hy  ete  avartante  punah  punah 
grit  a daksinam  panthanam  ye  gmagandni  bhejire2 
yuge  yuge  tu  tah  gakha  vyasyante  taih  punah  punah 
dvaparesv  iha  sarvesu  samhitag  ca  grutarsibhih 
tesarii  gotresv  irnah  gakha  bhavantl  ’ha  punah  punah 
tah  gakhas  tatra  kartaro  bhavantl  ’ha  yugaksayat 

The  eighty  thousand  Vedic  seers  here  mentioned  are  those 
of  the  Harivahga  (loc.  cit.) : ye  gruyante  divam  prapta  rsayo 
hy  urdhvaretasah  mantrabrahmanakartaro  jayante  ha  yuga- 
ksaye.  They  are  mentioned  elsewhere  in  the  Vayu  Purana, 
viii,  184,  and  in  the  epic  itself,  ii,  11,  54,  in  the  same  words : 

astagltisahasrani  rslnam  urdhvaretasam, 
a verse  found  also  in  the  Mahabhasya  (IS.  xiii,  p.  483). 

1 Compare  further  the  da?a  pahea  (ca)  yajunsi,  learned  from  Arka  by  the 
author  of  the  Qatapatha  Brahmana,  in  xii,  319,  21.  The  word  carana,  in  the 
sense  of  school,  occurs  in  xii,  171,  2,  prsta?  ca  gotracaranarh  svadhyayam 
bralimacarikam ; xiii,  G3,  18,  na  preehed  gotracaranam.  The  mantras  of  the 
special  septs  are  referred  to  in  the  late  hymn  to  the  Sun  (Mihira),  iii,  3,  39: 
(tvam  brahmanah)  svagakhavihitiiir  mantrair  arcanti.  The  commentator 
cited  above  gives  as  his  authority  for  the  number  of  stanzas  in  the  Big  Veda 
a lame  couplet  of  the  Qakalaka : ream  dafasahasrani  ream  pancafatani  ca 
ream  agitih  padag  cai-’tat  parayanam  ucyata,  iti. 

2 They  are  referred  to,  but  not  as  Veda-makers,  in  Yaj.  iii,  18G,  and  in  Ap. 
Dh.  S.,  ii,  9,  23,  3-5  (as  being  mentioned  “in  a Purana”).  Yajnavalkya  calls 
them  the  astagitisahasra  munayah  punaravartinah  . . . dharmapravartakah. 
The  Purana  referred  to  by  Apastamba  may  be  the  one  cited  above,  though 
in  another  form,  since  the  words  have  a different  application.  There  is  here  a 
pragamsa  of  the  urdhvaretasas : astagltisahasrani  ye  prajam  isira  rsayah  < laksi- 
ifena’ryamijah  panthanam  te  gmaganani  bhejire,  etc.  Compare  Pragna  Up.  i,  9,  ta 
eva  punaravartante  tasrnad  ete  rsaya  prnjakiiina  daksinam  pratipadyaute. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  7 


Divisions  of  Veda. 

Reference  is  seldom  made  to  Samhita,  Brahmana,  or  Ara- 
nyaka.  The  “ peruser  of  Samhita,”  samhitadhyayin,  is 
alluded  to  in  i,  107,  8,  and  xiii,  143,  56.  The  word  is  used 
also  of  the  epic,  Vyasa’s  Samhita,  the  fifth  Veda.  In  xii, 
201,  8,  sangha  may  he  used  in  the  same  sense  of  collection, 
but  it  probably  means  a quantity.  I will  give  the  passage, 
however,  as  it  enumerates  the  usual  (i,  170,  75,  etc.)  six 
Vedangas,  though  in  an  order  constrained  by  the  metre  (they 
and  the  Upangas  will  he  discussed  below,  under  Upavedas) : 

rksamasanganq  ca  yajuhsi  ca  ’pi 

cchandansi  naksatragatim  niruktam 
adhltya  ca  vyakaranam  sakalpaiii 
qiksaiii  ca,  bhutaprakrtiih  na  vedmi, 

“Although  I have  studied  collections  of  hymns  and  chants  and 
the  sacrificial  formulas,  and  also  prosody,  astrology,  etymology, 
grammar,  ritual,  and  phonetics,  I do  not  know  the  First  Cause  of 
being.” 

Brahmanas  are  mentioned  in  xii,  269,  33-34,  as  the  source 
of  sacrifice,  and  in  iii,  217,  21 , “ the  different  Agnis  named 
in  the  Brahmanas, ” brahmanesu.  In  xiii,  104,  137,  “rites 
declared  in  the  Veda  by  Brahmanas,”  the  word  means  priests. 
Possibly  Gita,  17,  23,  brahmanah  (and  vedah)  may  be  woiks, 
as  the  epic  is  not  particular  in  regard  to  the  gender  of  these 
words  (purana,  itihasa,  and  mahabhuta  are  both  masculine  and 
neuter).  Yajnavalkya’s  ^atapatha  Brahmana  alone  is  named, 
with  all  its  latest  additions  (krtsnam  saraliasyam  sasamgra- 
harh  saparicesam  ca),  xii,  319,  11,  and  16.  So  ib.  24,  25,  and 
34 : “I  resolve  in  mind  the  Upanishad  (BA.)  and  the  Pari- 
qesa  (the  last  part),  observing  also  logic,  the  best  science, 
anvlksikl  para,  and  declare  the  fourth  transcendental  science 
or  science  of  salvation,  samparayika,  based  on  the  twenty-fifth 
(Yoga)  principle.”  1 Other  Brahmanas  may  be  implied  in  the 

1 In  the  expression,  loc.  cit.,  fl.  10,  vedah  sakhilah  so  ’ttarah,  uttara  refers 
to  the  Upanishads  (not  to  the  philosophy).  The  Khila  Supplement  is  men- 
tioned again  in  the  Harivanja  (Holtzmann). 


8 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


list  at  xii,  337,  7 ff.,  Tandya,  Katha,  Kanva,  Taittiri.1  As 
“prose  works,”  gadya,  this  class  of  works  is  perhaps  recog- 
nized in  iii,  26,  3,  in  the  words:  “The  thrilling  sound  of 
yajuhsi,  rcah,  samani,  and  gadyani”  (as  they  were  recited). 

Whether  pravacana,  exposition,  means  Angas  or  Brahma- 
nas  or  perhaps  Sutras,  I do  not  know.  The  (Upanishad) 
word  occurs  in  a verse  found  also  in  Manu,  where  the  com- 
mentator explains  it  as  Ahga,  to  which  the  objection  may  be 
made  that  the  Angas  have  already  been  mentioned.  But  the 
passage  is  not  without  importance  as  showing  how  the  didac- 
tic or  later  epic  adds  elements  to  the  simpler  statement  of 
the  earlier  law-books.  In  xiii,  90,  36,  the  pankteyas,  or  men 
who  may  he  invited  to  sit  in  the  row  at  a funeral  feast,  are 
not  only  the  agryah  sarvesu  vedesu  sarvapravacanesu  ca  of 
Manu  iii,  184,  and  the  list  of  iii,  185,  trinaciketah  pancagnis 
trisuparnah  sadangavid  (v.  1.  brahmadeyanusantanag  chandogo 
jyestasamagah)  in  90,  26,  but,  among  others,  the  atharvagi- 
raso  'dliyeta,  29  (a  rare  word) ; “ those  who  cause  the  Itihasa 
to  be  read  to  the  regenerate,”  33 ; those  who  are  “acquainted 
with  commentaries,”  bhasyavidas  (or  know  the  Mahabhasya?),2 
and  are  “ delighted  with  grammar,”  vyakarane  ratah,  34 ; 
those  who  “ study  the  Purana  and  the  Dharmagastras  ” ; those 
who  “ bathe  in  holy  pools,”  ye  ca  punyesu  tlrthesu  abhise- 
kakrtagramah,  30  (a  practice  not  extolled  by  Manu,  whose 
view  seems  to  be  that  of  Agastya,  asti  me  kagcit  tlrthebhyo 
dharmasarhgayah ! xiii,  25,  5).  The  bharate  vidvan,  xiii,  76, 
18,  is  naturally  extolled  in  the  epic,  and  yet  even  with  this 
latitude  we  must  see  in  the  list  above  a distinct  advance  on 
the  position  held  by  the  early  law-makers,  to  whom  it  was 
not  enough  for  a man  to  recite  the  epic  (not  to  speak  of 
grammar  and  bhasya-knowers  as  being  ipso  facto  paiikteyas) 
to  be  deemed  worthy  of  invitation.  Even  Vishnu’s  Smrti  is 
here  exceeded,  and  Manu  and  the  Sutras  have  nothing  in  any 
degree  parallel.  Even  if  we  say  that  the  list  is  on  a par  with 

1 The  Taittiri  dispute  is  referred  to  in  xii,  310,  17  ff. 

a But  bhasya  may  mean  any  reasoned  exposition,  bhasyani  tarkayuktiini, 
ii,  11,  35. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  9 


Vishnu  alone,  although  it  really  exceeds  it  in  liberality,  we 
thereby  put  this  epic  passage  on  a par  with  a law-book  later 
than  any  that  can  be  referred  to  the  Sutra  period,  later  than 
Manu  also  and  probably  Yajflavalkya.1 

Almost  as  rare  as  the  mention  of  Brahmanas  is  that  of  Ara- 
nyakas.  In  the  passage  cited  above,  xii,  343,  stanza  98  lias 
as  elsewhere  the  singular,  gayanty  aranyake  vipra  madbha- 
ktah.  So  ib.  340,  8:  “ Hari  sings  the  four  Vedas  and  the 
Aranyaka”  (as  forest,  e.  g.,  ib.  337,  11,  aranyakapadodbhuta 
bhagah) ; and  in  xii,  349,  29-31,  the  Krishna  religion  has 
“ mysteries,  abstracts,  and  Aranyaka.”  Compare  also  v,  175, 
38,  Qastre  ca  ’ranyake  guruh,  “ a man  of  weight  in  code  and 
esoteric  wisdom  ” ; xii,  344,  13,  aranyakam  ca  vedebhyah 
(yatlia),  where  the  kathamrtam  or  essence  of  story  of  the 
expanded  Bharata,  Bharatakhyanavistara  of  100,000  glokas,2 
is  compared  to  the  Aranyaka  as  the  essence  of  the  Vedas  (a 
simile  repeated  at  i,  1,  265).  The  word  is  in  fact  general- 
ized, like  Upanishad.  But  as  a literary  class  it  is  found  in 
the  plural  in  xii,  19,  17,  vedavadan  atikramya  §astrany 
aranyakani  ca  . . . saram  dadrgire  na  te,  “ they  ran  over  the 
words  of  the  Vedas,  the  Cits  tr  as,  and  the  Aranyakas,  without 
discovering  their  inner  truth.”  Here  Veda  does  not  connote 
Aranyaka. 

Upanishads. 

The  Upanishads  are  alluded  to  in  the  singular,  collec- 
tively, or  distributively  in  the  plural.  They  are  generally 
grouped  with  the  Angas  and  are  called  Upanishads,  rahasyas, 
mysteries,  Brahma  Veda,  and  Vedanta ; while  like  the  Ara- 
nyakas they  are  logically  excluded  from  the  Veda  of  which 
they  are  supposed  in  ordinary  parlance  to  form  part.3  The 

1 Vishnu,  ch.  83;  Manu,  loc.  eit. ; Yaj.i,  219;  Ap.  ii,  17;  Gaut.  xv;  Vas.  xi. 
I doubt  whether  the  “ Atharvajiras-reader  ” can  imply  the  Qiras-vow,  but  even 
this  is  a comparatively  late  touch,  Baudh.  ii,  14,  2,  in  this  regard. 

2 Note  that  the  number  of  verses  show  that  the  ITarivanfa  already  existed 
when  this  passage  was  written.  Compare  ib.  340,  28. 

3 I mean  that  in  the  current  phrase  vedah  sangah  or  sopanisadah  the  sa 
should  differentiate  as  much  as  it  does  in  the  parallel  phrase  rgvedah  saya- 


10 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


word  upanisad  has  two  distinct  but  current  meanings  in  the 
epic.  It  means  on  the  one  hand  mystery,  secret  wisdom, 
essential  truth,  essence,  as  in  xiii,  78,  4,  gavam  upanisadvid- 
van,  “ wise  in  cow-mysteries,”  and  in  iii,  207,  67  = xii,  252, 
11,  vedasyo  ’panisat  satyam,  satyasyo  ’panisad  damah,  “truth 
is  the  secret  wisdom  (essence)  of  the  Veda,  patience  the 
essence  of  truth.”  So  in  the  common  phrase,  vedaQ  ca  sopa- 
nisadah,  xiii,  85,  92,  etc.,  the  word  may  mean  mysteries.  This 
I think  is  the  explanation  of  the  employment  of  the  word 
mahopanisad  in  vii,  143,  34-35,  where  Bhuri§ravas  devotes 
himself  to  pray  a before  death  in  battle.  He  is  a muni  here 
and  desires  to  ascend  to  the  world  of  Brahman,  so  he  sits 
down  in  Yoga  contemplation  and  meditates  the  “ great  Upa- 
nishad,'’  dhyayan  mahopanisadam  yogayukto  'bhavan  munih. 
On  comparing  the  scene  where  Drona  is  in  the  same  situa- 
tion, vii,  192,  52,  we  find  that  he  says  om,  and  this  mystery 
of  om  is  probably  the  meaning  of  mahopanisad,  which  cannot 
be  a work  here,  as  is  mahopanisadam  in  xii,  340,  111.  But  in 
other  cases  Upanishad  is  clearly  a literary  work,  even  stand- 
ing in  antithesis  to  the  mysteries  with  which  it  is  sometimes 
identical,  as  it  is  in  the  form  upanisa  in  the  Pali  scriptures.1 

jurvedah,  or  in  yad  etad  ucyate  gastre  se  ’tiliase  ca  cliandasi,  xiii,  111,  42. 
But  it  is  very  likely  that  the  term  was  used  to  mean  “including”  (as  part  of 
the  Yeda).  On  the  use  of  singular  and  plural  referred  to  above,  compare  sa 
raja  rajadharmang  ca  brahmopanisadam  tatha  avaptavan,  xv,  35,  2;  saiigo- 
panisadan  vedan  viprag  ca’  dhiyate,  i,  64, 19,  etc.  For  Vedanta  and  Vedantah, 
meaning  Upanishads,  compare  iv.  51,  10,  vedantag  ca  puranani  itihasam  (!) 
puratanam ; xiii,  16,  43,  (Qiva)  yarn  ca  vedavido  vedyam  vedante  ca  pratisthi- 
tam  . . . yarn  viganti  japanti  ca ; H.  3,  10,  67,  puranesu  vedante  ca.  I may 
mention  here  also  the  works  called  Nisads,  which  are  referred  to  (or  invented) 
only,  if  I mistake  not,  in  xii,  47,  26,  yam  vakesv  anuvakesu  nisatsupanisatsu 
ca  grnanti  satyakarmanam  satyam  satyesu  samasu. 

1 Kern,  SBE.  xxi,  p.  317.  Compare  for  the  use  of  the  word,  xii,  246,  15, 
where  it  is  said  that  the  Upanishads  inculcate  the  four  modes  of  life,  caturthag 
cau  ’panisado  dharmah  sadharanah  smrtah ; and  xiii,  84,  6,  where  it  is  said 
that  Vedopanisadas  inculcate  that  earth,  cows,  or  gold  must  be  the  sacrificial 
fee.  As  we  find  vedah  sarahasyah  sasamgrahah  and  vedavedangabhasyavit, 
xii,  325,  22-23,  so  in  viii,  87,  42,  reference  is  made  to  “ all  the  Vedas,  with 
Tales  as  the  fifth  Veda,  together  with  Upavedas,  Upanishads,  mysteries,  and 
abstracts”  (samgraha).  Karada  is  said  to  be  vedopanisadam  vettii  itihasa- 
puranajfiah  . . . sadangavit  and  smrtimiin,  ii,  5,  2 fE.  The  use  in  iii,  251,  23, 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  11 


Upavedas  and  Upaiigas. 

The  Upavedas  or  subsidiary  Vedas  are  three  in  number, 
AyurVeda,  Dhanur  Veda,  and  Gandharva  Veda.  To  these 
is  added  in  other  works  Sthapatya  Veda,  but  this  term  is  not 
recognized  in  the  epic,  and  the  commentator  on  vii,  202,  75, 
recognizes  only  three,  those  just  given,  or  Medicine,  Archery, 
and  Music ; but  the  fourth,  Architecture,  is  known  (only 
in  the  epic  introduction),  as  Vastuvidyil.1  Authors  are  as- 
signed to  these  and  other  works  in  xii,  210,  20,  Brhaspati 
being  the  originator  of  all  the  Vediingas;  Bhrgu’s  son,  of 
Nlti§astra,  law ; Narada,  of  music ; Bharadvaja,  of  the  sci- 
ence of  arms  (particularly  archery) ; Gargya,  of  tales  of 
the  doings  of  seers  (devarsicarita)  ; and  Krsnatreya,  of  med- 
icine (cikitsita).  They  are  all  contrasted  with  other  Nyaya- 
tantrani,  which  like  these  were  created  at  the  beginning  of 
the  aeon  as  an  aid  in  understanding  Brahman  (expounded  by 
hetu,  agama,  and  sadacara,  or  x-eason,  faith,  and  common  con- 
sent of  good  men,  ib.  22).  It  is  noteworthy  that  Narada,  not 
Bharata,  is  found  in  this  connection,  and  that  Krsnatreya 
takes  the  place  elsewhere  given  to  Bharadvaja. 

Of  the  first  of  these  subsidiary  Vedas,  the  epic  naturally 
gives  little  information,  though  burdened  with  much  medici- 
nal knowledge  which  may  be  referred  to  some  uncited  work 
on  medicine.  Native  scholars  imagine  that  the  correspond- 
ing Upanishad  passages  imply  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
also  thought  to  be  recorded  in  xii,  185,  15,  prasthita  hrdayat 
. . . vahanti  annarasan  nadyah : “ The  veins  convey  (all  over 

would  suggest  that  Upanishad  is  a sort  of  Sutra,  for  here  a spirit  is  summoned 
by  means  of  “mantras  declared  by  Brhaspati  and  Uganas  ; by  those  declared 
in  the  Atharva  Veda ; and  by  rites  in  the  Upanishad,”  yag  eo  ’panisadi  krivah. 
I am  not  certain  how  to  interpret  pathyase  stutibhig  cai  ’va  vedopanisadam 
ganaih  xii,  285,  126. 

1 Thus  the  architect,  sutradhara,  sthapati,  is  vastuvidyavigarada,  i,  51, 15 
(the  sutrakarmavigarada  of  G.  ii,  87, 1).  Architectural  Castras  are  mentioned 
in  i,  134,  10-11.  As  a fourth  to  the  three  is  elsewhere  set  the  Arthagastra. 
These  as  a group  are  added  to  the  other  vidyas  (see  note  below  on  the  sixty- 
four  arts  and  fourteen  sciences).  But  in  the  epic,  Arthagastra  is  not  grouped 
with  the  Upavedas. 


12 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  IN  Dr  A. 


the  body)  the  food-essences,  starting  from  the  hrdaya  ” (heart 
or  chest).  But  a direct  citation  is  the  allusion,  under  the 
cover  of  an  “it  is  said,”  to  the  constituents  pitta,  §lesman, 
vayu  (also  vata,  pitta,  kapha),  which  make  the  threefold 
body,  tridhatu,  according  to  the  Aryurvedins.1  In  the  epic 
Kliila  and  in  the  Kaccit  and  eleventh  chapters  of  Sabha,  both 
late  additions  to  the  epic,2  the  science  of  medicine  is  said  to 
have  eight  branches  (ii,  5,  90;  11,  25).  Possibly  in  iii,  71, 
27,  (Mihotra  may  represent  the  veterinary  science  of  iv,  12,  7. 

The  Dhanur  Veda,  literally  Veda  of  the  bow,  is  often 
joined  with  the  regular  Vedas,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  epic 
poetry,  ix,  44,  21-22,  etc.  It  is  called  also  isvastra,  weapons, 
and  is  said  to  be  fourfold  and  to  have  ten  divisions.  In  the 
Kaccit  chapter  just  referred  to  it  is  said  to  have  a Sutra  like 
other  Vedas,  and  at  the  time  this  was  written  it  is  very  prob- 
able that  such  was  the  case,  though,  as  I have  shown  else- 
where, the  knight’s  study  of  Dhanur  Veda  consists  in  prac- 
tice not  in  study  of  books.  This  Bow-Veda,  archery,  is 
opposed  sometimes  to  the  four  Vedas  alone,  sometimes  to 
the  Upanishads  and  Brahma  Veda,  while  on  the  other  hand 
it  is  associated  with  various  Sutras,  arts,  and  Nltigastras. 
The  priority  of  Dhanur  Veda  in  the  phrase  dhanurvede  ca 
vede  ca,  found  in  both  epics,  is  due  partly  to  metrical  con- 
venience and  partly  to  the  greater  importance  of  this  Veda 
in  the  warrior’s  education : 3 na  tasya  vediidhyayane  tatha 
buddliir  ajayata  yatha  ’sya  buddhir  abhavad  dhanurvede, 
“ Plis  intelligence  was  more  developed  in  learning  how  to 
use  a bow  than  in  perusing  holy  texts,”  i,  130,  3 ; dhanur- 

1 xii,  343,  86-87:  pittam  Resina  ca  vayu?  ca  esa  sarhghata  ucyate,  etaip 
ca  dharyate  jantur  etaih  ksinaif  ca  ksiyate,  ayurvedavidas  tasmat  tridha- 
tum  mam  pracaksate.  Compare  vi,  84,  41,  cited  in  PW.,  and  also  xiv,  12, 
3,  £itosne  cai  Va  vayu?  ca  gunah  . . . farirajah,  whose  equality  is  health 
(N.  kaphapittc).  Some  notes  on  epic  anatomy  will  be  given  later. 

2 The  lateness  of  the  Kaccit  chapter  I have  discussed  elsewhere,  Am. 
Journ.  Phil.,  vol.  xix,  p.  147  ff.  A noteworthy  statement  on  disease  is  that 
of  xii,  10,  9,  which  attributes  all  mental  disease  to  the  body  and  all  bodily 
disease  to  the  mind,manasaj  jayate  farirah  (vyadhih),  “bodily  ailment  arises 
from  mental  (ailment).” 

8 The  same  is  partially  true  of  atharvavede  vede  ca,  xiii,  10,  37,  etc. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  13 


vedaparatvat,  ib.  4.1  It  is  the  Ksatra  Veda  or  knightly  science 
par  excellence,  R.  i,  65,  23  (with  Brahma  Veda). 

The  science  of  music,  Gandharva  Veda,  consists  according 
to  iii,  91,  14,  in  the  knowledge  of  singing,  dancing,  chanting, 
and  playing  on  musical  instruments,  gTtaiii  nrtyam  ca  sama 
ca  vaditraih  ca,  not  including  apparently  the  Natasutra  or 
manual  for  actors  mentioned  by  Panini.  The  seven  musical 
scales,  vanl  saptavidha,  ii,  11,  34,  are  a branch  of  study. 
The  three  notes  of  the  drum  are  spoken  of  2 and  the  names 
of  the  notes  of  the  regular  scale,  gamut,  are  given.  Further 
citations  in  this  regard  will  be  made  hereafter. 

These  Upavedas  are  associated  with  the  chief  Vedas  (vedah 
and  upavedah,  vii,  202,  75,  etc.),  much  as  are  the  Vedangas, 
Upanishads,  and  Tales,  and  are  distinguished  as  well  from  the 
£astras  and  Sutras  mentioned  in  the  passage  already  noticed, 
ii,  1 1,  32-33,  though  (jjastra  is  a general  term  including  Upa- 
veda.  The  Aiigas  are  the  customary  six  mentioned  above, 
and  are  generally  referred  to  as  in  i,  104, 12,  vedarii  sadangam 
pratyadhlyata ; or  without  number,  as  in  i,  156,  5,  brahmam 
vedam  adhlyana  vedangani  ca  sarvacah,  nitigastram  ca  sarva- 
jnah.3  These  again  have  their  subsidiary  branches,  Upangas, 
vedah  sangopangah  savistarah,  iii,  64,  17  ; Uganas’  and  Brha- 
spati’s  gastra  with  Aiigas  and  Upangas,  i,  100,  36-38.  The 
similarity  of  phrase  in  iii,  99,  26  and  elsewhere,  vedah  saiigo- 
panisadah,  might  suggest  that  Upiingas  were  Upanishads,  but 
they  are  more  probably  a species  of  Upavedas.  The  term  is 

1 This  Veda  is  constantly  mentioned,  e.  g.  i,  130,  21 ; 221,  72  ; iii,  37,  4;  ix, 
6,  14,  dafangam  ya£  catuspadam  isvastram  veda  tattvatah,  sangans  tu  caturo 
redan  samyag  akhyanapancaman.  The  phrase  dhanurrede  ca  rede  ca  occurs, 
for  example,  in  i,  109, 19.  In  It.  v,  35,  14,  Rama  is  described  as  “ trained  in 
the  Tajur  Veda  . . . and  skilled  in  dhanurvede  ca  vede  ca  vedangesu  ca  (the 
Yajur  Veda  only,  to  which  Valmlki  belonged,  is  here  mentioned).  Elsewhere 
the  science  takes  its  proper  place,  as  in  M.  iii,  277,  4,  vedesu  sarahasresu  dlia- 
nurvedesu  paragah,  where  the  plural  is  noteworthy. 

2 iii,  20, 10,  trihsama  hanyatam  esa  dundubhih.  The  vina  madhuralapa, 
sweet-voiced  lyre,  is  spoken  of  as  gandharvarii  sadliu  murchatl  (=  murclia- 
yanti),  iv,  17,  14.  The  gandliarvam  is  the  third  note  of  the  seven,  xii,  184,  39 
= xiv,  50,  53. 

8 Compare  brahme  vede  ca  paragah  contrasted  with  astranam  ca  dha- 
nurvede, vii,  23,  39.  So  Brahma  Veda,  B.  i,  65,  23  (above),  not  as  AV. 


14 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


one  associated  with  Jain  rather  than  early  Brahmanic  litera- 
ture, and  is  not  explained  by  the  commentator.1  Yedas, 
Puranas,  Aiigas,  and  Upangas  are  sometimes  grouped  to- 
gether, as  in  xii,  335,  25  (vedesu  sapuranesu  sangopangesu 
glyase,  the  prior  pada  found  again,  e.  g.  in  342,  6).  The 
Aiigas  commonly  mentioned  in  particular  are  the  calendar- 
knowledge,  Jyotisa,  and  etymology,  Niruktam.  The  latter 
word,  indeed,  generally  means  only  an  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  a word,  hut  it  occurs  also  as  the  title  of  a specific 
literary  work  in  xii,  343,  73,  where  we  find  mentioned  not 
only  “ Yaska’s  Nirukta,”  together  with  Naighantuka,  but 
vocabularies  and  lexicographies.2  A curious  contemplation 
of  Krishna  as  the  divine  sound  in  xii,  47,  46  anatyzes  him 
grammatically,  “with  joints  of  euphony  and  adorned  with 
vowels  and  consonants.”  3 

Astronomical  similes  are  not  infrequent.  Thus  Arjuna 
storms  about  “ like  Mars  in  his  orbit.”  4 An  indication  that 
one  science  as  a specialty  is  not  much  regarded  is  seen  in  the 

1 The  later  Upangas  are  the  Puranas  (and  upa-) ; Logic,  nyaya  and  vai- 
fesika;  Philosophy  (including  Vedanta), mlmansa;  and  Law-books  (including 
Samkhya-yoga  and  epics),  dharmayastra.  The  epic  use,  as  will  be  seen  from 
the  citation  above,  differentiates  Puranas  from  Aiigas  and  Upangas.  For  the 
later  meaning,  see  Weber  IS.  i,  p.  13. 

2 ib.  83,  88  : naighantukapadakhyane,  niruktam  vedaviduso  veda^abdartha- 
cintakah.  The  common  meaning,  “ explanation,”  may  be  surmised  in  xii,  340, 
60,  caturvaktro  niruktagah  (in  both  editions),  where  the  avagraha  is  certainly 
required,  “ inexplicable,”  despite  Taitt.  Up.  ii,  6. 

8 In  xiii,  17,  111  (where  siddhartha,  according  to  Nilakantha,  is  siddhanta), 
£iva  is  siddharthakari  siddhartha9  cliandovyakaranottarah.  Ivalpa  and 
Jyotisa  are  united,  kalpaprayoga  and  jyotisa,  in  xiii,  10,  37.  In  ii,  4,  18, 
Kalapa  and  Katha  are  mentioned;  in  It.  (not  G.)  ii,  32,  18,  the  Kathakalapas 
(after  the  acaryas  taittiriyanam  in  15).  M.  and  G.  (only)  have  Qandilya  and 
Kaufika  (with  Gargya  in  G.)  in  the  same  list,  and  M.  has  Tittiri  (with  Yajfia- 
valkya).  In  M.  they  are  vedavedangapilragah  ; in  It.,  vedaparagiih.  It.  calls 
Trijata  (Piiigala)  a Gargya  in  29  (Angirasa  in  G. ; cf.  It.  33). 

4 viii,  19,  1,  vakrativakragamanad  aiigaraka  lva  grahah.  Compare  budh- 
aiigarakayor  iva  (a  battle-phrase).  The  Vedangas  and  Upavedas  are  often 
grouped  together,  as  in  i,  1, 07,  where  giksa,  phonetics,  is  grouped  with  nyaya, 
rules,  and  cikitsa,  medicine.  In  i,  70,  40-44,  the  same  passage  where  pada 
and  krama  are  mentioned  (above),  ?abda  (samskara),  ^iksa,  chandas,  nirukta 
and  kalajiianaare  found  with  philosophy.  A priest  who  is  fiksiiksaramantra- 
vit  gets  gold  niskas,  etc.,  iii,  23,  2 ; 30,  42. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  15 


fact  that  the  cultivator  of  the  Upaveda  medicine  and  of  the 
Aiiga  astrology  are  both  excluded  from  society,  although  it 
should  be  added  that  the  man  intended  is  one  who  “ lives  by 
the  stars,”  naksatriiir  yag  ca  jlvati.  Such  a fortune-teller  is 
classed  with  rhapsodes  and  physicians,  xiii,  90, 11.  The  diffi- 
culty of  reconciling  the  data  of  astrology  (fortune-telling)  and 
the  theory  of  Karma  is  alluded  to  in  iii,  209,  21 : “ Many  are 
seen  to  be  born  under  the  same  lucky  star,  but  there  is  a 
great  difference  in  their  fate.”  The  most  surprising  astro- 
nomical statement  in  the  epic  is  to  the  effect  that  stars  are 
really  very  large  and  only  appear  small  on  account  of  their 
distanced  The  kalajnana  or  “ knowledge  of  time,”  already 
mentioned,  is  attributed  especially  to  Garga,  who,  as  Weber, 
Lectures,  p.  237,  has  noticed,  is  associated  with  Ivfdayavana : 
“ Kiilayavana  who  is  endued  with  Garga’s  (brilliancy  or) 
power,”  xii,  340,  95.  This  same  Garga  is  credited  not  only 
with  having  kalajnanagati  and  jyotisam  vyatikrama,  “thor- 
ough knowledge  of  times  and  mastery  of  science  of  stars,” 
ix,  37,  14-16,  but  also  with  kalajnana,  or  the  fine  arts.  That 
the  epic  has  a different  order  of  planets  from  that  of  the 
third  century  A.  D.  has  already  been  observed  by  Jacobi.2 

The  Upavedas,  however,  pass  the  Vedic  stage.  There  re- 
mains a word  to  say  on  the  older  Sutras,  to  which  may  be 
added  an  account  of  those  more  frequently  mentioned  Sutras 
and  other  treatises  which  are  quite  beyond  the  Vedic  pale. 

Sutras. 

A Vedasutra,  apparently  a Crautasutra,  but  perhaps  only 
Veda  in  general,3  is  mentioned  once,  in  xii,  341,  63.  Grhya- 
sutras  are  not  mentioned  by  name,  but  may  be  implied  in  the 
word  Veda,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  quotation  given  below. 
The  Dliarmasutras  are  apparently  implied  in  one  passage  of 

1 dipavad  viprakrstatvat  tanuni  sumahanty  api  (tararupani),  iii,  42,  34. 

2 ZDMG.  vol.  xxx,  p.  307 ; Holtzmann,  Das  Mbh.  vol.  iv,  p.  114. 

8 The  Supreme  Lord  says  that  the  god  who  gives  him  a share  gets  by  the 
Lord’s  grace  a corresponding  (Veda-arranged)  sacrificial  share  in  (i.  e.  accord- 
ing to)  the  Vedasutra. 


16 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  thirteenth  hook,  where  a Sutrakara  in  one  verse  corre- 
sponds to  Vedas  in  the  next,  in  a passage  cited  from  the 
Mait.  Samhita  and  Law-books  (see  below) ; and  in  another, 
where  agaknuvantag  caritum  kirhcid  dharmesu  sutritam,  “ un- 
able to  do  what  is  sutrified  in  the  laws,”  xii,  270,  36,  must 
refer  to  the  general  class  of  legal  Sutras.  The  Gita,  13,  4, 
mentions  the  Brahmasutra,  which  is  probably  nothing  but 
an  equivalent  of  Vedasutra,  that  is,  equivalent  to  Veda  in 
general ; but  it  may  be  one  of  the  late  marks  of  this  poem 
(the  Brahmasutra  being  otherwise  unknown  before  the  Hari- 
vaftga)  and  mean  the  philosophical  Sutra.1  Sutrakaras  and 
Sutrakartars,  “who  will  arise,”  are  mentioned  prophetically 
a few  times  in  the  didactic  epic.2 

Profane  Sutras  are  jumbled  together  in  one  of  the  latest 
stanzas  of  the  Kaccit  chapter,  ii,  5,  120,  to  which  I have 
alluded  before  > “ Dost  thou  understand  the  Sutras  on 

elephants,  horses,  chariots,  catapults,  and  the  Dhanurveda 
Sutra?  ” 

As  early  as  Panini  there  were  Sutras  of  all  sorts  and  the 
mention  of  such  works  has  only  the  special  value  of  indicat- 
ing that  the  epic  belongs  to  a time  when  Sutra  meant  works 
which  were  probably  popular  and  not  written  in  aphoristic 
style.  They  were  doubtless  the  same  as  the  various  (JSstra 
and  other  treatises  to  which  reference  is  often  made.  Some 
of  these  works  are  called  Qiistras  and  are  grouped  with  the 
fine  arts  mentioned  above  as  known  to  Garga.  Arthagastra 
and  Kamagastra,  by-names  of  the  epic  itself,  are  mentioned 
in  the  late  introduction  to  the  whole  work.  The  fine  arts, 
kalas,  are  mentioned  or  implied  in  three  places.  First  the 
slave-girls  of  Yudhisthira  are  said,  at  ii,  61,  9-10,  to  be 
“ versed  in  dancing  and  songs,”  samasu,  and  “ skilled  in  the 

1 In  xii,  327,  31,  there  is  mentioned  a Moksafivstra,  inspired  by  gathah  purii 
gitah,  a treatise  which  is  based  on  verses  recited  (by  Yayati)  in  regard  to 
proper  behavior,  and  it  is  partly  philosophical. 

2 xiii,  14,  101-104,  granthakara,  sutrakarta  (bhavisyati),  granthakrt ; 1G,  70, 
sutrakartar.  In  xii,  245,  30,  sva^astrasutrahutimantravikramah,  sutra  may 
be  the  thread  (a  brahma-sutra  as  elsewhere),  but  in  the  connection  seems 
more  likely  to  mean  Sutra. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  17 


sixty-four,”  which  must  imply  the  sixty-four  kalas.  Then 
Garga,  who  knows  kalajnana  and  omens,  utpiitas,  is  also 
acquainted  with  kalajBana  catuhsastyanga,  xiii,  18,  38,  which 
shows  that  the  fine  arts  were  not  exclusively  for  women 
and  slaves ; as  is  also  indicated  by  the  passage  xiii,  104, 
149  ff.,  where,  as  befitting  a king  to  know,  are  mentioned 
treatises  on  logic  (or  behavior?),  on  grammar,  on  music, 
and  the  fine  arts ; and  to  hear,  Legends,  Tales,  and  adven- 
tures of  the  saints.1  It  is  interesting  to  see  that  these 
“sixty-four  arts,”  still  tjqiical  of  culture,  are  proverbial  in 
India  to-day.  A Marathi  proverb  says  cauda  vidya  va  cau- 
sasta  kalii,  “ fourteen  sciences  and  sixty-four  arts.”  2 

DharmacSstras. 

But  if  Sutra  literature,  except  in  the  few  instances  cited 
above,  is  practically  ignored,  all  the  more  fully  is  Castra 3 
and  particularly  Dharmagastra  literature  recognized ; which 
I may  say  at  the  outset  shows  that  the  later  epic  was 
composed  under  the  influence  of  Dharmagastras  rather  than 
of  Dharmasutras. 

The  general  term  Nltigastra,  code  of  polity,  has  already 
been  noticed.  A number  of  such  codes  is  recognized,  xii, 
138,  196,  and  Dharma(gastras)  are  cited  not  infrequently ; 

1 yuktiyastram  ca  te  jneyam  yabdayastram  ca,  Bharata,  gandharvayas  train 
ca  kalah  parijneya,  naradhipa ; puranam  itihasay  ca  tatha  ’khyanani  yani  ca, 
mahatmanam  ca  caritam  yrotavyam  nityam  eva  te.  The  yuktiyastram  is  not 
explained.  According  to  PW.,  it  is  a manual  of  etiquette,  but  perhaps  logic ; 
possibly  the  unique  system  of  logic  and  rhetoric  developed  by  Sulabha  in 
xii,  321,  78  ff. 

2 Manwaring,  Marathi  Proverbs,  No.  1175.  This  is  late.  Cf.  Yajn.  i,  3; 
and  Vayu  Purana,  lxi,  78-79.  In  the  latter  passage,  the  four  Vedas,  six  Afigas, 
Mimansa,  Nyaya,  Dharmayastra  and  Purana  make  the  “ fourteen  vidyas  ” or 
"eighteen”  including  the  three  Upavedas  and  the  Arthayastra. 

8 Or  Smrti,  but  this  word  seems  of  wide  bearing.  Just  as  agama  (above) 
includes  more  than  Veda,  so  Smrti  includes  all  tradition.  In  xii,  200,  30, 
mahasmrti  and  anusmrti  seem  to  be  interpreted  by  the  commentator  as  Samhi- 
tas  and  Vedangas  (with  Manu  and  others)  respectively,  but  his  first  words 
may  refer  to  the  inferred  Veda  of  the  preceding  japaka  (the  reciters  of  both 
go  ipso  facto  to  heaven).  Besides  Manu  (above),  Yama,  Angiras,  Brhaspati, 
Uyanas,  and  Parayara  are  specially  cited  as  law-givers. 

2 


18 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


while  a general  rule  is  given  as  a Dharma-gasana,  e.  g.,  i, 
72,  15: 

Three  fathers  have  we,  for  e’en  thus 
Law's  statute  says,  ’t  is  meet 
To  call  our  sire,  and  who  saves  life, 

And  him  whose  food  we  eat. 

Manu’s  Dharmagastra  is  referred  to  under  that  name  only 
in  one  of  the  latest  books  of  the  pseudo-epic.  In  the  early 
books  his  Rajadharmas  are  once  mentioned,  iii,  35,  21,  which 
might  imply  a chapter  of  our  present  code,  but  otherwise 
only  his  Dharmas  are  referred  to,  though  generally  merely  an 
ipse  dixit  of  Manu  is  cited,  which,  however,  is  often  a dic- 
tum opposed  to  the  actual  words  of  the  extant  Manu  text. 
The  epic  poets  do  not  always  recognize  Manu  as  in  any  wise 
supreme,  often  not  even  as  prominent.  A typical  example  is 
furnished  by  iii,  150,  29 : “ Gods  are  upheld  by  Vedic  sacri- 
fices ; men  are  upheld  by  the  laws  (not  of  Manu  but)  of 
Uganas  and  Brhaspati.”  1 But  in  xii,  336,  39-45,  a primeval 
code,  anugasana,  of  100,000  glokas,  gives  rise  to  the  “laws 
which  Manu  the  self-existent  will  declare  and  Uganas  and 
Brhaspati,”  where  there  is  a clear  reference  to  the  code  of 
Manu ; as  in  the  next  stanza,  where  are  mentioned  the  “ laws 
of  the  Self-existent,  the  (Tistra  made  by  Uganas  and  the  opin- 
ions of  Brhaspati”  (a  gastram  sangopanisadam,  54).2 

The  mere  order  of  names,  however,  is  no  more  indicative 
of  priority  than  in  the  case  of  the  Vedas  mentioned  above. 
Another  list  of  Rajagastra-pranetaras  at  xii,  58,  1-3,  13, 
begins  with  Brhaspati  and  Uganas  (Kavya,  cited  with  two 
gathas  at  xii,  139,  70),  and  then  follows  Pracetasa  Manu, 
Bharadvaja,  and  Gauragiras,  with  the  gods  between.  So  in 
the  next  section,  59,  81  ff.,  Civa  reduces  Brahman’s  work, 

1 So  in  iv,  68,6, Bharadvaja  was  “equal  to  Uganas  in  intelligence,  to  Brha- 
spati in  polity,”  naya;  ix,  61,  48:  “Have  you  not  heard  the  instructions, 
upadefa,  of  Brhaspati  and  Ufanasl”;  xii,  122,  11:  “You  have  perused  the 
opinions,  matam,  of  Brhaspati,  and  the  Qastra  of  Uganas,”  ns  the  authorities 
generally  recognized.  Bharadvaja  has  three  r61cs  in  the  epic,  as  archetypical 
jurist,  physician,  and  teacher  of  arms,  according  to  the  passage. 

2 Compare  xii,  69,  80,  £f. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  TIIE  EPIC  TOETS.  19 


which  in  turn  is  reduced  by  India,  as  the  bahudantaka,  and 
then  by  Kavya  Yogacarya,  a work  which  embraces  Itihasas, 
Vedas,  and  Nyiiya  (141)  or  laws. 

More  important  is  the  fact  that  references  to  Manu's  laws 
in  the  early  books  are  seldom  verifiable  in  our  present  code, 
while  references  in  the  didactic  epic  more  often  than  not  cor- 
respond to  passages  of  the  extant  text.1  lienee  it  may  be 
inferred  that  that  part  of  the  epic  which  agrees  most  closely 
in  its  citations  with  our  code  is  later  than  that  portion  which 
does  not  coincide,  or,  conversely,  that  the  text  of  Manu  was 
shaped  into  its  present  form  between  the  time  of  the  early 
epic  and  that  of  the  didactic  epic.  In  the  first  period,  when 
Manu’s  Dharmagastra  was  unknown,  Manu  was  merely  a 
name  to  conjure  with.  The  verses  thus  ascribed  to  Manu 
were  not  all  put  into  the  code  when  it  was  formed  and  for 
this  reason  the  earlier  citations  are  not  generally  found  in 
our  text.  Some  of  them  were  adopted,  however,  and  the 
later  epic  writers  therefore  agree  more  closely  with  the  £as- 
tra  as  it  is  to-day ; though  no  one  who  understands  how 
works  are  enlarged  in  India  will  expect  to  find  all  the  quota- 
tions verified,  even  in  the  later  epic,  for  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  code  was  exactly  the  same  two  thousand 
years  ago  as  it  is  to-day.  But  in  fact,  out  of  eleven  quota- 
tions from  Manu  in  the  thirteenth  book,  there  is  only  one 
which  does  not  correspond  with  our  Manu  text,  and  this  is 
of  a general  character,  to  the  effect  that  a graddha  -with  tila 
is  undecaying,  “ said  Manu.” 

1 So  in  the  Ramayana  there  are  two  evidently  interpolated  chapters  at  iv, 
17  and  18.  Rama  in  the  subsequent  chapters  is  incidentally  charged  (with 
great  truth)  with  having  violated  every  knightly  rule  in  slaying  Vali.  To 
offset  this  clear  case  of  sin  on  the  part  of  the  divine  hero,  a formal  charge 
and  defence  is  inserted  (just  the  procedure  in  the  Mahabharata !)  in  chapters 
which  metrically  belong  to  the  classical  period,  so  close  is  the  adherence  to 
vipula  rule.  Just  here  it  is  that  Manuna  gllau  glokau  are  cited,  viz.,  Manu, 
viii,  318  and  316  (inverted  order),  almost  verbatim.  Elsewhere  Manu  is  a 
sage  merely,  not  a cited  law-giver,  as  here,  iv,  18,  30-31  (without  reference  to 
Manu  in  G.).  These  chapters  need  no  further  proof  than  the  reading  to  show 
their  true  character.  They  are  simply  banal,  especially  Rama’s  speech,  as 
well  as  contradictory  in  substance  to  the  preceding  and  following  chapters. 


20 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  a previous  discussion  of  this  subject  in  the  Journal  Am. 
Or.  Soc.  xi,  p.  239  if.  (where  will  be  found  more  data  on  the 
subject  of  legal  literature  in  the  epic),1  in  order  not  to  force 
my  argument  I included  as  unverified  a quotation  at  xiii,  65, 
3,  “ Manu  said  that  the  highest  gift  is  something  to  drink,” 
panlyam  paramarii  danam,  because  it  was  in  connection  with 
Tlrthas.  In  this  I was  certainly  over-scrupulous,  for  the 
words  could  easily  refer  to  the  passage  I there  cited  from 
Manu,  iii,  202,  vary  api  gradtlhaya  dattam  aksajrayo  ’pakalpate, 
“even  water  given  with  faith  fits  for  immortality.”  I can 
now  add  to  this  another  quotation,  xiii,  67,  19,  toyado  . . . 
aksayan  samavapnoti  lokan  ity  abravln  Manuh,  “ a giver  of 
water  obtains  imperishable  worlds.”  Further,  I rejected  as 
unverifiable  the  statement  that  Manu  said  the  king  gets  a 
fourth  part  of  the  sin  of  the  people  (instead  of  the  usual 
sixth),  although,  as  I pointed  out,  this  proportion  actually 
occurs  in  Manu,  only  it  is  for  a specific  occasion.  Neverthe- 
less as  Manu,  viii,  18,  says  pado  rajanam  arhati  (or  rcchati), 
it  is  clear  that  the  quotation  caturtham  etc.  in  xiii,  61,  34 
cannot  be  said  to  be  “ unverifiable.”  It  is  simply  a free  ren- 
dering verbally  of  a statement  actually  found  in  Manu.2 

We  have  here  the  incontrovertible  fact  that,  while  the 
other  books  of  the  epic  before  the  thirteenth  in  giving  quo- 

1 For  example,  the  fabulous  books  of  divine  origin  of  xii,  59,  80  ff.  (like  the 
origin  of  Narada’s  law-book),  called  Barhaspatya,  etc.,  according  to  the  dia- 
dochos ; the  “ law  and  commentary,”  savaiyakho  dharmah,  of  xii,  37,  10,  etc. 
(pp.  254  and  248),  and  other  points  to  which  I may  refer  the  reader  without 
further  remark  than  the  references  already  given. 

2 Besides  the  quotation  given  above  from  the  thirteenth  book  and  verifiable 
in  our  present  code,  I may  add  iii,  92,  10 : “ By  Manu  and  others  (it  is  said 
that1?)  going  to  Tirthas  removes  fear,”  manvadibhir  maharaja  tirthnyatra 
bhayapaha,  if  this  be  the  meaning,  which  is  rather  doubtful.  In  any  case 
it  only  adds  one  more  to  the  unverified  citations  from  the  early  books,  but 
it  may  mean  only  that  Manu  and  others  have  journeyed  to  Tirthas.  Compare 
also  xii,  2G0,  6,  sarvaknrmasv  ahinsa  hi  dharmatma  Manur  abravlt,  “ Manu 
the  righteous  proclaimed  that  one  should  not  injure  (animals)  at  any  cere- 
mony." From  the  context,  killing  cattle  at  a sacrifice  is  here  reprobated. 
This  is  a perversion  for  sectarian  purposes  of  Manu’s  rule  v,  43,  na  ’vednvi- 
hitarh  hinsam  apady  api  samacarct,  to  which  perversion  some  color  might  be 
given  by  the  following  verses,  which  speak  harshly  of  all  injury  to  living 
creatures.  I think  no  other  quotations  from  Manu  will  be  found  in  the  epic. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  TIIE  EPIC  POETS.  21 

tations  from  Manu  agree  with  our  present  text  of  Manu  only 
in  one  third  to  one  half  the  instances,  the  thirteenth  book  has 
eleven  citations,  of  which  ten  agree  with  the  statements  of 
our  code.  To  this  must  be  added  the  fact  that  only  the  thir- 
teenth book  recognizes  “ the  £iistra  declared  by  Manu.”  I do 
not  know  any  other  literature  where  such  facts  would  not  be 
accepted  as  of  historical  importance,  and  they  have  been  so 
regarded  here  by  competent  scholars.  In  the  opinion  which 
I first  set  forth  in  1885,  the  late  Professor  Bidder  in  general 
concurred,  though  inclined  to  believe  that  the  authors  of  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  books  did  not  know  the  identical 
Castra  which  we  have  to-day.  As  Professor  Bidder's  position 
has  not  always  been  cited  with  the  reservations  made  by  him, 
I will  cite  his  own  words:  “It  remains  indisputable  that 
the  author  or  authors  of  the  first,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
Parvans  of  the  Mahabhar&ta  knew  a Manava  Dharmapastra 
which  was  closely  connected  but  not  identical  with  the  ex- 
isting text,”  Manu  p.  lxxix,  and  again : “ The  answer  which 
we  are  thus  obliged  to  give  to  the  question  whence  the  author 
of  our  Manu-Smrti  took  his  additional  materials  agrees  very 
closely  with  Professor  Hopkins’  hypothesis,”  p.  xci.  Never- 
theless, despite  this  admission,  Professor  Bidder,  bj-  a line  of 
argument  which  is  based  chiefly  on  the  lack  of  absolute 
identity,  assumes  finally  that  the  authors  of  the  epic  “ knew 
only  the  Dharmasutra,”  ib.  p.  xcviii.  The  arguments  other 
than  the  lack  of  total  identity  are,  first,  that  Manu  shows  an 
acquaintance  with  the  epic  because  he  says  that  in  a former 
kalpa  the  vice  of  gambling  has  been  seen  to  cause  great  en- 
mity; in  regard  to  which  Professor  Bidder  says:  “ This  asser- 
tion can  only  point  in  the  first  instance  to  the  match  played 
between  Yudhistliira  and  Duryodliana,”  p.  lxxx.  But  why 
not  to  the  story  of  Nala,  as  Professor  Bidder  himself  suggests, 
or  any  other  story  of  dicing  resulting  in  “ enmity  ” which  may 
have  preceded  our  epic?  Another  argument  is,  that  legends 
referred  to  in  the  Castra  are  found  in  the  epic,  ib.  But  it  is 
of  the  very  character  of  the  epic  that  it  contains  many  ancient 
legends,  gathered  from  all  sources.  It  does  not  follow  in  the 


22 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


least  that  Manu  took  them  from  the  epic.  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  important  to  observe  that  in  no  such  passage  does  Manu 
refer  a single  one  of  them  to  an  epic  source.  Thirdly,  it  is 
claimed  that  the  passages  parallel  in  epic  and  (^astra  often 
have  verses  in  a different  order,  with  omissions,  etc.,  that,  in 
short,  they  are  not  actual  copies  one  of  the  other.  But  Pro- 
fessor Bidder  himself  has  shown  that  “the  existing  text  of 
Manu  has  suffered  many  recasts,”  p.  xcii,  so  that  we  do  not 
know  the  form  of  the  Castra  to  which  the  epic  explicitly  refers 
and  from  which  it  cites  as  the  Castra  set  forth  by  Manu.  For 
my  part,  it  still  is  impossible  for  me  to  believe  that  when  the 
pseudo-epic,  in  particular  the  Anugasana,  refers  to  (aistras,1 
and  cites  correctly  from  “ Manu’s  ^astra,”  it  really  knows 
only  Sutras. 

A Manava  Dharmagastra,  specifically,  must  from  the  evi- 
dence be  regarded  as  older  than  the  later  epic  but  later  than 
the  early  epic,  which  knew  only  a mass  of  royal  and  general 
rules,  dharmas,  generally  ascribed  to  Father  Manu  but  differ- 
ent from  those  in  our  extant  yiistra.  With  this  result  too 
agrees  the  fact  that  the  metrical  form  of  the  extant  code  is 
distinctly  earlier  than  that  of  the  later  epic.  Not  unimpor- 
tant, finally,  is  the  circumstance  that  the  extant  code  only 
vaguely  refers  to  epic  Tales,  but  recognizes  neither  of  the 
epics,  only  legends  that  are  found  in  the  epics.  In  all  prob- 
ability the  code  known  to  the  later  epic  was  not  quite  our 

1 In  xii,  341,  74,  are  mentioned  “ teachers  in  Dharmagastras,”  acarya  dharma- 
gastresu;  in  xiii,  01,  34,  Manu’s  anugasana ; in  xiii,  47,  35,  “ the  £astra  com- 
posed by  Manu,”  manuna  ’bhihitam  giistram  ; in  xiii,  45,  17,  “those  that  know 
law  in  the  law-books,”  dharmagastresu  dharmajnah,  in  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject discussed  in  Manu  iii,  52-53;  iv,  88.  Similarly,  xiii,  19,  89.  In  most  cases 
here  Qastras  are  the  authority,  which  in  iii,  313,  105,  are  set  beside  the  Vedas 
as  two  standard  authorities.  In  the  face  of  these  citations  it  is  difficult  to 
understand  Biihler’s  words,  “ the  authors  . . . knew  only  the  Dharmasutras,” 
especially  as  the  words  contradict  what  he  says  in  the  same  essay  on  a 
different  page,  “ the  authors  . . . knew  a Manava  Dharmagilstra  ” (loe.  cit. 
above).  It  has  seemed  to  me  that  the  great  scholar  was  unduly  influenced 
in  his  final  word  by  his  general  desire  to  put  back  the  epic  as  far  as  possi- 
ble. Professor  Holtzmann,  who  has  collected  the  material,  loc.  cit.,  p.  115  IT., 
is  of  the  opinion  that  “ our  Manavaadharmagastra  is  certainly  much  later 
than  the  older  parts  of  the  Mahabharata.” 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  23 


present  code,  but  it  was  a code  much  like  ours  and  ascribed 
to  Manu,  a £astra  which,  with  some  additions  and  omissions, 
such  as  all  popular  texts  in  India  suffer,  was  essentially  our 
present  text. 


Vedic  Citations  in  the  Epic. 

We  have  now  reached  and  indeed  already  passed,  in  the 
notice  of  some  of  the  works  mentioned,  the  point  where  the 
epic  impinges  on  the  earlier  literature.  Before  going  further 
I will  illustrate  the  statement  made  at  the  outset  that  the 
epic  cites  freely  or  parodies  Vedic  documents.  The  free 
rendition  in  Veda-like  verse  of  the  older  hymnology  is  not 
uncommon.  Thus  in  v,  16,  the  opening  hymn  is  not  strictly 
Vedic,  but  it  is  very  like  a collection  of  Vedic  utterances  put 
into  popular  form  and  these  verses  are  called  brahma  man- 
trah,  q1.  8.  Apart,  however,  from  such  instances  of  more  or 
less  exact  imitation  of  general  Vedic  verses,1  we  find  a num- 
ber of  verses  plainly  imitative  of  extant  Vedic  passages  or 
almost  exactly  reproducing  them.  This  applies  to  reproduc- 
tions or  imitations 2 of  the  chief  Vedic  literature  from  the 
Rig  Veda  to  the  Sutras,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
examples : 

Rig  Veda  x,  117,  6, 

mogham  annam  vindate  apracetah 

1 There  are,  of  course,  also  a vast  number  of  verses  such  as  gaur  me  mata 
vrsabbah  pita  me,  introduced,  as  here,  with  the  fiat  imam  frutim  udaharet, 
xiii,  76,  6-7 ; or  with  the  more  usual  tag,  iti  crutih,  as  for  example,  agnayo 
mansakamaq  (starred  in  pw.)  ca  ity  api  fruyate  crutih,  iii,  208,  11 ; or  with 
smrta,  as  in  acvinau  tu  smrtau  cudrau,  xii,  208,  24 ; as  well  as  such  phrases 
as  that  of  xiv,  51,  26,  yas  tarn  veda  sa  vedavit,  all  of  which  reflect  the  litera- 
ture of  the  earlier  periods. 

2 The  Vedic  work  most  frequently  referred  to  is  the  Yajur  Veda  Hymn, 
trisauparnam  brahma  yajusam  catarudriyam,  xii,  285,  138 ; samavedac;  ca  ve- 
danam  yajusam  catarudriyam,  xiii,  14,  323;  tad  brahma  catarudriyam,  vii,  81, 
13 ; vede  ca  ’sya  samamnatam  gatarudriyam  uttamam,  vii,  202,  120 ; grnan 
brahma  param  (Jakrah  catarudriyam  uttamam,  xiii,  14,  284.  It  is  imitated 
over  and  over  again,  and  some  of  the  epic  hymns  call  themselves  by  the 
same  name,  a fact  alluded  to  in  the  words : vede  ca  ’sya  vidur  viprah  cata- 
rudriyam  uttamam,  Vyaseno  ’ktam  ca  yac  ca  ’pi  upasthanam,  xiii,  162,  23. 


24 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Mbh.  y,  12,  20, 

mogham  annam  vindati  ca  ’py  acetah 

Bohtlingk,  Spruch  4980. 

Rig  Veda  vii,  89,  2, 

drtir  na  dhmato,  adrivah 

Mbh.  iii,  207,  47;  xii,  95,  21, 

mahadrtir  iva  ’dhmatah 

(papo  bliavati  nityada,  iii,  207,  47) 

Rig  Veda  i,  10,  1, 

gayanti  tva  gayatrino  arcanti  arkam  arkinah 
brahmanas  tva  qatakrato  ud  vahqam  iva  yemire 

Mbh.  xii,  285,  78, 

gayanti  tva  gayatrino  arcanti  arkam  arkinah 
brahmanam  tva  9atakratum  urdkvaiii  kham  iva 
menire 

Holtzmann,  Das  Mahabharata,  iv,  p.  12;  also  for  the  following 
parallel,  p.  13: 

Rig  Veda  x,  129,  1-3, 

na  ’sad  asm  no  sad  asid  tadanim  . . . 

no  ratria  ahna  aslt  praketah  . . . 
tama  aslt  tamasa  gulham  agre 

Mbh.  xii,  343,  8, 

(nidarqanam  api  hy  atra)  nasld  aho  na  ratrir  asm  na  sad  asm 
na  ’sad  aslt,  tama  eva  purastad  abhavad  viqvarupam 

Compare  also  with  Rig  Veda,  i,  13,  4,  asi  hota  manurhitah,  Mbh. 
ib.  10-11, 

tvam  agne  yajiranam  hota  viQvesam  hito  devanam  manusanam 
ca  jagata  iti,  nidarqanam  ca  ’tra  bhavati,  viqvesam  agne  yajnanam 
tvam  bote  ’ti,  tvam  hito  dev&ir  manusyair  jagata  iti 

Rig  Veda  x,  14,  1, 

vaivasvataiii  samgamanam  jananam 

Mbh.  xiii,  102,  16, 

vaivasvatl  samyamanl  jananam 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  25 


Further,  with  Rig  Veda  i,  1G4,  46,  ekaiii  sad  vipra  bahu- 
dha  vadanti,  and  x,  114,  5,  viprah  . . . ekam  santam  bahu- 
dha  kalpayanti,  may  be  compared  Mbh.  (v,  16,  2,  and)  i,  232, 
13,  manlsinas  tvaiii  jananti  bahudha  ciii  kadha  ’pica.  In  xv, 
34,  11,  devayana  hi  panthiinah  ^rutas  te  yajflasamstare  1 is  an 
allusion  to  Rig  Veda  x,  18,  1;  while  in  xii,  312,  5,  dyava- 
prthivyor  iti  esa  . . . vedesu  pathyate,  the  citation  of  a Vedic 
phrase  is  acknowledged;  whereas  in  the  epic  phrases  ma 
ririsah  and  bhuvanani  vi§va,  vii,  201,  77,  no  indication  of 
Vedic  origin  is  given. 

Taitt.  Saiiihita  i,  16,  11,  1 ; £at.  Br.  b 5,  2,  16, 
ye  yajatnahe 

Mbh.  iii,  180,  33, 

idarn  arsam  pramanam  ca  ye  yajamaha  ity  api 

Compare  iii,  31,  22,  yasya  na  ’rsam  pramanam  syat,  etc. 
Aufrecht,  apud  Muir,  OST.  i,  137.  Also  Taitt.  S.  ii,  5,  1,  1 
is  repeated  verbatim  Mbh.  xii,  343,  28,  as  shown  by  Weber, 
Ind.  Stud,  i,  p.  410. 

Mait.  Saiiihita  i,  10,  11, 

stry  anrtam 

Mbh.  xiii,  40,  12  and  19,  6-7, 

striyo  'nrtam  iti  qrutih ; anrtah  striya  ity  evam  vedesv  api 
hi  pathyate ; anrtah  striya  ity  evam  sutrakaro  vyavasyati. 

Compare  Baudk.  Dh.  S.  ii,  3,  46,  with  Biililer’s  note,  and 
Manu  ix,  18,  striyo  'nrtam  iti  stliitih  (v.  1.  9 rut  ill).  The 
double  reference  in  the  epic,  Sutrakara  and  Vedah,  may  point 
to  the  same  place,  or  the  writer  may  have  had  in  mind  a 
Sutra  passage  parallel  to  Baudhayana,  if  not  Baudhayana 
himself,  whose  text  here  is  corrupt. 

1 In  the  preceding  verse  is  cited  an  a^vamedha^ruti,  apropos  of  the  a<?va- 
samjnapana : lokantaragata  nityam  prana  nityam  ^aririnam.  With  the  text 
cited  above,  compare  dvav  etau  pretya  panthanau,  etc.,  xii,  329,  30.  The 
Upanishads  would  suffice  to  explain  some  of  these  phrases. 


26 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Atharva  Veda?  Mbh.  xiii,  98,  30, 

osadhyo  raktapuspaq  ca  katukali  kantakanvitah  qatrunam. 
abkicarartham  atkarvesu  nidarqitah;  viii,  69,  83-86,  tvam  ity 
atra  bkavantaiii  hi  bruki  . . . tvain  ity  ukto  hi  nihato  gurus 
bhavati  . . . atliarvangirasl  hy  esa  qrutlnam  uttama  qrutih  . . . 
avadkena  vadhah  prokto  yad  gurus  tvam  iti  prabkuh.1 

Ait.  Brah.  i,  1, 

aguir  vai  sarva  devatah 

Mbh.  xiy,  24,  10  (read  vedasya  ?), 

agnir  vai  devatah  sarvah,  iti  devasya  qasanam 

Mbh.  xiii,  84,  56, 

agnir  hi  devatah  sarvah,  suvarnam  ca  tadatmakam 

Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.  p.  14. 

(dat.  Brahmana  in  Mbh.  xii,  343,  13-15, 

yajnas  te  devahs  tarpayanti  devah  prthivim  bhavayanti,  (data- 
path e 'pi  brahmanamukhe  bliavati,  agnau  samiddhe  juhoti  yo 
vidvan  brahmanamukhena  ’hutim  juhoti,  evam  apy  agnibliuta 
brahmana  vidvahso  'guim  bhavayanti. 

On  this  and  other  citations  from  Samhitas  and  Brahmanas, 
compare  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  14  ff.,  with  especial  reference 
to  verses  cited  by  Weber,  Lectures,  p.  137-138;  IS.  i,  p.  277. 
To  these  I may  add  a passage  reflecting  the  Brhad  Aran.  Up. 
of  this  Brahmana,  Up.  1,  5,  14  (where  the  chief  verbal  iden- 
tity is  in  sodaqaya  kalaya),  expressly  said  to  be  from  the 
Rsi’s  “ more  extended  ” exposition  of  the  subject : viddhi 
candramasaindarqe  suksmayd  kalaya  sthitam,  tad  etad  rsind 
proktam  vistarend  ’ numiyate , Mbh.  xii,  242,  15-16  (compare 
sodaqakalo  dehah ; and  305,  4).  The  commentator  refers  the 
passage  to  this  Upanishad,  as  cited. 

1 According  to  xiii,  163,  63,  tvamkara  (to  superiors)  is  vadha,  and  is  em- 
ployed only  in  speaking  to  equals,  inferiors,  pupils,  etc.  Compare  Cliiind. 
Up.  vii,  15,  2.  Echo  arose  in  the  mountains  (compare  Callimachus,  Ep.  xxviii) 
from  the  care  with  which  qiuka  addressed  his  superior  Vyasa  with  blio,  blio,  xii, 
334,  25-20. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  TIIE  EPIC  POETS.  27 


The  citations  in  the  Raraayana  I have  not  examined,  but 
have  noted  by  chance  two ; Rig  Veda  i,  22,  20 ; Katha  Up. 
iii,  9;  Miiitri,  vi,  2G : tad  visnoh  paramam  padam  (sada 
pagyanti  surayah)  ; G.  vi,  41,  25,  tad  visnoh  paramam  padam 
(nihato  gantum  icchami)  ; and  satye  sarvam  pratisthitam  in 
Mahanar.  Up.  22, 1 ; satye  lokah  pratisthitah,  R.  ii,  109, 10. 

Upanishads  in  the  Epic. 

Sporadic  parallels  between  the  epic,  generally  the  Gita, 
Anuglta,  and  (jFinti,  and  various  Upanishads  have  often  been 
noticed.  As  illustrative  material  all  these  passages  are  val- 
uable, but  they  give  no  evidence  that  the  epic  has  copied,  if 
the  mutual  resemblance  is  only  of  general  content  or  is  given 
by  similar  or  even  identical  verses,  when  these  are  not  con- 
nected as  in  the  supposed  model.  As  this  material  has  been 
put  together  by  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  21  If.,  I may  refer  the 
reader  to  his  parallels,1  while  pointing  out  that  it  is  histor- 
ically of  little  importance  whether  the  oldest  Upanishads  are 
cited  if  we  can  satisfy  ourselves  that  the  epic  draws  on  Upa- 
nishads of  the  second  and  third  period,  not  only  sporadically 
but  connectedly.  In  regard  to  the  earliest  works,  it  is  enough 
to  refer  to  the  passage  condensed  from  the  Brhadaranyaka  and 
cited  above.  This  is  the  only  one  of  the  oldest  Upanishads 
certainly  cited,  though  the  Chandogya,  Aitareya,  and  Ivfiu- 
sltaki  have  many  parallels  with  the  epic,  as  have  among  the 
later  works  of  this  class  the  Kena,  Mundaka,  Pragma,  and  a 
few  others.  Oddly  enough,  the  Maitrayana  has  been  scarcely 
compared,2  but  I purpose  to  show  that  this  and  the  earlier 
Kathaka  were  certainly  copied  by  the  later  epic  poets. 

1 Not  all  the  “ Yedic”  verses  are  here  verified,  e.  g.,  Taitt.  iii,  7,  has  prano 
va  annani.  This  is  cited  in  the  epic  as  Yedic : annam  prana  iti  yatha  vedesu 
paripathyate,  siii,  95,  22.  The  Gita  distributes  older  material,  e.  g.,  Qvet.  iii, 
17  = Gita,  13,  14,  hut  the  following  pada,  navadvare  pure  dehi,  is  found  in 
Gita,  5,  13,  etc. 

2 The  verse  dve  brahmani  (as  duly  recorded  by  Holtzmann)  was  located  by 
Hall,  and  Biihler  has  compared  two  more  verses  with  xii,  330,  42-43  (Manu, 
p.  212),  wliile  Telang  has  illustrated  the  Gita  with  general  parallels. 


28 


THE  GREAT  ERIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  Cvetacvatara  Upanishad. 

This  may  be  loosely  copied,  but,  except  for  one  parallel, 
the  mutual  passages  are  common  to  this  and  other  sources. 
I cite  as  exemplifying  a possible  copy  (though  the  Upanishad. 
itself  is  a copy  of  the  older  Kathaka)  : 


Upanishad. 

iii,  8 = V.  S.  31,  18, 

tamasah  parastat ; na  ’nyah  pan- 
tlia  vidyate  ayanaya. 

iii,  10, 

tato  yad  uttarataram  tad  arupam 
anamayam,  ya  etad  vidur  arnrtas 
te  bliavanti. 

iii,  13, 

angusthamatrah  purusah,  see  be- 
low. 

iii,  18, 

navadvare  pure  dehl  hansah,  see 
below. 

iii,  19-20, 

sa  vetti  vedyam  . . . anor  ani- 
yan,  etc. 

iv,  2 and  19, 

tad  eva  fukram  tad  brahma ; 
yasya  nama  mahad  yajali,  see 
below. 

iv,  5, 

ajam  ekam  lohitajuklakrsnam. 

iv,  6, 

Birds  and  pippal,  see  the  passage 
from  Drona,  cited  hereafter. 

iv,  17  and  20, 

na  samdrjc ; hrda  manisa,  see  be- 
low. 


Epic. 

v,  44,  29  and  24, 

tamasah  parastat ; na  ’nyah  pan- 
tha  ayanaya  vidyate. 

v,  44,  81, 

anamayam  tan  mahad  udyatam 
ya?o  (Katha,  vi,2,mahadbhayam 
vajram  udyatam)  vaco  vikaram 
kavayo  vadanti  yasmin  jagat 
sarvam  idam  pratisthitam  ye  tad 
vidur  arnrtas  te  bliavanti  (com- 
pare BAU.  i,  5,  1 ; Chand.  iii,  12, 
2 ; Katha,  vi,  9) . 


v,  43,  53;  46,  31  (Gita,  10, 
15), 

yo  veda  vedyam  na  sa  veda  sa- 
tyarn;  anor  aniyan  (Katha  i,  2, 
20).  In  44,  29,  aniyo  ruparii  ksu- 
radharaya  samam  (Katha,  iii,  14). 


v,  44,  25  and  26, 

abhati  fuklam  iva  lohitam  iva 
krsnam  (followed  by  ayasam 
arkavarnam  with  v.  1.,  athii’fija- 
nam  kadravam  va)  ,•  Mahanar., 
ix,  2 ; also  Chand.  viii,  6,  1.  On 
account  of  the  varied  reading  in 
the  same  verse  the  three  first 
colors  may  be  the  only  original, 
but  even  here  the  reference  is  to 
Prakrti  in  the  Upanishad  and  to 
Brahman  in  the  epic. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  29 


These  are  the  best  examples  of  sporadic  parallels  to  be 
found  in  the  Upanishads.  1 turn  now  to  the  Kafchaka. 

The  Kathaka  or  Katha  Upanishad. 

From  the  Katha,  iii,  10,  indriyebhyah  para  hy  arthii,  arthe- 
bhyag  ca  param  manah,  manasas  tu  para  buddhir,  buddher 
atma  malian  parah,  and  ii,  19,  na  ’yam  lianti  na  hanyate,  the 
Gita,  3,  42,  has  indriyani  parany  ahur  indriyebhyah  param 
manah,  manasas  tu  para  buddhir,  yo  buddheh  paratas  tu  sah 
(the  Sa  is  higher  than  intellect) ; and  in  2,  19-20,  it  inverts 
and  modifies  the  na  jiiyate  and  hanta  cen  manyate  hantum 
stanzas.  Less  precise  in  rendering,  but  important  on  account 
of  the  Gita  modifications,  are  two  other  stanzas.  Katha  i,  22, 
has  vakta  ca  ’sya  tvadrg  anyo  na  labliyah,  etc.,  a tristubh, 
whereas  Gita,  6,  39,  has  tvad  anyah  samgayasya  ’sya  chetta 
na  hy  upapadyate,  a gloka  (compare  M.  ii,  15,  1,  samgayanam 
hi  niimokta  tvan  na  ’nyo  vidyate  bhuvi,  addressed  to  Krishna). 
The  Katha  is  older  also  in  the  stanza  ii,  15, 

sarve  veda  yat  padam  amananti,  tapansi  sarvani 
ca  yad  vadanti 

yad  icchanto  brahmacaryam  caranti,  tat  te  padam 
sangrahena  bravlmi, 

as  compared  with  Gita,  8,  11, 

yad  aksaram  vedavido  vadanti,  viganti  yad  yatayo 
vltaragah 

yad  icchanto  brahmacaryam  caranti,  tat  te  padam 
sangrahena  pravaksye. 

Other  parallels  will  be  found  between  Katha  ii,  7, 

aqcaryo  vakta  kugalo  'sya  labdha,  agcaryo  jnata 
kugalanucistah, 

and  Gita,  2,  29, 

agcaryavat  pagyati  kagcid  enam,  agcaryavad  vadati 
tathai  ’va  ca  ’nyah,  etc. ; 

between  Katha  vi,  1 and  Gita,  15,  1 (the  idea  developed  in 
xii,  255,  1 ff.) ; and  in  a few  more  instances,  such  as  tasya 


80 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


bhasa  sarvam  idam  vibhati,  Katha  v,  15,  and  ekah  suryah. 
sarvam  idam  vibhati,  Mbh.  iii,  134,  8.1 

But  it  is  not  necessary  to  dwell  upon  these,  as  the  third 
chapter  of  the  Upanishad  is  epitomized  in  a section  of  (^anti. 
The  later  feature  begins  at  the  start,  xii,  247,  1 ff.  The 
vikaras,  modifications  of  Prakrti,  do  not  know  the  ksetrajna, 
or  spirit,  but  he  knows  them.  Then  follows  the  image  of  the 
Upanishad  iii,  2 ff.  The  senses  are  subservient  steeds,  and 
the  spirit  is  the  driver  who  controls  them,  samyanta.  After 
this  general  imitation  follow  the  three  stanzas  of  Katha  iii, 
10,  11,  12,  one  of  which  appears  in  the  Gita  (above),2  but 
with  the  substitution  of  amrta  for  purusa  in  the  second 
stanza,  and  evam  for  esa  in  the  third.  Then  a general  like- 
ness follows  between  the  Upanishad’s  next  stanza  (“restrain 
mind  in  knowledge,  in  self  ”)  and  the  epic,  which  says  “ sink- 
ing the  senses  with  mind  as  the  sixth  in  the  inner  self,” 
“ endowing  the  mind  with  wisdom,”  “ one  that  is  not  mas- 
tered (by  the  senses)  gets  the  immortal  place.”  The  instruc- 
tion is  a mystery,  to  be  repeated  to  Snatakas  (compare  Katha, 
iii,  17),  and  besides  containing  the  gist  of  former  wisdom,  “is 
recited  in  the  Upanishads”  vedantesu  ca  glyate,  247,  16,  19, 
21.  I think  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  epic  section  is  an 
abbreviation  of  Katha  iii,  perhaps  under  the  influence  of  the 
Maitrayana,  as  shown  below.  A preceding  section  may  be 
compared  with  Katha  v,  1-2,  where  the  city  of  eleven  doors 
is  followed  by  a reference  to  the  hansa,  lord,  R.  V.  iv,  40,  5. 
The  epic  (see  under  the  “ group  of  seventeen  ”),  like  the  later 
Upanishad,  admits  only  “ nine  doors,”  and  says  in  xii,  240,  32, 
the  hansa  lord,  I§a,  and  controller,  vagi,  enters  the  city  of 
nine  doors,  because  it  is  controlled,  niyatah,  by  the  senses. 

Other  stanzas  reflecting  the  last  chapters  of  this  Upanishad 

1 Compare  in  the  Up.,  ib.  9 and  12,  agnir  yathiii  ’kah  nnd  ekaiii  rupam 
bahudha  yah  karoti,  with  eka  evagnir  bahudha  samidhyate,  just  preceding 
in  the  epic.  Gita,  13,  30,  may  be  a modification  of  Katha  vi,  0.  The  Gita 
stanza,  by  the  way,  is  repeated  verbatim  in  xii,  17,  23. 

2 The  last  of  the  three  verses  is  cited  again  in  Vann  in  a copy  of  the  Mai- 
trayana Upanishad,  which  substitutes  bhutStma  for  gudho  'tma,  and  jiiana- 
vedibhih  for  suksmadarfibhih.  See  the  next  paragraph. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  31 


are  found  mingled  with  copies  from  other  Upanishads  in  the 
last  chapter  of  the  Sanatsujata  Parvan.  In  every  case  where 
evidence  exists  it  points  to  the  epic  being  a copy  of  the  Upa- 
nishad.  Thus  in  BAU.  v,  1,  we  read  purnam  adah  purnam 
idam  purnat  purnam  udacyate,  purnasya  purnam  adaya 
purnam  eva  ’vagisyate,  which  in  the  epic,  v,  40,  10,  appears 
as  purnat  purniiny  uddharanti  purnat  purnani  cakrire  liaranti 
purnat  purniini  purnam  eva  'vagisyate.  Again  the  stanza  of 
Katha  vi,  9, 

na  samdrfe  tisthati  rupam  asya,  na  caksusa  pagyati 
kagcanai  ’nam 

hrda  manisa  manasa  ’bhiklpto,  ya  etad  vidur  amrtas 
te  bhavanti 

is  modernized  already  in  £vet.,  iv  17  (idem)  and  20,  hrda 
hrdistham  manasa  ya  enam  evam  vidur  amrtas  te  bhavanti, 
and  this  in  the  epic,  v,  46,  6,  appears  as 

na  sadrgye  tisthati  rupam  asya,  na  caksusa  pagyati 
kagcid  enam 

manisayd  ’tho  manasa  hrda  ca,  ya  enam  vidur  amr- 
tas te  bhavanti, 


or,  as  ib.  20, 

na  dar$ane  tisthati  rupam  asya  . . , 

ye  pravrajeyur  amrtas  te  bhavanti. 

The  section  begins  with  an  explanation  of  the  cukram  brahma 
which  is  mahad  yagah  and  tad  vai  deva  upasate,  a phrase, 
prior  piida,  metrically  borrowed  from  the  licence  of  the  Upa- 
nishads,  where  the  epic  usually  writes  upasante  to  avoid  di- 
iambus.1 Here  gukram  brahma  and  mahad  yagah  are  from 
Ivatha  v,  8 ; vi,  1 ; (JJvet.  iv,  19  (yasya  nama  mahad  yagah). 
Below,  <jl.  9,  the  Agvattha  and  its  birds  may  be  drawn  from 
Katha  vi,  1,  and,  after  the  purnam  stanza  cited  above,  gl.  11, 

1 The  later  Upanishads  resort  to  a similar  device.  Thus  in  the  Yoga- 
tattvop.  i,  6 (alle  gute  Dinge  sind  drei) : trayo  lokas  trayo  vedas  trayah 
samdhyas  trayah  surah,  trayo  'gnayo  gunas  trini  (sthitah  sarve  trayaksare). 


32 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


tasmad  vai  vilyur  ayatah  . . . tasmin.9  ca  prana  atatah,  is  a 
parallel  to  Katha  vi,  2.1  Then  follows,  in  the  epic,  §1.  15 : 

angusthamatrah  puruso  'ntaratma,  lingasya  yogena 
sa  yati  nityam 

tam  Iqam  Idyara  anukalpam  adyam,  paqyanti  mudha 
na  virajamanam, 

which  appears  ib.  27  as : 

angusthamatrah  puruso  mahatma,  na  drqyate  'sau 
hrdi  saxhnivistah 

aja^  caro  divaratram  atandritaq  ca,  sa  tam  matva 
kavir  aste  prasannah, 

with  which  Katha  iv,  4 (matva  dhlro  na  gocati)  may  be  com- 
pared, and  especially  iv,  12 : 

angusthamatrah  puruso  madhya  atmani  tisthati 
Iqano  bhutabhavyasya  na  tato  vijugupsate, 

and  Katha  vi,  17 : 

angusthamatrah  puruso  'ntaratma,  sada  jananam 
hrdaye  sahmivistah 

tam  svac  charirat  pravrhen  munjad  iva-isikam  dhair- 
yena  (tam  vidyac  chukram) 

The  last  words  are  found  in  the  epic,  44,  7,  as : 

ta  atmanam  nirharantl  ’ha  dehan,  munjad  isikam  iva 
sattvasamsthah, 

while  just  before  46,  27,  is  found  in  §1.  25 : 

evaiii  yah  sarvablifitesu  atmanam  anupaqyati 
anyatra  ’nyatra  yuktesu  kim  sa  qocet  tatah  param, 

which  is  like  I^a  6-7  in  contracted  form. 

1 There  is  here  a general  resemblance,  noticeable  chiefly  because  of  the 
correlation  of  one  idea  with  the  next  following,  interrupted  in  the  epic  by 
the  purna  stanza.  With  44,  27,  “ Ilis  form  is  not  in  stars,  lightning,  clouds, 
wind,  moon,  sun,”  compare  Katha  v,  15,  “Not  there  the  sun  shines,  moon, 
stars,  nor  lightnings.” 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  ERIC  POETS.  33 


The  Maitri  Upanishad  in  the  Epic. 

Especially  instructive  is  the  form  in  which  the  Maitri  or 
Maitrayana  Upanishad  appears  in  the  epic.  In  the  case  of 
many  of  the  Upanishads  there  is  lacking  any  characteristic 
mark  sufficiently  peculiar  to  identify  the  Upanishad  when  it 
appears  in  epic  form.  But  the  Maitri,  as  is  well  known,  con- 
tains some  special  stanzas  and  above  all  some  special  terms 
not  found  elsewhere  except  in  still  later  Upanishads.  It  is, 
therefore,  more  easily  identified,  and  the  possibility  that  we 
are  dealing  with  material  common  to  the  age  of  the  older 
Upanishads  is  not  so  great.  In  all  probability  it  is  a later 
Upanishad.  Deussen,  Sechzig  Upanishads,  p.  312,  success- 
fully maintains  this  view,  and  in  his  Geschichte  der  Philo- 
sophic i2,  p.  24,  groups  it  with  the  Pragna  and  Mandukya 
as  belonging  to  the  group  of  “ later  Prose  Upanishads,” 
regarding  it  not  only  as  later  than  the  old  prose,  but  even 
as  later  than  the  metrical  Upanishads,  from  both  of  which 
earlier  groups  I have  given  epic  parallels  in  the  list  above. 

This  Maitri  Upanishad  is  found  reflected  in  the  epic  at 
iii,  213,  and  in  a later  imitation  in  the  twelfth  book.  The 
former  epic  section  is  based  entirely  on  the  Upanishad,  and 
the  preceding  sections  appear  to  be  due  to  an  expansion  of 
the  same  material.  The  order  followed  is  in  general  that 
of  the  Upanishad. 

The  teaching  is  called  brahml  vidya,  iii,  210,  15.  There 
is  an  introductory  systematization,  the  assumption  of  the 
universe  (as  Brahman)  consisting  of  five  elements,1  earth, 
water,  light,  wind,  air,  which  have  as  their  characteristics  (in 
inverted  order),  sound,  touch,  color,  taste,  smell,  so  related 
that  earth  has  all  five  ; water,  four ; light,  three  ; wind,  two ; 
air,  one  (sound),  making  altogether  fifteen  in  combination 
in  all  created  things  (210,  17 ; 211,  8).  With  these  five 
“ gunas”  begins  a group  of  seventeen : cetana  or  manas,  mind, 

1 In  210,  17,  these  are  given  in  reverse  order,  but  in  211,  3,  in  their  usual 
epic  order,  bhumir  apas  tatha  jyotir  vayur  akafam  eva  ca  (reversed,  kham 

vayur  agnir  apas  tatha  ca  bhuh). 


3 


34 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


as  sixth ; intellect  as  seventh ; egoism  as  eighth ; the  five 
senses ; atman,  soul,  the  fourteenth ; and  the  three  gunas, 
rajas,  sattvam,  tamas.  This  is  “the  group  of  seventeen,” 
which  has  as  its  designation  the  Unmanifest  (avyakta)  ; to 
which  are  added  objects  of  the  senses  and  the  manifest  and 
unmanifest,  making  the  category  of  twenty-four.1 

This  is  the  introductory  chapter  of  the  discourse,  and  its 
likeness  to  the  Maitri  Upanishad  consists  in  the  initial  dis- 
cussion of  the  elements  (which,  however,  are  not  called 
fine  elements,  tanmatra,  as  they  are  in  the  Upanishad,  iii, 
2,  maliabhutani  and  gunas),2  and  the  statement  that  this  is 
a brahml  vidya,  like  MU.  ii,  3,  brahmavidya.  As  an  indica- 
tion of  the  age  of  the  discourse,  it  may  be  observed  in  pass- 
ing that,  in  211,  9,  the  fifteen  gunas  are  said  to  be  properly 
correlated  in  the  remarkable  verse : 

anyonyam  na  ’tivartante  sarayak  ca  bhavati,  dvija 

where  the  use  of  bhavati  for  bhavanti  (subject,  pancadaga 
gunah),  though  declared  by  the  commentator  to  be  an  archa- 

1 Otherwise  the  commentator.  Objects  of  sense  and  action-organs  are  not 
included  in  the  seventeen : ity  esa  saptadayako  rayir  avyaktasamjnakah, 
sarvair  ihe  ’ndriyarthais  tu  vyaktavyaktaih  susamvrtaih  caturvinyaka  ity  esa 
vyaktavyaktamayo  gunah  (210,  20-21).  Guna  is  obscure.  The  entirely  differ- 
ent group  of  seventeen  in  xii,  276,  28,  casts  no  light  on  the  subject,  but  in  xii, 
330,  46,  a similar  verse  has  (in  B)  sarvair  ihe  ’ndriyarthaiy  ca  vyaktavyaktair 
hi  samhitah  (v.  1.  samjnitah)  caturvinyaka  ity  esa  vyaktavyaktamayo  ganah, 
which  gives  the  needed  ganah  for  gunah  and  makes  the  construction  some- 
what clearer,  though  the  latter  passage  is  such  a careless  imitation  of  the 
one  above  that  in  making  up  the  previous  list  of  seventeen,  atman,  ahamkara, 
and  manas  are  all  omitted  from  the  list  (buddhi  being  represented  by  mahad 
yat  param  ayrayat)  and  54-1  + 5-1-3  = 17!  The  first  group  is  similar  to 
the  group  of  seventeen  in  the  Vedanta-sara,  though  there  the  organs  of  action 
and  the  breaths  are  included  with  the  organs  of  sense,  buddhi  and  manas. 
The  formal  definition  of  vyakta  and  avyakta  in  iii,  211,  12,  repeated  in  xii, 
330,  49,  with  grhyate  for  srjyate  and  with  slight  v.  1.  in  xii,  189,  15,  is  that 
vyakta,  the  manifest,  is  what  is  comprehended  by  the  senses,  while  avyaka 
is  what  is  supersensuous,  comprehended  only  by  the  “fine  organs”  (linga- 
grahyam  atmdriyam).  If  the  reading  guna  be  retained  above,  it  will  imply 
the  interpretation  of  all  the  constituents  as  gunas. 

2 That  is,  here,  as  synonym  of  dhatu  or  the  elements,  which  after  the  dis- 
solution of  the  universe  appear  in  every  newly  formed  body,  dhatavah  pafica- 
bhautikah,  iii,  211,  11 ; xii,  184,  1. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  35 


ism,  is  really  a late  carelessness.  It  is  further  to  be  observed 
that  though  in  this  introduction,  and  incidentally  in  a pre- 
ceding section,  iii,  207,  72,  the  organs  of  sense  are  given  as 
five,  yet  in  iii,  211,  24,  they  are  spoken  of  as  six,1  in  a figure 
which  not  oidy  reproduces  the  exact  language  of  the  Gita, 
2,  60  and  67,  but  contains  the  imagery  of  the  Maitri  Upa- 
nishad  (ii,  6,  rathah  §arlram,  mano  niyanta,  prakrtimayo  fsya 
pratodah) : 

sannam  atmani  yuktfinam  indriyanam  pramathinam 
yo  dhlro  dharayed  raqmln  sa  syat  paramasarathih 
indriyanam  prasrstanaiii  hayanam  iva  vartmasu 
. . . indriyanam  vicaratam,  etc. 

This  image  of  the  senses  to  be  kept  under  control  like  horses 
held  in  check  by  a charioteer  is  indeed  too  general  to  have 
any  bearing  on  the  relation  of  the  epic  to  the  Upanishad  (it 
occurs,  as  said  above,  in  the  lvatha  Upanishad,  for  instance, 
and  again  in  the  epic  in  purely  Buddhistic  form  at  i,  79,  2-3 
= Dhammapada  222-223)  and  might  pass  unnoticed,  were  it 
not  that  the  corresponding  section  of  the  twelfth  book  brings 
the  two  into  somewhat  closer  relationship.  As  already  ob- 
served, the  teaching  of  the  Yana  in  210  and  211  is  more  or 
less  closely  reproduced  in  xii,  330,  which,  however,  omitting 
the  stanzas  in  regard  to  the  six  senses,  condenses  them  in  the 
statement  that  one  is  “ tossed  about  ” by  the  effects  of  evil 
actions,  but  then  closes  with  a stanza,  58,  which  has  direct 
reference  to  transmigration  and  is  in  turn  omitted  from  the 
end  of  iii,  211,  paribhramati  samsaram  cakravad  bahuvedanah, 

1 So  both  groups  of  organs,  those  of  sense  and  of  action,  are  sometimes 
counted  as  making  not  ten  but  eleven,  including  the  thinking  faculty,  as  in 
xiv,  42,  12.  Compare  the  same  image  and  number  in  xii,  247,  2 (above),  ma- 
nahsastair  ihe  ’ndriyaih  sudantair  iva  samyanta,  etc.  In  the  passage  above, 
iii,  211, 13,  the  sense-organs,  indriyani,  are  defined  as  apprelienders  of  objects 
of  sense,  grahakany  esarh  fabdadinam.  The  word  is  derived  from  Indra, 
xii,  214,  23,  tribijam  (apapatha  nrbijam),  indradaivatyam  tasmad  indriyam 
ucyate,  with  a preceding  description  of  the  seeds,  the  ten  chief  dhamanyah, 
the  three  humors,  vata,  pitta,  kapha,  and  other  medicinal  intelligence,  with 
especial  weight  on  the  heart-artery,  manovaha,  and  its  action  as  known  to 
Atri. 


36 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


that  is,  “ like  a wheel  he  revolves  through  transmigrations.” 
Just  so  the  Maitri  Upanishad,  ii,  6,  says  first  that  the  senses 
are  horses  and  then,  after  developing  the  figure,  concludes 
with  anena  (pratodena)  khalv  Iritah  paribhramatl  ’dam  garl- 
rarii  cakram  iva  mrtpacena,  “ thus  goaded  he  revolves  in  bod- 
ily form  like  a potter’s  wheel.” 

The  next  chapter  of  the  teaching,  iii,  212,  discusses  the 
three  gunas  as  (in  general)  in  Maitri,  iii,  5.  The  section 
before  this  in  the  Upanishad,  iii,  4,  is  a close  prose  prototype 
of  the  (lanti  verses  (omitted  in  iii)  just  preceding  the  group 
of  seventeen  (the  rest  of  the  section,  xii,  330  being  parallel 
to  iii,  211).  This  (xii,  330,  42)  verse  begins  asthisthunam 
snayuyutam  . . . carmavanaddham  (just  as  in  the  Upanishad, 
carmana  ’vanaddham),  and  in  28-9,  kosakara  iva  suggests 
(against  the  commentator  and  Deussen.)  that  in  the  Upani- 
shad, the  ending  kosa  iva  vasuna  should  be  interpreted 
accordingly,  “filled  like  a cocoon  with  (deadly)  wealth.” 
The  next  chapter  of  Vana,  the  special  chapter  under  consid- 
eration, begins  with  the  question  how  the  vital  flame  can 
combine  with  earth-stuff  to  make  the  incorporate  creature, 
and  how  air  causes  activity.  To  which  the  answer  is  that 
the  flame  enters  the  head  and  directs  the  body,  while  air  acts 
by  being  in  the  head  and  in  the  vital  flame.  This  is  like  the 
opening  of  the  Upanishad  where  it  says,  ii,  6,  that  the  spirit 
is  fire.  The  answer  continues : “ All  is  established  upon 
breath;”  which  is  identified  with  spirit,  Purusha,  intellect, 
buddhi,  and  egoism.  Then  follows  a disquisition  upon  the 
different  kinds  of  bodily  airs  or  breathings.  These  are 
named  as  the  usual  five,  but  are  incidentally  referred  to  as 
ten,  which  makes  it  necessary  to  understand  with  the  com- 
mentator that  the  other  five  are  those  called  naga,  kurma, 
krkala  (sic),  devadatta,  and  dhanamjaya,  besides  the  usual 
(in-)  breathing,  with-breathing,  off-breathing,  up-breathing, 
and  through-breathing,  which  are  specifically  mentioned.1 

1 iii,  213,  16,  dafaprannpracoditah.  The  ten  are  named  as  above  in  the 
Vedantasara  of  Sadiinanda,  90,  Biihtlingk’s  Chrest.  p.  264.  The  (usual)  five 
are  prana,  samana,  itpana,  udana,  vyana.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  xii,  186, 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  37 


This  also  corresponds  to  Maitri  ii,  6,  where  the  five  breaths 
are  associated  with  the  vital  flame  (Agni  Yai§vanara  as 
Purusa). 

After  the  breaths  are  discussed,  there  is  a passing  refer- 
ence to  the  eleven  (not  sixteen)  vikaras,  or  transformations 
by  which  the  spirit  is  conditioned  like  fire  in  a pot ; 1 just 
as  Maitri  iii,  3,  has  first  yatha  ’gnina  ’yaspinclo  'nyo  va  ’bhi- 
bhutah,  etc.,  and  then  the  transformations,  gunani  (=  vika- 
ras). The  corresponding  passage  in  (.’anti,  here  242,  17,  has 
karmagunatmakam  for  nityam  yogajitatmakam,  but  then  both 
passages  continue  with  the  stanza : 

devo a yah  samsthitas  (v.  1.  saih^ritas)  tasminn,  ab- 
bindur  iva  puskare 

ksetrajnam  taiii  vijanihi  (v.  1.  °Iyat)  nityam  yoga- 
jitatmakam, 

“ Know  that  the  divine  being  who  stands  in  the  body  like  a 
drop  of  water  on  a lotus,  is  the  spirit  eternal  but  overcome 
by  its  association.”  The  epic  texts  vary  in  the  next  stanza, 
but  the  sense  is  the  same,  to  the  effect  that  the  individual 
life-spirit,  jiva,  though  conditioned  by  the  three  gunas,  has  the 
characteristics  (gunas)  of  the  atman,  while  atman  again  is  one 
with  the  Supreme  Atman  (paratmakam,  213,  21).  The  third 
version  of  the  passage,  found  in  xii,  187,  23-25,  explains  the 
individual  spirit,  ksetrajna,  as  atman  conditioned  by  the  gu- 
nas of  Prakrti,  and  as  Supreme  Atman  when  freed  from 


15,  where  the  phrase  above  reappears  in  a copy  of  this  section.  In  xii,  329, 
31  ff.  (and  elsewhere)  the  pranas  are  seven  personified  creatures,  Udana  born 
of  Samana,  etc.,  as  winds,  pra,  a,  ud,  sam,  vi,  pari,  and  para  (vahas).  Com- 
pare also  xii,  184,  24,  below. 

1 ekadafavikaratma  kalasambharasambhrtah  murtimantam  hi  tam  viddhi 
nityam  yogajitatmakam,  tasmin  yah  sarhsthito  hy  agnir  nityam  sthalyam 
iva’hitah  atmanam  tam  vijanihi  nityam  yogajitatmakam,  213,  18-19. 

2 In  xii,  246,  29,  deva  may  be  jiva,  devam  tridhatum  trivrtam  suparnam 
ye  vidyur  agryam  paramatmatam  ca,  but  on  the  other  hand  there  may  be  a 
textual  error  here  of  devo  for  delie.  Compare  xii,  187,  24,  tasmin  yah  sariifrito 
dehe  hy  abbindur  iva  puskare.  The  Supreme  Spirit  is  devo  (nirgunah),  xii, 
341,  101,  as  in  Q'Tet.  Up.  i,  8 (here  called,  99,  yajnesv  agraharah). 


38 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


them;1  with  a varied  reading  of  nityam  lokahitatmakam  and 
viddhi  jlvagunan  in  the  following  verses ; 26,  however,  being 
almost  the  same  as  iii,  213,  22  : — 

sacetanam  jlvagunam  vadanti 
sa  cestate  cestayate  ca  sarvam 
(t)atah  param  ksetravido  vadanti 

prakalpayad  (v.  1.  pravartayad)  yo  bkuvanani 
s apt  a, 

“ They  say  that  the  individual  spirit  is  characterized  by  intel- 
ligence ; it  moves  and  causes  all  to  move.2  The  wise  say, 
that  he  who  caused  the  many  creations  to  form  is  still 
higher  (or  the  Highest).” 

The  reading  in  xii,  187,  23  brings  the  passage  into  still 
closer  connection  with  the  Upanishad.  The  latter,  at  iii,  2, 
has  atma  bindur  iva  puskare  followed  by  sa  va  eso  'bhibhiltah 
prakrtdir  gunaih , while  the  epic  has  abbindur  iva  puskare 
preceded  by  atma  ksetrajha  ity  uktah  samyuktah  prakrtdir 
gunaih , where  the  Vana  version  keeps  (what  is  here  lost) 
the  image  of  the  fire  in  the  pot.  Then  the  stanza  above, 
sacetanam,  etc.,3  closely  reproduces  the  words  as  well  as  the 
thought  of  the  Upanishad,  ii,  5 : cetanene  ’daiii  gariram  ceta- 
navat  pratisthapitam  pracodayitii  vai  ’so  'py  asya  (compare 
acetanam  garlram,  ii,  3).  The  fact  that  the  epic  Vana  is 
not  based  on  the  lotus-phrase  of  earlier  Upanishads  but  is 
following  the  Miiitri  is  shown  even  more  clearly  in  the  phra- 
seology of  the  following  stanza,  213,  23,  which  at  this  point 
does  not  correspond  to  (yYinti  above,  but  to  a later  chapter, 

1 For  the  text,  see  the  end  of  the  last  note.  A passage  in  xii,  310,  15-17 
combines  freely  the  two  traits  mentioned  above:  “The  fire  is  different  from 
the  pot,  ultha;  the  lotus  is  different  from  the  water,  nor  is  it  soiled  by  touch 
of  water,”  etc.  — a fact  which  is  said  to  be  “not  understood  by  common 
people,”  as  in  the  example  below. 

2 The  commentator  says  that  ns  individual  soul  the  atman  is  active,  and 
as  the  Lord-soul  causes  activity  (compare  xii,  47,  G5,  yaf  cestayati  bhutani 
tasmai  vayvatmane  namah);  but  the  Highest  is  above  both  these.  In  xii, 
242,  20,  jlvayate  takes  the  place  of  cestayate. 

8 C.  lias  acetanam  in  the  Vana  passage,  but  both  texts  in  both  the  £anti 
passages  have  sacetanam,  xii,  187,  20 ; 242,  20. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  39 


xii,  247,  5.  The  Vana  passage  says : “ Thus  in  all  beings 
appeai-s  the  bhututman  (conditioned  spirit),  but  it  is  seen 
only  by  the  subtile  intellect ; ” whereas  the  (y’anti  passage 
has  not  bhutatma  sampraka^ate,  but  gudho  Tina  na  prakayate, 
“ concealed  it  is  not  apparent,”  that  is,  it  has  the  text  of  the 
Ivathaka.1  But  in  Vana  there  is  the  characteristic  bhututman 
of  the  Upanishad,  which  says  at  iii,  3:  “(Bure)  spirit  is  no 
more  overcome  (by  environment)  than  fire  is  overcome  when 
the  mass  of  iron  (enclosing  it)  is  hammered ; what  is  over- 
come is  the  bhututman,  which  is  abhibhuta,  overcome,  because 
it  is  bound  up  with  (the  transformations)  ; ” and  further, 
iii,  5 : “ Filled  with  the  effect  of  the  gunas  (which  condition 
it)  the  bhutiitman  is  abhibhuta  (the  same  etymological  tie), 
overcome,  by  them,  and  so  enters  different  forms.”  2 A few 
more  passages  contain  this  word  bhutatman.  Of  these,  two 

1 See  the  analysis  above,  p.  30,  note  2. 

2 The  etymological  connection  between  abhibhuta  and  bhutatman  may 
have  suggested  to  the  commentator  his  explanation  of  bhutatman  as  an 
epithet  of  mahatman  in  xiii,  34,  15,  where  he  says  that  mahatmans  are  called 
bhutatmans  because  they  have  overcome  or  controlled  their  thoughts  (bhuta 
= vafikrta).  In  the  epic,  bhutatman  appears  as  incorporate  spirit  in  xii,  201, 
1,  where  “ how  can  I understand  bhutatman  ? ” is  to  be  thus  interpreted ; and 
as  intellect,  buddhi,  in  the  reabsorption  process  described  at  xii,  313,  12,  mano 
grasati  bhutatma.  Differently  employed,  the  combination  appears  in  Gita,  5, 
7,  where  one  is  said  not  to  be  contaminated  by  action  if  one  is  sarvabliuta- 
tmabliutatma,  which,  as  is  shown  by  parallel  passages,  is  not  to  be  divided 
into  sarvabhutatma  and  bhutatma,  but  into  sarvabhuta,  atmabhuta,  atma, 
where  sarvabhutatmabhuta  means  one  with  all,  or  the  All-soul.  Compare  xii, 
240,  23,  sarvabhutatmabhutasya  vibhor  bhutaliitasya  ca  deva  ’pi  marge  mu- 
hyanti;  xii,  47,  82,  sarvabhutatmabhutaya  . . . namah.  Bhutatman  means 
also  elemental  spirit,  as  in  xii,  298,  17-19,  where  it  is  said  that  before  the 
disembodied  jiva,  or  spirit,  secures  a new  resting  place  (ayatana,  body),  it 
wanders  about  as  a bhutatman,  “ like  a great  cloud.”  So  in  xii,  254,  7,  the 
bhutatman  of  Yogins  wanders  through  space  and  has  seven  subtile  gunas 
(according  to  the  commentator,  the  fine  elements,  intellect  and  egoism),  like 
sattvatman,  ib.  6 ; but  here,  too,  it  is  the  bhutatman,  “ standing  in  the  heart,” 
ib.  12.  I observe,  by  the  way,  that  the  citation  above,  “ the  gods  are  con- 
founded at  the  track  of  him  who  is  identical  with  all  created  things  ” (com- 
pare the  anirde£ya  gatih,  “indescribable  course,  which  the  moksinah  foresee,” 
xii,  19,  15),  shows,  as  does  xiii,  113,  7,  apadasya  padaisinah,  that  in  xiii, 
141,  88,  padam  tasva  ca  vidyate  should  be  changed  to  na  vidyate,  as  in  C. 
6477  (sattvam  sarvabhutatmabhutastham  is  found  in  xii,  210,  36).  Compare 
Dhammapada  420,  yassa  gatim  na  jananti  deva. 


40 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


or  three  deserve  particular  attention.  In  xii,  240,  21,  it 
appeal’s  in  a stanza  like  one  to  be  cited  presently,  where 
another  Maitri  word  is  found,  but  here  the  text  says  merely 
that  the  bhutatman  (ceases  to  be  conditioned  and)  enters 
Brahman,  where  it  “ sees  self  in  all  beings  and  all  beings  in 
self.”  In  gl.  11  of  the  same  chapter  the  bhutatman  appears 
as  the  controller  of  mind  in  the  same  simile  of  the  wild  horses 
noticed  above,  but  with  a different  turn : “ Mind,  as  a char- 
ioteer his  horses,  directs  the  senses ; and  the  bhutatman 
which  is  seated  in  the  breast  directs  mind;  as  the  mind, 
restraining  and  letting  out  the  senses,  is  their  lord,  so  the 
bhutatman  in  respect  to  the  mind.”  In  xiv,  51,  1,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  mind  itself  is  called  bhutatman,  because  it 
rules  the  mahabhutas.  Finally  the  same  term  is  used  of 
Vishnu  in  xiii,  149,  140,  where  it  is  said : 1 

eko  Visnur  mahad  bhutam  prthag  bhutany  anekagah 
trln  lokan  vyapya  bhutatma  bhunkte  vigvabhug 
avyayah, 

“ Vishnu  as  one  is  a great  spirit  (bhuta),  and  separately  is  all 
beings ; he,  permeating,  enjoys  the  three  worlds  as  bhutatman, 
he  the  all-enjoyer,  indestructible.” 

It  is  clear  from  these  passages  that  bhutatman  is  not  used 
in  one  strict  sense  in  the  epic,  but  its  signification  varies 
according  to  different  passages.  In  one  case  it  is  a free  spirit 
of  elements,2  but  in  another  the  conditioned  spirit  in  the 

1 The  quotation  here  given  may  be  the  one  cited  in  PW.  from  £KDr.  s. 
bhutatman  I,  1.  But  compare  also  xii,  207,  8,  where  the  Lord  Govinda  is 
bhutatma  mahatma.  In  the  “Secret  of  the  Vediintas”  (Upanishads)  the 
Intelligence  as  Lord  bhutakrt,  maker  of  elements,  is  called  Bhutatman,  xii, 
194,  7 = 248,  4,  and  14  as  Buddhi. 

2 Hence  called  suksma,  fine.  This  seems  to  be  the  sense  in  xii,  203,  0-7 : 
“ As  no  one  has  seen  the  back  of  Himalaya  or  of  the  moon,  but  cannot  say 
it  is  non-existent,  so  the  fine  bhutatman  which  in  creatures  has  a knowl- 
edge-soul, jnanatmavan,  cannot  be  said  not  to  exist  because  it  lias  not  been 
seen.”  With  this  jnanatman  compare,  by  the  way,  what  is  said  of  the  soul, 
ib.  240,  22,  yavan  atinani  vcdatma  tavan  atma  paratmani  (just  after  the  verse 
cited  in  the  text  240,  21,  above,  on  bhutatman) : “The  soul  is  as  much  in  the 
All-soul  as  there  is  knowledge-soul  in  itself.” 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  41 


body.1  It  is  the  latter  meaning  which  applies  both  in  the 
Upanishad  and  in  the  epic  imitation  of  it.  In  these  cases 
bhutatman  is  the  atman,  spirit,  not  as  being  pure  Purusa, 
but  as  being  in  connection  with  and  conditioned  by  bhuta, 
that  is,  imprisoned  in  matter.  It  is  apparently  a popular  (not 
philosophical)  term  for  spirit  in  general,  and  when  used  in 
philosophy  answers  to  the  ordinary  philosophical  jlva,  incor- 
porate spirit.  It  is  not  found  in  other  (old)  Upanishads. 

But  there  is  still  a closer  parallel  between  the  epic  and  the 
Upanishad.  After  the  verse  cited  above,  it  is  said,  iii,  213, 
24-27,  that  salvation  is  attained  by  peace  of  mind  and  by  per- 
ceiving self  in  self,  and  that  this  purified  spirit  by  the  aid. 
of  the  lighted  lamp  (of  knowledge),  seeing  self  as  free  of  self , 
becomes  released.2  Here  again  we  have  a peculiarly  Maitri 
word  in  niratman,  “free  of  self,”  that  is,  free  from  the  de- 
lusion of  subjectivity.  But  the  two  works  are  here  evidently 
identical.  First,  just  as  the  epic  says  that  one  must  have 
peace  of  mind,  prasada,  and  be  pure,  and  then  becomes  nirat- 
man, so  in  ii,  2-4,  the  Upanishad,  after  an  allusion  to  sam- 
prasada, the  same  peace  of  mind,  says  that  one  becomes  pure 
and  niratman  (guddhah  putah  gunyah  ganto  'prano  niratma). 
The  sign  of  this  peace  is  explained  as  when  one  sleeps  sweetly, 
iii,  213,  25  = xii,  247,  ll.3  In  the  epic  the  word  niratman 
occurs  again  in  much  the  same  way,  xii,  199,  123,  gantibhuto 
niratmavan,  like  the  collocation  above  in  the  Upanishad. 

1 Compare  what  is  said,  Mait.  Up.  iii,  2.  “The  bhutatman  is  affected  by 
ignorance,  and  so  gives  itself  up  to  objects  of  sense,”  it  is  said  in  xii,  204,  5. 

2 “For  self  is  the  friend  of  self,  and  even  so  self  is  the  foe  of  self,”  Y,  34, 
64 ; Gita,  6,  5. 

3 Samprasada  is  susupti,  unconscious  slumber.  Unconscious  existence  is 
the  goal  of  the  soul,  for  the  conditioned  spirit,  jiva,  “glorious,  immortal,  an- 
cient ” is  a part  of  this  unconsciousness,  and  on  becoming  pure  enters  it.  In 
a preceding  section  this  samprasada,  or  unconscious  existence,  is  declared  to 
be  the  body  of  the  universe  : Yah  samprasado  (am,  C.)  jagatah  (jariram,  sarvan 
sa  lokan  adhigacchati  ’ha,  tasmin  hitam  (hi  sam,  C.)  tarpayati  ’ha  devans, 
te  vai  trptas  tarpayanty  asyam  asya,  xii,  246,  33,  where  the  sense  seems  to 
be  that  the  reabsorption  of  the  universe  pleases  the  mouth  of  unconscious- 
ness ; that  is,  the  mouth  of  Time  as  Lord  of  all,  a metaphor  from  the  pre- 
ceding verses.  So  samprasada  is  a spirit  at  peace,  in  Chand.  Up.,  cited 
on  the  next  page. 


42 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Another  passage  reads : “ The  spirit  (atman,  but  conditioned) 
knows  not  whither  it  goes  or  whence,  but  the  inner-spirit, 
antaratman,  is  different ; it  sees  all  things ; with  the  lighted 
lamp  of  knowledge 1 it  sees  self  in  self.  Do  thou,  too,  seeing 
self  in  (or  with)  self,  become  freed  from  self,  become  all- wise  ” 
(niratma  bhava  sarvavit,  xii,  251,  9-10).  This  verse,  is  in  fact, 
only  a different  version  of  the  “ lighted  lamp  ” verse  above. 
This  latter,  in  turn  with  its  environment,  must  be  compared 
in  the  original  with  the  Upanishad  to  see  how  close  are  the 
two.  But  for  this  purpose  I take,  not  the  samprasada  passage 
referred  to  above,  which  is  parallel  to  Cliand.  Up.  viii,  3,  4, 
but  one  from  the  sixth  book,  where  the  Upanishad,  vi,  20, 
has 

tada  ’ tmana  ’ tmanam  drstva  niratma  bhavati, 

whereupon  follows  a stanza  cited,  ity  evaiii  hy  aha,  as : 
cittasya  hi  prasadena  hanti  karma  gubhagubham 
prasannatma  ’tmani  sthitva  sukham  avyayam  agnute 

In  the  epic,  iii,  213,  24,  this  whole  stanza  (gloka)  appears, 
cittasya  hi  prasadena,  etc.,  in  exactly  the  same  words,2  and 
then,  after  the  definition  of  prasada  and  the  injunction  that 
one  must  be  viguddhatma,  of  purified  soul,  as  explained  above, 
come  the  words,  gl.  27,  drstva  '’tmanam  nirdtmdnam  sa  tada 
vipramucyate. 

When  this  stanza  is  repeated  in  the  Upanishad  at  vi,  34,  it 
is  preceded  by  the  verse  yaccittas  tanmayo  bhavati,  so  that 
together  we  have : 

yaccittas  tanmayo  bhavati  guhyam  etat  sanatanam 

(i.  e.,  the  guhyam  of  Dhammapada  1,  mano  settha  inanomaya; 
compare  Pragna  Up.  iii,  10,  yaccittas  tenai  ’sa  pranam  ayilti) 

1 Ilcre  jnanadlpena  (compare  Gita,  10,11)  diptena;  above,  pradiptene  ’va 
dipena  manodipena.  Compare  dipavad  yah  sthito  lirdi,  Maitri,  vi.  30  (and 
36). 

2 In  the  corresponding  Qanti  chapter,  in  which  I pointed  out  above  the 
simile  of  the  six  senses  as  horses,  and  gudho  'tma  for  bhutatma,  this  verse 
is  found  in  a different  form,  cittaprasadena  yatir  jahati  ’ha  ^ubhiiv’ubham, 
vii,  247,  10. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  43 


cittasya  lii  prasadena  lianti  karma  qubhaqubham 
which  the  Anuglta  takes  up  xiv,  51,  27,  and  36,  in  inverse 
order : 

27,  yaccittaiii  tanmayo  'vaqyam,  guhyara  etat  sanar 
tanam 

36,  prasade  cai  ’va  satt vasya  prasadaiii  samava- 
pnuyat 

If  all  these  points  be  compared,  first  the  general  order  of 
discussion,  then  the  peculiar  words  which  are  used  in  the 
same  way  in  both  texts,  and  finally  the  identical  passage  just 
given,  it  is  clear  that  one  of  these  texts  must  have  followed 
the  other.  The  dispersion  of  the  epic  chapter  over  different 
books  certainly  makes  it  seem  more  likely  that  it  is  a copy 
than  an  original.  This  opinion  is  strengthened  by  the  late 
features  added  in  the  epic,  the  freedom  in  metre,  almost 
exclusively  characteristic  of  the  later  epic,  and  the  late  Ve- 
danta grouping  of  seventeen  at  the  beginning.  For  this 
group  is  not  the  old  Saiiikhya  group,  which  occurs  often 
enough  elsewhere  in  the  epic,  but  a modification  of  it  as  in 
the  Vedantasara. 

The  citation  in  the  Maitrayana  of  the  stanza  cittasya  hi 
prasadena  from  some  source  might  be  referred  to  the  epic, 
but  it  seems  more  likely  that  this,  like  a dozen  other  “ some 
one  says”  verses  in  the  same  Upanishad,  is  a general  refer- 
ence, and  it  is  quite  counterbalanced  by  the  fact  that  the 
Vana  version  in  the  epic  adds  a hidden  reference  to  its 
source  in  the  words  maitrayana-gatag  caret , a strange  expres- 
sion, which  is  found  only  in  tills  verse  and  in  its  repetition  in 
the  twelfth  book ; 1 while  the  speaker  in  the  last  verse  of  the 
Vana  chapter  confesses  that  what  he  has  been  teaching  “is 
all  a condensed  account  of  what  he  has  heard.”  2 

1 iii,  213,  34;  xii,  279,  5;  with  a slight  varied  reading  in  xii,  189,  13. 

2 yatha  9rutam  idarii  sarvarh  samasena  . . . etat  te  sarvam  akhyatam,  iii, 
213,  40.  I suppose  no  one  will  lay  any  weight  on  the  statement  of  xii,  247, 
which  copies  Vana  here  (see  above),  that  (12-14)  this  is  a “secret  not  handed 
down  by  tradition,”  anaitihyam  anagamam  (atinapratyayikarii  ^astram),  but 
an  ambrosia  “ churned  from  dharmakhyanas,  satyakhyana,  and  the  ten 


44 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


It  is  perhaps  worth  noting  further  that  in  the  Upanishad 
vi,  20-21,  one  sees  the  real  soul  and  becomes  isolated  (where 
the  goal  is  kevalatva),  whereas  in  iii,  211,  15  of  the  epic,  the 
result  of  this  same  seeing  of  self  truly  is  brahmanah  saihyo- 
gah,  union  with  Brahman ; which  carries  on  the  antithesis 
already  noticed  between  the  Samkhya  tanmatras  of  the 
Upanishad  and  the  omission  of  the  same  in  the  epic.  This 
special  designation  of  tanmatra  in  iii,  2 is  complemented  by 
the  vi§esas  mentioned  in  vi,  10,  and  is  important  as  showing 
that  the  Upanishad,  as  a Upanishad,  is  late,  for  none  of  the 
older  Upanishads  has  either  of  these  terms.  Its  priority  to 
the  epic,  however,  may  be  urged  on  still  another  ground 
than  those  mentioned  above.  The  Upanishad  quotes  stanzas 
freely,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  if  the  epic  and  Manavic 
verse  cited  above  on  p.  27  had  existed  in  verse  the  prose  form 
of  the  Upanishad  would  have  been  used.  As  Muller  says  in 
his  note  on  the  Upanishad  passage : “ Part  of  this  passage 
has  been  before  the  mind  of  the  author  ” (of  Manu  together 
with  the  epic  poet).  So  perhaps,  too,  with  the  recognition 
of  the  eleven  (vikaras)  in  v,  2.  The  epic  has  both  groups, 
eleven  vikaras  and  also  the  system’s  sixteen,  as  I shall  show 
in  a later  chapter.  As  compared  with  the  epic,  moreover, 
the  Upanishad  is  distinctly  earlier  in  knowing  Yoga  as  “six- 
fold,” vi,  18,  whereas  the  epic  makes  it  “eightfold,”  xii,  317, 
7 ff.  as  does  Patanjali,  ii,  29. 

I think  another  circumstance  may  point  to  the  fact  that 
the  epic  refers  directly  to  the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Upanishad. 
The  word  tatstha  is  not,  indeed,  used  in  a pregnant  sense  in 
the  Upanishad.  It  is  simply  an  ordinary  grammatical  com- 
plex in  the  sentence  vi,  10,  purusas  ceta  pradhanantahsthah, 
sa  eva  bhokta  . . . bhojya  prakrtis,  tatstho  blmnkte,  “ Prakrti 
is  food;  when  standing  in  it  (Prakrti),  the  Purusa  enjoys.” 
But  in  the  epic,  xii,  315,  11,  we  read  sa  esa  (purusah)  pra- 
krtistho  hi  tatstha  ity  abhidhlyate,  “Purusha  is  designated  as 
tatstha  when  lie  is  in  Prakrti.”  As  the  expression  tatstha 

thousand  Rks,"  for  this  applies  only  to  pagyaty  iitmauam  atmani,  seeing 
self  in  self,  not  to  the  exposition. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  45 


occurs  only  in  this  Upanishad,  according  to  Col.  Jacob’s  Con- 
cordance, it  seems  very  likely  that  the  epic  verse  alludes  to 
the  tatstha  = prakrtistha  of  the  Upanishad,  where  Purusa  is 
expressly  purusag  ceta,  and  the  epic  also  follows,  14,  with 
cetanavans  tathii  cai  ’kali  ksetrajna  iti  bhasitah.1 

In  Up.  vi.  15  and  Mbh.  xi,  2,  24  occurs  Kalah  pacati  bhu- 
tani ; and  in  the  companion-piece  to  the  image  of  the  body  as 
a house,  cited  above  from  Up.  iii,  4,  as  the  same  with  xii,  330, 
42,  namely,  Up.  i,  3,  occurs  anistasamprayoga  = Mbh.  xi,  2, 
28,  but  I do  not  think  that  these  universal  expressions  taken 
by  themselves  are  of  any  significance. 

On  the  other  hand  I cannot  regard  as  unimportant  the  fol- 
lowing stanzas,  beginning  with  the  extraordinary,  unsyntac- 
tical,  verse  found  in  the  epic,  xii,  241,  32, — 

sanmasan  nityayuktasya  qabdabrahma  ’tivartate 
compared  with  237,  8 (Gita  6,  44,  jijnasur  api  yogasya,  etc.), 
api  jijnasamano  'pi  qabdabrahma  ’tivartate 
and  with  xiv,  19,  66, 

sanmasan  nityayuktasya  yogah,  Partha,  pravartate 
and  with  Maitr.  Up.  vi,  28, 

sadbhir  masais  tu  yuktasya  nityayuktasya  dehinah 
anantah  paramo  guhyah  samyag  yogah  pravartate 
and  with  Maitr.  Up.  vi,  22  = Mbh.  xii,  233,  30, 

dve  brahman!  veditavye  qabdabrahma  param  ca  yat 
qabdabrahmani  nisnatah  param  brahma  ’dhigacchati. 

The  last  stanza  occurs  only  here  and  in  this  Upanishad  (ex- 
cepting later  copies).2  The  first  is  a meaningless  compound  of 

1 It  may  be  noticed  here  also  that  in  caitanya  the  vocabulary  of  the  pseudo- 
epic is  that  of  the  Upanishad  in  its  later  part,  vi,  10  and  38  (the  word  is  found 
else  only  in  late  Upanishads).  Compare : acaitanyam  na  vidyate  (the  tree  has 
a jiva),  xii,  184, 17  ; cetanavatsu  caitanyaru  samam  bhutesu  pacyati,  “the  sage 
sees  one  and  the  same  soul  in  all  conscious  creatures,”  xiv,  18,  33.  The  term 
is  unknown  to  the  Gita  and  early  epic. 

4 AYith  the  var.  lec.,  dve  vidye  veditavye,  Mund.  Up.  i,  4 ; Brahmabindu 
Up.  i,  17  Compare  a sort  of  parody  in  xii,  100,  5,  ubhe  prajne  veditavye 
rjvi  vakra  ca,  Bharata.  The  dve  vava  brahmano  rupe  of  BAU.  ii,  3,  1,  are 
perhaps  the  first  pair,  though  there  it  is  higher  and  lower  Brahman  in  a meta- 
physical sense. 


46 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  “six  months”  stanza  and  the  “two  brahman”  stanza.  The 
second  is  a theoretical  advance  on  the  latter,  which  says  that 
when  one  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  word-brahman  he 
gets  to  the  highest  Brahman.  The  later  Yogin  does  not  think 
this  necessary,  and  emends  to  “ even  one  desirous  of  knowl- 
edge (of  Yoga,  in  Gita)  surpasses  the  word-brahman,”  while 
the  “ six  months  ” stanza  in  the  epic  is  adjusted  to  the  occa- 
sion (nityayuktasya  of  the  MSS.  is  to  be  read  in  the  Upani- 
shad  as  in  the  epic).  Here  again,  the  Maitrayana  alone  has 
this  stanza,  nor  does  nityayukta  occur  elsewhere  except  in 
the  same  way  in  the  Gita,  8,  14,  nityayuktasya  yoginah. 

In  my  opinion  these  parallels  together  with  the  cittasya  hi 
prasadena  stanza  above  indicate  that  the  epic  has  copied  from 
the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Upanishad  as  well  as  from  the  earlier 
portions.1 


The  Vedic  period,  then,  is  represented  in  the  epic  down  to  a 
pretty  late  stage  of  Upanishads.  The  tanmatra  era  of  philos- 
ophy, the  trinitarian  era  of  philosophy,  these  are  represented 
by  the  Upanishad  and  by  the  epic ; but  only  the  latest  philo- 
sophical and  religious  chapters  of  the  epic  recognize  tanma- 
tras  (the  name)  and  the  trinity,  as  only  the  later  Upanishads 
recognize  them. 

Of  still  later  Upanishads,  it  is  possible  that  the  pseudo-epic 
may  know 

The  Atharvaciras  Upanishad. 

The  title  is  applied  to  Narayana,  xii,  339,  113,  and  the 
commentator  explains  it  as  referring  to  the  Upanishad.2  But 
we  must,  I think,  rest  content  with  the  certainty  that  the 
epic  cites  (a)  the  Brhadaranyaka  Up.,  (b)  the  Kathaka,  (c)  the 

1 The  general  lateness  of  the  Upanishad  is  shown  by  its  recognition,  v,  2, 
of  the  trinity  (Muir  ap.  Holtzmann),  which  is  also  recognized  in  the  later 
epic. 

2 On  this  and  on  i,  70,  .39-40  in  the  tjakuntala  episode,  bharundasamagitii- 
bhir  atliarva^ iraso  ’dgataih  . . . atharvavedapravarah,  compare  Weber,  IS., 
vol.  i,  pp.  383-4.  See  also  above,  pp.  8 and  9 (note  1). 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  TIIE  EPIC  POETS.  47 

Mfiitrayana,  or,  in  other  words,  copies  at  least  one  of  each  of 
the  three  kinds  of  Upanisliads,  old  prose,  metrical,  and  later 
prose. 

Acvalayana  Grhya  Sutra. 

In  this  Sutra  i,  15,  9,  occurs  a stanza  which  is  found  also 
with  varied  readings  in  the  Kausltaki  and  BA.  Upanishacls 
(ii,  11 ; vi,  4,  9,  respectively)  as  a single  stanza.  This  is  cited 
in  the  epic  as  Vedic,  the  reading  following  that  of  the  Sutra 
and  adding  one  stanza,  which  clearly  belongs  to  the  citation, 
i,  74,  G3-G4 : 

vedesv  api  vadanti  ’mam  mantragramaiii  dvijatayah 
jatakarmani  putranaiii  tava  ’pi  viditam  tatha 
angad  angat  sambhavasi  hrdayad  adhi  jayase 
atma  vai  putranama  ’si  sa  jlva  qaradah  qatam 
jivitam  tvadadhlnam  me  santanain  api  ca  ’ksayam 
tasmat  tvaih  jlva  me  putra  susukhl  qaradaiii  qatam  1 

The  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  these  citations  is 
twofold.  First,  the  epic,  synthetically  considered,  post-dates 
the  latest  Vedic  works.  Second,  the  final  redactors  were 
priests,  well  acquainted  with  Vedic  literature.  Of  these 
points  there  can  be  no  doubt ; nor  is  a third  open  to  serious 
objection,  namely,  that  the  restriction  of  philosophical  citation 
to  philosophical  chapters  does  not  prove  anything  in  regard 
to  the  date  of  the  epic  that  preceded  the  insertion  of  these 
chapters. 

Puranas  and  Itihasas. 

Whether  the  Puranas,  ascribed  to  Romaharsa  (sic)  in  xii, 
319,  21,  precede  or  follow  epic  literature,  is  not  a question 
that  can  be  answered  categorically.  Nothing  is  commoner 
than  the  statement  made  by  some  epic  character  that  a story 
was  heard  by  him  long  ago  in  a Purana.2  But  most  of  the 

1 A^yalayana  is  mentioned  only  in  the  pseudo-epic,  xiii,  4,  54.  On  this 
and  his  mention  of  the  epic,  see  below,  and  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  27,  with 
other  supposed  references  to  Sutras. 

2 For  example,  xiii,  84,  59,  raaya  <;rutam  idam  purvam  purane.  For  the 
relation  between  the  extant  Puranas  and  the  epic,  compare  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit., 
p.  29  ff.  There  is  no  earlier  allusion  to  an  extant  Purana  (SBE.  ii.  p.  xxviii) 


48 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


extant  Puranas  are  in  their  present  shape  certainly  later  than 
the  epic.  Nevertheless,  before  the  great  epic  was  completed 
the  eighteen  Puranas  were  known,  since  they  are  mentioned 
as  a group  xviii,  5,  46  (not  in  C.)  and  6,  97.  Further,  a Yiiyu 
Purana  is  referred  to  in  iii,  191,  16 : 

etat  te  sarvam  akhyatam  atltanagatam  tatha 
Vayuproktam  anusmrtya  Puranam  rsisamstutam. 

This  statement,  however,  implying  that  the  Purana  treats 
of  future  events,  though  illustrated  in  this  instance  by  the 
epic’s  account  of  later  ages,  scarcely  tallies  with  the  early 
epic  use  of  the  word,  which  regularly  connotes  atlta,  the 
past,  but  not  anagata,  (account  of)  things  to  be ; yet  it  corre- 
sponds exactly  to  the  ordinary  contents  of  the  later  Puranas. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  pseudo-epic  contains  this  later  sort  of 
Purana,  known  as  Purana  as  well  as  akhyana  and  mahopa- 
nisada,  where  future  events  are  described.1  It  is  to  be  re- 
marked, moreover,  that  this  reminiscence  of  Vayu’s  Purana, 
a work  which  is  referred  to  again  in  the  Harivanga,  is  con- 
tained in  the  Markandeya  episode,  which  long  interpolation 
is  itself  virtually  a Purana.  That  some  of  the  verses  in  the 
extant  Vayu  are  like  some  in  the  epic  proves  nothing  in 
regard  to  the  relative  age  of  either.2  There  is  no  real  iden- 

than  that  in  Ap.  Dh.  S.,  ii,  9,  24, 6,  where  a Bhavisyat  Purana  is  cited,  the  words 
having  an  epic  strain,  perhaps  to  be  filled  out  with  vijarthah  svarge  (jivanti 
yavad ) abhutasamplavat.  See  also  above,  p.  6.  On  the  Puranas  as  deposi- 
tories of  Yedic  Qruti,  see  the  quotation  above,  p.  4,  and  compare  II.  3,  33,  5, 
etat  te  kathayisyami  puranam  brahmasammitam  nanayrutisamayuktam. 

1 xii,  340,  95-125,  future  avatars,  conquest  of  Kalayavana,  etc.,  called 
mahopanisadam  (sic,  neuter),  in  yl.  Ill,  puranam  in  118  and  124,  akhyanam  in 
125.  Closely  united  are  “praise  and  Puranas”  (known  to  Sutas)  in  xii,  63,  3 
(not  like  the  stutiyastra,  praise-treatises,  of  the  late  passage,  ii,  452,  where, 
however,  B.  11,  35,  has  stutigastrani) . 

2 Even  the  Garuda  and  Yaraha  Puranas  may  precede  the  final  revision  of 
the  whole  epic,  though  the  evidence  for  references  is  far  from  conclusive; 
but  on  the  other  hand  our  present  Puranas  may  have  been  so  changed  ns 
not  to  agree  in  any  detail  with  Puranas  that  once  bore  these  names.  The 
arguments  are  given  by  Iloltzmann,  loc.  cit.  The  epic  passages  supposed  to 
refer  to  the  Puranas  are  II.,  3, 33, 6 (above)  and  i,  31,  3.  The  epic  declaration 
i,  2,  386,  that  it  is  the  base  of  all  Puranas,  presupposes  a goodly  number 
already  in  existence ; but  this  statement  is  as  late  an  addition  to  the  poem 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  49 


tity  in  the  account  cited  from  the  Vayu  Purana  and  the 
extant  Viiyu  Purana.  In  the  description  of  the  Kali  age, 
for  instance,  where  the  epic  (in  the  part  said  to  be  from  the 
Vayu  Purana)  has,  190,  64,  £udra  dharmam  pravaksyanti, 
brahmanah  paryupasakah,  the  Vayu,  lviii,  41,  says  £udriicar- 
ya§  ca  brahmanah,  and  where  the  epic,  ib.  97,  has  utsadayi- 
syati  mlecchaganan,  the  Vayu,  ib.  78,  has  mlecehan  hanti, 
but  here  there  is  nothing  characteristic.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  most  striking  features  in  the  epic  account,  the  edukas, 
and  Kalki,  with  the  heavy  taxes  laid  upon  priests,  §1.  62, 
65-67,  93  ff.,  are  not  found  in  the  Vayu  at  all.  Noticeable 
also  is  the  fact  that  the  epic  account  not  only  has  more 
than  the  Vayu,  but  lias  contradictory  statements.  Thus  in 
§1.  58,  the  Vayu  declares  one  of  the  signs  of  the  evil  age  to 
be  that  girls  less  than  sixteen  will  bear  children;  while  in  the 
epic  the  sign  is  that  girls  of  five  or  six  will  bear  and  boys  of 
seven  or  eight  will  beget  children : pancame  va  ’tha  saste  va 
varse  kanya  prasuyate,  saptavarsa  ’stavarsa<j  ca  prajasyanti 
naras  tada,  190,  49.  Taken  altogether,  the  epic  account 
seems  to  be  an  extended  and  exaggerated  reproduction  of 
that  in  the  Vayu  Purana,  but  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
it  is  really  based  on  the  extant  text  or  not.  The  Puranic 
version,  however,  does  not  seem  to  be  taken  from  the  epic 
account,  and  as  the  latter  is  expressly  said  to  be  from  the 
Purana  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  Markandeya 
episode  was  inserted  into  the  epic  after  the  Vayu  Purana 
was  written,  though  this  must  remain  only  a supposition. 

Another  long  intrusion  in  the  same  third  book  of  the  epic, 
this  time  in  the  Tirtha  stories,  iii,  110  ff.,  leads  to  a result 
somewhat  more  definite  in  respect  of  the  relation  between 
the  particular  story  intruded  into  the  epic  and  the  Padma 

as  is  the  mention  of  the  eighteen.  I suppose  most  scholars  will  accept  the 
“eighteen  Puranas”as  actually  referring  to  eighteen,  and  I am  inclined  to 
do  so  myself.  At  the  same  time  the  number  is  more  or  less  conventional  in 
the  epic  (see  the  groups  of  eighteen  spoken  of  below),  and  even  in  the  period 
of  the  Upanishads  literary  works  may  have  been  grouped  in  eighteens  : yajna- 
rupa  astada $oktam  avaram  yesu  karma,  with  Deussen’s  remark  on  ukta  and 
attempt  to  explain  the  number,  Mund.  Up.  i,  2,  7. 

’ ’ 4 


50 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Purana.  Here,  according  to  the  acute  investigation  of  Dr. 
Liiders,  Die  Sage  von  Rsyagriiga,  the  epic  account  in  its 
present  form  is  based  upon  that  of  the  Purana.  Dr.  Liiders 
thinks  indeed,  p.  103,  that  there  was  an  earlier  epic  form  of 
the  story  which  antedated  the  Puranic  account.  But  it  is  at 
least  certain  that  the  present  epic  form  is  subsequent  to  the 
present  Puranic  form,  and  that  the  tale  is  drawn  from  popu- 
lar sources  that  antedate  in  all  probability  all  the  literary 
versions  in  Sanskrit. 

Leaving  the  modern  Purana,  as  it  is  described,  e.  g.,  in 
Vayu  Purana,  iv,  10, 

savgac  ca  pratisargag  ca  vanqo  manvantarani  ca 

vahqanucaritam  ce  ’ti  puranam  pancalaksanam, 

and  turning  to  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  the  epic,  there 
is  no  essential  difference  between  atlta,  akhyana,1  purana 
and  itihasa.  Together  with  the  more  general  katha,  all  these 
words  mean  ordinarily  an  old  tale,  story,  legend  or  incident. 
Rarely  is  Purana  itself  used  of  cosmogony,  but  a case  occurs 
in  xii,  201,  6,  where  the  phrase  tad  ucyatam  puranam  refers 
to  the  origin  of  earth,  heaven,  creatures,  wind,  sky,  water, 
etc.  The  birth  of  Asuras  and  Suras  is  a Puranic  topic  in  i, 
65,  38.  When  not  an  adjective  to  akhyana,  which  is  a com- 
mon function  of  the  word,  it  is  an  equivalent  substantive. 
Thus  the  NandinI  tale  is  an  akhyanam  puranam,  i,  175,  2, 
while  in  xii,  343,  2,  hanta  te  vartayisyami  puranam,  the  word 
in  the  phrase  takes  the  place  of  Itihasa ; as  it  does  in  i,  196, 
14,  gruyate  hi  purane  'pi  Jatila  nama  Gautami. 

From  remote  antiquity  these  Puranas  or  tales  of  old  were 
associated  with  Itihasas,  legends,  whether  cosmological  or 
not  (the  distinction  is  quite  artificial).  They  were  narrations, 
kathas,  composed  partly  in  prose  and  partly  in  verse,  gathiis. 
Katha  itself  is  entirely  non-specific,  and  may  be  a causerie 
rather  than  a tale,  as  in  ix,  38,  16,  where  are  mentioned  reli- 

1 Synonymous  with  this  is  the  word  upakhyiina.  Tims  the  ^akuntala 
episode  and  Namuci  myth,  ix,  43,  33,  bear  the  name  upiikhynna,  and  in  v, 
18, 1 0,  and  19  it  is  synonymous  with  akhyana.  The  Fowler’s  tale  is  a dharnia- 
kliyana,  iii,  216,  36  (compare  a reference  to  many  such,  p.  6,  above). 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  51 


gious  conversations,1  citrah  katha  vedam  prati.  A legend, 
such  as  that  of  Agastya,  is  a katha  divya,  iii,  100,  2.  The 
mahopanisadam  alluded  to  above  is  a kathamrtam,  the  essence, 
Sara,  of  hundreds  of  upakhyanas,  xii,  310,  127.  So  the  fyve- 
tadvlpa  story  is  a kathasara,  xii,  336,  16. 

But  the  especial  characteristic  of  the  old  legend  is  that  it 
relates  the  story  of  great  kings  or  gods  2 and  their  acts  in  the 
past.  In  iii,  298,  7,  Dyuraatsena  is  solaced  “ by  the  help  of 
tales  of  former  kings,”  citrarthaih  purvarajfiam  kathagrayfiih, 
according  to  the  recommendation  in  the  epic  itself:  “Comfort 
those  afflicted  in  mind  with  tales  of  the  past,”  yasya  buddhih 
paribhavet  tarn  atltena  santvayet,  i,  140,  74;  an  instance 
being  the  story  of  Nala,  klrtana,  itihasa,  itihasah  puranah, 
as  it  is  indifferently  called,  iii,  79,  10,  11,  13,  16. 

The  word  itihasa  may  also  have  the  meaning  “saying,” 
rather  than  “ legend.”  Thus  in  iii,  30,  21 : 

atra  ’py  udaharanti  ’mam  itihasam  puratanam 
Igvarasya  vaqe  lokas  tisthante  na  ’tmauo  yatlia, 

where  itihasa  is  equivalent  to  pravada,  a proverbial  saying 
(in  this  instance  repeated  in  gl.  25  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
epic).  But  ordinarily  the  word  means  a tale,  of  which  the 
hemistich  just  cited  is  the  stereotyped  introduction,  as  in  iii, 
28,  1 and  passim.3  It  is  important  to  notice  that,  as  itihasa  is 
used  for  proverb  and  glta  gatha  is  also  used  in  the  same  way, 

1 So  a philosophical  discourse  of  religious  content,  moksadharma,  is  an 
Itihasa,  xii,  334,  42;  and  the  tale  of  a good  Brahman  is  a katha  on  duty, 
xii,  354  ff. 

2 The  tale  of  Atliarvan  finding  Agni  when  the  latter  disappeared  is  an  Iti- 
hasa puratana,  iii,  217  and  222.  In  iii,  183,  46,  puravrttah  kathah  punyah, 
are  “tales  of  kings,  women,  and  seers.”  With  puravrtta  as  adj.  compare 
kathayanti  puravrttam  itihasam,  xii,  18,  2 ; as  a noun  it  is  not  uncommon, 
rajfiam  puravrttam,  “ a tale  of  kings,”  etc.,  as  is  illustrated  sufficiently  in  PW. 
(compare  vrttanta).  Khandava’s  burning  is  a paurani  katha  rsisamstuta,  i, 
223, 16.  “ Men,  snakes,  and  demons  ” is  the  subject  of  a “ divine  tale,”  katha 
divya,  in  iii,  201,  4. 

3 A word  of  analogous  formation  is  aitihya,  equivalent  to  traditional  re- 
port, Veda.  It  is  found,  e.  g.,  in  xii,  218,  27  and  247,  13,  and  G.  v,  87,  23,  as 
one  of  a group  of  sources  of  knowledge  besides  anumana  and  pratyaksa. 
Compare  itivrtta,  as  legend,  in  i,  1,  16. 


52 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


for  example,  the  na  jatu  kamah  proverb,  i,  75,  49-50,  so  the 
phrase  to  introduce  a tale,  Itihasa,  may  substitute  gathas,  as 
in  iii,  29,  35,  atra  ’py  udaharantl  ’ma  gathah  . . . gltah. 
Such  gathas  refer  to  action  or  to  ethical  teaching  (compare 
the  same  formula  for  both,  loc.  cit.  and  ii,  68,  65).  A differ- 
ence may  be  imagined  in  the  element  of  song  of  the  gatha, 
but  this  is  illusory.  The  gathas  are  indeed  said  to  be  sung, 
as  in  the  case  just  cited  (§1.  34-44  are  the  glta  gathah),  but 
singing  is  too  precise  a translation.  As  shown  above,  even 
the  Aranyakas  are  “sung,”  and  in  point  of  fact  the  gathas 
are  synonymous  with  qlokas  and  are  recited.  Stanzas  of 
Puranas  are  thus  said  to  be  sung.1  Conversely,  gathas  are 
not  always  sung,  iii,  135,  45,  atra  ’py  udaharantl  ’ma  gatha 
devair  udahrtah ; while  ib.  54  is  another  illustration  of  the 
word  gatha  meaning  only  a current  proverbial  gloka.  But  in 
this  case  it  is  woven  together  with  the  legend  of  Dhanusaksa, 
whose  direct  curse  not  succeeding  in  slaying  his  enemy,  he 
destroyed  the  mountain,  in  the  life  of  which  was  bound  up 
the  life  of  the  invulnerable  foe.  Hence  they  say  “ man  can 
never  escape  his  fate : ” 

ucur  vedavidah  sarve  gathaiii  yam  tam  nibodha  me 
na  distam  arthara  atyetum  Tqo  martyah2  kathamcana 
makisair  bliedayamasa  Dlianusakyo  mahldharan 

Such  gathas3  are  even  incorporated  into  the  law-books: 
“Verses  recited  by  Yama”  are  cited  (by  those  that  know 
antiquity  and  the  law)  “ in  the  law-books  ” on  the  sin  of 
selling  a son  or  daughter,  xiii,  45,  17.4 


1 Compare  Tirtha  gatha  and  Tirtha  floka,  iii,  88,22;  89,  17;  90,0;  “the 
9loka  sung  in  a Purana,”  purane  fruyate  gitaR  flokah,  v,  178,  47;  puranah 
floko  gitah,  iii,  300,  33  (a  proverb  on  fame) ; Holtzmann,  loe.  cit.,  p.  29  ff. 

2 The  reading  amartyah  in  B.  would  require  api.  C.  has  martyah.  The 
proverb  appears  in  a different  form,  v,  40,  32,  na  distam  nbhyatikrnntuiii 
jakyam  bhutena  kenacit. 

8 In  the  Kamayana  also,  eti  jivantam  iinando  naram  varsafatad  api  is  given 
as  a kalyani  or  paurani  gatha  laukiki,  v,  34,  6;  vi,  126,  2 (G.  110,  2). 

4 atra  gatha  Yamodgitiih  kirtayanti  puravidah  dlmrmajfia  dharmafastresu 
nibaddlia  dharmasetusu,  yo  manusyah  svakam  putraiii  vikriya  dhanam  icehati 
kanyarii  vil  jivitarthaya  yah  yulkcna  prayaechati,  saptavare,  etc. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  T1IE  EPIC  POETS.  53 


The  best  known  example  of  the  last  case,  gathas  recited 
by  a divinity,  is  found  in  the  Harigltiis  (plural),  xii,  347, 
11,  that  is  the  Bhagavad  Gita  (Upanishad).1  Here  the  “sing- 
ing” is  that  of  the  Aranyakas.  As  Vediintas  are  Upanishads 
(above,  p.  9),  so  we  find  in  xii,  247,  21,  yat  tan  maharsi- 
bhir  drstara  (=  Veda),  vedantesu  ca  glyate,  “ what  is  re- 
vealed in  the  Veda  and  sung  in  the  Upanishads.” 

Such  tales  and  legends  are  said  to  be  the  epic  itself,  which 
is  called  indifferently  an  Itihasa,  a Purana,  or  Ivrsna’s  Veda.2 3 
As  the  Chandogya  Upanishad  applies  the  title  “fifth  Veda” 
to  the  Itihasapurana,  so  the  epic  claims  the  same  title: 

itihasapuranah  pancamo  vedanam,  Chand.  Up.,  vii,  1,  2,  4 
(So  each  is  a Veda  in  Qat.  Br.  xiii,  4,  3,  12-13.) 
adhitya  caturo  vedan  sangan  akhyanapailcaman,  vii,  9,  29 
saiigopanisadan 8 vedanq  catur  akhyanapancaman,  iii,  4o,  8 
vedan  adhyapayamasa  Mahabharatapancaraan,  i,  03,  S9  and 
xii,  341,  21.4 5 

In  the  opening  stanzas6  of  the  great  epic  it  is  described  as 
a Samhita,  collection,  a grantha,  book,  a Purana,  an  akhyana, 
an  Itihasa,  a Kavya,  a poem  containing  various  Castras,  full 
of  Vyakhyas  (vaiyakhya)  or  narrations,  and  Upanishads.  It 
is  true  that  it  is  also  called  a Dharmagastra,  yet  this  repre- 
sents but  one  side  of  its  encyclopaedic  nature,  as  it  is  besides 
Arthagastra,  Dharmagastra,  and  Kamagastra,  i,  2,  383.  When 
the  character  of  the  work  as  a whole  is  described,  it  is  in 

1 bhagavadakhyanam,  ib.  2 ; here  a recitation  about  the  Lord,  not  by  the 
Lord.  But  the  Gita  is  a recitation  by  the  Lord,  gita  bhagavata  svayam,  ib. 
349,  8. 

4 i,  62,  16-18,  idam  puranam  . . . itihasam  . . karsnara  vedam  vidran. 

So  the  imitation  of  the  Gita  in  the  twelfth  book  is  called  “Ivrsna’s  Religion,” 
Satvato  dharmah  (see  below). 

3 The  other  form  occurs,  e.  g.,  iii,  206,  2,  saiigopanisado  vedan  adhite. 

4 Compare  also  v,  43, 41 ; ix,  6, 14  (as  above),  and  vedan?  ca  ’dhijage  saiigan 
setihasan,  i,  60,  3;  itahasapuranesu  nana?iksasu  bodhitah  vedavedangatat- 
tvajaah,  i,  109,  20;  vedesu  sapuranesu  rgvede  sayajurvede  . . . purane  so- 
panisade  tathai  ’va  jyotise  ayurvede  tathai  ’va  ca,  xii,  342,  6-9 ; ye  'dhiyate 
setihasam  puranam,  xiii,  102,  21 ; yad  etad  ucyate  ?astre  setihase  ci  chandasi, 
xiii,  111,  42. 

5 i,  1,  16,  49,  55,  61,  72. 


54 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


terms  of  epic  story,  not  of  didactic  code.  Even  the  Hari- 
vanga  poet  does  not  fail  to  distinguish  the  two  elements. 
He  boasts  that  the  epic  is  an  akhyanam  bahvartham  cruti- 
vistaram,  but  still  says  that  it  is  the  Bharatl  katha,  Bharata 
story,  the  root  of  which  is  the  dramatic  episode  of  the  Raja- 
suya,  which  led  to  the  development  of  the  story  (H.  3,  2, 
13  If.).  So  another  poet  proclaims:  “I  will  relate  the  great 
good  fortune  of  that  great-hearted  king  the  Bharata,  whose 
brilliant  Itihasa,  story,  is  called  the  Mahabharata,”  i,  99,  49. 
The  reason  that  Ivrsna  Dvaipayana  spent  three  years  in  mak- 
ing the  epic  was  not  only  that  he  wished  to  do  a good  thing 
but  that  he  wished  to  “ extend  the  glory  of  the  Pandus  and 
other  warriors.” 1 

Constituting  a small  but  important  part  of  the  various 
tales  told  in  the  epic  are  found  genealogical  verses,  anu- 
vanga-glokas  (or  gathas),  which  commemorate  the  history  of 
the  race  of  valiant  kings  and  great  seers  of  the  past.  I 
shall  speak  of  them  again  hereafter.  Here  it  suffices  to  say 
that  such  verses  are  either  sung  by  professional  rhapsodes, 
or  recited  by  narrators.  The  rhapsodes,  however,  were  quite 
distinct  from  the  Brahmans,  who  recited  the  epic  stories. 
For  a priest  to  be  a professional  stoiy-teller  or  a rhapsode  was 
as  bad  for  him  as  to  be  a juggler  or  a physician.2 

Drama. 

There  remains  only  one  class  of  literature  which  may 
doubtfully  be  included  under  the  head  of  literature  known 
to  the  epic  poets,  the  drama.  Whether  there  was  already  a 
literary  drama  is,  however,  chiefly  a matter  of  definition. 
It  is  conceivable  that  the  story-tellers  and  rhapsodes  may 
have  developed  dramatic  works  before  any  such  works  were 
written,  that  is,  became  literature  in  a strict  sense,  and  that 

1 i,  02,  27-28. 

2 xiii,  23,  15,  gayana  nartakay  cai  ’va  plavakii  vadakas  tatlia  kathaka 
yodhakaf  cai  ’va  rajan  na  ’rhanti  kctanam ; ib.  90,  11,  among  apaiikteyas 
are  kuyilavas,  rhapsodes,  and  idol-makers  (above,  p.  15).  A priest  is  insulted 
on  being  called  a professional  eulogist,  bandin,  i,  78,  9-10. 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  55 


the  akhyana  may  have  been  dramatically  recited.  But  it  is 
also  true  that  the  early  epic  does  not  mention  the  play  or 
drama.  NevertlieleSvS  a kind  of  drama  existed  before  the 
epic  was  ended.  Compare  iv,  16,  43 : 

akalajfia  ’si,  sairandhri,  qailusi  ’va  virodisi 

From  the  expression  “thou  weepest  like  an  actress”  one 
might  hastily  conclude  that  we  have  here  a reference  to  real 
drama.  But  pantomime  expresses  weeping,  and  no  mention 
of  real  drama  occurs  in  the  epic  except  in  the  passage  ii,  11, 
36,  where  Drama  is  personified  : 

nataka  vividhah  kavyah  kathakhyayikakarikiih, 

which  is  anything  but  an  early  verse.1  In  the  Harivanqa,  on 
the  other  hand,  which  probably  dates  from  a time  posterior  to 
our  era,  we  find  not  only  pantomime,  abhinaya,  but  even  the 
dramatic  representation  of  the  “great  Ramayana  poem,”  in 
which  the  vidusaka,  or  stage-jester  of  the  regular  drama, 
takes  part,  H.  2,  89,  72;  92,  59. 

But  even  abhinaya,  or  pantomime,  is  not  mentioned  in  the 
epic  proper  under  that  name  and  no  technical  dramatic  term 
is  found  anywhere  in  it.  This  is  the  more  surprising  as  the 
manner  in  which  the  epic  is  told  gives  abundant  opportunity 
to  introduce  both  the  terms  and  allusions  to  dramatic  repre- 
sentation. Shows  of  dances  are  frequently  mentioned,  but 
the  spectators  never  hear  the  players  even  when  mentioned 
as  natas,  a doubtful  word  which  might  be  actor  and  may  be 
pantomimist.  Not  to  speak  of  the  absence  of  qaubhikas  and 

1 Dramatic  recitations  are  of  course  another  matter,  and  pantomime  must 
be  separated  from  drama.  According  to  Fick,  Sociale  Gliederung,  p.  188,  the 
same  relation  exists  in  the  Jatakas,  where  also  nata  and  nataka  do  not 
yet  mean  actors  but  pantomimes,  as  “ dramatic  performances  are  nowhere 
described.”  This  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  state  of  affairs  in  the  epic  prior  to 
the  writing  of  the  late  additions  (see  the  allusion  below),  ii,  11,  36,  belongs 
clearly  to  an  interpolated  scene,  and  the  fact  that  real  drama,  nataka,  is 
mentioned  only  here  in  the  whole  epic  till  the  Harivan$a,  should  show  its 
age.  He  who  refers  the  passage  to  500  b.  c,  must  ignore  its  uniqueness  and 
the  fact  that  the  rest  of  the  epic  knows  no  such  word.  See  my  Ruling  Caste, 
p.  329,  and  also  Professor  Rhys  Davids’  interesting  note  on  the  Brahma-jala 
Sutta,  Dialogues  of  the  Buddha,  p.  7 (with  my  note  below,  p.  57,  on  prekkha). 


56 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


others  elsewhere  mentioned  as  actors,  and  of  the  dramatic  vitas, 
§akaras,  and  vidusakas,  when  groups  of  people  of  this  grade 
are  given,1  even  the  granthika  appears  only  as  a rhapsode 
processional  singer,  and  the  characters  are  described  merely 
as  “seing,”  pagyanto  natanartakan,  ii,  33,  49;  i,  218,  10,  etc. 
The  expression  “ stage  ” and  the  various  vague  terms  for 
actors  can  be  referred  to  mimes  with  perfect  propriety  and 
in  the  absence  of  everything  that  would  indicate  real  drama 
ought  perhaps  to  be  so  referred.  In  the  expression  “ God 
treats  men  as  men  do  a doll  on  a string,”  iii,  30,  23,  the  refer- 
ence must  be  to  the  sort  of  Punch  and  Judy  show  which  is 
still  performed  in  town  and  village.  Even  in  xii,  36,  25, 
rangastrl,  “stage-woman,”  may  perhaps  most  reasonably  be 
explained  as  the  equivalent  of  the  actress  mentioned  above. 
Like  the  Harivanga,  the  Ramayana  speaks  of  theatrical  exhi- 
bitions, natakany  ahuh  (or  cakruli),  R.  ii,  69,  4;  G.  71,  4. 
Rhapsodic  drama  is  alluded  to  also  in  the  Mahabhasya,  where, 
as  Weber  has  shown,  the  actors  are  seen  and  heard  and  tra- 
gedies are  presented  in  costume.  But  the  Mahabharata 
neither  alludes  to  such  dramatic  plays  nor  does  it  notice  the 
Natasutra.2  All  that  is  heard  seems  to  be  songs  and  instru- 

1 Such  groups  are  frequently  found  in  lists  of  persons  who  are  not  eligible, 

and  are  generally  regarded  as  vulgar  or  dangerous,  but  in  all  these  groups 
among  dancers,  singers,  rhapsodes,  etc.,  no  technical  word  of  the  regular 
drama  is  found.  t 

2 Compare  Weber,  IS.  xiii,  p.  487 ; Holtzmann,  loc.  cit , p.  78  ff.  The  latter 
scholar  says  “die  ganze  dramatische  Literatur  ist  spiiter  als  das  Mahabha- 
rata.” He  means  therewith,  I presume,  the  received  drama  of  Kalidasa  and 
others.  There  is  certainly  in  the  epic  nothing  like  the  natakikrta  Ramayana 
of  the  Ilarivahfa.  The  chronological  value  of  the  Mahabhasya  data  would 
be  greater  if  one  knew  to  which  century  they  reverted,  but  Weber  himself 
warns  against  taking  them  as  of  certain  worth  for  any  time  earlier  than  the 
end  of  the  eighth  century  a.  d.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  320.  A Punch  and  Judy  show 
is  implied  in  v,  39,  1,  siitraprota  darumayl  ’va  yosa.  The  Sutradhilra  appears 
only  in  i,  61,  15,  where  he  is  a sthapati,  or  architect,  and  a Sutah  pauranikah. 
The  application  of  the  name  here  is  apparently  to  the  sutra,  lines  or  plans, 
drawn  up  by  the  architect  (xii,  10,983,  but  II.  has  mudra  for  sutra,  299,  40). 
Lists  of  natanartakagayanas  are  found  in  iii,  15,  14;  xii,  69,  60;  rangavata- 
rana,  ib.  295,  5.  In  i,  184,  16,  though  natus  and  Sutas  come  with  dancers  and 
praisers  and  boxers,  niyodhakas,  only  praisers  are  heard  (Sutas,  188,  21).  So 


LITERATURE  KNOWN  TO  THE  EPIC  POETS.  57 


ments : “ The  musicians  sounded  their  instruments  together ; 
the  dancers  danced  also ; the  singers  sang  songs,”  nanrtur 
nartaka.9  ciii  ’va  jagur  geyani  gayanah,  i,  219,  4. 

The  conclusion  seems  inevitable  that  the  technical  niitaka 
with  its  vidusaka,  etc.,  that  is,  the  drama  in  its  full  form,  was 
unknown  to  the  epic  proper.  What  was  known  was  clearly 
pantomime.  Dramatic  recitation  like  that  of  the  Bhasya  may 
be  inferred  only  if  one  ignores  the  facts  mentioned  above, 
which  is  possible  if  the  (non-hearing  but)  seeing  of  shows 
be  taken  as  a general  expression.  O11  the  other  hand,  the 
akhyana-reciters  may  have  been  dramatic  without  the  set- 
ting noticed  in  the  Bhasya.  They  are  heard  rather  than 
seen.  I have  already  noticed  the  fact  that  Narada  is  the 
representative  of  Bharata  as  the  genius  of  music,  and  that 
the  latter  is  not  known  to  the  epic  in  his  later  capacity.1 

in  ii,  4,  7,  (with  vaitalikas) ; and  in  the  danamahakratu  at  xv,  14,  17,  which  is 
natanartakalasyadhyah.  A dance-hall,  nartanafala,  nartanagara,  is  mentioned 
in  iv,  22,  3,  16,  and  a preksagara,  “ hall  for  seeing,”  is  made  according  to 
Qastra  rule  in  i,  134,  10-11,  a temporary  affair  for  a joust,  helped  out  with 
mancas;  a samajavata  (more  elaborate)  in  185,  16;  while  “spectators  at  an 
arena,”  preksakah  . . . raiigavata  iva,  iii,  20,  27,  are  alluded  to.  Other  stage- 
words,  rangabhumi,  etc.,  occur  occasionally  without  specific  application  to 
acting.  The  use  to  which  preksa  and  samaja  are  put,  when  they  are  explained 
in  the  epic,  should  make  one  hesitate  to  translate  the  same  words  in  Manu 
more  specifically  than  “ shows  and  meetings,”  and  the  same  is  true  of  prekkha 
in  Pali. 

1 The  pseudo-epic,  xiii,  33,  12,  says  that  some  priests  are  thieves,  some  are 
liars,  and  some  are  natanartakas,  which  the  commentary  illustrates  by  saying 
that  Valmlki  and  Vifvamitra  are  examples  of  the  thief,  while  Bharata  and 
others  are  examples  of  natanartakas  (Narada  is  an  example  of  the  liar,  as 
he  is  kalahapriyah).  Here,  and  in  the  quotation  above,  natanartaka  is  one, 
“ actor-dancer.”  For  the  part  played  by  dolls  in  the  early  Hindu  drama,  see 
Professor  Pischel’s  illuminating  essay,  Die  Heimat  des  Puppenspiels  (1900). 
He  also  gives  references  to  previous  literature  on  the  drama. 


CHAPTER  TWO. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 

Of  the  two  early  epics  of  India,  the  Mahabharata,  the  great 
epic,  is  traditionally  attributed  to  a distributor,  vyasa,  who  is 
also  credited  with  the  distribution  or  editing  of  the  Vedas 
and  of  several  other  works.  Different  editions  and  former 
declarers  are  also  noticed.  In  other  words,  there  was  no  one 
author  of  the  great  epic,  though  with  a not  uncommon  confu- 
sion of  editor  with  author,  an  author  was  recognized,  called 
Vyasa.  Modern  scholarship  calls  him  The  Unknown,  or 
Vyasa  for  convenience. 

But  if  the  great  epic  lacks  an  author  with  a real  name,  the 
little  epic,  the  Ramayana,  is  the  work  of  a definite  personality. 
Here  there  is  no  question  of  disputed  authorship,  only  of 
more  or  less  plainly  marked  interpolation  and  addition.  The 
great,  maha,  Bharata-epic  is  really,  as  it  is  designated,  a col- 
lection, Samhita,  the  reputed  author  of  which,  corresponding 
generally  to  the  parallel  figure  in  Greece,  yet  out-Homers  Ho- 
mer; while  beside  the  huge  and  motley  pile  that  goes  by 
Vyasa’s  name  stands  clear  and  defined  the  little  Ramayana  of 
Valmiki,  as  (in  this  respect)  besides  Homer’s  vague  Homerica 
stands  the  distinct  Argonautika  of  Apollonius. 

As  the  relation  between  the  two  Hindu  epics,  especially  in 
point  of  age,  has  often  been  discussed,  I do  not  purpose  to 
repeat  all  the  details  here,  but  to  take  up  the  study  of  the 
great  epic  from  a new  point  of  view.  For  the  reason  why  so 
much  theorizing  in  regard  to  relative  age  lias  been  spent  on 
the  epics  without  satisfactory  result  — adhuc  sub  judice  — is 
that  hitherto  there  has  been  no  recognition  of  the  underlying 
unity  of  epic  speech.  Hence  discussions  in  regard  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  totally  different  origins  of  the  two  epics  and  the 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


59 


different  ages  they  represent,  wliile  their  common  base  has 
been  ignored. 

In  regard  to  the  final  growth  of  each,  it  may  be  said  at  once 
that  neither  epic  was  developed  quite  independently  of  the 
other.  The  later  Ramayana  implies  the  Mahabharata,  as  the 
later  Mahabharata  recognizes  the  Ramayana  of  Valmiki.  It 
is  not,  then,  a question  of  absolute  separation,  but  only  of  the 
length  we  may  go  in  separating. 


Neither  epic  has  a definitive  text.  The  question  therefore 
naturally  arises  whether  there  is  any  use  in  arguing  about  the 
original  form  of  either  poem.  In  regard  to  the  Mahabharata, 
this  question  has  been  answered  negatively  by  Dr.  Winternitz, 
who  holds  that  all  work  on  the  epic  is  useless  till  we  have  the 
text  of  the  Southern  recension,  of  which  he  has  lately  pub- 
lished, in  the  Indian  Antiquary,  some  interesting  specimens. 
But  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  publication  of  the  whole 
Southern  version  would  result  in  a text  any  more  definitive 
than  that  of  the  Ramayana.  At  most  we  should  have  two 
versions,  more  or  less  independent  of  each  other,  each  showing 
omissions  and  interpolations  as  viewed  in  the  light  of  the 
other.  This  would  be  of  considerable  value  indeed,  as  proving 
that  the  text  has  been  freely  altered,  a conclusion  inevitable 
even  without  this  support,  but  based  with  its  aid  on  objective 
reality.  Nevertheless,  though  the  Southern  recension  would 
be  thus  valuable,  its  absence  does  not  preclude  the  possibility 
of  obtaining  provisional  data  of  importance  from  the  Northern 
recension  alone,  either  in  regard  to  its  relation  to  the  Rama- 
yana or  in  respect  of  its  own  development.  Such  data  must 
finally  be  checked  in  detail  by  a comparison  with  those  of  the 
alternate  text ; but  as  a whole  they  suffice  to  cast  much  light 
on  several  moot  points,  and  in  themselves  are  useful  in  de- 
monstrating that  the  great  epic  is  the  result  of  the  labors  of 
different  writers  belonging  to  different  schools  of  style  and 
thought;  a result  diametrically  opposed  to  the  view  of  the 
method  calling  itself  synthetic,  and  likely  to  be  rather  twice- 


60 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


proven  than  disproven  by  the  eventual  publication  of  the 
Southern  text. 

In  regard  to  the  texts  of  the  Ramayana,  I need  only  refer 
to  the  invaluable  essays  of  Professor  Jacobi,  seconded  by  the 
recent  analyses  of  Dr.  Wirtz  and  Dr.  Liiders,1  especially  as 
tliis  epic  is  not  the  chief  object  of  consideration  in  this  vol- 
ume. It  is,  however,  obvious  that  exactly  the  same  conditions 
obtain  here  as  in  the  case  of  the  great  epic,  and  it  may  be 
added  that  if  there  were  a third  epic  the  same  conditions 
would  obtain  there.  There  is  no  fixed  epic  text  because  Hindu 
epic  poetry  was  never  fixed.  All  epic  poems  were  transmitted 
at  first  orally,  and  the  various  rewriters  treated  them  exactly 
as  the  rhapsodes  had  previously  done,  altered  and  added  as  they 
pleased.  Reconstruction  of  the  original  text  is  therefore  out 
of  the  question.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  excise  the  most 
palpable  interpolations  in  each  traditional  rendering. 

Neither  of  the  epics,  as  such,  is  recognized  before  the  late 
period  of  the  Grhyasutras,  and  the  first  epic  recognized  here 
and  in  other  Sutras  is  the  Bliarata.  The  question  has  often 
been  raised  winch  epic  is  the  older.  In  our  present  state  of 
knowledge  it  may  be  said  that  tins  question  cannot  now  and 
probably  never  can  be  answered  in  one  word.  In  the  first 
place,  it  will  always  be  idle  to  speak  of  either  epic  as  the  older 
without  specifying  whether  one  means  the  present  text  or  the 
original  text;  for  that  these,  in  the  case  of  either  epic,  are 
convertible  terms  is  an  idea  refuted  by  even  a superficial 
acquaintance  with  the  poems.  Assuming,  however,  that  the 
question  implies  priority  of  epic  qua  epic  as  a new  genus  of 
literature,  and  whether  tliis  form  first  arose  as  Ramayana  or 
(Maha)  Bharata,  this  too  cannot  be  answered  categorically, 
because  parts  of  the  latter  are  older  than  the  former,  and  the 
former  is  older  than  the  mass  of  the  latter,  as  will  be  shown. 
Personally  I have  no  doubt  that  the  Pandu  (pandava)  form  of 
the  great  epic  is  later  than  the  Rama  epic ; but,  since  one  was 

1 Das  Ramayana  (together  with  special  studies  mentioned  hereafter),  by 
Professor  Jacobi;  Die  Westliehe  Rozension  des  R.,  by  Dr.  Hans  Wirtz;  Dio 
Sage  von  Jtsynjrfign,  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Liiders,  Gbtt.  Nachr.  1897,  p.  87. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


61 


a slow  outgrowth  from  a Punjab  Kuru  epic,  and  the  other,  of 
unknown  antecedents,  was  developed  far  to  the  East,  in  much 
more  polished  form,  while  only  the  Bharata  is  recognized  in 
Vedie  literature,  1 have  as  little  doubt  that  there  was  a Bha- 
rata epic  before  there  was  a Ramayana ; whereof  also  I shall 
speak  again  in  a subsequent  chapter.  Here  I wish  merely  to 
notice,  in  passing,  the  ridiculous  claim  that  the  Ramayana  dates 
from  the  “ twelfth  or  thirteenth  century  ” B.  c.  This  claim 
has  been  made  not  only  by  Hindus  but  by  Occidental  scholars. 
"Whether  there  was  a Rama  story  at  that  period  or  (just  as 
well)  twelve  or  thirteen  centuries  earlier  no  man  can  know. 
But  that  Valmiki’s  Ramayana  can  lay  claim  to  no  such  age 
the  slightest  historical  consideration  will  show,  not  to  speak 
of  an  examination  of  the  almost  classical  metre  of  the  poem. 

The  Mahabharata,  besides  giving  the  Rama  story  as  an  epi- 
sode, Rama-upakliyana,  has  four  direct  references  to  the  Rama- 
yana (apart  from  an  allusion  to  Great  Itihasas).  The  first  is 
the  citation  of  a verse  actually  found,  as  Professor  Jacobi  has 
shown,  in  the  extant  poem  of  Valmiki,  api  ca  ’yam  Pura  g*tah 
Qloko  Valmikina  bhuvi,  vii,  143,  67  (R.  vi,  81,  28). 1 The 
second  is  the  citation  of  a verse  from  Bhargava’s  Ramacarita 
(Bhargava  being,  as  Professor  Weber  has  shown,  a title  of 
Valmiki),  which  agrees  in  sense  and  words  closely  enough 
with  R.  ii,  67, 11,  to  indicate  that  the  Mahabharata  poet  of  this 
passage,  xii,  57,  40,  had  in  mind  this  or  the  original  form  (for 
it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the  name  is  not  fixed)  of  this  verse 
in  the  Ramayana,2  and  to  make  improbable  the  sj’nchronous 
collection  of  the  former  epic  at  xii,  67,  and  68  (cf.  §1.  15)  : 

M.  clokac  ca  ’yam  puraglto  Bhargavena  mahatmana 
akhyate  Ramacarite  nrpatim  prati,  Bharata, 
rajanam  prathamam  vindet  tato  bharyam  tato 
dhanam 

raj  any  asati  lokasya  kuto  blxarya  kuto  dhanam 

1 na  liantavyah  striya  iti,  “Women  may  not  be  slain.”  The  general  rule 
is  found  also  in  R.  ii,  78,  21,  avadhyah  sarvabhutanam  pramadah  ksamya- 
tam  iti. 

2 Rather  than  a common  source,  as  I thought  previously,  AJP.  xx,  p.  34. 


62 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


R.  arajake  dhanam  na  ’sti  ua  ’sti  bharya  ’py  arajake 
idain  atyahitarii  ca  ’nyat  kuto  satyam  arajake 

The  tliird  and  fourth  cases  refer  to  the  Ramayana  without 
mention  of  the  poet:  iii,  147, 11,  “ Hanumat  is  very  renowned 
in  the  Ramayana ; ” xviii,  6,  93  (repeated  in  the  Harivahga)  : 
“ In  the  Veda  (which  is)  the  beginning  (of  literature),  in  the 
holy  Ramayana  (which  is)  the  end,  and  in  the  Bharata  (which 
is)  the  middle,  in  all  (literatures),  Vishnu  is  besung.”  1 The 
Harivanga  adds  three  more  references,  two  to  Valmiki,  and 
one  to  a dramatic  representation  of  the  Ramayana.  Valmiki 
in  these  passages  and  perhaps  in  i,  55,  14,  as  Professor  Holtz- 
mann  surmises,  is  credited  with  being  a poet.  This  is  also 
implied  hi  xiii,  18,  8-10.  Everywhere  else,  and  he  is  men- 
tioned several  times,  h,  7,  16 ; iii,  85,  119 ; v,  83,  27 ; xii,  207, 
4,  he  is  recognized  only  as  a saint. 

In  this  material,  which  I recapitulate  here  only  for  a view 
of  the  chief  data,2  the  most  striking  fact  is  the  antithesis  be- 
tween the  notices  of  the  Ramayana  as  found  in  the  early  and 
later  Mahabharata.  The  Rama  story  is  referred  to  over  and 
over,  and  the  whole  tale  is  told  independently  at  iii,  273,  ff., 
but  until  we  come  to  the  much  expanded  Drona  and  the 
didactic  epic,  references  to  the  poem  are  merely  to  the  Rama 
tale,  references  to  the  reputed  author  are  merely  to  a saint 
recognized  as  an  ascetic  but  not  as  a poet.  Even  as  a saint 
the  evidence  is  conflicting,  for,  though  usually  a Vishnu  adhe- 
rent, in  the  passage  cited  above  from  the  Anugasana,  Valmiki 
is  a Oivaite.  The  individual  allusions  prove,  therefore,  noth- 
ing in  regard  to  the  general  priority  of  Valmiki  as  the  first 
epic  poet.  They  prove  only  that  the  Mahabharata  was  not 
completed  before  Valmiki  wrote,  just  as  the  mention  of  the 

1 vede  Ramayane  punye  (may  go  with  the  next  word)  Bharatc,  Bharata- 
rsabha,  adau  ca  ’nte  ca  madhye  ca.  Harih  sarvatra  giyate.  The  last  clause 
may  be  taken  more  indefinitely,  “ in  V.,  It.,  and  M. ; in  the  beginning,  end,  and 
middle,  everywhere.”  But  such  correlation  is  common  (e.  g.,  vede  loke  jrutah 
smrtah,  It.  ii,  24,  28)  and  seems  to  me  to  be  implied  here. 

2 Weber,  Ueber  das  Ramayana,  first  collected  it;  Jacobi,  Das  Ramayana, 
added  to  it ; Holtzmann,  Das  Mahabharata,  iv,  p.  60  ff.,  has  briefly  summed 
it,  with  other  references  (omitted  here)  and  independent  additions. 


INTERRELATION  OF  TIIE  TWO  EPICS. 


63 


Vayu  Purana  iii  the  Mahabharata  shows  only  that  there  was  a 
Purana  of  that  name  not  before  the  Bharata’s  beginning  but 
before  its  end.  They  show  also  that  no  antipathy  or  wish  to 
suppress  Valmlki’s  name  influenced  the  Bharata  poets,  who, 
therefore,  had  they  simply  retold  or  epitomized  a poem  recog- 
nized as  Valmlki’s  would  probably  (as  it  seems  to  me)  have 
mentioned  his  name  in  connection  with  the  Rama-upakhyana. 

Professor  Jacobi  is  of  the  opinion  that  a verse  of  inferior 
form  in  the  episode  points  to  borrowing  because  it  is  inferior. 
But  a great  poet  is  more  apt  to  take  a weak  verse  and  make 
it  strong  than  is  a copyist  to  ruin  a verse  already  excellent. 
Further,  the  subject-matter  of  the  Kavya  and  episode  is 
treated  differently  in  several  particulars  (details,  loc.  cit.), 
which  points  to  (.Afferent  workings-over  of  older  matter  rather 
than  to  copying  or  condensing.  Professor  Jacobi  also  em- 
phasizes the  fact  that  the  great  epic  cites  Valmlki  but  Valmlki 
does  not  cite  or  refer  to  the  Bharata.  This  holds  good  for 
the  great  epic  only  from  a “ synthetic  ” point  of  view,  which 
Professor  Jacobi  of  course  rejects.  The  normal  attitude  of  a 
Hindu  toward  his  sources  is  silence.  He  is  rather  careful  not 
to  state  than  to  proclaim  that  he  is  treating  old  material,  so 
that  there  is  nothing  surprising  in  Valmlki’s  not  speaking  of 
a predecessor.  Moreover,  in  the  later  Ramayana,  which  un- 
questionably betrays  acquaintance  with  the  Mahabharata,  there 
is  no  more  recognition  of  the  latter  than  there  is  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  poem;  a fact  which  weakens  considerably  the 
argument  of  silence  as  applied  to  that  earlier  part. 

Apart  from  vii,  143,  67,  the  Mahabharata  knows  the  poet 
Valmlki  only  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  books ; whereas  it 
knows  everywhere  the  Rama  tale,  a poem  called  the  Rama- 
yana, and  a saint  known  not  as  a poet  but  as  an  ascetic  called 
Valmlki.  It  gives  the  Rama-episode  as  it  gives  other  ancient 
tales  handed  down  from  antiquity  without  having  been  as- 
signed to  a specific  author.  The  Rama-upakhyana  stands  to 
the  Ramayana  somewhat1  as  the  Nala-upakhyana  stands  to 

1 Emphatic,  of  course,  as  the  example  is  a great  exaggeration  in  difference 
of  age  and  style. 


64 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  Naisadha,  in  that  it  is  an  early  tale  of  unknown  author- 
ship which  a poet  made  Ins  own.  Long  before  there  is  any 
allusion  to  Valinlki’s  Ramayana,  the  base  of  the  great  epic, 
the  substance  of  the  Bharati  Katha,  is  recognized  in  Hindu 
literature ; while  the  latest’  addition  to  the  great  epic  refers  to 
Valmlki  himself  as  a man  who  is  to  be,  that  is,  who  is  already, 
famous,  yagas  te  fgryam  bhavisyati,  xiii,  18,  8-10.  Between 
these  extremes  lies  the  Ramayana. 

The  Ramayana  recognizes  Janamejaya  as  an  ancient  hero, 
and  knows  Kurus  and  Pancalas  and  the  town  of  Hastinapur 
(ii,  68,  13).  The  story  of  the  Pandus,  the  gist  of  the  present 
epic,  is  presumably  later  than  the  story  of  Rama ; the  former 
everywhere  recognizing  the  latter  as  an  ancient  tale.1  We 
must  therefore  on  these  data  make  the  following  distinctions : 

(1)  The  story  of  Rama  is  older  than  the  stoiy  of  the 
Pandus. 

(2)  The  Pandu  stoiy  has  absorbed  the  Bharati  Katha. 

(3)  The  Bharati  Katha  is  older  than  Valmlki’s  poem. 


Although  we  have  but  two  ancient  Sanskrit  epics,  there  is 
no  reason  to  suppose  that  epic  poetry  began  'with  the  extant 
poems  in  our  possession.  As  was  remarked  above,  the  Maha- 
bharata  alludes  to  the  “ Great  Itiliasas,”  which  may  perhaps 
imply  other  poems  of  epic  character  and  considerable  extent.2 
Nor  can  it  be  supposed  that  epic  poetry  was  suddenly 


1 ii,  76,  6,  asambhave  hemamayasya  j ant  os  tatlia  ’pi  Ramo  lulubhe 
mrgaya;  iii,  11,  48,  Vali-Sugrivayor  bhratror  yatha  strikanksinoh  pura  ; ix, 
31,  11,  liavano  nama  raksasah,  Ramena  niliato  rajan  sanubandhah  sahanu- 
gah ; so  ix,  65,  31 ; sometimes  interpolated,  as  when  Ravana  and  Indrajit 
are  mentioned  in  i,  165,  44,  but  not  in  C.,  which  omit6  all  41-44  (after  6081). 
Other  references  will  be  found  in  iii,  25,  8;  85,  65,  etc.  Compare  Holtzmann, 
loc.  cit.,  p.  62  ff.  According  to  xii,  340,  85  IT.,  Rama  comes  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  era;  Krishna,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  era  (Rama’s  two 
adjutant  monkeys  are  here  Ekata  and  Dvita).  Rama  is  recognized  here  as 
an  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  also  in  iii,  99,  40. 

2 I say  perhaps  only,  for  "great”  is  a word  often  used  without  reference 
to  extent.  Thus  the  mahad  akhyannm  of  xiii,  2,  1,  is  only  a philosophical 
fable  (about  a snake  and  Karma),  83  ylokas  long. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


65 


invented  by  one  poet.  The  numerous  “ancient  tales”  of 
epic  character  must  have  furnished  a large  body  of  epic  phrase 
as  well  as  fable,  out  of  which  and  on  the  basis  of  which  arose 
our  present  epics.  This  is  rendered  probable  also  by  the  fact 
that  such  brief  epic  verses  as  are  preserved  in  other  works, 
although  not  always  from  the  extant  epics,  yet  have  the  same 
character  as  the  verses  of  the  Bharata  and  Ramayana.  Fur- 
thermore, as  said  above,  the  epic  itself  admits  that  the  present 
text  is  not  an  original  work.1 

We  cannot  suppose  then,  even  if  one  epic  could  be  shown 
to  be  prior  to  the  other,  that  tliis  prior  epic  was  the  first  work 
in  epic  versification.  We  must  let  pass  the  statement  of  the 
Ramayana  itself  that  Valmlki  invented  the  9loka  verse,  for, 
though  Valmlki  may  have  been  the  first  to  set  out  to  write  an 
epic  in  glokas,  it  is  scarcely  worth  while  to  discuss  such  a 
palpable  bit  of  self-glorification  as  that  in  which  the  later 
Ramayana  here  indulges.2 * * 5  As  the  two  Greek  epics  were  both 
based  to  a certain  extent  on  the  general  rhapsodic  phraseology 
of  the  day,  so  the  two  Hindu  epics,  though  there  was  without 
doubt  borrowing  in  special  instances,  were  yet  in  this  regard 
independent  of  each  other,  being  both  dependent  on  previous 
rhapsodic  and  narrative  phraseology. 

I cannot,  in  short,  think  that  such  a very  large  number  of 
identical  phrases  as  I shall  enlist  below  can  owe  their  identity 
simply  to  one  poet’s  copying  of  another.  For  the  similarity 
goes  too  deep,  into  the  very  grain  of  the  verse.  The  exposi- 
tion, I fear,  will  be  tiresome  in  its  study  of  minute  detail,  but 
it  is  necessary  to  a full  understanding  of  the  conditions  of  the 
problem. 

1 i,  1,  26:  acakhyuh  kavayah  kecit  sampratyacaksate  pare  akhyasyanti 
tathai  ’va  ’nye  itiliasam  imam  bliuvi  (cited  by  JHoltzmann). 

2 So  with  the  tale  of  the  two  rhapsodes  who  “sang”  the  poem  with  musi- 
cal accompaniment,  after  it  had  been  composed  and  taught  to  them  (so  that 
in  the  first  instance  it  was  recited  as  a narrative).  But  all  this  is  the  product 
of  a later  age  making  up  its  own  fictions  and  myths,  such  as  the  singing  sons 

Kufa  and  Lava  made  out  of  kucUava,  an  ordinary  word  for  rhapsode.  That 
Yalmiki  could  not  have  “ invented  the  floka”  is  shown  by  the  presence  of 

an  earlier  form  of  glokas  in  the  Bralimanic  literature  retained  in  Mbh. 

5 


66 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


A characteristic  of  the  common  basis  of  epic  verse  may  be 
traced  back  to  the  Rig  Veda.  This  consists  in  a rhetorical 
duplication  of  a dissyllabic  iambic  noun,  which  favors  the 
diiambic  close  of  the  octosyllabic  pada  or  verse,  as  in  these 
first  three  examples,  or  of  the  twelve-syllable  pada,  as  in  the 
last  example : 

rtavana  jane-jane,  E.V.  v,  65,  2 

yac  cid  dhi  tvarn  grhe-grhe,  ib.  i,  28,  5 

haskartaram  dame-dame,  ib.  iv,  7,  3 ; vii,  15,  2 

sa  darcataqrlr  atitkir  grhe-grhe 

vane-vane  QiQriye  takvavlr  iva 

janam-janam  janio  na  ’ti  manyate 

viqa  a kseti  viqio  vi^am-vigam,  ib.  x,  91,  2 

With  the  last,  compare  also  RY.  i,  123,  4,  where  grharn- 
grham,  dive-dive,  agram-agram  stand  at  the  start,  not  at  the 
end.  Sometimes  a whole  pada  consists  of  only  such  com- 
posita,  as  in  x,  97,  12,  angam-angam  parus-parus  (cf.  v,  53, 
11;  x,  163,  6).  In  the  Rig  Veda,  again,  pure  adverbs  thus 
duplicated  are  never  found  at  the  end  of  the  pada ; only  such 
nominal  adverbs  as  those  above,  the  nearest  approach  to  pure 
adverbs  so  used  being  idam-idam,  a pronominal  adverb  closing 
a pada  at  vii,  59,  l.1  In  the  epic,  however,  the  forms  are  usu- 
ally adverbs,  usually  at  the  end,2  usually  in  glokas  ; in  the  Rig 
Veda,  never  pure  adverbs,  usually  at  the  beginning  or  in  the 
middle,  seldom  at  the  end  of  the  pada,  and  usually  not  in 
glokas,  but  in  gayatri  and  especially  in  jagatl  or  tristubh 
verses.  The  first  examples  given  above  are,  therefore,  rather 
the  exception  than  the  rule  as  far  as  their  position  goes.  But 
I think  we  may  see  in  them  the  precursors  of  the  epic  for- 
mulae used  in  closing  the  hemistich.  The  Veda  puts  the  form 
where  it  best  shows  the  iterative  intensity ; the  epic  puts  it 
where  it  best  helps  the  metre.  Thus : 

1 Compare  the  list  of  such  composita  in  Professor  Collitz’s  paper,  Abhandl. 
<3.  V.  Orient.  Congress,  1881,  p.  287. 

* Exceptions  of  course  occur,  as  in  M.  vii,  7,  63,  punali  punar  abliajyanta 
sinhene  ’vc  ’tare  mrgah ; R.  iv,  43,  63,  aliany  ahani  vardhante.  So  upary  upari 
sarvesam  and  siinunam,  Nala  1,  2;  and  It.  v,  13, 10,  respectively. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


67 


punah-punar  niatara  navyasi  kali,  RV.  iii,  5,  7 
punah-punar  jayamana  purani,  RV.  i,  92,  10 
nihqvasya  ca  punah  punah  R.  i,  54,  5 
(nihgvasya)  pratyaveksya  punah  punah,  M.  ix,  29,  49 

The  epic  uses  this  metrical  convenience  constantly,  some- 
times too  often,  as  in  ix,  32,  6,  8,  9,  where  punah  punah  is 
repeated  three  times.  Other  adverbs  of  the  same  sort  in  both 
epics  are  prthak  prthak,  muhur  muhuh,  ganaih  ganaih.  In  a 
word,  both  epics  close  the  hemistich  in  this  antique  Yedic 
manner,  though  the  epic  style  has  somewhat  changed  the 
relation  of  the  phrase  to  the  pada.1 

Like  these  stereotyped  terminals  in  their  epic  application  is 
the  countless  number  of  verses  ending  with  the  same  diiambic 
form,  vocative,  nominative,  or  oblique  case,  of  one  compound, 
and  the  less  frequent  (because  less  needed)  common  form  of 
the  prior  pada’s  pathya  ending,  such  as  mahabala,  paramtapa, 
arimdama  (prior,  mahabaho,  °prajna,  °vlrya,  maharaja,  ra- 
jendra) ; pratapavan,  paravlraha,  mahamrclhe,  ranajire,  rana- 
murdhani,  ranakarkagah,  the  oblique  cases  of  mahatman 
(constantly  used),  and  such  diiambic  phrases  as  balad  ball, 
suto  ball.  All  of  these  are  used  in  the  same  way  in  both  epics, 
most  of  them  repeatedly.  In  some,  the  word  passes  back  of 
the  diiambus  and  leads  us  toward  the  whole  pada-phrase 
though  not  quite  reaching  it.  Of  such  sort  are  ranakarka- 
gah (above),  yuddliadurmada,  samgramamurdhani,  (Varunah) 
satyasamgarah,  nama  namatah,  gatrunisudana,  akutobhayah, 
krodliamurcchitah.  In  others,  the  word  falls  short,  but  the 
position  of  the  adjective  is  fixed  and  it  is  generally  preceded 
by  the  same  combination  as  in  (capam,  gadam,  or  dlianur) 
udyamya  viryavan,  and  the  common  final  manada.2 

1 And  also  extended  it  in  the  form  gate  gate  (instead  of  the  noun)  in 
dafahe  vai  gate  gate,  xiii,  107,  43.  Of  epic  phrases,  I have  noted  also  grhe 
grhe,  M.  ii,  15,  2;  R.  v.  26,  20;  and  (passim)  pade  pade,  yoge  yoge,  rane  rane, 
and  in  M.,  jane  jane  and,  in  the  more  unusual  initial  position,  masi  masi 
(Yedic  and  M.  ix,  37,  4),  kale  kale,  ix,  37,  23.  Of  the  phrases  quoted  above, 
muhur  muhuh  occurs  often ; fanaih  fanaih,  e.  g.,  M.  ix,  29,  104  ; R.  ii,  40,  22 
and  G.  vi,  111,  13 ; prthak  prthak,  e.  g.,  M.  ix,  37,  23 ; G.  vi,  54,  59  ; 77,  1. 

2 Among  those  mentioned,  paravlraha  is  converted  into  hanta  in  tristubh, 


68 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


From  these  compounds,  not  only  in  form  but  in  fixed  posi- 
tion common  to  both  epics,  we  may  pass  to  cases  like  (svate- 
jasa,  often)  svena  tejasa,  where  the  pada  ends  with  two  words 
winch  take  in  more  than  the  diiambus,  for  example,  bibhra- 
tlm  svena  tejasa,  jvalantlih  svena  tejasa,  the  former  in  M.  xii, 
325,  2 ; the  latter  in  R.  vi,  107,  11  and  G.  80,  33. 

The  fixed  form  is  shown  most  conspicuously  in  similes  that 
are  common  to  both  epics,  and  are  of  the  mechanical  form 
instanced  in  the  last  two  sorts  of  examples,  namely  in  diiam- 
bic or  more  than  diiambic  terminals.  Thus  there  are  fixed 
phrases  which  are  different  except  for  the  terminal,  which 
again  is  common  (as  a fixed  terminal)  to  both  epics,  for 
example : 

dandahata  ivo  ’ragah,  in  M.  and  in  R. 
pancaQlrsa  ivo  ’ragah,  “ “ 

dandahasta  iva  ’ntakah,  “ “ 

paqahasta  iva  ’ntakah,  “ “ 

vyattananam  iva  ’ntakam,  “ “ 


jvalantam  iva  pavakam, 
didhaksur  iva  pavakah, 
vidhuma  iva  pavakah, 
patamga  iva  pavakam, 
qalabha  iva  pavakam, 


Such  phrases  are  common  not  only  to  the  two  epics  but  to 
outside  literature.  Thus  the  iva  pavakah  formula  appears  in 
the  Dhammapada,  71,  as  bhasmacchanno  va  pavako  (epic, 
bhasmapanno  iva  ’nalah),  and  the  same  is  true  of  a limited 
number  of  whole  pada-phrases,  not  only  in  pure  proverbs,  but 


It.  iv,  31,  5 (°ghna  is  a common  side-form) ; pratapavan  is  perhaps  least  com- 
mon in  Tt.,  hut  it  serves  with  vlryavan;  for  example,  in  It.  vi,  09,  109;  70,  21, 
27,  if.,  where  follow  a quantity  of  mahiibalas.  Like  vlryavan  is  vegavivn  with 
vegitah  (vegena  in  the  prior  pada).  M.  has  ativxryavan,  as  in  iii,  283,  7. 
Tlie  simple  form  is  rare  in  any  other  position,  e.  g.,  G.  v,  2,  23;  3,  71.  As 
a terminal  it  occurs  in  It.  about  forty  times  in  the  sixth  book,  uncounted 
often  in  M.  The  common  Mahabharata  terminal  man'sa,  I have  not  noticed 
in  the  Ramayana.  It  appears  to  belong  to  later  diction  and  indicates  an 
epic  recasting,  as  does,  e.  g.,  the  late  tatrabhavant  of  It.  ii,  108,  30. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


69 


in  current  similes  and  metaphors,  like  kalam  nil  ’rhanti  soda- 
§Im,  xii,  277,  6;  Manu,  ii,  86;  and  Buddliistie,  Dh.  P.,  70, 
kalaiii  na  ’ggliati  solasim ; or  mansa^onitalepanam,  Dh.  P., 
150;  Manu,  vi,  76;  Mbh.  xii,  330,  42  (Mait.  Up.  iii,  4).1 

In  some  cases  the  variety  of  padas  constructed  on  a com- 
mon terminal  is  very  large,  such  as  the  various  forms  of  what 
appears  most  simply  as  gantli  ’si  Yamasadanam,  yato  'si  Yama- 
sadanam. Thus  both  epics  have  yiyasur  Yamasadanam  and 
anayad  Yamasadanam,  along  with  other  forms  more  peculiar, 
Yamasya  s2danam  prati,  R.  vii,  21, 1;  praliinod  Yamasadanam, 
praliinon  mrtyulokaya,2  Qarair  ninye  Yainaksayam,  M.  ix,  26, 
29,  ninye  vaivasvataksayam,  M.  vii,  26,  53,  gato  vfiivasvata- 
ksayam,  G.  vi,  82,  183,  yami  vaiijravanalayam,  G.  vi,  82,  167 ; 
nayami  lokarn  (with  Yamasya  omitted,  tristubh),  M.  viii,  85, 
31;  nayami  Yamasya  gehabhimukham,  R.  vii,  68,  20;  gami- 
syami  Yamasya  inulam,  II.  v,  28,  17 ; mrtyupatkam  nayami, 
G.  vi,  36,  118;  mrtyumukliam  nayisye,  M.  viii,  42,  11; 
mrtyumukhagatam  (anesyamali),  G.  iv,  45,  9.  Evidently  in 
these  cases  the  ancient  phrases  Yamasadanam,'  Yamaksayam, 
are  built  upon  in  several  ways,  and  then  the  desire  for  variety 
leads  to  the  pulling  away  of  the  base  of  the  old-fashioned 
phrase,  and  the  superstructure  is  shifted  to  a new  base,  gen- 
erally in  the  later  epic,  the  double  meaning  of  ksaya  helping 
in  anayat  ksayam,  ix,  27,  48.  Like  changes  occur  in  the 

1 There  are  also  clear  traces  of  dialectic  influence  in  the  adaptation  of 
some  of  these  standing  phrases.  On  this  subject  I shall  speak  more  fully 
below.  Here  I will  illustrate  what  I mean  by  one  example  from  the  Rama- 
yana.  There  is  a common  phrase  which  begins  tarn  apatantam  sahasa,  or 
some  similar  final  word,  the  first  two  referring  to  a masculine  noun  (weapon). 
When  we  find,  in  R.  vi,  67,  47,  this  same  phrase  used  of  a neuter  noun,  tad 
apatantam,  we  are  justified  neither  in  assuming  that  the  poet  was  wholly 
indifferent  to  grammar  nor  in  agreeing  with  the  commentator  that  the  mas- 
culine form  is  an  archaism  countenanced  by  Vedic  usage,  punstvam  arsam. 
It  is  simply  a case  of  borrowing  a convenient  grammatical  form  (not  San- 
skrit, but  Prakrit),  for  apatantam  is  a regular  patois  neuter  participle.  Forms 
of  this  sort  are  adopted  into  the  epic  merely  for  metrical  reasons,  showing 
that  they  were  borrowed  from  the  common  speech  of  the  day  when  con- 
venient ; which  shows  again  that  the  epics  (both  are  alike  in  this  particular) 
were  written  in  Sanskrit  and  not  made  over  from  Prakrit  originals. 

2 See  for  references,  Appendix  A,  s.  v. 


70 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


sutumulam  yuddham  phrases,  generally  ending  with  lomahar- 
sanam,  but  occasionally  in  a new  setting,  Y amarastravivardh- 
anam,  as  in  M.  vi,  79,  60;  ix,  10,  61;  11,  5,  etc.;  in  tristubli, 
°vardhanali,  vii,  145,  97. 

Especially  is  the  monotony  varied  in  the  conventional 
phrases  of  conversation.  Both  epics  have  etac  chrutva  tu 
vacanam,  tasyai  ’tad  vacanarh  grutva,  idam  vacanam  abravit, 
grutva  tu  vacanam  tasya;  and  again  the  phrases  are  shifted, 
tatas  tad  vacanam  grutva,  tad  etad  vacanam  grutva  (old  and 
rare),  G.  iv,  38,  46 ; grutva  tasarh  tu  vacanam,  M.  ix,  35,  52 ; 
idam  vacanam  uktavan,  G.  v,  68,  24 ; and  in  many  other  ways, 
too  tedious  to  recount. 

Herewith  we  come  to  the  pada  phrase,  wdiich  fills  the  whole 
half-verse  with  the  same  locution,  as  in  palayanaparayanah, 
parasparajighansavah.  In  the  Am.  Journal  of  Philology,  xix, 
p.  138  ff.,  I cited  verses  of  the  Mahabharata  which  are  full  of 
such  phrases.  Such  passages  are  also  easily  found  in  the  Rama- 
yana,  of  which  I will  give  but  one  instance,  vi,  71,  wdiere  §1. 
67  alone  contains  four  such  phrases : tarn  apatantam  nigitam 
garam  aglvisopamam,  ardhacandrena  ciccheda  Laksmanah  para- 
vlraha  (with  others  following).  Here  the  whole  gloka  with 
the  exception  of  the  proper  name  consists  of  iterata.  In  the 
Ramayana,  too,  we  find,  as  often  in  the  Mahabharata,  two 
iterata  enclosing  a verse  that  is  new,  as  in  iv,  11,  18,  where 
the  independent  verse  is  sandwiched  between  the  iterata 
tasya  tad  vacanam  grutva  and  krodhat  saihraktalocanah, 
which  arrangement  is  found  again,  ib.  73.  In  G.  iii,  57,  15, 
the  hemistich  consists  of  two  whole  phrases,  rosasaihraktana- 
yana  idaiii  vacanam  abravit.  In  G.  vi,  27,  there  are  nine  ite- 
rata in  the  first  eighteen  glokas.  I mention  tins  that  there 
may  not  seem  to  be  any  distinction  in  tins  regard  in  the  two 
epics.  Both  have  many  chapters  which  teem  with  verbal  or 
whole  pada-iterata,  the  later  the  more.1  Noticeable  are  their 

1 The  cumulative  style  is  characteristic,  naturally,  of  later  sections.  So, 
for  instance,  in  the  late  fourteenth  chapter  of  the  thirteenth  book,  within 
tlie  compass  of  about  thirty  9lokas,  249  ff.,  we  find  sarvabharanablnisitani, 
sarvabhutabhaysivaham,  fakratulyaparakramah,  triyikhaiii  bhrukutiiii  krtva. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


71 


extent  and  variety.  There  is  hardly  a field  in  which  Vyasa 
and  Vahnlki  do  not  echo  the  same  words.  General  descrip- 
tive epithets  and  phrases  that  paint  the  effect  of  grief  and 
anger,  or  the  appearance  of  city  and  forest;  the  aspect  of 
battle  and  attitude  of  warriors,  with  short  characterization  of 
weapons  and  steeds,  are  all  as  frequent  as  the  mass  of  similes 
found  in  both  epics  in  the  same  words.  In  the  last  category, 
identical  similes  are  drawn  from  gods,  men,  animals,  and  phy- 
sical phenomena.  Again,  both  poets,  as  shown  above,  use 
the  same  phrases  of  speech,  as  they  do  also  of  noises,  and 
of  the  course  of  time;  and  finally  there  are  many  didactic 
verses,  almost  or  quite  the  same  in  both  epics. 

In  the  fist  of  parallels  given  elsewhere  1 I have  incorporated 
such  examples  as  I have  noticed  of  identical  or  nearly  identi- 
cal phrases  and  verses.  Illustrative  additions  are  occasionally 
added,  not  to  add  weight  to  the  general  effect,  for  the  number 
of  cases  of  actual  identity  is  sufficiently  large,  but  to  supply 
material  for  fuller  treatment  of  this  whole  subject  eventually. 
The  three  hundred  examples  here  registered  include  also  some 
cases  where  verbal  identity  is  not  quite  complete,  such  as 
M.  iv,  19,  29, 

prabhinnam  iva  matangam  parikirnam  karenubbih 

G.  v,  14,  28, 

karenubhir  maharanye  pariklrno  yatlia  dvipah 

and  I have  not  perhaps  been  thoroughly  logical  in  the  admis- 
sion or  exclusion  of  such  cases ; but  in  general  I have  sought 
to  establish  an  equation  not  only  in  the  thought  but  in  the 
expression  of  the  thought,  and  for  the  most  part  have  omitted 
such  parallels  as  did  not  tend  to  bring  out  the  verbal  identity.2 

pajahastam  iva  ’ntakam,  dvitlya  iva  pavakah  (to  which  one  text  adds  vidhu- 
mam  iva  pavakam)  all  common  iterata  of  both  epics,  but  far  in  excess  of 
the  usual  number;  as  in  G.  vi,  27  (above). 

1 Appendix  A. 

2 I have  omitted,  for  example,  such  cases  as  iii,  30,  42,  karmana  tena 
papena  lipyate  nunam  iqvarah ; G.  vi,  62,  22,  vidhata  lipyate  tena  yatha 
papena  karmana  (R.  vi,  83,  23  quite  otherwise),  though  I have  no  doubt  that 
the  tirades  against  God  and  duty  (G.  15  ff.)  in  each  epic  (as  in  this  case) 
belong  together.  Some  few  proverbs  are  also  entered. 


72 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Those  I have  collected  were  gleaned  incidentally  from  a field 
which  1 traversed  with  other  objects  in  view,  and  I have  no 
doubt  that  these  parallels  could  be  largely  increased  by  a 
close  and  systematic  comparison  of  the  two  epics  throughout. 
The  alphabetical  arrangement  followed  is  merely  for  conven- 
ience of  reference.  I should  have  been  glad  to  group  the 
examples  according  to  their  content  also,  that  I might  have 
shown  more  fully  the  varied  fields  they  occupy,  but,  as  this 
would  have  taken  too  much  space,  the  remarks  made  above  on 
this  subject  and  the  former  grouping  made  in  a preliminary 
study  of  the  question  two  years  ago 1 must  suffice. 


I will  suppose  that  the  reader  has  now  read  Appendix  A. 
He  will  have  noticed  in  so  doing  that,  just  as  the  Uttara  Ram- 
ayana,  as  well  as  the  real  poem  of  Valmlki,  is  recognized  in 
the  pseudo-Bharata,2  so  in  the  expressions  asitl  raja  Nimir 
nama,  ekantabhavanugatah,  and  yasya  prasadam  kurute  sa 
vai  tarn  drastum  arhati,  we  have  a direct  copy  on  the  part  of 
the  Uttara  Ilamayana3  not  only  of  the  early  epic  but  of  the 
pseudo-epic’s  episode  of  the  White  Country  and  even  of 
the  very  words  employed  in  the  description  of  the  Whites 
(Islanders,  to  retain  the  usual  name,  though  only  country  is 
really  meant;  Kashmere,  I think).  There  are  several  such 
passages  in  the  Uttara  reflecting  the  great  epic  in  its  earlier 

1 AJP.  xix,  p.  138  ff.,  1898. 

2 Tims  the  story  of  llama  yudraghatin,  as  told  in  R.  vii,  76-7 G (G.  82-83), 
killing  Qambaka  or  Qambuka  is  recognized  with  an  “I  have  heard,”  yruyate, 
xii,  153,  67  (where  Jam  bilk  a takes  the  place  of  Qambuka). 

8 So  in  the  praksipta  passage  after  R.  iii,  60,  where  SIta  demands  signs  of 
the  god  Indra,  and  he  appears  with  the  devalingani : “He  touched  not  earth 
with  his  feet,  winked  not,  had  dustless  garments  and  unfaded  garlands,”  as 
in  Nala  6,  12-24,  which  the  praksipta  clearly  copies.  So,  too,  in  the  same 
book,  iii,  00,  not  in  G.,  evidently  an  artistic  improvement  on  the  preceding 
sarga,  in  yl.  20,  Rama  says:  (drstii  ’si)  vrksair  acchadya  ca’tmanam  kirn  mam 
na  pratibhasase,  as  DamayantI  says  (Nala  11,  9:  drsto  'si)  avarya  gulmair 
atmanam  kirn  mam  na  pratibhasase;  and  in  yl.  17,  Rama  cries  out:  ayoka 
yolcapanuda  . . . tvannamanam  kuru  lcsipram  priyasamdaryanena  mam,  ns 
Damaynnti,  12, 104,  and  107  : viyokiiiii  kuru  maiii  ksipram  ayoka  priyadaryana 
satyanama  bhavii  ’yoka  ayokah. 


INTERRELATION  OF  TIIE  TWO  EPICS. 


73 


parts  as  well.  Compare  for  instance  the  division  of  Indra’s 
sin  as  related  in  M.  v,  13  with  R.  vii,  85  and  86.  It  will  be 
necessary  only  to  cite  M.  v,  13,  12, 

raksarthaiii  sarvabliutanaiii  visnutvam  upajagmivan 

and  from  ib.  13-15, 

tesaiii  tad  vacanam  qrutva  devanaiii  Visnur  abravlt 
main  eva  yajataiii  Qakrah  pavayisyami  vajrinam 
punyena  hayamedbena  mam  istva  pakaqasanah 
punar  esyati  devauam  iudratvam  akutobhayah 

as  compared  with  R.  vii,  85,  18,  20-21,  winch  give  exactly  the 
same  words. 

But  this  correlation  exists  not  only  in  the  later  parts  of 
both  epics  and  in  the  later  part  of  the  Ramayana  and  an 
earlier  part  of  the  Bharata.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  reverse  the 
positions,  as  for  instance  in  the  account  of  creation  at  R.  iii,  14 
(G.  20)  and  M.  i,  66.  This  passage  is  instructive  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  way  complete  passages  were  roughly  remem- 
bered and  handed  down  with  shifting  phrases,  omissions,  and 
insertions : 

M.  66,  58, 

dhrtarasfrl  tu  hahsahq  ca  kalahansahq  ca  sarvaqah 

R.  14,  19, 

dhrtarastrl  tu  hahsahq  ca  kalahansahq  ca  sarvaqah 

M.  ib. 

cakravakanq  ca  bbadra  tu  janayamasa  sai  ’va  tu 

R.  ib. 

cakravakanq  ca  bhadram  te  vijajne  sa  ’pi  bbaminl 
G.  20,  20, 

dhrtarastrl  tv  ajanayad  dhahsan  jalaviharinah 
cakravakanq  ca  bhadram  te  sarasahc  cai  ’va  sarvaqah 

M.  59, 

quki  ca  janayamasa  qukan  eva  yaqasvinl 
kaly  anagunasampann  a sarvalaksanapuj  ita 

G.  21, 

quid  qukan  ajanayat  tanayan  vinayanvitan 
kalyanagunasampannan  sarvalaksanapuj itan 


74 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


[R.  20, 

(Juki  nataih  vijajne  tu  natayam  vinata  suta] 

M.  60, 

navakrodhavaqa  nanh  prajajne  krodhasambhavah 
mrgx  ca  mrgamanda  ca  haii  bhadramana  api 

R.  21, 

dagakrodhavaga,  Kama,  vijajne  ’py  atmasambkavah 
xnrgliii  ca  mrgamandaih  ca  harlm  bhadramadam  api 

G.  22, 

tatha  krodhavaga  nama  jajne  sa  ca  ’tmasambhavan 
mrglm  nirgavatnii  cai  Jva  garduliiii  krostukim  tatha 
M.  61, 

matafigl  tv  atha  qarduli  gveta  surabhir  eva  ca 
sarvalaksanasampanna  surasa  cai  ’va  bhamini 
R.  22  (and  G.)  a,  do.,  but  acc. ; b, 

sarvalaksanasampanna  surasaih  kadrukam  api 

M.  62  = R.  23  almost  exactly,  and  the  following  verses  agree 
much  in  the  same  way,  until  one  passage  wThich  I will  cite 
entire,  as  follows: 


MahAbh  Arata  (i,  66, 67  -68): 

tatha  duhitarau  rajan 
surabhir  vai  vyajayata 
rohini  cai  'va  bhadram  te1 
gandharvi  tu  ya9asvini 
vimalam  api  bhadram  te 
analam  api,  Bharata, 
robinyam  jajiiire  gavo 
gandbarvj'am  vajinah  sutah 
sapta  pindaplialan  vrksan 
anala  ’pi  vyajayata 
(70,  b)  surasa  'janayan  niigan 

kadruh  putrans  tu  pannagan 


RaalAyana  (iii,  14,  27-28): 

tato  duhitarau,  Rama, 
surabhir  devy  ajayata 
rohinim  nama  bhadram  te 
gandharvim  ca  yagasvinim 

roliiny  ajanayad  gavo 
gandharvi  vajinah  sutan 

(see  31,  below) 

surasa  ’janayan  nagan, 

Rama,  kadruy  ca  pannagan 
(29)  manur  manusyan  janayat 
(31)  sarvan  punyaphalan  vrksan 
anala  'pi  vyajayata 


The  last  verse  in  R.  gives  the  origin  of  the  four  castes 
(Ruling  Caste,  p.  74,  note),  where  G.  has  manur  manusyan  . . . 


1 bhadra  tu,  in  C. 


INTERRELATION  OF  TIIE  TWO  EPICS. 


75 


janayamasa,  Raghava.  G.  has  virtually  the  same  text,  insert- 
ing Rama  and  omitting  the  mention  of  Anala’s  birth,  giving 
only  her  progeny.  In  the  last  verse  G.,  like  M.,  has  sapta 
pindaphalan  vrksan  (but)  lalana  (sic)  ’pi  vyajayata.  There  is 
here  the  same  substitution  of  Rama  and  Bharata  observable  in 
the  late  Kaccit  chapter.1 

In  my  Proverbs  and  Tales2  I have  shown  that  a scene  of 
the  Ramayana  is  exactly  duplicated  in  the  Harivanga.  An- 


other similar  case  is  found  in 
(both  full  of  iterata)  : 
IlARIYAN'gA  : 

(see  verses  below) 

vartamane  mahaghore 
samgrame  lomaharsane 
mahabherimrdanganaih 
panavanam  tathai  ’va  ca 
pankbanara  patabanam  ca 
sambabhuva  maliasvanah 
batanatu  svanataih  tatra 
daityanaiii  ca  ’pi  nisvanah 

also, 

turamgamakhurotkirnam 
rathanemisamuddhatain 

and  further, 

fastrapuspopabara  sa 
tatra  ’sid  yuddhamedini 
durdarfa  durvigaliya  ca 
mansafonitakardama 


II.  13,660  ff. ; G.  vi,  19,  12  ff. 
RG.: 

turarhgakhuravidhvastam 
rathaneniisamuddhatam 
vartamane,  etc.  (=  M.). 

tato  bberlmrdaiiganam 
patabanam  ca  nisvanah 

also, 

hatanam  stanamananam 
raksasanam  ca  nisvanah 

(see  the  first  verse,  above) 
and  further, 

gastrapuspopabara  sa  (v.  1.  ca) 
tatra  ’sid  yuddhamedini 
duspreksya  durvifa  cai  ’va 
mangagonitakardama 


R.  here  (sarga  44)  has  samutthitam  in  gl.  10,  but  in  the 
following,  panavanam  ca  ni(h)svanah,  as  in  H.,  and  hayanam 
stanamananam  (with  ca  for  sa  in  the  first  pada  of  the  last 
stanza).  The  only  important  variant  is  in  the  last  verse,  15, 
w'here,  instead  of  the  stereotyped  pada  of  G.  and  H.,  stands : 
durjneya  durniveca  ca  gonitasravakardama 


1 AJP.  vol.  xix,  p.  149. 

2 ib.,  vol.  xx,  p.  35.  I showed  here  a score  of  proverbs  common  to  both 
epics,  most  of  which  had  been  previously  noticed.  Another,  not  noticed,  is 
ahir  eva  aheh  padan  vijanati  na  sam9ayah,  R.  v,  42,  9;  aliir  eva  hy  aheh 
padan  pa^yati  ’ti  hi  nah  frutam,  M.  xii,  203,  13.  See  also  the  note  below, 
p.  83,  note  2. 


76 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


HB.  has  a few  slight  changes,  3,  58,  66  If.,  -with  samutthitam 
like  R.  (7i.  indicates  the  Bombay  text  only.) 

The  identity  of  R.  iv,  40,  20  ff.,  with  the  geographical  pas- 
sage H.  3,  46,  42  ff.  = 12,825  ff.,  can  be  established  on  sight: 
G.  19,  nadim  bhagarathim  cai  ’va  sarayum  kaugiklm  api  = H., 
where  R.  20,  has  ramyam  for  cai  ’va  in  G.  and  H. ; but  for  api, 
R.  and  H.  have  tatha.  The  next  stanza,  G.  20,  mekalaprabha- 
vam  gonam,  agrees  only  in  this  text  with  H.  44.  The  next 
verse  in  H.,  gomati  gokulaklrna  tatha  purva  sarasvati  is  in 
G.  24  (in  ace.) ; ib.  b in  G.  reads : nadlih  kalamasliii  cai 
’va  tamasam  ca  mahanadxm,  where  HC.  and  R.  both  have 
mahi(m)  kalamahl(m)  ca  ’pi  (cai  ’va,  HB.  kalanadl).  So 
R.  and  HC.  give  the  Magadlias  the  epithet  mahagramah  and 
add  paundra  vaiigas  tathai  ’va  ca,  where  G.  has  magadlian 
dandakulaiig  ca  vaiigan  angans  tathai  ’va  ca  (12,831,  G.  25), 
and  HB.,  gl.  49,  Magadhangca  mahagraman  angan  vangans 
tathai  ’va  ca.  G.  26,  a,  b,  c are  identical  with  H.  12,830,  c,  d, 
and  12,831,  a ; with  a slight  v.  1.  in  HB.  48.  There  are  here 
the  usual  aberrations  from  any  fixed  text,  but  on  the  whole 
the  two  passages  are  identical. 

Another  passage,  G.  i,  24,  9,  11-12,  appears  to  be  one  with 
(M.  iii,  52,  15  and)  M.  iv,  70,  10-12  (after  the  first  verse,  it 
agrees  with  R.  21,  10-12)  : 

Mahabharata  : 

ma  dharmyan  nina^ah  patliah1 
esa  vigrahavan  dharma 
esa  vlryavatam  varah 
esa  buddhya  'dliiko  loke 
tapasam  ca  parayanam  (v.  1.  °ah) 
eso  'stram  vividham  vetti 
trailokye  sacaracare 
na  cai  ’va  'nyah  puman  vetti 
na  vetsyati  kadacana 
na  deva  na  ’surah  kecin 
na  manusya  na  raksasah 
ga  ndharvay  ak  sapra  v arah 
sakiihnaramahoragah 
1 This  pada  alone  appears  in  iii,  62, 16.  iv,  70, 10  has  the  following  verses; 
G.  has  both.  It.  omits  G.’s  9 entirely. 


Rama yana  (G.) : 

anrtam  ma  vacah  karsir 
ma  dharmyan  nlnagah  patliah 
esa  vigrahavan  dharma 
esa  vedavidam  varah 
esa  viryavataiii  jrestho 
vidyajnanataponidhih 
divyany  astrany  ayesena 
vedai  ’sa  Kugikatmajah 
deva9  ca  na  vidur  yani 
kuto  'nye  bhuvi  manavah 


INTERRELATION  OF  TIIE  TWO  EPICS. 


77 


Here  R.  in  the  Bombay  edition  has  in  general  the  reading 
of  M.,  but  it  omits  the  first  verse  and  Ku^ikatmajah,  wliile  it 
has  the  late  astran  for  astrani,  with  other  variations : 
esa  vigrahav&n  dharina  esa  vlryavatHiii  varah 
esa  vidya  ’dhiko  loke  tapasaq  ca  par&yanam 
eso  'stran  vividhan  vetti  trailokye  sacaracare 
nai  ’nam1  anyah  puraan  vetti  na  ca  vetsyanti  kecana 
na  deva  na  ’rsayah  kecin  na  ’mara  na  ca  raksasah 
gandharvayaksapravarah  sakimnaramahoragah 

Besides  these  parallels  I have  previously2  compared  the 
extended  identity  of  H.  3,  60,  2 ff.,  and  R.  vi,  58,  24  ff. ; and 
three  passages  already  noticed  by  others,  where  the  great  epic 
seems  to  have  an  older  form,  viz.,  i,  18,  13  and  G.  1,  46,  21; 
iii,  9,  4 and  R.  ii,  74  (G.  76);  i,  175  and  R.  i,  54  (compare 
Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.)  Other  parallels  noticed  by  Holtzmann 
are:  the  creation,  xii,  166  and  R.  ii,  110;  Ganges,  iii,  106  and 
R.  i,  39  (later)  ; Ilvala,  iii,  96,  4,  and  R.  iii,  11,  55  ; Rsyagrnga, 
iii,  110  and  R.  i,  19  (see  now  Liider’s  essay) ; also  a couple  of 
passages  in  both  later  epics,  origin  of  poem,  i,  1,  57  and  R. 
i,  2,  26;  Skanda,  xiii,  85  and  R.  i,  37,  which  approximate 
closely  with  i,  136,  1 and  R.  vii,  65,  10,  and  a few  more  less 
striking  cases  in  both  later  epics.3 

A review  of  these  parallels,  proverbs  and  tales,  shows  that 
whereas  the  former  may  be  said  to  occur  universally,  in  any 
part  of  either  epic,  of  the  latter  (apart  from  the  Rama  tale 
itself),  as  far  as  formal  identity  goes,  by  far  the  greater  part 
is  found  where  either  one  or  both  versions  occur  in  later  addi- 
tions to  the  poem  (R.  i and  vii,  M.  i and  xii  ff.),  thus : 


1 Here  enam  is  astra(ganam)  understood  (?). 

2 AJP.  xx,  p.  34  ff.  Holtzmann’s  Das  Mahabharata,  already  cited,  both  adds 
to  and  is  complemented  by  the  matter  given  there  and  here. 

3 I do  not  include  parallel  tales  without  parallel  phraseology,  as,  for 
example,  the  allusion  in  xii,  57,  9,  to  the  tale  of  Asamanjas  told  in  iii,  107, 
39  ff.  and  in  R.  ii.  36,  19  ff. 


M.  R. 
i,  1,  57,  and  i,  2,  23 
i,  18  and  i,  46  (G.) 


v,  13  and  vii,  85 
v,  141  and  i,  2 


M.  R. 


78 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


M.  R. 
i,  66  and  iii,  14 
i,  175  and  i,  54 
(ii,  105  and  ii,  100,  Kaccit) 
iii,  9 and  ii,  74 
iii,  53  and  vii,  55 
iii,  96  and  iii,  11 
iii,  106  and  i,  39 

iii,  110  and  i,  19 

iv,  70  and  i,  24  (G.) 


xii,  127  and  vii,  37 
xii,  153  and  vii,  76 

xii,  166  and  ii,  110 

xiii,  85  and  i,  37 


Ivhila 


H.  R. 


M.  R. 


That  is,  parallel  tales  are  rare  in  the  older,  three  times  as 
frequent  in  the  later  books  of  each.  The  additions  to  one 
epic  are  thus  on  a par  with  the  additions  to  the  other  in  their 
mutual  obligations.1  This  illustrates  again  the  facts  pre- 
viously observed  in  regard  to  the  two  epics  by  Jacobi  and 
myself  respectively,  namely  that  the  Uttarakanda  has  many 
tales  of  the  middle  district  (Jacobi,  R.  p.  205),  and  that  the 
early  Mahabharata  shows  familiarity  with  the  customs  of  the 
Punjab,  while  the  didactic  parts  show  no  familiarity  with 
the  holy  land,  but  all  the  numerous  tales  with  scarcely  an 
exception  are  laid  in  Ivosala  and  Videha  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  lower  Ganges  (AJP.,  xix,  p.  21).  In  other  words,  the 
two  epics  in  their  later  development  belong  to  the  same 
locality  and  probably  to  about  the  same  tune.  It  is  in  this 
later  development,  then,  that  the  two  epics  copy  each  other.2 
The  common  tales  that  remain,  apart  from  this  phase  of  the 
poems,  are  few,  and  such  as  may  be  easily  attributed  to  the 
general  stock  of  legendary  tradition. 

1 It  must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  the  Ramayana,  apart  from  the 
first  and  last  hooks,  refers  to  episodes  known  only  from  the  Mahabharata. 
For  example,  when  Sita  says  she  is  as  devoted  to  Rama  “as  Damayanti 
Bliaimi  to  Naisadha,”  Naisadham  Damayanti  'va  BhaimI  patim  anuvrata, 
R.  v,  24,  12.  Then  when,  ib.  34,  28-30,  Rama  is  described  as  satyavadi,  adi- 
tya  iva  tejasvl,  and  kandarpa  iva  murtiman  (all  in  one  description,  as  in  Nala), 
which  is  probably  the  borrower  ? 

2 So  the  later  G.  agrees  more  closely  with  M.  in  many  of  the  cases  in 
Appendix  A.  But  there  is  no  uniformity  in  this  regard,  and  R.  has  parallels 
enough  to  refute  the  idea  that  similarity  is  due  solely  to  G.’s  later  copying. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


79 


When  we  have  peeled  off  the  outer  layer  (and  in  it  are 
included  with  one  exception,  if  it  be  an  exception,  all  the 
references  to  Valmlki  in  the  great  epic),  we  have  left  two 
epics,  one  of  which  is  a complete  whole,  the  other  a congeries 
of  incongruous  stories  grouped  about  a central  tale ; both  built 
on  the  same  foundation  of  phrase  and  proverb  and  in  part  over 
the  same  ground  of  literary  allusion ; both  with  heroes  of  the 
same  type  (whose  similarity  is  striking)  ; 1 and  both  arranged 
on  the  same  general  plan,  a court-scene,  where  the  plot  is 
laid,  a period  of  banishment  in  a forest-scene,  followed  by  a city- 
scene,2  where  an  ally  is  gained,  and  then  by  battle-scenes.  One 
of  these  epics  claims  priority,  but  the  claim  after  all  is  not 
that  the  great  poet  invented  epic  poetry,  but  that  he  first 
wrote  an  epic  in  §loka  verse  in  a Kiivya  or  artistic  style.  As 
the  Ramayana  is  mainly  in  glokas  of  a more  refined  style  than 
the  Mahabharata  and  the  Kiivya  or  artistic  element  is  really 
much  more  pronounced,  and  as,  further,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  epic  poetry  was  first  written  in  the  mixture  of  rougher 
gloka  and  tristubli  characteristic  of  the  Mahabharata,  this 
claim,  so  stated,  may  in  general  be  allowed,  without  impugning 
the  relatively  greater  age  of  the  other  epic. 

Professor  Jacobi  admits  that  the  metre  of  the  Ramayana  is 
more  refined,  but  the  explanation  he  gives  is  that  it  was  a pro- 
duct of  that  East  where  poetic  art  was  first  developed.  In  a 
subsequent  chapter  I shall  show  that  those  parts  of  the  great 
epic  which  from  a metrical  point  of  view  agree  most  closely 
with  the  Ramayana  are  the  later  parts.  Here  I would  merely 
raise  the  question  whether  the  dictum  that  poetic  art  was  re- 
fined in  the  East  before  the  great  epic  arose,  is  not  based  on  the 
style  of  the  Ramayana  alone?  Products  of  the  same  part  of 
the  country  are  Buddhistic  and  Upanishad  verses,  with  which 
agrees  the  versification  of  the  Mahabharata  much  more  closely 

1 Xot  merely  as  being  central  figures.  See  for  details  the  article  by 
Professor  Windisch,  cited  in  Das  Mahabharata  iv,  p.  68.  The  similarity  of 
exploits  is  increased  as  we  take  the  whole  epics,  which  plainly  have  influ- 
enced each  other  in  their  final  redaction. 

2 Owing  to  Rama’s  oath  he  does  not  actually  enter  the  city,  but  he  finds 
his  ally  there,  as  do  the  Pandus  at  Virata’s  town. 


80 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


than  does  that  of  the  Ramayana.  The  Puranas  also  are  eastern 
and  their  versification  is  in  general  rather  that  of  the  great 
epic.  The  distinction  then  is  not  sufficiently  explained  by 
geographical  relations.  On  the  other  hand  the  metrical  re- 
finement of  U.  the  Upanishads,  B.  the  early  Bharata,  B.2  the 
late  Bharata,  R.  the  Ramayana,  and  K.  Kalidasa  is  in  the 
order  U.,  B.,  B.,2  R.,  K.,  with  B.2  = R.  in  some  cases,  which 
looks  to  a progressive  development.1 

Another  moot  point  in  connection  with  this  geographical 
inquiry  is  whether  the  Ramayana  was  written  by  a poet  who 
really  knew  anything  about  Ceylon,  where  Lanka,  the  seat  of 
action  in  the  Ramayana  war,  is  usually  supposed  to  be.  Pro- 
fessor Jacobi  has  expressed  the  opinion  that  Lanka  is  not 
Ceylon,  and  that,  further,  Valmiki  did  not  know  the  littoral 
at  all,  but  he  was  a riparian  poet.  Unless  the  allusions  in  the 
poem  are  all  interpolations,  I cannot  accept  this  view.  In  the 
first  place,  the  language  of  both  poems  on  this  point  is  identi- 
cal, the  images  are  the  same,  and  they  are  couched  in  the 
same  words.  If,  then,  they  are  all  later  additions  to  Valmlki’s 
poem,  they  must  be  copied  from  the  Mahabharata ; which  opens 
a vista  (of  later  Ramayana  imitating  an  earlier  epic)  which 
Professor  Jacobi  would  scarcely  accept.  But  accepting  some 
copying,  there  still  remains  enough  sea-scape  in  the  Ramayana 
to  show  that  no  poet  who  did  not  know  ocean  could  write  as 
does  Valmiki.  In  both  texts,  for  example,  occurs  this  splendid 
onomatopoetic  description  of  the  rising  waves  of  full  flood, 
winch,  as  the  poet  repeatedly  says,  accompanies  the  filling  of 
the  moon : 

parvasu  ’dirnavegasya  sagarasye  ’va  nihsvanah 

where  the  swell  and  filling  and  veiy  hiss  of  the  combing 
breakers  is  reproduced  with  a power  that  it  is  hard  to  ascribe 
to  a riparian  poet.  But  I must  refer  the  reader  to  a special 

1 Valmiki’s  work  holds  indisputable  right  to  the  title  adikSvya,  or  “ first 
elegant  poem,”  a title  which  the  great  epic  imitates  in  claiming  to  be  a 
kavyarn  paramapujitam,  “ highly  revered  elegant  poem,”  to  which  claim  it 
won  a right  after  the  more  refined  versification  of  the  pscudo-epic  had  been 
added  to  it. 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


81 


paper  on  tliis  subject  for  further  illustration  of  our  Valmlki’s 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  sight  and  sound  of  ocean  1 — 
or,  if  not  our  Valmiki,  to  whom  shall  we  assign  the  double 
text? 

Again,  from  the  first  dawn  of  critique  it  has  been  urged 
that  widow-burning  is  not  practised  or  known  (as  sometimes 
stated)  in  the  Ramayana,  but  it  is  practised  in  the  Mahabha- 
rata.  Yes,  in  the  first  book  and  the  twelfth  and  following 
books,  just  as  conversely,  in  the  Ramayana,  the  queens  an- 
nounce that  they  are  “ devoted  ” and  will  die  on  the  pyre  with 
their  husband  ii,  66,  12,  or  lament  that  being  “not  suttee” 
they  “ live  an  evil  life  ” in  not  thus  dying,  v,  26,  7.  Does  this 
not  imply  widow-burning?  And  if  it  be  said  (with  truth) 
that  these  are  interpolations  — well  and  good,  but  so  are  Adi 
and  £anti  interpolations.  Both  epics  ignore  the  custom,2 * * * 6  ex- 
cept in  their  later  form. 

One  more  observation  is  necessary*  in  this  summary  account 
of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  two  epics.  I have  instanced 
the  use  of  the  word  marisa  in  the  Mahabharata  as  typical  of 
influences  not  so  often  to  be  seen  in  the  Ramayana.  In  the 
former,  as  a constant  term  of  address,  it  is  a link  connecting 
this  epic  with  the  classical  period;  and  yet  it  will  not  do 
to  build  too  much  on  the  fact  that  tliis  link  is  wanting  in  the 


1 AJP.  vol.  xxi,  p.  378.  Among  the  tributaries  of  Ayodhya  are  men- 
tioned the  inhabitants  of  Malabar,  and  “sea-men,”  in  R.  -ii,  82,  8,  where  the 
senseless  kevalah  must  be  corrected  to  the  reading  of  G.  88,  7,  Keralah. 
The  sea-men,  samudrah,  may  be  merchants  or  the  name  of  a people.  The 
Keralas,  or  Malabar  people,  are  here  expressly  “ Southerners.”  They  are 
mentioned  also  among  the  lists  of  people  in  R.  iv,  40  ff.,  which  takes  in 
the  whole  of  India  (41,  12,  Pundras,  Colas,  Pandyas,  Keralas)  and  mentions 
the  Yavanas  and  other  outer  tribes : “ Look  among  the  Mlecchas,  Pulindas, 
Qurasenas,  Prasthalas,  Bharatas,  Kurus  with  Madrakas,  Kamboja-Yavanas 

(cmpd.),  and  the  towns,  pattanani,  of  Qakas,”  43,  11-12  (compare  M.  vi,  87, 10). 
Also  Yavadvipa,  R.  iv,  40,  31,  that  is  Java,  is  mentioned.  I fail  to  see  that  the 
Ramayana,  without  such  a priori  excision  as  may  also  be  applied  to  the  Maha- 
bharata, shows  less  geographical  knowledge  or  hearsay  than  does  the  latter 
poem. 

* Elsewhere  in  the  epic,  the  widow  is  as  much  recognized  as  in  Manu,  who 

also  knows  no  suttee.  Compare  Ruling  Caste,  pn.  172,  371,  and  a paper  On 

the  Hindu  Custom  of  Dying  to  redress  a Grievance,  JAOS.  xxi,  p.  146  ff. 

6 


82 


TIIE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


R ft  may  ana.  Such  an  example  shows  only  that  the  Maliabha- 
rata  has  been  in  this  instance  retouched.  Similar  cases  are 
found  in  the  Ramayana,  one  of  which  I have  already  cited. 

For  example,  later  Sanskrit  poetry  describes  women 
adorned  not  only  with  the  nupura  or  anklet  (alluded  to  in 
both  epics),  but  also  with  the  kancl  or  gold  girdle  set  off 
■with  bells.  Probable  as  was  the  adornment  in  early  times, 
this  name  for  it  does  not  occur  in  early  literature,  and  so 
far  as  I know  it  does  not  occur  in  the  great  epic  (frequently 
as  women’s  adornment  is  described)  till  the  time  of  the 
pseudo-epic,  where,  xiii,  106,  56,  and  107,  67  we  find  kauclnu- 
puragabda,  just  as  we  find  the  same  collocation  in  R.,  for 
example,  v,  4,  11;  18,  20;  G.  iii,  58,  26  (gugubhe  kancanl 
kaiicl)  ; v,  12,  44.  The  later  epics  must  have  suffered  this 
experience  in  many  cases,  another  being  offered  just  here  by 
the  use  of  the  rare  vallakl,  xiii,  106,  49,  and  in  vii,  6,665,  but 
not  here  in  B.  154,  25,  where  jharjhara  takes  its  place.  Just 
so  in  G.  iv,  33,  26  is  found  this  same  vallaki  (sic),  but  it  is 
not  found  in  the  corresponding  verse  of  R.  iv,  33,  21.  In 
sum,  chance  lateness  of  this  sort  is  evidence  only  for  the  epic 
as  we  have  it,  tampered  with  by  a thousand  cliadochoi.  It  can 
never  show  that  one  epic  was  produced  before  the  other.  So 
niryana  for  “ death,”  xv,  37,  40,  is  indicative  of  the  age  or 
origin  of  xv,  37,  not  of  the  Mahabharata ; 1 of  R.  v (13,  41), 
but  not  of  the  epic  as  a whole. 

So,  while  we  must  admit  that  Valmlki’s  mention  of  Kurus, 
Janamejaya,  and  Hastinapura,  as  against  his  non-mention  of 
Pandus  and  Indraprastha,  looks  as  if  he  knew  not  the  latter, 
we  must  remember  at  the  same  time  that  Valmiki's  poem  in 
turn  has,  quite  apart  from  vocabulary,  certain  indications  of 
an  age  not  recognized  by  the  poets  of  the  latter  epic,  of  which 
I will  mention  particularly  two.2 

1 Here,  xv,  37,  43,  tathagata  seems  to  mean  “dead,”  but  it  may  be  tnken  in 
its  usual  sense  of  “ in  such  a state,”  as  in  R.  ii,  100,  34,  oddly  near  the  Bud- 
dhist: j'atha  hi  corah  sa  tatha  hi  buddhas  tathagtam  nastikam  atra  viddhi. 

2 Minor  points  of  lateness  (in  either  epic)  are  frequently  apparent.  Those 
in  Mbh.  are  perhaps  more  common,  but  not  in  proportion  to  its  extent.  In 
R.  may  be  noticed  ships  holding  one  hundred  men  each  and  palaces  having 


INTERRELATION  OF  THE  TWO  EPICS. 


83 


Tlie  date  of  the  Allahabad  banyan  cannot  be  earned  back 
with  any  certainty  to  a very  early  date,  though  mentioned  by 
Hwen  Thsang.1  Now  the  place  where  this  tree  ought  to  be 
is  most  elaborately  described  and  praised  in  the  great  epic, 
iii,  85,  80  ff.,  but  the  existence  of  such  a tree  is  not  even 
mentioned ; whereas  the  other  fig-tree  at  Gaya  is  praised  as 
holy  beyond  words,  for,  in  the  epic  interpretation  of  the 
modern  aksay  bai  (bat),  its  fruit  is  imperishable.2  This  is 
particularly  remarkable  as  in  M.  iii,  85,  65,  yrhgaverapur  is 
especially  famed  as  the  place  “ where  Rama  crossed.”  But  the 
Ramayana  knows  the  Allahabad  tree,  ii,  55,  6 and  24.  The 
mention  of  this  tree  at  Prayaga,  as  against  its  non-mention  in 
the  Mahabharata,  and  the  latter’s  mention  of  Rama  point  to  an 
earlier  date  for  the  Mahabharata  Tlrtlia  stories  than  for  R.  ii, 
55,  and  perhaps  shows  that  at  this  tune  the  Rama  story  was 
known,  but  not  just  as  we  have  it. 

The  word  Sanskrit  in  its  present  meaning  is  found  in  the 
Ramayana  but  not  in  the  Mahabharata.  The  bare  statement, 
however,  that  the  word  Sanskrit  in  this  sense  is  not  found 
in  an  older  period  but  occurs  in  the  Ramayana,  does  not  give 
quite  all  the  facts.  The  great  epic  knows  the  word  but  only 
in  its  earlier  meaning,  “adorned,”  “prepared,”  asamskrtam 
abliivyaktam  bhati,  iii,  69,  8 ; samskrta  and  prakrta,3  “ initiated 
and  not  initiated,”  iii,  200,  88  (with  priests  who  are  suvedah 
and  durvedah)  ; samskrta  mantrah,  xiii,  93,  56.  This  is  also 
the  sense  in  R.  iii,  11,  57,  where  bhrataram  samskrtam  krtva 
itself  (in  M.  iii,  96,  10,  chagam  krtva  susamskrtam)  is  joined 

(as  in  the  drama)  eight  courts  instead  of  three  (as  in  the  other  epic),  R.  ii, 
84,  8;  57,  17  and  24;  iv,  33, 19. 

1 Cunningham,  Ancient  Geography  of  India,  p.  389. 

2 This,  or  “makes  the  giver  immortal,”  is  the  epic  interpretation,  not  (as 
now)  that  the  tree  itself  is  immortal.  Compare  iii,  84,  83,  tatra  ’ksayavato 
nama  trisu  lokesu  vi^rutah,  tatra  dattam  pitrbhyas  tu  bhavaty  aksaram 
ucyate.  So  in  iii,  87,  11,  and  95, 14  (with  iii,  87,  begins  a recapitulation  of 
Tirthas  already  mentioned) ; vii,  66,  20,  where  it  is  (vatah)  aksayakaranah,  as 
also  in  xiii,  88,  14.  Here  is  found  the  proverb  on  Gaya,  as  in  R.  ii,  107, 13, 
with  v.  1.,  and  in  M.  iii,  84,  97,  etc.,  as  given  in  Spruch  1474  ff. 

8 As  to  this  word  in  R.,  compare  strivakyam  prakrtam  frutva,  iii,  40,  5 
(asaram,  comm.),  with  references  in  PW.  s.  v. 


84 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


with  the  preceding  samskrtam  vadan,  the  former  in  the  Mafia- 
bharata  version  being  “ cooking  ” (samskrtya  = paktva)  and 
the  latter  not  used,  which  looks  as  if  the  Ramayana  version 
were  later.  Several  cases  in  the  Ramayana  do  indeed  show  the 
older  sense,  but  there  are  others,  such  as  v,  30,  17,  cited  by 
Weber,  and  again  by  Muir,  Original  Sanskrit  Texts,  ii,  p.  157, 
in  which  samskrta  vak  means  Sanskrit,  in  that  it  is  the  “ culti- 
vated speech.”  1 In  this  case  also  the  Ramayana  is  later  than 
the  Mahabharata,  though  the  latter  epic  recognizes  dialects, 
degabhasas,  iv,  10,  1 ; ix,  45,  103,  etc.,  and  seems  (in  its  in- 
troduction) to  use  the  expression  brahml  vak  or  “ holy 
speech,”  exactly  in  the  sense  of  the  Ramay  ana’s  samskrta  vak. 
For  in  this  instance  a woman  recognizes  a king  because  his 
“ form  and  clothes  are  regal  and  his  speech  is  the  holy  speech,” 
rajavad  rupavesau  te  brahmhh  vacam  bibharsi  ca,  i,  81,  13. 
But  these  cases  show  only  that  when  the  Ilvala  tale  was  re- 
written and  the  much  adorned  fifth  book  of  the  Ramayana 
was  composed,  samskrtam  vad  and  samskrta  vak  were  used 
nearly  in  the  modern  sense ; yet  in  showing  this  they  indicate 
again  that  in  our  estimate  as  to  the  relative  age  of  the  epics 
nothing  can  be  absolute  or  universal,  but  all  must  be  stated 
relatively  and  partially.  If  it  be  said  that  this  judgment 
lacks  definitiveness,  the  reply  is  that  it  accords  with  the  facts, 
which  do  not  admit  of  sweeping  statements.2 

1 Also  Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  115  (PW.  s.  sam-kar).  Other  cases  show 
regard  for  grammatical  nicety  in  the  use  of  language  (Jacobi,  loc.  cit.). 

2 For  the  metrical  position  of  the  two  poems,  see  Chapter  Four.  I regret 
that  Professor  Jacobi’s  long-expected  book  on  the  epics  is  not  yet  out,  as  it  is 
sure  to  contain  much  valuable  matter.  As  it  is,  I have  had  to  rely,  in  citing 
his  opinions,  on  the  work  cited  above,  and  a review  in  the  GGA.,  1899,  p. 
809  ff. 


\ 


CHAPTER  THREE. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 

Sukhad  bahutaram  duhkharii  jivite  na  ’tra  saih?ayah,  xii,  331, 16. 

“There  is  no  doubt  that  there  is  more  sorrow  than  joy  in  life.” 

Epic  Systems. 

In  the  preceding  chapters  I have  shown  that  from  a syn- 
thetic point  of  view  the  epic  as  we  have  it,  judged  solely  by 
the  literature  it  recognizes,  must  be  the  product  of  a compara- 
tively late  period.  In  this  chapter  it  is  my  purpose  to  sketch 
as  briefly  as  possible  the  salient  features  of  the  great  systems 
of  philosophy  expounded  hi  the  later  epic.  To  regard  them 
as  identical  is  impossible.  To  see  in  them  a philosophic  chaos, 
out  of  which  are  to  arise  future  systems,  is  equally  impossible. 
Some  of  them  belong  to  the  latest  epic  and  they  have  their 
unity  only  in  the  fact  that  they  are  all  colored  by  the  domi- 
nant deistic  view  of  an  age  that,  having  passed  from  pure 
idealism  into  dualism,  sought  to  identify  the  spirit  of  man 
with  that  of  a personal  God  and  equate  this  god  with  the 
two  separate  factors  of  dualism ; a dualism  which  was  not 
that  of  spirit  and  matter  but  of  conditioned  being,  conscious 
intelligence,  as  opposed  to  pure  being  or  spirit  (soul),  con- 
scious intelligence  being  itself  the  only  origin  of  matter,  which 
is  merely  a form  of  mind.1 

The  importance  of  a review  of  this  sort  lies  in  the  historical 
background  it  furnishes  to  the  epic,  which  represents  the  last 
of  six  approved  systems  traceable  in  it:  (1)  Vedism  or  or- 
thodox Brahmanism ; (2)  atmanism  or  Brahmaism  (properly 

1 See  on  this  point  some  pertinent  remarks  by  Dr.  Everett  in  the  twentieth 
volume  of  the  Journal  of  the  AOS.,  p.  309.  It  is  a common  error  to  speak  of 
Samkliya  dualism  as  setting  spirit  and  matter  in  antithesis,  whereas,  accord- 
ing to  the  system,  matter  is  only  a development  of  self-consciousness. 


86 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Brahmanism,  but  this  term  connotes  a different  idea),  that  is, 
an  idealistic  interpretation  of  life ; (8)  Saihkhya,  the  dualism 
spoken  of  above ; (4)  Yoga,  the  deistic  interpretation  of  Sam- 
khya ; (5)  Bhagavata  or  Payupata,  different  but  both  sectarian 
interpretations  of  Yoga;  (6)  Vedanta  or  Illusion-idealism. 
Some  of  the  epic  writers  support  Samkhya;  some,  Yoga;  some, 
the  sectarian  interpretation ; some,  the  Maya,  Illusion-theory. 
Besides  these  are  approved  sporadically  Vedism  and  Brahma- 
ism,  not  to  speak  of  a number  of  theories  not  approved. 


Heretics. 

In  the  Gita  it  is  said,  4,  40 : “ The  ignorant  and  unbelieving 
man  who  has  a soul  of  doubt  is  destroyed ; neither  this  world 
nor  the  next  exists ,!  nor  happiness,  for  him  who  has  a soul  of 
doubt.”  The  italicized  words  are  those  which,  at  xii,  133,  14, 
are  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  Nastika,  the  negator  or  repu- 
diator  of  scripture,  spirit,  or  duties.  According  to  epic  inter- 
pretation, one  saying  nasti,  in  refusing  a gift  to  a priest,  is  a 
“ negator  ” no  less  than  he  who  refuses  assent  to  the  orthodox 
belief.  But  ordinarily  Nastika  is  used  in  the  latter  sense  and 
connotes  a dissenter  from  received  opinion  in  regard  either  to 
the  existence  of  transcendental  things  or  to  the  authority  of 
hallowed  tradition.1 2  Such  an  unbeliever  is  threatened  with  a 
sudden  enlightenment  hereafter : “ If  your  opinion  is  that  this 
world  does  not  exist  and  that  there  is  no  world  beyond,  the 
devils  in  hell  will  soon  change  your  ideas  on  that  subject.” 3 
Any  number  of  these  unbelievers  is  known,  who  deny  every- 
thing there  is  to  deny.  In  ii,  31,  70,  an  unbelieving  or  heretic 

1 na  ’yam  loko  *sti  na  paro  na  sukharh  samfayatmnnah.  Compare  Katha 
Up.,  ii,  6,  ayam  loko  nasti  para-iti  mani,  punah  punar  vagam  apadyate  me 
(Yama). 

2 Neglect  of  Vedic  ordinances  or  denial  of  Veda  is  nastikya,  par  excel- 
lence, according  to  xii,  270,  67,  and  xii,  12,  6 (the  latter) : vedavadapaviddhahs 
tu  tan  viddlii  bhrganastikan  (also  anastika,  ib.  4),  for  “rejecting  the  Veda 
a priest  cannot  attain  heaven,”  ib. 

3 Literally,  will  “make you  remember;”  yad  idam  manyase, rajan, na  ’yam 
asti  kutah  parah,  pratismarayitaras  tvarii  Yamaduta  Yamaksnye,  xii,  150,  19. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


87 


king  is  mentioned  among  those  who  pay  tribute  (in  conjunc- 
tion with  a tributary  “ city  of  the  Greeks  ”) ; while  in  iii, 
191,  10,  it  is  said  that  in  the  golden  age  to  come  there  will  be 
“ people  of  truth,”  where  previously  had  been  established  the 
schools  of  heretics ; from  which  it  may  be  inferred  perhaps  that 
Buddhists  or  Jains  are  meant,  as  irreligious  heretics  would 
not  have  religious  orders.1  The  Lokayata  or  Lokayatika 
(doubtful  in  i,  70,  46)  is  perhaps  less  a Buddhist  (like  Carvaka, 
who  appears  only  as  a pretended  Brahman  Parivraj,  or  priestly 
mendicant,  and  friend  of  the  foe)  than  a devotee  of  natural 
science,  as  Professor  Rhys  Davids  maintains.  The  doubter’s 
scriptures  are  not,  however,  referred  to  Brhaspati.  The  code 
of  this  ill-reputed  sage,  whom  we  have  seen  as  a law-giver,  is 
often  enough  alluded  to,  generally  in  connection  with  that  of 
Uganas.  The  worst  that  is  said  of  Brhaspati’s  teaching  is 
that  it  is  drawn  from  a study  of  the  female  intellect,  which  is 
full  of  subtilty  and  deceit.  But  he  is  here  only  one  of  many 
authors  of  Arthagastras,  xiii,  39,  10.  As  a teacher  he  is  ex- 
tolled.2 Materialists  and  other  heretics  without  special  desig- 
nation appear  to  fill  the  whole  land.  Thus  in  xii,  19,  23,  are 
mentioned  rationalistic  Pundits,  hetumantah,  hard  to  convince, 
who  are  by  nature  befogged  and  stubborn,  and  deny  the  exist- 
ence (of  a soul).  These  are  opposed  to  those  good  men  who 
are  “ devoted  to  ceremonies  and  know  the  Purvagastra  ” 
(mlmansa?).  “These  fools,”  it  is  added,  “are  despisers  of 
immortality  and  talkers  in  assemblies  of  people ; they  wander 
over  the  whole  earth,  being  fond  of  speaking  and  learned  in 
revelation.” 3 Others  are  cited  to  illustrate  the  unbelief  that 
consists  in  a denial  of  the  soul’s  unity,  ekantavyudasa.  These 
believe  in  a soul  possessed  of  desire  and  hate.  An  apparent 
allusion  to  Jains  may  be  found  in  the  description  of  the  priest 
who  “ tramped  around  Benares  astounding  the  people,  clothed 

1 aframah  sahapasandali  sthitah  satyajanah  prajah  (bhavisyanti). 

2 xii,  325,  23.  His  teaching  in  xiii,  113,  is  Buddhistic  (5  — Dh.  P.  132,  and  7 
is  like  Dh.  P.  420).  On  Lokayata,  see  Davids,  p.  169  of  op.  cit.  above,  p.  55. 

3 vavaduka  bahugrutah.  The  denial  in  nai  ’tad  asti  must  from  the  context 
refer  to  the  existence  of  the  soul.  Por  anrtasya  ’vamantarah  in  B.  must,  I 
think,  he  read  amrtasya. 


88 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


in  air,  clothed  like  a madman ; ” 1 but  we  must  be  careful  not 
to  identify  the  characters  of  the  epic  too  quickly  with  special 
names.  This  madman  priest,  for  example,  would  seem  to  be 
rather  a (yivaite  Brahman  than  a Jain,  and  digvasas  is  applied 
to  Vidura  in  his  last  state  and  to  Nala  in  his  distress.2  In  the 
same  way,  the  brown  and  yellow  robe  does  not  necessarily  refer 
to  a Buddhist,  any  more  than  does  the  statement  that  one 
goes  to  heaven  who  builds  a Vihara,  xiii,  28,  99 ; for  these 
terms  are  common  property.  “ What  makes  you  so  glorious  ? ” 
asks  one  woman  of  another,  who  replies : “ I did  not  wear  the 
yellow  robe,  nor  bark-garments,  nor  go  shorn  or  with  matted 
hair,”  xiii,  123,  8.  Here  quite  possibly  Buddhists  may  be  re- 
ferred to;  but  when  I read  that  tdva’s  devotees  are  of  two 
sorts,  householders,  and  those  “ whose  sign  is  tonsure  and  the 
yellow  robe,”  maundyarii  kasaya§  ca,  xiii,  142,  22 ; and  see 
that  the  yellow  robe  is  also  worn  as  a sign  of  grief,  Nala,  24, 
9;  R.  vi.  125,  34,  and  that  “ the  wearer  of  the  yellow  robe” 
is  excluded  from  (Jkaddha,  xiii,  91,  43,  I am  by  no  means  sure 
that  even  in  the  most  tempting  passage  this  robe  indicates  a 
Buddhist,  unless,  indeed,  for  some  of  these  passages  we  may 
assume  that  Qivaite  and  Buddhist  were  already  confused.  But 
xii,  18,  32,  “ those  who  cast  off  the  Vedas  and  wander  about  as 
beggars  shaved  and  wearing  the  yellow  robe,”  refers  distinctly 
to  Buddhists,  as  I opine.  Similarly,  the  remark  “ they  that  are 
budhas , enlightened,  are  devoted  to  Nirvana,”  xii,  167,  46,  may 
be  put  beside  the  buddhas  of  xii,  160,  33,  who  “ have  no  fear 
of  return  to  this  world  and  no  dread  of  another ; ” but  in  the 
latter  section,  and  in  many  others,  “ enlightened,”  budlia  and 
buddha,  refers  to  Brahmans;  and  Nirvana  in  epic  teleology 
usually  means  bliss,  for  example  the  bliss  of  drinking  when 
one  is  thirsty,  or  the  bliss  of  heaven.3  In  short,  we  see  here 

1 cankramiti  difah  sarva  digvasa  mohayan  prajah  . . . unmattavesam 
bibhrat  sa  cankramiti  yathasukham  Varanasyam,  xiv,  6,  18,  and  22;  com- 
pare 5,  0. 

2 To  the  author  of  Das  Mbh.  als  Epos,  etc.,  digvasas  necessarily  implies 
digambara  (as  Jain),  p.  224. 

8 In  the  epic,  nirvana  is  used  in  both  of  its  later  senses,  bliss  and  extinc- 
tion, brahmanirvana,  bliss  of  Brahman,  like  the  nirvana,  bliss,  attained  by 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


89 


and  in  a passage  cited  further  on,  that  Buddhists  are  some- 
times referred  to,  but  we  must  not  call  every  beggar  a Bud- 
dhist. The  late  passage  xiv,  49,  3-12,  shows  that  when  the 
Anuglta  was  written,  probably  not  before  our  era,  these  infi- 
dels were  fairly  rampant.  The  list  of  them  is  quite  appalling 
and  we  may  perhaps  believe  that  the  “ believer  in  nothing  ” 
is  a Buddhist  and  the  “ shaven  and  naked  ” mentioned  in  the 
same  place  is  a Jain;  while  the  svabhavam  bhutacintakah  are 
perhaps  materialists.  The  “ course  of  right  is  varied  ” and  the 
view  of  the  author  is  here  that  of  tolerance.  Some  of  these 
philosophers  deny  a hereafter,  some  doubt  all  things,  some 
hold  the  vyamigra  doctrine  of  revolution  (often  mistranslated 
as  evolution)  of  the  universe,  and  according  to  the  commen- 
tator some  are  adherents  of  the  atomistic  theory,  bahutvam. 
Contests  of  these  hetuvadins,  rationalists,  are  not  discounte- 
nanced, but  enjoyed  as  a philosophic  treat  at  the  king's  court 
or  at  a great  sacrifice,  as  in  xiv,  85,  27,  where  “ talkative  philo- 
sophers, eager  to  outdo  each  other,  discussed  many  rational- 
istic arguments.” 

With  all  this  liberality  there  is  often  no‘  quarter  given  to 
the  heretic,  especially  the  Pasanda,1  who  appears  to  be  pre- 
eminently a despiser  of  the  Vedas.  The  reason  is  the  natural 
one  that  he  who  despises  the  priest’s  authority  naturally  de- 
spises the  priest.  “ The  reason  why  I was  bom  a jackal,”  says 
a character  in  xii,  180,  47-48,  “is  that  I was  a Punditkin,  pan- 
ditaka, who  was  a rationalist,  haituka,  and  blamer  of  the  Vedas, 
being  devoted  to  logic  and  the  useless  science  of  reasoning  (a 
telling  phrase,  repeated  in  xiii,  37,  12-14),  a proclaimer  of 
logical  arguments,  a talker  in  assemblies,  a re  viler  and  opposer 
of  priests  in  arguments  about  Brahman,  an  unbeliever,  a 
doubter  of  all,  who  thought  myself  a Pundit.”  2 The  Pasanda 

drinking.  On  this  subject  much  that  is  misleading  has  lately  been  published, 
owing  to  a false  historical  point  of  view.  But  the  goal  of  extinction  is  also 
lauded.  Thus,  in  xii,  242,  11-12,  one  attains  to  that  where  going  he  “ grieves 
not,  dies  not,  is  not  born,  nor  reborn,  and  exists  not,”  na  vartate. 

1 v.  1.  in  xii,  218,  4;  xiii,  23,  67  (other  references  in  PW.);  apparently  a 
foreign  or  dialectic  word  ; especially  Buddhists,  according  to  N. 

* akrosta  ca  ’bhivakta  ca  brahma vakyesu  ca  dvijan  . . . murkhah  pandi- 


90 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


and  reviler  of  the  Vedas  are  closely  associated,  as  in  xiii,  23, 
67,  and  72,  and  like  those  who  here  “sell  or  write  down  the 
Vedas,”  they  go  to  hell.  In  short,  any  denial  is  usually  per- 
mitted save  the  denial  of  the  Vedas.  The  more  surprising  is 
it  that  elsewhere  (see  below)  the  Vedas  are  openly  repudiated ; 
but  this  is  only  one  of  the  inconsistencies  with  which  the  epic 
teems. 

Authority. 

What  then  was  authoritative?  Characteristic  of  the  con- 
tradictory views  presented  in  the  epic  is  the  fact  that  in  one 
place  the  very  authority,  pramanam,  which  is  insisted  upon 
as  the  only  valid  authority,  is  in  another  rejected  as  altogether 
delusive,  and  this  not  by  heretics,  but  by  the  authors  of  the 
respective  essays  whose  combined  publications  issued  in  one 
volume  form  the  pot-pourri  of  the  complete  epic. 

The  reason  for  tills  is  obvious.  Several  forms  of  religion 
are  advocated  in  the  epic  and  each  has  its  own  test.  Oldest 
and  most  widely  represented  is  the  biblical  test.  Over  and 
over  again  we  are  assured  that  scripture  is  authoritative  and 
those  who  will  not  accept  scripture  as  the  pramanam  or  test- 
stone  of  philosophy  are  damned.  But  beside  these  vigorous 
expressions  of  orthodoxy  stands  the  new  faith,  which  discards 
altogether  the  old  scripture  as  an  authority.  For  sacrifices 
and  rites  the  V edas  are  well  enough ; they  are  there  authori- 
tative. If  one  wishes  to  perform  rites  one  must  naturally 
go  to  the  ritual.  Such  Qastrapramanya  and  vedapramanya 
rules,1  admitting  the  necessity  of  rites  at  all,  remain  valid, 
simply  because  there  are  no  others.  But  in  all  higher  matters, 
as  for  one  who  sees  no  use  in  rites,  the  scriptures  are  but  a 
mass  of  contradictions.2 

tamanikah  (lienee  reborn,  as  a krostar).  Compare  Katha  Up.  ii,  6,  sva- 
yamdhirah  panditammanyamanah ; Mund.  Up.  i,  2,  8;  Maitr.  Up.  vii,  9.  The 
passage  in  Anuyasana  cited  above  is  a repetition  of  all  these  epithets  in 
characteristically  free  form.  Compare,  e.  g.,  9I.  13,  akrosta  ca  ’tivakta  ca 
brahmananam  sadai  ’va  hi  (here  panditamanl). 

1 xiii,  84,  20,  and  37. 

2 One  of  the  minor  epic  contradictions  is  that  referred  to  above,  p.  40,  in 
regard  to  the  “two  brahmans.”  The  orthodox,  but  not  too  liberal  man,  says : 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


91 


The  old  view  is  best  represented  in  the  saying  that  Veda, 
Dharmagastras,  and  acara,  custom,  are  the  recognized  author- 
ities in  every  matter,  as  in  iii,  207,  83;  xiii,  84,  20,  and  87. 
The  confused  rule  of  the  \ eda  is  referred  to  in  xii,  19,  1—2: 
“ I know  the  highest  and  other  (^astras  and  the  double  injunc- 
tion of  the  Veda,  ‘Do  acts  and  abandon  them.’”  “Untrue, 
according  to  casuistic  reasoning,  is  the  word  of  the  \ eda 
but  why  should  the  Veda  speak  untruth  ? says  \ yasa,  xiii, 
120,  9,  when  inculcating  the  late  notion  that  a small  gift  is  as 
efficient  as  a great  sacrifice  in  procuring  salvation,  a theory 
tliat  is  certainly  untrue  in  the  light  of  the  Veda.  “ Logic 
has  no  basis,  the  scriptures  are  divided ; there  is  not  one  seer 
whose  opinion  is  authoritative,”  pramanam.  “rIhe  truth  about 
right  is  hidden  in  a cave ; the  only  path  is  that  pursued  by 
the  majority,”  iii,  313,  117.1  “ Deceitful  is  the  Veda,”  it  is 
said  in  xii,  329,  6.  Both  scripture  and  argument,  tarka,  are 
useless  in  comparison  with  the  enlightening  grace  of  God, 
which  alone  can  illuminate  the  “ mysterious  hidden  communi- 
cation of  truth,”  xii,  335,  5.  Such  holy  mysteries  must, 
indeed,  be  kept  from  those  who  are  “burned  with  books  of 
philosophy,”  tarkagastradagdha,  xii,  247,  18. 

In  the  matter  of  the  Veda,  the  new  faith  discounts  its 
value  by  setting  beside  it  the  recent  books  of  later  cult, 
exactly  as  modern  sects  take  as  authoritative  their  own  scrip- 
tures. Bhlsma’s  words,  being  inspired  by  Krishna,  are  “ as 
authoritative  as  the  words  of  the  Veda,”  vedapravada  iva 
(pramanam),  xii,  54,  29-30,  and  Veda,  Purana,  and  Itiliasa  are 
all  reckoned  as  authoritative  in  xii,  343,  20.  But  the  Gita  is 
the  only  authority  of  the  Bhagavatas,  Gita,  16,  24.  Compare 
also  the  tirade  in  xiii,  163,  2-9:  “Immediate  perception  or 
biblical  authority,  agama,  what  is  convincing  proof,  karana, 

dve  brahman!  veditavye  fabdabrahma  param  ca  yat,  gabdabrahmani  nisnatah 
param  brahma  ’dhigacehati,  xii,  233,  30,  “when  one  is  thoroughly  conversant 
with  the  Veda  he  attains  to  Brahman;”  but  the  devotee  “even  by  desire  oj 
wisdom  surpasses  the  Veda,”  api  jijnasamano  'pi  gabdabralima  ’tivartate,  ib. 
237,  8. 

1 mahajana,  if  this  be  the  meaning  here;  apparently  only  usage  is  meant: 
mahajano  yena  gatah  sa  panthah. 


92 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


in  these  ? Answer : “ There  is  many  a text  to  increase  doubt. 
Rationalists  say  that  perception  is  the  only  proof.  They  are 
children  who  think  themselves  wise  and  believe  only  in 
denial,  na  ’sti.  Recourse  to  ‘cause’  amounts  to  nothing.’’ 
But  though  philosophy  is  really  interwoven  'with  religion,  we 
may  leave  for  the  present  the  Bhagavatas  and  (^ivaites  to 
their  religion  which  is  “ freed  from  philosophy,”  xiii,  14,  198, 
and  consists  in  identifying  the  All-god  with  their  special 
gods  (viii,  33,  51  “ one  God  of  various  forms  ”),  to  consider 
the  more  strictly  philosophic  view  of  authority. 

Only  one  view  is  held  by  the  real  philosopher : “ Through 
inference  we  learn  the  truth.”  1 Traditional  wisdom,  amnaya, 
as  was  shown  above,  is  not  always  recognized,  though  it  is 
generally  admitted.  “In  amnaya  are  established  the  Vedas ; 
from  amnaya  come  the  Vedas.2  . . . Universal  opinion  says  that 
an  amnaya-declaration  is-  truth,  and  there  is  no  authority  at 
all,  gastrata,  when  that  which  is  not  authoritative  is  allowed 
to  stand  against  the  recognized  authority  of  the  Vedas,”  xii, 
269,  33 ; 261,  9-10.  Thus  “ inference  together  with  scrip- 
ture,” anumana  and  grata,  are  the  two  most  substantial  tests 
of  truth,  xii,  205,  19  and  210,  23,  hetvagama ; for  “ all  that  is 
Vedic  is  the  word  of  God,”  xii,  269,  10.3 

The  third  authority  is  the  one  scorned  above,  perception, 
pratyaksa  (xiv,  28,  18,  pratyaksatah  sadhayamah,  and  often, 
as  cited  below  in  the  course  of  this  chapter).  In  the  mystic 
religion  of  the  Yogin  this  pratyaksa  becomes  the  intuitive 
insight  of  the  seer  and  is  the  only  test  of  truth,  answering 
to  “second  sight.”4  The  Harivanga  inveighs  against  the 
“ doubters  and  curious  speculators  ” who  accept  any  authority 
save  faith,  3,  4,  8 ff. 

1 anumanad  vijammali  purusam,  xiv,  48,  0;  xii,  206,  23. 

2 The  commentator  becomes  confused,  and  rendering  amnaya  by  Veda 
renders  vedah  by  smrtayah  ! 

8 sarvam  arsam  vyahrtam  viditatmanah  (=  parame?varasya).  The  com- 
mentator cites  Brh.Up.  ii,  4, 10,  nihfvasitnm,  in  support  of  plenary  inspiration 
as  here  inculcated. 

4 The  curious  result  is  thus  reached  that  the  crassest  materialist  and 
most  exalted  mystic  reject  all  proofs  save  pratyaksa.  Only  one  means  by 
“autopsy”  (physical)  perception  and  the  other  means  insight. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


93 


Besides  these  three,  to  wit,  biblical  authority,  inference, 
and  direct  observation,  the  fourth  “ proof  by  analogy  ” may 
be  implied  in  the  late  conversation  of  DraupadI,  where,  after 
a passing  reference  to  the  arsam  pramanam  and  pratyaksa,  is 
added  “ and  thy  own  birth  is  the  proof  by  analogy,”  upama- 
nam,  iii,  31,  11-33.  Elsewhere  the  epic  stands  philosophi- 
cally on  the  Samkhy-yoga  basis  of  three  reliable  proofs  only. 

This  result  is  fully  borne  out  by  the  terminology.  The 
Vedanta  philosophy  of  the  epic  is  not  called  by  that  name. 
Nyaya  may  possibly  be  known,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
word  ever  refers  to  the  system,  or  the  system,  except  perhaps 
in  one  or  two  late  passages,  is  ever  recognized.  A brief  sur- 
vey of  the  facts  will  make  this  clearer. 

Vedanta. 

If  the  philosophical  system  were  known  as  such  the  use  of 
the  name  would  occur  as  such.  But  Vedanta  seems  every- 
where to  mean  Upanishads  or  what  is  the  same  thing,  Aran- 
yakas.1  No  Vedanta  system  is  alluded  to,  Vedanta  may  refer 
to  Samkhya  in  xii,  196,  7 (where  it  takes  the  place  of  the 
latter  in  antithesis  to  Yoga,  as  the  commentator  thinks),  but 
the  word  more  naturally  means  the  teaching  of  the  Upan- 
ishads, as  usual.2  The  passages  cited  above  in  the  chapter  on 
literature  exhibit  the  characteristic  usage.  Thus  in  Gita  15, 
15,  vedantakrd  vedavid  eva  ca’  ham,  where  Telang  rightly 
takes  the  reference  to  be  to  the  Aranyakas.  So  in  viii,  90, 
114,  vedantavabhrthaplutah,  where  Kama  appeals  to  Arjuna 

1 So,  for  example,  in  yad  uktam  vedavadesu  gahanam  vedadarfibhih, 
tadantesu  yatha  yuktam  krama(karma)yogena  laksyate,  xii,  233,  28  (=  tad 
uktam  vedavadesu  . . . vedantesu  punar  vyaktam,  239,  11),  a mystery  (viz., 
gambhiram  gahanam  brahma,  224,  48). 

2 samkhyayogau  tu  yav  uktau  munibhir  moksadar^bhih,  sannyasa  eva 
vedante  vartate  japanam  prati,  vedavadaf  ca  nirvrttah  fanta  brahmany 
avasthitah,  three  liemistichs,  of  which  the  first  is  repeated  in  the  next  floka, 
where  alone  it  seems  to  belong.  Conversely,  in  Gita  18,  13,  the  word  Sam- 
khya is  taken  by  the  commentator  to  mean  Vedanta,  because  here  we  have  a 
grouping  of  five  karmahetavah  not  recognized  in  Samkhya.  It  may  be  said 
once  for  all  that  the  commentator  is  often  useless  in  philosophical  sections, 
as  he  wishes  to  convert  Samkhya  into  Vedanta  on  all  occasions. 


94 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


to  observe  the  law  of  fighting,  since  the  latter  knows  the  law 
of  fighting  and  is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  holy  scrip- 
tures, i.  e.,  he  is  a moral  man  (not  a Vedanta  philosopher). 
So  in  ii,  53,  1,  kings  who  are  declarers  of  all  the  Vedas  and 
versed  in  the  Vedanta,  paryaptavidya  vaktaro  vedantava- 
bhrthaplutah.  Durga  is  Savitrl,  vedamata  tatha  vedanta 
ucyate,  “ mother  of  the  Vedas  and  famed  (not  in  philosophy 
but)  in  the  Upanishads,”  vi,  23,  12.  A Gandharva  is  “wise 
in  the  knowledge  of  Vedanta,”  xii,  319,  27,  and  asks  ques- 
tions about  Veda  and  logic,  which  are  answered  in  Saihkhya 
terms  (vedya  is  purusa,  for  example).  The  priest  who  at 
xii,  349,  56  is  said  to  transmit  the  knowledge  of  the  Gita, 
knows  the  Jyestha  Sarnan  and  the  Vedanta;  and  he  who 
knows  the  names  of  Vishnu  is  Vedanta-learned,  xiii,  149,  123. 
Again  in  xiv,  13,  15:  “Whoso  would  kill  me  (Kama)  by 
vedair  vedantasadhanaih,  power  derived  from  the  mysteries 
of  the  Veda.”  I know  in  fact  only  two  passages  where,  per- 
haps, Vedanta  might  be  fairly  taken  as  referring  to  the  phil- 
osophy. One  of  these  is  in  a tristubh  verse  which  has  been 
interpolated  (out  of  all  syntactical  connection)  in  xiii,  69,  20, 
and  even  here,  late  as  is  the  verse,  it  is  perhaps  more  prob- 
able that  the  word  is  to  be  taken  in  its  usual  sense.1  The 
other  is  found  at  xii,  302,  71,  where  the  “island  of  Vedanta” 
is  a refuge  to  the  saints.  The  “ Secret  of  the  Vedanta  ” cited 
below  is  clearly  “Upanishads.”  The  Brahma  Sutra  I have 
spoken  of  above,  p.  16. 

Mlmansa  does  not  occur  as  the  name  of  a philosophical 
system.  I have  referred  to  the  PurvaQastravids  above,  but 
the  word  is  obviously  too  general  to  make  much  of,  though 
it  is  used  as  if  it  applied  to  the  Purva-mlmansa,  for  the  Pur- 
vagastravidah  are  here,  xii,  19,  22,  kriyasu  nirata  nityam  dane 
yajfie  ca  karmani.  This  implication  is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, however.  The  old  name  for  the  system,  Nyaya,  does 
not  seem  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of  Purvamlmansa. 

1 vedantanisthasya  bahugrutasya,  supposed  to  be  governed  by  vrttim 
(dvijaya)  ’tisrjeta  (tasmai)  in  the  next  stanza! 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


95 


Nyaya. 

The  argumentative  group  of  five,  explained  according  to 
the  padartha  in  xii,  321,  80  ft'.,  consists  of  sauksmya,  samkh- 
yakramau,  nirnaya,  and  prayojana,  which  recall,  especially  in 
the  definition  of  the  last,  the  corresponding  section  in  the 
formal  Nyaya.  The  epic  gives  the  following  definitions : 

1.  Sauksmya,  subtil ty,  is  where  knowledge,  in  respect  to 
objects  of  knowledge  which  are  divided,  comes  from  distinc- 
tion and  the  intellect  rests  (on  tliis  distinction). 

2.  Samkliya  or  samkhya,  reckoning,  is  reckoning  the  value 
of  weak  and  valid  points  and  arriving  at  some  conclusion. 

3.  Krarna,  order:  when  it  is  decided  which  should  be  said 
first  and  which  last,  they  call  that  kramayoga,  the  application 
of  proper  sequence  in  an  argument. 

4.  Nirnaya,  ascertainment,  is  a conclusion  that  the  case  is 
so  and  so,  in  cases  of  duty,  desire,  gain,  emancipation,  after 
recognizing  them  according  to  then-  differences. 

5.  Prayojana,  motive  : where  inclination  is  produced  by  ills 
arising  from  desire  or  dislike  and  a certain  conduct  is  followed , 
that  is  motive. 

As  has  been  remarked  by  Mr.  K.  Mohan  Ganguli  in  his 
translation,  this  final  definition  of  prayojana  is  almost  identical 
with  that  given  by  Gautama  i,  24,  yam  artham  adliikrtya 
pravartate  tat  prayojanam : “ If  one  sets  an  object  before  one’s 
self  and  acts  accordingly,  that  is  motive.”  So  the  epic, 
prakarso  yatra  jayate,  tatra  ya  vrttis  tat  prayojanam,  as  ren- 
dered above.  Similarly,  the  epic  definition  of  nirnaya  is  like 
that  of  Gautama  in  i,  40  : “ The  conclusion  reached  after  hear- 
ing what  can  be  said  for  and  against  (on  both  sides)  after 
doubting.”  The  other  members  of  Gautama’s  syllogism,  i, 
32,  seem  to  have  no  connection  with  the  above.  The  speech 
to  be  delivered,  it  is  declared  in  tliis  passage  of  the  epic,  must 
be  nyayavrttam  (as  well  as  reasonable,  not  casuistical,  etc., 
sixteen  attributes  in  all).1 

1 No  explanation  is  given  of  the  eighteen  merits  with  which  the  speaker 
begins.  The  sixteen  attributes  may  be  compared  (numerically)  with  the 
sixteen  categories  of  the  Nyaya. 


96 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


We  may  compare  further  in  the  late  list  of  Pundits  at  i, 
70,  42,  those  with  nyayatattvatmavijnana,  possibly  “versed  in 
psychology  according  to  the  Nyaya-tattva ; ” and  i,  1,  67, 
nyayagiksa,  Nyaya-system,  opposed  to  Yedadhyatma  but  also  to 
cikitsa,  etc.  Also  xii,  19, 18,  referred  to  above,  p.  87:  “ Some, 
rejecting  unity,  attribute  to  the  atman  desire  and  dislike,”  a 
Nyaya  view.  Finally,  in  xii,  210,  22,  nyayatantrany  anekani 
(declared  by  various  people),  “ systems  of  logic,”  is  typical  of 
all  remaining  cases.  Nyaya,  then,  usually  means  logic,  but 
occasionally,  in  the  pseudo-epic,  the  special  Logic-system 
known  to  us  as  Nyaya.1 


Vaicesika. 

a 

This  word  is  used  as  an  adjective,  of  gunas,  etc.,  in  the 
sense  of  excellent;  but  the  system  is  unknown  in  the  main 
epic  though  it  is  referred  to  in  the  passage  cited  above,  in 
i,  70,  43-44,  and  also  in  ii,  5,  5 (vakya)  paficaVayavayukta, 
another  proof  of  the  lateness  of  the  Kaccit  section, 2 whether 
the  five  avayavas  here  mentioned  be  terms  implying  Nyaya  or 
Vaicesika.  Kanada’s  name  appears  first  in  the  Harivahga  (see 
below,  p.  98,  and  above,  p.  89). 

The  Four  Philosophies. 

In  xii,  350,  64  ff.  (compare  350,  1,  pracaranti)  it  is  said 
that  there  are  four  current  philosophies,  jiianani,  the  Saiii- 
khyayoga,  Paucaratra,  Vedaranyaka  (or  Vedah),  and  Pagu- 
pata.  Kapila  declared  the  Samkhya;  Hiranyagarbha,  the 

1 For  the  ordinary  use,  compare  tais  tair  nyayaih,  such  arguments,  passim. 
All  speculation  is  Tarka.  Compare  the  remarkable  statement,  xii,  15,  26: 
“There  are  minute  creatures  whose  existence  can  be  argued  by  tarka  (so 
small  that)  an  eyelid’s  fall  would  be  the  death  of  a number  of  them.” 

2 The  former  passage,  after  mentioning  those  endowed  with  nyayatattva- 
tmavijnanaaddsnanavakyasamaharasamavayavifaradaih,  vijesakaryavidbhif 
ca  . . . sthapanaksepasiddhantaparamarthajnatam  gataih  . . . karyakiirana- 
vedibhih,  which  may  refer  to  either  system.  The  passages  have  been  cited 
by  the  author  of  Das  Maliabharata  als  Epos,  etc.,  p.  226,  who  admits  that  the 
five  “avayas,”  as  he  call  them  twice,  imply  the  Viiifcsika  system. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


97 


Yoga;1  Apiintaratamas  is  called  the  Teacher  of  the  Vedas 
(“  termed  by  some  Praclnagarbha  ”) ; 9iva  declared  the  Pagu- 
pata  religion ; Vishnu,  the  whole  Pancaratra.  “ In  all  these 
philosopliies  Vishnu  is  the  nistha,  or  cliief  tiling."  a 

Kapila  and  his  System. 

Although  it  is  said,  as  quoted  above,  that  there  is  no  seer 
whose  authority  is  authoritative,  this  is  merely  a teacliing  of 
temporary  despair.  Kapila  is  authoritative  in  all  philosoplueal 
matters  and  his  name  covers  every  sort  of  doctrine.  He  is  in 
fact  the  only  founder  of  a philosophical  system  known  to 
the  epic.  Other  names  of  founders  are  either  those  of  mere 
gods  or  disciples  of  Kapila.  Badarayana  and  Patanjali3  are 
unknown  even  as  names,  and  Jaimini  and  Gautama  appear  only 
as  sages,  not  as  leaders  of  speculation,  (^andilya  (otherwise 
said  to  be  known  in  the  epic)  is  respectfully  cited  on  \ oga, 
not  as  founder  but  as  recommending  Yoga  concentration.4  As 

1 See  the  note  on  this  verse  just  below.  As  Yoga-teacher  of  Diiityas,  Qulcra 
is  mentioned,  i,  66,  43.  Both  Vishnu  and  Qiva  are  credited  with  being  Yoga- 
lords  (loc.  cit.  by  Iloltzmann,  Das  Mbh.  im  Osten  und  Westen,  p.  110). 

2 In  the  Vasudeva  religious  philosophy  of  Krishnaism,  as  expounded  in 
xii,  345,  7 ff.,  some  people,  after  death,  become  paramanubhutas,  very  fine 
sprites,  and  enter  Aniruddha ; then  as  manobhutas,  or  mental  entities,  they 
enter  Pradyumna;  thence  they  go  to  Jiva  (Samkarsana).  Such  people  are 
“the  best  priests  and  Samkliyas  and  Bhagavatas.”  Finally,  devoid  of  all 
unspiritual  constituents,  traigunyahina,  they  enter  Paramatman  (Ksetrajna, 
nirgunatmaka),  or  Vasudeva.  These  are  the  four  forms  of  God.  The  name 
of  God  is  immaterial.  Rudra  and  Vishnu  are  one  being,  sattvam  ekam, 
divided  in  two,  xii,  342,  27  (they  are  synonyms  like  brhad  brahma  and  mahat, 
337  2,  paryayavacakah  9abdah ; Vishnu  may  be  called  giva  and  Brahman 
may  he  called  Intellect). 

8 In  the  Sarvadarganasamgraha  it  is  said  that  Patanjali  made  (atha  yoga- 
nugasanam,  i,  1)  an  anugasana,  or  secondary  collection  (as  anu  is  explained) 
based  on  earlier  Puranie  materials.  The  verse  attributed  in  this  connection 
to  the  Yajnavalkya  Smrti  (158, 17  ; p.  239  of  Cowell’s  translation)  has  caused 
the  Petersburg  Lexicon  to  postulate,  s.  v.,  another  Smrti  of  the  same  name. 
I think  it  is  a mere  lapsus  for  Vyasa’s  Smrti,  for  the  verse  cited  (“  Hiranya- 
garbha,  and  no  other  ancient,  is  the  declarer  of  Yoga”)  occurs  xii,  350,  65. 
It  has  occurred  to  me  that  this  verse  might  imply  Patanjali,  and  the  “ no 
other”  be  a distinct  refutation  of  his  claim,  the  epic  preferring  divine 
authority ; hut  this  is  perhaps  too  pregnant. 

4 prthaghhutesu  srstesu  caturtha9ramakarmasu  samadhau  yogam  evai- 
’tac  (maduktam  vakyamj  chandilyah  9amam  ahravit,  xii,  254,  14. 

7 


98 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


a teacher  of  unconditioned  Brahman,  A trey  a is  lauded  in  xiii, 
137,  3;  and  in  xii,  319,  59,  a list  of  teachers  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  (spiritual)  principle  is  given  as  having  instructed  the 
Gandharva  Vigvavasu : Jaiglsavya,  Asita  Devala,  Paragara, 
Varsaganya,  Bhrgu,  Pancagikha,  Kapila,  ()uka,  Gautama, 
Arstisena,  Garga,  Narada,  Asuri,  Pulastya,  Sanatkumara, 
(Jukra,  Kagyapa,  seventeen  mixed  gods,  saints,  and  philoso- 
phers, of  whom  two  are  important  besides  Kapila,  namely 
Asuri  and  Pancagikha,  his  pupils ; while  one  system  (explained 
below)  is  referred  also  to  Asita  Devala. 

There  seems  to  be  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Kapila  was  a 
real  (human)  philosopher,  and  not  a mere  shadow  of  a divin- 
ity. The  fact  that  lois  name  is  also  given  to  divinities  proves 
the  opposite  as  little  as  does  his  deification,  for  it  is  customary 
to  deify  sages  and  for  divinities  to  have  sages’  names.  A per- 
fect parallel  to  the  use  of  Kapila  in  tills  way  is  afforded  by 
Kanada,  winch,  as  far  as  I know,  occurs  first  as  an  epithet  of 
(yiva  as  supreme  god,  in  the  Harivanga  3,  85,  15-16 : 

yam  ahur  agryam  purusam  makantam 
puratanam  samkhyanibaddhadrstayah 
yasya  ’pi  devasya  gunan  samagrahs 
tattvanq  caturvihqatim  ahur  eke 
yam  ahur  ekam  purusam  puratanam 
Kanada-namanam  ajam  mahegvaram 
daksasya  yajnam  vinihatya  yo  vai 
vinaqya  devan  asuran  sanatanah 

Ivapila’s  treatise  is  repeatedly  declared  to  be  oldest,  but  he 
is  not  only  the  oldest,  he  is  the  supreme  seer,  identical  with 
Agni,  with  (kva  also,  and  with  Vishnu.  He  is  said  to  have 
got  liis  wisdom  from  ^iva! 

1 “ Of  the  treatises  declared  by  metaphysicians  that  by  Kapila  is  the  ear- 
liest,” xii,  351, 6 ; agnih  sa  Kapilo  nama,  samkhyayogapravartakah,  iii,  221, 21. 
Hall  gives  a later  v.  1.,  samkhyagastrapravartakah,  Samkhyasara,  p.  18,  where 
most  of  the  epic  allusions  arc  collected.  As  supreme  seer,  xii,  350,  05;  £iva, 
xii,  285,  114,  where  the  commentator  interprets  Saiiikhya  as  Vedanta  (as 
often) ; xiii,  17,  98,  and  xiii,  14,  323,  (Jiva  as  kapila.  Kapila  is  identified  with 
Vishnu  in  iii,  47,  18;  Gita,  10,  20,  etc.;  with  Prajapati  in  xii,  218,  9-10,  where 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


99 


I have  noticed  only  one  passage,  xii,  269,  9,  where  Kapila 
is  presented  in  the  light  of  adverse  criticism  from  the  point 
of  view  of  orthodox  Brahmanism.  On  seeing  a cow  led 
out  for  sacrifice,  Kapila,  filled  with  compassion,  cried  out 
O ye  Vedas!  an  exclamation  of  reproof  against  the  Vedas, 
as  inculcating  cruelty  to  animals.  At  this  he  was  attacked 
by  the  inspired  cow  with  a long  discourse,  challenging 
him  to  show  why  the  Vedas  should  be  regarded  as  authori- 
tative in  any  regard,  if  not  in  regard  to  the  slaughter  of 
animals. 

Kapila  appears  in  this  tale  as  a teacher  of  unorthodox 
non-injury  and  maintains  to  the  end  (so  that  his  view  is 
presented  as  really  correct)  that  not  the  sacrifice  of  animals 
but  the  “ sacrifice  (worship)  of  knowledge  ” is  the  best. 
Elsewhere  also  we  find  the  same  antithesis  between  the  old 
orthodoxy  and  the  new  science  of  thought,  which  not  only 
disregards  Veclic  ceremonies  but  condemns  them  (xiv,  28, 
7 ff.). 

The  best  evidence  of  the  authority  of  Kapila  is  given  not 
by  express  statement  but  by  implication  in  the  praise  of  other 
systems,  which,  an  important  point,  are  by  the  same  implica- 
tion looked  upon  as  distinct  from  that  of  Kapila,  although  his 
name  is  used  to  uphold  them.  Thus  Kapila’s  own  system  is 
called  generally  the  Samkhyayoga,  or  specifically  the  Kapi- 
lam.1  The  Samkhyayogins  are  said  to  be  the  models  even  in 
teaching  of  other  tendency,  as  in  xii,  347,  22,  and  nothing 
better  can  be  said  of  the  Bhagavatas,  here  extolled,  than  that 
their  system  is  “equal  to  the  Samkhyayoga,”  not,  be  it 


he  is  called  the  supreme  seer,  incorporate  in  Panca?ikha  (the  first  pupil  of 
Asuri,  who  in  turn  was  a pupil  of  Kapila).  In  xii,  337,  8,  Kapila  is  Calihotra- 
pita  smrtah,  father  of  Qalihotra,  the  veterinary  sage  (above,  p.  12).  Kapilah 
praha : pritaf  ca  Bhagavan  jnanam  dadau  mama  bhavantakam,  xiii,  18,  4. 
The  Harivanfa,  3, 14,  4,  and  20,  speaks  of  Kapila  as  the  “teacher  of  Toga, 
the  teacher  of  Samkhya,  full  of  wisdom,  clothed  in  Brahman,  the  lord  of 
ascetics.”  Compare  the  supreme  spirit  as  Kapila,  xii,  340,  68. 

1 “ He  learned  the  whole  Toga-fastram  and  the  Kapilam,”  xii,  326,  4 ; 
Virinca  iti  yat  proktam  Kapilam  jnanacintakaih  sa  Prajapatis  eva  ’ham,  xii, 
343,  94  (Kapila,  95).  Also  Samkhya  krtanta,  Gita,  18,  13. 


100 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


observed,  the  same,  but  as  good  as  the  system  of  Kapila.1 
Amid  a list  of  heroes  in  xiii,  75,  24-25,  we  find  placed  beside 
battle-heroes,  gift-heroes,  moral-heroes,  etc.,  only  Samkhya 
and  Yoga  heroes,  enrolled  to  represent  philosophy.2  As  be- 
tween the  two,  the  implication  contained  in  the  words  at 
Gita  5,  5,  “ the  Yoga  gets  as  good  a place  as  the  Samkhya,”  is 
that  it  is  the  Samkhya  which  is  the  norm.  Samkhya  is  cited 
alone  as  the  one  system  of  salvation  in  i,  75,  7 : “ Salvation  he 
studied,  the  unequalled  system  of  Samkhya.”  In  contrast 
with  Veda  and  Yedanga,  it  is  the  one  type  of  philosophy: 
“He  became  learned  in  the  Atharva  Veda  and  the  Veda,  in 
the  ritual  also,  and  a past-master  in  astronomy,  taking  the 
greatest  pleasure  in  Samkhya,”  xiii,  10,  37 ; “Vedas,  Angas, 
Samkhya,  and  Purana,”  xiii,  22,  12. 

The  two  systems  are  often  separated.  Yogapradarginah 
stands  parallel  to  Samkhyanadarginah,  xii,  314,  3-4.  “The 
rules  both  of  Samkhya  and  Yoga”  are  mentioned,  xii,  50, 
33.  Narada  “knew  the  difference  between  Samkhya  and 
Yoga,”  ii,  5,  7.  Qaunaka  is  “ rapt  with  metaphysics,  adhyatma, 
skilled  in  Yoga  and  in  Samkhya,”  iii,  2, 15.  The  difference  is 
explained  in  the  Gita  as : “ The  double  point  of  view,  nistha, 
of  the  Samkhyas,  who  have  jnanayoga;  of  the  Yogins,  who 
have  karmayoga.”  Sometimes  Samkhyajnana  on  the  one  hand 
is  opposed  to  Yoga  alone  on  the  other,  xii,  315,  18.3  Some- 
times the  (^astra  is  that  of  the  Yoga,  as  opposed  to  jnana  of 
the  Samkhya,  xii,  319,  67  ; yogagastresu,  340,  69,  etc.  Never- 
theless, they  are,  says  the  Gita,  essentially  one  system.  And 
so  often  we  find  that  V edic  practices  and  the  existence  of  God 
are  claimed  for  Samkhya  and  Yoga,  as  if  they  were  one  system. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  practice  of  austerities  or  asceticism. 
“ The  many  names  of  God  are  declared  in  the  Rig  Veda  with 

1 Samkhyayogena  tulyo  hi  dharma  ekantasevitah,  xii,  349,  74. 

2 So  in  viii,  33,  49,  Yoga  and  Sarhkhya  (atmanah)  represent  philosophy. 

8 Compare  xiii,  149,  139:  yogo  jnanam  tatha  saihkhyaih  vidyah  filpadi- 
karma  ca.  In  the  passage  cited  above,  the  interesting  aristani  tattvani  are 
grouped  with  yoga  and  samkhyajnana  (as  objects  of  research).  They  are 
explained  elsewhere,  xii,  318,  8,  as  “signs  of  death,”  appearing  to  one  if  he 
cannot  see  the  pole-star  or  his  reflection  in  another’s  eye,  etc. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


101 


the  Yajur  Veda,  in  Atharva  (and)  Sfunans,  in  Purana  with 
Upanishads,  in  astronomy  also,  in  Samkhya  and  in  Yoga- 
^astra,  and  in  Ayur  Veda,”  to  give  the  bizarre  group  of  xii, 
342,  8.  “Both  gods  and  demons  practise  austerity,  tapas, 
which  has  been  argued  out,  yuktitah,  of  Veda  and  Sam- 
khyayoga,”  xii,  285,  192.1 

Samkhya  and  Yoga. 

But  it  must  be  noticed  that  the  claim  for  the  identity  of 
Saiiikliya  and  Yoga  comes  from  the  Yoga  side,  which  is  deistic 
and  seeks  to  make  the  Samkhya  so,  exactly  in  the  way  the 
Vedanta  commentator  seeks  to  make  the  Yoga  passages  Ve- 
dantic.  The  distinctive  mark  of  the  Yoga,  as  given  above 
from  the  Gita,  3,  3,  is,  if  we  translate  it  in  the  natural  original 
sense,  application  to  work  as  opposed  to  application  to  under- 
standing; in  other  words  the  Yoga  laid  stress  on  religious 
practices,  the  Samkhya  on  knowledge.2  It  may  be  that  Yoga 
also,  like  Samkhya,  was  originally  atheistic  and  that  deistic 
Yoga  was  a special  development.  Nothing  could  be  falser, 
however,  than  the  supposition  that  the  Yoga  and  Samkhya 
differ  only  in  method,  or  the  epic  assumption  that  both  are  a 
sort  of  Vedanta  inculcating  belief  in  Brahman  as  the  All-soul. 
Even  the  Gita  recognizes  the  distinction  between  the  two 
schools  in  saying  that  the  system  that  recognizes  the  All-soul 
(“  one  entity  eternal,  undivided,  in  all  divided  existences  ”) 
is  better  than  the  one  that  recognizes  “ separate  and  distinct 
entities  in  all  existent  beings,”  18,  21-22,  clearly  referring 
to  the  fundamental  difference  between  Brahmaism  3 and  Sam- 

1 It  may  be  observed  of  the  terminology  that  as  Toga  means  Togin  as  well 
as  the  system,  so  Samkhya  means  system  or  a philosopher  of  that  system. 
Typical  of  the  pseudo-epic  is  the  circumstance  that  here  Samkhvayogau  are 
personified  as  two  beings  along  with  Narada  and  Durvasas,  xiii,  151,  45. 

4 Compare  the  use  in  xiii,  84,  40,  where  it  is  asked : kena  va  karmayogena 
pradanene  ’ha  kena  va  (can  I be  purified),  i.  e.,  “ by  application  to  holy  works.” 
Compare  krsiyoga,  xiii,  83,  18. 

3 As  Vedanta  is  commonly  used  of  Qamkara’s  interpretation,  I employ 
Brahmaism  to  connote  a belief  in  the  All-soul  without  necessarily  implying 
a concomitant  doctrine  of  Illusion,  Maya. 


102 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


khyaism.  The  practical  difference  is  that  formulated  at  xii, 
317,  2 ff.,  where  it  is  said : “ There  is  no  knowledge  like  the 
Samkhya,  no  power  like  the  Yoga;  these  are  both  one  in 
practice,  ekacaryau,  because  both  destroy  death.  Foolish 
people  regard  them  as  distinct,  but  we  recognize  them  as  one. 
What  the  Yogas  see  is  seen  by  Samkhyas ; who  sees  Samkhya 
and  Yoga  as  one  sees  truly,”  a passage  copied  from  the  Gita, 
5,  4-5,  and  repeated  with  varied  readings  hi  xii,  306,  19. 

Though  the  pseudo-epic  is  so  like  the  Gita,  its  relative  late- 
ness, I may  observe  in  passing,  is  shown  inter  alia  by  the  use 
in  this  passage  of  yogam  as  a neuter  noun,  xii,  317,  27,  etad 
dlii  yogam  yoganam,1  as  in  xiii,  17,  19;  one  of  the  many  little 
points  ignored  in  the  unhistorical  synthetical  method. 

This  passage,  in  its  admission  under  cover  of  fools’  opinion, 
shows  clearly  that  the  two  systems  could  be  regarded  as  iden- 
tical only  by  insisting  on  the  objective  of  each.  Both  sys- 
tems gave  emancipation,  therefore  they  were  one.  But  one 
way  was  that  of  pure  science  or  knowledge,  the  other  was 
that  of  pious  work  (yoga,  tapas)  added  to  this  science,  a practi- 
cal divergence  that  existed  quite  apart  from  the  question 
whether  the  goal  was  really  the  same. 

But  the  epic  in  other  passages,  despite  its  brave  pretence, 
is  not  content  with  Samkhya  science  or  even  with  Yoga  work. 
On  the  contrary,  the  religious  devotees  named  above  tluow 
over  both  systems.  It  is  true  they  keep  the  name,  just  as 
these  philosophical  systems  themselves  pretend  to  depend  on 
the  Vedas,  or  as  European  philosophers  used  to  claim  that 
their  systems  were  based  on  orthodoxy.  But  this  only  shows 
how  important  and  fully  established  were  these  philosophi- 
cal systems  when  the  sects  arose  that  based  salvation  on 
faith  and  the  grace  of  a man-god,  while  still  pretending  to 
philosophy.  They  could  not  unite,  for  the  true  Samkhya  did 
not  teach  Brahmaism,  but  kevalatvam,  or  absolute  separation 
of  the  individual  spirit  from  everything  else,  an  astitvam 
kevalam,  or  existence  apart  from  all,  not  apart  in  Brahman. 

1 Repeating  yoga  esa  hi  yoganam  in  307,  25. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


103 


No  less  irreconcilable  with  the  earlier  belief  is  the  later 
sectary’s  view  of  action,  pravrtti,  as  due  to  God.  For  the  older 
sage  was  intent  on  escaping  action,  which  the  system  regards 
as  due  not  to  spirit  but  to  the  inherent  quality  of  its  antithe- 
sis, Prakrti.  But  in  the  religious  substitution  of  a personal 
Lord,  1 9 vara,  as  synonymous  with  the  Supreme,  it  is  taught 
that  “ the  Lord  created  pravrtti  as  a picturesque  effect  ” (after 
electing  nivrtti  for  himself)  ! 1 Here  the  roots  of  the  Karma 
doctrine  are  cut  by  the  new  faith  of  the  quasi  monotheism 
which  is  reflected  in  the  later  pseudo-epic.2 

Fate  and  Free-Will. 

Another  side  of  speculation  presents  a varied  field  of  belief. 
Is  there  such  a tiring  as  free-will?  The  later  epic  fixes 
responsibility  in  turn  on  the  Lord,  man  himself,  purusha,  luck, 
hatha,  and  Karma,  xii,  32,  12,  ff. ; where  Karma  is  finally  rec- 
ognized as  the  only  agent,  as  otherwise  God  would  be  re- 
sponsible for  sin ; and  if  man  were  the  sole  agent  there  could 
be  none  higher  than  man.  As  luck  would  absolve  a man, 
only  Karma  is  left,  associated  with  Time  in  a sort  of  dual 
fatalism,  karmasutratmaka.  Obviously  Fate,  as  Time  is  here, 
really  undermines  the  theory  of  Karma  quite  as  much  as  does 
the  interposition  of  the  Lord  or  any  other  foreign  factor.  So 
in  xii,  224,  16  ff.  and  226,  13  and  21  ff.,  we  find  first  the  re- 
flex of  the  Upanishads  and  Gita,  “he  who  (in  imagination) 
slays  and  he  who  is  slain  are  both  ignorant,”  and  then : “ The 
deed  causes  the  deed ; but  the  deed  has  another  creator,  Fate, 
Time.  Fate  or  what  will  be  will  be  is  the  cause.”  “Sorrow 
lies  in  thinking  ‘ I am  responsible  ’ ; for  I do  that  which  the 
ordainers  ordained  when  I was  born.”  3 

1 pravrttidharman  vidadhe  krtva  lokasya  citratam,  xii,  341,  99. 

2 This  is  the  “ fourfold  God,”  worshipped  by  the  Ekantins  as  having  one, 
two,  three,  or  four  forms,  identified  with  Krishna,  his  son,  grandson,  and 
brother,  as  named  above,  p.  97.  He  is  maker  and  non-maker,  and  takes 
Prakrti’s  function  in  “sporting:”  yathe  ’cchati  tatha  rajan  kridate  puruso 
'vyayah. 

8 So  224,  31 ; 226,  8 ; 227,  34  and  35 : kalah  pacati . . . kalah  kalayati  pra- 
jah;  226,  12:  “Whatever  state  one  obtains  he  must  say  bhavitavyam,”  “it 
was  fated,”  i.  e.,  independently  of  Karma.  Eor  kala  from  kal , cf.  Gita,  10, 30 


104 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Elsewhere  Fate  is  the  Divine  power,  daiva,  opposed  to 
human  effort  and  to  nature,  svabhava,  the  latter  having  the 
implication  of  the  Karma  doctrine.  Each  of  these  factors  is 
upheld  by  one  or  another  theorist,  while  others  claim  that  they 
all  work  together,  xii,  233, 19,  repeated  at  239,  4-5.  In  other 
places  the  same  Fate  that  is  elsewhere  made  responsible  is 
scorned,  daivam  kliba  upasate,  “only  eunuchs  worship  Fate;  ” 
and  “there  is  no  Fate,  all  depends  on  one’s  own  nature;” 
the  Karma  doctrine,  svabhavatah,  xii,  139,  82 ; 291,  13.1 


Samkhya  is  Atheistic. 

In  the  “ one-soul  ” doctrine  just  referred  to,  God  himself  is 
energy,  karyatman,  the  soul  of  all,  the  saviour,  “the  Light 
which  Yogins  see,”  the  Ego,  eternal,  without  characteristics 
of  any  sort,  aharn  ca  nirgunah,  xii,  47,  54,  63,  69-70;  xiv, 
25,  7.  He  exists  “alone  with  wisdom,”  till  he  makes  the 
worlds,  each  succeeding  seon,  xii,  340,  71-72,  just  as  sunrise 
and  sunset  follow  each  other,  ib.  75.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
epic  declares  with  all  plainness  that  the  Siiihkhya  system  is 
devoid  of  a belief  in  a personal  supreme  God.  In  xii,  301, 1 ff., 
the  question  is  raised,  What  is  the  difference  between  Sam- 
khya and  Yoga?  The  answer  is:  “Samkhyas  praise  the  Sam- 

1 According  to  xii,  239,  20,  Time  is  the  origin  and  controller  of  all  things, 
prabhavah  . . . samyamo  yamah,  and  all  things  produced  by  duality  exist 
according  to  their  own  nature,  svabhavena.  The  nature  of  the  individual 
spirit  is  often  rendered  by  this  word,  as  such  a spirit  is  conditioned  by  its 
former  acts.  Below  is  cited  a case  where  it  is  a factor  of  the  body,  distinct 
from  organs,  mind,  and  spirit.  An  interesting  critique  of  heretics  leads  up  to 
xii,  238,  3 ff.  (where  the  word  connotes  nature  as  understood  by  Buddhists 
and  materialists)':  yas  tu  pafyan  svabhavena  vina  bhavam  acetanah  pusyate 
sa  punah  sarvan  prajnaya  muktahetukan,  yesaiii  ciii  ’kantabhiivena  svabhii- 
vat  karanam  mat  am,  putva  trnam  isikam  va,  te  labhante  na  kimcana  . . . sva- 
bhavarh  karanam  jniitva  na  freyah  prapnuvanti  te,  svabhavo  hi  vinafaya 
mohakarmamanobhavah,  “ lie  is  a fool  who  teaches  that  nature  alone  exists, 
or  that  cause  of  change  is  inherent  in  nature  alone”  (nature  is  without  in- 
telligence and,  fl.  9,  only  intelligence  gives  success ; hence  nature  without 
intelligence  would  result  in  nothing;  the  final  opinion  given  in  5I.  0 on 
svabhava  and  paribhava).  C.  has  a curious  v.  1.  (for  putva,  etc.)  frutva 
nrnam  rsinam  va. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


105 


khya  system;  Yogas  the  Yoga  system.  The  pious  Yogas  say, 
How  can  one  be  freed  when  one  is  without  a personal  God 
(anigvarah) ; wliile  the  Samkhyas  say  that  one  who  knows 
truly  all  earthly  courses  becomes  unaffected  by  objects,  and 
would  clearly  get  released  from  the  body  in  this  way  alone. 
This  is  the  exposition  of  release  given  by  the  very  intelligent 
Samkhyas.  But  one  should  take  as  the  means  of  release  that 
explanation  which  is  given  agreeably  to  his  own  party.  . . . 
The  Yogas  rely  on  immediate  perception  (of  truth),  while 
the  Samkhyas  determine  according  to  their  code.  For  my 
part,  I approve  of  both,1  for  either  system  followed  according 
to  its  code  would  lead  to  the  highest  course  (emancipation). 
Purity,  penance,  compassion  toward  all  creatures,  and  keeping 
vows,  are  found  equally  in  both  (systems),  but  the  (philo- 
sophic) exposition  is  not  the  same  in  both.”  The  last  words, 
darganam  na  samarii  tayoh,  “ the  exposition  is  not  the  same,” 
can  point  here  only  to  the  essential  difference  just  indicated 
by  the  speaker,  namely,  that  one  admits  and  one  denies  God. 
And  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  this  is  the  end  of  the  explanation. 
There  is  not  the  slightest  hint  that  the  anlgvara  or  atheistic 
Samkhyas  believe  in  God  (a  personal  Lord,  Tgvara). 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  very  term  here  used 
to  describe  the  Samkhya  belief,  far  from  being  admitted  as 
one  that  connotes  a belief  in  Brahman,  is  reprehended,  not 
only  in  the  pietistic  question  above  (which  may  fairly  be  put 
categorically  as  “ it  is  impossible  to  be  saved  if  one  does  not 
believe  in  a personal  God”),  but  also  in  the  Gita,  which 
links  together  as  a “ creed  of  devils  ” the  denial  of  “ reality, 
basis,  and  personal  God,”  asatyam  apratistham  te  jagad  ahur 
anigvaram,  Gita,  16,  8,  an  expression  which  would  have  been 
impossible  had  the  anigvara  doctrine  been  accepted  as  simply 
a formal  modification  of  deism,  implying  a belief  in  a back- 
ground of  Brahman. 

I do  not  think  that  anigvara  can  possibly  mean  here  “ not 

1 The  Yoga  has  the  immediate  perception  of  the  mystic : pratyaksahetaro 
yogah  saiiikhyah  ^stravinifcayah,  ublie  cai  ’te  mate  tattve  mama  (Bhls- 
masya),  ?1.  7. 


106 


TIIE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


having  the  senses  as  master,”  as  it  does  in  xii,  247,  7,  where 
it  is  opposed  to  indriyanam  vagyatma ; a passage  mistranslated 
by  the  author  of  Nirvana,  p.  96,  as  “ Without  the  Lord  one 
attains  the  place  of  immortality,”  though  it  clearly  means: 
“Not  having  (the  senses  as)  a master  one  attains  the  im- 
mortal state,  but  being  subject  to  the  senses  one  obtains 
death.” 

In  the  theistic  religion,  the  personal  God  not  only  supplants 
the  old  explanation  of  spirit,  but  even  takes  the  place  of  Pra- 
krti,  the  unmanifest  unknown  Source  of  the  Samkhya,  and 
creates  everything,  as  does  egoism  in  the  pure  dogma  of  the 
Samkhya,  as  “the  name  made  by  egoism,  which  is  synony- 
mous,” ahamkarakrtam  cai  ’va  nama  paryayavacakam,  xii, 
340,  62.  So  to  the  sectary  the  name  is  ever  indifferent. 
As  to-day  he  accepts  Christ  as  his  own  divinity  under  another 
name,  so  he  did  of  old.  The  passage  in  the  Gita  is  well 
known,  which  establishes  the  principle.  In  xiii,  14,  318,  it 
is  said:  “In  the  Samkhya  system  the  All-soul  is  called  Puru- 
sha,”  i.  e.  the  Samkhyas  recognize  only  Purusha,  but  we  say 
that  their  Purusha  is  our  All-soul.  The  twenty-fifth,  Puru- 
sha, is  thus  identified  with  wisdom,  vidya,  xii,  308,  7 ff.  In 
a preceding  section,  303,  119,  Hiranyagarbha  is  intellect,  and 
is  called  Yirinca,  Aja,  etc.,  “ called  by  many  names  in  the 
Saihkhya  ^Jastra.” 

Yoga  as  Deistic  and  Brahmaistic. 

The  ancient  Yogin  tales  in  the  epic  show  that  there  are 
important  differences  between  the  older  and 1 later  view  of 
Yoga.  To  stand  on  one  leg  for  years  and  keep  quiet  long 
enough  for  birds  to  nest  in  one’s  matted  locks  was  the  “ disci- 
pline” of  the  primitive  Yogin  as  he  is  represented  in  these 
tales.  But  the  Yogin  of  the  later  epic  regards  all  such  practices 
as  crude  and  unsatisfactory.  His  discipline  is  an  elaborate 
course  of  breathings  and  mental  confinement  in  bodily  postures 
described  as  customaiy  in  the  Yoga  (Jastras.  So  many  breath- 
ings at  such  a time  and  so  many  at  another,  minute  attention 
(in  a sitting  posture)  to  concentration  and  meditation,  the 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


107 


whole  paraphernalia  of  Patafijali,  exercised  for  a “limited 
time,” 1 not  a word  about  standing  on  one  leg  for  years.  The 
difference  is  more  than  superficial,  however.  The  one-leg 
Yogin  strove  for  one  thing  only,  supernatural  powers.  Tale 
after  tale  recounts  what  powers  he  gained  by  these  exercises, 
and  these  powers  were  his  goal.  He  was  deistic  but  he  had 
no  thought  of  “entering  Brahman,”  only  of  controlling  the 
powers  terrestrial,  celestial,  and  elemental.  On  death  his 
goal  is  to  be  a spirit  free  and  powerful,  enjoying  good  things. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Yogin  of  the  pseudo-epic  discipline 
learns  all  these  powers,  but  “ he  who  practises  them  goes  to 
hell,”  because  his  goal  was  not  to  be  a thaumaturge  but  to  be 
released.  Both  experienced  the  apunarbhavakama,  “longing 
not  to  be  born  again,”  but  the  first  desired  bala,  or  Yoga 
“ lordship,”  aigvarya,  and  all  his  efforts  were  directed  to  that 
end ; while  the  last  desired  lordship  only  as  a means  soon  to 
be  rejected  for  something  higher,  release,  moksa,  or  kevalatva, 
isolation,2  and  eventually  the  recognition  of  ekatva,  unity,  of 
intellect,  mind,  senses,  and  universal  soul,  atmano  vyapinah, 
xii,  241,  2-3.3 

The  Brahmaistic  Yogin  is  an  advance  on  the  deistic  Yogin. 
The  latter  recognizes  only  isolation,  kevalatva.  So  under 
the  influence  of  Vishnuism  a lecture  which  teaches  Brahman 
isolation  appears  revamped  as  pantheistic  Brahmaism.4 

In  xii,  317,  16  ff.,  the  Yogin  meditates  on  the  eternal  Lord- 
Spirit  and  Brahman,  tasthusam  purusam  nityam  . . . Iganam 
brahma  ca,  the  Yogin  being  in  concentration  and  trance,  sam- 
yama,  samadhi:  “Like  a flame  in  a windless  place,  like  a 

1 xii,  241,  22  ff.  evam  parimitam  kalam  (six  months)  acaran  aslno  hi 
rahasy  eko  gacched  aksarasamyatam.  Cf.  pratibha,  apavarga,  317, 14. 

2 The  chapter  xii,  289,  shows  that  moksa  may  be  simply  isolation  or  inde- 
pendence and  does  not  necessarily  connote  absorption. 

8 The  whole  Yogakrtya  is  comprised  here  in  this  union  as  “ the  highest 
knowledge.” 

4 The  compilers  are  not  averse  to  this  practice ; it  is  a common  Hindu 
method  of  improvement.  Either  the  text  is  rewritten  and  interpolated  or  it 
is  allowed  to  stand  and  another  section  is  prefixed  or  added  of  the  same  con- 
tent differently  treated.  The  rule  is  that  the  improvement  precedes  the 
original. 


108 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mountain  peak  (compare  kutastha),  he  beholds  Brahman, 
which  is  like  a fire  in  great  darkness.”  Then  “ on  abandoning 
his  body  without  a witness,”  this  Yogin,  after  attaining  in  life 
his  powers  over  the  breathings  and  elements,  rudrapradhanas, 
and  wandering  about  with  the  “ body  of  eight  characteristics,” 
enters  into  the  Lord-  Spirit  who  is  isolated,  kevalaih  yati,  for 
“this  is  the  Yogin’s  Yoga;  what  else  would  have  the  sign  of 
Yoga?  ” 1 So  ends  the  chapter,  without  a suggestion  that  the 
Yogin  is  to  be  identified  with  Vishnu. 

In  the  imitation  and  improvement  of  this  passage,  thrust 
before  it  in  the  text,  the  Yogin’s  release  does  not  end  matters, 
though  Vishnuism  is  inserted  rather  clumsily,  as  will  be  seen 
from  an  analysis  of  the  whole  section,  301,  11  ff.  “ Cutting 
off  the  five  faults  by  Yoga,  people  freed  of  sins  obtain  that 
place  (or  condi tiou),  tat  padam,  like  as  big  fishes  cut  through 
a net  and  get  the  water  (the  fish  is  not  identical  with  the 
water,  tat  padam  is  place  or  condition,  freedom).  Even  as 
strong  animals,  mrgah,  cut  the  net,  so  they  would  get  a clean 
road  when  they  are  freed  from  all  their  bonds.  Endued  with 
strength,  Yogas,  on  cutting  thus  the  bonds  made  by  greed,  go 
the  clean  way  that  is  highest  and  auspicious.  . . . Those  with- 
out power  are  destroyed,  those  that  have  power  are  released, 
mucyante  balanvitah.  . . . On  acquiring  Yogar-power  one  can 
oppose  the  many  objects  of  sense,  vyuhate  visayan,  as  an  ele- 
phant opposes  a great  stream.  By  Yoga-power  made  inde- 
pendent, avaQah,  Yogins  enter  Prajapatis  and  seers  and  gods 
and  the  elements,  as  their  lords.  Not  Yama  nor  the  End- 
maker  (differentiated  here,  often  as  one),  though  angered, 
nor  Death,  fearful  in  prowess,  not  all  these  lord  it  over  a 
Yoga  of  unmeasured  energy.  A Yoga  could  make  himself 
many  thousands  when  he  has  got  his  power,  and  with  these 
could  wander  over  earth.  Such  an  one  could  take  the  objects 
of  sense  and  then  perform  hard  austerity  and  again  reduce  it, 
as  the  sun  does  his  beams  of  light,  tejogunas.  The  Yoga  who 
holds  to  the  power  and  is  lord  of  bonds  obtains  in  release, 
vimokse,  the  fullest  lordship,  prabhavisnutva.  These  powers 

1 etad  lii  yogam  yoganam  kim  anyad  yogalaksanam,  317,  27. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


109 


obtained  through  Yoga  have  been  obtained  by  me.  For  elu- 
cidation I will  now  tell  thee  again,  O King,  also  about  the 
subtile  powers.1  Hear  from  me,  O Bharata,  the  subtile  signs 
of  the  soul  in  concentration,  samadhiina,  and  in  respect  to  con- 
templation, dharana,  O lord.  As  an  archer  by  being  attentive, 
apramatta,  with  concentration  hits  the  mark,  so  the  Yogin, 
properly  intent,  doubtless  obtains  release,  inoksa.  As  a man 
intent,  yukta,  with  intent  mind  would  go  up  a ladder,  steadily 
fixing  his  thoughts  on  tire  vessel  full  of  oil  (in  his  hands),  so 
the  Yoga  here,  intent,  O King,  steadily  makes  spotless  his 
soul  (till)  it  looks  like  the  image  of  the  sun.2  As  the  steers- 
man with  concentration,  samahita,  would  guide  a ship  on  the 
ocean,  so  by  applying  self-concentration  with  intentness,  iitma- 
samadhanam  yuktva  yogena,  he  that  knows  the  true,  tattva, 
gets  a place  hard  to  attain,  durgam  asthanam,  after  leaving 
his  body  here.  As  a charioteer  with  concentration  yoking, 
yuktva,  good  horses,  quickly  brings  the  knight  to  the  desired 
place,  degam  istam,  so,  O King,  the  Yogin  with  his  mind  con- 
centrated in  contemplation  quickly  gets  the  highest  place, 
pararii  sthanan,  just  as  the  arrow  when  released,  rnukta,  finds 
its  mark.  The  Yogin  who  stands  steadily  seeing  self  in  self 
destroys  sin  and  gains  the  unalterable  place,  padam,  of  those 
who  are  pure.  The  Yogin  who  properly  joins,  yunkte,  with 
his  soul  (seif)  the  subtile  self  in  the  navel,  throat,  head,  heart, 
chest,  sides,  eye,  ear,  and  nose,  quickly  consuming  his  Karma, 
good  and  bad,  though  mountainous  (in  size),  having  recourse 
to  highest  Yoga  is  released,  if  he  wishes.” 

This  is  the  end  of  the  discourse  for  the  present.  Nothing 
is  said  of  the  Yogin’s  emancipation  being  other  than  a release 
from  bonds.  The  conversation  turns  to  the  question  of  food 
and  means  of  restraint  of  the  senses,  the  hard  path  of  auster- 

1 These  words  are  perhaps  the  mark  of  interpolation  here. 

2 sneha-purne  yatha  patre  mana  adliaya  nigcalam,  puruso  ynkta  arohet 
sopanam  yuktamanasah,  ynktas  tatha  ’yam  atmanam  yogah  parthiva  nigcalam 
karoty  amalam  atmanam  bhaskaropamadarganam.  In  317,  22,  tailapatram 
yatha  purnath  karabhyam  grhya  purusah  sopanam  aruhed  bhitas  tarjyamano 
'sipanibhih  sarhyatatma  bhayat  tesam  na  patrad  bindum  utsrjet  tathai  ’vo 
’ttaram  agamya  ekagramanasas  tatha,  etc. 


110 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ities  which  makes  the  subtile  soul  shine  forth,  but  he  who 
follows  it  “is  released  from  birth  and  death,  ill  and  weal.” 
“ This,”  it  is  then  said,  “ is  what  has  been  set  forth  in  various 
Yoga-(Jastras;  in  the  twice-born  is  admittedly  the  highest 
Yoga  practice,”  krtyam,  gl.  57. 

Thus  far  the  glokas  and  the  final  stanza  seems  to  show  that 
this  is  the  end.  But  to  this  are  tagged  on  five  tristubh  stan- 
zas, with  which  the  chapter  now  concludes:  “That  highest 
Brahman-made  Brahman  and  Lord  Vishnu,  the  boon-giver,  O 
greahsouled  one,  and  Bhava,  and  Dharma,  and  the  six-faced 
(god),  and  the  sons  of  Brahmin,  tamas,  rajas,  sattva,  and  high- 
est Prakrti,  and  Siddhi  the  goddess  wife  of  Varuna,  and  all 
energy,  tejas,  and  patience,  and  the  pure  lord  of  stars  in  the 
sky  with  the  stars,  all  the  all-gods,  the  snakes,  and  manes, 
and  all  mountains,  the  terrible  seas,  all  rivers  with  forests  and 
clouds,  Nagas  and  nagas,  troops  of  genii,  spaces,  the  angel 
hosts,  males  and  females  — one  after  the  other  attaining,  the 
great  great-souled  Yogin  would  enter  soon  after  he  is  released. 
And  this  narration,  O King,  is  auspicious  in  that  it  rests  on 
the  god  who  has  great  vigor  and  intelligence.  Such  a great- 
souled  Yogin,  overpowering  all  mortals,  acts,  having  the  self  of 
Narayana  ” (according  to  the  commentator,  makes  all  tilings 
as  being  identical  with  Narayana).1 

It  is  true  that  a view  which  ignores  every  indication  of  in- 
terpolation may  insist  that  literature  is  to  be  treated  without 
critique,  overlook  the  patchwork,  and  concentrate  emphasis 
on  this  last  narayanatma  to  offset  the  whole  teaching  preced- 
ing, which  is  that  the  soul  gets  isolation,  not  absorption  into 
Brahman.  But  even  then  Narayana  is  not  philosophical 
Brahman.  In  the  following  chapter,  which  is  a new  discus- 
sion, 302,  55,  the  Kapilah  Samkhyah  are  also  led  to  emancipa- 
tion, in  which  teaching  atman  rests  on  Narayana,  Narayana 
rests  on  emancipation,  but  emancipation  has  no  support  (the 
same  word  as  above  of  the  narration  which  rests  on  Niirayana), 
moksam  saktam  tu  na  kvacit;  though  the  Samkhya  pliiloso- 

1 yogi  sa  sarvfin  abhibhuya  martyan  narayanatma  kurute  mahatma,  301, 

02. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


Ill 


phers  are  finally  conducted  through  an  unfinished  sentence 
eighteen  §lokas  long1  to  Narayana,  who  bears  them  to  the 
Highest  Soul,  when  they  become  fitted  for  immortality,  and 
return  no  more,  gl.  78. 

These  are  chapters  of  a sectarian  cult,  which  seeks  to  in- 
clude in  its  embrace  all  systems  of  philosophy,2  and  does  so 
vi  et  armis.  The  more  precious  and  reliable  are  those  expo- 
sitions which  show  the  systems  still  but  slightly  twisted  from 
their  original  form.  This  last  is  a system  called  Vedanta, 
302,  71,  as  I have  already  remarked,  but  in  point  of  fact  it, 
i.  e.,  this  last  chapter,  not  the  preceding  exposition,  is  an  ex- 
position of  Yoga  twisted  into  sectarian  Brahmaism.  The 
soul  eventually  enters  Vishnu,  who  is  unconditioned  Brahman, 
and  does  not  return ; but  it  enters  by  jiva  and  videha  mukti, 
in  Yoga  style.  That  is,  before  death  the  real  soul  enters 
Vishnu,  leaving  behind  in  a man  not  soul  but  only  mind  and 
senses.  Shortly  after,  however,  one  is  really  “released  and 
gets  peace.”  This,  it  is  said,  is  the  Samkhya  system  which 
is  identical  with  eternal  Brahman  (302,  96-101 ; compare  106, 
amurtes  tasya  . . . samkhyam  murtir  iti  grutih).  The  Samkhya 
system,  which  is  at  first  said  to  be  faultless  (§1.  4),  is  in  §1.  13 
declared  to  have  faults  as  well  as  virtues,  the  same  being  true 
of  Veda  and  Yoga;  that  is,  this  teaching  is  put  forward  as  an 
improvement  on  the  old,  though  the  accepted  base  is  the 
Samkhya.  It  is  pretended  that  the  teachers  teach  as  do  the 
Ivapilas,  who  are  endued  with  knowledge  and  “clarified  by 
ratiocination,”  karanair  bhavitah  gubhah,  §1.  17. 

Difference  between  Samkhya  and  Yoga. 

As  has  been  shown  above,  the  epic  itself  teaches  that  the 
great  difference  between  the  two  systems  is  that  the  Samkliya 
does  not  believe  in  a personal  God,  while  God  is  the  supreme 

1 xii,  302,  24-62.  Compare  5-17  also  one  sentence.  These  interminable 
sentences  are  marks  of  the  late  style  of  the  pseudo-epic. 

2 In  9I.  108  it  is  said  that  this  Vedanta  (5I.  71)  Samkhya  embraces  all  the 
knowledge  found  in  Samkhyas  and  Yoga  (samkhyesu  tathai  ’va  yoge),  the 
Purana,  the  great  Itihasas  (pi.),  Artha9astra,  and  the  world  (Lokayata  ?). 


112 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


belief  of  the  Yogin.  A further  difference  is  found  by  the 
commentator  in  the  words  of  xii,  240,  8,  where  it  is  said : 
“ Vishnu  in  stepping,  (yakra  in  power,  Agni  in  the  digestive 
organ  (etc.)  wishes  to  enjoy,”  bhoktum  icchati,  a stanza 
wedged  between  the  statements  that  bodies  come  from  earth, 
etc.,  and  that  ears,  etc.,  are  organs  of  sense.  What  is  appar- 
ent is  that  experience  is  here  shifted  from  pure  spirit  to  the 
corresponding  divinity.1 

So  far  as  I know,  the  difference  of  opinion  is  nowhere  in  the 
epic  stated  to  involve  a distinction  between  the  two  systems, 
and  in  this  chapter  the  subject  of  active  and  experiencing 
spirit  is  not  further  touched  upon.  I doubt,  therefore,  the 
validity  of  the  commentator’s  explanation  as  applied  to  the 
epic,  but  bis  words  are  worth  citing:  “In  the  Yoga  system 
the  spirit  is  not  active  but  experiences  only,  while  in  the 
Sariikhya  system  the  spirit  neither  acts  nor  experiences.  In 
this  passage  the  poet  repudiates  the  first  doctrine,  and  ex- 
presses approval  of  the  second  ” (by  naming  devas  as  “ enjoy- 
ers,”  and  thus  showing  that  it  is  only  a false  imagination  of 
the  spirit  when  it  thinks  itself  an  “ enjoyer  ”).2 

According  to  the  epic,  all  activity  resides  in  Prakrti,  the 
Source  alone,  while  experience  resides  in  spirit  but  only  as  the 
latter  is  conditioned  by  its  environment,  prakrtisthah,  so  that 
when  it  is  in  the  body  the  highest  spirit  is  called  enjoyer  and 
active,  but  it  is  not  really  so,  kurvann  api  na  lipyate,  na 
karoti  na  lipyate.  This  is  the  explanation  of  the  Gita3 
(which  denies  that  there  is  any  speculative  difference  between 
the  two  systems),  and  is  found  often  enough  elsewhere.4  So 
God  as  a conditioned  being,  spirit,  enjoys  the  gunas,  as  in 
xii,  340,  where  the  twenty-fifth  principle,  though  “ without 

1 As  in  Mait.  Up.  vi,  10,  bhokta  puruso  bhojya  prakrtih,  “enjoy”  is  some- 
times sensuously  rendered,  “ Spirit  is  the  eater,  l’rakrti  the  food.”  Ordinarily 
“enjoy”  is  experience. 

2 yogamate,  atma  bhoktai  ’va  na  tu  karta;  sariikhyamate  tu,  na  bhokta 
na  ’pi  karte  ’ti ; tatra  ’dyam  dusayati,  etc. 

8 Gita,  3,  27 ; 6,  7 ; 13,  20,  etc. 

4 Compare  xii,  247,  1-2:  “The  spirit  supervises  modifications  (he  knows 
them,  they  do  not  know  him),  he  does  what  is  to  be  done  (only)  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  senses  and  mind,  the  sixth  ” (like  a charioteer,  as  above). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


113 


characteristics,”  is  gunabhuj  or  enjoyer  of  gunas  as  well  as  the 
superior  creator  of  gunas,  gunasrastii  gunadhikah,  jl.  28.1  So 
9iva  is  sas^ibhaga  (below).  “ Like  a lamp  giving  light  know 
the  jnanatman,  knowledge-spirit,  Purusha,  to  be  in  all  crea- 
tures. It  makes  the  ear  hear ; it'hears ; it  sees.  The  body  is 
the  cause  (of  perception),  but  this  (soul)  is  the  doer  of  all 
acts,”  xii,  210,  40.  Here  the  last  clause,  sa  karta  sarvakar- 
manam,  means  that  soul  acts  only  as  modified  by  Prakrti.  In 
xii,  222,  17 ff. : “Whoso  thinks  liimself  an  actor,  faulty  is  his 
judgment.  Activity  is  nature  only,  the  only  factor,”  svabhava 
eva  tat  sarvam  (one  becomes  vitrsna,  9I.  30,  when  one  knows 
the  difference  between  the  Source  and  its  modifications).  In 
xii,  304,  45,  the  Source  does  every  act,  and  it  alone  enjoys, 
agnati.  Opposed  to  this  is  the  Bralimaistic  view,  which  holds 
that  “the  inner  soul,  antaratman,  alone  smells,  tastes,”  etc., 
as  an  entity  separate  from  elements  (below). 

A practical  difference  may  be  found  in  the  attitude  of  the 
two  systems  toward  austerities,  though  it  is  stated  that  this 
exercise  is  common  to  both.  Nevertheless  it  cannot  be  sup- 
posed that  the  “ knowledge-philosopher  ” admitted  as  much 
tapas  as  did  the  Yogin,  whose  practical  discipline  was  almost 
wholly  a “ razor-edged  path  ” of  austerity.  The  practice  is 
occasionally  reprehended,  as  in  xii,  221,  4,  where  it  is  said 
that  fasting  is  not  meritorious,  as  it  is  injurious  to  the  soul’s 
discipline,  atmatantropaghatah,  a view  which  is  of  course  con- 
tradictory to  the  mass  of  teaching  in  the  epic,  for  example,  ib. 
233,  23,  where  penance  is  the  means  of  “ attaining  to  the  being 
that  creates  the  universe.”  The  “ difference  between  Samkliya 
and  Yoga,”  as  admitted  and  explained  in  the  late  passage  xii, 
237,  29  ff.,  is  mainly  a practical  one,  in  that  “ the  Saihkhya 
keeps  aloof  from  objects  of  sense,  controls  the  senses,  and  is 
alike  to  all  creatures,  friendly  to  all,  indifferent  to  all  tilings,2 
injures  no  creatures,  and  so  attains  to  Brahman ; ” whereas 
that  Yoga  is  released  “ who,  transcending  supernatural  power, 
ceases”  (from  activity).  The  Yoga  is  thus  described  in  one 

1 The  twenty-fifth,  not  the  twenty-sixth  principle,  is  here  God. 

2 sarvabhutasadrn  maitrah  samalostafmakancanah,  38,  a standing  epithet. 

"8 


114 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


verse:  yogaigvaryam  atikranto  yo  niskramati  mucyate,  237, 
40.  The  dependence  of  the  Samkhya  on  knowledge  alone  is 
here  merely  implied,  though  the  following  image  of  the  saving 
“ ship  of  knowledge  ” makes  it  clearer,  but  the  whole  passage 
is  a late  attempt  to  interpret  Samkhya  by  another  norm.1 

One  further  practical  difference  between  the  systems  is 
pointed  out  by  the  commentator  at  xii,  241,  34,  where,  after 
asceticism  is  described,  it  is  said  that  a man  of  low  caste  or  a 
woman  seeking  virtue  “ may  attain  the  highest  course  by  this 
path”  (of  the  Yoga).  The  commentator  takes  pains  to  re- 
mark that  this  applies  only  to  the  Yoga,  and  not  to  the 
Samkhya.  A little  farther  on,  in  247,  16,  where  the  same 
system  is  still  taught,  but  on  the  intellectual  side,  not  on  the 
ascetic  side,  it  is,  expressly  stated  that  the  Castra  should  be 
told  only  to  men  of  the  higher  castes,  Snatakas.2 

It  is  expressly  charged  against  the  Pagupata  sect  that  it  is 
subversive  of  caste : “ I,  Rudra,  formerly  for  the  first  time 
invented  the  mysterious  Pagupata  religion,  beneficent  to  all, 
facing  in  all  directions,  one  that  takes  years  or  only  ten  days  3 
to  learn,  one  winch,  though  blamed  by  the  unintelligent  (be- 
cause it  is)  here  and  there  opposed  to  the  rules  of  the  Castra 
and  those  of  the  Orders,  varnagramakrtair  dharmair  viparitam 

1 brahmanam  abhivartate,  a late  carelessness,  repeated  with  ca  ’dhigacch- 
ati,  fl.  36  and  41.  The  four-faced  Brahman  and  the  highest  Brahman,  re- 
spectively, is  the  commentator’s  ready  explanation  (“masculine  by  Vedic 
licence”).  The  same  sort  of  thing  is  found  in  another  later  passage,  where 
a double  carelessness  appears,  brahmanam  adhigatva  (sic)  ca,  iii,  83,  73. 
Part  of  the  above  description  is  a copy  of  the  Gita,  nirmama9  ca  ’naharhkaro 
nirdvandva§  chinnasam^ayah  nai  ’va  krudhyati  na  dvesti,  237,  34,  as  in  Gita, 
6,  3;  12,  13  (=  2,  71) ; 18,  63,  brahmabhuyaya  kalpate. 

2 See  below  the  passage  inculcating  pure  Yoga  (the  twenty-sixth  prin- 
ciple), where  it  is  said,  xii,  319,  89,  that  it  is  a doctrine  of  emancipation  for 
all,  and  knowledge  is  to  be  got  from  all,  for  all  castes  are  Brahmans,  all  are 
born  of  Brahman,  and  all  castes  are  equal ; and  compare  ib.  188,  10  ff.,  na 
vigeso  'sti  varniinam,  etc.  In  261,  21,  atmajfianam  idarii  guyham,  as  in  the 
earliest  Upanishads.  A “God  without  characteristics”  is  responsible  for 
the  democratic  equality  of  the  “no  caste”  view.  So  Qivaism  teaches  that 
castes  are  only  indications  of  position,  brahmnh  svabhavah  is  everywhere 
equal,  and  all  men  aro  children  of  the  one  God  who  created  them,  xiii,  143, 
60-3. 

8 Instead  of  ten  days,  says  the  commentator,  the  Gaudas  read  " five  days.” 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


115 


kvacit  samam,  is  nevertheless  appreciated  by  those  of  per- 
fected wisdom,  gatantas,  and  is  really  superior  to  the  Orders  ” 
(atyagramam,  xii,  285,  194-195).  In  the  preceding  stanza, 
this  Pagupata  is  contrasted  with  the  gods’  and  demons’  relig- 
ion of  austerity,  the  latter  being  “ drawn  from  the  Vedas  and 
Samkhya  and  Yoga  by  logic,”1  another  mark  of  difference  in 
the  views  urged  in  the  epic,  not,  as  often,  concealed  under  a 
pretended  unity,  but  openly  stated. 

Sects. 

I would  say  a word  here  in  regard  to  the  sects  recognized 
in  the  epic,  though,  except  for  their  philosophy,  I do  not  in- 
tend to  touch  further  on  them.  The  epic  commentator  sees  in 
the  epithet  pancamahakalpa,  applied  to  Vishnu,  a reference 
to  the  scriptures,  agamas,  of  five  diverse  sects,  Sauras,  (^iiktas, 
Ganegas,  Caivas,  and  Vaisnavas.  The  epic  in  reality  recog- 
nizes only  the  first  and  last  two,  for  the  allusion  to  shadow- 
worship  (which  the  commentator  explains  as  a Left-hand  rite) 
though  interesting,  does  not  imply  necessarily  a body  called 
Caktas,  and  Ganegas  are  unknown,  the  god  himself  belong- 
ing only  to  the  pseudo-epic  introduction,  and  very  likely  in- 
terpolated there,  as  has  been  shown  by  Dr.  Winternitz.  Even 
Durga  seems  to  be  a late  addition  to  the  epic  as  she  appears 
hymned.  But  the  Caivas  are  known  as  having  a religion 
called  Pagupata  (above)  and  the  Vaisnavas  and  Sauras  are 
known  in  two  late  passages,  xviii,  6,  97  and  vii,  82,  16,  under 
these  names.  I suppose  only  the  synthetic  method  would 
claim  that  the  whole  epic  recognizes  the  titles  of  sects  so 
sporadically  mentioned.  The  older  Vishnuite  sect-name  is 
Pancaratra  or  the  more  personal  “devotees  of  the  Lord,” 
Bhagavatas,  and  Bhagavadbhaktas,  even  these  being  rather 

1 Rudra  says  to  Daksa : bhuyag  ca  te  varam  dadmi  tarn  tvam  grhnisva 
suvrata,  prasannavadano  bhutva  tad  ihai  ’kamanah  grnu;  vedat  sadangad 
uddhrtya  samkhya-yogac  ca  yuktitah  tapah  sutaptam  vipulam  dugcaram 
devadanavaih,  xii,  285,  191-192 ; and  then  as  aboye,  in  contrast,  the  Pagupata 
system,  which  has  overthrown  the  older  systems  (Rudra  destroys  Daksa’s 
sacrifice). 


116 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


rare.  The  last,  for  example,  is  found  in  i,  214,  2 (with 
'bhaiksas  or  cauksas).  The  same  passage  that  calls  Vishnu 
pancamahakalpa  gives  him  the  titles  of  Praclnagarbha  (below) 
and  Kaugika  and  identifies  him  with  the  Atharvagiras  Upani- 
shad,  xii,  839,  113-125.  Though  the  god  is  here  Vishnu,  I 
venture  to  think  the  last  epithets  were  originally  applied  to 
£iva.  The  “white  men”  of  the  White  Island,  or  rather 
country  (dvlpa  = the  dig  uttara  or  more  exactly  uttarapagci- 
mena,  “in  the  Northwest,”  336,  8-10;  337,  21  ff.)  must  be 
Kashmere  Brahmans,  who  are  often  almost  as  white  as  Euro- 
peans and  whose  religion  was  the  worship  of  £iva  (as  a god  of 
culture  and  letters)  in  monotheistic  form,  which  is  here  per- 
verted. The  location  “Northwest”  and  “far  North”  can 
scarcely  be  anywhere  else  than  Kashmere,  where  alone  “ north- 
ern white  men,”  gvetah  pumansah,  336,  10,  were  to  be  seen.1 

The  Different  Schemata. 

The  philosophical  schemes  elaborated  in  the  epic  show  three 
distinct  groupings,  which  must  belong  to  different  systems. 
These  are  the  Saiiikhya,  the  Yoga,  and  a third  system,  which 
follows  a different  series  of  topics.  All  three  differ  essentially 
from  Vedism  and  Brahmaism,  as  this  latter,  in  turn,  differs 
from  what  we  call  Vedanta.  Both  of  the  latter  are  repre- 
sented, making  six  systems,  as  said  above ; but  of  these  there 
are  full  schemata  or  topica  in  three  cases  at  least,2  indicating 
what  for  convenience  I shall  call  scholastic  differences,  the 
three  schematizing  systems  being  here  termed  schools.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  point  out  that  no  one  set  of  teachers,  mucli 
less  the  one  poet  of  the  unhistorical  method,  would  have  incul- 
cated six  systems,  or  elaborated  three  schools,  especially  as  the 
topics  of  two  of  these  schools  imply  a fundamental  difference 
between  them. 

1 The  “ Sea  of  milk  ” in  the  Puranas  is  said  to  surround  a Himalayan 
mountain,  KrauHca.  The  second  (earlier)  account  of  the  “ white  men  ” in  the 
epic  is  quite  Samkhyan,  God  is  Purusha,  etc. 

2 Compare  also  the  rather  rare  recognition  of  pure  Vedanta  Maya- 
Brahmaism,  and  above  in  the  first  chapter  the  philosophy  copied  from  the 
Upanishads  without  identification  of  soul  with  sectarian  god. 


UPTC  PinLOSOPIIY. 


117 


Common  to  all  three  schools  is  the  distinction  between 
the  First  Cause  or  Source  as  manifest  and  unmanifest.  The 
manifest,  or  known,  is  all  that  is  born,  grows,  ages,  and  dies, 
while  the  unmanifest,  or  unknown,  is  “ the  opposite,” 1 that 
is,  it  is  devoid  of  these  four  marks,  laksanas.  Further,  Sam- 
khya  and  Yoga  both  admit  two  selves,  atmans,  it  is  said,  which 
are  declared  “in  the  Vedas  and  in  the  Siddhiintas.” 2 The 
first  is  that  born  with  the  four  marks,  that  is,  those  of  the 
manifest,  and  has  four  objects  (caturvarga,  virtue,  pleasure, 
gain,  emancipation).  This  is  the  manifest  self,  born  of  the 
unmanifest;  it  is  awakened,  buddha,  but  has  not  the  highest 
intelligence,  cetana;  it  is  the  conditioned  sattva  soul,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  pure  knowing  soul,  ksetrajha,  though  both 
are  attached  to  objects  of  sense.  “ Both  systems  admit  twenty- 
five  topics,”  a statement  to  be  reviewed  below. 

The  Unmanifest  is  that  which  cannot  be  known,  avedyam, 
which  has  no  padanyasa,  leaves  no  track,  and  is  therefore 
beyond  knowledge,  xii,  205,  18;  avedyam  avyaktam,  xii,  319, 
42.  Kapila  calls  it  the  adya,  and  says  he  uses  the  term 
First  Cause,  Source,  Prakrti,  merely  to  escape  a regressus 
ad  infinitum.  It  is  therefore  merely  a name,  samjnamatram. 
It  is  used  of  the  That : “ One  could  never  reach  the  end  of 
causation,  nai  ’va  ’ntam  karanasye  ’yat,  even  if  one  went 
unceasingly  like  an  arrow  from  the  cord,  yatha  bano  gunacyu- 
tah,  and  swift  as  thought.  Nothing  is  more  subtile  than  the 

1 So  in  xii,  217,  9-10,  it  is  said  that  Prakrti  creates  and  has  three  gunas, 
while  spirit’s  marks  are  “ the  opposite  ” (for  the  threefold  gunas  are  only  his 
“ turban,”  $1.  12). 

2 xii,  237,  27,  31,  siddhantesu.  Siddhanta  is  mentioned  also  in  i,  70,  44. 
In  the  present  passage  the  commentator  takes  the  Vedas  and  Siddhantas  as 
Purvamimansa  and  Uttaramimansa.  Another  late  expression  in  this  section 
describes  the  effulgent  jiva-yoked  car  as  having  all  the  Tantras  as  its  goad 
(sarvatantrapratodah,  xii,  237, 11,  straddles  the  padas),  where  the  commentator 
says  £astra,  and  is  probably  right,  as  we  have  Nyayatantras  mentioned,  which 
are  doubtless  works  on  logic.  Compare  with  the  passage  above,  xii,  206,  28, 
avyaktatma  puruso  vyaktakarma  so  'vyaktatvam  gacchati  hy  antakale ; xii, 
199,  125,  caturbhir  laksanair  hlnam  tatha  sadbhih  sasodayaih  purusam  tarn 
atikramya  akaijam  pratipadyate  (the  six  are  ills  and  the  sixteen  are  breaths, 
organs,  and  mind,  according  to  the  commentator),  but  the  four  are  here  said 
to  be  cetas  and  three  proofs. 


118 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


unmanifest  That  (gl.18) ; nothing  is  coarser.  Finer  than  fine, 
greater  than  great  is  That,  the  invisible  end  of  all  things,” 
xii,  240,  28  (29  = £vet.  Up.  iii,  16;  Gita,  18,  13).  It  is  a term 
used  in  both  philosophies,  and  is  simply  equivalent  to  the 
invisible  unknown  First  Cause.  From  its  synonym  Prakrti, 
First  Cause,  it  may  be  called  simply  the  Source.  So  also 
Brahman  is  avyaktam.  Usually  this  term  is  defined  in  such 
negatives  as  in  neti  neti , a superabundance  of  which  appears 
in  this  definition : “ Brahman  has  not  been  explained  by 
mantras;  with  the  world  of  experience  it  has  not  anything 
in  common;  it  has  not  sound,  touch,  not  form;  it  is  not  com- 
prehended ; not  manifest  . . . not  female,  not  male,  not  neuter 
(as  in  251,  22),  not  being,  not  woi-being,  not  being-and-noi- 
being  . . . not  perishable,” 1 an  imitation  of  older  matter. 

This  “ Unknown,”  which  forms  the  common  basis  of  the 
great  philosophical  systems,  in  the  Saxhkhya  connotes  potential 
egoism,  becomes  known  first  as  Ego  or  self-conscious  intellect, 
and  out  of  this  egoism  is  developed  the  whole  created  uni- 
verse ; over  against  which  stands  the  pure  unconscious  spirit, 
the  real  Ego.  This,  in  outline,  is  the  whole  plan  of  the  Saiii- 
khya  philosophy,  which  admits  nothing  outside  of  pure  Ego 
and  self-conscious  Ego,  and  ascribes  all  apparent  other  to 
modifications  of  egoism.  There  are  here  twenty-four  prin- 
ciples over  against  the  pure  spirit  Ego  as  the  twenty-fifth.2 

On  the  other  hand,  besides  these,  the  Yogin’s  system  super- 
adds one  exalted  spirit  as  Supreme  Spirit,  or  God,  the  twenty- 
sixth  principle. 

The  Patjupatas  and  Bhagavatas  have  a different  system  of 
categories,  but  teach  that  the  Supreme  Spirit  as  a personal  God 
becomes  manifest ; in  the  latter  sect,  as  a god-man. 

Common  to  the  three  schools  is  the  belief  in  the  three  con- 
stituents of  the  Unmanifest,  called  gunas;  but  these  are  some- 
times treated  as  constituents  and  sometimes  as  attributes. 

1 na  san  na  ca  ’sat  sad-asac  ca  tan  na  . . . tad  aksaraih  na  ksarati  ’ti  viddhi. 
In  251,  22,  Brahman  is  asukham  as  well  as  aduhkham,  “ not  joy,  not  sorrow.” 

2 Prakrti  is  devoid  of  the  highest  intelligence,  acetana,  and  only  when 
supervised  by  spirit  creates  and  destroys.  Purusha  lias  millions  or  1,400,000 
courses,  xii,  315,  12  ; ib.  2 ; 281,  30. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


110 


The  Gunas. 

The  Unknown  becomes  known  as  a result  of  energy,  tejas 
or  rajas,  rousing  itself  and  rousing  conditioned  being,  sattva,1 
out  of  the  equilibrium  which  is  maintained  between  these  tw'o 
and  inertia  (dulness,  darkness,  tamas).  These  are  the  three 
constituents  of  the  conscious  Ego,  and  consequently  of  all 
things  except  pure  spirit.  That  is  to  say,  energy,  inertia, 
and  existence  (conditioned  being),  characterize  all  things, 
and  life  begins  with  energy  moving  sattva  as  well  as  itself. 
A moral  interpretation  of  these  strands,  gunas,  as  they  are 
called,  makes  being,  as  compared  with  the  other  two,  repre- 
sent the  true  and  real  and  good ; inertia,  the  stupid  and  bad ; 
w'hile  energy  may  be  good  or  bad,  but  is  never  the  best,  as 
that  is  devoid  of  all  activity  (quietism).2  These  gunas,  con- 
stituents, are,  to  use  a term  taken  from  their  grammatical 
application,  themselves  gunated  or  characterized  by  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  qualities,  a meaning  often  found  employed  in 
the  case  of  guna.  Thus  in  xii,  334,  2,  one  abandons  fourfold 
faults,  eightfold  tamas  and  fivefold  rajas.  What  is  of  most 
importance,  however,  from  the  historical  rather  than  the  philo- 
sophical point  of  view,  is  that  in  these  groups  there  is  no 
uniformity  in  the  teaching  of  the  epic.  Thus  in  xii,  314,  21  £f., 
not  five,  as  above,  but  over  twenty  faults  are  given  as  charac- 
teristics, gunas,  of  rajas.  In  the  same  way,  sattva  has  in  xii, 

1 Sattva  (compare  satyasya  satyam)  is  being,  but  not  absolute  being,  which 
is  free  from  consciousness  of  self.  We  may  best  render  the  “ three  strands  ” 
or  inherent  constituents  of  creation  (everything  except  pure  spirit)  by  energy, 
inertia,  and  conscious-existence,  which  exist  potentially  in  the  undeveloped 
and  actually  in  the  developed  universe.  I am  aware  that  the  gunas  are 
translated  differently  by  high  authorities,  but  must  for  the  present  refrain 
from  further  discussion  of  the  interpretation. 

2 Compare  Gita,  17,  26:  “Sat  is  employed  in  the  meaning  of  existence  and 
of  good”  (commentator  wrong).  The  avyakta  (unknown  undeveloped)  is 
gunated  as  much  as  is  vyakta,  only  the  equilibrium  not  being  disturbed  the 
gunas  are  merely  potential,  avyaktam  trigunam  smrtam,  xiv,  39,  24.  In  re- 
gard to  “ darkness,”  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  older  philosophies, 
darkness,  tamas,  is  not  a quality  but  a substance  (only  tbe  Nyaya  regards 
it  as  absence  of  light).  See  the  argument  in  the  Aulukya  chapter  of  the 
Sarvadar9ana. 


120 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


342,  13,  eighteen  gunas,  while  in  314,  17  ff.,  nearly  double 
this  number  are  given  it,  including  most  of  the  former  group 
but  placed  in  a different  arrangement.  Again  in  xii,  302, 14- 
16,  sattva  has  ten  (unexplained)  gunas ; rajas,  nine ; tamas, 
eight;  buddhi,  seven;  manas,  six;  nabhas,  five;  but  then, 
again,  buddhi  has  fourteen ; tamas,  three ; rajas,  two ; sattva, 
one.1  This  merely  means  that  each  strand  has  certain  attri- 
butes.2 The  same  list,  for  instance,  is  given  in  the  AnugTta, 
xiv,  38,  2 ff.,  as  indications  of  sattva.  It  seems  unnecessary 
to  enumerate  these  varying  characteristics.  The  gist  of  them 
all  is  found  in  Gita,  14,  9 ff. : sattva  belongs  to  pleasant 
things,  rajas  to  activity,  tamas  to  apathy.  So  in  xii,  194,  30, 
a touch  of  joy  is  characteristic  of  sattva,  and  “ if  anything  is 
joined  to  joy  there  is  the  condition,  bhava,  of  sattva”  (only 
five  are  given  here)  ; while  in  35  there  are  five  lingas  or  signs 
of  energy,  rajas,  and  in  36,  five  gunas  of  tamas  (=  286,  25  ff., 
with  v.  1.  = 248,  19  ff.)  As  tejas,  energy,  is  attributed  to 
Brahman,  the  term  falls  into  comparative  desuetude,  being 
replaced  by  the  less  moral  rajas,  while  tejas  is  left  as  a 
virtuous  characteristic:  dhutapapma  tu  tejasvl  . . . ninlsed 
brahmanah  padam  (said  of  the  good  man),  and  Brahman  is 
tejomayam,  xii,  241,  9 and  13.  So  tejas  is  a good  quality, 
Gita,  16,  3.3 

In  this  conception,  sattva  is  as  much  of  a bond  as  are  the 
other  two  gunas.  Knowledge  and  pleasure  are  the  attach- 
ments with  which  it  binds  the  soul;  while  rajas  binds  with 
action  and  tamas  with  heedlessness,  laziness,  sleep,  the  signs 
of  inertia,  Gita,  14,  6-8. 

1 The  eighteen  gunas  of  sattva,  to  give  an  example,  are  prltih  prakafam 
udreko  laghuta  suJcham  eva  ea,  akarpatiyam  asamrambhah  sant.osah  praddadha- 
nata,  kxama  dhrtir  ahihsa  ca  f attcam  akrodha  eva  ca,  arjavam  samnla  satyam 
anasuya  tathai  ’va  ca  (those  in  italics  reappear  in  the  longer  list,  314,  17-20). 

2 The  Hindu  conception  is  not  quite  uniform  in  regard  to  the  gunas,  but 
there  is,  I think,  no  reason  for  confounding  essential  constituents  with  attri- 
butes. Joy  and  sorrow  arc  not  the  gunas  themselves  but  their  objective  signs 
in  the  moral  world.  The  true  opposites  are  tejas  and  tamas,  light  and  dark- 
ness, as  energy  and  inertia  physically,  and  as  goodness  and  badness  morally. 

8 But  rajas  often  keeps  its  pure  tejas  sense,  as  in  xiv,  30,  9,  rajah  parya- 
yakiirakam,  rajas  is  energy. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


121 


The  Source,  Prakrti,  is  the  combination  of  the  three  gunas, 
represented  as  a female  productive  power.  Asa  lamp  lights 
thousands  so  the  Source  modifies  herself  into  the  many  gunas 
(characteristics)  of  spirit.  She  does  it  of  her  own  will  and 
desire,  and  for  the  sake  of  sport.1 

According  to  the  proportion  of  gunas  in  a creature,  it  has 
a high,  middle,  or  low  place,  xii,  315,  3-4 ; Gita,  14, 18.  Evi- 
dently, therefore,  the  Yoga-god  must  be  without  gunas,  so 
nirguna  is  predicated  of  him  and  of  Brahman,  nirgunasya  kuto 
gunah,  xii,  306,  29,  as  say  the  gunadarginah,  but  as  God  must 
be  everything  he  is  also  “ with  gunas  ” as  well  as  “ without 
gunas,”  a contradiction  which  is  on  a par  with  God’s  being 
being  and  not  being  being  and  being  neither  being  nor  not>- 
being,  the  common  tangle  of  metaphysics.2  In  fact,  religious 
philosophy  is  hopelessly  at  sea,  not  only  in  regard  to  the 
question  of  a conditioned  God  but  also  in  regard  to  the  gunas 
of  the  spirit.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  energy  and 
inertia  must  be  dispensed  with  in  order  to  a full  attainment 
of  pure  spirithood,  xiv,  51,  25.  But  when  spirit  has  sattva 
alone  or  is  in  sattva  alone,  sattvam  asthaya  kevalam,  is  it  one 
with  this  being  or  not?  Some  say,  “ and  they  are  wise,”  that 
spirit  and  sattva  have  unity,  ksetrajiiasattvayor  aikyam,  but 
this  is  wrong.  Still,  they  cannot  exist  apart.  There  is  unity 
and  diversity,  as  in  the  case  of  the  lotus  and  water-drop,  the 
fish  in  water,  the  fly  in  the  Udumbara  plant,  ekatvananatvam, 
xiv,  48,  9-11. 3 * * * * 8 In  xiii,  108,  7,  sattva  must  be  “washed  out” 

1 prakrtir  gunan  vikurute  svacchandena  ’tmakamyaya  kridarthe  tu,  xii, 
314,  15-16  (prakrtis  tatlia  vikurute  purusasya  gunan  bahun). 

2 God  is  nirguna  and  gunatman  and  nirguna  alone  and  triguna,  etc.,  xii, 

339,  3 ff. ; xiii,  137,  3.  Guna-made  are  all  existences,  Gita,  7,  13 ; God  is  not 
in  them,  they  are  in  him,  ib.,  12.  They  do  not  affect  God,  xii,  340,  22  (in  20  it 

is  said  that  those  devoid  of  rajas  and  tamas  attain  to  God,  presumably  retain- 

ing sattva ; but  elsewhere  sattva  must  also  be  lost,  e.  g.,  335,  30) ; viddhi 

bhavan  madajrayan,  xiv,  54, 2 ; avyaktat  utpanno  mahan  atma  adir  gunanam, 

40, 1. 

8 Here  Telang  is  obliged  to  render  sattva  as  goodness  and  as  nature,  ac- 
cording to  the  verse,  e.  g.,  unintelligent  sattva,  49,  9,  and  12,  where  the  spirit 
enjoys  sattva.  Sattva,  however,  is  always  conditioned  existence  or  a condi- 
tioned being,  abstract  or  concrete.  It  is  the  highest,  because  it  may  be  free 


122 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


of  the  soul  of  pure  Yogins,  along  with  rajas  and  tamas.  In 
these  cases  we  have  simply  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  theology 
to  utilize  the  terms  of  atheistic  philosophy,  which  naturally 
leads  to  confusion.  For  the  terms  (applicable  to  Prakrti)  of 
Saiiikhya  are  incompatible  with  the  philosophy  which  substi- 
tutes God  for  both  Purusha  and  Prakrti. 

When  the  gunas  are  called  atmagunas,  as  in  xiv,  12,  4,  it  is 
to  distinguish  them  as  mental  from  the  bodily  constituents, 
gunah  garirajah,  with  which  they  are  compared.  As  the  three 
constituents  of  the  body,  gitosne  vayug  ca  (=  kapha,  pitta, 
vata)  give  a healthy  condition  when  in  equilibrium,  so  the 
three  atmagunas,  when  equal,  produce  a healthy  condition. 
Here  the  three  are  merely  essential  elements  in  a tridhatu  or 
threefold  entity.  Thus  elements  are  called,  as  the  constit- 
uents or  factors,  dhatavah,  inherent  in  the  Source,  dhatavah 
pancabhautikah,  iii,  211,  9 ff.,  just  as  the  essential  constituents 
of  a king’s  concern  are  called  gunas,  xv,  6,  6. 

Plurality  of  Spirits. 

The  passage  just  cited  from  the  Anuglta  on  “ unity  and 
diversity  ” reflects  an  important  section  in  <j)anti.  Here,  xii, 
316,  3 ff.,  a difference  is  established  between  Unmanifest 
Prakrti  and  spirit,  the  former  being  affected  by  gunas,  inca- 
pable of  escaping  from  them,  and  inherently  ignorant;  the 
latter  being  both  pure  and  contaminated,  because  he  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  Unmanifest.  Causing  creation  he  is  called 
creator.  Because  of  his  observing  as  a spectator  and  of  his 

from  rajas  and  tamas,  but  is  itself,  though  “ good,”  not  “best.”  This  is  what 
is  in  the  Hindu’s  mind,  but  the  distinction  between  this  existence  and  that  of 
God  or  Brahman  is  much  like  that  between  the  highest  knowledge  of  man 
and  that  non-knowledge  knowledge  of  God.  Both  are  attempts  to  release  the 
infinite  from  the  limitation  of  any  definition.  To  say  He  is  is  to  put  Him 
in  a class,  hence  we  cannot  say  He  is,  but  of  course  we  cannot  say  “ He  is 
not.”  He  is  pure  knowledge  but  this  is  a limitation;  hence  He  knows  with- 
out knowing  and  exists  without  existing,  totally  indefinable.  The  difference 
between  the  early  Upanislind  and  epic  philosophy  in  respect  of  conditioned 
Atman,  is  that  only  the  latter  uses  technical  Saiiikhya  terms,  just  as  the  later 
Upanishads  use  them. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


123 


being  without  a second,  ananyatva,  and  of  his  false  opinion 
(of  himself),  abhimana,  Yatis  (Yogas)  regard  him  (the  same 
spirit)  as  both  eternal  and  non-eternal,  manifest  and  unman- 
ifest: “This  is  what  I have  heard  said;  but  those  who  have 
the  religion  of  compassion  and  abide  by  knowledge  alone, 
say  that  there  is  unity  in  the  Unmanifest  but  a plurality  of 
spirits.”  Here  the  last  authorities  are  clearly  the  Samkhyas, 
who  are  characterized  in  the  epic  not  only  as  “devoted  to 
knowledge,”  but  as  especially  moral  and  compassionate.1  The 
section  concludes:  “Purusha,  spirit,  and  the  Unmanifest 
(masculine)  are  different.  The  latter  is  called  eternal  but  is 
not  eternal.  Spirit’s  connection  with  the  Unmanifest  is  that 
of  the  grass  blade  in  its  sheath,  the  fly  and  the  Udumbara, 
the  fish  in  water,  the  fire  in  the  pan,  the  lotus  and  water-drop ; 
there  is  connection  but  not  identity.  This  is  the  Samkhya 
view,  the  best  estimate,  parisamkhyana.” 

So  in  xii,  351,  1,  the  question  is  raised  in  regard  to  one  or 
many  spirits,  only  to  be  answered  with  the  statement  that 
there  may  be  many  spirits,  but  they  all  have  the  same  birth- 
place. The  answer  is  really  assumed  in  the  question,2  so  that 
the  passage  is  of  interest  chiefly  as  showing  a full  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  Kapila  taught  (as  above)  the  doctrine  of  mul- 
titudinous spirits  without  a common  source.  This  is  brought 
out  more  distinctly  in  the  following  statement,  viz.,  that  Vyasa 
(the  Yoga)  teaches  that  all  spirits  have  a common  source, 
although  Kapila  and  other  metaphysicians  have  declared 
(JJastras  in  which  a plurality  of  spirits  is  inculcated : “ In 
the  discussion  (of  this  subject)  by  Samkhya-Yogas  there  are 
many  spirits  assumed  in  the  world  and  (these  philosophers) 
will  not  grant  that  one  spirit  (exists  as  the  sole  source).  (But 

1 ib.  §1.  11 : avyaktai  ’katvam  ity  ahur  nanatvam  purusas  tatha  sarvabhu- 
tadayavantah  kevalam  jnanam  asthitah.  It  is  worth  noticing  how  frequently 
the  Samkhyas  are  called  “ those  who  have  compassion  and  knowledge,”  a 
Buddhistic  inheritance  apparently,  though  this  is  a suggestion  liable  to  seem 
antiquated. 

2 bahavah  purusa  brahmann  utaho  eka  eva  tu,  ko  hy  atra  purusah  fresthah 
ko  va  yonir  iho  ’eyate,  “Are  there  many  spirits  or  only  one!  "Which  is  the 
best  f or  which  (spirit)  is  the  source  ? ” 


124 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


this  is  a mere  assumption)  and,  as  a sole  source  of  many 
spirits  is  declared  (to  exist),  so  will  I explain  that  spirit  which 
is  superior  to  conditions  (or  has  superior  characteristics)  to 
be  the  All.  . . . This  hymn  [Rig  Veda,  x,  90],  the  Purusha- 
Sukta  expounded  in  all  the  Vedas  as  right  and  true,  has  been 
considered  by  (Vyasa),  the  lion  among  sages.  (Estras  with 
rules  and  exceptions,  utsargenapavadena,  have  been  proclaimed 
by  sage  metaphysicians  beginning  with  Kapila.  But  Vyasa 
lias  proclaimed  spirit-unity , purusaikatvam,  and  his  teaching 
in  brief  will  I declare.” 

Nothing  could  show  more  clearly  the  absurdity  of  denying 
the  variegated  beliefs  reflected  in  the  epic,  or  the  ancient 
foundation  of  the  Kapila,  not  in  Brahman  but  in  a plurality 
of  spirits  devoid  of  a common  source.  In  Vyasa  we  have  a 
revolt  against  Kapila,  not  in  absolute  rebuttal,  but  in  a denial 
of  his  chief  principles  and  in  an  attempt  to  show  that  the 
time-honored  system  could  be  interpreted  in  accordance  with 
a belief  in  a personal  God.1 

Another  point  of  importance  is  the  decision  with  which  the 
heretical  view  is  attacked:  “Unity  is  a proper  view,  separate- 
ness is  an  incorrect  view,”  ekatvam  darganam  nanatvam  adar- 
ganam ; again:  “The  view  that  the  Supreme  Soul  is  one 
with  the  individual  soul  is  the  correct  view;  the  view  that 
they  are  separate  is  an  incorrect  view,”  anidarganam  (the  com- 
mentator says  there  is  another  reading  anudarganam,  which 
he  interprets  as  a following  or  later  view,  xii,  306,  35-37). 2 

1 Here  the  author  of  Nirvana,  p.  97,  suppresses  the  fact  that  Vyiisa’s  view 
is  placed  in  antithesis  to  Kapila’s,  and,  leaping  over  the  intervening  verses, 
says  that  Silriikhya-Yoga  in  this  passage  teaches  only  a common  source  of 
souls.  It  is  indeed  said  at  the  end  of  the  text  that  Sariikhya-Yoga  is  Vishnu- 
ism (see  just  below),  hut  no  notice  is  taken  of  the  fact  in  Nirvana  that  the 
special  passage  under  consideration  presents  the  matter  quite  differently. 
The  passage  above  almost  seems  to  imply  that  Vyasa  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a philosophical  teacher  especially,  perhaps  as  the  author  of  a philosophical 
work  (Iloltzmann  opposed,  iv,  p.  Ill);  possibly  of  the  Vyasagrantlia  of  i, 
70,  45  (commentator  opposed).  In  any  case,  Vyiisa’s  teaching,  though  not 
that  of  Badarayana,  claims  to  improve  on  Kapila’s  view. 

2 Compare  Katha,  iv,  11 : (He  perishes)  “who  sees,  as  it  were,  separateness 
here,”  ya  ilia  nane  ’va  pajyati  (the  separateness  is  here  that  of  any  part  of 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


125 


Of  course  the  Samkhya-Y ogas,  being  the  models,  are  cred- 
ited with  the  view  expressly  said  to  be  not  theirs.  So  in  the 
exposition  above  from  xii,  351,  after  Vyasa  has  been  distinctly 
opposed  to  the  Samkliya-Yogas  and  liis  view  is  explained  to 
be  that  the  different  souls  (created  by  Brahmin)  at  last  are 
absorbed  into  their  one  source,  the  “ subtile  entity  appearing  as 
four  ” (Aniruddha,  etc.),  it  is  calmly  said  that  this  is  Samkhya 
and  Yoga,  xii,  352,  12-13,  23.  But  occasionally  tliis  flat  self- 
contradiction  is  avoided,  as  it  is  in  the  second  passage  cited 
above,  by  saying  that  while  Samkliya-Yogas  generally  hold  a 
view  not  quite  orthodox,  the  wise  among  them  think  other- 
wise. Thus:  “That  twenty-fifth  principle  which  the  Saih- 
khyar-Yogas  as  a whole,  sarvagah,  proclaim  to  be  higher  than 
intellect , buddheh  param,  the  wise  declare  is  a (personal) 
Lord,  conditioned  and  not  conditioned,  identical  both  with 
Purusha  and  with  the  Unmanifest  . . . and  this  is  also  the 
opinion  of  those  ivho  being  skilled  in  Samkhya-Yoga  seek  after 
a Supreme ,”  paramaisinah,  xii,  306,  31-33.  In  other  words, 
such  Saiiikhya-Yogas  as  acbnit  that  the  twenty-fifth  topic  is 
a Supreme  Being  say  that  he  is  our  personal  God. 

The  Twenty-fifth  Principle. 

In  the  passage  cited  above,  xii,  306,  33,  the  spirit  is  denomi- 
nated Pancavingatika,  the  twenty-fifth  principle.  This  is  the 
last  Sariikhya  topic.  But:  “The  wise  say  that  the  twenty- 
fifth  creation  is  a topic  and  that  there  is  something  apart  from 
the  topics  and  higher.”  Here  stands  the  implication  of  the 
twenty-sixth  principle,  in  contradiction  to  the  preceding,  as 
appears  still  more  plainly  in  the  next  section,  where  307,  43 
ff.,  it  is  expressly  said : “ Counting  up  the  four-and-twenty 
topics  with  Prakrti,  the  Saihkhyas  recognize  a twenty-fifth 
principle  which  is  apart  from  the  topics ; this  twenty-fifth 
principle  is  said  to  be  the  soul  without  Source  or  un-Prakrti- 
soul,  aprakrtyatma,  when  it  is  enlightened,  budhyamanah ; 
and  when  it  thus  recognizes  self,  it  becomes  pure  and  apart, 

Brahman  from  the  whole).  On  the  Yoga  anudarfanam,  see  the  note  above. 


126 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


yada  to  budhyate  'tmanam  tada  bhavati  kevalah.  This  is  the 
correct  view  according  to  the  topics.  Those  knowing  this 
attain  equableness.  From  direct  perception  one  could  under- 
stand Prakrti  from  guna  and  topic  and  so  one  can  judge  from 
things  without  gunas.  There  is  something  higher  than  the 
destructible.  They  who  do  not  agree  to  this  have  a false 
view  and  do  not  become  emancipated  but  are  bom  again  in 
manifest  form.  The  unmanifest  is  said  to  be  the  All.  But 
the  twenty-fifth  principle  is  not  part  of  this  * all,’  asarvah 
pancavihgakah.  They  that  recognize  him  have  no  fear.” 

Here  there  is  not  an  indication  of  any  principle  higher  than 
the  Samkhya  twenty-fifth,  except  as  the  commentator  reads 
Brahman  into  the  word  self  as  “ soul,”  but  the  word  is  used  of 
jlva  in  the  preceding  verse,  and  of  Brahman  there  is  not  a word. 
The  “ thing  to  be  known  ” is  the  “ twenty-fifth  principle  ” as 
opposed  to  the  Unmanifest,  which  is  here  the  “ field  ” of 
knowledge.  The  view  of  a Lord-principle  is  distinctly  op- 
posed: “It  is  said  that  the  Unmanifest  comprehends  not  only 
the  field  of  knowledge  (as  has  just  been  stated  in  §1.  38)  but 
also  sattva  and  Lord;  the  Samkhya-system  holds,  however, 
that  the  twenty-fifth  principle  has  no  Lord  and  is  itself  the 
topic  that  is  apart  from  topics  ” (that  is,  the  twenty-fifth  prin- 
ciple is  the  supreme  principle),  307,  41 — 42. 

This  whole  chapter,  xii,  307,  26  ff.,  gives  as  close  an  ap- 
proach to  Samkhya  as  is  found  in  the  epic.  It  is  called,  §1. 
42,  the  Samkhyadargana,  parisamkhyanudargana.  That  is 
to  say, 

Samkhya  is  Samkhyana. 

Even  in  the  Anuglta,  xiv,  46,  54-56,  we  read:  “The  or- 
gans, the  objects  of  sense,  the  five  gross  elements,  mind, 
intellect,  egoism,  the  Unmanifest,  and  Spirit  (these  are  given 
in  nominative  and  accusative)  — on  counting  up  all  that 
properly,  according  to  the  distinction  of  topics,  tattva,  one 
gets  to  heaven,  released  from  all  bonds.  Counting  them  over, 
one  should  reflect  on  them  at  the  time  of  one’s  end.  Thus  one 
that  knows  the  topics  is  released,  if  one  abide  by  the  ekanta, 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


127 


doctrine  of  unity.”  So  in  xii,  316,  19,  samkhyadarganam 
etat  te  parisamkhyanam  uttainam,  “the  Saihkhya  system  is 
the  best  enumeration ; ” evam  hi  parisamkhyaya  samkhyah 
kevelatam  gatah,  “ the  Enumerators  by  thus  enumerating 
attain  separateness.”  In  the  same  way  the  \ ogin  gradually 
emancipates  himself  by  parisamkhyaya,  enumerating  the  steps 
of  abstraction,  xii,  317,  16.  The  same  tiling  is  found  in  Gita 
18,  19,  where  gunasamkhyana  or  “enumeration  of  gunas  is 
equivalent  to  Samkhya.  Even  more  strongly  is  this  shown 
when  Yoga  and  Samkliyana  are  antithetic,  like  \oga  and 
Samkhya,  as  in  xii,  314,  3 ff.,  where  the  samkhyanadarginah 
are  opposed  to  yoga-pradarginah ; and  in  xiii,  141,  83 : yukto 
yogam  prati  sada  prati  samkliyanaru  eva  ca. 

The  Saihkhya  Scheme. 

As  I have  shown  above,  this  system  stops  with  the  twenty- 
fifth  principle.  This  fact  sometimes  appears  only  incidentally, 
as  when  in  xiv,  48,  4,  we  read : “ By  ten  or  twelve  suppres- 
sions of  breath  one  attains  to  that  which  is  higher  than  the 
twenty-four.” 1 In  its  environment  this  verse  is  as  significant 
as  it  is  grotesque ; but  it  is  simply  carried  over  from  an  older 
account:  “Turning  the  senses  from  the  objects  of  sense  by 
means  of  the  mind,  one  that  is  pure  and  wise  should  with  ten 
or  twelve  urgings  urge  the  soul  to  that  which  is  beyond  the 
twenty-fourth  principle,”  xii,  307, 10-11.  Here,  at  the  outset 
of  the  chapter  discussed  above,  it  is  evident  that  no  twenty- 
sixth  is  contemplated.  The  conditioned  soul  is  to  be  urged  to 
associate  itself  with  the  pure  soul  and  abstain  from  the  other 
elements  which  condition  it.  This  pure  soul  is  declared  to 
be  the  “inner  self  standing  in  the  breast,”  antaratma  hrda- 
yasthah,  §1.  19,  which  in  Yoga  contemplation  appears  like  a 
bright  fire.  “ It  has  no  source,  ayoni ; it  stands  in  all  beings 
an  immortal  thing,  and  is  not  seen,  but  may  be  known  by 
intelligence,  buddhidravyena  drgyeta.  He  makes  the  worlds, 

1 The  commentator  says  ten  or  twelve,  va  ’pi  may  mean  and,  i.  e.,  twenty- 
two.  He  gives  the  exercises. 


128 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


standing  beyond  darkness,  and  he  is  called  tamonuda,  vitar 
maska,  the  smiter  of  darkness,”  24.  So  much  for  the  Yoga 
doctrine,  where  the  inner  soul  is  that  “which  surpasses  the 
twenty-fourth,”  and  is  then  treated  (as  given  above)  as  neuter 
tad  or  masculine,  but  without  recognition  of  the  Lord-Soul  as 
twenty-sixth.1  Then  follows  the  Sariikhya-jnana  (parisam- 
khyanadarganam),  307,  26  ff. : “It  is  the  system  of  the  Pra- 
krti vadins  and  starts  with  highest  Prakrti,  which  is  the 
Unmanifest.  From  this  is  produced  the  Great  One  (neuter), 
intellect,  as  the  second;  from  the  Great  One,  egoism,  as  the 
third;  and  the  Samkhyatmadarginah  say  that  the  five  ele- 
ments come  from  egoism.  These  together  are  the  eight 
(forms  of)  the  Source,  called  the  eight  sources  (because  pro- 
ductive). The  modifications  are  sixteen.  There  are  five 
gross  elements,  vigesah,  and  five  senses  (or  the  sixteen  are 
the  five  gross  elements  and  ten  organs  with  mind).2  These 
(twenty-four)  are  all  the  topics,  tattvas,  as  explained  in  the 
enumeration  of  the  Samkhyas.  Inversely  as  it  created  them 
the  inner  soul,  antaratman,  also  absorbs  them,  as  the  sea 
absorbs  its  waves.  The  Source  is  a unit  at  absorption  and 
a plurality  at  creation,  ekatva,  bahutva.  The  Source  itself 
has  the  principle  of  productivity,  prasava.  Over  tins  field3 

1 This  section,  like  the  one  cited  above  (to  which  it  is  a parallel),  ends  with 
yoga  eso  hi  yoganam.  The  next  verse  (though  in  the  middle  of  a chapter)  has 
the  Upanishad  mark  of  a closed  account,  yogadar9anam  etavat  (as  in  Katha, 
etavad  anudarfanam).  The  soul  appears  as  a smokeless  fire,  vidhuma,  as  in 
Katha,  iv,  13,  adhumaka ; it  is  anubhyo  anu,  as  Ivatha,  ii,  20,  etc.  The  point 
of  view  is  wholly  that  of  Atmaism  to  the  very  end  without  a trace  of  Vishnu- 
ism. It  is,  however,  an  intruded  section,  for  the  opening  of  the  chapter 
marks  a repetition,  the  questioner  saying  : “ Now  you  have  told  me  all  about 
oneness  and  separateness,  but  I should  like  to  hear  it  all  again  ” (just  as  the 
Anugita  is  marked). 

2 So  the  commentator  explains  $1.  29-30,  eta  prakrtaya?  ca  ’stau  viknrai; 
ca  ’pi  sodafa,  paiica  cai  ’va  vifesa  vai  tatha  pance  ’ndriyani  ca,  etavad  eva 
tattvanam  samkhyam  ahur  manisinah.  But  see  below. 

8 Instead  of  “field”  we  find  also  the  “pasture”:  “When  the  senses  (in- 
driyani  pramathini,  as  in  the  Gita)  return  from  the  pasture,  gocarah,  and 
rest  at  home,  then  slialt  thou  see  the  highest  self  with  the  self,  the  great  all- 
soul ” (self  ),  xii,  251,  6.  The  principle  of  productivity,  prasava,  is  synony- 
mous  with  Prakrti.  Thus  we  have  prakrtija  gunah  (Gita),  and  prasavaja 
gunah,  xiii,  85,  105. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


129 


stands  the  Great  Soul  as  the  twenty-fifth,  called  the  kse- 
traifia,  field-knower,  also  the  male,  Purusha  (avyaktike  pra- 
vigate,  38).  The  field  is  the  Unmanifest,  the  knower  of  the 
field  is  the  twenty-fifth  principle.”  Then  follows  the  extract 
given  above.  It  is  clear  that  here  the  twenty-fifth  principle 
(Purusha)  is  not  a lower  principle  than  a twenty-sixth  (not 
recognized  at  all).  Still  more  remarkable  is  the  following 
exposition : 

In  xii,  311,  8 ff. : “There  are  eight  sources  and  sixteen 
modifications.  Metaphysicians  explain  the  eight  as  the  Un- 
manifest, the  Great  One  (masc.),  egoism,  and  earth,  wind,  air, 
water,  and  light.  These  are  the  eight  sources.  The  modi- 
fications are  (the  five  perceptive  organs)  ear,  skin,  eye,  tongue, 
and  nose ; the  five  (great  elements),  sound,  touch,  color,  taste, 
smell ; the  five  (organs  of  action)  voice,  hands,  feet,  and  two 
organs  of  excretion.  [These  differences,  vigesfrii,  are  in  the 
five  great  elements,  mahabhutas;  and  those  organs  of  per- 
ception are  savigesani,  that  is,  differentiated.]  Mind,  say  the 
metaphysicians,  is  the  sixteenth.”  The  bracketed  stanza 1 in- 
terrupts the  description  (as  in  the  scheme  above)  with  a 
statement  of  the  “ differences  ” appertaining  to  the  gross 
elements  (as  distinct  from  the  fine  elements,  which  have 
only  one  characteristic  apiece,  and  are  avigesa). 

Both  these  schemes2  give  the  Aphorism’s  list,  whereby  the 
tattvas  of  the  Samkhya  (the  Yoga  is  here  expressly  included, 
§1.  8)  appear  as  follows : — 


rThe  Unmanifest 


Eight 
productive 
forms  of 
Prakrti. 


Intellect 
] Egoism 

Five  (fine)  elements  (not  here  named  col- 
lectively;  called  tanmatras  elsewhere). 


1 ete  vifesa  rajendra  mahabliutesu  pancasu  buddhindriyany  athai  ’tani 
savigesani,  Maithila,  311,  14. 

2 Compare  xiv,  40,  1 ff.,  where  the  same  creations  appear, 

9 


130 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Sixteen 

modifica- 

tions. 


'5  Organs  of  Perception  (buddhindriyas,  §1. 
14). 

5 Organs  of  Action  (not  here  named  collec- 
tively ; called,  karmendriyas  elsewhere). 

1 Mind. 

5 Gross  elements  (vigesas,  mahabhutas). 


But  to  the  scheme  at  xii,  311,  there  is  appended  the  following 
incongruous  account,  thus,  gl.  16  ff. : “From  the  Unmanifest 
is  produced  the  Great  Soul,  mahan  atma,  which  the  wise  say 
is  the  first  creation,  and  call  the  pradhanika.  From  the  Great 
One  is  produced  egoism,  the  second  creation,  which  is  called 
buddhyatmaka,  that  is,  identical  with  intellect.  From  egoism 
is  produced  mind,  bhutagunatmaka,  identical  with  the  ele- 
mental constituents,  called  ahamkarika,  that  is,  egoistic,  the 
third  creation,  sargah.  From  mind  are  produced  the  great  ele- 
ments, mahabhutah  (sic),1  the  fourth  creation,  called  inanasa, 
mental.  The  fifth  creation  comprises  sound,  touch,  color, 
taste,  and  smell,  which  is  called  elemental,  bhautika.  The 
sixth  creation  is  the  ear,  skin,  eye,  tongue,  nose,  called  bahu- 
cintatmaka,  that  is,  identical  with  much  thought  (matter  is 
only  a form  of  mind).  The  seventh  creation  is  the  group 
of  organs  (of  action)  after  the  ear,  called  organ-creation, 
aindriya.  The  eighth  creation  is  the  up-and-across  stream 
(of  breaths)  called  arjavaka,  that  is,  upright.  The  ninth  is 
the  down-and-across,  also  called  arjavaka.  These  are  the  nine 
creations,  sargani,  and  the  twenty-four  topics,  tattvani,  de- 
clared according  to  the  system  of  revelation  (grutinidarga- 
nat).”  So  tins  scheme  ends  without  hint  of  a twenty-sixth 
principle,  but  with  productive  mind  and  a substitution  of 
atman,  soul,  for  intellect. 

A more  striking  substitution  is  found  in  xii,  204,  10-11, 
where,  instead  of  the  received  order  as  given  above,  the  list 
from  Source  to  the  senses  is  as  follows: 

1 As  remarked  above,  organs  and  elements  are  called  indifferently  indriyiih 
or  indriyani,  mahabhutah  or  mahabhutani,  as  shown  here  and  elsewhere.  So 
in  this  passage,  sargah  and  sargani.  Compare  tattvan,  above,  p.  08. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


131 


The  Great  Unknown,  or  Unruanilest,  avyaktam,  mahat 

I 

Knowledge,  jnana 

I 

Intellect 

I 

Mind 

I 

enses 

In  the  following  section,  205,  16  IT.,  intellect  active  in  mind 
is  mind.  It  is  mind  which  is  freed  from  the  gunas  and,  ib.  9, 
mind,  as  a form  of  knowledge  impeded  by  the  gunas,  pro- 
duces intellect,  which  must  be  withdrawn  into  mind  again  for 
one  to  attain  the  liighest.  In  these  cases,  there  can  be,  from 
a synthetic  point  of  view,  no  unsystematic  interpretation  of 
intellect  and  knowledge  and  mind,  but  a loose 1 exploiting  of 
Siiiiikkya  in  terms  of  Brahmaism,  because  elsewhere  the  Sam- 
khya  scheme  is  fully  recognized.  So  carelessly  are  the  terms 
employed  that,  while  in  one  part  of  the  exposition  knowledge 
is  Brahman  and  mind  is  a part  of  it,  related  to  it  as  jiva  is  to 
Atman,  in  another  part  we  are  told  that  this  knowledge  comes 
from  something  higher,  the  Unmanifest.  Again,  Brahman  is 
not  the  Unmanifest  but  in  the  Unmanifest,  xii,  319, 1.  There 
is  no  substitution  for  egoism  in  the  above,  for  this  is  recog- 
nized in  another  stanza  which  enumerates  as  the  “group 
called  bhutas,”  (created)  spirit  (!),  Source,  intellect,  objects 
of  sense,  the  organs,  egoism  and  false  opinion,  205,  24.2  Here 

1 These  para  ladders  (compare  Gita,  3,  42 ; Kath.  iii,  10)  are  found  every- 
where and  often  contradict  the  regular  schemes : “ Soul  is  higher  than  mind, 
mind  than  senses,  highest  of  creatures  are  those  that  move ; of  these  the 
bipeds ; of  these  the  twice-born ; of  these  the  wise,  of  these  those  that  know 
the  soul,  atman ; of  these  the  humble,”  xii,  298,  19  ff. ; “ Objects  are  higher 
than  senses,  mind  higher  than  objects,  intellect  higher  than  mind,  the  great 
Atman  higher  than  intellect,”  xii,  247,  3 ff.  (in  249,  2 paro  matah  for  mahan 
parah) ; “ The  unmanifest  is  higher  than  the  great ; the  immortal  is  higher 
than  the  unmanifest:  nothing  is  higher  than  the  immortal”  (ib.).  The  stages 
in  xiv,  50,  54  ff.,  are  space  or  air,  egoism,  intellect,  soul,  the  unmanifest,  and 
spirit ! 

2 This  is  called  the  sarnuho  bhutasamjiiakah,  or  “ group  of  so-called 
created  things,”  which  is  noteworthy  as  containing  Purusha,  spirit,  and  abhi- 
mana,  false  opinion,  as  a distinct  factor. 


132 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  source  of  the  Source  and  of  Purusha  alike  is  Brahman,  a 
view  utterly  opposed  to  the  passages  cited  above. 

The  AnugTta,  which,  as  already  indicated,  also  has  the 
schemes  above,  continues  in  xiv,  42,  with  a parallel  to  xii, 
314,  on  the  relation  of  the  elements  to  the  individual,  as 
organ,  to  the  object,  and  to  the  special  deity  concerned  with 
each  action.  At  the  opening  of  the  eighth  chapter  of  the 
Gita  adhyatma  is  called  the  individual  manifestation.  It  is 
literally  that  connected  with  the  self  or  soul,  and  is  often 
used  as  a noun  in  the  sense  of  metaphysics  (xii,  194  and  248, 
etc.).1 2  In  xii,  314,  4 and  14,  it  is  said  that  an  explanation  as 
the  Samkhyas  represent  it,  yatha  saihkhyanadarginah,  is  given 
of  the  manifestations  according  to  the  individual,  vyaktito 
vibhuti,  which  differs  somewhat  from  that  in  the  AnugTta. 
The  scheme  is  as  follows,  starting  with  the  elements  and 
with  akaga,  air,  as  the  first  bliuta  in  the  latter  account: 


Air 

Wind 

Light 

Water 

Earth 

elements 

adhyatma 

ear 

skin 

eye 

tongue 

nose 

organs  of 
sense 

adhibhuta 

sound 

touch  (ob- 
ject of) 

color 

taste 

smell 

objects 

adhidaivata 

Di$as 

Lightning 
( Pavana) 

Sun 

Soma 

(Water) 

Wind 

divinities 

adhyatma 

feet 

payu 

upastha 

hands 

voice 

organs  of 
action 

adhibhuta 

going 

excretion 

nanda  (gukra)  doing, 
acts 

speaking 

activities 

adhidaivata 

adhyatma 

adhibhuta 

adhidaivata 

Vishnu 

Mind 

thinking 

(mantavya, 

saihkalpa) 

Moon 

Mitra 

Prajapati 

Egoism 

abhimana 

Rudra,  or  In- 
tellect 

Indra 

Fire 

Intellect  * 

understanding, 
or  thinking 

Ksetrajfia, 
or  Brahman 

divinities 

mental 

powers 

activities 

divinities 

1 Compare  the  use  of  these  terms  in  BAIL  iii,  7,  14.  On  adhyatma  in 
this  sense,  compare  also  xii,  331,  30,  adhyatmaratir  asino  nirapeksah  . . . 
atmanai  ’va  sahayena  yaf  caret  sa  suklil  bhavet. 

2 buddhih  sadindriyavicarini,  “ directing  the  six  senses  ” (usually  a function 
of  mind,  which  is  here  pancabhutatmacarakam),  xiv,  42,  20,  and  31.  The 
function  of  intellect  is  here  mantavyam,  which  in  t^nnti  is  given  to  mind. 
Rudra  in  the  preceding  group  in  Anugita  is  replaced  by  buddlii  in  £anti, 
where  buddlii  is  both  adhyatma  and  adhidaivata.  The  adhidaivata  of  intel- 
lect is  spirit,  ksetrajna,  in  Qiinti : Brahman,  in  the  Anugita.  It  is  apparent 
that  we  have  here  (a)  rather  late  matter,  (b)  worked  over  by  two  sets  of 
revisors. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


133 


This  scheme  is  unknown  in  the  older  Upanishads.  Even 
egoism  thus  appears  first  (with  some  variations)  in  Pra^na, 
iv,  8 (Deussen).  Compare  xii,  240,  8,  above,  where  Fire  is 
the  divinity  to  digestion,  not  to  voice,  and  Sarasvatl  is  assigned 
to  the  tongue.  When,  as  often  happens,  no  egoism  is  men- 
tioned, it  is  because  the  intellect  (“  the  twelfth  ” as  it  is  called 
in  the  very  passage  which  gives  thirteen  above,  xiv,  42,  10, 
and  in  the  Paficagikha  schemes  given  below)  is  held  to  imply 
egoism.  The  frequent  omission,  however,  seems  to  point  to 
the  fact  that  there  was  originally  no  distinction,  or,  in  other 
words,  that  intellect  was  primarily  regarded  as  necessarily 
self-conscious  as  soon  as  it  became  manifest  at  all. 

The  Twenty-Sixth  Principle. 

Clearly  as  most  of  the  schemes  given  above  reveal  the  fact 
that  the  twenty-fifth  principle,  or  in  other  words  pure  Ego, 
was  regarded  as  the  culmination  of  the  group  of  systematized 
categories,  the  intrusion  into  this  scheme  of  a new  principle, 
overlapping  the  twenty-fifth,  is  here  and  there  made  mani- 
fest. This  new  principle  is  the  one  denied  in  the  Samkhyan 
scheme,  namely  that  of  a personal  Lord,  Igvara,  which  is 
upheld  in  the  contrasted  Yogin  scheme.  Tliis  twenty-sixth 
principle  is  explained  in  xii,  308 ; after  the  speaker  says  he 
has  disposed  of  the  Saiiikhya  system.  Here  the  male  condi- 
tioned spirit  bewails  his  intercourse  with  the  female  Source, 
and  the  fact  that  associating  with  her  he  has  not  recognized 
that  he  has  been  “like  a fish  in  water,”  a foreign  element  in 
combination  with  matter,  and  consequently  is  reborn  again 
and  again,  q1.  24-26;  but  now  he  becomes  enlightened, 
buddha,  and  will  reach  unity,  as  well  as  likeness  with  the 
Lord-spirit,  the  indestructible,  27—40.  The  twenty-sixth 
principle  is  thus  recognized  not  only  as  the  one  eternal  prin- 
ciple, but  as  a personal  spirit,  ayarn  atra  bhaved  bandhuh,  27. 
Then  follows  another  exposition,  which  is  based  on  the  system 
of  X arada,  received  by  him  from  Vasistha,  who  in  turn  re- 
ceived it  from  Hiranyagarbha,  309,  40.  This  system  is  both 
Yoga  and  Samkhya,  the  systems  being  double  but  the  teach- 


134 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ing  being  identical  (yad  eva  gastram  Samkhyanam  yogadar- 
ganam  eva  tat,  308,  44),  the  claim  usually  made  when  Yoga  is 
advocated.  A huge  Qastra  is  that  of  the  Samkhyas,  “ as  say 
viduso  janah,”  and  one  “ to  which,  along  with  the  Yeda, 
Yogins  have  recourse.”  In  other  words,  the  Yoga  teaching 
is  based  on  Yeda  and  on  the  Sarakhya  as  a precedent  system. 
Then  follows  the  admission  : “ In  it  (the  Samkhya  system)  no 
principle  higher  than  the  twenty-fifth  is  recognized,”  (asmin 
gastre)  pancavingat  pararh  tattvam  patliyate  na,  naradhipa, 
whereas:  “The  Yoga  philosophers  declare  a budhyamana  or 
individual  spirit  and  a buddha  or  Lord-Spirit  to  be  in  accord- 
ance with  their  principles,  the  latter  being  identical  with  the 
former,  except  that  it  is  fully  enlightened,”  gl.  48. 

Here  also  is  a perfectly  clear  and  frank  statement,  which 
may  be  paraphrased  thus : “ In  older  Sarakhya  philosophy  the 
highest  principle  recognized  is  that  of  the  pure  individual 
Ego;  in  the  Yoga  philosophy  this  Ego  is  identified  as  indi- 
vidual spirit  with  the  fully  enlightened  Lord.”  Hence  Yogas 
(and  not  Samkhyas)  speak  of  budhyamana  and  buddha  as 
two  but  identical,  budhyamanaih  ca  buddhaih  ca  prahur  yoga- 
nidarganam,  gl.  48.  Elsewhere  the  twenty-fifth  principle  is 
itself  the  Lord:  aliam  purusah  pahcavingakah.1 

After  this  introduction  the  speaker,  Yasistha,  proceeds  to 
describe  this  Yoga  philosophy  in  detail.  The  Lord-Spirit 
“divides  himself  into  many,”  atmanam  bahudha  krtva,  and 
becomes  the  different  abuddhas,  or  imperfectly  enlightened 
spirits  conditioned  by  Prakrti.  Thus  he  becomes  conditioned, 
gunan  dliarayate,  and  “ modifies  himself  ” without  true  knowl- 
edge of  himself,  vikurvano  budhyamano  na  budhyate.  In 
this  condition,  then,  he  becomes  creator  and  absorber  of  what 

1 Compare  xii,  340,  43,  personal  God  is  the  twenty-fifth.  lie  is  the  witness 
devoid  of  gunas,  and  of  kalas,  ib.  23;  “the  twenty-fifth,  beyond  the  twice 
twelve  tattvas,"  ib.  24.  In  this  passage  the  Unmanifest  is  resolved  into  Puru- 
sha,  340,  30-31.  This  is  worth  noting  as  being  in  direct  contradiction  of  the 
theory  of  unchanging  eternal  Prakrti,  as  enunciated  in  xii,  217,  8:  “Both 
Purusha  and  the  unmanifest  Source  are  eternal,  without  beginning  and  with- 
out end.”  In  335,  20-31,  Source  is  both  born  and  indestructible.  Compare 
H.  3,  85,  10,  as  cited  above,  p.  98. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


135 


he  has  created.  The  conditioned  cannot  understand  the 
unconditioned ; it  is  the  Un-understanding,  apratibudliyakam 
(sic,  309,  4).  The  conditioned  spirit  can  understand  the 
Umnanifest  but  “lie  cannot  understand  the  stainless  eter- 
nal buddlia,  which  is  the  twenty-sixth  principle,”  sadvingam 
vimalam  buddlnuh  sanatanam,  though  the  latter  “ understands 
both  the  twenty-fifth  and  the  twenty-fourth  principles,”  309, 
7.  “This  twenty-sixth  principle  is  pure  unmanifest  Brah- 
man, which  is  connected  with  all  that  is  seen  and  unseen,” 
ib.  8.  “ When  the  conditioned  spirit  recognizes  the  pure 

Highest  Intelligence,  then  he  becomes  clear-eyed,  avyakta- 
locanah,  and  free  of  the  Source  ” (tada  prakrtiman,  sic,  read 
apra?).  The  twenty-sixth  is  this  Highest  Intelligence;  it  is 
“the  topic  and  that  which  is  apart  from  all  topics,”  §1.  10  and 
13.  “The  conditioned  spirit  attains  likeness  with  the  twenty- 
sixth  principle  when  it  recognizes  itself  as  the  twenty-sixth,” 
sadvingo  'ham  iti  prajfiah,  gl.  16.  “ That  separateness  of  spirits 
wliich  is  part  of  the  exposition  of  Saiiikliya  is  really  (ex- 
plained by)  the  conditioned  spirit  when  not  fully  enlightened 
by  the  (fully)  enlightened  twenty-sixth,”  sadvingena  pra- 
buddhena  budhyamano  'py  abuddhiman,  etan  nanatvam  ity 
uktam  saihkhyagrutinidarganat,  gl.  17.  The  continuation  of 
this  teaching  points  out  that  unity  with  Brahman  is  attained 
by  the  individual  spirit  only  when  it  no  longer  has  any  con- 
sciousness (of  self),  yada  buddhya  na  budhyate,  gl.  18. 

In  this  passage  the  attempt  to  reconcile  the  doctrine  of  the 
Samkhya  individual  spirits,  nanatvam,  “ than  which  there  is 
nothing  higher,”  with  the  doctrine  of  unity,  ekatva,  is  as  plain 
as  a reasonable  historian  could  expect  to  find  it.  “ Thus  it 
is,”  the  account  concludes,  “ that  one  must  understand  the 
(two  theories  of)  separateness  and  unity,”  nanatvaikatvam 
etavad  drastavyam  gastradarganat,  gl.  22.  And  then  occurs 
a very  pretty  lapsus.  The  images  of  the  fly  encased  in  the 
plant,  magakodumbare,  and  the  fish  in  water,  matsyodake, 
are  constantly  employed  in  Samkliyan  philosophy,  as  shown 
above,  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  spirit  is  different  from  the 
Source,  though  externally  united.  Our  good  Vasistha,  how- 


136 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ever,  brings  these  images  in  to  illustrate  the  difference,  anyat- 
vam,  between  the  individual  spirit  and  Brahman:  “The 
difference  between  the  fly  and  plant,  between  the  fish  and 
water,  is  to  be  understood  as  the  combined  separateness  and 
unity  of  these  two,”  as  if,  from  the  historical  connotation  of 
these  images,  they  were  essentially  different,  whereas  according 
to  the  exposition  they  are  essentially  one.  But  this  is  of  a piece 
with  the  use  of  vikurvanas,  a Samkhya  term  applied  to  the 
modifications  of  the  Source,  when  used  above,  of  Brahman. 

This  Yoga  doctrine,  as  explained  above,  is  to  be  taught 
(not  to  the  man  that  bases  his  philosophy  on  the  Veda,  na1 
vedanisthasya  janasya  . . . pradeyam,  but)  “to  any  one  that 
desires  it  for  the  sake  of  wisdom  and  receives  it  with  sub- 
mission,” §1.  32. 

The  Yoga  doctrine  as  here  represented  stands  midway 
between  Samkhya  and  Brahmaism.  The  former  side  has  been 
fully  illustrated.  In  regard  to  the  latter  it  will  have  been 
noticed  that  while  the  personal  Lord-Spirit  is  a form  of 
Brahman,  and  Brahman  in  turn  is  identified  with  the  pure 
essence  of  every  individual  spirit,  it  is  merely  said  that 
Brahman  is  connected  with  the  visible  as  well  as  with  the 
invisible,  drgyadrgye  by  anugatam,  309,  8.  The  Brahman  here 
represented  is  not  the  All,  but  a pure  Supreme  Spirit  into 
which  fractional  spirits,  parts  of  Brahman  when  he  “ made 
himself  many,”  are  reabsorbed.  Of  the  identity  of  the  objec- 
tive world  with  this  Brahman  there  is  no  word ; neither  is 
there  any  hint  that  the  objective  world  is  illusion,  except  that 
at  the  beginning  of  the  preceding  section,  308,  2 ff.,  the  gen- 
eral opinion,  ahuh,  is  cited  that  “the  Unmanifest  is  igno- 
rance,” avidya,  as  opposed  to  the  twenty-fifth  principle  as 
wisdom,  vidya.2  Elsewhere  “ the  Source  is  knowledge,”  jiiana, 
but  also  avedyam  avyaktam,  as  opposed  to  (jfieyo)  vedyah 
purusah,  319,  40. 

1 But  na°,  v.  1.,  N., “to  one  wise  in  the  Veda  it  may  be  imparted  or  to,” 
etc.  Those  excluded  are  given  in  the  following  verses  as  liars  and  other  evil- 
doers, a long  list. 

2 But  ib.  7,  the  Source  as  unmanifest  is  vidya ; the  highest  is  Vidhi  (com- 
pare pradhanavidhiyogasthah  of  ^iva,  xiii,  14,  423),  the  Creator. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


137 


This  doctrine  of  the  twenty-sixth  principle  belongs  only 
to  the  later  part  of  the  pseudo-epic.  The  passage  given 
above  is  found  virtually  repeated  in  xii,  319,  56,  and  70  ff. 
Here  as  Prakrti  the  chief-tiling,  pradhana,  does  not  know 
spirit,  so  spirit  does  not  know  Supreme  Spirit.  “The  one 
that  is  different  (spirit),  seeing  and  yet  not  seeing,  looks 
upon  the  twenty-sixth,  the  twenty-fifth  (pure  spirit)  and 
twenty-fourth.  But  the  twenty-fifth  also  does  not  recognize 
the  twenty-sixth,  who  recognizes  him,  and  having  a false 
opinion  of  himself  thinks  that  no  one  is  higher  than  lie  ” (so 
316,  4).  And  further:  “The  twenty-fourth  should  not  be 
accepted  by  wise  men  (as  the  twenty-fifth),  any  more  than, 
because  of  mere  association,  the  fish  should  be  identified  with 
the  water  it  has  entered  (74).  The  twenty-fifth  on  realizing 
that  it  is  different  (from  the  twenty-fourth)  becomes  one  with 
the  twenty-sixth  and  recognizes  (the  latter).  For  though 
The  Best  appears  different  from  the  twenty-fifth,  the  saints 
regard  this  as  due  to  the  conditioned  nature  of  the  twenty- 
fifth  and  declare  that  the  two  are  really  identical.  Therefore, 
being  afraid  of  birth  and  death,  and  beholding  the  twenty- 
sixth,  neither  Yogas  nor  Saiiikhyas  admit  that  the  twenty- 
fifth  is  the  indestructible.” 

Here  again,  with  the  new  notion  that  jlva  is  destructible  (in 
Paramatman)  there  is  the  attempt  to  foist  on  the  Samkhya 
the  belief  which  has  been  formally  denied  to  them.  Similarly 
in  the  Aniruddha  theology,  of  the  personal  Lord  Govinda, 
who  is  said  to  “ create  the  elements,”  xii,  207,  7 ff.,  it  is  said : 
“From  him  whom  Samkhya  and  Yoga  philosophers  declare  as 
Highest  Soul,  Paramatman,  and  who  is  called  the  Great  Spirit, 
mahapurusa,  is  derived  the  unnianifest,  avyaktam,  of  which 
he  is  the  base,  pradhanam.  From  the  unmanifest  Lord, 
Icvara,  came  the  manifest,  and  he  is  Aniruddha,  called  the 
great  Soul.  As  egoism  he  created  Brahman  and  the  elements, 
and  then  the  gunas,”  xii,  341,  28-33. 

In  this  copy  of  the  preceding  passage  there  is  also  no 
notion  of  Vedanta  as  implying  Maya  or  illusion.  Significant 
is  the  fact  that  the  present  teaching  is  represented  in  the  fol- 


138 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


lowing  stanzas,  319,  84-86,  as  being  newly  inculcated,  and 
especially  designed  for  those  who  desire  emancipation,  in  con- 
trast to  the  Saiiikliyas  and  Yogas,  who  are  content  with  their 
own  doctrines,  dliarma. 

It  is  thus  clear  that  Saihkhya  is  merely  a name  to  appeal  to, 
and  stands  in  this  regard  on  a footing  with  Y eda,  an  authority 
claimed  for  the  most  divergent  teaching. 

Maya,  Self-Delusion. 

The  “illusion”  theory  of  the  universe  is  a development 
from  the  simple  idea  of  delusion,  often  self-delusion.  The 
ordinary  (non-philosopliical)  epic  maya  is  a trick  of  delusion. 
Gods  indulge  in  it  to  overcome  their  enemy.  The  illusion- 
god  par  excellence,  Vishnu  as  Krishna,  thus  deludes  his 
enemies  by  making  them  tliink  the  sun  has  set  when  it  has 
not,  or  by  parallel  magic  tricks.1  This,  in  my  opinion,2  is  the 
only  meaning  in  the  older  Upanishads,  Indro  mayabhih  puru- 
rupah,  Brh.,  ii,  5,  19  (from  the  Rig  Yeda),  “ India  multi- 
form through  tricks  of  delusion ; ” na  yesu  jihmam  anrtam 
na  maya  ca,  “ in  whom  there  is  naught  crooked,  nor  untrue, 
nor  any  trick,”  Pragna,  i,  16.  Magic  seems  to  be  the  mean- 
ing (parallel  with  molia)  in  Maitrl,  iv,  2,  where  occurs  the 
indrajala-maya  of  Mbh.  v,  160,  55. 

In  Gita  7,  14-25,  maya  is  a divine,  daivl,  delusion  caused 
by  the  gunas,  gunamayl,  characterizing  people  wicked  and 
foolish ; in  4,  6,  it  is  a psychic  delusion,  atmamaya,  which 
causes  the  unborn  God  by  means  of  Prakrti  to  appear  to  be 
born  (not,  be  it  noticed,  which  causes  the  not-soul  to  appear 
to  be  real).  It  occurs  in  one  other  passage,  18,  61,  where  it 
is  the  equivalent  of  moha  in  the  preceding  stanza  (as  in 
Mfiitri  Up.,  above).  In  all  these  passages,  although  it  is 
possible  to  read  into  maya  the  meaning  given  it  by  (Jamkara, 
for  example,  yet  the  simpler  meaning  suffices  of  either  trick 

1 This  is  called  indifferently  maya  (chadma)  or  yoga,  v,  ICO,  64-68;  vii, 
14C,  08,  etc. 

2 In  this  interpretation  of  maya  I am  forced  to  differ  from  that  of  Deussen, 
who  holds  that  maya  is  Vedantic  Illusion  (i.  e.,  the  not-soul  appears  through 
divine  Illusion  to  be  real)  even  in  the  earliest  scriptures. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


139 


or  delusion  (false  understanding)  applied  to  the  relation  of 
individual  soul  and  God,  and  tliis  is  probably  the  meaning, 
because  maya  as  illusion  plays  no  part  in  the  development  of 
the  scheme.  Guna-made  delusion  is  the  regular  Samkhya 
Prakrti-made  ignorance ; it  is  not  Prakrti’s  self. 

The  expression  used  above  of  Krishna’s  maya  that  it  is 
“ divine,”  has  no  special  philosophical  significance.  The  same 
phrase  is  applied  to  Duiyodhana’s  water-trick,  daivlm  mayam 
imam  krtva,  ix,  31,  4.  When,  too,  Krishna  in  the  Gita  says 
that  he  is  born  by  atmamaya,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in 
describing  the  parallel  situation  in  the  llamayana,  where 
Vishnu  is  born  as  Rama,  the  word  cliadman,  disguise,  cover, 
is  used  as  the  equivalent  of  maya,  G.  vi,  11,  32. 

In  a very  interesting  critique  of  the  new  doctrine  of  rnoksa, 
that  is,  salvation  without  Vedic  sacrifices,  an  orthodox  objector 
is  represented  as  saying:  “This  doctrine  of  salvation  has 
been  brought  out  by  miserable  idle  pundits;  it  is  based  on 
ignorance  of  the  Veda  and  is  a lie  under  the  guise  of  truth. 
Not  by  despising  the  Vedas,  not  by  chicanery  and  delusion 
(mayaya)  does  a man  obtain  great  (Brahman).  lie  finds 
Brahman  in  brahman  ” (Veda).1 

Similarly,  when  Draupadi  philosophizes  in  iii,  30,  32,  her 
opening  words  show  that  she  reveres  as  the  chief  god  the 
Creator,  who,  like  other  creatures,  is  subject  to  transmigration, 
32,  7,  and  is  in  no  respect  an  All-god,  though  a later  rewrit- 
ing of  the  scene  mixes  up  Bliagavat,  Igvara,  and  Prajapati.2 
This  god,  she  says,  has  deluded  (moha)  her  husband’s  mind 

1 As  the  section  is  occupied  in  advocating  the  one-soul  (All-soul),  aikat- 
mya,  doctrine,  it  is  clear  that  maya  is  here  merely  delusion  or  deceit,  xii, 
270,  50-51.  The  words  of  the  text  are  : jriya  vihinair  alasaih  panditaih  sam- 
pravartitam,  vedavadaparijfianam  satyabhasam  iva  ’nrtam  . . . na  vedanam 
paribliavan  na  yathyena  na  mayaya  mahat  prapnoti  puruso  brahmani  brahma 
vindati,  xii,  270,  17,  19.  Ivapila,  to  whom  the  remark  is  addressed,  admits 
“the  Vedas  are  authoritative,”  vedah  pramanam  lokanam,  271,  1,  hut,  43, 
insists  that,  though  “ everything  is  based  on  the  Veda,”  the  cruel  animal  sacri- 
fices therein  enjoined  are  objectionable  (as  cited  above),  and  upholds  the 
thesis  that  “knowledge  is  the  best  means  of  salvation,”  jnanam  tu  parama 
gatih,  271,  38  — this  by  the  bye. 

2 The  revision  appears  clearly  at  the  end  in  Draupadl’s  conversion.  Com- 
pare the  comments,  AOS.,  Proceed.,  March,  1894. 


140 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


and  in  deluding  men  generally,  mohayitva,  the  Lord  shows 
the  power  of  his  delusion,  mayaprabhava,  which  deludes  them 
by  atmamaya  (the  same  expression  as  that  of  the  Gita,  cited 
above),  making  them  kill  each  other  as  blind  instruments  of 
his  will,  which  act  without  volition,  just  as  a stone  breaks 
another  in  the  hands  of  a man.  Man  proposes,  but  God  dis- 
poses 1 by  means  of  a trick,  ckadma  krtva,  30,  36,  “ playing 
with  men  as  children  play  with  toys.”  “ Fie,  fie,”  says  her 
husband,  “ don’t  speak  so  of  the  Lord,  through  whose  grace 
the  faithful  gets  immortality,”  31,  42;  “for  these  things  are 
divine  mysteries  (devaguhyani,  rewards  of  good  and  evil), 
since  the  divinities  are  full  of  secret  tricks,”  gudhamiiya  hi 
devatah,  31,  35-37.  The  (,-astras  and  faith,  not  magic,  maya, 
or  sinful  works,  give  faith  in  Krishna,  v.  69,  3-5. 

Again,  in  the  account  of  the  Pahcakalajfias,  the  visiting 
Hindus,  who  look  with  awe  on  the  service  paid  to  the  One 
God,  say  that  they  could  hear  the  hymn,  but  could  not  see 
the  god,  because,  as  they  suppose,  they  were  “ deluded  by  the 
god’s  maya,”  mohitas  tasya  mayaya,  xii,  337,  44-48.  God  in 
the  following  is  called  the  mahamayadhara,  as  he  is  also  called 
by  the  rather  modern  epithets  caturmaliarajika,  saptamaha- 
bliaga,2  xii,  339,  3 ff.  Here  maya  is  truly  illusion,  as  it  is  said 
in  340,  43-45 : “ God  is  he  by  whom  this  illusion  (of  visible 
God)  was  created,”  maya  by  esa  maya  srsta  yan  mam  pa§yasi, 
Narada ; but  it  is  not  illusion  embracing  the  world  of  objective 
things,  even  in  this  late  account  (careless  enough,  for  example, 
to  construe  iti  vai  menire  vayam,  337,  38).  There  is  at  least 
no  passage  in  the  epic  which  says  bluntly  that  “ Prakrti  is 
maya,”  as  does  ()vet.  Up.  iv,  10.  On  the  contrary,  the  great 
mass  of  epic  philosophy,  though  it  teaches  that  the  sinner  is 
deluded  “ by  Vishnu’s  hundred  mayas,”  302,  59,  teaches  also 
that  this  delusion  is  merely  a confusion  of  mind  in  respect  of 
the  relation  of  the  pure  sold  to  the  conditioned  soul.  It  does 
not  teach  that  those  things  which  condition  the  soul  are  an 

1 anyatha  manyante  purusas  tani  tani  ca  . . . anyatha  prabhuh  karoti 
vikaroti  ca,  iii,  30,  34. 

2 lie  is  also  called  akhandala,  which  in  xii,  337,  4,  is  still  an  epithet  of 
Indra. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


141 


illusion,  but  that  they  are  eternal  substance,  either  in  them- 
selves or  as  parts  of  Brahman.  Take  for  instance  the  long 
account  in  xii,  196  to  201.  It  is  not  suggested  that  the  sin- 
ner divest  himself  of  illusion.  He  goes  into  molia,  that  is  he 
becomes  confused,  and  again  he  enters  Brahman,  197,  10;  or 
“enjoys  bliss,”  ramate  sukham  (“if  he  does  not  wish  the 
highest,  because  his  soul  is  still  tinged  with  desire,  ragatma, 
he  attains  whatever  he  desires  ”).1  Knowledge  is  Brahman, 
and  hence  one  must  be  free  of  all  delusion  to  be  Brahman 
indeed,  and  truly  immortal,2  but  the  objective  world  is  seldom 
an  illusion  of  Brahman.  Moreover,  the  avidya  of  God  is 
clearly  an  afterthought.  According  to  one  section  in  Canti, 
God  creates  the  world  “ at  the  point  of  day  ” through  avidya 
or  ignorance.  First  mahat  was  bom,  “ which  quickly  became 
mind  ” (where  mind  and  not  intellect  is  vyakta,  manifest), 
which  is  “ characterized  by  desire  and  doubt.” 3 * * * * 8 This  same 
account  in  its  first  form  is  found  in  232,  32,  without  avidya: 
“ The  Lord,  Igvara,  sleeps  during  the  cataclysm  sunk  in  med- 
itation, dhyana ; but,  when  awakened  at  the  close  of  night,  he 
transforms  the  eternal,  vikurute  brahma  ’ksayyam,  and  pro- 
duces the  Great  Being,  whence  mind,  one  with  the  manifest.” 
The  following  section  simply  picks  up  this  account,  repeats 
it  in  almost  the  same  words,  but  slips  in  avidya  to  explain  the 
expression  “ creates.”  The  alteration  is  the  more  marked  as 

1 Some  very  grotesque  conceptions  are  expressed  here.  In  200, 25,  the  jiva 
soul  goes  to  Atman ; or  goes  to  heaven  and  lives  separately.  When  as  a flame 
the  spirit  ascends  to  heaven,  Brahman  like  a courteous  host  says  “ Come,  stay 
with  me,”  makes  it  (or  him)  conscious  and  then  swallows  him ! 

2 “ Sorrow  is  the  end  of  joy  as  night  is  the  end  of  day,  joy  is  the  end  of 

sorrow,  as  day  is  the  end  of  night”  (these  succeed  each  other  and  each  has  its 

end) ; “ only  knowledge  ends  not,  for  knowledge  is  Brahman,”  xiv,  44,  18, 

20-21 ; 47, 1.  Not  till  52, 9,  i.  e.,  after  the  Anugita,  is  finished,  is  Maya  a factor 

here.  Previously  there  is  only  the  ghoramoha  or  horrible  misunderstanding 

of  truth,  xiv,  45,  4,  etc.  In  xviii,  3,  36,  Lndra’s  maya  is  an  optical  delusion. 

8 xii,  233, 1 ff.  Here  is  to  he  noticed  a contradiction  in  epic  psychology. 
Mind  in  this  passage  has  prarthana  and  sisrksa,  that  is  it  desires,  whereas 
elsewhere  desire  (the  unexplained  “ seventh,”  xii,  177,  52)  is  an  attribute  of 
egoistic  intellect.  Desire  is  born  of  imagination,  samkalpa,  xii,  177,  25 ; it  is 
destroyed  by  avoiding  this,  302,  56 ; but,  “ remove  mind  from  samkalpa  and 
fix  it  on  self,”  241,  17. 


142 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


many  texts  make  no  division  of  chapters  here.  In  either  case 
the  account  of  creation  goes  right  on,  first,  232,  32,  stated  as 
(Igvarah)  : 

pratibuddho  vikurute  brahma  ’ksayyam  ksapaksaye 
srjate  ca  mahad  bhutam  tasmad  vyaktatmakam 
manah 

and  then  as : 

brahmatejomayam  Qukram  yasya  sarvam  idam  jagat 
ekasya  bhutam  bhutasya  dvayam  sthavarajangamam 
aharmukhe  vibuddkah  san  srjate  'vidyayd  jagat 
agra  eva  mahad  bhutam  acu  vyaktatmakam  manah. 

As  the  seven  creators1  mentioned  in  the  following  stanza, 
233,  3,  are  explained  as  intellect,  mind,  and  the  five  elements, 
it  is  clear  also  that  egoism  as  a distinct  factor  is  omitted.  The 
seven  cannot  create  apart,  so  they  unite  and  make  the  body 
which  the  “ great  beings,”  bhutani  mahanti,  enter  with  Karma. 
The  adikarta,  First  Creator,  is  Prajapati,  who  acts  without 
Maya,  gl.  13.2  In  short,  while  sometimes  recognized,  Maya 
is  generally  unknown  in  the  epic,  because  the  epic  lacks  unity, 
being  now  and  then  Vedantic,  but  generally  Yogaistic. 

Pancacikha’s  System. 

In  the  presentation  above  I have  analyzed  the  three  differ- 
ent religious  philosophies  advocated  in  the  pseudo-epic;  the 
Samkhya,  which  holds  to  spirit  and  Source  as  distinct  immor- 
tal entities;  the  Yoga,  which  adds  the  Supreme  Spirit;  and 
the  personal  religion  of  Narada  and  others,  which  makes  of 
the  Paramatman  or  Supreme  Spirit  a modified  form  of  Brah- 
man known  as  Aniruddlia,  etc.,  and  identified  with  Krishna. 
In  xii,  352,  13,  the  Paramatman  doctrine  is  declared  to  be  the 

1 manasa,  “ mind-creatures,”  the  same  epithet  as  that  applied  to  the  eternal 
Deva  in  xii,  182, 11.  Compare  BAU.  ii,  6,  7 ; Gita,  10,  6. 

2 sarvabliutany  upadaya  tapasaj  caranaya  hi  adikarta  sa  bhutanam  tam 
eva  ’huh  prajapatim.  The  commentator  explains  “by  means  of  Maya” 
(BAU.  ii,  6, 19),  but  there  is  not  even  the  suggestion  of  the  Maya  doctrine  here. 
The  etymology  in  yl.  11  (te  . . . 9arira9rayanam  praptas  tato  purusa  ucyate) 
seems  to  be  owing  to  a confusion  with  puri9ayam  purusam  iksate,  Pra9-  v.  6. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


143 


opinion  of  some  Pundits  only,  in  distinction  from  that  of  the 
knowledge-philosophers,  who  are  said  to  hold  to  unity  of  soul. 
However  this  passage  may  be  interpreted,1  it  is  evident  that 
it  distinctly  sets  over  against  each  other  the  Yoga  and  Brah- 
man interpretation.  Paramatman  is  identified  with  Vishnu 
the  “ unconditioned,  All-soul  spirit.”  The  religion  taught 
is  expressly  opposed,  as  something  higher,  to  Samkhya  and 
Yoga  (9I.  7-8),  and  by  comparison  with  other  schemes  is  of 
Pancaratra  character.  A preceding  section  states  that  the 
same  religion  is  identical  with  the  doctrine  taught  to  Arjuna 
in  the  Gita,  349,  8,  and  (as  already  noticed)  it  is  here  called 
“ the  Krishna  religion,”  Satvata  dhanna,  which  has  mysteries, 
abstracts,  and  an  Aranyaka  (ib.,  29-31).  It  was  handed  down 
through  the  seers,  and  a priest  who  was  acquainted  with  the 
(Jyestha)  Saman  (and)  Vedanta.  His  name  was  Jestha  (sic). 
Then  it  disappeared,  to  be  promulgated  again  in  the  Harigltah, 
ib.  46  and  53.  In  it,  Vishnu  as  God  is  adored  in  one,  two, 
three,  or  four  forms  (the  usual  group  is  meant,  Aniruddlia, 
Pradyumna,  Saihkarsana,  Vasudeva).2  The  disciples  are  called 
“ those  devoted  to  one  God,”  ekantinas,  and  it  is  hard  to  find 
many  of  them  (durlabhah,  349,  62,  compare  Gita,  7,  19). 
They  are  identified  with  the  Pancaratras  (so  336,  25),  a sect 

1 The  words  seem  to  indicate  the  antithesis  not  of  three  but  of  two  beliefs : 
evam  hi  paramatmanam  kecid  icchanti  panditah,  ekatmanam  tatha  ’tmanam 
apare  jnanacintakah,  tatra  yah  paramatma  hi  sa  nityam  nirgunah  smrtali,  sa 
hi  Narayano  jneyali  sarvatmapuruso  hi  sah.  The  commentator,  however, 
may  be  right  in  taking  atman  to  refer  to  Sarhkliyas  and  ekatman  as  brahma- 
bhinnam  (Vedanta),  though  the  single  subject  would  make  it  more  natural 
to  take  ekatmanam  atmanam  as  “ one  spirit  which  is  alone.”  Vishnu  here  is 
the  manta  mantavyam,  “ the  thinker  and  the  thought,”  and  the  eternal  fore- 
cause, pradhana,  $1.  17-18.  In  5I.  22,  God  plays,  kridati,  in  his  four  forms  (as 
often). 

2 ?iva,  on  the  other  hand,  has  eight  forms  (the  Puranic  view),  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  commentator  (though  murti  may  imply  the  incorporations,  Eudra, 
Bhairava,  Ugra,  Ifvara,  Mahadeva,  Pafupati,  Qarva,  Bhava),  are  the  five  ele- 
ments, sun,  moon,  and  Purusha,  iii,  49,  8.  Such  divisions  are  often  unique 
and  apparently  arbitrary.  See  below  on  the  eight  sources.  “ Indestructible 
Brahman”  (like  Sattva)  is  eighteenfold  according  to  (xii,  342,  13)  H.  3, 14, 
13,  astada?avidham  (or  nidham).  Eight  and  a thousand  (only  pseudo-epic) 
are  Qiva’s  names,  against  Vishnu’s  even  thousand.  The  “ worlds  ” are  eight 
Isee  below),  or  seven,  or  twenty-one,  according  to  the  passage. 


144 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  teaching  of  which  is  here  identified  not  only  with  that  of 
the  Samkhya-Yoga,  but  also  with  that  of  Vedaranyaka,  ib. 
349,  81,  and  with  the  religion  of  the  “ white  men  ” and  Yatis, 
gvetanaih  Yatinam  ca,  ib.  85.  Compare  336,  19,  the  white 
men’s  religion,  and  Satvata  Vidhi,  declared  by  Surya. 

The  difference  between  religion  and  philosophy  is  obliter- 
ated in  India,  and  the  Paficaratra,  sect  is  exalted  as  a develop- 
ment of  the  Bhagavadbhaktas,  as  the  latter  are  represented 
in  the  Gita,  clearly  an  indication  of  posteriority ; while  their 
philosophy  is  rather  contrasted  than  identified  with  that  of 
the  Samkhya. 

Three  expositions  are  given,  which  embody  the  same  ter- 
minology, and  may  be  called  the  Paficagikha  system. 

Paficagikha  Kapileya  (interpreted  as  a metronymic !)  ap- 
pears in  xii.  218,  6 ff.,  and  320,  2 ff.  His  punch-name  is 
elaborately  amplified  in  the  former  passage,  where,  218,  10  ff., 
he  is  an  incorporation  of  Ivapila  and  the  first  pupil  of  Asuri. 
In  Pancasrotas,  where  there  is  a Kapila  mandala,  lie  holds  a 
long  “session,”  satra,  having  “bathed  in  the  paficasrotas ” 
(five  rivers  of  the  mind  ? cf.  (Ivet.  1,  5),  and  being  versed  in 
the  Pancaratra  (doctrine),  and  being  called  in  consequence 
not  only  p a ficara  tra  vigarada,  but  also 

pancajnah  pancakrt  panca-gunah  pancagikhah  (smrtah), 

epithets  which  are  duly  interpreted  by  the  omniscient  Nlla- 
kantha.  He  also  (below)  has  the  epithet  Pancaratrah,  which 
is  the  only  one  that  need  concern  us,  as  the  interpretation  of 
the  others  is  mere  guesswork.  Paficagikha  is  regarded,  then, 
as  the  teacher  of  the  new  sect  of  Paficaratras.1 

His  doctrine  rests  on  the  ancient  foundation  of  “disgust 
with  birth,  disgust  with  acts,  disgust  with  all  things,”  sarva- 
nirveda,  and  is,  in  short,  the  religion  of  ennui,  which  consists 

1 The  seven  Citragikhandins  are  referred  to  as  the  author  of  the  raiica- 
ratra  Qiistra  in  336,  27 ; 337,  3,  gastraiii  eitragikhandijam.  These  are  the 
seven  Prakrtis,  personified  as  the  seven  old  sages,  whose  names  are  given  below, 
p.  170,  to  whom  is  added  Manu  to  make  the  “eight  sources,”  336,  29.  In 
the  hymn  at  xii,  339,  the  god  is  called  Paiicnkala-kartrpati,  Paiicaratrika 
Paficagni,  Pancnyajna,  Paneaumliakalpa  (as  also  Citragikhandin). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


145 


in  a little  more  than  mere  indifference.  The  literal  meaning 
is  that  one  “ finds  oneself  out  of,”  or  is  sick  of,  the  round  of 
birth  and  death.  Nirvana  is  attained  by  nirveda.1  This  dis- 
gust and  the  rejection  of  that  untrustworthy  delusion,  anagva- 
siko  mohali,  which  leads  to  religious  practices  and  the  hope  of 
rewards,  xii,  218,  21-22,  is  the  starting-point  of  the  system, 
which,  synthetically  considered,  should  culminate  in  Krishna- 
Yishnu,  as  the  be-all  and  end-all,  as  in  other  cases. 

The  analysis  of  the  system  is  preceded  by  a most  interest 
ing  and  historically  important  review  of  certain  fallacies,  as 
follows.  The  unbeliever  says : “ One  who  relies  on  tradition 
(the  scripture)  says  that  there  is  something  beyond  after  the 
destruction  (of  the  body),  as  being  obvious  and  seen  by  all ; 
but  such  an  one  is  refuted  by  the  fact  that  death  of  self  is 
negation,  deprivation,  of  self,  anatma  hy  atmano  mrtyuh. 
Death  is  a weakness  induced  by  age.  Through  delusion  one 
imagines  a sold,  and  this  is  erroneously  regarded  as  the 
“something  beyond”  (or  higher).  For  practical  purposes 
one  may  assume  what  is  not  true  (that  there  is  no  death  of  the 
soul),  just  as  one  may  say  that  “ the  king  never  dies,”  ajaro 
'yam  amrtyug  ca  raja  ’sau.  But  when  something  is  asserted 
and  denied  and  no  evidence  is  given,  on  what  should  one  base 
a judgment?  Direct  observation  (evidence  of  the  senses)  is 
the  base  of  received  teaching  and  of  inference.  Received 
teaching  is  destroyed  by  direct  observation,  and  (as  evidence) 
inference  amounts  to  nothing.” 

The  last  sentence  reads  in  the  original,  218,  27 : 

pratyaksam  hy  etayor  mulam  krtantaitihyayor  api 
pratyaksena  ’gamo  bhinnah  krtanto  va  na  kiiiicana 

The  commentator  takes  krtanta  as  anumana  and  aitihya  as 
equivalent  to  agarna ; though  in  240,  2,  anagatam  anaitihyam 
kathain  brahma  ’dhigacchati  (where  the  commentator  says  that 
agata  is  pratyaksa  and  anumana),  “ How  can  a good  man 

1 Compare  xii,  189,  16-17 : “ One  cannot  know  the  unknown  (if  faith  be 
lacking);  keep  the  mind  on  faith;  hold  it  to  the  vital  air;  the  vital  air  to 
Brahman ; nirvana  is  attained  by  nirveda ; ” Gita,  6,  23,  nirvinnacetasa  yogo 
(yoktavyo  ni^cayena  ca) ; Mund.  Up.  i,  2,  12,  hrahmano  nirvedam  ayat. 

10 


146 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


attain  to  Brahman  not  known  to  tradition  nor  revealed  in  the 
Veda?”1  and  in  G.  v,  87,  23,  aitihyam  anumanam  ca  prat- 
yaksam  api  ca  ’gamam,  ye  hi  samyak  parlksante,  it  is  distin- 
guished from  the  latter.  The  word  agama  is  of  sufficient 
importance  to  note  the  epic’s  own  de&iition  given  in  xii,  270, 
43 : agamo  vedavadas  tu  tarkagastrani  ca  ’gamah,  “ Received 
(scriptural)  teaching  includes  the  words  of  the  Veda  and 
philosophical  codes ; ” a remarkable  definition  in  view  of  the 
fact  that  some  of  the  latter  are  heterodox,  and  that  agama  is 
currently  used  as  equivalent  to  right  tradition.  The  tarka- 
vidya  is  elsewhere  differentiated  from  logic,  anvIksikT,  though 
both  are  called  useless,  xiii,  37,  12,  when  not  extolled,  as 
often ! 

The  next  stanza  continues : “ Enough  of  making  assump- 
tions based  on  this  or  that  inference.  In  the  opinion  of  (us) 
unbelievers  there  is  no  other  ‘ spirit  ’ than  the  body.” 

For  clearer  understanding  of  the  historical  value  of  this  I 
must  give  the  exact  words,  218,  28 : 

yatra  yatra  ’numane  'smin  krtam  bhavayato  'pi  ca 
na  ’nyo  jivah  Qarlrasya  nastikanam  mate  sthitah 

Here  krtam  bhavayatah  in  the  meaning  of  bhavanaya’lam  (N.) 
is  even  more  careless  than  the  following  genitive  with  gari- 
rasya ; but  both  are  indicative  of  the  slovenly  style  which 
belongs  alike  to  the  Puranas  and  the  pseudo-epic. 

The  unbeliever  (according  to  the  commentator)  continues 
with  a stanza  almost  unintelligible  in  its  Sutra-like  concise- 
ness, which  can  be  given  only  by  the  original : 

re  to  vatakanlkayam  glirtapakadhivasanam 

jatih  smrtir  ayaskantali  suryakanto  'mbubhaksanam 

“ The  seed  in  the  banyan-flower  (accounts  for  the  delusion  of 
soul)  ; butter  (is  only  another  form  of  grass) ; rum  (is  but 
fermented  rice).  Memory  (and  other  4 psychic  ’ functions  are 
identical  with  the)  creature  born.2  (The  4 soul  ’ is  like  the) 

1 Just  below,  240,  3,  the  expression  manasa?  ce  ’ndriyanam  ca  aikiigryam 
may  be  noticed  as  a repetition  phrase  of  iii,  200,  26. 

2 I take  adhivasana  in  the  sense  of  adhivasa,  home:  (consider)  the  origin 
of  ghee  and  fermented  (liquor) ; N.  paraphrases,  adhiviisitat  (add  in  pw.). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


147 


magnet  (which  moves  iron  not  by  psychical  but  by  physical 
potency).1  The  burning-glass  (makes  fire,  and  so  the  fiery, 
active,  soul  is  but  a physical  phenomenon).  (The  fire’s) 
devouring  of  water  (is  typical  of  the  so-called  appetite  or 
desire  of  the  soul),”  or,  in  other  words:  Desire  and  enjoyment 
are  no  proof  of  a superphysical  entity,  any  more  than  in  the 
case  of  a fire  gratifying  its  thirst  for  water. 

The  denial  of  the  soul-doctrine  next  calls  forth  the  follow- 
ing refutation : 

“ A passing  away  (of  something  not  physical  occurs)  in  the 
case  of  a dead  being.  Supplication  of  the  gods  (proves  the 
existence  of  incorporeal  entities).  (There  would  be  besides) 
in  the  case  of  the  dead  a cessation  of  acts  [the  Karma  doctrine 
would  have  to  be  given  up].2  This  is  the  proof.  (Then 
again)  things  incorporate  cannot  be  causes,  hetavah,  for  there 
is  no  identity  of  that  which  has  form  and  that  which  has  no 
form,”  218,  30-31. 

After  tills,  other  sceptics,  who  the  commentator  rightly  (as 
I think)  says  are  Buddhists,3  are  introduced  with  a new  argu- 

Jatih  smrtih,  “ birth  and  memory,”  would  seem  to  imply  that  memory  argues 
a former  birth,  as  in  Patanjali’s  Sutra,  iv,  9.  This  would  be  an  argument  on 
the  other  side,  as  if  the  stanza  were  writ  to  prove  the  opposite.  I follow  X., 
though  inclined  to  think  that  the  words  really  ought  to  be  put  into  the  mouth 
of  the  believer  (tree,  butter,  memory,  etc.,  show  soul).  See  the  nest  note. 

1 But  compare  the  (orthodox)  view  as  explained  in  xii,  211,  3:  “As  sense- 
less iron  runs  toward  a magnet ; so  conditions  horn  because  of  one’s  nature 
and  all  else  similar”  (are  attracted  toward  the  soul).  The  passages  seem 
curiously  related,  as  just  before  stands,  $1.  2,  yatha  ’fvatthakanikayam  antar 
bliuto  mahadrumah  nispanno  dr^yate  vyaktam  avyaktat  sambhavas  tatlia, 
“birth  from  the  unmanifest  is  as  when  a great  tree  born  in  a flower  coming 
out  is  seen  clearly.”  Compare  BAU.  iii,  9,  28  ; £vet.  Up.  i,  15,  etc. 

2 This,  like  the  appeal  to  the  existence  of  divinities,  is  a presumption  of 
what  is  to  be  proved.  Of  course,  the  unbeliever  believes  neither  in  metem- 
psychosis nor  in  gods,  but  he  is  not  allowed  to  say  any  more.  In  xii,  304,  47, 
the  argument  for  the  existence  of  the  Source  and  the  spirit  is  that  both  are 
inferable  from  effects  (as  seasons  are  from  fruits,  306,  27).  In  the  latter  pas- 
sage, the  spirit  “inferred  by  signs,”  lingas,  is  called  pancavin^atima  (takara- 
lopa  arsah !). 

3 Interesting,  both  as  showing  how  the  epic  repeats  itself  and  Buddhism, 
are  xii,  175  and  277  (where  several  padas  are  identical  with  those  in  the 
Dhammapada),  and  xiii,  113.  The  ahinsa  doctrine  is  carried  on  here  in  xiii, 
114,  6,  which  repeats  xii,  246,  18,  with  a varied  reading  that  shows  the  futility 


148 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ment  against  the  existence  of  soul : “ Some  say  the  cause, 
karana,  of  successive  rebirth  is  ignorance,  avidya,  desire,  con- 
fusion of  mind,  and  the  practice  of  faulty  acts;  ignorance 
being  the  field  watered  by  thirst,  and  acts  being  the  seed 
planted  in  it,  all  of  which  cause  rebirth.  They  say  that 
(ignorance)  is  concealed  (in  the  body)  and  is  burned  away, 
and  that,  when  the  mortal  part  is  destroyed,  another  body  is 
born  from  it  and  they  call  this  the  destruction  of  being.  But 
(in  answer  to  tins),  how  can  it  be  just  the  same  man  in  this 
(new  body),  since  he  is  different  in  form,  in  birth,  in  good, 
and  in  aims  ? For  (if  there  is  no  soul)  all  would  be  discon- 
nected. (Further)  if  this  is  so,  what  pleasure  would  there  be 
in  gifts,  wisdom,  or  the  power  gained  by  religious  practices  ? 
For  another  entity  would  get  the  fruit  of  what  this  man  prac- 
tises, since  one  man  by  means  of  another’s  nature,  prakrtaih, 
would  be  made  wretched  or  blessed  here  on  earth.  (In  this 
matter)  the  decision  in  regard  to  what  is  invisible  (must  rest 
on)  what  is  visible.  If  you  kill  a body  with  a cudgel  would 
another  arise  from  it?  Even  so  the  separate  consciousness 
would  be  a different  consciousness,  not  the  original  one. 
This  destruction  of  being  (spoken  of  above,  satvasaiirksaya) 
would  be  repeated  like  seasons  and  years ; [there  would 
indeed  be  no  end  to  it,  for  if  it  is  argued  that  destruction 
of  consciousness  ever  results  in  a new  consciousness,  then 
destruction  of  being  would  result,  not,  as  the  Buddhists  teach, 
in  annihilation,  but  in  new  being;  so  there  would  be  no 
escape  from  rebirth.  If  one  says,  however,  that  there  is  a 
conditioned  soul,  it  can  be  only  a physical  bond  of  unity]  like 
a house,  growing  gradually  weaker  through  repeated  aging 
and  dying  (consisting,  as  such  a ‘ soul  ’ must)  of  (mortal) 
senses,  thoughts,  breath,  blood,  flesh,  bone,  all  of  which  perish 
and  revert  in  due  order  to  their  original  bases.  And,  further, 
(such  a theory)  would  refute  the  practice  of  the  world  in 


of  relying  on  the  commentator,  who  thinks  that  the  elephant  in  the  following 
stanza  of  £anti  is  Yoga!  Yathii  niigapade  'nyani  pailani  padagaminam,  sar- 
vany  evii  ’pidluyante  padajatani  kaunjare,  evniii  sarvam  ahihsayam  dharmar- 
tliam  apidluyate  (in  xiii,  evam  lokesv  ahinsa  tu  nirdista).( 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


149 


respect  of  obtaining  advantage  from  gifts  and  other  religious 
acts,  since  both  the  words  of  the  Veda  and  the  practice  of  the 
world  (show  that  acts  are  performed)  for  this  purpose  (of 
gain).  There  are  many  proofs  to  be  found  in  the  mind, 
but  what  with  the  iteration  of  tills  and  that  cause  no  clear 
light  is  obtained,  but  men  doubt  and  turn  to  some  one  expla- 
nation, till  their  intellect  becomes  fixed  on  one  point  and  rots 
there  like  a tree.  So  all  creatures,  made  wretched  through 
(desiring)  useless  objects,  are  led  away  by  received  teaching, 
agamaih,  like  elephants  led  by  their  keepers.  Thus,  desiring 
objects  that  bring  endless  pleasure,  the  dried-up  many  get 
instead  a greater  sorrow  on  being  forced  to  abandon  the  bait 
and  enter  the  power  of  death.” 

The  argument  is  the  familiar  one  that  a man  gets  sorrow 
through  desiring  heaven,  for  after  his  Karma  is  exhausted  he 
sinks  down  again  to  a lower  level.  So  heaven  is  a bait  which 
attracts  men ; but  as  it  is  only  a temporary  pleasure  followed 
by  pain,  one  suffers  from  it  all  the  more  (nessun  maggiore 
dolore  ehe  ricordarsi).  All  this  implies  unconscious  existence 
as  the  best  goal. 

To  this  it  is  said,  219,  2,  in  the  words  of  the  great  Upani- 
shad : “ If  there  is  no  consciousness  after  death,1  what  differ- 
ence does  it  make  whether  one  has  wisdom  or  not,  or  is  careful 
or  not  ? ” Then  Panca§ikha  replies  with  a long  exposition  of 
his  system,  219,  6 ff.,  of  which  I give  the  chief  points : 

It  is  not  a system  of  annihilation,  ucchedanistha,  nor  one 
of  the  soul’s  separate  existence,  bhavanistha.  The  (visible) 
man  consists  of  body,  senses,  and  perception,  cetas.  The 
foundations  are  the  five  elements,  which  are  independent  and 
make  the  body.  The  body  is  not  of  one  element,  but  of  five. 
The  aggregate  causing  activity  is  knowledge,  heat,  and  wind.2 
From  knowledge  come  the  senses  and  their  objects,  separate 
existence,  svabhava,  perception,  cetana,  and  mind ; from  wind 
come  the  two  vital  breaths;  from  heat  come  gall  and  other 

1 yadi  na  pretya  samjna  bhavati ; compare  tany  (bhutani)  eva  ’nuvina^ 
yati,  na  pretya  samjna  ’sti  ’ti,  BAU.  ii,  4, 12. 

2 219,  9 ; compare  below. 


150 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


bases,  dhatus.  The  five  senses,  indriyas,  hearing,  touch,  taste, 
sight,  smell,  derive  from  the  mind,  citta,  and  have  its  charac- 
teristics. Eternal  cetana  is  threefold  when  united  with  dis- 
cernment, vijuana.  This  they  call  sukhaduhkha  and  the 
opposite.  Sound,  touch,  color,  taste,  smell,  the  forms  (mur- 
tayah,  containing  these  as  objects),  make  a group  of  six 
constant  constituents,  gunas,  to  make  knowledge  perfect. 
Dependent  on  these  are  acts  and  visarga  (?),  and  judgment  in 
regard  to  the  meaning  of  all  topics.  This  they  call  the  highest 
seed,  gukra ; it  is  intellect,  the  great  undeteriorating  (sub- 
stance). This  collection  of  attributes  is  not  soul  but  is 
not-soul,  anatman.  The  true  teaching  is  contained  in  Renun- 
ciation-^Jastras,  which  enjoin  renunciation  of  all.  Having  ex- 
plained the  six  jnanendriyas,  organs  of  knowledge,  Pancagikha 
explains  the  “organs  of  action,  which  are  five,  with  bala, 
power,  as  the  sixth,”  gl.  20.  There  are  twelve  organs,  five 
organs  of  knowledge  with  mind  as  sixth,  and  five  of  action 
with  power  as  sixth.  The  eleven  organs  (with  mind)  one 
should  renounce  by  means  of  the  intellect.  Ear,  sound, 
and  mind  (citta,  in  23  and  34 ; manas  in  22)  are  necessary  in 
hearing.1  Thus  for  all  the  senses  there  are  fifteen  gunas 
(3x5).  There  are  also  the  three  gunas  called  sattva,  rajas, 
tamas.  Ear  and  sound  are  fonns  of  air  (space) ; so  with  the 
five  others.  In  the  ten  senses  there  arises  a creation  (entity) 
simultaneous  with  their  activity;  this  is  (the  eleventh),  mind, 
citta.  The  intellect  is  the  twelfth.  In  deep  sleep,  tamase, 
there  is  no  annihilation  (of  personality),  although  there  is 
concerned  no  such  creation  simultaneous  with  the  senses  (the 
co-operation  being  a popular  fallacy).  (In  deep  sleep)  in 
consequence  of  one’s  former  waking  experience,  and  because 
one  is  conditioned  by  the  three  gunas,  one  imagines  that  one 
has  material  senses,  although  one  can  perceive  only  subtile 
senses.  But  though  one  imagines  this,  one  does  not  really 

1 Compare  Gita,  18,  18  (threefold  urgers  to  action),  knowledge,  object, 
knower,  jnanam  jncyam  parijnata  trividha  karmacodana ; threefold  action, 
organ,  act,  agent,  karanam  karma  karte  'ti  trividhah  karmasamgrahah ; in 
14,  the  five  karanani  or  karmanah  hetavah  are  object,  adhisthana,  agent, 
organ,  action,  and  the  daiva  (said  to  be  Samkhya,  but  interpreted  as  Vedanta), 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


151 


co-operate  (with  the  senses.  Hence  it  may  be  inferred  that  a 
soul  exists  independent  of  mental  processes).  But  the  deep- 
sleep  consciousness  is  a finite  and  darkened  pleasure.  Even  the 
result  one  derives  from  traditional  teaching,  agama,  though 
not  sorrowful,  is  also  merely  darkness,  revealed  lies,  as  it  were.1 
Spirit,  ksetrajua,  is  the  being,  bhava,  standing  in  mind;  it 
is  immortal,  flowing  as  a stream  to  the  ocean.  For  the  de- 
struction of  existence,  satvasamksaya  (the  expression  used 
above)  is  (in  Upanishad  language)  as  when  rivers  run  into 
other  rivers  and  to  the  ocean,  losing  their  individuality, 
vyakti  (equivalent  to  form)  and  name.  Consequently,  when 
the  individual  spirit,  jlva,  is  united  (with  the  ocean  of  being) 
and  embraced  on  all  sides,  how  could  there  be  consciousness 
after  death?  (219,  43).  As  the  creature  that  spins  out  of 
itself,  wrapping  itself  in  its  web-house,  stays  there  over- 
powered, so  is  the  soul ; but  when  freed,  it  abandons  its  misery, 
and  then  its  woe  is  destroyed,  like  a clod  falling  on  a rock. 
As  the  deer  leaves  its  old  horn,  and  the  snake  its  skin,  with- 
out looking  behind,  and  a bird  leaves  the  falling  tree  and  flies 
away  unattached,  so  the  freed  soul  abandons  its  woe,  and 
leaving  pleasure  and  pain,  without  even  a subtile  body,  goes 
the  perfect  way  (47—49  repeats  45). 2 

For  a Samkhya  philosopher  Pancagikha  teaches  very  extra- 
ordinary things,  the  most  advanced  Brahmaism,  which  fails 
only  of  being  Vedanta  in  its  lack  of  Maya.  Three  sets  of 
philosophers  are  here  refuted,  — the  materialist,  the  Buddhist, 

1 The  commentator  reads  atha  tatra  ’py  upadatte  tamo  'vyaktam  iva 
’nrtam,  5I.  38,  which  is  perhaps  better  “ hidden  falsehood.”  The  meaning  is, 
as  explained  above,  that  the  joy  given  by  Yedic  teaching  is  a perishable 
heaven  resulting  in  sorrow  (darkness)  and  the  teaching  is  not  the  highest 
truth.  Compare,  on  the  other  side,  the  same  reproach,  Mait.  Up.  vii,  10, 
satyam  iva  ’nrtam  pafyanti. 

3 Compare  Pra£.  Up.  v,  5;  Mund.  Up.  1,  7 and  iii,  1.  The  first  image  is 
clearly  not  that  of  a spider  (which  is  not  destroyed  by  its  web),  but  of  a 
silkworm,  though  the  commentator  (and  PW.)  take  urnanabhi  as  a spider, 
which  comparison  is  common.  Compare  xii,  286, 40,  urnanabhir  yatha  sutram 
vijiieyas  tantuvad  gunah  (as  in  BAU.  ii,  1,  20).  But  the  silkworm  is  also 
common.  Compare  xii,  304,  4,  ko?akaro  yathatmanam  kitah  samavarundhati 
sutratantugunair  nityam  tatha  ’yam  aguno  gunaih  dvandvam  eti  ca  nir- 
dvandvah,  etc. 


152 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


and  the  orthodox  Vedist.  The  terms  used  are  those  of  the 
Saihkhya,  jlva  and  ksetrajna  rather  than  atman  (stliito  manasi 
yo  bhavah  sa  vai  ksetrajna  ucyate,  §1.  40),  but  this  spirit  is 
only  part  of  Brahman.1 

Another  point  to  be  noticed  is  the  absence  of  tanmatras. 
Before  passing  to  the  numerical  analysis  of  the  Pancaratra 
scheme  into  thirty  elements,  I would  point  out  also  that  as  in 
Gita,  7,  4,  so  ib.  13,  5-6,  there  are  gross  elements,  egoism, 
intellect,  and  mind  (=  8),  but  also  ten  organs  and  five  objects 
of  sense  plus  avyakta  (=  24  topics),  to  which  are  here  added, 
Gita,  13,  5-6,  desire,  aversion,  pleasure,  pain,  and  also  body, 
perception,  courage  (samghata,  cetaua,  dhrti)  or  thirty-one 
elements  of  “ modified  Prakrti.” 

The  Thirty-one  Elements  (Pancacikha). 

Here  there  is  a formal  group  of  particles  called  kalas,  not 
sixteen  but  thirty,  but  one  (God)  super-added  makes  thirty- 
one  topics,  the  same  number  ascribed  by  tradition  to  the 
Pagupatas.  A most  minute  description  is  given  in  xii,  321, 
96-112.  This  scheme  is  as  follows:2 

In  order  to  act,  the  organs  “ await  the  outer  constituents,” 
gunas.  In  perception,  color,  eye,  and  light  are  the  three 
causes,  and  so  in  all  cases  where  are  found  knowledge  and 
the  object  of  perception,  (similar)  causes  of  knowledge  exist ; 
between  knowledge  and  the  object  intervenes  the  guna,  con- 
stituent, mind,  wherewith  one  judges.  [The  organs  and  mind 
make  eleven.]  3 The  twelfth  is  intellect,  another  constituent, 
wherewith  one  decides  in  the  case  of  doubtful  things  to  be 

1 The  attribute  of  Jagatprakrti  applied  to  Narayana  in  the  I’ahcaratra 
hymn,  xii,  339,  89,  “the  god  who  is  the  Source  of  the  world,”  gives  the 
vital  difference  between  this  teaching  and  that  which  inculcates  a Prakrti 
distinct  from  pure  soul. 

2 I italicize  below  without  extended  comment  the  points  of  contact  with 
the  scheme  just  given. 

8 This  must  be  supplied  from  the  context.  In  the  scheme  at  xiv,  42,  10, 
“mind  must  be  recognized  as  belonging  to  both,  and  intellect  is  the  twelfth,” 
only  ten  organs  are  recognized,  as  here,  and  bala  as  a separate  organ  is 
unknown. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


153 


known.  The  thirteenth  constituent  is  sattva.  (It  is  real) 
for  one  is  argued  to  be  an  individual  having  much  or  little 
sattva  (hence  it  is  a real  constituent,  a guna).  The  four- 
teenth constituent  is  egoism  (when  one  says  ‘ I am  an  agent  ’), 
with  which  one  gets  the  notion  of  mine  and  not-mine.  Then 
there  is  a fifteenth  constituent,  which  is  different  from  the 
others  and  is  called  the  totality  of  the  mass  of  separate  factors, 
prthakkalasamuhasya  samagryam  (i.  e.,  the  general  disposi- 
tion). The  sixteenth,  a different  constituent,  is  a sort  of 
complex,  samghata  iva  (because  it  consists,  says  the  commen- 
tator, in  the  union  of  the  three  factors  of  ignorance ; the  six- 
teenth is  therefore  avidya,  or  ignorance  itself),  wherein  are 
combined  the  Source  and  the  individual  manifestation,  vgakti , 
which  are  respectively  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  con- 
stituents, gunau.  The  nineteenth  is  the  unification  of  doub- 
lets (opposites),  such  as  pleasant  and  disagreeable,  age  and 
death,  etc.  The  twentieth  constituent  is  Time,  the  origin  and 
destruction  of  all  things.  This  complex,  samghata,  of  twenty, 
and  in  addition  the  seven  constituents  consisting  of  the  five 
gross  elements  added  to  [the  origin  and  relation  of]  being  and 
not-being,  (making  twenty-seven,  is  to  be  added  again  to) 
three  more  constituents,  vidhi,gukra , bala  (cause,  seed,  power).1 
That  is  called  the  body  in  which  these  twenty  and  ten  are  all 
together.  The  Source  (fore-cause)  of  these  kalas,  factors,  one 
philosopher  recognizes  to  be  the  Unmanifest;  another,  dull  of 
insight,  recognizes  (as  such)  the  Manifest.  Metaphysicians 
recognize  a Source  of  all  beings,  whether  it  is  the  Unmani- 
fest or  the  Manifest  or  a double  or  quadruple  source.  This 
unmanifest  Source  becomes  manifest  by  means  of  the  kalas 
(the  factors  just  enumerated).  The  individual  is  the  Source 
so  made  manifest.  From  conception  to  old  age  there  is  an 
uninterrupted  momentary  splitting  up  of  the  factors  (par- 
ticles) of  the  body,  although  too  minute  to  be  observed  (in 
detail).  But  this  passing  away  and  coming  into  existence  of 

1 According  to  the  commentator,  these  are  right  and  wrong  as  originating 
false  ideas,  vasana;  that  which  incites  to  wrong  ideas;  and  the  effort  leading 
to  the  attainment  of  wrong  ideas.  But  see  the  scheme  above. 


154 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  separate  particles  goes  on  from  stage  to  stage  just  like  the 
course  of  a lamp’s  light.  There  is,  therefore,  no  connection 
between  the  individual  existent  creature  and  his  members. 
All  creatures  are  born  by  the  union  of  particles,  kalas,  as  it 
were,1  just  as  fire  is  produced  by  the  union  of  sunlight  and 
fire-stone , mani,  or  by  sticks  (rubbed  together). 

This  exposition  is  given  for  a practical  purpose,  as  is  seen 
in  the  last  paragraph.  One  should  recognize  no  own,  as  all 
creatures  are  one,  distinct  from  the  physical  parts.  The 
“ body  of  particles,”  as  it  is  called  in  xii,  322,  25,  reverts  to 
the  unmanifest  Source,  but  the  self  or  soul  is  but  part  of  the 
same  soul  in  any  other  body  of  particles.  The  doctrine  is 
none  the  less  that  of  Pancagikha  because  it  is  taught  by 
Sulabha  to  Janaka,  though  it  is  the  latter  who  professes  lfim- 
self  the  disciple  of  Pancagikha,  “the  venerable  beggar  who 
belonged  to  the  family  of  Paragara,”  xii,  321,  24.  For  Janaka 
does  not  really  understand,  and  so  Sulabha  is  enlightening 
him.  Pancagikha  is  here  said  to  be  a Samkhya  leader.  There 
is  an  imitation  and  would-be  improvement  in  this  late  dis- 
course (the  metre  shows  the  lateness)  of  Gita,  3,  3,  loke 
fsmin  dvividha  nistha.  Here  gl.  38,  the  “point  of  view,”  is 
made  treble,  trividha  nistha  drsta;  not  that  emancipation  is 
got  by  knowledge  or  action,  as  in  the  Gita  passage,  but  by 
the  third  (and  best  view),  that  of  Pancagikha,  who  “rejected 
both  these  two,”  321,  40.  The  doctrine  is  that  the  vaigesikarh 
jnanam  or  most  excellent  way,  gl.  23,  leads  one  to  live  a life 
of  renunciation.  All  depends,  says  the  king,  on  whether  one 
is  bond  or  free ; the  pure  and  good  devotee  may  still  be  active ; 
asceticism  is  not  requisite;  a king  is  as  good  as  a beggar. 
“ The  bond  of  royalty  (says  the  king  in  conclusion),  the  bond 
of  affection,  I have  cut  with  the  sword  of  renunciation,  which 
has  been  sharpened  on  the  anvil  of  emancipation,”  ib.  52. 
But  his  antagonist  intimates  that  he  has  not  learned  the  true 
religion,  which  is  renunciation  in  deed  as  well  as  in  thought. 
As  a system,  the  doctrine  of  Pancagikha  is  said  to  be  sopayah 

1 The  commentator  says  that  “this  expression,  (kalanam)iva,  has  no  mean- 
ing, and  is  merely  used  to  fill  up  the  verse, ” 321,  124. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


155 


sopanisadah  sopasangah 1 sanigcayah,  gl.  1G3,  a detailed  philo- 
sophical exposition. 

In  xii,  276,  4 ff.,  there  is  a third  exposition,  oddly  combined 
with  the  Samkhya  schedule,  while  at  the  end  it  shows  resem- 
blance to  that  just  given.  It  is  referred  to  Asita  Devala,  who 
in  xiii,  18,  18,  is  said  to  have  received  glory  from  £iva  (£iva 
is  Samkhyaprasadah,  xiii,  17,  63),  who  “ gives  the  goal  of 
Samkhyayoga,”  xiii,  14,  198.  In  this  scheme  Time  creates 
the  five  gross  elements.  Impelled  by  Being  and  Soul,  Time 
creates  beings  out  of  these  elements,  which  with  Time  make  a 
group,  ragi,  of  six.  To  these  are  added  bhava  and  abhava, 
making  the  “ eight  beings,  bhutani,  of  beings.”  When  de- 
stroyed, a creature  becomes  fivefold  (elements)  because  of 
these.  The  body  is  made  of  earth,  bhumimayo  dehah  ; the  ear 
comes  from  air  (space)  ; the  eye  from  the  sun ; the  breath 
from  the  wind;  the  blood  from  water.  The  five  senses  are 
the  “knowledges”  (organs  of  knowledge,  jnanani).  Sight, 
hearing,  smelling,  touch,  taste,  are  five,  distributed  fivefold 
over  five.  Their  constituents,  tadgunah,  are  color,  smell, 
taste,  touch,  and  sound,  apprehended  in  five  ways  by  the 
five  senses.  These,  their  gunas,  the  senses  do  not  know, 
but  the  spirit  knows  them  (this  is  a correction  of  the  state- 
ment that  objects  of  sense  are  apprehended  by  the  senses). 
Higher  than  the  group  of  senses  is  citta,  perception ; higher 
than  citta  is  mind ; higher  than  mind  is  intellect ; higher  than 
intellect  is  spirit.  A creature  first  perceives,  cetayati,  differ- 
ent objects  of  sense.  Then  pondering,  vicarya,  with  the  mind, 
he  next  determines,  vyavasyati,  with  the  intellect.  One  that 
has  intellect  determines  objects  of  sense  apprehended  by  the 
senses.  Perception,  the  (five)  senses  as  a group,  mind,  and 
intellect  are,  according  to  metaphysicians,  the  eight  jnane- 
ndriyas,  organs  of  knowledge.  There  are  five  organs  of  action 
and  lala  is  the  sixth  organ  of  action , gl.  22.  Sleep-sight  is  the 
activity  of  the  mind  when  the  activity  of  the  senses  is  sus- 
pended. The  states,  bhavas,2  of  sattva,  tamas,  and  rajas 

1 upasaiiga  for  upasangah  ? N.  defines  as  dliyanangani  yamadini. 

2 This  word  means  being  as  entity  (and  so  is  equivalent  to  guna,  constitu- 


156 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


(joy,  success,  insight,  virtue,  being  the  causes  of  one  being 
endowed  with  sattva),  which  are  associated  with  activity, 
whatever  their  cause  of  activity,  vidlii,  are  retained  (in  sleep) 
by  memory.  There  is  an  agreeable  and  constant  immediate 
passage  between  the  two  states,  bhavayoh  (that  is  the  passage 
is  immediately  perceptible  between  waking  and  sleeping). 
The  organs  and  the  states  are  called  the  seventeen  constitu- 
ents, gunas.  The  eighteenth  is  the  eternal  incorporate  one 
in  the  body,  dehl  garire  (spirit). 

Here  fourteen  organs  are  added  to  the  three  gunas,  sattva, 
etc.,  for  there  are  “ eight  organs  of  knowledge  ” and  six  of 
action  (elsewhere  there  are  only  five  organs  of  knowledge). 
Of  the  group  of  seventeen  I have  already  spoken,  and  note 
here  only  the  intrusion  of  citta  between  senses  and  mind. 
The  account  proceeds  not  very  lucidly:  There  concorporate 
constituents  bound  up  in  body  in  the  case  of  all  incorporate 
creatures  cease  to  be  concorporate  on  the  separation  of  the 
body ; or  the  body  made  of  five  elements,  paiicabhautika,  is  a 
mere  (temporary)  union,  sarimipata.  The  one  and  the  eigh- 
teen gunas  with  the  incorporate  one  and  with  heat,  usman 
(the  internal  heat  of  the  stomach,  says  the  commentator), 
make  the  complex,  samghata,  of  twenty  composed  of  five  ele- 
ments, which  (twenty)  the  Great  One,  mahan,  with  wind  sup- 
ports. The  death  of  each  creature  is  caused  by  this  (wind). 
On  destruction,  the  creature  enters  the  five  elements,  and 
urged  by  its  good  and  evil,  assumes  a body  again ; and  so  on 
from  body  to  body,  urged  by  Time  the  ksetrin  (spirit)  goes,  as 
if  from  one  ruined  house  to  another.1 

The  vingo  samghatah  pancabhautikah  or  complex  of  twenty 
composed  of  five  elements  in  this  passage  is  the  same  with  the 
vingakah  samghatah  of  the  preceding,  321,  109.  But  there 

ent)  or  existence  and  so  state  of  being.  It  often  adds  nothing  to  the  meaning. 
For  example  in  xiii,  141,  85,  “ bhava  of  self  ” is  the  same  with  self : atmany 
eva  ’tmano  bhavam  samasajjeta  vai  dvijali,  “ put  self  in  self.” 

1 viylrnad  va  (=  iva)  grhad  grham.  The  analysis  above,  276  (5),  30  : eka^ 
ca  da?a  ca  ’stau  ca  (=  19)  gunah,  saha  paririna  (dehin  in  5I.  28)  usmana  saha 
(besides  heatj’viftfo  va  samghatah  pancabhautikah,  mahan  samdharayaty  etac 
chariram  vayuna  saha.  Compare  the  first  scheme  above. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


157 


Time  is  the  twentieth,  and  the  twenty  are  the  bodily  gunas. 
Nevertheless,  the  employment  in  each,  not  only  of  the  group 
of  twenty  but  also  of  bala  and  vitlhi,  as  found  above,  points  to 
a common  basis.1  In  none  is  there  a trace  of  Vishnuism. 

The  Secret  of  the  Vedanta. 

The  united  systems  of  philosophy  called  “ Secret  of  the 
Vedanta”  and  exploited  in  xii,  194,  248  ft’.,  and  286,  which 
in  the  following  pages  I shall  designate  as  A,  B,  C,  present  a 
curious  mixture,  which  on  careful  analysis  show  clearly  tluit 
they  are  three  different  versions  of  an  older  Samkhya  tract, 
which  is  worked  over  into  Brahmaism.  There  is  no  clear 
recognition  of  egoism,  though  the  commentator  so  interprets 
the  “ maker  of  bhutas  ” in  C 9,  and,  as  I have  said  above,  I 
think  it  doubtful,  both  from  these  and  other  passages,  whether 
the  earlier  Samkhya  recognized  Intellect  as  other  than  self- 
conscious.  One  of  the  present  three  schemes  introduces  the 
Bhutiitman  as  deus  ex  machina.  They  all  differ  slightly  and 
have  the  Panca^ikha  terminology  to  a certain  extent.  In  their 
threefold  form  they  offer  an  instructive  example  of  how  the 
epic  copies  itself.  They  all  begin  with  the  same  request  to 
the  instructor  to  give  a metaphysical,  aclhyatma,  lecture.  The 
first  and  last  versions  represent  Bhlsma  as  teacher  and  Yudhi- 
stliira  as  pupil ; the  other,  Vyasa  as  teacher  and  Cuka  as 
pupil  of  the  same  lecture.  The  two  Bhlsma  lectures  do  not 
agree  so  closely  with  each  other  throughout  (though  more 
alike  at  first)  2 as  do  the  Vyasa  and  second  Bhlsma  version, 

1 Compare  with  this  samghata  or  vital  complex  the  jivayhana,  Prajn.  v.  5. 

2 The  closer  agreement  begins  with  A 9 as  compared  with  B 9 and  C 10 ; 
“ sound,  ear,  and  holes,  this  triad  is  born  of  air  ; touch,  action,  skin,  are  born 
of  wind  ; color,  eye,  digestion,  are  called  the  threefold  light,  tejas.”  Here  B 
and  C have  “ vital  airs  ” for  skin,  and  jyotis  for  tejas.  In  the  next  group, 
where  A has  taste,  kleda,  tongue,  B and  C both  have  sneha.  Again  “ mind  as 
the  sixth  ” organ  appears  in  A 11  but  is  omitted  in  B 11  and  C 12,  to  reappear 
in  B 17,  C 15.  In  all  these  versions,  body,  with  smell  and  object,  is  of  earth 
alone,  bhumigunah,  loc.  cit.  Besides  these  triads,  B and  C give  sound,  ghosa, 
(5abda)  from  air,  smell  alone  as  bhumiguna  in  B,  all  composite  matter,  sarh- 
ghata,  as  earth-guna  in  C ; breath  (C)  or  touch  (B)  from  wind,  etc. 


158 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


which  lie  nearer  together  in  place.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
treat  these  chapters  rather  fully  if  we  wish  to  get  a clear  idea 
of  the  manufacture  of  epic  philosophy. 

Coming,  then,  to  details,  the  glokas  are  intermingled  in  such 
a way  that  part  of  one  (jloka  in  one  discourse  is  part  of  another 
in  another  version.  Thus,  after  the  introductory  stanza,  which 
names  the  five  elements  with  but  trifling  variations,  A has : 
“ Whence  they  are  created  thither  they  go,  again  and  again,  the 
great  bhutas,  from  other  bhutas,  like  waves  of  ocean;  and  as 
a tortoise,  stretching  forth  limbs,  retracts  them  again,  so  the 
Bhutatman  again  withdraws  the  bhutas  he  has  created.”  In 
B,  the  expression  “like  waves  of  ocean”  comes  in  the  first 
stanza,  replacing  the  expression  “ origin  and  destruction  ” in 
A.  In  C,  as  regards  this  expression,  the  reading  is  as  in  A, 
but  the  important  lines  of  the  tortoise  and  Bhutatman  appear 
here  thus : “ As  a tortoise  here,  causing  his  limbs  to  stretch 
forth,  retracts  them,  so  the  smaller  bhutas  in  respect  of  greater 
bhutas ; ” while  B has : “ As  a tortoise  here,  stretching  forth 
limbs,  retracts  them  again,  so  the  great  bhutas,  mahanti  bhu- 
tani,  modify  themselves  in  the  smaller  ” (younger) ; and  this 
is  repeated,  ib.  14,  in  a stanza  omitted  in  the  other  versions 
with  the  momentous  alteration  : “ As  a tortoise  here,  his  limbs 
outstretching,  withdraws  them,  even  so  the  Intellect , having 
created  the  group  of  senses,  withdraws  them.” 

The  next  change  is  in  A 8,  where,  after  stating  that  the 
“ maker  of  bhutas  ” put  the  gross  elements  differently  in  all 
beings,  the  teacher  here  adds  “but  the  jlva  spirit  does  not 
see  that  difference,”  which  in  the  other  versions  appears  with- 
out mention  of  jlva,  with  visayan  in  C for  vaisamyam.  Of 
the  new  group  of  eight  sources  found  here,  I have  spoken 
elsewhere.  All  the  versions  have  the  following  stanza  A 17, 
B 16,  C 18: 

gunan  (A,  C,  gunair)  nenlyate  buddhir,  buddhir  eve- 
’ndriyany  api  (C,  ca) 

manahsastani  sarvani  (A,  bhutani),  buddliy  (A,  tad) 
abhave  kuto  gunah, 

that  is,  Intellect  directs  the  gunas ; the  senses  are  intellect 


epic  philosophy. 


159 


ami  their  constituents  could  not  exist  without  it.  A and  C 
make  the  intellect  subservient  to  the  gunas ! C,  as  if  to  ex- 
plain the  gunas,  inserts  “ tamas,  sattva,  rajas,  time,  and  act,” 
while  in  13  it  has  a verse  (mingling  cases),  “sattva,  rajas, 
tamas,  kiila  (nom.),  and  kannabuddhi  (nora.),  and  mind,  the 
sixth,  in  these  (bases)  the  Lord  created.”  B,  too,  has  an 
addition : “ Mind,  intellect,  and  nature,  svabhava,  these  three 
are  born  of  their,  own  sources ; they  do  not  overpass  the  gunas 
on  arriving  at  that  which  is  higher  than  the  gunas  ” (13,  na 
gunan  ativartante).  So  in  316,  2,  gunasvabhavas  tv  avyakto 
gunan  nai  ’vii  ’tivartate.  But  in  249,  8 ff.,  the  continuation 
of  B,  the  intellect,  identified  with  the  bhavas  (states  produced 
by  gunas)  does  overpass  them,  “ as  the  sea  does  the  shore.” 
The  image  here  is  so  conventional,  saritam  sagaro  bharta 
mafia  velam  ivo  ’nniman  (compare  A,  23  ff. ; C,  23  ff.)  that 
there  is  no  doubt  what  has  happened.  The  constant  unchang- 
ing epic  simile  is  that  one  remains,  not  over-stepping,  “as 
the  sea  does  not  overpass  its  shore.”  In  other  words,  there 
is  in  this  passage  an  intrusion  of  the  Yoga  idea1  that  the  soul 
can  overpass  the  gunas  (compare  Gita,  14,  21,  and  xii,  252, 
22),  and  so  the  ancient  simile  is  introduced  without  its  nega- 
tive, making  the  absurdity  shown  above.2 

B alone  adds,  in  249,  3,  “ the  intellect  is  soul,”  atman, 

1 Compare  xii,  205,  17 : “ Mind  abandoning  gunas  attains  freedom  from 
gunas”  (above).  Gunas  and  bhavas  are  here  the  same  thing,  for  the  latter 
are  the  result  of  the  presence  of  the  former.  They  (or  the  eight  sources) 
“ carry  the  universe  but  rest  on  God,”  210,  28,  36.  This  is  a Lord-system, 
though  “ Lord  ” is  a form  of  ignorance : “ elements,  senses,  gunas,  three 
worlds,  the  Lord  himself,  are  all  based  on  egoism,”  212,  18-19. 

2 svabhava,  nature,  is  distinct  from  sadbhava.  One  is  temporary,  the 
other  is  eternal,  xiv,  28,  22;  Gita,  8,  3.  The  three  texts  in  describing  the 
modification  of  intellect  “called  mind  when  it  desires,”  A 20;  B (249),  2; 
C 20,  have  slight  variants ; “ that  with  which  it  sees  is  eye,  hearing  it  is 
called  ear,”  A 19;  B 4;  C 19,  where  B and  C have  (jrnvatl,  etc.,  but  A 
the  verb  throughout.  In  A 13  (and  the  corresponding  verses  B 18,  C 19) 
“ the  mind  doubts,”  samfayam  kurute,  “ the  intellect  decides,”  adhyavasa- 
liaya.  Compare  249,  1,  mano  visrjate  bhavam  buddhir  adhyavasayinl,  hrda- 
yam  priyapriye  veda,  trividha  karmacodana.  “ The  intellect  is  the  chief 
thing  in  that  which  is  to  be  made”  (B  15),  suggesting  egoism,  but  C 14  has 
krtsne  and  A has  no  subject  at  all. 


160 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


which  is  in  line  with  the  tendencies  at  work  here.  So  in  249, 
20,  there  is  a stanza  which  must  be  compared  step  for  step 
with  the  parallel  passages : “ Soul,  atman,  puts  forth  intellect, 
but  never  (read  na  ’pi)  gunas ; the  gunas  do  not  know  soul, 
but  soul,  sa,  knows  gunas  always,  and  it  is  the  observer  and  in 
proper  order  occupies  itself  with  them.  Know  that  this  is  the 
difference  between  intellect  and  spirit  (ksetrajha  for  the  pre- 
ceding atman),  one  creates  gunas,  one  does  not  create  gunas ; 
both  being  different  but  joined  by  the  Source,  united  as  a fish 
to  water,  or  fly  to  udumbara,  or  as  sheath  to  grass-blade. 
Intellect  truly  creates  gunas,  but  the  spirit,  the  Lord,  superin- 
tends, as  the  gunas  modify  themselves ; all  that  is  part  of  its 
own  nature,  that  intellect  creates  gunas ; as  a spider  does  his 
thread,  so  that  creates  gunas.” 

In  A,  38  ff. : “See  the  difference  between  intellect  and 
spirit,  ksetrajha ; one  creates  gunas,  one  does  not  create  gunas ; 
as  the  fly  and  udumbara  so  are  they  joined ; both  being  differ- 
ent, but  joined  by  the  Source ; as  a fish  and  water  are  joined 
so  are  they;  the  gunas  know  not  the  soul,  atman,  but  the 
soul,  sa,  knows  the  gunas  always.  But  being  an  observer  of 
the  gunas  (the  spirit)  imagines  them  created  (by  himself). 
The  soul,  atman,  with  the  senses  and  intellect  as  the  seventh, 
which  are  moveless  and  ignorant,  illuminates  the  object,  pada, 
like  a lamp.  Intellect  truly  creates  the  gunas,  the  spirit, 
ksetrajha,  looks  on;  this  is  their  connection.  There  is  no 
support  for  the  intellect  and  spirit.  Mind  creates  intellect  but 
never  creates  the  gunas  ...  A Yogin  in  his  proper  nature 
creates  (srjate)  gunas,  as  a spider  his  web.”  1 

C 33  begins  as  in  B,  “ Know  that  this  is  the  difference,” 
down  to  the  image  of  the  fish;  then,  omitting  the  fly,  etc., 
goes  on  as  in  A : “ The  gunas  know  not  the  soul,  atman,  but 
the  soul  knows  gunas  always,  but,  being  an  observer  of  the 
gunas,  it  imagines  itself  the  creator.  There  is  no  support 
for  the  intellect  . . .2  the  intellect,  buddhir  antara,  with  the 

1 Unique.  Mind  here  is  for  atman  in  B. 

2 A senseless  addition  is  found  here,  followed  by  srjate  hi  gunan  sattvarh 
kgetrajnah  paripajyati  (as  in  A).  Sattva,  itself  a guna,  rests  on  rajas,  xii, 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


161 


senses,  which  have  no  eyes  and  are  ignorant,  makes  the  senses 
luminous  like  a lamp  (the  intellect  alone  sees,  the  senses  are 
like  lamps)  . . . this  is  even  the  fulfilment  of  its  nature  that 
(intellect  creates)  gunas  as  a spider  his  thread;  the  gunas 
should  be  recognized  as  a web.”  1 

A Saiiikhya  text  is  here  changed  into  a later  philosophy, 
with  soul  substituted  for  spirit,  and  the  Yogin  making  gunas. 
Hence  also  the  intellect  is  grouped  with  senses  as  ignorant  in- 
struments of  the  soul,  while  Mind  is  creative  soul.  Even  apart 
from  the  philosopliical  modifications  here  visible,  it  is  difficult 
to  see  how  the  synthetic  method  can  account  for  these  three 


213,  12,  sattvam  ca  rajasi  sthitam,  jnanadhisthanam  avyaktam  buddhy- 
aharnkaralaksanam  tad  bijam  dehinam  ahull.  Compare  215,  25,  jnanadhi- 
sthanam ajnanam  vijnananugatarii  juanam  ajhanena  ’pakrsyate.  But  we 
have  in  agrayo  na  ’sti  sattvasya  a phrase  in  which  sattva  is  equivalent  to 
conscious  buddhi.  The  varied  readings  show  clearly  that  the  text  has  been 
tampered  with.  In  agrayo  na  ’sti  sattvasya  gunah  gabdo  na  cetana  in  240, 
14,  followed  by  sattvarn  hi  tejah  srjati  na  gunan  vai  kathamcana  there  is 
still  another  parallel  to  our  text.  So  in  241,  3 ff.,  sattva  is  buddhi,  higher 
than  citta,  as  it  is  said  "merge  citta  in  sattva”  (247,  5 and  9,  the  Yogin’s 
suksma  buddhih).  Elsewhere  citta,  by  the  way,  is  an  organ  “lower  than 
mind,”  276,  16.  The  version  in  194,  44,  is  agrayo  na  ’sti  sattvasya  kse- 
trajnasya  ca  kagcana,  sattvam  manah  samsrjate  na  gunan  vai  kadacana 
(after  the  words  srjate  hi  gunan  sattvam),  where  manas  must  represent  atman 
in  the  version  above.  The  form  gunah  gabdo  na  cetana  appears,  a scribe’s 
error  apparently,  in  286,  36,  as  gunasargena  cetana,  before  the  meaningless 
words : sattvam  asya  srjanty  anye  gunan  veda  kadacana.  The  epic  sattva 
is  well  known : “ One  is  fitted  for  Brahman  existence  as  sattva  gradually 
departs,”  i.  e.,  as  circumscribed  jiva  becomes  pure.  Compare  also  217,  21-25 
(210-217  are  a professed  adhyatma  of  Xarayana),  where  it  is  said  that  jiva 
quits  rajas  and  goes  about  like  sound  but  in  a body,  and  then  gets  established 
in  Source,  and  finally  leaves  even  that  body  and  enters  “ end  of  body  which 
rests  on  nothing,”  niragraya. 

1 Other  common  metaphors  and  similes  are  that  of  the  cocoon  (pp.  36, 
151),  the  “bonds  of  hope,”  agapaga,  Gita,  16,  12;  the  net,  xii,  242,  7 ff . ; but 
unique  is  the  weaver  of  xii,  217,  36 : “Asa  weaver  passes  the  thread  through 
cloth  with  a needle,  so  the  thread  of  transmigration  is  fastened  with  the 
needle  of  desire,  samsarayati  (samsarasiitra)  trsnasucya.  Compare  foam-like 
body  and  bird-like  soul,  xii,  322,  7 ; as  well  as  the  elaborate  river-metaphors 
(taken  from  the  battle-epic),  where  the  bank  is  truth,  waves  are  untruth, 
desire  is  a crocodile,  and  the  river  of  the  unmanifest  goes  into  the  sea  of 
transmigration,  iii,  207,  72;  xii,  251,  12  ff.  (Dh.  Pad.,  251,  n’  atthi  mohasamam 
jalam  n’  atthi  tanhasama  nadi). 


11 


162 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


conversations.  From  an  historical  point  of  view  the  problem 
is  of  course  simple. 

The  question  asked  above,  “What  would  become  of  the 
gunas  in  the  absence  of  intellect?  ” is  taken  up  and  continued 
at  the  end  of  the  discussion : “ When  the  gunas,  the  strands 
spun  by  intellect,  are  dispersed,  pradhvastah,  they  do  not  cease 
to  be,  na  nivartante;  a cessation,  nivrtti,  is  not  perceived. 
This  is  beyond  the  sphere  of  what  is  immediately  perceptible 
(but)  it  is  ascertainable  through  reasoning,  anumana.  So  some 
decide,  while  others  say  they  cease  to  be,  nivrtti.  Let  one 
consider  both  views  and  decide  as  one  thinks  best,  loosening 
the  firm  knot  of  the  heart  (an  Upanishad  phrase)  caused  by  a 
difference  of  judgment,”  194,  50-52.  B and  C have  “their 
activity,  pravrtti,  is  not  perceived,”  for  “a  cessation  is  not 
perceived.” 

The  Yogin,  who  according  to  the  teaching  of  this  lecture 
can  overpass  the  gunas,  is  said  in  the  last  section,  in  a supple- 
ment, xii,  252,  ff.,  to  surpass  even  the  destruction  of  gunas, 
atikrantagunaksaya,  and  reach  the  highest  goal. 

Details  of  Philosophical  Speculation. 

It  has  been  shown  thus  far  that  there  are  not  only  three 
religious  philosophies  in  the  epic,  but  also  three  formal  sys- 
tems, one  inculcating  the  twenty-five,  one  the  twenty-six,  and 
one  the  thirty-two  categories. 

These  broad  differences  are  sufficient  to  show  how  entirely 
lacking  in  any  uniform  plan  or  scope  is  epic  pliilosophy  as 
a whole,  and  also  to  prove  that  the  epic  does  not  represent  a 
preliminary  chaos  of  opinions,  but  reflects  at  last  three  per- 
fected and  systematized  schemes  of  philosophy.  I turn  now 
to  some  details  of  speculation,  incongruous  for  the  most  part, 
reflecting  different  interpretations  and  different  views ; but  in 
some  cases  noteworthy  not  so  much  for  their  lack  of  harmony 
with  other  epic  schemes  as  for  the  uniqueness  of  views  found 
only  in  one  or  two  passages  of  the  pseudo-epic,  amid  a mass 
of  theories  covering  the  same  general  subject. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


163 


The  Sixty  Constituents  of  Intellect. 

This  group,  one  of  the  most  elaborate  in  the  epic,  is  obtained 
by  an  “ enumeration,”  parisamkhyana,  which  analyzes  the  ele- 
ments, xii,  256,  1 ff.  They  are  thus  distributed : “ Earth 
has  ten,  firmness,  weight  (gurutva),  hardness  (kiithinya),  the 
function  of  productivity,  scent,  density  (also  gurutva,  but 
explained  as  prathamanata,  pindapustih),  ability  (to  hold 
scents),  compactness,  support,  endurance.  Water  has  ten,  cool- 
ness, taste,  moistness,  fluidity  (dravatva),  adhesiveness  and 
softness  ( ? snehasiiumyatii),  tongue,  dispersion,  also,  and 
softening  (grapana)  of  earthy  things  (these  make  nine,  but 
the  commentator  supplies  ‘freezing’  from  ca,  ‘and,’  which  I 
render  ‘also’!  Probably  bhaumanam  contains  an  old  error). 
Fire,  ten,  dangerousness,  light,  heat,  cooking,  brightness,  pain, 
passion  (and  is)  swift;  (it  has)  sharpness  and  ever  upward 
flaring.  Wind  (air),  ten,  tempered  touch,  (it  is)  the  organ 
of  speech,  vadasthana ; (it  lias)  independence,  power,  speed, 
emission  (of  secretions),  activity,  movement  (of  breath),  life 
(atmata,  of  the  vital  airs),  and  birth.  The  characteristic  con- 
stituent of  air  (space)  is  sound ; (it  has  also)  comprehensive- 
ness, openness,  non-support,  non-suspension,  unmanifestness, 
steadfastness  (avikarita),  non-resistance  (apratlghatita),  ele- 
mentality,  and  changes  (bhutatvam  vikrtani  ca,  ‘that  is,  it 
causes  hearing  and  apertures  in  the  body,’  N.).  Thus  related 
are  the  fifty  constituents  (gunah  pahcagatam),  which  are  the 
essentials  of  the  five  elements.”  To  these  are  added  nine 
constituents  of  mind  and  five  of  intellect,  as  follows : “ Cour- 
age, reasoning,  memory  (so  the  commentator  renders  upapatti 
and  vyakti,  perhaps  individuality),  creation  (visarga,  rendered 
‘ loss  of  memory  ’ by  the  commentator),  imagination,  patience, 
good,  evil,  and  swiftness,  are  the  nine  characteristics  of  mind. 
The  destruction  of  the  pleasant  and  the  unpleasant  (in  deep 
sleep),  judgment  (vyavasaya),  concentration,  doubt,  and  insight 
are  recognized  as  the  five  characteristics  of  intellect.”  The 
two  last,  samgaya  and  pratipatti,  are  rendered  by  the  commen- 
tator in  just  the  opposite  meanings,  namely  knowledge  in 


164 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


doubtful  matters  and  the  application  of  other  proofs  as  well 
as  direct  perception.  In  the  light  of  explanations  current 
elsewhere  in  the  epic,  where  “ doubt-making  ” is  an  attribute 
of  mind,  and  judgment  that  of  intellect,  “doubt,”  which  is 
here  clearly  attributed  to  intellect,  must  indeed,  from  a syn- 
thetical point  of  view,  be  interpreted  by  its  opposite,  or  one 
may  fall  back  on  the  remark  cited  below,  that  this  is  all 
nonsense.  From  an  historical  point  of  view,  however,  the 
statement  may  stand  beside  the  many  other  inconsistencies  of 
the  epic. 

The  section  closes  with  a query  on  the  part  of  the  listener  as 
to  how  intellect  has  five  constituents  and  how  the  five  senses 
are  reckoned  as  attributes,  katham  pancendriya  gunah ; to  which 
the  answer  is  the  stanza : ahull  sastini  buddhigunan  vai  bhuta- 
vigista  nityavisaktah,  bhutavibhutlg  ca  ’ksarasrstah  putra  na 
nityam  tad  iha  vadanti,  “ They  say  that  the  constituents  of 
intellect  are  sixty.  These  are  distinguished  by  the  elements ; 1 
(but)  are  always  attached  (to  the  intellect).  The  manifesta- 
tions of  the  elements  are  created  by  that  which  is  indestruc- 
tible. They  say  that  that  is  non-eternal.”  “ That,”  it  is 
added,  “which  has  been  declared  to  you  here  is  foolishness, 
cintakalilam,  and  unorthodox,  anagatam.  Learning  the  whole 
truth  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  elements,  gain  peace  of  intel- 
lect by  acquiring  power  over  the  elements  ” (bhutaprabhavat, 
Yogi-power). 

The  sixty  may  be  got  by  adding  the  five  gunas  of  intellect 
to  the  five  elements  plus  their  fifty  characteristic  constituents ; 
but  the  commentator  says  the  true  count  is  seventy-one,  five 
elements  with  their  fifty  constituents  added  to  mind  and  intel- 
lect with  their  nine  and  five  constituents  respectively. 

Two  views  are  given.  One  is  that  there  are  fifty  and  nine 
and  five  constituents  of  five  (elements),  one  (mind),  and  one 
(intellect)  = 71.  The  other  is  that  intellect  has  sixty  con- 
stituents, five  of  its  own,  fifty  of  the  elements  (as  parts  of 
intellect),  and  the  elements  themselves  (which  are  different 

1 The  commentator  paraphrases  bhutavifistah  with  pafica  bliutany  api 
buddher  eva  gunah,  “ the  five  elements  are  constituents  of  intellect.” 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


165 


from  the  constituents).  The  latter  view  is  repudiated  as 
unorthodox,  and  the  final  injunction  is  given  to  turn  from 
this  calculation  to  Yogi-discipline. 

This  unorthodox  enumeration  is  represented  elsewhere  by 
the  title  of  £iva,  who  is  called  sastibhaga,  xiii,  17,  72,  and  per- 
haps also  by  the  mysterious  manoviruddhani  in  the  enumera- 
tion of  the  psychic  colors  explained  below.  Seven  hundred 
vy  films,  or  forms  of  activity,  are  traversed  by  the  soul  on  its 
way  through  red  and  yellow,  to  white,  when  it  courses  above 
the  eight  worlds.  Then  follows,  xii,  281,  46 : 

astau  ca  sastim  ca  qatani  cai  ’va 

manoviruddhani  mahadyutinam 

“ The  eight  (worlds)  and  the  sixty  and  the  hundreds  (of 
vyulias)  are  impediments  to  the  mind  of  the  illuminate.” 
The  sixty  are  here  explained  as  constituents  of  existence  still 
adhering  to  the  white  soul.  The  commentator,  however,  gives 
an  entirely  different  explanation  from  the  one  above,  and 
though  much  the  same  in  regard  to  the  Last  two  cases,  his 
interpretation  is  not  quite  uniform.  In  the  former  case,  the 
god  enjoys  tattvas  or  topics,  experienced  as  stated  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Mandukya,  in  unconscious  slumber,  wake- 
fulness, and  ordinary  sleep,  each  of  the  latter  being  the  real 
or  illusionary  fine  and  gross  elements  added  to  the  nineteen 
“doors  of  enjoyment,”  soul,  five  breaths,  and  the  usual  thir- 
teen (ten  organs,  mind,  intellect,  and  egoism) ; while  two  of 
the  sixty  are  attributed  to  dreamless  slumber,  cetas,  soul,  and 
subtilest  capacity.  In  the  latter  case,  the  three  states  are  sur- 
passed by  a fourth  state,  to  which  the  impeded  white  soul  can- 
not attain.  The  impediments  are  much  the  same  as  those 
above,  but  include  ignorance,  desire  and  acts  (the  triad  men- 
tioned above),  and  the  states  themselves. 

The  Seventeen. 

In  the  exposition  given  in  xii,  276,  6 ff.,  above,  p.  156,  there 
is  a group  of  seventeen  with  an  added  spirit,  making  eighteen 
in  all.  Further  there  are  “eight  beings  of  beings,”  which  re- 


166 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mind  one  of  the  “ eight  sources,”  but  instead  of  the  usual  group 
Ave  find  here  the  gross  elements,  Time,  being,  and  not-being 
(egoism  is  not  a factor  here  at  all).1 

The  group  of  seventeen  plays  an  important  part  in  epic 
categories,  but  it  is  clear  from  a comparison  of  the  cases  that 
there  is  no  symmetry  of  system  in  the  explanation.  It  is  in 
short,  as  is  the  case  in  other  instances,  a Samkhyan  term  used 
because  it  is  an  old  term,  but  explained  differently  in  different 
cases.  One  form  \ve  have  just  examined ; another  I gave  in 
the  first  chapter,  above,  p.  33,  where  was  shown  a late  group 
of  seventeen,  containing  most  of  the  elements  of  the  same 
group  in  the  Vedantasara,  five  elements,  mind,  intellect,  ego- 
ism, five  organs  of  sense,  spirit,  atman,  and  the  three  gunas  or 
constituents  of  all  that  is  not  pure  spirit. 

On  the  other  hand  the  Samkhyan  group,  as  in  Aphorisms 
iii,  9,  may  be  understood  of  the  bodily  constituents  (ten  organs, 
mind,  intellect,  and  five  elements)  in  a praise  of  ^iva  A\'ho  cre- 
ated the  “seven  guardians  and  ten  others  Avho  guard  this 
city,”2  vii,  201,  76.  The  city  here  is  the  body,  as  in  the  Upa- 
nishads  and  Gita  ((Aet.,  3,  18;  G.  5,  13),  elseAvhere  called 
“house,”  as  in  v,  33,  100,  “this  house  of  nine  doors,  three 
pillars,  five  witnesses,  under  control  of  the  spirit.”3 

1 This  exposition  is  called  “ silly  talk,”  dustapralapah,  xii,  280,  23,  because 
it  does  not  recognize  that  the  course  of  transmigration  may  be  brought  to  an 
end.  For  it  is  taught  in  the  following  chapter  that  not  knowledge,  penance, 
and  sacrifice,  but  only  self-restraint,  can  result  in  the  attainment  of  Vishnu, 
the  supreme  God.  For  as  a goldsmith  purifies  gold  in  fire  so  the  soul  is  puri- 
fied by  many  rebirths  or  by  one  alone.  Hari  creates,  whose  self  consists  of  the 
eleven  modifications,  ekada?avikaratma,  the  sun  is  his  eye,  his  mind  is  in 
the  moon,  his  intellect  is  in  knowledge,  etc.,  and  the  gunas  are  essentially  of 
God,  281,  9,  11-12,  19-21,  24.  Here,  as  I have  elsewhere  pointed  out,  eleven 
modifications  take  the  place  of  the  regular  sixteen,  evidently  the  organs  and 
mind  without  the  elements. 

2 In  conjunction  with  the  two  birds  (spirits)  and  pippal  trees  (vikaras), 
manasau  dvau  suparnau  vacayakhiih  pippalah  sapta  gopivh  dafa  ’py  anye  ye 
puraiii  dharayanti.  Compare  for  the  birds  and  pippal  tree  Mund.  Up.  iii,  1 ; 
Cvet.  iv,  6. 

3 The  five  senses,  mind,  intellect,  egoism,  and  the  gross  body,  make  the 
nine ; the  pillars  are  restraints,  ignorance,  desire,  action ; the  house  is  the 
body  ; the  witnesses  are  the  senses,  says  the  commentator,  who  at  Gita,  5,  13, 
gives  a different  explanation  of  the  nine.  The  witness  (as  in  popular  style,  i, 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


167 


Another  passing  allusion  is  found  in  xii,  280,  4,  “ freed  from 
the  seventeen,”  where  (since  the  context  excludes  objects  of 
sense,  gunas,  and  the  “eight”)  the  seventeen  are  explained 
by  the  commentator  as  five  breaths,  mind,  intellect,  and  ten 
organs  (the  eight  being  objects  of  sense  and  gunas).  Another 
passage  alluding  to  the  seventeen  is  taken  in  the  same  way : 
“ Who  are  free  of  the  seventeen,  the  gunas,  and  acts,  the  fifteen 
kalas,  particles,  being  abandoned,1  they  are  released,”  xii,  335, 
40.  So  again  in  xii,  352,  15-16 : “ The  highest  spirit  is  not 
affected  by  fruits,  as  the  lotus  leaf  is  not  affected  by  water ; 
but  the  other,  the  active  spirit,  karmatman,  is  bound  by  the 
bonds  of  salvation 2 and  it  is  bound  also  by  the  group  of  seven- 
teen,” where  riigi,  group,  is  used  as  in  the  first  example  above, 
though  the  group  is  a different  one. 

It  follows  that  the  epic  is  not  consistent  with  itself  but 
interprets  the  “ group  of  seventeen  ” in  different  ways.3 

74,  31,  hrdi  sthitah)  is  sometimes  made  sixfold,  as  the  spirit  and  five  senses, 
xiii,  7,  5.  Various  poetical  modifications  occur  : “A  house,  agarakam,  of  one 
pillar,  nine  doors,”  xii,  174,  59 ; a city,  xii,  210,  37 ; nine  doors  again  (still 
differently  explained  by  the  commentator)  in  xii,  240,  32,  where  the  spirit  is 
hansa  (compare  246,  29-31).  A very  elaborate  working-up  of  the  body-city, 
with  senses  as  citizens,  buddlii  as  Lord,  etc.,  will  be  found  in  xii,  255,  9 ff. 
The  hansa  passage  reflects  the  Upanishads  : 240,  29  = <Jvet.  iii,  16 ; 30  = v.  1. 
of  Qvet.  ib.  20;  31  has  the  unique  dvaidhibhava  (atmanah)  of  Maitri,  vii,  11 : 
32  = later  form  of  Qvet.  iii,  18.  On  p.  45, 1 gave  kalah  pacati  in  Strip,  as  acci- 
dental or  universal.  Not  so  here,  however,  where  Maitri  vi,  15,  kalah  pacati 
. . . yasmins  tu  pacyate  kalo  yas  tarn  veda  sa  vedavit,  appears  complete  (with 
the  v.  1.  tarn  vede  ’ha  na  kafcana)  in  240,  25.  So  too  ?1.  17  = Katha  iii,  15 ; 
and  26  = Qvet.  iv,  19;  while  in  15,  manisa  manasa  viprah  pafjraty  atmanam 
atmani  (evam  saptadafam  dehe  vrtam  soda^abhir  gunaih)  there  is  a direct 
copy  of  the  older  form,  Qvet.  iv,  17,  etc.  <pi.  19,  20,  21  copy  the  Gita. 

1 ye  hinah  saptadafabliir  gunaih  karmabhir  eva  ca,  kalah  pancada?a 
tyaktas  te  rnukta  iti  nifcayah.  Here  the  commentator  takes  gunas  as  sattva, 
rajas,  and  tamas.  On  the  fifteen  kalas,  see  below. 

2 Moksabandhah,  perhaps  moha  should  be  read,  unless  moksa  implies 
desire. 

3 There  are  of  course  other  groups  of  seventeen.  Thus  in  xii,  269,  25-26, 
Agni  is  seventeenth  in  the  sacrificial  group,  plants,  cattle,  trees,  withes,  butter, 
milk,  sour  milk,  ghee,  land,  points  of  compass,  faith,  time  (are  twelve),  the 
three  Vedas,  the  sacrificer  (are  sixteen),  and  seventeenth  is  Fire,  the  house- 
lord. 


168 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  Sixteen  (A)  Particles. 

What  has  happened  in  the  mixture  just  described  is 
obvious  enough.  The  fifteen  kalas,  mentioned  above  as 
something  to  be  abandoned,  imply  a sixteenth  kala,  the 
not-to-be-abandoned  psychic  entity  itself.  The  impediments 
are  called  indifferently  kalas  and  gunas,  the  former  being  the 
old  designation,  as  in  Mund.  Up.  iii,  2,  7,  “the  fifteen  kalas 
disappear.”  Here  as  in  Brh.  Aran.,  i,  5,  15,  the  sixteenth  is 
the  soul ; but  in  Pra§.  Up.  vi,  2-5,  the  soul  is  the  source  of 
the  sixteen,  sa  puruso  yasminn  etah  sodaga  kalah  prabhavanti, 
Purusa  makes  them,  each  from  the  preceding:  “breath,  faith, 
five  elements,  sense,  mind,  food,  energy,  austerity,  hymns, 
sacrifice,  the  world,  and  the  name  (individuality),”  and  they 
all  flow  back  into  Purusa  in  reverse  order.  In  xii,  47,  53  ff., 
(where  the  saihkkyatman  is  yogatman,  mayatman,  vlgvatman, 
goptratman)  God  is  “ the  Samkhyas’  Seventeenth,  having  three- 
fold soul  (tridhatman,  awake,  dreaming,  in  dreamless  sleep), 
standing  in  soul,  enveloped  in  the  sixteen  gunas.”  The  six- 
teen in  xii,  210,  33  are  the  eleven  organs  and  five  objects  of 
sense,  which  come  from  (1)  the  Unmanifest,  producing  (2)  act- 
born  intellect,  which  produces  (3)  egoism,  whence  come,  one 
out  of  the  other,  (4)  air,  (5)  wind,  (6)  light,  (7)  water,  (8) 
earth,  the  eight  fundamental  sources  on  which  the  universe  is 
established  (vs.  29,  the  sixteen  modifications,  ten  organs,  five 
objects  of  sense,  and  mind).  Compare  also  above  the  “ freed 
from  six  and  sixteen.”  So  in  xii,  242,  8 = xiv,  51,  31,  where 
every  creature  has  a body,  murti,  and  “ consists  of  sixteen,” 
murtiman  sodagatmakah.  The  Upanisliadic  kalas  and  the 
Samkhya  groups  have  united,  and  in  turn  are  affected  by 
other  later  groups.  In  xii,  240, 13,  there  is  a group  of  sixteen 
“always  in  the  bodies  of  incorporate  creatures,”  the  five 
senses  and  the  five  objects  of  sense,  the  svabhava  or  individual 
nature,  intellect,  cetana,  and  mind  added  to  two  vital  breaths 
and  to  spirit  itself ; while  in  302,  24,  svabhava  and  cetana  are 
apparently  not  included  in  the  “ sixteen  gunas  ” which  encom- 
pass the  body;  or,  if  the  sixteen  be  interpreted  as  including 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


169 


them,  then  in  both  cases  we  have  a group  of  sixteen  quite 
distinct  from  that  in  the  previous  section,  where  organs  and 
objects  of  sense  make  the  number.  Further,  in  the  former  of 
the  two  last  sections,  cetana  is  distinct  from  manas,  with  which 
it  is  elsewhere  identified  (see  the  section  cited  on  p.  34  from 
the  third  book).  Compare  also  the  account  of  creation  in 
xii,  233,  10  ff.,  already  referred  to,  where  the  seven  mahat- 
mans,  intellect,  mind,  and  the  elements,  unite  to  make  body 
as  a base  for  spirit,  gariram  grayanad  bhavati,  murtimat  soda- 
gatmakam,  233,  12,  into  which  enter  malianti  bhutani.  The 
elements  are  the  gross,  as  they  are  described  in  gl.  8 (gunah 
sarvasya  purvasya  prapnuvanty  uttarottaram),  and  there  seems 
no  reason  for  differentiating  them  from  the  Great  Beings, 
though  the  commentator  takes  them  as  intellect  and  tanma- 
tras,  and  the  sixteen  as  gross  elements  and  eleven  organs, 
explaining  the  whole  process  as  the  creation  of  the  liiiga  in 
the  sthula  body. 

The  group  of  sixteen  plus  a seventeenth,  as  given  in  the 
scheme  above,  is  a combination  of  two  schedules,  one  the 
regular  seventeen  of  the  Aphorisms,  the  other  an  earlier  group 
of  sixteen  only,  in  which  the  sixteenth  is  the  permanent  spir- 
itual part  as  contrasted  with  the  fifteen  impermanent  parts, 
like  those  of  the  moon,  xii,  305,  4. 

The  Sixteen  (B)  or  Eleven  Modifications. 

The  epic  (as  already  cited)  gives  the  modifications  as  eleven 
in  number.  Apart  from  the  usual  explanations  of  these 
eleven,  there  is  a passage,  xii,  253,  11 : “ Three  higher  gunas 
are  in  all  creatures,  besides  the  five  gross  elements,  with  mind, 
which  is  essentially  analytic,  vyakaranatmakam,  as  the  ninth, 
intellect  the  tenth,  and  the  inner  soul,  antaratman,  as  the 
eleventh.”  Here  the  commentator  explains  the  three  as  igno- 
rance, desire,  and  action  (avidya,  kama,  karma,  gl.  9),  though 
in  the  text  bhava,  abhava,  and  kala,  are  given  as  three  addi- 
tions (gl.  2),  with  other  departures  from  the  scheme  already 
recognized  in  what  precedes.  But  apart  from  this  special 
case,  the  fact  remains  that  in  some  parts  of  the  epic,  as  in  iii, 


170 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


213,  18  (p.  37),  xii,  281,  20,  only  eleven  modifications  are 
admitted. 

On  the  other  hand,  sixteen  modifications,  eleven  organs  and 
five  elements,  as  in  the  regular  Samkhyan  system,  are  fully 
recognized,  as  in  xii,  311,  8 if.,  and  elsewhere. 

There  is,  therefore,  no  uniform  epic  interpretation  of  the 
modifications. 

The  Eight  Sources. 

As  given  above  from  xii,  210,  28  and  311,  10,  the  mula- 
prakrtayah  or  eight  fundamental  procreative  powers  are  the 
Unmanifest,  intellect  (“born  of  activity,”  the  result  of  the 
equilibrium  being  disturbed  by  tejas,  energy),  egoism,  air, 
wind,  light,  water,  and  earth ; or  in  other  words  (the  fine  ele- 
ments being  ignored,  as  usual),  the  five  elements  and  self- 
conscious  intellect  as  the  first  manifest  production  of  the  un- 
manifest produce  everything.  But  in  Gita,  7,  4,  the  “eight 
sources  ” are  these  elements  plus  mind,  self-consciousness,  and 
intellect.  The  terminology,  it  may  be  observed,  is  already 
broken  up  in  the  Gita.  In  this  passage  “another  source,” 
prakrti,  is  the  jivabhuta,  which  is  the  same  with  one  of  the 
“ two  spirits,”  purusas,  in  15, 16,  one  of  which  is  ‘ all  beings,” 
with  a “ third  spirit,”  the  Lord,  I g vara,  paramatman,  added  in 
17,  who  is  not  identified  with  the  aksara  but  is  “higher.” 
When,  however,  egoism  is  rejected  in  favor  of  spirit,  as  in  the 
“Secret  of  the  Vedanta,”  then  the  group  of  eight  appears  as 
the  six  senses  “ (the  five  senses  which  are  perceptive,  vijnanani, 
with  mind  as  the  sixth),  intellect  and  spirit.  Other  groups 
of  eight,  like  the  last,  seem  to  be  based  on  this  early  grouping 
of  productive  elements.  They  are  assumed  in  xiii,  16,  54, 
where  (Jiva  is  “ the  eight  sources  (above  ‘ eight  forms  ’),  and  he 
who  is  above  the  sources,”  and  they  are  personified  in  the  per- 
sonal creation  of  xii,  341,  30  ff.,  as  “ eight  sages,”  who  are 
sources,  though  created  from  the  elements : 

Marlcir  Angira<j  ca  ’trih  Pulastyah  Pulaliah  Kratuh 
Vasisthacjca  mahatma  vai  Manuh  Svayambliuvas 
tatha 

jfieyah  prakrtayo'stau  ta  yasu  lokah  pratistliitah 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


171 


Compare  210,  28,  mulaprakrtayo  hy  astiiu  jagad  etusv  avasthi- 
tam.  As  already  noticed,  the  system  requires  that  the  ele- 
ments here  should  be  “ fine,”  and  this  is  occasionally  expressed 
(see  p.  129),  but  elsewhere  the  fine  elements  are  ignored  in 
this  group  of  sources.  Then  the  five  (gross)  elements  are 
productive,  which  leaves  only  eleven  modifications. 

The  Vital  Airs  and  Senses. 

In  xii,  302,  27,  there  are  seven  breaths,  the  usual  five  and 
in  addition  an  adhah  anilah  and  a pravahah.  Instances  where 
ten  and  five  vital  breaths  are  mentioned  have  already  been 
given.  So  with  two,  which  are  often  the  only  airs  recognized, 
as  in  xii,  240,  13.  These  are  all  old  groups,1  and  represent 
as  varied  opinions  in  the  epic  as  in  earlier  literature. 

Generally  speaking,  plants  are  ignored  in  the  elaborate  an- 
alysis of  categories,  but  they  are  specifically  mentioned  at 
times.  Thus  in  xii,  183  ff.,  there  is  an  account  of  creation. 
Water  was  the  first  creation  after  space.  Water  pressing  made 
wind.  The  friction  of  wind  and  water  made  fire  which  became 
solid  and  thus  formed  earth.  There  are  five  sense-making  ele- 
ments in  all  created  things.  Trees  do  not  appear  to  possess 
them,  but  they  really  do.  They  have  space  or  how  could 
leaves  comes  out  ? They  have  heat  as  is  shown  by  withering. 
They  have  ears,  for  at  the  sound  of  thunder  they  lose  leaves, 
and  sound  is  heard  only  with  ears.  They  have  eyes  for  a 
withe  can  wind  its  way,  and  there  is  no  path  -without  sight. 
They  can  smell,  for  good  and  bad  smells,  of  incense,  etc.,  make 
them  flourish  or  decline.  They  taste,  for  they  drink  water. 
So  all  creatures  have  the  five  elements.  The  earth-element 
is  seen  in  skin,  flesh,  bone,  marrow,  sinew;  the  fire-element, 
in  energy,  wrath,  sight,  heat,  and  digestive  fire;  the  air  (or 
space)  element  in  ear,  nose,  mouth,  heart,  and  stomach  (usu- 
ally not  as  here,  184,  22,  but  in  all  the  apertures) ; the  water- 

1 Even  the  ten  are  recognized  in  Qat.  Br.  xi,  6,  3,  5,  da?e  ’me  puruse  prana 
atmai  ’kadafah  (called  rudrah).  These  can  scarcely  be  the  organs,  for  as 
such  they  would  include  the  karmendriyas,  which  do  not  “ depart  ” at  death. 
The  names  are  given  above,  p.  36.  Compare  the  rudras  of  xii,  317,  5. 


172 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


element  in  slime,  bile,  sweat,  fat,  blood.  There  are  five  vital 
airs  (winds)  which  cause  a person  to  move,  184,  24-25 : 

pranat  pranlyate  prani  vyanad  vyayacchate  tatha 
gacchaty  apano  'dhaq  cai  ’va 1 samano  hrdy  avasthitah 
udanad  ucchvasiti  ca  pratibhedac  ca  bhasate 
ity  eva  vayavah  panca  cestayanti  ’ha  dehinam 

The  five  senses  belong  to  the  five  elements ; one  smells  by 
reason  of  the  earth-element;  tastes  because  one  has  the  ele- 
ment of  water;  knows  color  through  the  eye  as  the  fire- 
element  ; knows  touch  through  the  wind.  Smell  is  of  nine 
sorts ; taste  is  of  six  sorts ; color  (and  form),  of  sixteen  sorts 
(color  as  distinguished  from  form  is  of  six  sorts,  white,  black, 
bright-red,  yellow,  blue,  yellow-red) ; wind  has  a double  char- 
acteristic, sound  and  touch ; touch  is  the  characteristic  of  wind 
and  is  of  many  sorts,  viz.,  twelve;  air  (space)  has  but  one 
characteristic,  sound.  But  there  are  seven  sorts  of  sound  (the 
gamut)  called  sadja,  rsabha,  gandliara,  madhyama,  dhaivata, 
pancama,  nisada.  Whatsoever  sound  of  drum,  thunder,  etc., 
is  heard  is  contained  in  this  group  of  seven  sounds  (notes).2 

The  more  extended  account  of  airs  in  the  next  chapter  gives 
ten  vital  breaths  or  airs,  though  it  describes  but  five,  nadyo 
da^apranapracoditah,  xii,  185,  15  (as  noticed  above,  p.  36, 
with  the  correspondence  in  the  third  book).  In  xiv,  50,  42 
ff.,  the  same  (duplicated)  account  says  smell  is  of  ten  sorts ; 
color  (form),  of  twelve  sorts;  sound  of  ten  sorts  (the  gamut 
and  also  “ sounds  which  are  agreeable,  disagreeable,  and  com- 

1 This  is  the  later  view  that  apana  is  the  anus  wind,  pivyupasthe  'panam, 
Pra9na  Up.  iii,  5. 

2 On  the  six  colors  mentioned  together  in  the  Rig  Veda,  and  the  light  of 
thirty-four  kinds,  see  my  article  on  Color  Words  in  the  Rig  Veda,  Am.  Journal 
of  Phil,  iv,  p.  190.  Seven  recitations  or  notes  are  recognized  in  the  Chand. 
Up.  ii,  22, 1 ; the  roaring  note  is  the  Agni  note ; the  unclear  is  Prajapati’s  ; 
the  clear  or  definite  is  Soma’s ; the  soft  smooth,  is  Vayu’s  ; the  smooth  strong, 
is  Indra’s;  the  heron-note  is  Brhaspati’s;  the  inharmonious,  is  Varuna’s. 
The  names  here  are  indefinite  and  apply  vaguely  to  seven  divinities.  They 
are  found  also  in  other  early  literature.  The  epic  names  have  no  analogy  in 
the  Upanislmds  till  the  Garbha.  On  the  other  hand  the  epic  grama,  gamut,  is 
late.  Compare  above,  p.  13,  van! ; also  saptatantrl  vina,  iii,  134,  14,  “ the 
seven-stringed  lyre,”  called  sadgramaragadisamadhiyuktii,  in  II.  ii,  89,  68. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


173 


pact”),  although  the  two  descriptions  are  almost  identical. 
Each,  however,  has  added  new  factors.  The  Anugita  list 
betters  the  careless  text  above,  whereby  the  sound  called 
“Fifth,”  pancama,  stands  in  the  sixth  place  (xii,  184,  39). 

The  Five  Subtile  Elements.  Gross  and  Subtile  Bodies. 

The  word  for  subtile  element,  tanmatra,  is  late  and,  as  I 
think,  its  equivalent  is  not  often  to  be  understood.  The  ear- 
lier schemes  were  content  with  “elements”;  the  later,  or  a 
divergent  interpretation,  introduced  fine  elements,  suksmani, 
the  latest  have  the  classical  term  tanmatrani.  Of  course  the 
commentator  often  interprets  fine  elements  where  none  is 
mentioned.  Thus,  in  xii,  205,  15,  “ as  the  elements  disappear 
on  the  destruction  of  the  gunas,  so  intellect  taking  the  senses 
exists  in  mind,”  where  subtile  forms  may  be  inferred,  as 
they  may  be  in  xiv,  51, 13,  where  vigvasrj  is  doubtful  (v.  L). 
In  xii,  252,  21,  avigesani  bhutani,  and  in  xii,  311,  8 ff.,  where 
the  modifications  of  the  five  elements  are  again  elements 
(above,  p.  129),  fine  elements  are  recognized.  In  xiii,  14, 
423,  viditva  sapta  suksmani  sadangam  tvam  ca  murtitah, 
“knowing  thee  as  having  in  bodily  form  the  subtile  seven, 
and  having  six  limbs,”  the  commentator  may  be  right  in 
analyzing  the  seven  as  intellect,  egoism,  and  five  tanmatrani, 
as  he  does  in  the  case  of  the  Yogin’s  linga,  soul,  also  said  to 
have  “ seven  suksmas,”  xii,  254,  7.1  Elsewhere  there  are  eight 
(powers?)  characteristics  of  the  subtile  body  of  the  Yogin, 
xii,  317,  6. 

But  it  must  have  caused  surprise  in  the  many  schemes 
given  above,  that  a clear  indication  of  this  theory  is  so  often 
lacking  where  it  would  be  most  in  place.  The  elements  are 
simply  mahabhutas  (sic,  or  bhutani).  Only  the  latest  part 
of  the  epic  has  the  technical  word,  i,  90,  13-14,  where  the 

1 Perhaps,  however,  the  sevenfold  knowledge  of  the  Yogin  is  meant  as  in 
Sutra,  ii,  27.  The  passage  above,  xiii,  14,  423,  is  a copy  of  xii,  254,  15,  where 
the  seven  are  explained  as  senses,  objects,  mind,  intellect,  mahat,  the  unmani- 
fest, spirit  (the  six  are  here  explained  as  all-knowing,  content,  knowledge 
without  beginning,  independence,  ever-clear  sight,  endless  power). 


174 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


spirit,  ksetrajna,  is  connected  with  the  tanmatras  before  birth 
in  the  body;  and  xiii,  14,  202,  where  the  order  of  (Jiva’s 
creation  is  “ mind,  intellect,1  egoism,  the  tanmatras,  and  the 
organs.”  2 

In  xii,  202,  18  ff.,  when  the  soul  leaves  the  body  and  takes 
another,  it  is  said : “ A man  leaving  his  body  enters  another 
unseen  body.  Abandoning  his  body  to  the  five  great  (gross) 
elements,  bhutesu  mahatsu,  he  takes  up  a form  also  dependent 
on  these,  tadagrayam 3 cai  ’va  bibharti  rupam.  The  five 
(senses)  exist  in  the  five  great  elements  and  the  five  objects 
of  sense,  in  the  senses.”  Here  there  is  another  body,  but  it  is 
composed  of  the  same  great  elements  and  no  other  elements 
are  recognized.  The  new  body  is  called  a lifiga,4  but  so  is  the 
old,  grotradiyuktah  samanah  sabuddhir  lingat  tatha  gacchati 
lingam  anyat,  “possessed  of  hearing  and  other  senses  and 
having  mind  and  intellect  he  passes  out  of  one  body  to 
another,”  gl.  14. 

Elsewhere  it  is  said  that  the  beings  that  pass  out  of  the 
gross  body  pass  into  a subtile,  suksma,  body,  and  are  called 
suksmabhutani  sattvani,  “ fine  beings,”  which  “ wander  about 
like  sunbeams,”  superhuman,  atimanusani,  xii,  254, 1-8  (sattva 
is  bhutatman).  The  passage  in  xii,  345,  14  ff.  has  already 
been  referred  to.  Here  the  sun  is  the  door  (as  in  the  Tga)  and 
the  dead  become  paramanubhutah,  then  manobhutah,  and  then 

1 Here  mati  stands  for  buddhi,  as  it  does  in  xii,  202,  21,  sarvani  cai  'tani 
manonugani,  buddhim  mano  'nveti  matih  svabhavam,  “ the  senses  follow 
mind,  mind  follows  intellect,  intellect  follows  the  pure  entity  (here  equiva- 
lent to  paramah  svabhavah  of  203,  1). 

2 The  word  tanmatra  occurs  only  in  late  Upanishads,  according  to  Col. 
Jacob’s  Concordance  (his  reference  s.  panca°  includes  Maitri,  iii,  2).  To  the 
last,  Garbe,  in  his  Samkhya-Philosophie  adds  (p.  239)  Katha,  iv,  8,  referring 
to  Regnaud,  Mat^riaux  pour  servir  & l’histoirc  de  la  philosophic  de  l’lnde,  ii, 
31,  32.  This  is  an  error.  The  Katha  knows  nothing  of  tanmatras.  Pragma 
must  be  meant,  where  matras  are  mentioned,  iv,  8. 

8 Compare  tan-matram,  but  in  the  passage  cited,  tad  must  refer  grammati- 
cally to  the  great  elements. 

4 So  in  xii,  307, 18,  the  Yogin,  still  in  his  gross  body,  becomes  quiet  as  a 
lamp  in  a windless  place,  shines  like  a lamp  (or  is  like  a stone  or  piece  of 
wood).  When  he  shines  forth  and  is  nirlingah  and  moveless,  he  would  not  be 
reborn.  Here  lifiga  seems  to  be  merely  a distinguishing  mark. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


175 


traigunyahlnah,  and  enter  Vasudeva  (nirguniitmaka),  the  sarv- 
ilvasa  (compare  Igavasya),  the  home  of  all  (or  dwelling  in 
all).  We  may  compare  Vasudeva  derived  from  sarvabhuta- 
krtavasa,  xii,  348,  94.  The  Yogin  soul,  “clothed  in  seven 
subtile  things,”  has  also  been  referred  to  above,  p.  39. 

In  these  cases  there  is  evidence  of  a general  belief  in  a 
subtile  body,  but  evidence  against  a general  belief  in  subtile 
elements,  negative,  of  course,  but  rather  strong  when  the 
elements  called  great  beings  (not  necessarily  gross,  implying 
antithesis  of  subtile)1  are  said  to  be  the  constituents  of  the 
second  body.  I add  another  similar  case  where  no  mention  is 
made  of  subtile  elements,  though  the  elements  and  the  subtile 
post-mortem  body  are  discussed,  since  it  is  an  interesting  pas- 
sage in  itself  and  also  offers  a particularly  convenient  oppor- 
tunity for  the  introduction  of  the  idea  of  subtile  elements, 
but  no  such  idea  is  suggested. 

The  discussion  begins  with  an  account  of  creation,  explains 
the  five  elements,  and  proceeds  with  an  argument  in  regard  to 
the  psychic  agent.  Life,  it  is  said,  is  invisible  and  the  ques- 
tion comes  whether  there  is  any  vital,  jTva,  spirit,  and  how  it 
survives  apart  from  the  body,  when  the  latter  “ passes  into  the 
five  elements  ” (i.  e.,  into  the  gross  elements,  tasmin  pancatvam 
apanne  jlvah  kim  anudhavati,  xii,  186,  10).  “When  a man’s 
body  has  been  eaten  by  birds,  or  has  fallen  from  a cliff,  or  has 
been  burned,  how  can  life  come  to  him  again,  kutah  saihjlva- 
nam  punah,  13.  If  the  root  of  a cut-down  tree  does  not  grow 
again,  but  only  the  seeds  of  the  tree  grow,  how  can  the  man 
(cut-down)  reappear  ? The  seed  alone,  which  has  been  started 
previously,  that  remains  in  existence ; the  seed  comes  from  a 
seed,  but  dead  men  perish  when  they  die,”  15.2  “No,”  says 
the  teacher,  “ there  is  no  destruction  of  the  vital  spirit,  jlva. 
The  vital  part  of  a man,  pranl,  enters  another  body ; the  body 

1 The  application  of  great  in  mahabhuta  is  expressly  said  to  be  (not  in 
antithesis  to  subtile,  but)  on  account  of  their  unlimited  character,  amitanam 
mahafabdo  yanti  bhutani  sambhavam,  tatas  tesam  mahabhutayabdo  'yam 
upapadyate,  xii,  184,  3. 

2 Compare  BAU.  iii,  9,  28,  retasa  iti  ma  vocata  . . martyah  svit  mrtyuna 
vrknah  kasman  mulat  prarohati.  With  the  fire-simile,  cf.  £vet.  i,  13. 


176 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


alone  is  destroyed.  The  vital  spirit  supported  by  the  body, 
Sariraijrlto  jlvah,  is  not  destroyed  when  the  body  is  destroyed ; 
for  it  is  like  the  flame  when  the  wood  is  burned  ” (implying 
that  though  invisible  it  exists).  “ Just  so,”  says  the  objector, 
“ it  is  like  the  flame,  but  no  flame  is  apprehended  when  the 
wood  is  used  up,  and  I regard  such  a fire,  when  the  wood  is 
used  up,  as  destroyed,  since  it  has  no  visible  course,  nor  proof 
(pramana),  nor  thing  to  hold  to,”  sarhsthana.  To  this  the 
answer  is : “ The  fire  is  not  apprehended,  because  it  has  dis- 
appeared into  air  without  a support.  So  the  vital  spirit,  on 
abandoning  the  body,  exists  like  air,1  but  like  fire  it  is  not 
apprehended,  because  of  its  subtilty,  suksmatvat;  the  vital 
breaths  are  upheld  by  fire  and  tins  fire  must  be  regarded  as  the 
vital  spirit.  When  breathing  is  restrained,  the  breath-uphold- 
ing fire  is  destroyed.  When  the  bodily  fire  is  destroyed,  then 
the  body  (deham,  n.)  becomes  senseless  and  falls  and  becomes 
earth,  yati  bliumitvam ; for  earth  is  the  place  it  goes  to,  ayana. 
Breath  and  fire  go  to  air,  for  these  three  are  one ; the  pair  (of 
other  elements)  is  fixed  on  earth.  These  (elements)  assume 
form  only  in  connection  with  bodies  (either  mobile  or  im- 
mobile, 187,  9-10).  . . . The  five  senses  are  not  universally 
found2  (and  the  body’s  resolution  into  elements  does  not 
affect  the  soul)  ; the  inner  soul  alone  carries  the  body,  it  alone 
smells,  tastes,  hears,  etc.  The  inner  soul  is  (not  local  but) 
found  in  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  presiding  over  that  (mind) 
which  has  five  (characteristics),  in  that  (body)  which  consists 
of  five  (elements)  . . . The  soul  does  not  die  when  the  body 
perishes.”  3 

This  is  Paramatman  doctrine,  ib.  23,  and  since  from  the 

1 xii,  187,  6,  jivo  hy  akafavat  stliitah  (sarvagato  nityap  ca,  comm.),  reminds 
one  of  BAU.  iii,  2, 13,  akafam  atma,  only  the  strange  Buddhistic  assumption 
(of  Karma  alone  remaining)  is  here  carefully  guarded  against,  though  the 
preceding  simile  suggests  the  soul’s  fate  to  be  that  in  the  Upanishad. 

2 Literally:  “ In  respect  to  what  you  are  saying  (whether  the  operation  of 
mind  and  senses  indicates  an  agent)  there  is  no  general  application  of  the 
five,”  187,  19. 

8 mithyai  ’tad  ahur  mrta  ity  abuddah  : dajardhatai  ’vii  ’sya  (,'arlrabhcdah, 
187,27. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


177 


beginning  of  the  discussion  where  the  elements  are  introduced, 
184,  1 ff.,  to  the  close  as  given  above,  there  is  eveiy  opportu- 
nity to  introduce  the  fine  elements,  it  is  evident  they  have  no 
place  in  this  system.  We  must  either  assume,  therefore,  that 
they  are  known  in  some  parts  of  the  epic  and  are  not  known 
in  others,  owing  to  a difference  historically,  or  that  they  are 
taught  and  not  taught  hi  different  passages,  owing  to  a funda- 
mental doctrinal  difference.  The  synthetic  interpreter  is  wel- 
come to  either  horn  of  this  dilemma. 


The  orthodox  popular  belief,  which  of  course  is  also  taught 
in  the  epic,  is  that  one  can  go  to  heaven  with  a “ divine  form,” 
as  in  xviii,  8,  42.  In  xvii,  8,  22-28,  one  goes  to  heaven 
“ with  his  (human)  body.”  The  reason  may  be  that  explained 
in  the  words1  “because  of  God’s  residence  in  them,  the  gross 
elements  are  eternal.”  These  life-breaths  and  so  forth  exist 
eternally  even  in  the  other  world,  for  a ^ruti  says  so,  in  the 
words : “ Even  when  gone  to  the  other  world  the  life-breaths 
of  incorporate  beings  always  (exist),”  xv,  34,  10  (text,  above, 
p.  25). 

The  body  comes,  according  to  the  epic,  from  earth  alone  or 
from  various  elements.  According  to  the  scheme  given  above 
from  xii,  184,  4,  the  body  is  made  of  earth.  So  the  ear  comes 
from  air;  the  eye  from  the  sun,  etc.,  xii,  276,  11,  tasya  bhu- 
mimayo  dehah.  Compare  xii,  240,  7,  “from  earth  the  body, 
from  water  the  fat,  from  light  the  eyes.”  Here  wind  is  the 
support  of  the  two  vital  breaths,  pranapanagrayo  vayuh,  and 
air  (or  space)  is  in  the  holes,  kliesv  akacam,  of  corporate 
beings,  a scheme  of  creation  which  attributes  the  “great 
beings  ” (elements)  to  the  “ first  creation  ” of  a personal 
creator. 

In  xii,  306,  5,  the  characteristics  of  male  and  female  parents 
are  traditionally 2 three  each,  as  inherited  by  the  offspring: 

1 mahabhutani  nityani  bhutadhipatisamgrayat,  xv,  34,  5. 

2 fu9ruma  . . . vede  fastre  ca  pathyate.  It  is  added : “ Authoritative  is 
what  is  delared  in  one’s  own  Veda,  svavedoktam,  and  what  is  read  in  the 
£astras,”  a restriction  as  to  the  Yeda  not  elsewhere  admitted. 

12 


178 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


bone,  sinew,  marrow  from  the  father;  skin,  flesh,  and  blood 
from  the  mother.  But  in  §1.  24  it  is  said  that  skin,  flesh, 
blood,  fat,  bile,  marrow,  bone,  and  sinew  are  all  eight  pro- 
duced by  the  male,1  gukrena  prakrtani.  Here  tradition  is  set 
aside  for  the  sake  of  the  new  philosophy. 

The  growth  of  the  body  is  described  in  xii,  321,  114  ff.,  the 
seed  and  blood,  male  and  female,  uniting  produce  a flake, 
kalala,  which  becomes  a bubble,  budbuda,  which  develops  into 
a lump,  pegl.  From  this  lump  come  the  limbs;  from  the 
limbs,  nails  and  hair.  At  the  end  of  the  ninth  month,  “ name 
and  form  (individuality)  ” are  born.2 

Besides  one  subtile  body,  the  epic  may  recognize  two,  as  do 
the  Vedantins  and  later  Samkhya  philosophers  (Garbe,  Saih- 
khya  Phil.,  p.  267).  But  the  following  text,  I think,  scarcely 
supports  this  interpretation  of  the  commentator : “ When  the 
spirit  in  a body  is  out  with  rajas,  it  would  wander  about,  like 
sound,  with  a body ; having  a mind  unaffected  by  the  result  of 
action  (the  spirit)  is  established  in  Prakrti  because  of  its  free- 
dom from  affection.”  3 The  commentator  thinks  that  when  the 
spirit  is  in  Prakrti  it  has  a very  minute  body,  different  from  the 
span-long  or  thumbkin  body.4  This  is  liis  explanation  also  of 
the  unfinished  sentence  in  xii,  254,  13.  In  12  one  sentence 
ends  with  the  statement  that  unclarified  spirits  “ do  not  see  the 
bhutatman  in  bodies.”  Then  in  13,  “ those  who  are  devoted 

1 Apparently  a clear  contradiction  of  the  preceding,  but  excused  by  the 
author  on  the  plea  of  understanding  the  inner  meaning,  and  not  the  words 
alone,  of  Veda  and  Qastra,  grantharthatattva ! 

2 The  same  process  is  described  in  late  Samkhya  texts  (Garbe,  p.  273). 
Compare  the  Garbha  Upanishad.  “ Name  and  form  ” is  a phrase  sometimes 
amplified:  “ The  Lord  creates  name  and  form  and  acts,”  xii,  233,  25-20  (as  in 
Brh.  Up.,  i,  6, 1,  nama  rupam  karma,  which  may  be  referred  to  here,  yaduktam 
vedavadesu  . . . tadantesu). 

8 rajovarjyo  'py  ayam  dehi  dehavafi  chabdavac  caret,  kiiryair  avyahata- 
matir  vairagyat  prakrtau  sthitah,  xii,  217,  21.  The  next  half-stanza,  adcliad 
apramadac  ca  dehantad  vipramueyate,  is  interpreted  by  the  commentator  to 
mean  "the  three  bodies  (sthula-suksma-karana)  being  abandoned,  the  soul 
(without  body),  because  of  its  mental  freedom,  is  released  definitively.” 

4 The  subtile  body  is  “ span-long ” in  xii,  200,  22;  “the  size  of  a thumb,” 
it  wanders  by  reason  of  its  connection  with  the  liriga,  v,  40,  15,  und  27 ; xii, 
285,  175,  angusthamatrah  purusa  dehasthah.  See  above,  p.  32. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


170 


to  Yoga-^astra,  desirous  of  seeing  that  soul,  — (things)  with- 
out breath,  (things)  without  form,  and  what  (tilings)  are 
like  thunderbolts.”  Here  the  commentator  takes  the  three, 
anucchvasani,  amurtani,  yani  vajropamany  'pi,  as  bodies  devoid 
of  intelligence,  suksma  or  subtile  bodies,  and,  thirdly,  bodies 
indestructible  even  in  the  seonic  destruction,  or  karana- 
Qarirani,  with  atikriimanti,  overpass,  to  be  supplied  in  the 
text.  If  anything  is  supplied  it  is  “ they  see,”  but  the  pas- 
sage is  clearly  without  sense  as  it  stands  and  probably  repre- 
sents a later  and  awkward  interpolation  of  the  three  bodies. 

The  Colors  of  the  Soul. 

The  color  of  the  soul  is  assumed  through  its  union  with 
the  body,  in  the  same  way  as  when  one  near  a fire  gets  a red 
color,  xii,  202,  17.  The  incorporate  spirit,  dehin,  is  said  to  be 
without  color,  but  it  is  tinged  with  the  fruit  of  acts,  and  so  is 
said  to  attain  to  color,  varna,  which  is  of  course  specifically 
“ darkness.”  “ But  when  the  creature  by  means  of  knowledge 
puts  off  darkness,  born  of  ignorance,  then  appears  eternal 
Brahman  ” (pure,  without  color,  201,  26).  “ As  -wind,”  it  is 

said,  “ becomes  colored  with  dust  and  so  itself  colors  all  the 
air  (space),  thus  the  spirit,  jlva,  without  color,  because  of 
acts’  fruits  becomes  color-tinged,”  xii,  280,  9 ff. 

This  simple  idea  of  pure  white  soul  (as  in  (Vet.  Up.  iv,  1) 
being  darkened  by  contact  with  impure  darkness-bom  not-soul, 
and  eventually  becoming  clear  and  colorless  again,  is  worked 
up  into  a confused  theory  of  spirit-color  in  the  next  chapter, 
where  jlva,  spirit,  has  six  colors,  sadjlvavarnah,  xii,  281,  33,  as 
follows:  “ Spirit  has  six  colors,  black,  yellow-green  (or  grey), 
and  blue,  the  middle  color ; red,  more  helpful  and  good,  bright 
yellow,  and,  best  of  all,  white.  White  is  best,  spotless,  without 
sorrow,  leading  to  success.  . . . The  course  creatures  take  is 
made  by  their  (spiritual)  color.  Color  is  caused  by  one’s 
former  acts  (Time,  as  often,  represents  the  Karma).  The 
dark  color  leads  to  a low  course  and  hell.  After  hell  the 
spirit  attains  yellow-green  (harit  = dhumra).  When  jlva  is 
endowed  with  sattva  it  casts  off  tamas  (darkness)  by  means 


180 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


of  intelligence,  and  after  blue  attains  to  red  and  lives  as  a 
human  creature.”  Then  the  spirit  attains  to  yellow  as  a god, 
returns  to  hell,  and  goes  on  in  the  same  way  to  white,  finally 
surpassing  the  three  states  (gunas).1  The  inner  meaning  of 
this  passage,  according  to  the  commentator,  is  that  when  the 
spirit  has  the  three  gunas,  tamas,  rajas,  sattva,  in  quantitative 
proportion  to  this  sequence,  the  result  is  that  the  spirit  is 
black ; but  in  the  order  tamas,  sattva,  rajas,  yellow-green  (or 
grey)  ; rajas,  tamas,  sattva,  blue ; rajas,  sattva,  tamas,  red ; 
sattva,  tamas,  rajas,  yellow ; sattva,  rajas,  tamas,  white.  The 
whole  theory,  which  is  alluded  to  again  in  292,  4 ff.,  seems 
to  be  an  elaboration  of  the  simple  thesis  of  the  preceding 
section  given  above.  In  the  passage  following,  the  “ higher 
color  ” is  gained  by  “ pure  acts,”  varnotkarsam  avapnoti  narah 
punyena  karmana.  The  identification  of  fight  with  heaven 
(“bright-yellow  gods,”  above)  is  as  natural  as  that  of  dark- 
ness with  hell.  Thus  xii,  190, 1 ft'.,  after  it  is  said  that  “truth 
is  fight  and  darkness  is  lies,”  we  read : “ Light  is  heaven  and 
darkness  is  hell ; man  gets  a mixture  of  both  in  tins  fife,  truth 
and  lies.”  Compare  Patau jafi’s  Aphorisms,  iv,  7:  “Yogin’s 
work  is  neither  white  nor  black.”  I see  no  support  in  the  text 
for  the  elaborate  explanation  of  the  commentator,  as  recorded 
above. 

In  xii,  303,  46,  there  are  “ three  colors,  white,  red,  and  black, 
with  which  are  affected  all  things  in  Prakrti.”  Here  these 
are  set  parallel  to  the  gunas  (red  apparently  corresponding  to 
energy,  rajas),  as  signs  of  the  soul,  winch  goes  to  hell  if  it  is 
tamasa,  humanity  if  rajasa,  heaven  if  sattvika ; apparently  an 
intermediate  view  between  the  six  colors  and  the  shnple  an- 
tithesis of  pure  and  impure,  white  and  dark.  The  tricolored 
being  is  known  in  a phrase  common  to  epic,  v,  44,  25,  and 
Upanisliad,  (Vet.,  iv,  5.2 

1 The  commentator,  instead  of  taking  the  states  to  be  gunas,  takes  them  as 
waking,  sleeping,  and  deep  slumber,  ending  in  turya,  the  fourth  state. 

2 Epic  text,  xii,  303,  40 : suklalohitakrsnani  rupany  etani  trini  tu  sarvany 
etani  rupiini  yani  ’ha  prakrtani  vai.  Qvet.  Up.  iv,  5:  ajam  ekaih  lohitnyukla- 
krsnam  bahvih  prajali  srjamanam  sarupah  (Muller  gives  the  varied  readings 
iu  his  note,  SBE.,  vol.  ii,  p.  250).  For  v,  44,  25,  compare  above,  p.  28. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


181 


The  Five  Faults  of  a Yogin. 

In  xii,  241,  3 ff.,  the  faults  of  Yoga  as  known  to  the  seers, 
Kavis,  are  desire,  wrath,  greed,  fear,  and  sleep,  kama,  krodlia, 
lobha,  bhaya,  svapna,  two  added  to  an  ancient  trio.  In  xii, 
301,  11,  the  five  Yoga  faults  to  be  “cut  off”  are  registered 
as  raga,  moha,  sneha,  kama,  krodlia.  In  xii,  302,  55,  the 
“ path-knowing  Ivapila  Samkhyas  ” give  as  the  five  faults, 
kama,  krodlia,  bhaya,  nidra,  gvasa.  In  xii,  317,  13,  the  five 
faults  are  simply  the  actions  of  the  five  senses.  See  also  the 
list  above,  p.  119. 

Pataiijali,  ii,  3,  recognizes  five  klegas  “to  lie  abandoned" 
(heyah),  avidya  ’smita  ragadvesa  ’bhinive§ah.  Five  to  be  “cut 
off  ” and  “ to  be  abandoned  ” are  also  recognized  in  the  Dliam- 
mapada,  370,  panca  chinde,  paiica  jahe.  In  the  epic  the  “ five  ” 
are  known  as  such,  but  different  expositions  explain  them 
differently. 

Discipline  of  the  Yogin. 

The  perfected  Yogin,  who,  by  means  of  the  sevenfold  dhii- 
ranas,  methods  of  fixing  the  mind,  has  overcome  seven,  the 
elements,  egoism,  and  intellect,  attains  to  “complete  and 
faultless  illumination,”  pratibha,  in  which  state  he  surpasses 
the  gunas  and  performs  miracles.  These  technical  terms  of 
the  Yoga  are  only  two  of  many  found  in  the  later  epic. 
Pratibha,  upasargas,  the  eightfold  power,  the  various  com- 
fortable “ sittings,”  calculated  to  induce  concentration  of 
thought,  e.  g.,  vlrasana,  the  codanas,  “ urgings  ” (by  which 
one  controls  the  breaths),  the  “ pressing  of  breaths  ” into  the 
heart-canal,  or  into  the  space  between  the  brows,  the  fixed 
hours  of  exercise  in  mental  discipline  — all  this  Yoga-machin- 
ery is  as  well  known  to  the  epic  rewriters  as  to  Patahjali. 
That  the  epic  here  precedes  the  Sutra-maker  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  in  the  matter  of  “ faults  ” (above)  and  in 
other  technical  terms  it  does  not  always  follow  the  latter, 
though  it  has  the  Sutra  terminology  to  a certain  extent. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the 
epic-writers  were  steeped  in  Yoga-terms  and  used  to  Yoga- 


182 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


practices  of  extreme  refinement,  for  they  reveal  a very  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  Yoga-technique.  Over  against  these 
adepts,  or  scientific  Yogins,  stand  the  vulgar  ascetics,  whose 
practices  consist  simply  in  the  austerity  of  painful  posturing. 
The  latter  forms  are  antique,  and  continue,  of  course,  through 
the  whole  epic,  as  indeed  they  continue  till  now  in  India ; but 
in  contrast  with  those  who  practise  the  scientific  rules  of  the 
skilled  Yogin,  the  “ one-legged,  up-arm  ” ascetic  belongs  to 
the  vulgar  cult,  inherited  as  “Veda-enjoined  penance,”  where 
the  wretch  is  not  so  much  engaged  in  control  and  samadhi, 
graduated  concentration,  as  in  mortifying  himself  to  get  power 
or  win  God’s  grace.  Even  Vishnu  thus  stands  by  his  “ eight- 
finger-high-altar,”  and  performs  austerities,  “ standing  on  one 
leg,  with  upturned  arm  and  face ; ” and  it  is  the  worshippers 
of  such  gods  who  retain  as  their  sole  means  of  winning  divine 
grace  the  same  sort  of  practices.  No  sharper  contrast  can  be 
imagined  than  the  two  disciplines,  that  of  the  votary  and  that 
of  the  scientific  student  of  psychology  (whose  theology  rests 
in  Brahmaism),  as  presented  in  the  epic.1 

The  Destructible  and  Indestructible. 

Both  spirit  and  the  Source  according  to  the  Samkhya  system 
are  eternal  and  indestructible,  xii,  217,  8 ; Gita,  13,  19.  They 
are  therefore  not  created  things.  But  spirit  in  other  passages 
is  a “created  thing”  and  so  is  the  source,  xii,  205,  24.  For 
according  to  the  Brahmaistic  interpretation,  both  of  these  are 
destructible  so  far  as  their  entity  goes.  The  twenty-fifth  is 
reabsorbed  and  the  twenty-fourth  is  also  absorbed  into  Brah- 
man, xii,  308,  7 £f.  See  above,  pp.  134,  137.  “ Lord  Time’s 
Retaking”  pratyahara,  is  the  name  given  to  the  cosmic  re- 
absorption as  explained  in  xii,  234, 1 ff.  The  universe  becomes 
subtile  and  metaphysical,  adhyatma.  All  things  are  first 
burned  and  enter  the  condition  of  earth,  till  earth  looks  bare 

1 The  chief  chapters  to  be  compared  will  be  found  in  Qiinti  (237,  241,  317 ; 
also  pp.  44,  107,  above),  but  for  details  I must  refer  to  a paper  read  at  the 
Meeting  of  the  Oriental  Society  in  April,  1900  (to  be  published  in  the  Jour- 
nal, vol.  xxii). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


183 


as  a tortoise  shell.  Then  water  takes  up  earth ; fire,  water ; 
wind,  fire ; air,  wind ; mind,  air  (with  sound,  etc.,  i.  e.,  mani- 
fest mind  passes  into  unmodified  mind)  ; the  moon,  as  sarii- 
kalpa  or  fancy,  swallows  mind,  citta ; then  Time  swallows  this 
as  knowledge. 

Up  to  this  point  the  retroaction  is  at  least  intelligible  but  it 
is  interrupted  here  by  a revealed  text:  kalo  girati  vijfianam 
kalam  balam  iti  grutih,  balam  kalo  grasati  tu,  tain  vidya 
kurute  vage,  “Time  swallows  knowledge,  power  swallows 
Time , and  Time  swalloivs  power;  then  Wisdom  overpowers 
Time.”  Finally:  “The  Wise  One  puts  into  himself  the 
sound,  ghosa,  of  air  or  space.”  That  is  unmanifest,  highest, 
eternal  Brahman,  “and  so  Brahman  alone  is  the  recipient  of 
all  creatures.” 1 

The  Gods  and  the  Religious  Life. 

The  orthodox  Brahman’s  insistence  on  the  four  stadia  of 
life  is  found  in  the  normal  attitude  of  the  poets.  Opposed  to 
this  is  the  direct  teacliing  that  these  stadia  are  quite  unneces- 
sary, xii,  327,  26-27 : “ In  the  first  stadium  one  can  be  per- 
fected, what  use  is  there  of  the  other  three  ? ” Compare  iii, 
297,  25,  ma  dvitlyam,  etc. 

In  some  passages  the  god  Brahm&n  is  indestructible  and 
self-created ; in  others  he  is  a creation;  in  some  he  is  below 
Vishnu,  in  others  above  him ; in  some,  he  is  below  (Jiva ; in 
others  above  him.2  Brahman,  again,  appears  as  the  equal  of 

1 si.  17 : evam  sarvani  bhutani  brahmai  ’va  pratisamcarah.  This  absorp- 
tion is  the  counterpart  to  the  personal  creation  of  Brahman  (see  p.  142),  from 
the  “ Seed  made  of  Brahman-glory,  whence  all  the  world,”  233,  1.  I do  not 
pretend  to  understand  the  final  process  of  reabsorption  described  above : 
akasasva  tada  ghosam  tarn  vidvan  kurute  'tmani,  tad  avyaktam  param  brahma 
tac  chafvatam  anuttamam.  The  eternal  sound  here  implicated  in  Brahman 
may  be  that  “Word  without  beginning  or  end,  Wisdom,  uttered  by  the  Self- 
existent,  from  which,  as  Veda-sounds,  the  Lord  (as  cited  in  the  note,  p.  178) 
in  the  beginning  creates  names,  forms,  and  acts,”  xii,  233,  24-26. 

2 In  xii,  340,  116,  Brahman  knows  that  Vishnu  is  greatest ; but  in  xii,  285, 
165,  Vishnu  is  unable  to  comprehend  the  greatness  of  Qiva.  Compare  on  the 
mixed  ideas  concerning  Brahman,  Holtzmann’s  essay,  ZDMG.  xxxviii,  p.  167  ff. 
I cannot  agree  with  the  author  in  the  opinion  that  Brahman  is  the  chief  God 
of  the  “ older  epic,”  but  only  of  the  older  tales  incorporated  into  the  epic. 


184 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


the  other  two  gods  in  the  trinitarian  theosophy,  which  is  rep- 
resented in  the  epic,  but  only  sporadically  and  in  its  latest  addi- 
tions.1 He  is  sometimes  looked  upon  as  the  chief  of  all  gods, 
but  his  supreme  attributes  are  in  other  passages  taken  by  his 
later  rivals.  Three  stages  are  clear,  with  a top  story  added 
last  of  all.  The  earliest  tales  received  into  the  epic  know 
no  god  higher  than  Brahm&n,  the  later  pseudo-epic  knows 
no  god  equal  to  (a  Pagupata)  (j/iva.  Between  the  two  lies  the 
mass  of  the  epic  teaching,  where  supremacy  is  given  to  a sec- 
tarian Vishnu.  The  very  latest  additions  to  the  epic  adopt  a 
synthetic  view  and  make  of  this  religious  olla  podrida  one  har- 
monious whole,  where  all  three  great  gods  are  one. 

Arjuna  is  a form  of  Vishnu.  He  is  taught  tins  with  won- 
der and  great  amaze  in  the  sixth  book.  But  our  amazement 
at  his  amazement  is  still  greater,  for  this  doctrine,  apparently 
so  new  to  him,  was  revealed  to  him  long  before,  in  the  third 
book,  and  on  that  earlier  occasion  he  appeared  fully  to  appre- 
ciate the  fact  that  he  was  divine  and  identical  with  Krishna, 
facts  which  in  the  sixth  book  he  has  totally  forgotten.2 

Heaven  and  Hell.  Death. 

Inconsistent  as  is  the  Karma  doctrine  with  the  notion  of 
heaven  and  hell,  the  Hindu,  like  Pindar,  successfully  combines 
the  two  beliefs  by  imagining  that  metempsychosis  follows  the 

1 For  the  usual  caturmurti,  compare  iii,  203,  15;  vii,  29,  26;  xii,  335,  8. 
In  iii,  272,  47,  is  found  the  only  definite  expression  of  the  late  trinitarian 
belief  in  a trimurti,  an  interpolated  section  (compare  my  Religions  of  India, 
p.  412) ; though  it  may  be  implied  in  i,  1,  32  and  xiii,  10,  15,  but  only  here 
till  we  reach  the  Ilarivanja,  2,  125,  31.  It  appears  first  in  the  later  Upani- 
shads,  or  in  late  additions,  as  in  Maitri  v (as  distinguished  from  the  close  of 
iv),  .above,  p.  40.  Among  other  religious  novelties  the  pseudo-epic  introduces 
Citragupta,  Death’s  secretary,  xiii,  125,  6 ; 130,  14  ff.  In  several  points,  such 
as  in  this  and  in  grammatical  peculiarities,  the  Anu$asana  shows  itself  later 
in  some  parts  even  than  <?anti,  all  ignored,  of  course,  by  the  synthesist. 

2 Compare  iii,  12,  16.  In  this  passage,  Arjuna  exalts  Krishna  as  the  su- 
preme Lord  of  the  universe,  and  Krishna  in  turn  identifies  the  two : yas  tvam 
dvesti  sa  mam  dve§ti,  etc.,  ib.  45  (Vishnu  says  the  same  thing  almost  to  Rudra 
in  xii,  343,  133;  yas  tvam  vetti  sa  mam  vetti,  yas  tvam  anu  sa  miim  anu). 
Arjuna’s  godhead  is  proclaimed  to  him  in  iii,  41,  35,  43;  47,  7.  On  the  hymn, 
iii,  12,  compare  Lassen,  Ind.  Alt.,  i,  p.  489. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


185 


penalty  of  hell,  or  reward  of  heaven.  The  two  views  stand 
sometimes  separate,  however,  and  the  hero  is  promised  an 
abode  in  Indra’s  heaven  without  any  allusion  to  metempsy- 
chosis ; or  one  is  promised  a high  or  low  birth  hereafter  with- 
out allusion  to  the  older  teleological  fancy.  Ordinarily  in  the 
former  case,  the  rule  is  that  a good  man  goes  to  heaven  and  a 
bad  man  goes  to  hell,  as  in  the  Upanishads,  e.  g.,  Mund.  i, 
2,  10,  and  in  the  epic  generally.  But  in  one  exegesis  quite  a 
different  view  is  taken.  The  idea  here  is  that  a fairly  good 
man  goes  first  of  all  to  hell ; while  a man  who  on  the  whole  is 
rather  sinful  than  good  goes  first  of  all  to  heaven.  Afterwards 
the  good  man  goes  to  heaven  and  the  bad  man  goes  to  hell.1 

The  popular  notion  of  the  Yogin  is  not  at  all  that  of  absorp- 
tion into  Brahman.  “ Grieve  for  the  living,  not  for  the  dead ; 
this  pious  hero  after  his  death,  like  a Yogin,  has  become  a be- 
ing with  a human  body  and  shines  glorious  like  a king.”  2 In 
heaven  there  are  cool  breezes  and  perfume,  no  hunger,  thirst, 
toil,  old  age,  nor  sin,  but  “ eternal  happiness,”  in  heaven,  which 
is  here,  in  contrast  to  hell,  the  “ highest  place,”  xii,  190, 13- 
14.  So  in  the  Sabhas.  The  Yogin  “revels  in  joy,  knows  no 
sorrow,  and  rides  around  on  high  in  a heavenly  car,  attended 
by  self-liuninous  women,”  xiii,  107,  130  (compare  the  ramah 
sarathah  of  Katha  Up.  i,  25).  This  is  the  happiness  of  a Yogin 
after  death,  a view  of  course  diametrically  opposed  to  that  of 
the  philosophy  taught  elsewhere,  for  it  is  taught  as  final,  not 
as  preliminary. 

In  various  passages  it  is  taught  that  a good  man  should  aim 
at  attaining  to  heaven.  This  too  is  not  put  forth  as  a half-view 
with  a reservation,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Upanishads.  But  in 
other  cases  it  is  expressly  just  such  a half-view.3  Heaven  is 

1 bhuyistham  papakarma  yah  sa  purvam  svargam  afnute,  etc.,  xviii,  3,  14. 

2 tam  aindavim  atmatanum  . . . gatah,  vii,  71,  17.  Compare  xii,  332,  53, 
vayubhutah  praveksyami  tejora<;im  divakaram  (not  here  to  the  moon,  which 
changes):  “In  the  form  of  wind  I shall  enter  the  sun”  (to  live  with  the 
seers) ; yatra  na  ’vartate  punah  (50),  “ whence  there  is  no  return.” 

3 Here  it  may  be  objected : But  this  is  for  warriors,  and  even  in  the  Upan- 
ishads those  that  worship  Prajapati  as  matter  instead  of  spirit  are  materially 
blessed.  This  raises  the  question  again  which  I touched  upon  at  the  outset. 


186 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


here  a good  place  for  good  but  unintelligent  people,  but  it  is 
scorned  by  the  philosopher.  “ I have  done  with  heaven,  away 
with  thee,  heaven,  whither  thou  hast  come,”  says  an  enlight- 
ened king;  “let  the  priest  receive  my  merit  if  he  wishes,” 
xii,  199,  77-78.  The  priest,  orthodox,  is  recognized  as  still 
striving  for  heaven  and  likely  to  go  to  hell,  in  the  old  way : 
“ Hell  is  where  priests  go,”  it  is  said  rather  bluntly,  ib.  14—15, 
nirayarh  nai  ’va  yata  tvam  yatra  yata  dvijarsabhah,  yasyasi 
Brahmanah  sthanam.  For  of  all  the  heavens  of  all  the  gods 
it  is  said,  “these  are  but  hells  to  the  place  of  the  Highest 
Soul,”  xii,  198,  6. 

All  kings  but  one  go  to  Yama’s  heaven  in  the  Sabha 
account;1  in  the  battle-scenes  most  of  them  go  to  Indra’s 
heaven.  But  in  vi,  16,  20,  they  go  to  the  Brahma-world. 
Again,  the  heaven  one  goes  to  depends  either  on  one’s  gunas 
(as  explained  above),  or,  according  to  where  one  dies  (Tlrtha), 
or,  as  a third  explanation,  according  to  the  place  in  the  body 
through  which  the  soul  escapes  at  death.  If  it  goes  through 
the  feet,  one  goes  to  Vishnu’s  place ; if  through  the  arms,  to 
Indra’s  place ; if  through  the  crown,  to  Brahmin,  etc.,  xii,  318, 
1 ff.  (with  vigvedevan  in  5,  common  in  the  pseudo-epic). 

Death,  it  may  be  observed,  is  usually  a male ; but  in  vii,  53, 
17  and  xii,  258, 16-21,  a female.  There  are  here  two  accounts 
which,  though  together  opposed  to  the  view  held  everywhere 
else,  are  of  critical  value,  not  on  this  account  (for  a poet  may 
perhaps  be  allowed  to  unsex  death),  but  on  account  of  their 
being  almost  identical,  two  versions  of  one  tale,  one  bearing 
traces  of  greater  antiquity  than  the  other.2 

In  one  part  the  warrior  auditors  are  taught  the  deepest  mysteries,  in  another 
they  are  taught  what  is  not  taught  in  the  Upanishads  except  as  introduc- 
tion to  true  teaching.  Synthetically  considered,  the  epic  teaches  nothing 
systematic  in  these  varying  expositions. 

1 Yama’s  home  is  here  a heaven  of  delight,  elsewhere  in  the  epic  it  is  a hell 
of  horrors. 

2 The  account  in  Drona  is  here  the  later  of  these  two  similar  scenes,  ns  has 
been  shown  by  Holtzmann,  ZDMG.  xxxviii,  p.  218.  In  philosophy,  death  is 
the  dissyllabic  Ego  as  opposed  to  the  eternal,  immortal,  three-syllable  non- 
ego, or  mama  versus  namama  (“  this  is  mine  ” is  a thought  deadly  to  truth, 
and  untruth  is  death),  xii,  13,  4 and  xiv,  13,  3 (identical  passages). 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


187 


The  Cosmic  Egg  and  Creations. 

According  to  the  old  belief,  the  universe  comes  from  a 
cosmic  egg.  The  philosophical  schemes,  of  course,  discard  this 
egg,  but  we  hear  of  it  in  the  popular  accounts  often  enough 
and  meet  it  in  the  first  verses  of  the  epic.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, in  the  personal  creation,  which  stands  in  so  sharp  con- 
trast with  the  more  pliilosopliical  schemes,  this  becomes  a sub- 
ject of  controversy.  Thus  in  xii,  312,  the  “Unmanifest  ' is  a 
person,  who  first  creates  plants  as  the  food  of  all  incorporate 
things.  “ Then  he  produced  Brahmin,  born  in  a golden  egg. 
Brahmin  lived  in  the  egg  a year.  Then  he  came  out  and  put 
together  the  four  forms  of  all  beings,  and  earth  and  heaven 
above  — as  it  is  said  in  the  Vedas,  dyavaprthivyoh 1 — and 
then  the  middle  space.  After  this  he  created  egoism,  a being, 
bhuta,  and  four  sons  besides,  who  are  the  fathers’  fathers. 
The  gods  are  the  sons  of  the  fathers ; by  the  gods  the  worlds 
were  filled.  Egoism,  he  that  stands  in  the  liighest,  created 
fivefold  beings,  earth  and  the  other  elements.”  Several  verses 
follow  on  the  impossibility  of  the  senses  acting  alone  (“  the 
organs  do  not  perceive,  etc.  Mind  alone  sees.  Mind  is  the  lord 
of  the  senses,”  etc.).2  Here  the  egg-bom  creator  is  acknowl- 
edged in  a scheme  which  is  a mixture  of  mythology  and  philos- 
ophy. But  in  xiii,  154, 16  ff. : “ Some  fools  say  that  Brahmin 
was  born  of  an  egg  . . . but  that  is  not  to  be  regarded.  How 
could  the  unborn  be  born?  Air-space  is  the  egg,  according 
to  tradition,  and  out  of  that  was  born  Brahmin,  the  forefather. 
(He  required  no  support,  for  he  is)  personified  consciousness, 
the  Lord.  There  is  no  egg ; there  is  Brahmin  . . . the  unman- 
ifest eternal  Creator  Lord”  (15).  This  passage  is  not  merely 
an  allegorical  interpretation  of  the  egg-myth ; for  in  the  former, 
Brahman  creates  space  after  he  is  bom  of  the  egg  from  which 
he  is  born,  while  here  the  egg  is  space.  The  number  of  crea- 

1 That  is,  the  Yedic  form  implies  the  truth  of  heaven  and  earth  as  here 
stated. 

2 In  this  passage,  ete  vijesa  mahabhutesu,  312,  12,  repeats  the  first  half- 
stanza of  311, 14,  cited  above,  p.  129. 


188 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


tions  in  philosophy  I have  already  discussed.  They  are  given 
as  nine,  or  again  as  five.1 

The  Grace  of  God. 

The  belief  in  the  saving  grace  of  God  is  found  only  in  the 
later  Upanishads.  It  asserts  that  one  sees  the  Self  (or  Lord) 
by  the  grace  of  the  Creator,  Katha  Up.,  i,  2,  20  ff. ; Cvet.,  iii, 
20 ; vi,  21 ; Mund.,  iii.  2,  8.  One  is  chosen,  and  cannot  get 
salvation  by  knowledge  alone.  This  general  view  is  that 
maintained  by  the  epic  poet,  who  says:  “The  Vedas  and 
Orders,  though  established  on  various  opinions,  nanamatasa- 
masthitah,  unite  in  worshipping  Spirit  as  the  personal  God 
by  whose  grace  one  is  saved.”  So  again : “ That  man  can  see 
Him,  to  whom  He  gives  His  grace,”  yasya  prasadam  kurute 
sa  vai  tarn  drastum  arhati,  xii,  337,  20,  (a  verse  found  also  in 
the  pseudo-Ram  ay  ana).  The  grace  of  God  is  here  the  chief 
element  of  salvation,  opposed  to  what  is  recognized  as  the 
severer  school  of  those  who  attain  salvation  scientifically 
either  by  knowledge  of  soul  or  of  God.  This  older  system  in 
the  Upanishads  is  represented  by  those  who  are  saved  by 
knowledge  alone ; in  the  epic,  by  like-minded  men,  who  have 
worked  out  a system  or  science  of  salvation,  and  depend  wholly 
on  this  science,  jriana,  or  on  ascetic  practices,  tapas,  yoga, 
super-added  to  this  science.  Both  of  these  are  recognized  as 
older  systems  in  the  epic,  compared  with  the  grace-of-God 
theory,  and  practically  they  are  thrown  over  by  the  adherents 
of  the  latter  school,  who,  however,  differ  from  their  ancestors 
in  the  Upanishads  by  a clear  mark  of  lateness,  in  that  they 
specify  that  the  God  whose  grace  saves  is  Krishna  alone. 
Salvation  not  through  knowledge,  even  of  God,  not  through 
the  grace  of  God,  but  through  the  grace  of  the  man-god  is  the 
saving  way,  the  easier  way,  or  as  it  is  called  in  the  Gita,  the 
“less  troublesome  way,”  12,  5. 

Side  by  side  stand  in  the  epic  these  two  great  modern  modi- 

1 These  are  the  modifications  of  God,  avidyasargas  and  vidyasargas,  fire 
in  number  in  xii,  303,  but  when  the  account  is  repeated  in  311,  nine  in  all. 


EPIC  PHILOSOPHY. 


189 


fications  of  the  older  Upanishads : there,  knowledge,  wisdom, 
jflana,  vidya,  contrasted  with  the  later  grace  of  the  “ Creator- 
Spirit,”  at  most  recognized  as  ('tva.  Here,  the  Siimkhya- 
Yoga  system,  contrasted  with  the  later  Krishna  cult.  “ I 
will  release  thee  from  all  thy  sins,  grieve  not,”  says  the  man- 
god,  Gita,  18,  66.  But  the  Yogin  replies:  “Sink  or  swim, 
let  one  put  his  trust  in  science  alone,”  xii,  237,  1 and 
238,  1,  and  claims  that  he  is  purified  not  by  Krishna  but 
by  Yoga  knowledge,  rejecting  even  the  purity  induced  by 
bathing  in  the  sacred  pools  (for  his  purity  is  “ obtained  by 
knowledge  ”),  which  elsewhere  in  the  epic  are  said  to  purify 
from  all  sin.1  But  inasmuch  as  the  Yogin’s  science  postulated 
what  the  Samkhya  denied,  a personal  God,  the  former  became 
a bridge  between  the  atheist  and  the  devotee,  a bridge,  how- 
ever, occasionally  repudiated  by  the  latter,  who  does  not  always, 
as  usually,  claim  that  lie  is  thus  philosophic,  but  exclaims: 
“By  Samkhya  and  by  Yoga  rule  I meditate  the  way  of  God 
and  find  it  not,”  xii,  352,  7-8. 

The  irreconcilable  difference  between  the  Saiiikhya  and  the 
faith  of  the  Krishnaite  could  be  removed  only  by  modifying 
one  of  these  extreme  views.  Either  the  atheistic  (or  even 
Brahman)  philosopher  had  to  win  over  the  adherents  of  the 
man-god  to  renounce  him  and  return  to  the  “ ship  of  salvation 
of  knowledge,”  or  the  devotee,  having  admitted  that  the 
Yogin’s  Spirit  was  God,  had  to  identify  his  Krishna  with  that 
Purusha  Igvara.  Late  as  are  all  the  purely  philosophical 
chapters  of  the  epic,  they  still  show  which  power  prevailed. 


1 There  is  of  course,  further,  the  Qivaite,  who  worshipped  not  Krishna  but 
another  as  the  highest  God,  not  to  speak  of  those  that  remained  true  to 
Vedic  tradition  and  went  for  salvation  no  further  than  sacrifices  and  gifts. 
There  are  also,  within  the  group  of  philosophers,  those  who  recognized  only 
the  earlier  twenty-five  principles,  and  those  who  recognized  twenty-six,  as  ex- 
plained above.  There  is  also  the  fractional  sectary,  who  regarded  Krishna 
as  the  “ half  of  the  fourth  ” of  the  “ root-abiding  Mahadeva”  (as  tatstha,  p. 
44,  he  creates  existences,  xii,  281,  61-62).  All  these  divergent  beliefs  are 
represented  in  startling  and  irreconcilable  antagonism  in  an  epic  concerning 
which  the  unhistorical  view  is  dass  es  achte  zu  einer  einheitlichen  Auffassung 
abgerundete  Elemente  sind,  welche  das  Epos  bietet,  Nirvana,  p.  84 ! 


190 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Faith  absorbed  unfaith.  The  religious  philosophy  of  the  epic 
is  a successful  attempt  to  uphold  Krishnaism  not  only  against 
the  science  of  atheism,  but  against  a deistic  science  that  postu- 
lated God  but  saw  no  godship  in  Krishna ; a science  which  in 
its  turn  is  technically  elaborated,  a long  advance  on  the  vague 
speculations  of  the  Upanishads,  but  not  yet  as  uniform  as  hi 
the  completed  system.  Krishnaism  stands  to  Samkhya-Yoga 
chronologically  as  stands  the  later  grace-of-the-Creator  theoiy 
to  the  earlier  knowledge  of  the  Upanishads.  But  both  epic 
Saihkhya-Yoga  and  Krishnaism  are  later  even  than  this  modi- 
fication of  Upanishad  teaching.  Latest  of  all  is  trinitarianism. 
Side  by  side  stand  all  these  creeds,  each  pretending  to  be  a 
definitive  answer,  each  forming  part  of  the  contents  of  a poetic 
vessel,  into  which  have  been  poured  the  vinegar  and  oil  of 
doubt  and  faith ; but : 

o£o s t’  a\ei<f>d  t’  ey^eas  ravnp  kvtci 

St^ocrraTOwr’  dy  ov  </>tAai  irpovewtiroi':. 


CHAPTER  FOUR. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 

alarhkrtam  jubhaih  fabdaih 
samayair  divyamanusaih 
chandovrttaij  ca  vividhair 
anvitam  vidusam  priyam 

A Tale  adorned  with  polished  phrase 
And  the  wise  lore  of  gods  and  men, 

With  verses  turned  in  various  ways 
Replete,  a joy  to  scholars’  ken. 

Epic  Versification.1 

The  poetry  of  the  epic  is  composed  in  metres,  chandas,  of 
three  sorts.  The  first  is  measured  by  syllables,  the  second  by 
morse,  the  third  by  groups  of  morse.  These  rhythms  ran  the 
one  into  the  other  in  the  following  course.  The  early  free 
syllabic  rhythm  tended  to  assume  a form  where  the  syllables 
were  differentiated  as  light  or  heavy  at  fixed  places  in  the  verse. 
Then  the  fixed  syllabic  rhythm  was  lightened  by  the  resolution 
of  specific  heavy  syllables,  the  beginning  of  mora-measurement. 
The  resolution  then  became  general  and  the  number  of  morse, 
not  the  number  of  syllables,  was  reckoned.  Finally,  the  morse 
tended  to  arrange  themselves  in  groups  and  eventually  became 
fixed  in  a wellnigh  unchangeable  form.  Part  of  this  develop- 
ment was  reached  before  the  epic  began,  but  there  were  other 
parts,  as  will  appear,  still  in  process  of  completion.  Neither 

1 I wish  to  acknowledge  in  beginning  this  chapter  on  epic  metres  the  great 
help  afforded  me  by  Professor  Cappeller  of  Jena,  who  put  at  my  disposal  a 
manuscript  on  the  metrical  forms  in  the  epic,  in  which  all  the  metres  were 
located  and  the  tristubhs  of  the  first  three  books  were  analyzed  seriatim.  I 
need  hardly  say  that  this  loan  has  materially  lightened  the  labor  of  preparing 
the  following  sketch,  a loan  the  kindness  of  which  was  the  more  appreciated 
as  it  was  entirely  unsolicited,  though  most  gratefully  received. 


192 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


of  the  chief  metres  in  the  early  epic  was  quite  reduced  to  the 
later  stereotyped  norm.  The  stanza-fonn,  too,  of  certain 
metres  was  still  inchoate. 

The  mass  of  the  great  epic  (about  ninety-five  per  cent)  is 
written  in  one  of  the  two  current  forms  of  free  syllabic 
rhythm;  about  five  per  cent  in  another  form  of  the  same 
class;  and  only  two-tenths  of  a percent  in  any  other  metre. 
The  two  predominant  rhythms,  gloka  and  tristubh,  are  in 
origin  the  oldest  Indie  or  pre-Indic  rhythms,  while  of  the 
others  some  are  in  turn  early  developments  from  the  first  epic 
rhythms.  For  convenience  of  reference,  before  discussing 
these  rhythms  in  detail,  I give  a list  of  all  those  used  in  one 
or  both  of  the  two  epics  according  as  they  are  free  syllabic 
(gloka,  tristubh),  fixed  syllabic  (aksaracchandas),1  mora-metre 
(matracliandas),  and  group-rhythms  (ganacckandas). 

§loka:  a stanza  of  two  verses  (hemisticlis)  of  sixteen 
syllables  each,  restricted  to  a certain  extent  as  to  the  place 
where  heavy  and  light  syllables  (or  long  and  short  vowels) 
are  permitted.  Originally  the  stanza  consisted  of  four 
verses  of  eight  syllables  each  and  many  traces  of  this  di- 
vision, by  independent  “quarters,”  padas,  survive  in  the 
Makabkarata. 

tristubh:  a stanza  of  four  verses  of  eleven  syllables  each, 
arranged  with  very  little  restriction  (and  consequently  of 
various  types)  in  the  Makabkarata ; reduced  to  one  prevail- 
ing type  in  the  R amity  ana.  Increased  by  one  heavy  sylla- 
ble in  each  pada,  this  metre  is  called  jagatx,  but  the  two 
types  are  interchangeable  in  the  same  stanza.  Fixed  types 
of  this  metre  are  common  in  verse  form,  but  rare  in  stanza 
form2  except  as  given  in  the  next  group  (of  four-verse 
stanzas). 

1 The  fixed  syllabic  is  called  also  varnavrtta,  “syllabic  verse”  (vrtta  = 
versus). 

4 That  is,  pure  in  the  form  (a)  and  (b),  \j w \j  w w Sd  ( ) ; 

(e) , \J (f) uu . These 

are  called  (a)  upendravajra ; (b)  vanfastha(bila) ; (e)  $alini;  (f)  vatormi; 

or  (a)  and  (b)  with  the  opening w , called  (c)  indravajra  and  (d)  in- 

dravahja,  as  they  have  eleven  or  twelve  syllables,  respectively.  When  (a) 
and  (c)  or  (b)  and  (d)  are  mingled,  the  stanza  is  called  upajati. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


193 


aksaracchandas 

or 

varnavrtta 


with  the  verse  fixed  as 

'rathoddhata,  a tristubh  yj ,yj\jyj ,yj  — \j  — 

bliujamgaprayata,  a jagati w , w ,yj 

drutavilarnbita,  a jagati  yj  yj  yj, yj  yj,  — w w,  — yj  — 

vaifvadevi,  a jagati  — \j w 

rucira,  an  atijagati 1 yj yj , yj  yj  yj  yj  — yj  — w — 

praharsini,  an  atijagati , yjyj  yj  yj,  — yj  — yj 

mrgendramukha,  an  atijagati  uuuv, ov, yj  — yj 

asambadlia, a fakvari 2 yj  yjyjyjw 

vasantatilaka,  a §akvari yj , yjyjyj, yj  yj  — yj 

raalini,  an  ati^akvari  yjyjyjyy  yj  w , yj yj 

fardulavikridita,  an  atidbrti , yj  yj yj yj, 


w w ; yj, yj  — 


matrachandaa 

(ardhasamavrtta) 


/puspitagra  and  aupacchandasika,  stanzas  of  two  verses, 
each  verse  having  sixteen  and  eighteen  morae  in  prior 
and  posterior  pada,  respectively,  the  morae  being  ar- 
ranged in  syllables  more  (puspitagra)  or  less  (aupac- 
" chandasika)  fixed. 

aparavaktra  and  vaitaliya,  the  same  in  catalectic  form, 
each  pada  being  shortened  by  two  morae. 
matrasamaka,  a stanza  of  four  verses,  each  verse  having 
' sixteen  morae. 


ganacchandas 


^(arya,  aryagiti,  upagiti),  stanzas  of  two  verses,  each  verse 
containing  eight  groups  of  morae,  the  group  of  four 
morae  each,  but  with  the  restriction  that  amphibrachs 
are  prohibited  in  the  odd  groups,  but  may  make  any 
even  group  and  must  make  the  sixth  group,  unless  in- 
- deed  this  sixth  group  be  represented  (in  the  second 
hemistich)  by  only  one  mora  or  four  breves;  and  that 
the  eighth  group  may  be  represented  by  only  two  moras. 
The  metre  is  called  aryagiti  when  the  eighth  foot  has 
four  morae ; upagiti,  when  the  sixth  foot  irregularly  has 
^ but  one  mora  in  each  hemistich.8 


1 That  is,  a jagati  with  one  syllable  over,  ati,  or  with  thirteen  syllables  in 
the  pada.  The  second  atijagati  above  is  sometimes  called  praharsani. 

2 That  is,  having  fourteen  syllables  in  the  pada,  fifty-six  in  the  stanza. 
The  atigakvari  and  atidhrti  have  fifteen  and  nineteen  syllables  in  the  pada, 
respectively. 

3 Brown,  Prosody,  p.  17,  points  out  that  this  metre  is  almost  that  of  Horace, 
Odes,  iii,  12 : miserar  | est  neq  a-  | mori  | dare  lu- 1 dum  neque  I dul- 1 ci  mala  I 
vino,  etc. ; and  sic  te  | diva  po-  [ tens  Cypri  | sic  fra-  I tres  Hele-  | nae  I lu- 
cida  | sidera,  etc.,  save  that  the  sixth  group  is  here  of  two  morse. 

13 


194 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Cloka  and  Tristubh. 

THE  PADAS. 

The  number  of  verses  in  a gloka  or  tristubh  stanza  may  be 
decreased  or  increased  by  one  or  two,  respectively;  but  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  two  in  a §loka  and  four  in  a 
tristubh  constitute  a stanza.  Sometimes,  however,  where  one 
or  three  hemistichs  make  a stanza,  it  is  merely  a matter  of 
editing.  Compare,  for  instance,  i,  90,  22;  i,  93,  19-21  -with 
3,682-83;  iii,  4,  17  with  234;  iii,  111,  14  ff.,  with  10,040,  ff. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  no  arrangement  can  always  group  the 
hemistichs  into  uniform  stanzas.  Thus  in  xii,  350,  49  ff.,  five 
tristubh  hemistichs  follow  three  yloka  hemistichs.  A stanza 
of  three  hemistichs  is  apt  to  close  a section,  as  in  vii,  54  and 
187.  In  G.  vi,  49,  55,  there  is  one  hemistich  in  excess  because 
53  a-b  were  added  to  the  original,  and  this  is  doubtless  the 
cause  of  many  such  cases ; though  it  is  also  true  that  a half 
stanza  is  often  found  where  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect  a 
later  addition.  Six  padas  in  a tristubh  occur  occasionally. 

But  in  the  case  of  the  §loka,  the  padas  are  metrically  linked 
in  pairs,  while  tristubh  padas  are  metrically  independent. 
The  §loka,  therefore,  is  a couplet.  Its  two  halves  are  metri- 
cally disjunct  and  may  be  treated  as  independent  wholes. 
Each  hemistich  is  a complete  verse.  The  two  halves  of  this 
verse,  the  quarters,  padas,  of  the  whole  stanza,  are  sometimes 
knit  together  into  euphonic  combination  and  a syntactical 
whole.  But,  relatively  speaking,  this  is  seldom  the  case. 
The  unity  consists  rather  in  the  fact  that  one  half  of  the  verse 
is  metrically  different  from  the  other  and  cannot  be  substi- 
tuted for  it,  whereas  in  the  tristubh  any  pada  can  be  substi- 
tuted, if  the  sense  permits,  for  any  other.1  The  different  fall 
of  the  (jloka  padas  may  be  seen  very  well  when  the  words  are 
almost  identical : 

1 In  some  forms  of  the  tristubh,  however,  there  is  a restriction  in  the  final 
syllaba  anceps  of  the  first  and  third  padas,  not  found  in  the  second  and 
fourth  padas.  In  such  cases  (discussed  hereafter)  the  tristubh,  like  the  floka, 
consists  of  two  parts  (hemistichs)  and  the  perfect  independence  of  the  pada  is 
modified.  This  does  not  affect  the  free  epic  tristubh. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOX. 


195 


amitranitm  bhayakaro  mitranam  abhayaiiikarah 
qalabha  iva  kedftram  maqaka  iva  pavakain 
na  ’tantrl  vidyate  viiia  na  ’cakro  vidyate  rathah 
rukmapunkhair  ajihmagrai  rukmapunkbair  ajikma- 
gaih  (G.  vi,  20,  26  and  19,  68) 1 
kim  nu  me  syad  idaiii  krtva  kiiii  nu  me  syad  akur- 
vatah 

yato  dharmas  tatah  Krsno  yatah  Krsnas  tato  jayab 
patjyan  qrnvan  sprqan  jighrann  aqnan  gaccban  svapan 
Qvasan 

japate  japyate  cai  ’va  tapate  tapyate  punah 

The  final  syllaba  anceps  of  all  padas  indicates,  however, 
that  the  §loka,  like  the  tristubh,  originally  permitted  the 
same  metrical  fall  in  both  padas,  and  such  we  know  to  have 
been  the  case  in  the  older  metre  from  which  the  gloka  derives. 
The  Mahabharata  retains  this  identical  measure  here  and  there, 
as  in 

tad  vai  deva  upasate  tasmat  suryo  virajate, 

but  such  cases,  usually  reflecting  or  imitating  the  older  verse 
of  the  Upanishads,  as  in  this  example,  v,  46,  1,  are  regularly 
avoided,  even  by  the  substitution  of  irregular  or  dialectic 
forms.  Thus  in  viii,  84,  12,  where  the  same  verb  is  employed, 

Duryodhanam  updsante  parivarya  samantatah 

The  gloka  verse  (hemistich)  does  not  often  indicate  its 
unity  by  its  form.  Generally  its  prior  half,  or  the  pada  (to  re- 
tain this  word  for  the  division  of  eight  syllables),  is  not  united 
with  the  posterior  pada.  Verses  that  do  unite  the  two  usu- 
ally give  lists  of  objects,  which  is  the  ordinary  case  in  the 
early  epic,  though  the  later  epic  does  not  hesitate  to  make 
freer  use  of  this  unit-verse.  But  on  the  whole,  though  com- 
mon enough  in  post-epical  writing,  this  is  by  no  means  typical 
of  the  epic  itself.  The  great  bulk  of  the  poem  does  indeed 
furnish  a goodly  number  of  examples,  but  relatively  speaking 
cases  like  the  following  are  rare : 

1 The  other  verses  are  found  in  R.  vii,  36,  22  ; 7,  3 ; ii,  39,  29 ; M.  iii,  62, 10 ; 
vi,  23,  28 ; 29,  8 ; xiii,  14, 159. 


196 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mahamaniqilapattabaddhaparyantavedikam,  ii,  3,  32 
aikyasamyogananatvasamavayavigaradah,  ii,  5,  3 
vayam  hi  devagandharvamanusyoragaraksasan,  iii,  53,  29 
jambvamralodhrakhadirasalavetrasamakulam,  ib.  64,  4 
qihhaqardulamataihgavaraharksamrgayutam,  ib.  39 
badarengudakaqmaryaplaksaqvatthabibhltakaih,  ix,  37,  61 
gadamusalanaracaqaktitomarahastaya,  ix,  46,  66 
drqyate  hi  dharmarupena  ’dharmam  prakrtaq  caran, 
xii,  261,  6 

ajayata  maharajavanqe  sa  ca  mahadyutih,  xiii,  10,  35 
sa  bhavan  dandasariiyogena  ’nena  hrtakilbisah,  G.  iv,  17, 58 
bhavadbhir  niqcayas  tattvavijnanakuqalair  mama,  G.  iv, 
32,  5.1 

The  hemistich  of  the  qloka  is  also  generally  independent  of 
the  rest  of  the  stanza  in  sense  as  well  as  in  metre,  but  it  is  not 
infrequently  united  with  it  syntactically,  as  in  vi , 19,  12, 

na  hi  so  'sti  pumanl  loke  yah  samkruddham 
Vrkodaram 

drastum  atyugrakarmanam  visaheta  nararsabham 

Not  a mortal  on  earth  exists,  who  deep-incensed 
Vrkodara, 

Mighty,  a chief  of  awful  strength,  could  a mo- 
ment behold  in  war. 

So  samalamkrtam : qatam,  in  the  first  chapter  of  Nala,  11; 
krodhasya  ca  vinigrahah : karyah,  xii,  330,  10 ; asambhavyam 
vadham  tasya  V rtrasya  vibudliadliipah : cintayano  jagama  ’qu, 
R.  vii,  85,  15,  etc.  Inside  the  hemistich,  the  padas  are  fre- 
quently euphonically  independent  (hiatus) ; 

Prajangho  Valiputraya  abhidudrava,  It.  vi,  76,  22. 
na  kiihcid  abhidhatavya  aham,  R.  vi,  118,  10 
ma  vinaqam  gamisyama 2 aprasadya  ’diteh  sutam, 

It.  vii,  35,  63 

1 R.  (Bombay)  has  caesura  between  padas  and  avoids  both  these  forms 
(samyogat  in  18,  G4,  for  samyogena,  etc.). 

2 G.  here,  38,  113,  has  the  future  imperative,  gamisyadhvam.  Other  ex- 
amples of  hiatus  may  be  seen  in  R.  v,  60,  8;  vi,  60,  8;  vii,  11,  42,  etc., 
besides  the  ample  collection  of  Bbhtlingk  for  the  first  four  books. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


197 


Saumitram  samparisvajya  idam  vacanam  abravit, 

R.  vi,  23,  1 

nihanyad  antaraiii  labdhva  uluko  vayasan  iva,  R.  vi, 

17, 19 

garanany  a5aranyani  aqramani  krtani  nab,  R.  vii,  6,  5 

In  G.  the  hiatus  is  usually  avoided,  but  it  is  sometimes  kept 
here,  as  where  It.  vii,  21,  19  has  gorasaiii  gopradataro  amiaiii 
cai  ’va  (adrakslt)  and  G.  rectifies  the  grammar  but  keeps  the 
hiatus,  gopradiitruQ  ca  annam.1  In  the  last  book  of  the  poem, 
hiatus  in  G.  is  more  common  than  in  the  earlier  epic;  for 
example,  G.  has  the  hiatus  of  It.  vii,  6,  40,  svadhltam  dattam 
istarh  ca  aiQvaryam  paripalitam.  On  the  other  hand,  within 
the  pada  attempts  are  sometimes  made  to  avoid  hiatus  at  the 
expense  of  form,  as  in  R.  vii,  109,  4,  brahmam  (cf.  88,  20) 
avartayan  param.  Contrast  is  often  the  cause  of  hiatus,  both 
in  the  pada,  as  in  apayam  va  upayarh  va,  R.  iii,  40,  8,  and  in  the 
hemistich,  as  in  hinam  mam  manyase  kena  ahlnaih  sarvavikra- 
maih,  R.  vi,  36,  5.2  So  in  the  Mahabharata,  satyanama  bhava 
’§oka,  agokah  Qokana^anah,  iii,  64,  107.  The  latter  epic 
otherwise  presents  the  same  phenomena: 

yesam  mutram  upaghraya  api  bandhya  prasuyate, 
iv,  10,  14 

upavartasva  tad  brahma  antaratmani  viqrutam,  v, 

43,  59 

viveqa  Gangam  Kauravya  Ulupl,  xvii,  1,  27 

deva  ’pi  marge  muhyanti  apadasya  padaisinah,  xii, 

270,  22 

anahutah  praviqati  aprsto  bahu  bhasate,  v,  33, 36,  etc. 

There  is  nothing  peculiarly  epic  in  hiatus.  It  is  found  in 
precedent  and  subsequent  poetry.  Its  occurrence  in  the 

1 R.  in  the  second  hemistich  has  grhan$  ca  grhadatarah  (acc.)  svakarma- 
phalam  a?natah,  a?  for  bhuj,  as  in  M.  iii,  32,  6. 

2 Emphasis  also  may  cause  hiatus,  as  in  dharmatma  iti,  R.  i,  21,  7 ; na  tu 
vaktum  samartho  'ham  tvayi  atmagatan  gunan,  R.  iv,  8,  5 ; or  it  may  he  em- 
ployed to  save  the  life  of  a word,  as  in  daksinarthe  'tha  rtvigbhyah,  xiii,  93, 25 
(the  commonest  hiatus  is  this  before  r,  as  in  sarve  ca  rtavah  ; karayasva  rse ; 
anye  rksavatah,  etc.). 


198 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Mahabhasya,  as  in  gay  an  a vardhate  durva  asinarh  vardhate 
visam,  IS.,  xiii,  p.  461,  may  be  epic. 

The  cadence  of  the  gloka,  like  that  of  all  other  poetry,  de- 
pends on  the  sense,  and  the  caesura  cannot  be  determined  by 
rule.  In  most  cases  there  is  a caesura  at  the  end  of  the  pada, 
but  it  is  frequently  shifted,  as  in  kva  ’rjunah  nrpatih  ? gighram 
samyag  akhyatum  arhatha,  R.  vii,  31,  11.  A complete  sen- 
tence seldom  exceeds  the  limit  of  a stanza,  and  when  it  goes  fur- 
ther it  may  be  set  down  as  a mark  of  lateness.  Quite  anomalous 
in  epic  style  are  those  long  sentences,  usually  relative,  which, 
as  in  Gita  2,  42-44  and  6,  20-23  run  through  twelve  or  four- 
teen padas.  Still  more  awkward  are  the  sentences  found  in  the 
later  epic.  Thus  in  xii,  302,  occurs  a sentence,  not  of  four- 
teen padas  as  in  the  Gita,  but  of  fourteen  glokas  (5-17) : yet 
this  is  surpassed  in  the  same  section  by  a sentence  of  thirty 
glokas,  which  even  then  has  no  finite  verb  and  in  reality  never 
comes  to  an  end  at  all  (24-52).  Such  monstrosities,  however, 
belong  only  to  the  pseudo-epic. 

Like  the  gloka,  the  tristubh,  in  euphony  and  sense,  may  be 
a couplet,  the  first  two  and  last  two  padas  making  a unit,  as 
in  in,  118,  20  c — d,  anyang  ca  Vrsnln  upagamya  pujam : cakre ; 
vii,  2,  33  a — b,  na  tv  eva  ’ham  na  gamisyami  tesam : madhye 
guranam.  Euphonic  unity  is  illustrated  by  the  elision  in  vii, 
163,  14  of  a in  adrgyanta  at  the  beginning  of  the  pada  after  o ; 
by  tang  capy : upopavistan  between  c — d in  i,  191,  19 ; and 
by  the  complete  hemistichs: 

yada  ’grausam  Bhlmasena  ’nuyatena  ’gvatthamna  para- 
mastrain  prayuktam,  i,  1,  213 

sa-Karna-Duryodhana-Qalva-Qalya-Draunayani-Kratlia- 

Sunltha-Vakrah,  i,  187,  15  (compare  in  gloka; 
Bhisma-Drona-Krpa-Drauni-Karna’rjuna-Janar- 
danan,  viii,  20,  3 ; bahugo  Vidura-Drona-Krpa- 
Gangeya-Srnjayaih,  ix,  61,  20) 
uddhutalangulamahapatakadhvajottamahsakulabhisan- 

antam,  iv,  54,  27. 

Ordinarily,  however,  disjunction  and  not  conjunction  of 
padas  is  the  rule.  Thus  between  b — c,  iii,  132,  5,  a + a,  and 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOX. 


199 


even  between  a — b and  c — d.  Here  also  liiatus  appears  even 
in  the  pada,  as  in  i,  1,  214  b,  svasti  ’ty  uktvii  astram  astrena 
gantam  (so  must  be  read);  or  in  i,  74,  30  c,  ahag  ca  ratrig  ca 
ubhe  ca  saiiidhye.  It  may  then  be  expected  between  pfulas, 
as  in 

yada  ’vamansthah  1 sadrgah  greyasag  ca,  alpiyasag 
ca,  i,  88,  3 a — b 

vanaspatin  osadlng  ca  ’viganti,  &po  (=  apo)  vSyuni, 
i,  90,  11  a — b 

santi  loka  bahavas  te  narendra,  apy  ekai  ’kah,  i,  92, 

15  a- b 

So  in  Yajnaseni : ekambara,  ii,  67,  34  a — b ; utsahami : tiyus- 
man,  iii,  192,  67  c — d;  putri : Iksvaku,  ib.  70  c — d;  tapag 
ca : amatsaryam,  v,  43,  20  a — b ; aearyena : atmakrtam  (text 
-nat),  v,  44,  14  a ; apo  'tha  adbhyah  salilasya  madliye,  v,  46, 
3 a.  B.  occasionally  rejects  (betters)  the  text  of  C.,  as  in  vi, 
129  c — d,  stands  na  ca  ’pi  te  madvagaga  maharse,  'nugraham 
kartum  arhii  hi  me  matih,  where  B.  3,  61,  has  na  ca  ’dharmam, 
etc.  So  in  viii,  4,340,  pagcad  vadhisye  tvam  api,  sampramudha, 
aham,  etc.,  where  B.,  85,  33,  has  mudliam.  Both,  however, 
continue  with  aham  hanisye  'rjuna  ajimadhye,  and  in  the  next 
verse  both  have  prasahya  asyai  ’va  in  c — d.3  Other  cases 
are : gatruhanta : uvaca,  viii,  85,  30  c — d ; mudam  ca  lebhe 
rsabhah  Ivurunam,  ix,  17,  18  d;  uttana-asye  na  havir  juhoti, 
xii,  246,  27  a ; bibheti : agraddheyam,  xiv,  9,  27  c — d ; Madam 
nama  asuram  vigvarupam,  xiv,  9,  33,  c (from  the  text  in  B., 
namiisuram,  and  in  C.  251,  Madam  namanam) ; Tilottama  ca 
’py  atha  Menaka  ca:  etas,  H.  2,  89,  71  a — b.  Examples  from 
the  Ramayana  are  given  by  Bohtlingk,  or  may  be  seen  in  the 
conjunction  of  maharathasya : Iksvaku,  R.  vi,  14,  12  a — b ; 
abhyupetya : uvaca,  R.  vi,  59,  45  c — d.  In  both  metres,  to 

1 The  first  foot  consists  of  five  syllables. 

2 B.’s  reading  in  iii,  112,  15  d,  caliteva  ca  ’sit  for  caliteva  asit,  10,065, 
may  be  to  avoid  hiatus.  In  ii,  63,  6 d = 2,116,  both  texts  have  acintito 
'bhimatah  svabandhuna,  where  hiatus  may  be  assumed,  though  not  neces- 
sarily, as  also  in  iii,  197,  13  b,  na  (vai)  vasam  pitaro  (a)sya  kurvata.  Ib.  15 
a — b,  both  texts  have  hiatus,  uksanam  paktva  saha  odanena  asmat  kapotat 
prati  te  nayantu  (give  you  for). 


200 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


avoid  hiatus,  irrational  particles  are  often  inserted.  A good 
example  is : pura  krtayuge  tata  hy  asld  raja  hy  Akampanah, 
vii,  2,029,  where  B.,  52,  26,  omits  the  first  hi. 

Rhyme. 

Connection  of  padas  by  rhyme  is  not  uncommon.  It  is  less 
noticeable  in  §lokas  than  in  tristubhs  on  account  of  the  alter- 
nate trochaic  and  iambic  cadence  employed  in  the  former,  and 
some,  for  example,  may  think  that  in  iii,  65,  65-66, 

vasasva  mayi  kalyarai 
prltir  me  parama  tva yi  . . . 
ihai  ’va  vasatl  bhadre 
bhartaram  upalapsyase 

the  rhymes  of  the  nameless  queen  are  practically  unfelt,1  but 
this  is  scarcely  possible  when  alternate  rhymes  occur,  as  in 
R.  ii,  88,  7 : 

prasadavaravaryesM 
Qltavatsu  sugan 
usitva  Merukalpesu 
krtakancanabhitiisu 

In  §1.  18  of  the  same  section,  three  successive  padas  end  in 
-am ; in  14,  two  end  in  -a ; and  in  23-25  seven  end  in  -am, 
or  -am,  with  some  inserted  besides : 

bahuviryabhiraksi£am. 
Qunyasamvaranara/csam 
ayantritahayadviyaw- 
anavrtapuradvaram, 
rajadhanim  araksiia?re 
apralirstabaZam  nyu nam 
visamas tliam  anavr tdm 

So  in  tristubhs,  rhymes  are  both  irregular  and  regular,  as  in 
R.  iv,  24,  13, 

1 Compare,  however,  the  affected  initial  assonance  (with  the  same  differ- 
ence) in  R.  iv,  33,  62 : 

Taraya  ca  ’py  amijnatas 
tvaraya  va  ’pi  coditah 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


201 


acintanlj/rm  parivarjaraij/aw  anipsaaeycm  svana- 
veksanlya/a 

and  in  R.  vi,  78,  55,  where  three  padas  end  in  - dhdni , - Uiani , 
-kdni,  respectively ; the  same  (in  -tani,  -juni , -nuni)  appearing 
also  in  a puspitagra  stanza,  R.  v,  20,  36.  In  R.  iv,  28,  41,  we 
find: 

pramattasamnaditabarhina?H 
saqakragopakulaqad  va£a  ni 
caranti  niparjunavashani 

gajah  suramyaai  vanantarani 
navambudharahatakeqarawi 

dhruvam  parisvajya  saroruAarai 
kadarabapus/)arei  sakeqarawi 

navarai  hrsta  bbramarah  pibanti 

In  the  following  passage  the  effect  of  rhyme  is  given  by  simple 
repetition  of  the  whole  word,  R.  iv,  28,  25  (not  in  G.) : 

nidra  qanaih  keqavam  abliyupaiti 
drutam  nadi  sagaram  abliyupaiti 
hrsta  balaka  ghanam  abliyupaiti 
kanta  sakama  priyam  abliyupaiti 

words  put  into  the  mouth  of  love-sick  Rama  (kamapradhanah, 
as  he  is  called)  by  some  late  poetaster,  who,  not  content  with 
the  last  stanza,  adds  to  it  (27) : 

vahanti  varsanti  nadanti  bhanti 
dhyayanti  nrtyanti  samaqvasanti 

Compare  also  in  the  same  section,  weak  rhymes  in  -tanam, 
-vanam,  -kanam,  -ranam  (at  the  end  of  the  pada  in  31).  This 
reaches  its  height  in  the  ridiculous  (late)  section  R.  v,  5, 
where  the  same  word  is  repeated  at  the  end  of  each  pada 
till  even  6 is  a relief,  where  occurs  the  alternation : -panko, 
-paiikah,  -lanko,  -qankah.  But  elsewhere  in  R.,  e.  g.,  ii,  16, 
47,  three  padas  of  a tristubh  end  in  -am,  the  other  in  -am(d)  ; 
and  in  the  preceding  stanza  three  padas  end  in  -aih-,  though 
jagatl  padas  are  here  interchanged  with  tristubh. 

Foot  may  rhyme  with  foot  or  with  alternate  foot  in  the 


202 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


§loka,  just  as  pada  rhymes  with  pada,  that  is,  either  with  a 
modification  of  the  precedent  syllable,  thus,  x,  15,  34, 

evaiii  kuru 

na  ca  ’nya  tu 

or  even  with  alternate  rhyme,  as  hi  R.  v,  59,  24, 

pativrata 

ca  suqronl 
avastabdha 
ca  JanakI 

but  the  same  sound  may  also  be  repeated  without  any  such 
precedent  difference,  as  in  x,  15,  14, 

adharmag  ca 
krto  'nena 

Such  light  fundamental  rhymes  cannot  be  said  to  be  pro- 
duced without  design.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  vulgar  rhyme 
of  the  common  proverb,  such  as  is  conspicuous  in  all  popular 
sayings.  Compare  for  instance  the  following  Marathi 
proverbs : 

(a)  icchi  para 

yei  ghara 

(b)  jyatse  kude 

tyatse  pudhe 

(c)  svarga  lokl 

vaitaranl 

(d)  zase  zhada 

tase  phala 1 

Alliteration. 

Alliteration,  according  to  the  native  rhetorician  Dandin,  is 
affected  rather  by  the  Gaudas  than  by  the  Yidarbhas,  the 

1 (a)  what  is  wished  for  another  will  come  to  one’s  own  house;  (b)  evil  is 
in  front  of  an  evil  man  (honi  soit  qui  mal  y pense) ; (c)  in  heaven  the  river 
Vaitaranx  (the  river  of  death  precedes  the  joy  of  heaven) ; (d)  as  is  the  tree, 
so  the  fruit.  Manwaring,  Marathi  Proverbs.  The  earlier  anustubh  shows  the 
rhyme  better  on  account  of  the  iambus  in  the  prior  pada,  e.  g.,  RV.  v,  80,  6 : 
arhanta  cit  puro  dadhe 
ahjeva  devav  arvate. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


203 


latter  preferring  cognate  sounds  to  mere  repetition.  The  ref- 
erence is  rather  to  classical  affectations  than  to  epic  style, 
where  alliteration  is  a common  trick,  but  is  not  so  overdone 
as  it  is  in  the  works  of  later  poets.  A great  deal  of  it  is 
probably  unconscious,  or  at  least  required  and  almost  unavoid- 
able. Still,  the  later  epic  writers  certainly  affect  the  anuprasa 
which  Dandin  says  is  not  liked  by  the  Vidarbhas.  Thus  in 
vii,  118,  16, 

inuda  sametah  paraya  mahatma 

raraja  raj  an  surarajakalpah 

and  in  viii,  94,  54, 

nihatya  Karnaiii  ripum  ahave  Vjunah 
raraja  rajan  paramena  varcasa 
yatha  pura  vrtravadhe  qatakratuh 
So  in  ix,  35,  24, 

deqe  deqe,  tu  deyani  danani  vivicdiani  ca 
and  in  iii,  63  21, 

y'ayraha  ’yayaro  yrakah 

or  iii,  64,  118, 

Aa  ’si  Aasya  ’si  Aalyani,  Aim  va,  etc. 

Cf.  iv,  14,  12, 

ka  tvam  kasya  ’si  kalyani,  kuto  va,  etc. 

or  iii,  64,  99, 

y>halapuspojt?aqobhitah 

The  taste  for  jingling  is  clearly  seen  in  such  examples  from 
both  epics  as  the  following : 

Taro  'bravlt  tatas  tatra,  G.  v,  1,  49 
Qayanam  cayane  cubke,  E,.  v,  10,  50 
prallnamlnamakaram,  vii,  146,  3 
Kurucrestha  Kuruksetre  kurusva  mahatiih  kriyam, 
ix,  37,  57. 

Alliteration  is  sometimes  built  on  a foundation  of  older 
phrase,  such  as  bhlmo  bhimaparakramah,  Ramo  ramayatam 
varah.  Thus  in  R.  vii,  42,  22-23, 


204 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mano  'bhirama  ramas  ta 
Ramo  ramayatam  varah 
ramayamasa  dharmatma 

A good  deal  of  this  is  due  to  the  later  revisors.  Thus  R. 
v,  56,  51  (also  a pun  in  sa  lilam),  not  in  G., 

sa  lilanghayisur  bhlmam  salilam  lavanarnavam 
kallolasphalavelantam  utpapata  nabho  harih 

As  it  is  quite  impossible  to  tell  what  proportion  of  such 
verses  reverts  to  the  original  epic,  it  must  suffice  to  show  that 
epic  poetry  as  we  have  it,  while  not  attaining  to  the  perfected 
abominations  of  classical  works,  nevertheless  employs  alliter- 
ation to  portray  situations.  Thus  the  raudrarasa  in  R.  vi, 
65,  41, 

raudrah  cakatacakrakso  mahaparvatasamnibhah 

where  the  “ harsh  thunder-sound  ” is  well  given  by  §akataca- 
krakso.  Admirable,  too,  is  the  phonetic  imitation  of  motion, 
stumbling,  falling,  and  dying  in  Mbh.  vii,  146,  86 : 

babhramuQ  caskhaluh  petuh,  sedur  mamluf  ca,  Bharata 

The  rhapsode’s  clay  is  moulded  variously,  but  it  is  the  same 
stuff,  the  last  example  being  a studied  improvement,  to  suit 
the  situation,  of  viii,  1 9,  2 : 

vicelur  babhramur  nequh  petur  mamluQ  ca,  Bharata, 

repeated  in  21,  16,  with  varied  reading,  but  leaving  (tresuh) 
petur  mamluQ  ca  (sainikah),  and  varied  in  19,  15  with  the 
fatal  mdrisa  of  the  later  poets  (here  in  place  of  Bharata).1 
The  examples  given  above  show  both  the  Northern  and  the 
Southern  style  used  in  both  epics. 

That  Valmiki  was  copied  by  his  successors  goes  without 
saying.  The  pseudo-Ramayana  shows,  e.  g.,  vii,  32,  64: 

1 One  of  the  signs  that  the  completed  Mahabharata  is  posterior  to  the 
Ramayana.  Compare  A.  J.  Phil.,  vol.  xix,  p.  142.  It  is  a Buddhistic  term, 
mariso,  foreign  to  the  Ramayana  but  current  in  the  Mahabharata  and  later 
Sanskrit  works.  The  word,  be  it  noted,  is  as  old  as  one  pleases,  hut  its  stereo- 
typed employment  in  the  Bharata  puts  that  whole  work  from  a synthetic 
point  of  view  on  a par  with  other  non-Buddhistic  literature  using  it. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


205 


sa  tu  i&husahasrena  ialad  grhya  daqananam 
iaiandha  ialavan  raja  -Caliiii  Narayano  yatliO, 

and  this  atrocity  in  G.  v,  32,  45  (not  in  B.) : 

suvarnasya  suvarnasya  suvarnasya  ca  bhavini 
Ramena  prahitaiii  devi  suvarnasya  ’ngurlyakain,1 

where  the  poetaster  alliterates  the  whole  word  in  an  attempt 
at  pathetic  repetition.  Though  tliis  is  not  in  B.,  yet  the 
latter  countenances  iii,  39,  18,  where  “words  beginning  with 
R ” frighten  Rama’s  victim : 

ra-karadlni  namani  Ramatrastasya  Havana 
ratnani  ca  rathag  cai  ’va  vitrasam  janayanti  me. 

Similes  and  Metaphors.  Pathetic  Repetition. 

On  epic  similes  and  metaphors  an  interesting  essay  remains 
to  be  written.  As  these  subjects  lie  quite  apart  from  a study 
of  the  verse  itself,  I shall  at  present  make  only  one  or  two 
observations  touching  on  the  significance  of  these  figures. 
First  of  all,  the  presence  in  the  epic  of  rupakas,  metaphors,  of 
this  or  that  form,  no  more  implies  acquaintance  with  a studied 
ars  poetica  than  do  such  phenomena  in  other  early  epic 
poetry.  The  pseudo-epic  has  a disquisition  on  rhetoric,  as 
it  has  on  every  other  subject,  but  rhetoric  is  older  than  Rhet- 
oric, and  I cannot  see  that  illustrations  of  later  norms  found 
in  the  epic  prove  acquaintance  with  those  norms. 

In  the  rewritten  Gita,  unquestionably  one  of  the  older  poems 
in  the  epic,  though  not  necessarily  an  old  part  of  the  epic,  wre 
find  that  the  current  dlpo  nivatasthah  simile  is  introduced  as 
a “ traditional  simile,”  upama  smrta,  6,  19.  Such  stock  sim- 
iles belong  to  neither  epic,  but  to  the  epic  store  in  general,  as 
may  be  seen  by  consulting  the  long  list  of  identical  similes 
in  identical  phraseology  common  to  both  epics.  But  the 
epics  lack  the  more  complicated  figures  of  classic  form,  just 
as  they  lack  the  later  complicated  yamakas.  What  they  have 

1 Compare  G.  iv,  42, 12  = 44, 12  (anguliyam,  sic,  in  the  latter),  where  the 
ring  is  “ engraved  with  the  mark  of  Kama’s  name  ” (as  arrows  are  marked  in 
M.).  So  R.  v,  36,  2,  (anguliyakam)  Ramanamankitam. 


208 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


in  abundance  is  (a)  the  simile ; (b)  the  simple  metaphor; 
(c)  the  double  metaphor.  They  have  also  a most  atrocious 
mixture  of  metaphor  and  simile,  as  in  R.  vi,  41,  45,  te  tu 
vanaragardulfih  gardula  iva  danstrinah,  “ those  ape-tigers  like 
fanged  tigers.”  The  simile  is  sufficiently  illustrated  in  Ap- 
pendix A.  I note  only  that  it  may  be  doubled,  Rahur  yatha 
candram  iva,  “he,  like  Raliu,  him,  as  if  the  moon  ” (overcame). 
Illustrations  of  the  double  metaphor  are  found,  for  example,  in 
xiii,  107,  38,  sarasvatlm  gopayanah,  keeping  silence  (“herding 
fluency  ”)  ; xiv,  90,  95,  svargargalam  lobhabljam,  “ heaven’s 
bar  has  greed  as  its  seed ! ” 

For  my  present  purpose  it  is  necessary  only  to  point  out 
that  the  later  part  of  the  epic  exceeds  the  earlier  epic  in 
involved  metaphor.  Nothing,  for  example,  in  the  early  epic 
is  quite  equal  to  xiii,  107,  26,  where  after  mentioning  bil- 
lions, sagara,  in  21,  the  poet  adds: 

avartanani  catvari  tada  padmanl  dvadaqa 
garagniparimanaiii  ca  tatra  ’sau  vasate  sukham, 

which  means  that  one  remains  in  bliss  fifty-one  padmas  of 
years,  sixteen  plus  the  aggregate  of  the  (five)  arrows  (of 
Love)  into  the  (seven)  1 flames  = 35  (+16).2  But  parallels 
almost  as  extravagant  (including  the  gopay  simile  above)  have 
been  noticed  by  Professor  Lanman  in  the  interesting  essay 
referred  to  in  the  last  note.  Not  so  striking,  though  in  style 
more  rhetorical  than  is  found  in  the  love-passages  of  the  early 
epic,  is  the  metaphor  of  iv,  14,  25 : 

atmapradanavarsena  samgamambhodharena  ca 
gamayasva  vararohe  jvalantam  manmathanalam, 

“0  graceful  maid,  quench  the  mind-shaker’s  (Love’s)  glowing 
fire  with  the  rain  of  self-surrender  and  the  water  of  union.” 

1 I’W,  s.  faragni,  says  three  fires.  But  compare  yad  agne  te  fivam  ruparii 
ye  ca  te  sapta  hetayah,  i,  232, 10,  and  saptarcis,  passim : and  Mund.  Up.  ii,  1,  8. 
Besides,  the  result  is  35  and  one  multiple  is  5,  so  the  other  must  be  7 (flames). 

2 These  high  numbers,  while  not  confined  to  the  pseudo-epic  (Ind.  Streifen, 
i,  p.  97  ft.),  receive  fresh  additions  there  in  names  of  numbers  before  un- 
known. Compare  xiii,  107,  63,  for  example,  where  occur  the  sauku  and 
pataka:  tatlia  pankupatake  dve  yugantam  kalpam  eva  ca,  ayutayutam  tatlia 
padmam  samudram  ca  tatlia  vaset.  On  similes,  cf.  Lanman,  JAOS.  xx,  p.  16. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


207 


Another  rhetorical  trick,  which  appears  not  to  have  been 
noticed  in  the  epic,  is  the  occurrence  of  distinct  attempts  at 
“pathetic  repetition.”  A comical  example  is  given  above. 
I have  noted  cases  but  rarely,  and  only  from  late  parts  of 
the  great  epic,  but  I cannot  say  they  are  not  found  else- 
where.1 The  first  is  from  viii,  75,  6-7 a: 

ratham  sasutam  sakayam  ca  kaiiicit 
kaqcid  rath!  mrtyuvaqaiii  ninaya 
ninaya  ca  ’py  ekagajena  kaqcid 

rathan  baliun  mrtyuvaqe  tatha  ’qvftn 
rathan  sasutan  sahayan  gajaiiq  ca 
sarvan  arm  mrtyuvaqaiii  qaraughaik 

Another  is  found,  H.  3,  118,  9 = 15,776 : 

adraksam  adraksam  2 aham  sunirvrtah 
piban  pibahs  tasya  vapuh  punah  punah, 

(B.  has  puratanam) 

and  in  the  next  stanza : 

samsmrtya  samsmrtya  tam  eva  nirvrtah. 

This  differs  from  simple  repetition,  such  as  that  of  janami 
in  R.  iv,  33,  53  ff.,  but  only  in  the  effect  aimed  at.  Per- 
haps the  yada  ’qrausam  passage  may  be  included. 

Cadence  in  an^  Tristubh. 

The  gibberish  of  xii,  10,399  (v.  1.  in  285,  125), 

hayi  hayi  huva  hoyi  huva  hoyi  tatha  ’sakrt 

is  interesting  as  showing  the  epic’s  recognition  of  this  form 
of  interjectional  piety  (gayanti  tvam  suragrestha  samaga 
brahmavadinah) ; 3 but  I introduce  it  here  as  illustrating  the 

1 Without  the  attempted  pathos,  mere  repetition  is  an  ancient  trait  ex- 
hibited as  early  as  the  Rig  Veda,  as  pointed  out,  e.  g.,  by  Weber,  Vedische 
Beitrage,  1900,  p.  7,  on  RV.  ii,  11.  Repetition  of  the  same  words  in  succeed- 
ing stanzas  is  perhaps  best  illustrated  by  R.  ii.  28,  where  duhkham  ato  vanam 
is  the  pathetic  refrain. 

2 Compare  RV.  i,  25, 18,  dargam  . . . daripam. 

8 Compare  the  stohha  ib.  105 : hun  hun  hufikaraparaya,  etc. 


208 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


common  occurrence  of  the  repetition  of  the  final  foot  of  the 
prior  at  the  beginning  of  the  posterior  pada.  This  extreme 
example  duplicates  even  the  syllables,  but  in  the  pathya  form 
of  the  §loka  the  duplication  of  the  whole  foot,  while  not  re- 
producing the  syllables,  may  extend  backward  as  well  as  for- 
ward, thus  giving  three  identical  feet,  as  in  R.  vii,  28,  6, 

na  bhetavyam  na  gantavyam  nivartadhvam  rane 
surah 

Such  a verse,  however,  is  often  modified  as  in  iii,  168,  80 : 
nibodhata  mahabhagah  Qivaiii  ca  ’(jasta  me  'naghah, 

or,  if  the  first  two  are  maintained,  by  making  the  third  foot 

or . The  different  possibilities  concern  us 

here  only  as  they  affect  the  cadence,  for  the  monotony  of  the 
pada  is  varied  quite  as  much  by  the  rhetorical  cadence  as  by 
the  foot.  Even  the  stereotyped  diiambic  close  of  the  posterior 
pada  is  constantly  broken  by  a choice  of  words  which,  far  from 
lending  themselves  to  iambic  rhythm,  impede  it.  So  instead 

of  the  posterior  w w,  w _ ^ _ the  pada  must  often  be 

read  asu_,_vu_,w_;  while  in  the  prior  pada  w w 
w m is  frequently  to  be  read  as  M W,  \J  , H.  Pro- 

nounced cretics  and  dactyls  often  claim  recognition,  as  at  R. 
vi,  17,  12, 

Ravano,  nama,  durvrtto,  raksaso,  raksaseQvarah,1 

or  ib.  17,  67,  vidyate  tasya  samgrahah;  ib.  18,  7,  iti  ho  ’vaca 
Kakutstho  vakyarn,  satyaparakramah.  Hence  even  in  the 
more  rigid  posterior  pada  the  gloka  presents  great  variety. 
The  effect,  for  example,  of  the  diiambic  ending  is  quite  lost 
in  the  following  typical  examples: 

balad  adaya,  vlryavan 
nava,  panca  ca,  sapta  ca 
sandhim  Ramena,  Ravana 

To  read  such  padas  mechanically,  as  if  they  had  a pause 
before  the  diiamb  (as  Occidental  scholars  almost  always  read 


1 A stock  phrase,  the  parallel  to  Ravano  lokaravanah,  R.  vi,  20,  21,  etc. 


EPIC  \ rEIl SIFICA  TIOX. 


209 


them),  is  vicious.  The  Qloka,  more  than  any  other  metre, 
must  be  read  by  sense  rather  than  by  scheme.  The  latter 
method  is  bad  enough  in  all  metres,  but  peculiarly  so  in  the 
short  9loka,  where,  unless  the  stress  jibes  with  the  words, 
the  result  is  a peculiarly  painful  tum-tum,  which  in  no  way 
gives  the  rhythm;  for  in  reality  the  (jloka  is  a metre  of 
great  subtlety  and  force,  in  which  neither  iambic  nor  tro- 
chaic cadence  has  ever  held  sway,  but  both  interchange 
with  pleasing  variety  even  in  pathyas,1  often  uniting  in  a 
dactylic  or  choriambic  measure,  as  in  iii,  56,  24, 

kim  abravlc  ca  nah  sarvan, 

vada,  bhumipate,  'nagha 


or  R.  vi,  65, 11, 

gaccha  qatruvadhaya  tvam, 
Kumbhakarnajayaya  ca 

or  ib.  59,  47, 

tam  abravln  mahateja 

Eamah,  satyaparakramah, 
gaccha,  yatnaparaq  ca  ’pi 

bhava,  Laksmana,  saiiiyuge 


With  the  same  freedom  at  the  outset,  the  tristubh,  instead 
of  embracing  all  forms,  as  it  might  have  done,  continued  on 
a more  and  more  restricted  path.  It  kept  the  iambic  cadence 
much  more  closely  than  did  the  gloka  and  contracted  its 
middle  to  an  almost  unvarying  shape.  It  thus  grew  more 
and  more  monotonous,  and  not  having  even  the  advantage 
of  hemistich-unity  it  became  a mere  collocation  of  hen- 
dekasyllabic  verses,  each  pada  having  the  same  unvarying 
quantity : 

M w \j  \j  M 


1 Still  greater  variety  is  given  by  the  melodious  vipulas,  of  which  I shall 
speak  below.  But  seven-eighths  of  epic  verse  are  in  pathya  form,  that  is, 

half  the  syllables  in  the  verse  are  unalterably  fixed  as  uandw 

so  that  it  is  of  interest  to  see  how  with  this  self-imposed  restriction  the  Hindu 
poet  still  manages  to  make  verses  so  melodious,  energetic,  and  varied,  when 
read  properly. 


11 


210 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


(called  upajati),  as  in  Horace’s 

trahuntque  siccas  machinae  Carinas.1 

The  only  way  to  save  from  dead  uniformity  a rhythm  so 
stereotyped  was  to  shift  the  caesura  frequently.2  In  the 
Ramayana,  where  upajatis  are  the  rule  (the  Mahabharata 
tristubh  did  not  reach  the  same  level  of  monotony),  there  is 
often  a constant  play  from  fourth  to  fifth  or  a remoter  syl- 
lable, as  the  place  of  rest.  With  the  usual  pause  at  the 
fifth,  the  dactylic  middle  foot  is  converted  into  an  ana- 
paestic iambic  slide,  as  in  the  following  examples  from  R. 
iv,  43,  62;  44,  16;  v,  32,  10,  the  last  two  examples  showing 
also  the  fighter  caesura  not  of  sense-pause  but  of  breathing: 

(a)  tatah  krtarthah 

sahitah  sabandhava 
maya  ’rcitah 

sarvagunair  manoramaih 
carisyatho  ’rvlm 

pratiqantacatravah 

sahapriya 

bhutadharah  plavamgamah 

(b)  sa  tat  prakarsan 

harinam  mahad  balam 
babhuva  vlrah 

pavanatmajah  kapih 
gatambude 

vyomni  viguddhamandalah 
<ja<p  ’va  naksatraganopaqobhitah 

(c)  svapno  hi  na  ’yam 

na  hi  me  'sti  nidra 

1 Brown’s  Sanskrit  Prosody,  p.  9.  On  the  other  hand  the  jagatl  corre- 
sponds in  outer  form  to  the  iambic  trimeter  with  twelve  syllables.  I treat 
the  jagatl  throughout  as  a tristubh  with  one  syllable  added  (the  final  syllaba 

anccps  of  the  former  becoming  fixed  as  brevis),  ; not  assuming  this 

as  a genetic  fact  but  as  a convenience,  the  same  body  appearing  in  both  and 
the  padas  being  interchangeable  except  in  the  aksaracchandas. 

2 On  the  derivation  of  types  fixed  in  respect  of  the  initial  syllable  (the 
upendra  and  indravajra  being  derived  from  the  upajati  and  not  vice  versa), 
see  below,  the  section  on  the  Stanza. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


211 


gokena  duhkhena  ca 
plditayah 
sukhaiii  hi  me 

na  ’sti  yato  vihina 
teue  ’ndupurnapratimananena 

But  tliis  tendency  ran  to  extremes  also,  and  as  the  syllabic 
arrangement  became  fixed,  so  the  caesura  became  stereotyped, 
till  stanzas  showed  an  almost  unvarying  caesura  of  the  painful 
type  of  R.  v,  47,  30, 

iti  pravegaiii  tu 

parasya  tarkayan 
svakarmayogaiii  ca 
vidhaya  viryavan 
cakara  vegarn  tu 
mahabalas  tad  a 
matiih  ca  cakre  'sya 
vadhe  tadanlm 

or  of  R.  vi,  126,  55, 

tatah  sa  vakyair 

madhurair  Hanumato 
nigamya  hrsto 

Bharatah  krtanjalih 
uvaca  vanlm 

manasah  praharsinim 
cirasya  purnah 

khalu  me  manorathah 

Even  if  Valmlki  did  not  write  these  stanzas,  which  may  be 
doubted,  a greater  poet  than  he  is  guilty  of  the  same  sleepy 
iteration  of  cadences,  as  may  be  seen  in  Raghuvan§a  iii,  30 ; 
v,  18;  vii,  19  (caesura  after  the  fifth  in  all  padas) ; vii,  16 
(after  the  fourth  in  all  padas). 

Tags. 

Alternation  of  tristubh  and  jagatl  padas  in  the  same  stanza 
helped  somewhat  to  mitigate  the  weary  effect  of  this  metre ; 
but  it  gradually  yielded  before  the  gloka  or  passed  into  other 


212 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


forms.  One  of  its  decadent  uses  was  to  furnish  new  tags  for 
the  end  of  chapters  of  glokas.  This  was  an  old  use,  but  it 
is  extended  in  the  later  epic.  The  different  texts  show  no 
uniformity  in  the  insertion  of  these  tag-tristubhs,  one  text 
having  several,  where  another  has  one  or  none,  just  as  in 
the  case  of  other  tag-metres,  for  example,  a puspitagra,  G.  iii, 
39,  42 ; two  ruciras  between  G.  iii,  56  and  57,  but  none  in  R. 
Plainly  a late  insertion,  for  instance,  is  the  imitation-stanza 
which  serves  as  a tag  to  G.  iii,  43,  42  (not  in  R.), 

kalasya  kalaq  ca  bhavet  sa  Ramah 
samksipya  lokahg  ca  srjed  atha  ’nyan, 

Manu,  ix,  315 ; Mbh.  ix,  36,  40, 

sa  hi  kruddhah  srjed  anyan  devan  api  mahatapah 
xiii,  152,  16, 

adaivaih.  daivataih  kuryur,  daivataiii  ca  ’py  adaivatam 
lokan  anyan  srjeyus  te 

Such  tags  may,  in  fact,  be  made  of  adjacent  glokas.  An 
instance  is  given  below  where  a rucira  has  thus  been  created. 
As  regards  tristubhs,  G.  iii,  62  ends  with  a tag  made  out  of 
a gloka  omitted  in  this  text  but  kept  in  the  other,  na  garma 
labhate  bhiruh  and  na  vindate  tatra  tu  garma  Maithill.  A 
good  example  is  found  in  R.  vii,  75,  18  ff.,  where  a tristubh 
tag  is  added  in  almost  the  same  words  with  those  wherewith 
the  following  chapter  begins,  showing  that  with  the  division 
into  two  chapters  a tag  was  simply  manufactured  out  of  the 
next  stanza ; as  is  still  more  clearly  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
76,  2 answers  the  question  of  75,  18,  vaigyas  trtlyo  varno  va 
gudro  va  (’si)?  gudrayonyam  prajato  'smi.  Evidently  only 
one  verse  intervened,  the  gloka:  tasya  tad  vacanam  grutva 
avakgirah  . . . uvaca  ha.1 

1 The  same  thing  occurs  in  It.  iv,  60,  where  the  chapter  closes  with  the 
floka  : papraccha  Hanumans  tatra  kS  ’si  tvam  kasya  va  bilam.  Then  fol- 
lows the  tag : tato  Ilanuman  girisarimika^ah  krtanjalis  tarn  abhivadya  vr- 
ddham,  papraccha  ka  tvam  bhavanam  bilam  ca  ratnani  ce  ’mani  vadasva 
kasya,  simply  repeating  the  last  $loka  in  tristubh  form.  G.  very  properly 
drops  the  floka ; but  it  is  clear  that  originally  the  floka  closed  the  question. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


213 


The  tag-function  of  the  tristubh  is  also  known  in  the  Maha- 
bharata,  notably  in  the  one  tristubh  found  in  the  Nala,  iii,  76, 
53,  which  has  been  regarded  as  spurious  on  account  of  its 
isolation.  But  the  following  sections,  after  the  Nala  episode, 
show  just  the  same  conditions,  the  end  of  chapters  83  and 
100.  So,  too,  at  the  end  of  ix,  24  and  28.  Hariv.  2,  66,  and 
69  end  with  one  jagatl  each ; 2,  68,  with  three. 

The  present  text  of  the  Ramayana  shows  many  cases  of 
tristubhs  and  jagatls  interpolated  into  the  middle  of  a gloka 
section.  Some  of  these  at  least  are  clearly  the  finale  of  former 
chapters.  Thus  It.  vi,  69,  15  looks  like  an  inserted  jagatl,  but 
its  function  is  to  close  the  chapter  in  G.  48,  13.  So  It.  vi,  69, 
88-96  appear  as  a group  of  interpolated  tristubhs;  but  in  G. 
the  same  group  is  a tag  to  chapter  49.  Probably  the  break 
in  R.  vi,  69,  44,  G.  49,  31,  is  the  original  finis  of  a chapter. 
Occasionally,  when  one  edition  breaks  a chapter,  only  the  new 
division  is  found  to  have  tristubh  or  jagatl,  as  an  accepted 
sign  of  conclusion,  as  in  R.  iii,  11,  after  70;  G.  16,  41. 

A special  function  of  the  later  tristubh  is  to  produce  pathetic 
effect.1  In  this  guise  it  wins  new  life  and  makes  whole  chap- 
ters, as  in  R.  v,  28,  where  the  burden  of  the  chapter  is  ex- 
pressed by  ha  Rama  ha  Laksmana  ha  Sumitre,  etc. ; or  in  R. 
iv,  24  (not  in  G.),  a lament,  the  dolorous  style  of  which  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  reminiscent  verses,  13-14 : 

prapto  'smi  papmanam  idam  vayasya 

bhratur  vadhat  Tvastravadkad  ive  ’ndrah 
papmanam  Indrasya  mahl  jalam  ca 
vrksaq  ca  kamam  jagrhuh  striyaq  ca,  etc. 

Closely  allied  is  the  employment  of  the  tristubh  to  describe 
not  mental  conditions  but  operations  of  nature.  The  Vedic 
pra  vata  vanti  patayanti  vidyutah,  RV.,  v,  83,  4,  appears  in 


1 This  begins  in  the  Mahabharata  as  an  extension  of  the  tag-function. 
Compare  the  illustrations  given  in  A.  J.  Phil.,  vol.  xix,  p.  18  ff.  A good  ex- 
ample of  the  sentimental  effect,  intensification  of  horrors,  etc.,  deputed  to  the 
tristubh  by  predilection,  is  found  in  R.,  v,  64,  30  ff.  The  action  is  in  flokas. 
The  moral  effect  is  given  by  the  following  tristubhs. 


214 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


R.  iy,  28,  45  as  varsapravega  vipulah  patanti  pra  vanti  vatah 
samudlrnavegah,  in  a long  section  wholly  descriptive.  Another 
example  is  found  in  R.  iv,  80,  28-57. 

(glokas  and  tristubhs  are  not  often  commingled,  save  in  a 
few  late  passages  of  the  great  epic,  i,  232,  10  ff. ; Hariv.  3, 
82,  3 ff. ; and  in  R.  v,  41 ; G.  37  (chiefly  upendras),  through- 
out a section.  In  R.  a few  long  passages  occur  in  the  sixth 
book,  59-61,  67,  but  apart  from  these  books  the  exchange 
of  the  two  metres  is  avoided.1  In  the  Sanatsujatlya,  v,  46, 
there  is,  indeed,  a regular  gloka  refrain  besides  other  glokas 
intermingled  with  tristubhs,  but  this  is  because  the  author 
is  reducing  Upanishad  stanzas,  and  at  the  same  time  adding 
some  of  his  own.  The  practice  belongs  to  those  scriptures, 
and  is  not  generally  kept  up  in  the  epic,  though  occasion- 
ally a gloka  or  two  appears  among  tristubhs,  as  in  ii,  64,  9-10. 
In  xii,  350,  49  ff.,  two  tristubhs  (the  second  having  three 
hemistichs)  are  inserted  between  glokas  (after  a gloka  of 
three  verses). 

Common  Forms  of  Cloka  and  Tristubh. 

From  a mechanical  point  of  view,  the  prior  pada  of  the  gloka 
and  the  tristubh  are  identical,  except  for  the  fact  that  to  the 
eight  syllables  of  the  gloka  pada  the  tristubh  appends  a scolius 
or  amphibrach.  The  natural  division  of  the  eight  syllables  in 
each  case  is  into  groups  of  four  or  five,  followed  respectively 
by  four  or  three.  For  convenience  the  group  of  four,  which  is 
found  oftenest,  is  usually  called  a foot,  and  to  have  a name  I 
shall  so  designate  it.  Now  in  epic  (Mahabharata)  poetry,  every 
foot  of  the  gloka  pada  is  found  in  the  tristubh,  and,  vice  versa 
(as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table),  every  prior  foot  and 
every  last  foot  of  the  tristubh’s  eight  syllables  is  also  a corre- 
sponding gloka  foot : 


1 G.  ii,  110,  3 ff.  is  not  in  R.,  and  appears  to  be  an  interpolation.  The  par- 
allels to  G.  v,  89  are  also  lacking  in  R.  Verse  7 in  G.  vi,  34,  is  praksipta  (the 
passage  is  not  in  R.,  but  compare  R.  iv,  33,  53). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


215 


Prior  foot  of  ^loka 


Last  foot  of  £loka 


and  Tristubu. 

1,  i vy 

2,  v 

3,  v w 

4,  w 

6,  ^ w w 

6,  v w w 

7,  vy  vy 

8,  w v/  w 


But,  curious  as  is  this  purely  mechanical  identity,  it  is  subject 
to  three  limitations,  which  prevent  the  effect  one  might  think 
would  be  caused  by  it.  First,  the  tristubh’s  eighth  syllable  is 
long,  while  in  the  gloka,  since  the  pada  ends  here,  the  same 
syllable  is  anceps.  Second,  the  scolius  of  the  tristubh  is  usu- 
ally closely  united  with  the  second  foot,  while  in  the  case  of 
upajatis  and  some  other  tristubhs  the  caesura  occurs  in  a 
majority  of  cases  after  the  fifth  syllable,  so  that  the  feet  are 
not  in  reality  what  they  are  in  the  measured  division  given 

above ; but  the  pada  appears,  for  example,  as  v _ w , 

oo-o-w,  whereas  in  the  gloka  the  usual  caesura  is  after 
the  fourth,  and  only  in  certain  cases  falls  after  the  fifth  sylla- 
ble. But  the  third  difference,  that  of  the  general  effect  given 
by  the  gloka  cadence  and  that  of  the  corresponding  syllables 
in  the  tristubh,  is  produced  by  the  interrelation  of  the  first 
and  second  foot.  Here  there  is  a wide  divergence,  and  it  is 
the  preference  for  one  combination  over  another  that  makes 
the  greatest  difference  between  the  form  of  the  gloka  as  a 
whole  and  the  tristubh  as  a whole.  Although  it  is  true,  as 
has  been  remarked  by  Professor  Jacobi,  that  the  essential 
difference  in  metres  lies  not  in  the  opening  but  in  the  close  of 
the  pada,  yet  in  this  case  the  interrelation  just  referred  to  is 
almost  as  important.  Thus,  to  take  a striking  example,  while 

is  a second  foot  both  in  gloka  and  tristubh,  in  the 

former  it  is  pathya,  “ regular,”  in  all  combinations,  the  com- 
monest of  all,  wThile  in  tristubh  it  is  a rarity  in  any  combina- 
tion. So  w w occurs  after  four  or  five  forms  of  the  first 

foot  in  gloka,  yet  is  never  a favorite,  in  tristubhs  after  six 
forms,  and  is  here  everywhere  common. 


216 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


It  is,  however,  interesting  to  see  in  how  many  cases  a per- 
missible form  of  both  metres  is  used,  so  that  one  cannot  tell 
which  metre  one  is  reading  till  the  pada  is  nearly  complete. 
Ordinarily  the  general  rhythm  determines  the  anticipation 
and  the  expected  metre  is  duly  met ; but  not  infrequently  is 
the  justified  anticipation  deceived,  and  the  metre,  still  keeping 
on  the  lines  of  the  preceding  form,  suddenly  changes.  A 
penultimate  verse,  for  example,  in  R.  ii,  38,  14,  begins  maya 
vihlnarii  varada  prapannam,  but  we  no  sooner  learn  that  this 
is  a gloka  verse,  not  a tristubh  tag  (as  we  might  expect  from 
its  form  and  position),  than  in  15  we  read  imam  mahendropa- 
majatagardhinlm,  the  real  tag  of  the  section. 

The  form  just  cited  is  the  usual  one  in  which  the  gloka 
coincides  with  the  body  of  the  tristubh.  Sometimes,  as  in  set 
phrases,  the  same  words  are  used ; thus  in  G.  ii,  18,  33,  and  55, 

prasadaye  tvam  (jirasa  karisye  vacanam  pituh 
prasadaye  tvam  tjirasa  yatavrate  (tristubh) 

or  in  R.  vi,  106,  4 and  59,  36, 

tam  apatantam  sahasa  svanavantam  mahadhvajam 
tam  apatantam  sahasa  samlksya  (tristubh) 

With  the  prevalent  upajati  caesura  and  ahnost  after  a 
system  of  upajatis  (one  §loka  intervening),  appears  in  R.  vi, 
69,  130,  sa  vayusunuh  kupitag  ciksepa  §ikharam  gireh,  a per- 
fect upendravajra  pada  in  a gloka  verse.  Such  alien  padas 
are  not  very  common  in  the  midst  of  a §loka  system,1  but 
are  common  in  close  conjunction  with  tristubhs,  as  if  the 
poet  either  wished  to  trick  or  could  not  himself  get  the  last 
metre  out  of  his  ear.  Another  instance  like  the  one  above  is 
found  in  R.  v,  54,  48  ff.,  where  only  a 9loka  hemistich  inter- 
venes between  a tristubh  system  and  the  tristubli-like  cadence 
of  the  gloka  : vyarajata  ’ditya  iva  ’rcimall ; Lankarh  samastam 
sampidya  langulagnim  mahakapih,  nirvapayam  asa  tadii  samu- 
dre  (haripuhgavah).  Cases  where  a whole  gloka  is  interposed 

1 But  compare  R.  v,  2,  31,  anena  rupena  maya  na  9akya  raksasam  purl; 
R.  vi,  43,  17,  farlrasamghatavahah  prasusruh  fonitapagiih;  Nala,  3, 1,  tebhyah 
pratijniiya  Nalah  karisya  iti,  Bharata ; and  ib.  12,  but  no  more  cases  till  0,  8. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOX. 


217 


are  not  at  all  rare.  In  R.  vi,  67,  99-101,  99  ends  in  a tristubh, 
100  is  a gloka  pathya,  101  begins  sa  Kumbhakarnasya  garan 
garlre  (sapta,  vlryavan).  Less  striking  is  the  case  where  only 
one  pada  of  a gloka  of  choriambic  form  (second  vipula)  corre- 
sponds  to  the  tristubh  it  follows,  for  here  the  former’s  cadence 
is  not  kept  up.  Such  a pada  needs  no  intervening  pathya,  but 
may  follow  directly  on  the  tristubh,  as  in  11.  vi,  67,  21-22, 

pradudruvuh  saiiiyati  Kumbhakarnat 

tatas  tu  Nllo  balavan  (paryavasthiipayan  balam) 

When  an  unimportant  word  or  a superfluous  adornment, 
an  unnecessary  adverb  or  epithet,  is  added,  it  arouses  a suspi- 
cion that  some  of  the  glokas  may  be  reduced  from  an  older 
form.  Thus  vidyunmiill  appears  to  stop  a jagati  in  R.  vi, 
43,  41  a, 

qilaprahara  ’bhihato  (vidyunmali)  nigacarah 
So  in  R.  vi,  69,  138  a, 

khadgaprahara  ’bhihato  Haniiman  (raarutatmajah) 

So,  too  in  the  verse  cited  above,  haripungavah  fills  out  the 
verse  where  mahakapih  precedes,  a sufficient  subject.  In  G. 
iv,  60,  2,  nivedayamasa  tadii  maharsim  (samhatanjalih) ; in 
the  other  example  above,  sapta,  viryavan ; and  in  the  following 
example  both  terminals  (even  the  accusative)  are  unnecessary, 
R.  vi,  71,  37, 

tato  'tikayo  balavan  praviqya  (harivahinlm) 

vispharayamasa  dhanur  nanada  ca  (punah  punah) 

And  very  likely,  since  an  inspection  of  epic  phraseology 
shows  that  there  were  many  stereotyped  turns  of  expression, 
there  wrere  phrases  used  first  in  the  tristubh  which  were  pre- 
served in  a crystallized  form  in  the  general  gloka  solution  in 
which  the  epic  was  immersed.  But  to  say,  except  in  the  case 
of  such  stereotyped  phrases,  whether  this  happened  in  any  one 
instance,  would  be  at  best  rather  an  idle  expression  of  opinion.1 

1 In  sadhu  sadhv  iti  (te)  nedui?  (ca)  drstva  gatrum  (or  raksah)  parajitam, 
R.  vi,  44,  31,  G.  19,  37,  a stock  phrase  in  either  form,  an  old  tristubh, 
\j , might  be  preserved,  but  a varied  reading  is  more  likely. 


218 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Certain  verbal  forms  lend  themselves  best  to  one  cadence  and 
it  is  not  surprising,  for  instance,  that  one  turn  should  go  to 
make  both  §loka  and  tristubh  (R.  v,  47,  10 ; vi,  106,  14),  or 
that  the  exact  form  here  is  elsewhere,  G.  vi,  89,  25  (R.  has 
hayan),  used  as  part  of  another  tristubh,  so  that  we  find: 

pracodayamasa  ratham  sa  sarathih 
pracodayamasa  ratham  surasarathir  uttamah 

pracodayamasa  Qitaih  Qarais  tribhih 
pracodayamasa  Qitaih  qarair  hemavibhusitaih 

On  this  point  I have  only  to  add  that  a complete  jagatl 
pada,  as  well  as  a tristubh  pada,  may  thus  appear  in  a Qloka, 
as  in  the  example  above  and  in  R.  v,  57,  15  b, 

sa  purayamasa  kapir  diqo  daqa  (samantatah) 

and  that,  next  to  the  choriambic  form,  the  old  tristubhs  in 

^ \j w,  and  ^ w w w are  most 

often  incorporate  in  Qlokas,  as  in  Nala,  4,  28,  varnyamanesu  ca 
maya  bhavatsu ; 9,  4,  vyadlryate  ’va  hrdayam  na  cai  ’nam ; 
and  12,  39,  patatribhir  bahuvidhaih  samantad,  etc.,  etc.  Pro- 
fessor Jacobi  has  suggested  that  the  Qloka  has  borrowed  such 
forms  from  the  tristubh.  This  seems  to  be  a reasonable  sug- 
gestion, yet  it  should  be  said  that  the  argument  advanced  in 
favor  of  it  is  scarcely  valid.  Professor  Jacobi  bases  the  deri- 
vation of  the  second  vipula  from  the  tristubh  on  the  assumed 
fact  that  in  this  form  of  the  pada  “ _ w w almost  never  takes 
the  place  of  _ IS.  vol  xvii,  p.  450.  This  statement, 

however,  is  based  on  a rather  restricted  area  of  examples. 
In  the  Bharata  Qlokas,  _ ^ w w is  not  uncommon  except  in 
late  passages,  and  even  there  two  or  three  cases  out  of 
twenty-five  to  thirty  are  not  very  unusual.  All  that  we  can 
say  is  that  final  brevis  is  much  less  frequent  than  in  the 
first  vipula. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


219 


The  Epic  Cloka. 

The  PrtiOR  PAda  of  the  9loka. 

The  Pathya. 

The  pathya,  or  ordinary  form  of  the  first  pada,  should 
exclude  sporadic  cases,  but  including  them  for  convenience 

we  may  say  that  the  pathya  foot  w ^ is  preceded  by  five 

kinds  of  feet,  sporadic  choriambus  or  proceleusmaticus ; iambic, 

^ _ w _ ; pyrrhic,  v _ w ; trochaic,  ^ w and  w w 

spondaic,  ^ and  ^ w The  frequency  of  these  feet 

advances  in  the  order  here  given.  With  the  exception  of  a 
sporadic  choriambus  or  other  wild  irregularity,  all  these  forms 
occur  passim,  even  that  with  precedent  iambus.  This  last  is 
sure  to  be  found  so  many  times  in  a given  number  of  glokas 
and  it  must  therefore  be  marked  as  occurring  passim  rather 
than  as  common ; but  it  is  far  less  frequent  than  the  other 
forms,  often  less  than  half  as  frequent  as  the  pyrrhic,  as  this 
is  often  only  half  as  common  as  the  precedent  trochee.  The 
relation  between  the  trochee  and  spondee  is  from  one-half  to 
two-thirds.  A curious  fact  in  regard  to  the  avoided  iambus 
(before  the  iambus  of  the  pathya,  as  in  the  posterior  pada)  is 
that  when  used  it  is  sometimes  preferred  in  its  double  form. 
Thus  in  xii,  312  ff.,  for  about  two  hundred  hemistichs,  the 
precedent  spondees,  trochees,  pyrrhics,  and  iambs  are  (respec- 
tively) 82,  54,  29,  11 ; but  of  the  11  iambs,  10  are  double 

__  (against ^ _).  On  the  other  hand,  in  xiv,  59  ff., 

these  precedents  are  73,  38,  31,  20 ; and  of  the  20  iambs,  only 
8 are  double ; while  the  opening  stanzas  of  the  Gita  (intro- 
duction, ch.  13)  show  96,  62,  27,  14 ; but  only  6 double  iambs 
out  of  the  14.  The  precedent  double  iambus  is  characteristic 
also  of  Pali  verse.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  that  any  great 
weight  is  to  be  laid  on  this  or  that  ratio  in  the  use  of  these 
feet,  since  all  are  used  by  epic  writers  everywhere,  and  the 
only  striking  distinction  as  regards  their  employment  is  that 
spondees  naturally  (it  is  a matter  of  nice  ear  to  a great  extent) 
occur  oftenest  before  an  iamb,  and  iambs  least  often ; while 


220 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


trochees  ancl  pyrrhics  lie  between.  But  very  often  a double 

trochee  (_  w _ w)  is  preferred  to  a spondee  (_  ^ ).2  As 

regards  minor  differences,  as  for  example  whether  ^ ^ or 

w w is  used  more  frequently,  I have  not  thought  it  worth 

while  to  gather  the  statistics.  Only  the  curious  preference 
in  later  writers  for  three  successive  iambs  seemed  worth  notic- 
ing, as  it  leads  to  the  hemistich  of  eight  iambs  sometimes 
affected  by  doggerel  epic  poets.2  Such  a combination  regu- 
larly occurs  only  at  the  beginning  of  a prior  pada,  being 
tabooed  in  the  posterior  pada,  though  occasionally  found  there. 
The  general  (not  inviolate)  rule  for  the  pathya  is  that  any  foot 

may  stand  before  w which  does  not  make  tribrach  or 

anapsest  after  the  initial  syllaba  anceps  of  the  pada.  The  final 
syllable  of  the  pathya  is  long  in  about  two-thirds  of  the  cases. 

More  important  are  the  facts  in  regard  to  the  preference  for 
certain  forms  combined  with  the  vipulas,  although  these  make 
but  a small  proportion  of  prior  padas. 


The  Vipulas. 

The  vipulas  (syllables  five  to  eight)  are  four  in  number: 

(1)  w ^ ^ (2)  _ w w (3)  (4)  _ w _ Only 

the  third  (as  indicated)  has  an  almost  invariable  caesura.  In 
respect  of  the  general  rules  for  these  vipulas,  from  an  exam- 
ination of  a considerable  mass  of  material,  I would  state  first 
that  the  epic  §loka  generally  conforms,  as  far  as  I can  formu- 
late them,  to  the  following  conditions  : 3 

1 The  preference  for w ^ instead  of is  illustrated  below. 

Cases  of  double  iambus  before  the  pathya  seem  to  me  rather  characteristic  of 
the  popular  and  late  scholastic  style  than  an  archaic  survival  (the  late  scho- 
lastic often  coincides  with  the  popular  through  a common  carelessness  or 
ignorance).  To  be  compared  are  Simons,  Der  Qloka  im  Pali,  ZDMG.,  vol.  xliv, 
p.  84  ff.,  and  Oldenberg,  ib.  liv,  p.  194.  The  latter  seems  inclined  to  see  (with 
due  caution)  evidence  of  antiquity  in  the  precedent  iambus.  I regard  this 
combination  rather  as  a sign  that  the  writer  is  more  careless. 

2 See  below  for  an  example. 

8 Besides  the  articles  above,  see' Colebrooke ; Gildermcister,  ZKM.  v,  260; 
Weber,  IS.,  vol.  viii ; Oldenberg,  Bemerkungen  zur  Theorie  des  £loka,  ZDMG. 
xxxv,  p.  187  ; and  Jacobi,  IS.,  vol.  xvii,  p.  443 ; Das  Ramayana ; and  Gurupu- 
jakaumudi.  Professor  Jacobi’s  rules  given  first  as  “ valid  for  the  older  epics  ’’ 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


221 


1.  The  first  vipulii,  w w w m usually  follows  ^ 

m , oi'yw , though  it  is  sufficient  to  have  the  pre- 

ceding syllable  long  (even  this  restriction  is  not  always 
observed).  The  later  style  has  fewer  cases  of  the  first  of 
these  combinations.  The  caesura  is  after  the  (pada’s)  fourth 
or  fifth  syllable,  sometimes  after  the  sixth.  The  last  syllable 
of  the  vipula  is  prevailingly  long  but  not  infrequently  short, 
especially  apt  to  be  short  after  the  di iambic  opening.  When 
the  caesura  is  after  the  fifth  syllable  of  the  pada  the  last 
syllable  of  the  vipula  as  a rule  is  long  (which  would  indicate 
that  tills  caesura  is  later  than  the  one  after  the  fourth). 

2.  The  second  vipula,  _ w ^ usually  follows  m _ w _, 

though  a preceding  m or  even  ^ is  not  a great 

rarity.  Any  other  precedent  foot  is  sporadic  only.  The 
caesura  is  after  the  fourth  or  fifth  syllable  of  the  pada, 
inclining  to  the  latter  place  (at  times  twice  as  frequent). 
The  last  syllable  of  the  vipula  is  sometimes  short,  most  often 
when  the  caesura  is  after  the  fourth  syllable  of  the  pada,  but 
is  prevailingly  long,  especially  in  the  later  epic,  where  a short 
final  is  often  rather  rare  (rarer  than  in  the  first  vipula)  .l 

3.  The  third  vipula,  _, ^ usually  follows  m _ 

The  caesura  is  very  rarely  after  any  other  syllable  than  the 
fifth,  and  is  seldom  neglected.  The  last  syllable  is  indiffer- 
ently short  or  long.  This  is  the  most  rigid  form,  both  in 


were  modified  in  the  later  articles  cited  (1884, 1893,  1896).  Professor  Olden- 
berg’s  observations  give  an  excellent  comparison  of  Manu’s  practice  with 
that  of  an  epic  passage.  The  statements  in  Colebrooke’s  and  Weber’s  works 
mentioned  above,  based  on  the  rules  of  native  metricists,  often  conform, 
through  no  fault  save  that  of  the  metricists,  neither  to  epic  nor  to  classical 
usage  and  historically  considered  are  useless  as  regards  the  extant  epic  floka. 
Professor  Jacobi’s  rules,  as  modified  by  him,  though  not  exhaustive,  are  gen- 
erally quite  unimpeachable  and  give  the  best  (as  did  Gildermeister’s  in  his 
day)  presentation  of  epic  conditions.  I follow  his  order  in  numbering  the 
four  vipulas,  and  his  rules,  with  some  revision. 

1 The  age  of  the  piece  affects  the  quantity  of  the  final  syllable.  For  ex- 
ample, of  the  two  lotus-theft  versions,  the  prior  (as  is  often  the  case)  is  the 

more  modern  (xiii,  93).  Here  there  is  no  case  of w ^ v^,  but  fourteen  cases 

of (one  hundred  forty-nine  <;lokas).  But  in  94,  in  the  compass  of 

forty  flokas, \j  v occurs  six  times  (against , four  times). 


222 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


respect  of  caesura  and  of  precedent  foot,  so  that  the  pada  is 
almost  always  m _ _ \J , ^ . 

4.  The  fourth  vipula,  _ w _ usually  follows  m 

but  in  some  sections  is  found  quite  as  often  after  m 

and  ^ The  caesura  rarely  changes  from  the  fourth 

syllable.  The  last  syllable  of  the  vipula  is  generally  long. 

5.  The  Mahabharata  has  what  may  be  called  a fifth  vipula, 

w \j It  occurs  sporadically  in  all  parts  of  the  epic  and 

is  not  very  uncommon,  though  not  so  current  as  in  the 
Upanishads.  This  form  crops  up  occasionally  in  the  Pura- 
nas,  but  is  ignored  by  Valmlki  and  later  Kavis. 

These  epic  conditions  may  be  condensed  into  one  short  rule 
of  general  usage:  All  vipulas  are  found  after  m __  w but 

with  occasional  exceptions 1 only  the  first  vipula  after  ^ 

and  ^ w , and  no  other  precedent  feet  are  admitted  be- 

fore vipulas.  The  caesura  is  free  (usually  after  the  fourth  or 
fifth  syllable)  in  the  first  and  second  vipula ; after  the  fifth 
in  the  third;  after  the  fourth  in  the  fourth  vipula. 

The  chief  difference  between  the  normal  type  of  the  epic 
pada  and  that  of  classical  writers  lies  in  the  circumstance  that, 
as  contrasted  with  the  facts  stated  above,  in  classical  works 
there  is 

1 ) almost  complete  absence  of  the  fourth  vipula, 

2)  greater  rarity  of  the  first  vipula  after  diiambus, 

3)  greater  strictness  in  the  caesura  of  the  third  vipula, 

4)  very  rare  exceptions  in  the  employment  of  other  prece- 
dent feet  (e.  g.,  the  third  vipula  after  w , Ragh.  xii, 

H), 

5)  almost  exclusive  use  of  long  finals  in  first  and  second 
vipulas.2 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  there  is  still  an  appreciable  advance 

1 The  commonest  exception  is  found  in  the  case  of  the  fourth  vipula.  On 

an  average  half-a-dozen  exceptions  occur  in  the  course  of  a thousand  hemi- 
stichs,  but  excluding  the  fourth  vipula  only  one  or  two  exceptions,  generally 
in  the  form  w , \j  kj 

2 On  the  rarity  of  the  fourth  vipula  in  classical  writers,  see  Jacobi,  IS.,  vol. 
xvii,  pp.  443.  The  rule  for  the  long  finals  is  cited  by  Weber,  IS.,  vol.  viii, 
p.  345 : sarvasam  vipulanarii  caturtlio  varnah  prayena  gurur  bhavati. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOX. 


223 


to  be  noticed  in  the  classical  style  as  compared  not  only  with 
the  style  of  older  parts  of  the  epic  but  also  with  the  normal 
epic.  Fewer  vipulas  (especially  fewer  second  vipuliis)  in 
general,  avoidance  of  the  fourth  vipula,  and  greater  strictness 
in  the  use  of  vipulas  mark  in  some  passages  an  advance  even 
on  the  normal  epic. 

There  is  no  “ epic  usage  ” in  respect  of  the  proportion  of 
vipulas  to  pathyas.  The  fact  that  there  is  considerable  variety 
proves  little  in  regard  to  difference  of  authors,  since  many 
conditions  affect  the  ratio.  Not  only  is  there  apt  to  be  a 
larger  number  of  vipulas  in  scenes  of  excitement,  as  Pro- 
fessor Jacobi,  I think,  has  somewhere  observed,  but  also  a 
monotonous  list  develops  vipulas,  partly  because  it  is  apt  to 
be  composed  of  names  which,  as  they  are  harder  to  manage, 
always  receive  a certain  latitude  of  treatment,  partly  because 
the  dulness  of  the  subject  requires  the  livelier  effect  of  the 
skipping  vipula.  The  vipula  (in  excess  of  the  normal)  may 
then  be  due  to  a)  personal  style ; b)  intensity ; c)  formality ; 
d)  avoidance  of  dulness;  to  which  must  be  added  imitation 
or  actual  citation  of  older  material.  For  this  reason  there  is, 
in  mere  ratio  of  vipulas  to  pathyas,  no  especial  significance, 
as  may  be  further  shown  by  the  fact  that  on  an  average  this 
ratio  is  about  the  same  in  the  Ramayana  and  Bharata,  though 
each  poem  shows  great  variations  within  itself.  Thus  in  the 
first  thousand  verses  (hemistichs)  of  the  Ramayana’s  third 
and  fourth  books  respectively  the  vipulas  are  125  and  118, 
or  one-eighth.  But  twenty  thousand  hemistichs,  which  I 
have  examined  from  all  parts  of  the  Bharata,  give  twenty- 
six  hundred  vipulas,  or  a trifle  over  the  same  ratio.  I do 
not  then  lay  much  stress  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  vip- 
ulas ha  an  epic  section  unless  it  shows  remarkable  extremes. 
Thus  if  we  compare  the  1098  gloka  verses  of  the  Raghu- 
vanga and  the  1070  which  make  the  first  half  of  Nala,  we 
find  that  in  Nala  the  ratio  of  vipulas  is  one-sixth,  while  in 
the  Raghuvanga  it  is  one-fourteenth  (184  in  Nala,  76  in 
Raghuvanga).  But  this  paucity  of  vipulas,  though  common 
to  most  classical  writers,  is  not  found  in  Magha  (according 


224 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


to  Professor  Jacobi  because  he  was  a Westerner,  loc.  cit. 
p.  444),  so  that  in  itself  it  is  no  criterion  of  lateness. 

The  number  of  vipulas  gives  the  general  average  (of  12.1 
per  cent)  already  noticed.1  But  this  ratio  is  sometimes  almost 
halved  and  sometimes  nearly  doubled,  small  sections  of  two 
hundred  verses  (hemistichs)  not  infrequently  showing  from 
fourteen  to  forty-six  non-pathya  forms ; while  hi  special  cases 
even  greater  disproportion  may  be  observed,  some  of  which 
when  taken  into  consideration  along  with  other  elements  may 
still  be  worth  noting.  Thus  as  between  the  old  tale,  Upa- 
khyana,  of  Namuci,  as  told  in  ix,  43,  33  ff.,  and  the  following 
account,  hanta  te  kathayisyami,  of  Skanda,  in  44,  5 ff.,  the 
weight  of  probable  seniority  lies  with  the  Vedic  tale.  Here 
there  are  vipulas  enough  to  make  the  ratio  33^  per  cent, 
instead  of  the  average  12 J per  cent;  whereas  in  the  Skanda 
tale  there  are  only  half  as  many.  But  again,  the  list  of 
Skanda’s  followers,  ib.  45,  86  ff.,  shows  fourteen  vipulas  in 
fifteen  glokas,  as  the  fist  of  Mothers  in  46  shows  forty-six  in 
one  hundred  glokas,  and  the  list  of  nations  in  xii,  101,  3 ff., 
has  thirteen  vipulas  in  twenty  glokas,  all  of  these,  however, 
being  names  and  therefore  exceptional.  There  are,  on  the 
other  hand,  good  reasons,  apart  from  vipulas,  for  considering 
that  the  conversation  of  Sulabha  and  Janaka  is  not  an  ancient 
part  of  the  epic  (bad  grammar  is  one  item),  and  here  in  nearly 
four  hundred  cases  there  are  but  eight  vipulas,  or  less  than 
3 per  cent ; instead  of  the  average  12|  per  cent. 

Not  the  number  of  vipulas  per  se,  but  the  use  of  vipulas 
may  be  a determining  factor.  The  refined  classical  style 
differs,  however,  not  from  the  epic  alone  but  from  the 
Puranas,  where  obtains  even  greater  freedom  than  in  the 
epic,  especially  in  the  nice  test  of  the  fourth  vipula.  Thus, 
fifteen  fourth  vipulas  is  not  a high  number  in  a thousand 
Puranic  verses,  e.  g.,  exactly  this  number  is  found  in  Vayu 

1 In  simple  narrative,  with  no  disturbing  factors,  the  compass  ranges  from 
fourteen  to  thirty  vipulas  in  one  hundred  (lokas  (two  hundred  cases),  three 
times  more  often  above  twenty  than  below  it,  and  seldom  exceeding  thirty, 
for  instance,  only  once  in  the  first  4,000  cases  of  the  ninth  book. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


225 


Purana,  ch.  4-0,  five  hundred  glokas ; and  in  the  epic  section 
of  (Tinti  from  the  end  of  the  prose  in  243  to  the  end  of  351 
(13,224-13,740).  The  Agni  Purana  has  as  many  as  fifty-seven 
fourth  vipulas  in  the  same  number  of  verses,  the  first  twenty 
chapters,  five  hundred  and  five  glokas.  But  if  we  compare 
the  use  of  the  vipulas  we  see  at  once  a striking  difference  in 
these  passages.  The  epic  selection  has  fifty  second  vipulas 
and  thirty-two  third  vipulas ; the  Vayu  selection,  thirty-three 
second  and  fifty-one  third ; the  Agni  selection,  twenty-six 
second  and  fifty  tliird ; withal,  despite  the  carelessness  in  the 

last,  which  gives  four  cases  of  the  second  after  m ^ and 

three  of  the  third  after  m That  is  to  say,  even  the 

late  and  careless  P uranic  style  still  inclines  to  the  tliird  instead 
of  second  vipula,  which  is  the  classical  preference.  If,  how- 
ever, we  revert  to  an  older  selection  of  the  epic,  we  find,  for 
instance,  in  the  heart  of  the  Bhagavad  Gita  (830-1,382),  that 
the  second  vipula  (in  the  same  number  of  verses,  hemistichs, 
namely  one  thousand,  which  in  all  the  examples  now  to  be 
given  is  the  number  to  be  assumed)  has  twenty-nine  cases  and 
the  tliird  but  eleven;  that  is,  the  proportion  is  not  only 
reversed  but  is  in  very  striking  contrast  both  to  the  norm  of 
the  Ramayana  and  Raghuvanga  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
Puranas  on  the  other.  Coincident  with  this  is  the  further 
fact  that,  whereas  Valmlki  and  Kalidasa  have  proportionally 
few  first  vipulas  after  diiambus,  both  epic  selections  above 
have  more  first  vipulas  after  diiambus  than  after  any  other 
combination ; while  the  Puranic  specimens  are  quite  classical 
in  this  regard,  the  Vayu  having  only  one-fourth,  the  Agni 
only  one-third  of  all  the  first  vipulas  after  diiambus.  An  ex- 
tract from  the  Anugasana  Parvan  of  the  epic,  gl.  3,732-4,240, 
shows  also  an  approach  to  the  classical  model  (ten  first 

vipulas  after  diiambus,  twenty-three  after  v and 

each).  The  last  case  has  thirty-six  second  vipulas 

against  fifty-four  third  vipulas  and  only  seven  fourth  vipulas 
(whereas  the  Gita  extract  has  twenty-two  fourth  vipulas).1 

1 The  five  texts,  Gita,  Nala,  Anu?.  P. ; Ramayana  iv,  1-11,  and  Raghu- 
vanga  show  as  fourth  vipulas  (in  1000  verses)  22,  10,  7,  2,  0,  respectively 

15 


226 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


A curious  fact  is,  further,  that,  while  this  extract  of  the 
Anugasana,  which  is  a medley  on  the  gifts  of  cows,  origin  of 
gold,  and  other  late  stuff,  has  but  seven  fourth  vipulas  in  five 
hundred  glokas,  the  following  chapter  on  (^raddhas,  the  basis 
of  winch  is  old  (rules  expanded  from  Manu’s  list  of  guests), 
has  four  in  sixty  glokas.  Another  interesting  fact  is  that  the 
thousand  verses  which  lead  up  to  and  follow  after  the  extract 
from  the  Gita  given  above,  495-830,  1,382-1,532  do  not  keep 
the  ratio  between  the  second  and  third  vipulas,  but  approach 
the  later  norm,  having  an  equal  number  of  each  vipula.  The 
Anuglta  itself  contains  only  one-half  as  many  “ irregular  ” 
forms  as  does  the  Gita  in  the  same  amount  of  matter ; 1 but 
following  this  the  epic  narrative  is  expanded  in  modern  form, 
and  here,  where  the  subjects  are  the  mountain  festival,  recapit- 
ulation of  the  Bharata  war  (xv,  61,  1),  digging  for  buried 
treasure,  Pariksit’s  birth,  demise,  and  restoration  to  life,  loos- 
ing the  white  horse,  and  Arjuna’s  renewed  battles,  the  metre 
becomes  almost  classical,  with  scarcely  a single  violation  of 
vipula  rules  and  with  only  five  cases  of  the  fourth  vipula 
to  the  thousand  verses.  Compare  for  instance  the  vipulas  in 
Raghuvanga,  the  Ramayana  (iv,  1-11),  and  Agvamedliika  2 
Parv.  59-77,  according  to  vipulas: 


l 

u 

m 

IV 

Ragh., 

33 

17 

26 

0 

Ram., 

62 

20 

34 

2 

Agv., 

74 

27 

34 

5 

The  vipulas  of  the  first  thousand  verses  (hemistichs)  of  Nala  are,  in  their 
order,  91,  33,  50,  10.  Though  modernized,  the  irregularities  in  Nala  are 
antique : 3,  13,  iva  prabliam ; 12,  105,  Nalam  nama  'rimardanam  (changed  to 
damanam);  16,  37,  katham  ca  bhrasta  (?)  jiiatibhyah;  20,  18,  tvam  iva 
yanta  (now  eva) ; in  12,  65,  and  91,  vilapatim  must  be  read  (grammar  is 
of  no  importance  here,  as  will  be  shown  below). 

1 They  are  three  cases  of  the  second  vipula  after  v and  w.  ^ 

respectively;  five  and  one  each  of  the  fourth  vipula  after  the  same  feet 
respectively. 

3 The  strictness  here  may  be  measured  by  the  fact  that  there  is  only  one 
case  of  final  brevis  in  the  second  vipula  and  only  three  in  the  first ; no  case 

of  second  or  third  vipula  after  any  precedent  foot  save  v \j (and  only 

one  of  the  fourth  vipula).  Further,  only  one-third  of  the  first  vipulas  follow 
a diiambus. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


227 


Also  in  the  first  thousand  hemistichs  of  Agrama  there  are 
only  four  cases  of  the  fourth  vipulil.  Like  Magha  of  the 
West,  the  Mausala,  on  the  other  hand,  which  treats  of 
Dvaraka  and  was  probably  a clan-tale  of  the  West,  comes 
much  nearer  to  the  antique  standard,  having  ten  fourth 
vipulas  in  five  hundred  hemistichs,  three  of  them  irregular, 
besides  one  further  vipulii  irregularity  (stz.  47, 132,  211,  253). 1 
It  should  be  added  too  that,  though  (as  just  stated)  there  are 
four  fourth  vipuliis  in  the  first  thousand  hemistichs  of  the 
fifteenth  book,  yet  they  are  all  found  in  the  first  seventy- 
seven  verses,  and  from  this  point  on  there  is  not  another  case 
of  fourth  vipulil  for  one  thousand  hemistichs,  which  is  as 
classical  as  Valmiki.  This  last  selection  is,  in  fact,  almost 
precisely  on  the  classical  model,  and  differs  from  it  anyway 

only  in  having  two  second  vipuliis  after  m This 

would  imply  an  acquaintance  with  the  classical  norm,  which 
can  perhaps  scarcely  be  doubted  in  the  case  of  the  writers 
who  finally  completed  the  poem. 

A very  interesting  example  of  how  the  antique  will  make 
the  poet  hark  back  to  an  older  norm  is  given  by  the  Sauptika. 
It  •null  be  remembered  that  this  is  almost  pure  narrative,  but 
that  at  one  point  (JJiva  is  addressed  with  a hymn  and  his 
demons  are  briefly  described.  This  occurs  just  at  the  middle 
of  a selection  like  those  above  of  one  thousand  hemistichs. 
Now  up  to  this  point  there  is  no  fourth  vipula  at  all,  but 
with  the  hymn  and  names  come  five  fourth  vipulas  within 
thirty-five  glokas.  Then  the  narrative  is  resumed,  and  till 
the  end  of  the  thousand  hemistichs  appear  only  three  more. 
Some  smaller  points  here  also  deserve  attention.  The  num- 


1 In  the  next  Parvan,  there  are  four  fourth  vipulas  in  two  hundred  verses, 
but  three  are  at  the  beginning  and  in  three  successive  hemistichs,  and  of 
these,  two  are  forced  by  proper  names.  That  proper  names  are  quite  impor- 
tant may  be  shown  by  the  catalogue  at  the  beginning  of  the  Harivan$a, 
where  the  names  force  up  the  fourth  vipula  to  twelve  (seven  of  these  being 

in  nom.  prop.),  and  a third  vipula  occurs  after  (in  a name) ; as 

contrasted  with  the  next  thousand  verses,  where  there  are  only  four  fourth 
vipulas.  Bhavisya,  partly  owing  to  imitation  of  Gita  and  Smrti,  partly  to 
names,  has  nine  in  its  first  thousand  verses. 


228 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ber  of  first  and  second  vipulas  with  caesura  after  the  fifth  is 
double  that  of  those  with  caesura  after  the  fourth,  and  there 
is  only  one  first  vipula,  and  no  second  vipula,  with  final  brevis. 
Finally,  there  are  only  fourteen  cases  of  first  vipula  after 
m _ ^ _ out  of  fifty-four  in  all.  Thus  from  every  point  of 
view  the  same  result  is  obtained.  The  little  Parvan  is  com- 
paratively refined  in  style  (number  of  vipulas,  54,  30,  35,  8). 

No  doubt  this  parisamkhya  philosophy  is  tiresome  reading, 
but  as  it  is  even  more  tiresome  to  obtain  the  facts  than  to 
glance  at  them,  I shall  beg  the  reader  to  have  patience  while 
I give  the  results  of  a few  more  reckonings,  since  I believe 
they  are  not  without  a certain  value.  What  I want  to  show 
is  that  the  treatment  of  the  fourth  vipula  goes  hand-in-hand 
with  that  of  other  factors  involving  a more  or  less  refined 
style,  but  not  necessarily  with  all  of  them.  I will  take  as 
my  first  illustration  the  tent-scene  from  Drona  72-84,  and 
ib.  51-71,  a group  of  apparently  old  stories  on  the  “sixteen 
kings  that  died”  and  allied  tales.  In  the  former  there  are 
four,  in  the  latter  twenty-one  fourth  vipulas  to  the  thousand 
hemistichs ; in  the  former  there  is  but  one  slight  irreg- 
ularity (m  ^ , _ w w _) ; in  the  latter  there  are  six. 

But  in  the  former  there  is  one  more  second  vipula  than 
there  is  third;  in  the  latter  these  stand  thirty  to  forty- 
seven  ; while  after  diiambus  in  the  former  there  are  nine 
out  of  forty  in  all,  and  in  the  latter  sixteen  out  of  fifty-five 
in  all.  In  other  words,  in  the  last  test  there  is  scarcely 
any  difference,  but  in  that  of  second  and  third  vipulas 
such  evidence  of  antiquity  as  is  furnished  at  all  by  this 
test  is  in  favor  of  the  former,  whereas  in  the  other  tests  it 
is  in  favor  of  the  latter  specimen.  I have  not  selected  these 
specimens,  however,  to  show  that  all  these  tests  are  use- 
less. On  the  contrary,  I believe  they  may  be  applied,  but 
all  together  and  with  constant  reference  to  all  other  factors. 
The  modifying  factor  here,  for  example,  is  that  though  the 
tales  of  the  “ kings  that  died  ” are  undoubtedly  old,  yet  they 
are  told  (or  retold)  in  such  modern  careless  Sanskrit  that 
final  i is  here  kept  short  not  only  before  br  but  even  before 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


220 


vy.  It  is  not  enough  then  to  say  that  a story  in  Drona  or 
Anugasana  is  “ undoubtedly  old,”  because  perhaps  it  smacks 
of  antiquity  or  even  is  found  in  a Buddhist  record.  It  is  not 
the  age  of  the  story  but  the  age  of  the  form  in  which  it  is 
couched  that  marks  the  age  of  the  literature.  This  specimen, 
for  example,  enumerates  earth’s  islands  as  eighteen  in  num- 
ber, a sure  mark  of  lateness,  but  here  supported  by  other 
data.  Another  extract  from  Drona,  an  ordinary  battle-scene, 
adhy.  92-100,  has,  to  be  sure,  thirteen  fourth  vipulas,  but  the 
vipulas,  in  their  order,  run  44,  14,  37,  13,  with  not  a single 
irregularity  of  any  sort,  while  only  ten  of  the  forty-four  are 
after  diiambus ; in  other  words,  as  clean  a scheme  as  might  be 
met  in  Valmlki,  except  for  the  fourth  vipula,  and  even  here 
eight  of  the  thirteen  are  in  proper  names.  Less  classic  in 
appearance,  but  still  far  removed  from  the  free  epic  type, 
is  the  passage  dealing  with  the  deaths  of  Bhurigravas  and 
Jayadratha  (vii,  141-146,  not  quite  a thousand  verses),  im- 
portant because  of  its  mention  of  Valmlki,  143,  67.  Here 
the  vipulas  run  43,  33,  18,  11  (four  of  these  in  nom.  prop.), 
■with  three  irregular  forms  of  the  second  vipula.1  A fourth 
of  the  first  vipulas  follow  iambus.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the 
death  of  Drona  and  the  following  scene,  vii,  190-198  = 8,695- 
9,195,  only  one-sixth  of  the  first  vipulas  follow  iambus  and 
there  are  no  certain  exceptions.  The  scheme  of  vipulas  is 
here  30,  28,  43,  9 (two  in  nom.  prop.),  that  is,  a more  modern 
preponderance  of  third  vipulas.  Several  other  features  show 
modern  touches.  Thus  in  192,  7,  Rudrasye  ’va  hi  kruddhasya 
is  either  a very  careless  vipula  or  contains  an  example  of  the 
Puranic  licence  (taken  from  Prakrit)  of  short  vowel  before 
kr;  while  in  the  same  passage,  gl.  13,  eso  or  esa  hi  parsato 
virah,  we  have  to  choose  between  careless  sandhi  or  careless 

metre.  In  190,  33,  the  antiquity  of  uw is  in  an  inherited 

name,  Jamadagnih,  where,  as  in  similar  cases,  the  old  licence 
persists  even  into  Puranic  writings.2  In  195,  44,  kadarthi- 

1 In  146,  7,  occurs  the  rare  combination  \j,  w • The  read- 

ing of  C.  6,245  = 146,  92  is  vicious,  and  is  corrected  in  B. 

2 Names,  formulae,  and  numerals  often  retain  this  licence,  e.  g.,  rsaya?  ca, 


230 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


krtya  is  a late  phrase,  and  in  191,  37,  the  stereotyped  man- 
oeuvres are  twenty-one  in  number  (the  earlier  epic  having 
fourteen).  Here,  then,  the  vipulas  (110  in  number,  slightly 
below  the  average)  do  not  badly  represent  the  period  of  the 
selection,  which  is  a worked-over  piece,  intended  to  save  the 
heroes  from  blame,  and  is  often  incongruous  with  the  rest  of 
the  epic ; as  in  the  humbug  of  the  war-car  “ not  touching  the 
ground  hitherto.”  When  Yudhisthira  tells  a he  his  car  drops 
to  the  earth  for  the  first  time!  But  “hitherto”  there  has 
been  no  mention  of  this  conscientious  chariot,  which  here  is 
represented  as  having  floated  just  above  the  earth. 

In  Ivarna  we  may  compare  the  thousand  verses  of  18-29, 
where  there  is  late  battle-action  (guna  for  jya  for  example), 
with  the  five  hundred  fifty  verses  of  old  tales  in  33-31.  Each 
has  seven  fourth  vipulas,  though  one  is  only  half  the  length 
of  the  other.  In  Sabha  the  interest  centres  on  the  gambling- 
scene,  certainly  the  kernel  of  the  old  tale.  Here,  ii,  50  if.,  for 
a thousand  verses,  there  is  the  greatest  number  of  fourth 
vipulas  (thirty-six,  nine  of  which  are  in  proper  names)  and 
the  most  irregular  forms ; three  cases  of  a third  vipula  after  a 
spondee,  one  case  of  a prior  pada  ending  in  iambus,  two  cases 
of  the  “ fifth  ” vipula,  ^ w _ one  case  of  first  vipula  after  a 
brevis,  besides  six  cases  of  ordinary  exceptions  (second 
vipula  not  after  ^ _),  all  of  which  remove  the  piece  far 

from  the  almost  classical  norm  found  in  some  of  the  cases 
given  above.  It  is  in  fact  Puranic.1  Of  course  the  scene  is 
intense  and  exciting ; but  I opine  that  no  poet  who  had  once 
learned  to  walk  the  straight  and  narrow  way  of  the  later 
stylists  would  ever  get  so  excited  as  to  use  thirty-six  fourth 

xii,  349,  78;  da?a  devah,  Ag.  P.  xvii,  6.  The  same  cause  induces  the  fourth 
vipula  in  many  cases  of  the  Ilamayana.  For  example,  the  only  fourth  vipula 
in  the  first  thousand  verses  of  R.  iii,  vaikhanasah  valakhilyah,  6.  2. 

1 Compare  for  instance  the  505  flokas  or  1010  verses  in  the  first  twenty 
chapters  of  the  Agni  Purana,  where  the  vipulas  in  their  order  are  41,  20,  50, 
57,  with  six  irregular  second  vipulas  (not  after  iambus) ; five  third  vipulas 
not  after  iambus;  and  only  nineteen  of  the  fifty-seven  fourth  vipulas  after 
iambus.  The  first  vipula  in  the  gambling-scene  is  run  up  by  the  repetition 
of  one  phrase.  They  are  in  order,  GO  (odd),  34,  51,  36. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


231 


vipulas  in  a thousand  verses ! Besides,  there  are  other  pas- 
sages almost  as  dramatic.  If  we  compare  the  Jatugrha  and 
four  hundred  verses  of  the  Hidimba  stories,  which  together 
make  about  a thousand  verses,  we  find  eleven  fourth  vipulas, 
half  of  which  are  in  proper  names,  only  one  case  of  a third 
vipula  not  after  ^ and  three  ordinary  exceptions  in  the 
case  of  the  second  vipula.  The  Klcaka  in  Virata  is  also  a 
lively  scene,  which  with  a slight  addition  of  circumjacent 
verses  contains  a thousand  verses  (325-825),  and  here  the 
vipulas  are  in  order,  42,  24,  52,  6,  with  no  unusual  exceptions 
and  only  tliree  ordinary  exceptions  in  the  second  vipula;1 
while  five  of  the  six  fourth  vipulas  are  in  proper  names  and 
in  the  title  rajaputri. 

But  since  it  may  be  objected  that  the  subject  matter  is  after 
all  the  essential  factor,  I will  compare  a philosophical  section 
where  the  matter  is  that  of  the  Bliagavad  Gita,  for  example 
(Janti,  adhy.  311  and  following  for  one  thousand  verses.  Here 
the  vipulas  in  their  order  are  : 


Gita, 

38 

29 

11 

(lanti, 

50 

31 

29 

Compare  R.  iii,  1- 

-16,  60 

33 

31 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  extract  from  £anti  is  almost  on  a 
metrical  par  with  the  ordinary  narrative  of  the  Ramayana 
(1010  verses).  But  further,  of  the  three  cases  of  fourth 
vipula  in  Ganti,  one  is  in  a proper  name  and  there  are  no 
anomalous  forms  of  unusual  character,  and  only  two  ordinary 
exceptions  (second  vipula),  while  the  Gita  has  a dozen  irreg- 
ularities of  all  kinds  (including  “ fifth  vipulas  ”).  I may  add 
to  these  specimens  the  instructive  opening  of  Udyoga,  where 
for  nearly  two  hundred  glokas  there  is  epic  narrative  followed 
by  the  old  tale  of  Nahusa  and  Indra.  The  vipulas,  for  one 
thousand  hemistichs,  are  here  55,  25,  46,  10,  respectively,  but 
nine  of  the  ten  are  in  the  old  tale,  adhy.  9 ff.,  §1.  227,  the 
other  one  being  in  a proper  name.  In  the  old-style  didactic 

1 By  ordinary  exceptions  I mean  cases  where  the  second  vipula  does  not 
follow  an  iambus. 


232 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


verses,  v,  35,  60  ff.,  on  tlie  other  hand,  there  are  six  fourth 
vipulas  in  only  five  glokas. 

Whether  we  are  entitled  to  draw  from  these  data  conclu- 
sions in  regard  to  the  time  when  the  several  selections  were 
written  may  be  doubted  in  all  cases  when  the  percentage  of 
fourth  vipulas  is  not  sustained  by  other  factors.  But  it  seems 
to  me,  as  I have  said,  that  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  assume  a 
more  modem  authorship  in  the  case  of  a sustained  refinement 
of  style.  Even  in  cases  where  the  data  are  not  of  an  extreme 
character  I think  it  is  legitimate  to  question  whether  a com- 
parative refinement  is  not  of  significance.  Take  for  example 
the  thousand  verses  of  Udyoga,  119-133  (4,000-4,500).  Here 
the  subject-matter  of  the  selection  is  the  Bhagavadyana. 
Nothing  in  the  account  seems  antique;  on  the  contrary,  the 
whole  story  appears  on  the  surface  to  be  a late  addition.  Now, 
going  beneath  the  surface,  we  find  that  the  vipulas  are  in  order 
48,  23,  39,  13,  but  that  eight  of  the  last  are  in  proper  names. 
The  collateral  evidence  agrees  with  the  two  factors  here 
shown  (preponderance  of  third  vipula  over  second,  comparar 
tive  scarcity  of  fourth  vipula)  ; for  of  the  forty-eight  only 
twelve  are  after  iambus ; of  the  twenty-three,  nineteen  are 
after  iambus;  while  of  the  four  ordinary  exceptions  (after 

^ ) two  are  in  the  same  phrase,  yatha  Bhlsmah  £antar- 

navah;  the  third  vipula  is  perfectly  regular  or  has  at  most 
one  exception,  manena  bhrastah  svargas  te  (though,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  there  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  we  have  here 
the  late  light  syllable  before  bhr) ; the  five  fourth  vipulas  not 
in  proper  names  are  all  after  iambus  except  one,  contained  in 
an  hereditary  phrase,  esa  dharmah  ksatriyanam.  Here  then, 
though  there  is  not  the  striking  classical  smoothness  found  in 
parts  of  the  pseudo-epic,  the  few  fourth  vipulas  agree  with  the 
other  data  in  marking  the  piece  as  rather  refined,  perhaps 
modern,  when  compared  with  the  oldest  epic  style. 

When,  however,  the  data  are  contradictory,  as  often 
happens,  we  may  imagine  a rehandling,  as  in  the  suspected 1 
Narayana  exploitation  in  (jJiinti,  from  the  end  of  the  prose  in 
1 Compare  Biihler  in  Indian  Studies,  No.  ii,  p.  52. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


233 


343  to  the  end  of  351,  about  a thousand  verses,  13,224-13,740, 
where  the  scheme  of  vipulas  is  in  order  80,  50,  32,  15 ; thirty- 
one  of  the  eighty  being  after  iambus ; with  five  cases  of  irreg- 
ular second  vipulii  and  perfectly  regular  third  vipula  (save 
for  a slightly  neglected  caesura,  dharmapratisthahetug  ca). 
The  fourth  vipula  here  owes  its  large  number  solely  to  names, 
numbers,  and  an  old  phrase.  Thus  we  find,  not  after  iambus, 
tasmin  yajfie  vartamane  (like  the  regular  phrase  tasmin 
yuddhe  vartamane);  Vasudevam  (second  foot);  Sariikhyaih 
Yogam  Pancaratram ; Sankhyayogam  (second  foot)  ; Pafica- 
ratram  (second  foot) ; Vaikhanasah  phenapebhyah ; Sarva- 
krcchram  (name  of  vrata)  ; astadaiistrau ; leaving  two  cases, 
durvijneyo  duskarag  ca  and  jayamanam  (as  second  foot) 
after  ; with  five  more  after  iambus. 

Rather  a striking  example  of  the  mixture  of  styles  is  given 
by  ix,  48,  where  Indra  and  the  jujube-girl  are  concerned. 
This  is  plainly  interpolated  with  a (hva  parody.  Compare, 
for  instance,  prlto  'smi  te  gubhe  bhaktya  tapasa  niyamena  ca, 
in  the  Indra  dialogue,  with  gl.  45  (in  the  interpolation),  prlto 
rsmi  tava  dkarmajne  tapasa  niyamena  ca.  Now  the  original 
Indra  tale  has  fifteen  vipulas  in  the  first  thirty  odd  verses; 
but  the  same  number  of  glokas  in  the  following  £iva  parody 
shows  only  five  vipulas. 

Again  it  must  be  remembered  that  some  rather  modem 
selections  are  interspersed  with  old  material.  In  the  six 
hundred  odd  verses  of  the  ^akuntala  episode,  for  instance, 
the  style  is  modern  to  a certain  extent,  the  first  vipula  being 
less  common  after  iambus  than  after  spondee,  and  only  one 
ordinary  exception  occurring  in  the  second  vipula,  while 
there  are  no  unusual  anomalies.  But  the  passage  has  thirteen 
fourth  vipulas,  which  is  not  a refined  ratio  and  may  be  ex- 
plained only  partly  by  the  presence  of  Dharmagastra  material, 
hrcli  sthitah  karmasaksi,  bharyam  patih  sampravigya  (Manu, 
ix,  8).  In  my  opinion  the  episode  is  old,  but,  like  many 
ancient  tales  in  the  epic,  it  has  been  rewritten  and  in  its 
present  shape  is  not  so  old  as  the  vanga  and  Yayati  episodes 
following,  where  there  are  as  many  fourth  vipulas  and  more 


234 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


anomalies.  This  episode  has  recently  been  made  the  subject 
of  an  interesting  study  by  Dr.  Winternitz,1  who  believes  that 
it  is  of  very  doubtful  antiquity,  because  it  is  lacking  in  the 
Southern  manuscript  examined  by  him  and  because  the  knot 
is  untied  by  a “divine  voice,”  instead  of  by  a ring.  One 
point  not  noticed  by  Dr.  Winternitz  must  be  remembered, 
however,  namely  that  the  Harivanga  recognizes  the  episode 
and  cites  from  it,  apropos  of  the  “ divine  voice,”  2 so  that  it 
existed  in  the  present  version,  if  not  hi  its  exact  form,  before 
the  Harivanga  was  added  to  the  poem;  though  I should  not 
deny  on  that  account  that  it  was  of  doubtful  antiquity. 

I think  I have  now  shown  sufficiently  that  the  different 
parts  of  the  epic  cannot  revert  to  one  period,  still  less  to  one 
poet,  and  will  leave  this  minute  analysis  with  a repetition  of 
the  statement  that,  whereas  the  parts  already  cited  clearly 
reveal  more  styles  than  we  may  attribute  to  one  age  or  man, 
occasional  freedom  of  style  in  respect  of  vipulas  does  not  in 
itself  indicate  antiquity ; but  when  all  the  elements  agree  in 
refinement,  this  sustained  refinement  certainly  points  to  a dif- 
ferent environment  and  may  imply  that  some  parts  of  the  epic 
are  later  than  others.  There  is  a refined  style  and  there  is  a 
careless  style,  but  the  latter  is  late  Puranic  as  well  as  antique, 
and  mere  carelessness  proves  nothing  beyond  the  fact  that  the 
poet  either  did  not  know  or  did  not  regard  classical  rules. 
On  the  other  hand,  even  the  careless  Puranic  writers  gener- 
ally show  a greater  number  of  first  vipulas  after  spondee  than 
after  iambus  and  more  third  than  second  vipulas.  When, 
therefore,  even  these  rules  are  not  upheld  and  we  find  besides 
other  irregularities,  such  as  the  three  cases  of  the  fifth  vipula 
in  the  Gita,  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  writer  was  rehand- 
ling material  more  antique  than  that  of  other  passages.  I say 
rehandling,  because  the  Gita  has  clearly  been  rewritten  by  a 
modernizing  hand,  as  is  shown  not  only  by  the  circumstance 
already  noticed  that  the  heart  of  the  poem  differs  in  style 
from  its  beginning  and  ending,  but  also,  for  example,  by  the 

1 Indian  Antiquary,  1808,  pp.  67  and  136  ff. 

3 i,  74,  111  = II.  i,  32,  12. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


235 


fact  tliat  in  Gita,  12,  15  we  read  yasinan  no  ’dvijate  lokah,  a 
metrically  bettered  form  of  yada  ca  ’yam  na  bibheti,  a pln-ase 
found  intact  in  other  parts  of  the  epic.1 

The  usual  epic  gloka,  apart  from  occasional  variations, 
differs,  as  I have  said,  from  the  classical  model  most  conspicu- 
ously in  vipulii  licence;  as  will  clearly  be  seen  at  a glance 
on  comparing  the  normal  epic  forms  with  the  classical  in  the 
following  tables,  where  is  given  first  the  average  epic  usage : 


First  Foot 

Second  Foot 

yj  yj  yj  Si 

\J  KJ  ^ 

w 

yj Si 

^ w 

passim 

passim 

passim 

passim 

v-/ 

passim 

common 

rare 

common 

•u  \J 

passim 

common 

sporadic 

common 

and  then  the  forms  permitted  and  almost  never  exceeded  in 
Kalidasa  (“  common  ” here  means  not  unusual  yet  not  passim) : 


First  Foot 

Second  Foot 

\J  \J  \J  

KJ  

, w 

yj S' 

Si  yj  _ 

common 

passim 

passim 

w 

passim 

w 

passim 

1 Per  contra,  in  the  Sanatsujata  Parvan,  v,  46,  26,  yatho  ’dapane  mahati  is 
a metrical  improvement  on  Gita,  2,  46,  yavan  artha  udapane.  Other  later 
features  in  the  Gita  are  the  long  sentences  already  referred  to ; the  sporadic 
intrusion  of  the  Maya  doctrine  (discussed  above  in  Chapter  Three),  and  per- 
haps also  the  recognition  of  the  Vedanta  Sutra. 


236 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  usual  Ramayana  gloka  agrees  with  this  later  scheme, 
except  in  admitting  sporadic  cases  of  the  fourth  vipula  after 
an  iambus.1 

But,  to  get  a comprehensive  notion  of  the  epic  gloka,  in  its 
rarer  forms  as  well  as  in  its  normal  or  average  appearance, 
one  must  contrast  these  tables  with  the  next,  which  gives,  I 
believe,  about  all  the  Bharata  combinations  for  the  prior 
pada: 


First  Foot 

Second  Foot  of  Prior  Pada  of  floka  in  the  Mahabharata 

w 

f vy 

vyhi 

w uM 

\J — 

p i 

P 

9 

P 14 

P 

21 

P 

28 

s 

34 

r 

39 

s 

43 

V-/ 

p 2 

P 10 

c 

15 

r 

22 

c 

29 

S 

35 

s 

40 

S 

44 



P 3 

P 

11 

C 

16 

S 

23 

c 

30 

S 

36 

7 

41 

S 

45 

w 

P 4 

s 

12 

S 

17 

7 

24 

s 

* 31 

S 

37 

S 

42 

P 5 

S 

18 

S 

25 

S 

32 

S 

3S 

-l 

46 

h'-.vyw 

P 6 

s 

19 

S 

26 

7 

33 



s 

7 

8 

13 

8 

20 

S 

27 

s 

8 

Pathya 

First 

Vipula 

Second 

Vipula 

Third 

Vipula 

Fourth 

Vipula 

Minor 

Ionic 

Major 

Ionic 

Diiambus 

Abbreviations  : p,  passim  ; c,  quite  common  ; r,  rare  ; s,  very  rare,  sporadic. 
The  interrogation  marks  indicate  doubtful  cases,  for  which  the  illustrations 
(as  numbered  in  the  table)  must  be  consulted  in  Appendix  B.  For  the  corre- 
sponding table  of  tristubh  forms,  see  below. 

1 For  the  few  exceptions  to  these  much  more  restricted  forms  of  the 
Ramayana,  see  Jacobi’s  Ramayana.  There  is  to  this  uniformity  not  a single 
exception,  for  example,  in  the  two  thousand  hemistichs  found  in  R.  iii,  1-16; 
iv,  1-11.  Final  brevis  is  rare  in  the  second,  but  not  in  the  first,  R.  vipula. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


237 


Midway  between  the  classical  and  the  normal  Bharata  gloka 
stands  that  of  the  Ramayana.  The  latter  does  not  admit 
many  forms  found  in  the  Mahabharata.  Some  of  these  are 
older,  some  are  later.  But  in  its  aberrations  from  the  subse- 
quent type  of  the  classical  writers  the  Mahabharata  is  much 
freer  than  the  Ramayana ; freer  not  only  in  admitting  other 
types  of  gloka  than  those  found  in  the  Ramayana,  but  also  in 
the  way  of  handling  glokas  common  to  both  epics.  The  gloka 
of  the  Upanishads  (Katlia,  Kena,  Tga)  admits  as  prior  padas, 

w _ 

w 

w \J  \J w 

\J  \J  — w — 



\J  

M \J  KJ 

\J  KJ  

Quite  so  free  the  Mahabharata  gloka  is  not,  but  it  admits 

here  and  there  as  second  foot  ^ _ w _ and  ^ w , and  as 

first  foot,  _ w w _,  which  is  also  found  as  first  foot  of  the 
second  pada.  So  free  as  this  the  Ramayana  is  not.  From  the 
occurrence  of  these  freer  forms  we  are  entitled,  however,  to 
say  only  that  the  Mahabharata  is  occasionally  freer  in  its 
gloka-foot  than  is  the  Ramayana.  But  it  is  generally  freer, 
and  much  freer,  in  the  non-observance  of  vipula  rules.  This 
“ characteristic  stamp  ” of  the  Mahabharata,  as  Professor 
Jacobi  calls  it,1  in  distinction  from  the  Ramayana,  is  one  that 
it  shares  to  a great  degree,  as  I have  said  above,  p.  79,  with 
the  early  Buddhistic  and  Upanishad  gloka,  which  is  so  wide 
a province  that  the  explanation  given  by  Professor  Jacobi 
seems  to  me  to  be  inadequate. 

Yet  if,  as  I think,  the  gloka  of  the  Ramayana  shows  that  it 
is  in  its  present  form  not  only  more  refined  (which  is  con- 
ceded) but  also  later  than  parts  of  the  Mahabharata,  the  latter 
no  less  is  later  than  the  Ramayana  in  other  parts.  There  are 
five  sorts  (perhaps  stages)  of  gloka  reflected  in  epic  and  pre- 


1 GurupujakaumudI,  p.  53. 


238 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


epic  literature  (besides  its  parent  Vedic  anustubh).  The  first 
is  the  free  gloka  of  the  Upanishads.  The  second  is  the  less 
free,  but  still  unrefined,  gloka  of  certain  parts  of  the  Mahabha- 
rata.  The  third  is  the  current  Bharata  gloka.  The  fourth  is 
the  gloka  found  in  parts  of  the  pseudo-epic,  a gloka  which 
stands  on  a par  with  the  gloka  of  the  Ramayana.  The  fifth  is 
the  continuous  iambic  gloka,  which  is  found  only  in  the 
Mahabharata  and  is  certainly  later  than  other  epic  forms  of 
gloka.  Nearly  forty  stanzas  of  this  type,  consisting  of  iambs 
only  (allowing  final  anceps),  that  is,  over  six  hundred  succes- 
sive iambs  — evidently  a late  tour  de  force  — occur  in  xii,  322, 
33-71,  written  by  a poetaster  who  presents  old  ideas  in  a new 
style,1  as  in  this  specimen : 

pura  vrka  bhayamkara  manusyadehagocarah 
abhidravanti  sarvato  yatag  ca  punyagllane 
pura  hiranmayan  nagan 2 niriksase  'drimurdhani 
na  matrputrabandhava  na  samstutah  priyo  janah 
anuvrajanti  samkate  vrajantam  ekapatinam 
yad  eva  karma  kevalam  purakrtam  gubhagubham 
tad  eva  putra  sarthikam  bhavaty  amutra  gacchatah 
iha  ’gnisuryavayavah  garlram  agritas  trayah 
ta  eva  tasya  saksino  bhavanti  dharmadarginah 

So  far  as  I have  observed,  although  the  prior  pada  may  end 

either  in  or  in  w _ w _,  the  union  of  both  in  one 

gloka  is  unknown  to  the  epic.  This  is  a combination  of  one 
freedom  with  another.  The  forms,  therefore,  were  felt  as 
liberties  and  consequently  were  not  multiplied  in  narrow  com- 
pass. Such  glokas,  however,  are  found  in  the  early  style,  and 
even  the  Mahabhasya  gives  us  a sample,  apparently  from 
some  defunct  epic  source,  where  one  prior  pada  is  aliarahar 
nayamano  and  the  following  is  Vaivasvato  na  trpyati.3  Tins 

1 Found,  for  example,  in  the  Vedantasara  of  Sadananda:  satattvato  'ny- 
athapratha  vikara  ity  udiritah,  162,  etc.  For  the  single  pada,  diiambic  prior, 
see  vii,  66,  49,  cited  below  under  Diiambus.  A single  pada  of  this  sort  is  both 
Vedic  and  Puranic. 

2 See  Proverbs  and  Tales  in  the  Sanskrit  Epics,  A.  J.  Phil.,  vol.  xx,  p.  24. 

8 Cited  by  Weber,  Indisclie  Studien,  vol.  xiii,  p.  483. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


239 


may  indicate  that  our  epic  has  been  metrically  refined ; other- 
wise we  should  perhaps  find  in  it  the  same  freedom.  Notice- 
able also,  I may  say  in  view  of  the  paragraph  below  on  the 
posterior  pada,  is  the  absence  of  any  certain  case  of  a hemi- 
stich ending  like  the  prior  pada  in  w This  Gathii  form 

is  found  in  the  examples  from  the  Bliasya  (compare,  for 
instance,  ratrim  ratrim  smarisyanto  ratrim  ratrim  ajanantah J) ; 

but  the  utmost  freedom  of  the  epic  is w _ at  the  end  of 

a hemistich,  except  in  the  semi-prose  example  given  below 
(on  the  Diiambus) ; a circumstance  that  makes  it  impossible 
to  believe  that  the  epic  in  its  present  form  is  older  than  the 
second  century  b.  c. 


The  Posterior  Pada  of  the  (Jloka. 

Owing  to  the  prevailing  diiambic  close  of  the  hemistich 
there  is  little  variety  in  the  posterior  pada.  The  first  foot 
may  have  (sporadically)  any  one  of  seven  forms,  that  is,  with 
the  exception  of  the  unique  opening  of  the  prior  pada  in  pro- 
celeusmaticus,  the  first  foot  of  the  posterior  pada  may  be 
identical  with  any  of  those  of  the  prior  pada.  The  second 

foot  is  a diiambus,  or  sporadically w_,  and  w 

(doubtful). 

First  Foot.  Second  Foot. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 


7. 


regular 


y v 

M 

M w w _ 


w _ yi 
■ sporadic 


Of  these  forms,  the  first  three  and  the  fifth  occur  also  as 
prior  padas  (with  diiambic  close).  The  seventh  form  is 
avoided  because  it  is  the  jagatl  measure ; but  in  general  three 
final  iambs  are  avoided.  The  first  form  is  an  oddity.  Illus- 
trations of  all  the  forms  of  prior  and  posterior  padas  will  be 
found  in  Appendix  B.  The  rules  for  this  pada  are  given 
below. 


1 Weber,  loc.  cit.,  p.  485. 


240 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Of  the  forms  of  the  first  foot  (third  of  the  hemistich), 
all  except  Nos.  1 and  7 are  found  passim  in  both  epics;  of 
the  forms  of  the  second  (fourth)  foot,  with  rare  exceptions 
only  the  diiambus  is  found.  The  commonest  forms  are  Nos. 
2 and  3 (ending  in  spondees).  After  the  first  vipula  both 
of  these  are  equally  common  and  each  is  about  twice  as 
frequent  as  No.  4,  and  from  two  to  four  times  as  common 
as  No.  5 (final  trochees).  No.  6,  ending  in  a pyrrhic,  is 
sometimes  surprisingly  frequent  after  this  vipula;  but  at 
other  times  is  lacking  for  whole  test-sections  of  a thousand 
verses.  After  the  second  vipula,  winch  usually  ends  in  an 
iambus,  as  after  the  first  vipula  (also  iambic),  Nos.  2 and  3 
are  favorites;  No.  3 being  perhaps  a little  more  frequent. 
Here  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  are  much  less  common;  No.  6,  however, 
is  rarest  of  all.  After  the  third  vipula,  No.  2 sometimes 
yields  in  frequency  to  No.  3 ; but  in  other  sections  this  foot 
still  holds  its  own,  and  as  in  the  former  examples  is  even 
twice  as  common  as  other  combinations,  though  it  practi- 
cally repeats  the  vipula,  ^ KJ_  Here  Nos.  4 

and  5 are  about  on  a par,  sometimes  only  a third  as  com- 
mon as  No.  2,  sometimes  more  frequent,  with  No.  6 half 
as  common  as  Nos.  4 and  5.1  After  the  fourth  vipula,  how- 
ever, No.  6 is  as  common  as  any  other,  sometimes  slightly 
in  excess,  with  the  others  about  on  a par;  No.  4 being  per- 
haps the  rarest. 

Such  varying  ratios  are  not  worth  tabulating.  They  show 
that  while  the  posterior  pada  is  not  absolutely  uninfluenced 
by  the  form  of  the  prior,  yet  the  determining  factor  is  rather 
the  inevitable  presence  of  the  former’s  diiambus,  since  the 
only  marked  choice  is  for  spondees  before  it,  as  in  the  first 
pada  before  an  iambus  (pathya).  The  other  cases  reveal 
merely  a shifting  predilection  for  one  of  several  forms,  all 
of  which  are  used  pretty  freely,  the  strongest  influence  of 
the  preceding  vipulas  being  simply  that  the  usual  prefer- 

1 For  example  in  one  text  case  of  a thousand  verses,  there  were  twelve 
cases  of  No.  2;  four  each  of  Nos.  4 and  6;  and  two  of  No.  0.  In  another, 
nine  of  No.  2 ; eleven  each  of  Nos.  4 and  5 ; four  of  No.  6. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


241 


ence  for  a spondee  before  the  final  diiambus  is  changed  into 

a natural  aversion  after  a spondaic  vipula,,  or 

_ , but  this  is  what  might  have  been  predicated  in 

advance.  After  pathyas  one  foot  is  as  permissible  as  another. 
Occasional  variations  here  are  of  even  less  significance  than 
in  the  case  of  precedent  vipulas. 

As  all  the  forms  of  the  prior  and  posterior  padas  may 
have  syllaba  anceps,  both  initial  and  final,  each  pada  may 
appear  in  four  forms.1  Not  to  speak  of  the  important  modi- 
fications introduced  by  a varying  caesura,  the  syllabic  com- 
binations resulting  from  joining  any  one  of  the  four  kinds  of 
each  form  of  the  posterior  pada  with  any  one  of  the  four 
kinds  of  each  form  of  the  prior  pada  results  in  a large  num- 
ber of  possible  verse  (hemistich)  forms ; while,  since  any 
form  of  the  first  hemistich  may  be  united  with  any  form  of 
the  second  hemistich  — to  take  only  the  commonest  eighteen 
forms  of  prior  pada2  and  the  five  current  forms  of  posterior 
pada  — the  resultant  variations  in  the  form  of  the  verse  (hemi- 
stich) are  1440 ; in  the  case  of  the  whole  stanza  (gloka), 
2,073,600;  so  that  one  could  write  twenty  Maliabharatas  in 
glokas  (the  present  one  in  the  Calcutta  edition  contains 
95,739  glokas)  and  never  repeat  the  same  metrical  stanza. 
Despite  this  latitude,  however,  the  poets  are  not  at  all  shy 
of  repeating  the  same  syllabic  hemistich  in  juxtaposition, 
showing  that  they  were  indifferent  to  the  vast  possibilities 
before  them  and  cared  for  caesura  more  than  for  syllables. 
Thus  Nala  v,  45  b— 46  a: 

Damayantya  saha  Nalo  vijahara  ’maropamah 
janayamasa  ca  Nalo  Damayantya  mahamanah 

1 In  explanation  of  the  number  of  examples  in  Appendix  B,  I would  say 
that,  for  the  sake  of  showing  the  truth  of  this  anceps  theory,  I have  given  the 
four  forms,  syllaba  anceps  at  both  ends  of  the  pada. 

2 That  is,  the  first  six  pathyas,  the  first  four  forms  of  the  first  and  second 
vipulas  respectively,  the  first  form  of  the  third  vipula,  and  the  first  three  forms 
of  the  fourth  vipula.  These,  by  the  way,  are  the  forms  “ approved  ” by  mod- 
ern native  scholars,  according  to  Brown,  Prosody,  p.  6. 

16 


242 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  Diiambus 

The  rule  of  diiambic  cadence  appears  to  be  violated  in  the 
epic.  Far  from  regarding  this  as  an  archaism  on  the  part 
of  epic  poets,  one  should  recognize  in  such  cases  only  a 
Puranic  licence  or  adaptation  of  the  Gatha  freedom  con- 
spicuous in  all  popular  and  therefore  loose  composition. 
Not  only  is  that  rule  for  Sanskrit  which  allows  a syllable 
to  remain  light  before  kr,  pr,  br,  hr,  valid  for  the  later  epic, 
but  the  extended  Prakrit  licence  is  also  found,  whereby  al- 
most any  conjunct1  may  be  treated  for  metrical  purposes 
like  a single  consonant.  Examples  are  found  both  in  the 
Mahabharata  and  the  later  Ramayana.  For  the  latter  epic, 
Jacobi,  Das  Ramayana,  p.  25  ff.,  should  be  consulted,  where 
are  given  examples  in  br,  pr,  mr,  ml,  tr,  hr,  kl,  and  gr,  e.  g., 
kirn  tu  Ramasya  prltyartham,  R.  v,  53,  13  ; vinagayati  trai- 
lokyam,  ib.  1,  65,  13.  From  the  Mahabharata  (in  the  ap- 
pended illustrations  of  epic  gloka  forms)  I have  drawn 
several  examples  which  are  doubtful,  because  they  may  be 
regarded  either  as  irregular  (unusual)  forms  without  this 
licence  or  regular  forms  with  it.  Such  are  daga  panca  ca 
praptani  (No.  25) ; hate  Bhlsme  ca  Drone  ca  (No.  22) ; 
sarvagaucesu  Brahmena  (No.  23) ; abliijanami  brahmanam 
(No.  41);  manena  bhrastah  svargas  te  (No.  22);  liudrasye 
’va  hi  kruddliasya  (No.  24).  But  further,  in  a few  cases, 
gr  also  seem  to  leave  the  syllable  light  beliind  them,  as  in  R. ; 
e.  g.,  adyaprabhrti  grlvatsah  (Nos.  15,  26,  39).  Nor  are  we 
aided  as  much  as  we  should  like  to  be,  when,  turning  from 
these  doubtful  priors,  we  examine  the  posterior  padas.  For 
though  at  first  it  seems  decisive  that  such  a pada  appears  as 
putram  Ipsanti  brahmanah,  vii,  55,  21 ; tosayisyami  bhra- 
taram,  viii,  74,  30 ; yet  it  is  not  quite  settled  whether  we  have 
here  a syllable  to  be  read  light  because,  as  in  Greek,  mute 
and  liquid  really  make  insufficient  position,  or  whether  the 
syllable  is  heavy  but  is  allowed  to  stand  for  a light.  For 
there  are  other  cases  where  mute  and  liquid  are  not  the 

1 Colebrooke,  Essays,  vol.  ii,  p.  65,  note  (“any  conjunct”  in  Prakrit). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


243 


components  of  the  conjunct.  First  we  have  double  semi- 
vowels, which  ordinarily  make  position,  but  fail  to  do  so, 
for  example,  in  vii,  55,  50,  ablii  ^vaitye  ’tI  yyaharan,  which 
appears  after  a gloka  with  a diiambic  prior  pada  (sa  cen 
mamara  Srfijaya).  So  the  syllable  remains  light  before  cch 
and  ks  and  dv,  or  the  metrical  rule  is  violated.  In  the  Rama- 
yana  and  in  the  Mahabharata,  cases  of  liquid  and  ks  are  found 
more  rarely  in  tristubhs,  but  often  enough  to  show  that  they 
are  occasionally  allowed.  Thus  in  R.  iii,  63,  6 b,  °etya 
klegam  (tristubh).1  In  M. : 

viii,  37,  24  d,  tyaktvS,  pranin  anuyasyaml  Dronain 
xii,  73,  7 a-b,  yada  hi a brahma  prajahatl  ksatram 
ksatram  yada  va  prajahatl  brahma 
xii,  319,  89  b,  sarve  nityam  vyaharante  ca  brahma 

In  sum,  the  cases  where  this  licence  may  be  assumed  for 
the  later  epic  style3  are  before  dr,  br,  birr,  mr,  kr,  pr,  kl,  tr, 
gr,  hr,  ty,  vy,  gy,  dv,  cch,  ks.  For  dv,  compare  striyag  ca 
kanyag  ca  dvijag  ca  suvratah,  iv,  37,  33  ; avartanani  catvari 
tatha  padmfuri  dvadaga,  xiii,  107,  26 ; for  cch,  yugesv  Isasu 
chatresu,  vii,  159,  36,  where  the  texts  avoid  the  third  vipula 
by  writing  ch  for  cch.  But  whenever  a short  syllable  is  needed 
before  cch  it  is  got  by  dropping  c (sometimes  in  one  text, 
sometimes  in  another).  For  ks,  ca  kslyate,  xii,  343,  87  ; 
ranabhltag  c&  ksatriyah,  vii,  73,  39  (apparently  an  interpo- 
lated passage) ; exactly  as  we  find  the  same  licence  in  Vayu 
Purana,  viii,  155,  where  the  gloka  ends  °sS  ksatriyan,  or  as 
ib.  v,  28,  we  find  the  common  licence  before  6r,  lokan  srjati 
brahmatve.  For  gy,  see  below  on  the  tristubh  scolius ; mr, 
ml,  ty,  tr,  I have  not  found  in  the  Mahabharata.  They 
seem  to  belong  to  the  latest  parts  of  the  Ramayana. 

1 Jacobi,  Ram.  p.  27,  gives  cases  from  the  later  R.  In  G.  v,28,  5,  na  tyajet 
(B.  correct  v.  1.) ; G.  ii,  27,  24,  tvaya  saham  (B.  correct  v.  1.). 

2 This  section  is  free ; but  in  xii,  202,  22  b,  there  is  an  upajati  group  where 

we  find  tad  ev&  pratyadadate  svadehe  being  demanded). 

8 Examples  of  regular  (heavy)  position  before  mute  and  liquid  are  found 
everywhere,  e.  g.,  ix,  17,  41,  48,  44,  47,  51,  52 ; xii,  63,  8,  27 ; 64,  16,  18,  etc. 
This  is  the  rule ; failure  to  make  position  or  neglect  of  quantity  is  the  excep- 
tion and  is  characteristic  rather  of  the  later  epic,  as  shown  by  the  examples 
above. 


244 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


We  may,  I think,  assume  that  the  liberty  in  respect  of 
liquid  and  consonant  was  first  introduced  into  epic  Sanskrit, 
and  that  then  in  the  later  epic  this  was  extended,  with  Gatha 
freedom,  to  cases  where  the  precedent  syllable  cannot  be  light, 
but  is  reckoned  so.  Therefore,  while  the  early  epic  has  only 

diiambic  close,  the  later  epic  (like  the  Puranas)  admits w _ 

as  an  equivalent;  not  of  course  generally,  but  sporadically, 
where  the  writer  is  late  and  careless,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
character  of  the  sections  where  such  illegitimate  freedom  is 
found.  So  in  the  tristubh  scolius,  there  are  a few  cases  of 
careless  writing  where  a heavy  syllable  stands  hi  the  place 
of  a light  one.  To  say  that  this  heavy  syllable  is  light  be- 
cause it  ought  to  be,  is  misleading.  The  weight  may  be 
ignored,  as  in  Prakrit  (though  there  mutilation  explains 
much  that  appears  of  this  nature),  but  it  must  exist.  Even 
the  Greek  poets  occasionally  pretended  that  a heavy  syllar 

ble  was  light.  In  fine, w _ must  be  admitted  as  an 

occasional  fourth  foot  of  the  hemistich,  though  it  is  avoided 

whenever  possible.1  For  the  foot  w , I have  only  the 

hemistich  etac  chrutva  tu  Kauravyah  (yibim  pradaksinaiii 
krtva,  iii,  194,  7,  but  this  is  apparently  an  accidental  verse 
in  a prose  narration. 

Poetic  Licence. 

In  general,  however,  while  the  epic  poets  are  here  and  there 
rough  and  uncouth  in  their  versification,  the  normal  epic  style 
sacrifices  a good  deal  to  what  is  regarded  as  good  metrical 
form.  Such  a sacrifice,  which  culminates  in  the  classical  rule 
that  one  may  use  ben  for  bean  (masa  for  masa)  if  one  only 
follows  the  metrical  norm,  is  found  most  clearly  exemplified 
in  this  very  case  of  the  diiambic  close ; a proof  that  the  diiam- 
bus was  regarded  in  general  as  obligatory.2  But  it  is  also  to  be 
noticed  in  the  observance  of  preferred  vipula  forms  at  the  sac- 

1 Its  restitution  in  Frayna  ii,  G,  rco  yajiinsi  samani,  yajnah  ksatraiii  [ca] 
brahma  ca,  is  at  least  probable. 

2 Compare  even  in  the  Rig  Veda  the  regular  irregularity  of  yavisthiaiu, 
for  yavistham,  for  the  sake  of  the  diiambus  ; and  see  now  an  article  by  Pro- 
fessor Bloomfield  on  this  very  point,  JAOS.  xxi,  p.  50  ff. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOX. 


245 


rifice  of  (Sanskrit)  grammatical  accuracy.  There  are,  indeed, 
cases  where  word-structure  appears  to  be  needlessly  sacrificed  ; 
but  the  vast  majority  of  cases  in  which  Sanskrit  grammar  is 
violated  have  to  do  with  metrical  necessity  or  predilection. 

As  already  stated,  the  most  frequent  cause  of  such  violation 
is  the  well-nigh  obligatory  cliiambus  at  the  close  of  a verse,  as 
in  phullam  Gomati-tlrajam,  iv,  17,  12.  The  diiambic  rule,  as 
ordinarily  stated,  is  included  in  this  presentment  of  gloka  re- 
strictions : “ The  second,  third,  and  fourth  syllables  of  a pos- 
terior pada  should  not  form  a tribrach,  anapsest,  or  amphi- 
macer,  and  the  fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  syllables  should 
make  a diiambus  or  second  pseon,  while  the  tribrach  and 
anapaest  rule  apply  also  to  the  prior  pada.”  Obviously,  in  the 
posterior  pada,  the  tribrach  rule,  forbidding 

w w ±L 

is  to  avoid  a succession  of  four  or  five  short  syllables ; while 
the  anapaest  and  amphimacer  rule,  forbidding 

V W W ^ 

is  to  avoid  the  (jagatl)  close  of  three  final  iambs.  The  rule 
then  for  the  even  pada  is  simply:  Posterior  pada s must  end 
with  diiambs,  but  must  not  end  with  triiambs,  and  must  not 
contain  a proceleusmaticus. 

The  following  examples  illustrate  how  secondary  is  San- 
skrit grammar  to  this  metrical  rule : yay  ca  Qiinyam  upasate 
(for  upaste),1  v,  33,  39 ; na  sma  payyama  laghavat,  vii,  146,  5 
(necessarily  present)  ; bharyayai  gacchatl  vanam,  R.  ii,  32,  8 : 
setihase  cS  chandasi,  xiii,  111,  42;  kathakliyayikakarikah,  ii, 
11,  36,  and  svadlia  ca  svadliabhojinam,  R.  vii,  23,  23 ; yatha 
hi  kurute  raja  prajas  tam  anuvartate,2  R.  vii,  43,  19;  madhuni 
dronamatrani  bahubhih  parigrhyate,  R.  v,  62,  9 (not  in  G.) ; 
apakramat,  ix,  11,  62. 

1 So  we  find  at  the  end  of  a tristubh  pada,  upasate  yah,  iii,  5,  19  b.  Less 
common  is  the  second  person,  moksadharmam  upasase,  xii,  315, 15. 

2 This  is  simply  a case  of  sacrifice  to  metre  by  a pedant  who  imitates 
Manu  viii,  175,  where  prajas  tam  anuvartante  is  the  close  of  a prior  pada. 
Another  form  of  this  proverb,  by  the  way,  is  shown  in  R.  ii,  109,  9 : yadvrttah 
santi  rajanas  tadvrttah  santi  hi  prajah  (Spr.  1,643, 1,652,  5,768). 


246 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


These  examples  comprise  different  classes,  where,  metri 
causa,  are  changed  (a)  the  conjugation  or  mode;  (b)  the 
temporal  termination;  (c)  the  feminine  participle;  (d)  the 
euphonic  rule ; (e)  the  gender ; (f)  the  syntactical  combina- 
tion ; 1 (g)  length  of  root-vowel  and  other  sporadic  cases. 

Of  these,  by  far  the  commonest  are  irregularities  in  the 
temporal  termination,  and  in  the  ending  of  the  feminine  par- 
ticiple. Of  these  two,  the  usual  changes  are  the  substitution 
of  preterite  for  present  endings  and  ati  for  anti;  less  often, 
present  for  preterite  and  anti  for  ati.  The  participial  change 
is  the  commonest  of  all,  and  what  is  most  important  is  that 
scarcely  any  of  the  irregular  participial  stems  are  irregular 
from  any  other  cause  than  that  of  metrical  preference,  and 
the  greater  number  are  fashioned  simply  to  give  diiambus  at 
the  end  of  the  hemistich.  I lay  especial  stress  on  this  because 
in  the  lists  of  such  changes  occasionally  published  either  no 
weight  at  all  has  been  laid  on  the  motive  of  the  change,  or 
the  motive  has  been  only  incidentally  acknowledged,  or  thirdly 
the  lists  have  been  made  with  reference  to  the  class  of  the 
participle,  as  if  the  conjugation  were  especially  important.2 
The  only  thing  of  importance,  however,  is  the  metre.  What 
lias  been  lost  sight  of,  or  not  seen,  is  that  not  only  the  obvi- 
ous diiambic  rule  but  also  the  vipula  preferences  come  strongly 
in  play,  especially  in  the  Ramayana.  A few  examples  will 
illustrate  this. 

First  for  the  diiambus:  ca  ’nyam  gatim  apa<jyatT,  R.  vi,  47, 
10;  kurarim  iva  vagatlm,  Nala,  11,  20;  so  elsewhere  in  Mbh., 
abhilapsatl,  ciklrsatl,  nadayatl,  aveksatl,  anvesatl;  and  in 
Ram.,  parigarjatl,  yacatl,  anudhavatl,  janayatl  mama,  etc. 
Likewise  in  the  verbal  ending:  adho  gacchamS  medinlm,  i, 
13,  18;  duhkham  prapsyamS  darunam,  ix,  59,  30;  yuddhe 
kim  kurmS  te  priyam,  ix,  32,  62 ; katha  draksyamS  tarn  purlin, 

1 See  below,  on  dialectic  Sanskrit. 

2 At  the  same  time  I wish  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  the  follow- 
ing lists  as  collections  of  material:  For  four  books  of  the  Ramayana, 
Bbhtlingk,  Beriehte  d.  philol.  histor.  Classe  d.  Kdnigl.  SiLchs.  Gesell.  d.  Wiss. 
1887,  p.  213 ; Holtzmann,  Grammatisches  aus  dem  Mahabharata. 


EPIC  VEltSIFICA  TION. 


247 


R.  ii,  47,  11;  na  ca  pagyamS  Maithillm,  R.  iv,  50,  15;  56,  13. 
Compare  also  the  striking  example  in  R.  ii,  91,  59:  nai  ’va 
’yodhyam  gamisyamo  na  gainisyfunS,  Dandakan.  These  ordi- 
nary irregularities  might  be  exemplified  with  hundreds.1 
Other  cases  are  less  frequent ; but  to  the  same  cause  is  due 
the  close  of  hemistichs  in  tav  akurv&tam,  i,  176,  9;  the  fre- 
quent change  of  voice,  as  in  svargam  Iliantl  nityagah,  vii, 
71,  14;  the  change  of  vowel-length  in  upakramat,  apakramat, 
parakramet,  vii,  54,  58;  ix,  11,  47;  11,  62;  xii,  140,  25;  so 
'pi  niskiaman,  R.  iv,  50,  9;  LaksmTvardhanah  (passim)  and 
the  frequent  loss  of  augment.2  One  of  the  most  striking 
verbal  changes  is  in  na  bibhyati  for  na  bibheti  in  i,  75,  53;  na 
bibhyase,  R.  iii,  46,  30. 

The  other  half  of  the  rule  for  the  posterior  pada  is  kept  by 
avoiding  three  iambs  and  a succession  of  four  breves,  with  a 
sacrifice  of  the  normal  quantity,  in  pracetaso  daga  (so  ex- 
plained in  PW.  s.  v.) ; saklnganavrta,  Nala,  i,  24 ; na  grlr 
jaliati  vai  tanuh,  xi,  25,  5 (jahanti  for  jahati,  below);  upa- 
sante  mahaujasah,  R.  vii,  37,  19  (upasate  in  20)  and  21 ; 
ayatxhitam  ucyate,  G.  iii,  44,  11 ; and  instead  of  adharayam 
(mahavratam),  samadharam,  R.  vii,  13,  25.  Compare  also  na 
svapami  nigas  tada,  Nala,  13,  61,  patois  for  svapimi;  and  the 
middle  draksyase  vigatajvaram,  ib.  12,  93,  with  draksyasi  in 
92  and  95;  draksyase  surasattamam,  v,  14,  5.3 

In  the  prior  pada,  to  avoid  the  anapaest  the  same  form  is 
used,  draksyase  devarajanam,  v,  11,  24;  the  sandhi  of  eso  hi 

1 One  of  the  commonest  cases  is  the  substitution  of  sma  for  smah.  This 
is  found  oftenest  in  the  prior  pada  but  also  in  the  posterior,  e.  g.,  R.  iv,  65, 11, 
anupraptah  sma  sampratam. 

2 Compare  also  the  endings  patnlsu,  prakrtljanah,  R.  i,  37,  6;  42,  1; 
grhagrdhnflnam,  R.  vi,  75,  14,  manyhnam,  ib.  15  (dirghahhava  arsah  says  the 
scholiast) ; kopena  ’bhiparivrtah,  R.  vii,  58, 22  (below) ; anudaram,  xiv,  46,  47. 

8 Here  too  belongs  the  use  of  the  future  imperative  in  ix,  25,  44,  drakgya- 
dhvam  yadi  jlvati,  followed  by  yudhyadhvam  sahitah  sarve.  Bohtlingk,  loc. 
cit.,  denies  to  the  epic  a future  imperative.  The  case  I have  cited,  however, 
is  not  in  Holtzmann’s  list  (loc.  cit.  § 938),  on  which  B.  draws  for  his  material, 
and  it  seems  to  me  conclusive  in  favor  of  such  a form  (and  meaning).  Were 
it  not  for  the  breves  the  poet  would  have  used  pafyata  (not  draksyatha),  as 
is  shown  by  yudhyadhvam  and  the  general  situation. 


248 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


parsato  virah,  vii,  192,  13;  the  long  vowels  in  Pusanam 
abhyadravata,  vii,  202,  59;  grutavatl  nama  vibho,  ix,  48,  2; 
and  the  change  of  conjugation  in  dadanti  vasudham  spliltam, 
xiii,  62,  46.  To  avoid  diiambus  at  the  close  of  the  prior  pada 
we  find,  for  the  genitive,  dadarga  dvairatham  tabhyam,  vii,  98, 
26 ; the  participial  exchange  noted  above,  kusumany  apacin- 
vanti,  R.  iii,  42,  32;  jananti,  R.  ii,  10,  35  and  Mbh.  i,  78,  6; 
and  various  sporadic  irregularities  in  the  latter  poem:  pra- 
daksinam  akurvanta,  viii,  72, 12 ; pusnamy  ausadhayah  sarvah, 
i,  78,  40  ; Duryodhanam  upasante,  viii,  84, 12 ; gay  an  am  samup- 
asanti,  vii,  72,  40  (so  G.  vii,  41,  2) ; valukam,  pattlbhih,  etc., 
R.  iii,  73,  12;  iv,  25,  23;  gaktlbhih,  R.  vi,  71,  14.  For  a like 
reason,  but  to  avoid  a final  minor  Ionic,  we  find  pagyate  raja, 
R.  vii,  32,  25;  draksyase  tatra,  ib.  34,  10,  etc. 

Less  generally  have  been  recognized  irregularities  due  to 
vipulas.  But  here  too  Sanskrit  grammar  yields  to  the  decided 
tendency  to  have  an  iambus  or  diiambus  precede  in  three  of 
the  four  forms  and  also  to  less  marked  tendencies.  Even  the 
pathya  shows  similar  cases,  though  in  this  foot  more  latitude 
is  allowed.  But  there  often  is,  for  example,  in  the  pathya  a 
decided  preference  for  the  opening  rather  than 

m w , and  in  accordance  with  this  we  find  arditah  sma 

bhrgam  Rama,  in  R.  iii,  10,  11,  and  agatah  sma,  ib.  15,  2; 
where  sma  must  be  for  smah  (in  some  cases  tins  is  doubtful).1 
Of  the  vipulas,  the  third  is  naturally  chiefly  affected.  In  the 
last  passage,  for  example,  gl.  19,  we  read  iha  vatsyama  Sau- 
mitre,  which  is  changed  as  certainly  for  metrical  reasons  as 
are  the  similar  cases  in  the  diiambic  ending.  So  in  R.  ii,  17, 
10 ; 40,  22,  etc.  So,  too,  loss  of  augment  in  sa  pravigya  ca 
pagyad  vai ; the  participle  in  -ant,  tatha  rudantliii  Kausalyam, 
R.  ii,  40,  44;  duhkhiiny  asahatl  devl,  R.  ii,  12,  89;  kacic 
cintayatl  tatra,  R.  vii,  24,  11  (as  opposed  to  sa  cintayantl 
buddliya  ’tha,  Nala,  5,  12);  and  shortening  of  a long  vowel, 
sapatmvrddhau  ya  me  tvam,  R.  ii,  8,  26  ; pitur  ingudlpanya- 

1 In  upasanta  maliarajam,  iv,  18,  10,  the  form  is  chosen  not  from  any 

aversion  to  w but  for  variety,  because  this  foot  precedes  in  the  same 

floka.  In  It.  i,  4,  4,  agrliltam  (“  Vedic  ”)  is  merely  an  error. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


249 


kam,  R.  ii,  104,  8 ; so  'maravatfsamkagam,  R.  vii,  33,  4.  Tlic 
commonest  form  here  is  the  sma  just  referred  to : pitrmatyah 
sma  bhadram  te  ; krtapunyah  sma  bhadram  te,  R.  i,  33,  3 ; ii, 
55,  12.  So,  adharmam  vidma  Kakutstha  asmin,  R.  vii,  63,  2. 
Offensive  is  the  heavy  third  vipula  preceded  by  a succession 
of  heavy  syllables,  and  so  we  find : alio  trptah  sma  bhadram 
te,  R.  i,  14,  17 ; nunarn  praptah  sma  sambhedam,  R.  ii,  54,  6; 
vyaktam  praptah  sma  tain  deg  am,  ib.  93,  7.1 

The  Mahabharata  is  not  so  strict  in  its  vipula  regulation, 
but  even  here  we  find  the  same  condition  of  tilings,  though  in 
less  careful  observance.  Thus,  tvayy  adhlnah  sma  rajendra, 
v,  8,  22;  tvadadhlnah  sma  rajendra,  xv,  3,  54;  upagiksama  te 
vrttam,  xii,  16,  2 ; 2 ihiii  ’va  vasatl  bhadre,  Nala,  13,  66.  Both 
texts,  merely  in  accordance  with  the  vipula  rule  or  predilec- 
tion, have  kim  mam  vilapatlm  ekam  in  Nala,  12,  55,  and  91, 
which  modern  editors,  sure  of  grammar  but  ignorant  of  metre, 
change  to  vilapantim  (compare  R.  iv,  20,  22,  kim  mam  evam 
pralapatlm) ; evam  vilapatlm  dlnam,  vii,  78,  36.  Other 
examples  are  tato  rudantim  tarn  drstva,  Nala,  16,  33  (as  in 
R.  vii,  80,  18,  araja  ’pi  rudantl  sa,  to  avoid  the  Ionic;  but 
visamjnakalpam  rudatim,  vii,  78,  39,  etc.)  ; mam  anusmarati 
gete,  viii,  44,  17 ; paitim  anvesatlm  ekam,  Nala,  12,  34.  Most 
participial  changes  of  this  sort  not  due  to  the  cliiambus 
(avoided  or  sought)  are  due  here  as  in  the  Ramayana  to  the 
natural  disinclination  to  heap  up  long  syllables  and  the  grad- 

1 About  half  the  cases  of  sma  for  smah  are  due  to  metre.  This  word 
before  sonants  on  account  of  its  monosyllable  would  lose  its  character,  and  for 
this  reason  most  of  the  cases  not  due  to  metre  are  before  sonants  to  avoid 
smo.  Of  all  the  cases  in  Bolitlingk’s  list  only  two  are  before  surds.  At  the 
pada-end,  where  length  is  indifferent,  sma  stands  only  before  sonants.  With 
the  exception  of  sma,  in  the  first  four  books  of  the  Ramayana  (according  to 
Bolitlingk’s  list)  the  only  examples  of  ma  for  mah  which  appear  to  be  inde- 
pendent of  metre  are  vidma  purvam  and  praveksyama  at  the  beginning  of 
posterior  padas.  The  first  is  not  in  G. ; the  second  appears  in  G.  as  veksi/ami. 
I may  add  of  sma,  as  indicative  of  the  pseudo-epic,  that  the  thirteenth  book 
has  three  forms  of  this  word,  smah,  sma  (perhaps  dialectic),  and  smahe.  The 
last,  a modern  form,  is  found  not  only  in  xiii,  1,  13,  but  in  93,  41,  na  smahe 
mandavijnana  na  smahe  mandabuddhayah  . . . pratibuddha  sma  jagrma. 

2 Holtzmann,  at  § 548 ; but  I should  not  entertain  the  notion  that  any  of 
these  forms  (as  here  suggested)  was  other  than  indicative. 


250 


TIIE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ual  creation  of  the  iambic  rule  for  the  third  vipula.1  The 
change  to  anti,  illustrated  by  musnantl  and  kurvantl  in  Nala, 
5,  8,  and  16,  11,  respectively,  and  ayanti,  R.  vii,  26,  47 ; 96, 
11,  etc.,  is  in  part  explained  by  preferred  combinations  and  in 
part  by  analogy,  the  great  mass  of  verbs  making  the  form 
anti.  The  best  case  of  change  for  metre  is  furnished,  how- 
ever, by  the  tristubh  in  ii,  67,  53  (^  _ w w begins  a tristubh 
only  before  ^ w ) : 

tatha  bruvantim  karunam  rudantlm  2 

The  first  vipula  is  responsible  for  the  form  upasanta  in  ix, 
38,  53,  tvam  upasanta  varadam;  the  second,  for  aho  mudhah 
sma  suciram,  xiii,  16,  27 ; the  third,  for  vicarisyama  loke  csmin, 
viii,  33,  12.  For  the  fourth  I have  no  sure  case. 

In  regard  to  the  augment,  it  is  omitted  so  freely  that  only 
in  pronounced  cases  are  we  sure  that  it  is  dropped  for  metre, 
especially  as  the  endings  ta  and  tha  are  interchanged  (as  they 
are  in  the  later  Upanishads).  Thus  in  R.  iv,  53,  8 kim  na 
buclhyata  may  be  present,  or,  as  the  commentator  says,  stand 
for  nabudhyata  (diiambus) ; but  again  there  appears  to  be  no 
reason  for  samantat  paridliavata  in  R.  vii,  28,  17,  for  the  aug- 
mented form  would  serve  as  well.  But  in  this  category, 
besides  the  influence  of  patois,  we  have  a more  than  usual 
source  of  pseudo-archaisms.  For  in  many  other  cases  we  can 
but  assume  that  copyists  have  tampered  with  the  text,  cor- 
recting after  their  wont,  sometimes  for  grammar  and  some- 
times for  metre,  according  to  their  individual  taste ; a process 
that  explains  in  our  printed  texts  the  frequent  divergences 
that  depend  on  these  points.3  But  with  the  augment  it  is 
especially  easy  to  give  an  archaic  effect,  since,  while  Sanskrit 

1 In  Iloltzmann’s  list,  for  example,  the  only  case  of  ati  for  anti  that  does 
not  come  under  these  rules  is  carat!  in  Nala,  12,  10 ; which  may  be  attracted 
by  anvesati  in  the  same  verse  (the  latter  caused  by  the  diiambic  rule). 

2 Holtzmann  registers  rudanti  for  i,  6,  5,  where  B.  has  rudatl ; and  for  Nala, 
17,  12,  but  B.  has  rudatyau. 

8 For  this  reason  I have  elsewhere  called  them  “ unguarded  texts,”  mean- 
ing of  course  that  they  were  not  protected,  as  were  the  poems  of  sacred 
character,  by  artificial  methods  of  transmission. 


EPIC  VERSII'ICA  TION. 


251 


kept  the  augment,  most  of  the  other  forms  dealt  with  are 
current  side-forms  as  well  as  antique.  So  we  find,  for  ex- 
ample, in  R.  vii,  28,  26,  nanavadyani  vadyanta,  but  in  G. 
36,  26,  °ny  avadyanta,  and  here,  as  in  parallel  cases,  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  say  whether  we  have  a grammatically  emended 
text  or  a mere  imitation  of  the  antique  on  the  part  of  a 
copyist. 

Instances  of  alteration  in  tristubh  verse  are  of  the  same 
sort  as  those  just  mentioned  and  need  not  be  specifically 
detailed.  Here  too  we  find  the  same  imitation  of  the  antique. 
One  example  will  illustrate  both  cases.  In  xiii,  102,  55  a — b, 
occurs,  budhyami  tvarii  Vrtrahanam  gatakratum,  vyatikra- 
mantam  bhuvanani  vipva.1  Compare  also  na  ca  ’pi  janlwia 
tave  ’ha  natham,  iii,  265,  4 d ; na  ’bhutikalesu  plialaiii  da- 
dan  ti,  xii,  25,  7 a;  and  the  following  examples: 

na  tam  vaded  usatlm  papalokyam,  xii,  300,  8 d 
prayama  sarve  garanam  bhavantam,  i,  197,  4 d 
Karnam  bi&Aerfuh  sahitah  prsatkaih,  viii,  82,  16  c 

jahara  papas  tarunim  vicestatlm,  R.  iii,  53,  26  c 
apagyatl  Raghava-Laksmanav  ubhau,  R.  iii,  52,  44  c 
hatah  sma  sarvah  saha  mantribhig  ca,  R.  ii,  61,  26  b 

Here,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  structure  of  the  tristubh,  the 
cases  of  grammatical  irregularity  are  of  the  same  type  and 
character  as  those  in  gloka.  The  prevailing  type,  namely,  is 
the  patois  substitution  of  ma  for  mas  as  verbal  ending,  and 
the  alternate  participial  form.  The  change  here  also,  as  in 
gloka,  induces  a preferred  or  “ regular  ” form  against  a more 
unusual,  more  disliked,  or  more  irregular  form.  The  last  ex- 
ample above,  for  example,  gives  a cadence  common  to  both 
epics ; but  to  have  smah  for  sma  would  be  a cadence  of  the 
Mahabharata,  not  of  the  Ramayana. 

To  sum  up  for  the  gloka : In  the  occasional  modification  of 
accepted  Sanskrit  forms  purely  for  the  sake  of  metre  and  in 
the  lack  of  a thorough  observance  of  metrical  laws,  which  have 

1 This  form  occurs  also  in  i,  3,  57  bhuvanani  vigva ; and  vii,  201,  77, 
bhuvanani  ’ha  vifva,  in  the  same  formula.  Generally  sapta  takes  its  place. 


252 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


yet  obviously  affected  certain  parts  of  tbe  epic,  we  can  see  the 
rules  themselves  in  process  of  making.  For  the  greater  part 
of  the  Bharata  there  is  no  fixed  rule,  but  the  foundation  of  the 
rule  is  there  in  popular  liking  and  dislike.  Thus  cases  do  ex- 
ist, and  they  are  not  infrequent,  of  ^ w before  a second 

vipula,  but  there  is  a decided  tendency  against  such  a combi- 
nation, and  as  a result  we  find  bhaksayisyava  sahitau,  i,  152, 13 ; 
to  explain  which  we  need  only  say  that  the  first  vipula  favors, 
while  the  second  does  not  favor,  this  precedent  foot;  just  as 
ib.  154,  35,  §Ighram  gacchama  bhadraih  te  is  merely  a present 
indicative  with  a preterite  (patois)  ending,  substituted  because 
the  Sanskrit  ending  would  oppose  a metrical  combination  to 
which  there  is  a growing  though  not  yet  thoroughgoing 
aversion. 

Finally,  as  already  abundantly  illustrated,  the  statement 
that  “ the  laws  of  the  §loka  are  the  same  in  the  Ramayana,  the 
Mahabharata  and  the  classical  poets”1  is  certainly  much  too 
strong.  What  is  quite  fixed  in  the  last  is  not  so  rigid  in 
the  first,  and  is  much  looser  in  the  Bharata  than  in  either  of 
the  other  two.2 


The  Hypermetric  Cloka.3 * * * * 8 

A ninth  syllable  is  often  attached  to  the  octosyllabic  prior 
gloka  pada,  regularly  prefixed,  sporadically  incorporated;  the 
hypermetric  syllable  in  the  former  case  being,  with  the  next 
also,  a brevis,  while  the  third  is  long  before  an  iambus,  the 
whole  foot  preceding  a pathya  or  any  vipula,  thus  : — 

1 Das  Ramayana,  1893,  p.  24. 

2 It  is  indeed  enough  if  the  vipula  be  preceded  by  a heavy  syllable  or  long 

vowel,  as  has  justly  been  remarked  by  Jacobi,  in  his  article  Ueber  den  £loka 

im  Mahabharata,  but  this  rule  does  not  mark  the  distinction  between  prece- 

dent iambs  and  spondees.  The  rule  is  to  have  a precedent  iamb,  and  a spondee 

is  always  exceptional ; but  in  It.  it  is  a very  rare  exception  ; in  Mbh.  a very 

common  exception. 

8 Analogous  to  the  freedom  in  tristubhs  we  might  expect  to  find  also  cases 
of  catalectic,  or  more  properly  abridged,  floka-padas,  such  as,  e.  g.,  pura£  cakrc 
dvipadah,  BAU.  ii,  6,  18  (cakaral);  but  I have  not  noticed  any  such  epic 
padas. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


253 


patkyii : 

auubhuyatam  ayaiii  virah,  Nala,  2,  9 
first  vipula : 

prakrtir  gunan  vikurute,  xii,  314,  15 
second  vipula : 

katbam  Arstiseno  bhagavan,  ix,  40,  1 
tliird  vipula : 

navanltapankab  ksirodah,  xiii,  80,  6 
fourth  vipula  : 

qavanagatam  na  tyajeyam,  v,  12,  16 

The  regular  hypermeter  thus  coincides  in  its  opening  with 

the  irregular  and  unusual  octosyllabic  pada,  w w _ 

For  instance,  akrtavranah  §ubhair  vakyaih,  v,  184,  14,  is 
hypermetric,  while  apakarinam  main  viddhi,  xiii,  96,  7,  is  an 
acatalectic  pada ; for  which  reason,  probably,  the  latter  is  so 
rare. 

Such  hypermeters  are  not  unusual  in  the  Mahabliarata  and 
Ramayana,  though  more  frequent  in  the  former,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  mass,  but  in  the  same  amount  of  matter.  They 
seem  to  be  at  times  rather  affected  by  the  later  epic  poets ; 
perhaps  to  give  an  appearance  of  antiquity,  whereby,  as  often, 
the  effect  is  overdone.  I know  at  least  of  no  passage  in  either 
epic  where,  as  in  Harivanija,  1,  3,  54,  and  87,  and  91,  and  108, 
four  hypermeters  can  be  found  in  the  space  of  fifty  odd  glokas. 
They  are  common  too  in  the  Puranas. 

Certain  phrases  are  apt  to  appear  in  this  form.  The  com- 
monest is  abhivadayanti  or  some  similar  derivative,  which 
often  introduces  hypermeters  in  glokas  (as  also  in  tristubhs). 
Thus,  for  example : 

abhivadayanti  bhavatlm,  v,  90,  98 
abhivadayanti  vrddhahQ  ca,  v,  47,  16 
abhivadaye  tvaih  rajendra,  iii,  291,  37 
abhivadaye  tvam  bhagavan,  iii,  207,  13  and  R.  iii, 

11,72 

abhivaditah  kanlyobhih,  iii,  257,  8 
abhivadya  cai  ’naiii  vidhivat,  v,  179,  13 


254 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


abhivadayitva  qirasa,  v,  176,  28 
abhivadaylta  vrddbanq  ca,  xiii,  104,  65 
abhivadayisye  hrste  ’ti,  xiv,  68,  19 
abhivadayamas  tvam  sarvah,  R.  vii,  49,  15 

Although  avamanyase  xnarh  nrpate,  y,  189,  22,  might  sug- 
gest the  possibility  of  pronouncing  omanyase,  and  abhiva- 
denti  in  the  examples  above,  yet  this  explanation  is  almost 
excluded  by  the  fact  that  parallel  examples,  in  overwhelming 
majority,  admit  of  no  such  solution.  Many  of  the  cases  have 
been  collected  by  Gildermeister  in  his  excellent  article  in  the 
fifth  volume  of  the  Zeitschrift  fur  die  Kunde  des  Morgen- 
landes,  p.  269.1  It  is  easy  to  add  many  parallel  examples. 
Thus  abhisektukamas  tarn  raja,  G.  ii,  74,  55,  is  a parallel  to 
abhisektukamam  nrpatim,  Mbh.  i,  85,  19,  and  §aranagatam 
is  an  opening  used  repeatedly,  e.  g.,  v,  178,  9;  viii,  90,  112; 
xiii,  32,  2 and  34  (but  in  38  b,  caranagatasaksanam).2  Some 
difference  of  texts  is  to  be  noticed.  Thus  in  xiii,  93,  119, 
§aranagatam  hantu  sa  vai,  C.  omits  vai,  an  impossible  pada. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  xiii,  94,  27,  anrtau  vratl  jatl  cai  ’va, 
of  C.  4,573  is  converted  into  anrtau  ca  vratl  cai  ’va.  So  in 
G.  v,  63,  2,  abhayarh  dadami  te  vira;  but  in  B.,  abliayam 
te  pradasyami.  The  commonest  words  thus  employed,  owing 
perhaps  merely  to  opportunity,  are  abhivadayanti,  or  an  equiv- 
alent, Qaranagata0,  and  Janamejaya.  Those  mentioned  by 
Benfey,  in  the  notes  to  his  Chrestomathie,  are  chiefly  of  the 
same  character,  but  he  also  adduces  long  initials,  of  which 
I shall  speak  presently.  Although,  as  shown  above,  any 
form  of  vipula  or  a pathya  may  contain  the  hypermetric  pada, 
and  the  fourth  vipula  is  very  common,  yet  the  pathya  is  the 
usual  place  for  it,  so  that  the  last  may  be  regarded  as  itself 
the  pathya  or  regular  form  of  this  irregularity. 

Besides  the  cases  noticed  by  others,  to  which  references 
will  be  found  loc.  cit.,  Janamejaya,  abhisaryamanam,  aditir 

1 Compare  also  Jacobi,  Das  Jtamayana,  p.  24  and  in  the  Gurupujakaumudi. 

2 In  v,  12, 16,  and  10  (cited  above),  faranagata  'smi  te  brahman,  and  faranii- 
gatarh  na  tyajeyam,  respectively.  But  in  v,  16,  33,  yaranaiii  tvam  prapanno 
'smi. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


255 


ditih,  balavat  sapat-,  upajlvanam,  vrsallpatih,  purusam  tv 
idanlm,  arunodaye,  tam  aham  smayann  iva  rane  (one  of  the 
repeated  phrases,  v,  179,  22,  etc.),  atithivratl  (also  repeated, 
hi,  260,  4,  etc.),  akrtavranaprabhrtayah  (repeated  opening, 
v,  180,  17,  etc.),1  and  a few  more  hitherto  cited,  I add  with 
references : 

aparajito  jyotikaq  ca,  i,  35,  13 ; upagiyamana  narlbhih,  etc.,  ii, 
58,  36  (iii,  158,  83;  vii,  82,  28);  kapilavatam,  iii,  84,  31;  (kapi- 
lasya  goh,  xii,  269,  5)  ; bliagavan  anekaqah,  iii,  99,  39  ; 188,  9; 
viyunajmi  deliat,  iii,  142,  26;  paricSrakesu,  iii,  200,  9;  amitaujase, 
v,  4,  12 ; Suraanomukho  Dadhimukhah,  v,  103,  12  (in  i,  35,  8,  as 
Sumanakhyo  Dadhimukhah) ; krtakilbis&h,  v,  165,  22 ; purusah 
sanatanamayah,  vi,  21,  14  = 773,  v.  1. ; 2 madanugrahaya  para- 
mam,  vi,  35,  1 ; avamanyamano  yan  y&ti,  vii,  73,  30 ; arunam 
Sarasvatlm  prapya,  ix,  5,  51  ; Garudananah  kankamukhah,  ix, 
45,  83;  madadhisthitatvat  samare,  ix,  62,  18;  Qakune  vayarn 
sma  deva  vai,  xii,  300,  4;  avyaktarupo  bhagavan  qatadha  ca 
sahasradha,  qatadha  sahasradha  cai  ’va  tatha  qatasahasradha,  xii, 
315,  2;  tadanantaram  ca  Rudrasya,  xii,  319,  62;  aranl  mamantha 
brahmarsih,  xii,  325,  9;  Uqana  Brhaspatiq  cai  ’va,  xii,  336,  45; 
ayajad  dharim  surapatim,  xii,  338,  30 ; paramanubhuta  bhutva  tu, 
xii,  345,  15;  sahasa  jagrhatur  vedan,  xii,  348,  29;  tridaqas  tri- 
kaladhrk  karma,  xiii,  17,  62 ; animantrito  na  gaccheta,  xiii,  104, 
143;  Viduradayaq  ca,  xv,  3,  76;  atavlbalam,  xv,  7,  7;  Upada- 
navl  sutahl  lebhe,  H.  i,  32,  8 ; asatlm  Vapustamam  etam,  H.  3,  5, 
21;  dhvajinah  patakinaq  cai  ’va,  R.  v,  4,  20;  Amaravatlm  samar 
sadya,  R.  vii,  5,  26;  Yamalarjunau,  R.  vii,  6,  35;  Krtavan  Pra- 
cetasas  putrah,  R.  vii,  111,  11. 

It  will  be  observed  that  Yamalarjunau  and  Amaravatlm 
(these  Ramayana  passages  have  already  been  cited  by  Jacobi) 
are  exactly  of  the  same  type  as  are  dhvajinah  patakinah, 
abhivadaye,  and  abhisektukamah,  though  the  first  two  occur 
together  in  a late  addition  to  the  epic  and  the  other  three 
examples  are  in  the  body  of  the  work.  As  the  type  per  se 

1 These  are  complementary  references. 

2 Ends,  yatah  Krsnas  tato  jayah,  variant  on  the  older  phrase,  just  preced- 
ing, yato  dharmas  tato  jayah. 


256 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


is  old  (Upanishads),1  the  occurrence  of  hypermeters  denotes 
rather  lack  of  refinement  than  lack  of  antiquity,  so  that  the 
phenomena  as  a class  stand  parallel  to  the  care  or  careless- 
ness in  the  making  of  vipulas. 

When  on  two  short  syllables  a third  short  follows,  the 
phrase  is  rudely  adapted  to  metrical  needs.  Hence  aho 
manyata  for  ahar  amanyata  in  R.  iv,  35,  7.2  Some  excep- 
tions occur  to  mar  the  uniformity  of  the  phenomena,  but  for 
the  most  part  they  are  in  words  or  phrases  which  are  forced 
upon  the  poets  and  which  they  have  to  handle  as  best  they 
can.  So  we  find  a variant  on  the  daga  proverbs3  in  the 
form  dagacrotriyasamo  raja  ity  evam  Manur  abravlt,  i,  41,  31, 
where  there  are  two  departures  from  the  norm  and  the  verse 

is  a hypermetric  form  of  the  pathya  _ w w , ^ ^ ,4  A 

similar  case  occurs  in  R.  iii,  35,  9,  where  we  find  dagagrivo 
vingatibhujah.  Here  I can  scarcely  agree  with  Professor 
Jacobi  in  regarding  daga  as  monosyllabic  (Ram.,  p.  24).  So 
in  the  case  of  Dagakandhara-rajasunvok,  cited  by  the  same 
author  (in  Gurupuj,  p.  52)  from  iii,  290,  19,  which  is  like 
pratibodkaviditam  matam,  simply  liypermetric  but  answering 

to  the  type  ^ _ w w , _ ^ (not  to  be  read  as  Dagakand- 

hara,  as  Jacobi  suggests).  Either  this  or  the  explanation 
offered  below  of  suppressed  a seems  to  me  most  probable. 

Hypermeters  with  long  initial  syllable  are  sometimes  found. 
They  are  of  two  sorts  and  should  be  carefully  distinguished. 
The  first  is  where  the  pada  corresponds  exactly  to  those  just 
discussed  save  that  a long  syllable  takes  the  place  of  the  first 
brevis.  So  far  as  I know,  this  occurs  oidy  in  the  later  epic 
portions  (also  Puranic).  It  is  a clumsy  or  careless  form 
which,  induced  generally  by  proper  names,  regards  only  the 
mechanically  counted  syllables  and  entirely  disregards  the 

1 For  example,  pratibodhaviditam  matam,  Kena,  ii,  4 ; abhayaiii  titirsatam 
param  Katha,  iii,  2.  Gildermeister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  275. 

2 Compare  Bohtlingk,  loc.  cit.,  p.  214  ad  fin.  So  puno  pi,  Gath JL  and  Pali. 

8 Compare  xii,  108,  10,  dagai  ’va  tu  sada  ’caryah  grotriyan  atiricyatc  ; xiii, 
105,  14,  daga  ’caryan  upadhyayah. 

4 The  partial  parallel,  uttarayanam  from  Manu  vi,  10,  cited  by  Gilder- 
meister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  272,  is  a later  text  for  turayanam  (sec  Jolly’s  text). 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


257 


essence  of  the  hypermetric  light  dissyllable.  This  consists  in 
a mora  measurement  of  two  breves,  or  light  syllables,  as  a 
substitute  for  one  long  vowel  or  heavy  syllable,  which  is  im- 
possible in  padas  that  have  such  initials  as 

Ekata-Dvita-Trit&j  co  ’cuh,  xii,  337,  20 
Aqvamedhikaiii  saimlsitdya,  xviii,  278,  corrected  in 
B.  6,  G9  to  asadya.1 

Naimisaranye  kulapatih,  H.  1,  1,  4 (C.  11) 
daksinayanaiii  smrta  r&trih,  H.  1,  8,  9 e a 

Where  a short  vowel  follows  (as  in  other  parallel  cases 
mentioned  hereafter)  it  is  practically  suppressed.  So  astlriny 
antarato  daruni,  BAU.  iii,  9,  28  (asthlny  antar  ’to)  3 and  in 
the  epic: 

paksivanararutajiiaiq  ca,  i,  70,  45  (van  ’ra), 

or  the  two  breves  must  be  read  as  a mora-equivalent.  It  is  a 
mark  of  the  popular  style,  as  in  Agni  Purana,  iii,  11,  biblirata 
kamandalam  purnam;  ib.  x,  28,  brahmana  Dagarathena  tvam. 
Prefixed  extra  metrum  is  aum  in  xii,  348,  38,  aum,  namas  te 
brahmahrdaya,  and  elsewhere. 

The  cases  of  long  initial  cited  from  the  older  epic  are  of 
quite  different  character  from  the  form  with  initial  long. 
The  supposed  parallel  from  Manu  vi,  10,  adduced  by  Gilder- 
meister,  and  cited  above,  being  removed  in  the  revised  text, 
there  remain  only  a few  padas  of  entirely  different  formation. 
Instead  of  having  a long  syllable  prefixed  they  follow  a dis- 
tinct type  of  tristubh.  The  pada  does  not  begin  with  a long 
syllable  and  then  continue  with  a short,  but  begins  with  two 
long  vowels  or  heavy  syllables,  or  a short  followed  by  a long : 

(a)  retodhah  putra  unnayati,  i,  74,  111 ; H.  1,  32, 12 

(b)  Bhlsmo  vasunam  anyatamah,  v,  185,  18 

(c)  Qraddham  pitrbhyo  na  dadati,4  v,  33,  35 

1 Compare  Amaravatim  samasadya,  v.  1.  asadya,  B.  vii,  5,  26. 

2 In  Manu  i,  67,  ratrih  syad  daksinayanam.  Compare  the  similar  “ Pur- 
anic  ” verse,  daksinena  ’ryamnah  panthanam,  cited  above,  p.  6,  note  2. 

3 Compare  the  subsequent  padas  : retasa  iti  ma  vocata : dlianaruha  iva  vai 
vrksah,  though  here  we  may  read  a(h)  4-  i = e,  as  also  occasionally  in  epic 
verse. 

4 Cited  by  Gildermeister,  loc.  cit.,  p.  273. 

17 


258 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


One  ease  (cited  like  these  by  Jacobi)  is  found  in  the  later 
Ramayana,  vii,  21,  14, 

samtaryamanan  Vaitaranlm 

with  the  first  syllable  short  and  second  long,  e.  g.,  v,  43,  11, 
(d)  katham  samrddham  asamrddham 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  caesura  is  after  the  fifth  syllable. 
The  forms  in  the  corresponding  (a,  b,  c,  d)  tristubh  padas, 
where  the  initial  length  is  indifferent,  may  be  illustrated  by : 

(a)  na  cen  mam  Jisnur  | ahvayita  sabhayam 

(b)  amantraye  tvam  | bruhi  jayam  rape  me 

(c)  yasya  ’vibhaktam  | vasu  rajan  sahayaih 

(d)  samanam  murdhni  | rathayanam  viyanti 

Many  cases  of  these  forms  will  be  shown  in  the  next  section 
on  tristubhs.  The  two  formations  are  evidently  identical ; but 
what  occurs  passim  in  the  tristubh  is  sporadic  in  the  gloka. 
The  pada  in  each  case  consists  of  a complex  of  two  metrical 

groups,  )=l  _ sd  _ m and  _ u w _ or  v ^ 1 

An  extra  syllable  in  the  posterior  pada  is  indicative  merely 
of  late  carelessness  under  the  power  exerted  by  names  and 
titles  which  are  hard  to  coerce  into  normal  metrical  form ; as 
in  the  spurious  verse  cited  by  Professor  Jacobi  from  R.  vi, 
105,  10,  Hiranyareta  divakarah.  Such  cases  as  Pulastyovaca 
rajanam  or  Laksmanas  tu  tatovaca  indicate  not  a precedent 
hypermeter  but  the  looseness  of  epic  sandhi.  They  are  very 
common. 

There  is,  however,  a more  regular  interior  hypermeter  which 
is  old.  Thus  in  Katha  Upanishad,  vi,  8 and  vi,  11,  respect- 
ively, we  find 

avyaktat  tu  parah  purusah 
apramattas  tada  bhavati 

1 The  references  for  the  tristubh  padas  will  be  given  below.  The  pada 
cited  from  the  Mahabhasya,  IS.  vol.  xiii,  p.  459,  avidvahsah  pratyabhivade 
is  without  parallel,  I believe,  in  the  epic.  The  same  rule  appears  in  Manu  ii, 
123  with  abhivada,  which  may  have  stood  here  originally,  unless  abhi  was 
monosyllabic. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


259 


It  was  suggested  by  Gildermeister,  loc.  cit.  p.  274,  that  in 
such  instances  in  the  epic,  bhavati  might  be  read  as  two  syl- 
lables, but  he  seems  inclined  to  reject  the  notion.  Professor 
Jacobi,  on  the  other  hand,  favors  this  reading,  and  says  of 
such  cases,  “All  is  in  order  if  one  pronounces  bhavati  as 
bhoti  ” (Gurupuj.,  p.  52).  But  he  is  forced  to  add  immedi- 
ately, “It  is  more  difficult  to  decide  how  one  could  have 
managed  with  kimsvit  suptaiii  na  nimisati  and  katham  sam- 
rddham  asamrddham.” 

The  explanation  lies,  I think,  in  the  fact  that  mora- 
measurement  was  at  work  in  syllabic  verse.  This  is  very  clear 
in  tristubh ; in  fact,  it  is  the  only  possible  explanation  for  a 
mass  of  forms  which  from  a syllabic  point  of  view  are  wildly 
irregular  but  with  this  admission  of  mora-measurement  are 
easily  understood.  The  <jloka  cases  are  generally  found  at 
the  end  of  padas,  where  ccesura  aids  the  reading  of  two  breves 
as  equivalent  to  one  long.  In  the  case  of  bhavati  itself  and 
a few  similar  forms,  where  we  know  that  bhoti  or  hoti  is  a 
dialectic  equivalent,  there  is,  to  be  sure,  no  great  objection  to 
reading  bhavati  as  bhoti,  but  the  general  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  as  a class  is  not  that  ^ ^ is  contracted , for  some 
of  the  intervening  consonants  would  make  tills  impossible, 
but  measured  as  the  metrical  equivalent  of  one  long.  In  the 
examples  above  bhavati  and  purusah  and  nimisati  are  thus 
parallel  cases.  In  Katha  iii,  5-6,  both  padas  are  hypennetric  : 

yas  tv  avijnanavan  bhavaty 
ayuktena  manasa  sada 
yas  tu  vijnanavan  bhavati 
yuktena  manasa  sada 

I see  no  reason  to  separate  these  cases  from  their  epic  ana- 
logues.1 Here  we  have  the  oft-cited  examples  of  prior  padas 
ending  in  -triyo  bhavati,  priyo  bhavati,  nivartayitum,  unnayati, 
iii,  313,  45-48.2  In  the  cases  cited  above  from  this  passage, 

1 For  more  examples  from  the  Upanishads,  compare  Gildermeister,  loc. 
cit.,  p.  275,  ff. 

2 The  irregular  use  of  svit  in  this  passage  probably  explains  the  impossible 
pada,  kena  [svid]  dvitiyavan  bhavati,  ib.  47.  In  the  following  question,  svit 


260 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


313,  61,  and  from  v,  43,  11,  the  same  principle  is  extended, 
exactly  as  we  shall  see  it  in  tristubh  verse,  where  the  second 
foot  after  the  first  dipody,  m may  be  resolved  from 

into  h/  w ^ So  here,  kirn  svit  suptarh  na  nimisati 

may  be  on  the  tristubh  model, w,  uuuu,  which 

passes  into  and  appears  as , vw,  as  in  the 

tristubh,  v,  16,  5,  prapte  kale  pacasi  punah  samiddhah,  tvam 
eva  ’gne  bhavasi  punah  pratistha.  So  we  shall  find  labhate 
in  a tristubh,  where  it  must  be  equal  to  ^ _,  just  as  in  the 
cloka  of  the  Dhammapada,  No.  131,  we  find  pecca  so  na 
labhate  sukham,  where  the  two  breves  must  be  measured  as 
one  long  (so  the  MSS.,  but  changed  in  the  new  text),  but  is 
not  contracted  (compare  in  prior,  prajapatig  carasi  garbhe, 
P ragna  ii,  7 ; grig  ca  prajnaih  ca  vidhehi  nah,  ib.  13). 

A very  interesting  phase  of  this  question  is  the  relation  of 
the  Sanskrit  to  the  Pah.  We  have  a proverb  in  R.  ii, 
103,  30, 

yadannah  puruso  bhavati  tadannas  tasya  devatali, 

which  Professor  Lanman  at  the  Meeting  of  the  Oriental  Society 
in  1899  argued  was  from  the  Pah  form  because  there  lioti 
actually  occurs  in  the  same  proverb.1  But  against  the  cer- 
tainty (thougli  not  the  probability)  of  this  conclusion  stand 
the  facts  that  the  form  of  the  verb  is  undetermined  in  Pah 
and  the  hypermeter  of  this  sort  is  just  as  common  there  as  in 
Sanskrit.  It  is  clear,  for  example,  that  in  such  verses  as  na 
tena  bhikkhu  hoti,  Dhammapada  266,  must  be  read  (as  the 
text  now  stands)  bhavati  (compare  tatrayam  adi  bhavati,  sic, 
hr  375,  and  in  other  verses  of  the  same  collection)  ; while  on 
the  other  hand,  in  387,  sannadclho  khattiyo  tapati  (=  tap’ti) 
stands  parallel  to  similar  uncontractile  forms  in  Sanskrit  gloka 

is  omitted,  as  it  should  be  here.  The  other  cases  are  all  parallel  to  kena  svic 
chrotriyo  bhavati,  frutena  jrotriyo  bhavati,  47-48. 

1 Since  publishing  an  article  on  the  Parallel  Proverbs  of  the  two  epics  in 
A.  J.  Phil.,  vol.  xx,  p.  22,  ff.,  I have  found  a parallel  to  this  yadannah  proverb 
in  the  Mahabharata,  viz.  yadanna  hi  nara  rajans  tadannas  tasya  devatali,  where 
tasya  is  still  preserved  though  the  plural  noun  precedes ! It  is  (of  course) 
from  the  careless  pseudo-epic,  xiii,  66,  61. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


261 


and  tristubh  forms.  There  is  then  no  real  necessity  for 
changing  the  latter  to  kliatyo  (a  possible  form.) 

Nevertheless,  in  the  case  of  bliavati  itself,  which  like  bhos 
may  have  been  current  as  bhoti  in  Sanskrit  as  well  as  in 
dialectic  form,  the  latter  may  have  been  used,  and  a dual 
pronunciation  may  be  accepted  and  given  as  a probable  reason 
for  its  frequent  recurrence  in  apparent  hypermeters.1  In 
other  words,  padas  with  this  word  may  possibly  not  be  true 
hypermeters,  as  must  be  other  forms  which  are  not  thus  con- 
tracted or  contractile.  That  a hoti  in  Pali  may  stand  for 
an  original  bliavati,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  Dhammap. 
260  with  Mbh.  iii,  133,  11 : 

na  tena  thero  hoti  [bliavati]  yen’  assa  plialitaiii  siro 
na  tena  sthaviro  bhavati  yena  ’sya  palitam  qirah 

Compare  Manu  ii,  156,  na  tena  vrddho  bhavati  (v.  1.  sthaviro 
in  some  of  the  commentators).  Another  of  these  numerous 
bhavati  proverbs  is  found  in  Dhammap.  268,  na  monena  muni 
hoti,  Mbh.  v,  43,  60,  maunan  na  sa  munir  bhavati.2 

Dialectic  Sanskrit. 

Accepting  bhoti  (=  hoti)  as  a possible  dialectic  Sanskrit 
form,  I have  next  to  show  that  the  masa  for  masa  principle,  as 
illustrated  in  the  paragraph  above,  is  subject  to  an  important 
restriction.  It  would  be  quite  wrong  to  suppose  that  the 
mass  of  grammatical  irregularities  are  of  a form  entirely 
arbitrary,  or  that,  in  general,  a grammatical  modification  that 
is  found  repeatedly  in  one  category  may  be  utilized  for 
metrical  purposes  in  any  other  of  the  same  outer  appearance. 
I say  in  general,  because  I admit  that  here  and  there  in  the 
epic  occur  grammatical  monstrosities  and  forms  not  subject  to 
metre,  though  irregular,  but  what  is  of  moment  is  that  most  of 
the  grammatical  irregularities  in  the  epic  are  merely  dialectic 

1 Thus  xii,  233,  12,  fariram  frayanad  bhavati,  murtimat  soda^atmakam, 
and  often. 

2 On  the  variant  to  the  yadannah  proverb  contained  in  the  words  yaccittas 
tanmayo  bhavati,  see  p.  42. 


262 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


variations.  For  this  reason  in  the  paragraph  above,  headed 
Poetic  Licence,  I have  been  careful  to  state  that  the  modi- 
fications were  those  of  Sanskrit  forms,  not  that  they  were 
absolute  alterations  of  received  forms,  independent  of  any 
grammatical  basis.  I believe  the  latter  cases  to  be  exces- 
sively rare,  while  on  the  contrary  there  is  some  sort  of  gram- 
matical authority  for  most  of  the  changes  so  abundantly 
introduced.  Metre  surpasses  Sanskrit  grammar  but  not 
grammar  altogether.  What  then?  Where  Sanskrit  gram- 
mar fails,  the  poets  had  recourse  to  patois.1 

As  I have  already  shown,  a large  majority  of  the  cases 
under  consideration  are  comprised  Under  the  head  of  feminine 
participles  and  first  plurals  of  verbs,  with  a smaller  number  of 
various  forms.2 

Some  of  these,  like  brumi,  are  at  once  dialectic  and  yet 
accepted  as  Sanskrit.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not 
regard  kurmi,  Gatha  kurumi,  in  tatha  kurrni  and  kim  kurrnl  ’ti 
krtanjalih,  iii,  142,  44 ; H.  3,  14,  12,  as  on  a par  with  brumi. 
The  latter  occurs  not  only  in  R.  vi,  9,  20  (where  G.  reads 
bravlmi,  v,  80,  22),  but  also  in  R.  ii,  19,  4 ; iii,  13,  17 ; iv,  7, 
14.  So  R.  ii,  12,  36,  anjalirii  kurmi;  vii,  78,  20,  aharaih  gar- 
hitarn  kurmi.  So  too  vedmi  and  dadini,  e.  g.,  R.  ii,  53,  21 ; 
vi,  124, 17,  aham  apy  atra  te  dadnii,  which  in  the  later  Bharata 
is  more  and  more  frequent.  Others  appear  to  be  gross  viola- 
tions of  grammar,  like  °nati  and  vidusah,  nominative,  as  in 
parallel  forms,  tasthusam  purusam,  xii,  317,  17,  etc.,3  but  they 
may  be  not  only  Veclic  but  dialectic,  as  Pali  °2ti  and  vidu 
(=  vidvan)  may  imply.  Doubtless  some  are  pure  archaisms, 

1 So  far  as  I know,  this  important  subject  has  only  been  touched  upon  in 
a note  by  Kielhorn,  JR  AS.,  1898,  p.  18,  who  says  : “ In  the  so-called  epic 
Sanskrit  there  are  not  a few  forms  and  constructions  which  seem  to  me  to  be 
Pali  rather  than  Sanskrit.” 

2 Lengthening  of  a vowel  metri  gratia  is  called  arsam  almost  invariably 
by  the  commentators.  Some  of  the  cases  are  really  archaic ; others  are 
clearly  a sacrifice  of  form  to  metre,  generally  for  the  diiambus,  as  in  K.  v, 
30,  21,  sukhaniim  ucito  nityam  asukhanam  anucitah. 

8 To  Prof.  Holtzmann’s  list  I add  (the  reduplicated  forms,  § 803)  tasthusi, 
x,  8,  70,  and  nedusam  (apsarasam),  ix,  67,  08. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION-. 


263 


as  in  vi§va,  lack  of  augment,  va  for  iva,  and  varying  final  vowel 
length  (atha  pari,  na,  etc.) ; but  when  we  consider  that  the 
participle  is  indifferently  bhavatl  and  bhavantl,  and  that  the 
first  plural  verb  ends  regularly  in  ma  hi  all  forms,1  that,  for 
instance,  asma  is  regular,  we  shall  hesitate  to  speak  of  any 
general  grammar-sacrifice  save  that  of  Sanskrit.  Thus  krft- 
mati  (for  kram)  is  Prakrit.3  In  the  older  epic,  arbitrary 
changes  were  not  introduced  at  will,  but  dialectic  forms  were 
borrowed.  Even  upasante  for  upiisate  (compare  the  older 
hihsate  for  hinste,  R.  iv,  53,  16)  is  merely  a dialectic  change  of 
conjugation,  just  as  is  the  case  with  the  forms  dadanti, 
jahanti  (compare  Dhammap.,  hiiisati  and  dadanti,  okam  okaiii 
jahanti  te,  etc.).  These  forms,  it  is  important  to  observe,  can- 
not be  explained  on  the  assumption  that  epic  Sanskrit  precedes 
the  differentiation  of  correct  (Sanskrit)  and  vulgar  (Prakrit) 
forms,  because,  were  that  the  case,  they  would  appear  passim ; 
whereas  they  appear  usually,  as  in  svapami  for  svapimi  and 
grhya  for  grlhtva  (cited  above,  pp.  205,  247),  only  when 
the  metre  requires  them.  Take,  for  instance,  the  clear  case 
of  patois,  geha  for  grha.  It  occurs  in  iii,  69  (Nala  17), 
15-16  to  prevent  a diiambus  at  the  end  of  a prior  pada  (though 
grha  is  used  in  the  preceding  verse) ; again  at  v,  36,  34,  to 
prevent  the  minor  Ionic ; in  ii,  68, 1,  to  prevent  a third  vipula 
from  following  a brevis,  bliavanti  gehe  bandhakyah;  in  iii, 
303,  13,  to  prevent  an  anapaest,  mama  gehe  maya  ca  ’sya 
(for  the  same  reason  in  R.  vii,  68,  20)  ; in  xii,  336,  25,  to 
avoid  triiambus  in  an  even  pada.  Dialectic  are  further,  in  all 
probability,  the  exchange  of  weak  and  strong  perfect  forms 

1 The  change  is  not  really  grammatical  but  phonetic,  as  Dr.  Thorp  has 
shown,  since  the  preterite  is  not  used  for  the  present  but  the  primary  ending 
is  reduced  from  mas  to  ma  (and  may  be  contracted,  as  in  na  janlme  ’ty  atlia 
'bruvan,  y,  120,  21). 

3 Pischel,  Grammatik  der  Prakrit  Sprachen,  § 481.  For  svapami,  compare 
ib.,  § 497 ; for  asiya  as  na  syat,  § 464 ; for  neuter  instead  of  masc.,  § 357. 
Professor  Pischel’s  mine  of  wealth  came  to  hand  only  after  this  book  had 
gone  to  press,  or  I could  have  given  a more  systematic  as  well  as  fuller  treat- 
ment of  a comparison  based  chiefly  on  Sanskrit  and  Pali,  and  such  few  dia- 
lectic forms  as  chance  furnished.  But  I think  the  more  the  epic  is  studied 
the  more  Prakrit  will  be  found. 


264 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


and  perfects  without  reduplication,  when  needed  for  metre, 
akarsatuh,  i,  153,  44 ; bibheduh,  viii,  82, 16  (to  avoid  a brevis 
before  a second  vipula) ; the  exchange  of  nominative  and 
accusative,  ausadhayah  (acc.),1  though  this  is  also  Vedic. 

But  the  epic  took  long  in  making,  and  while  the  earlier 
poets  drew  on  dialectic  forms  (thereby  creating  a sort  of 
Gatha  dialect,  though  not  so  gross  as  the  genuine  article),  the 
later  poets  did  exactly  what  the  later  Greek  hexameter  poets 
did,  viz.,  copied  their  predecessors  instead  of  borrowing  from 
the  life.  Consequently  they  made  blunders.  The  early  poets, 
for  example,  used,  metri  causa,  optative  for  indicative,  viii,  89, 
22,  and  often  (as  in  late  Upanishads,  e.  g.,  (Jvet.  v,  5)  a vulgar 
confusion;  and  ma  for  mas  and  dadanti  for  dadati;  because 
they  knew  that  these  were  spoken  forms,  if  not  the  polite  forms 
(which  they  used  by  preference  when  convenient) ; but  the 
later  poetaster  knew  only  that  the  old  epic  poets  had  mixed 
up  ma  and  mas  and  anti  and  ati,  and  so  he  used  the  un- 
Sanskrit  forms  not  only  more  frequently  but  more  incorrectly. 
Thus  he  said  apaQyamas,  ix,  1,  20,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  use 
bhavati  for  bhavanti,  of  course  only  in  the  later  epic,  as  in  iii, 
211,  9 (a  late  chapter,  above,  p.  34),  anyonyarh  na  ’tivartante 
samyak  ca  bhavati , dvija.  Compare  the  wisdom  to  be  learned 
at  Mithila,  in  the  preceding  copy  of  Valmiki’s  proverb,  striyo 
hy  avadhyah  sarvesam  ye  dharmam  abhivindate,  iii,  206,  46 
(na  hantavya  striya  iti,  vii,  143,  67).  So  in  xiii,  145,  20 
(alpabuddhayah),  bubhusate  (for  diiambus)  ; and,  in  the  later 
Ramayana,  prajas  tarn  anuvartate,  R.  vii,  43,  19  (v.  62,  9, 
interpolated?  above,  p.  245). 

1 Both  in  Mhb.,  pusnamy  ausadhayah  sarvah,  i,  78,  40 ; and  R.  draksyasy 
osadhayo  diptah,  vi,  74,  32.  Compare  sarvah  prakrtayah  fanaih  . . . sam- 
jahara  (Jatugrha  Parvan)  and  ib.  145,  4 ; with  R.  vi,  112,  19,  santvayitva 
prakrtayah.  Carelessness  in  the  length  of  vowels  in  declension  is  also  a mark 
of  patois  (epic  examples  above).  The  Ramayana  has  some  genders  which 
may  be  dialectic.  They  certainly  are  not  Sanskrit : parikhan  (!)  purayanta? 
ca,  R.  vi,  42,  16 ; ciksipur  vividhan  sastran  (!),  R.  vi,  53,  20  (both  lacking  as 
such  in  pw.),  etc.  As  remarked  above,  some  of  this  maybe  scribe’s  work. 
Thus  yada  veda?rutir  nasta,  xii,  340,  105 ; veda9rutim  yatha,  G.  iv,  6,  4 ; but 
in  R.  6,  5,  nastiim  deva9rutim  (“arsa”)  iva.  But  merely  for  metre  is  dosam 
for  dosah,  R.  v,  28,  5 ; G.  vi,  33,  30. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


265 


In  the  careless  writing  of  the  pseudo-epic,  Sanskrit  grammar 
is  flung  to  the  winds.  I do  not  mean  that  irregular  forms  are 
not  foimd  outside  of  it.  Substitution  of  the  a-conjugation  is 
found  in  adad&t,  iii,  173,  8 ; 275,  40 ; ix,  51, 10 ; though  the  last 
is  an  evident  interpolation,  and  as  the  forms  are  not  required 
metrically  in  the  other  cases  it  is  still  open  to  question 
whether  they  do  not  contain  just  such  copy-slips  as  are  found, 
e.  g.,  in  the  Vayu  Purana,  where  viii,  1 63  has  vyadadhiit  pra- 
bliuh,  while  165  has  adadat  prabhuh.  The  cases  in  the  older 
epic  are,  however,  not  frequent  (in  xi,  25,  5,  jali&ti  is  3d  sg.), 
but  in.  the  late  epic  they  flourish  like  reeds  (compare  jahanti 
in  i,  172,  8;  dadanti  in  xii,  25,  7 ; 341,  16;  xiii,  62,  46,  etc.), 
and  it  is  just  here  that  new  irregularities  are  found.  Thus 
vigvedevan  apnoti,  xii,  318,  5;  vigvedevebhyah,  xiii,  97,  14. 
Even  such  a syntactical  monstrosity  as  the  Gathaism  iti  vai 
menire  vayam  (with  similar  cases  there)  is  not  shmined,  xii, 
337,  38,  to  say  nothing  of  the  syntactical  confusion  hi  a§vi- 
bliyam  pataye  cai  ’va  marutam  pataye  tatha,  xii,  341, 103.  In 
the  thirteenth  book,  besides  kurvanas,  xiii,  17,  131,  we  find 
smahe,  xiii,  1,  13 ; 93,  41 ; stam  for  astam,  ib.  98,  7 ; the  first 
instance  of  a finite  negative  verb,1  another  Gathaism  (compare 
ajanehi  for  ma  janaya),  afterwards  somewhat  affected : drgyate 
'drgyate  ca  ’pi,  xiii,  14,  160.  Here  also,  another  Gathaism, 
the  popularized  change  of  the  r-declension,  apaharta  and 
harta  (together  with  Atharva,  wliich,  however,  is  in  late  Upa- 
nishads,  Mund.  i,  1,  epic  atharvaya  namah),  srastaraya  namah, 
ib.  309-310  and  313-314.  So  etan  for  etani,  xiii,  62,  55. 
Such  neologisms  go  far  beyond  the  current  interchange  in 
upasante  and  vilasinyah  (acc.),2  also  found  here,  xiii,  104, 19; 

1 With  the  infinitive,  e.  g.,  xv,  11, 15,  na  ’datum.  The  negative  finite  verb 
(given  here  in  C.,  and  required  by  the  sense)  is  not  recognized  in  the  grammars 
as  occurring  before  the  classical  period. 

2 In  Gita  10,  16  and  19,  atmavibhutayah  may  be  nominative.  The  form  as 
acc.  can  scarcely  be  a Vedic  reversion.  The  Gita  still  uses  no  = na  u,  and  so 
in  iii,  34, 11 : but  in  xiii,  51,  10,  yad  etad  api  no  mulyam,  no  is  simply  late  and 
careless  for  na.  Editors  or  copyists  have  tried  to  change  bhavati  and  acc., 
the  text  in  C.  xv,  376  (=  11,  21),  but  they  cannot  in  xiii,  62,  30,  and  in  bhumir 
bhavati  bhumidam,  it  still  governs  the  accusative. 


266 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


107,  39,  and  bring  us  into  the  field  of  slovenly  adaptation 
from  any  source,  which  characterizes  the  slipshod  Sanskrit  of 
later  epic  and  Puranas  alike. 

Prose-Poetry  Tales. 

In  the  Verhandlungen  dcr  Philologenversammlung  in  Gera , 
1878,  attention  was  called  by  Professor  Windisch  to  a “pre- 
epic phase  of  poetry,”  consisting  of  prose  narration  inter- 
spersed with  gathas  or  verses  of  popular  form  which  helped 
on  the  story.  One  epic  tale,  which  has  gone  over  into  later 
verse-form,  has  been  shown  by  Professor  Oldenberg,-  in  his 
article  on  the  old-Indic  Akhyana,1  to  exist  in  a prototype  of 
this  kind.  Such  mingling  of  prose  and  verse,  as  remarked 
by  the  latter  writer,  is  found  in  the  epic  itself,  in  i,  3.  There 
is  also,  though  not  of  epic  content,  a kind  of  rhythmic  prose 
which  is  half  metrical,  as  in  xii,  190,  5 If.:  tatra  yat  satyaih 
sa  dharmo,  yo  dharmah  sa  prakago,  yah  prakagas  tat  sukkam 
iti  . . . yat  tamas  tad  duhkham  iti,  atro  ’cyate  (tliree  glokas) ; 
tat  khalu  dvividkarh  sukham  ucyate  (.  . . to  13) : susukliah 
pavanah  svarge,  gandhag  ca  surabhis  tatlia,  etc.  Here  the 
epic  Upanishad  glides  in  and  out  of  metre,  the  last  verse  be- 
fore the  resumption  of  gloka  being  again  metrical,  in  a form 
of  tristubk  found  elsewhere  in  the  epic:  na  cai  ’te  dosah 
svarge  pradur  bhavanti. 

The  next  chapters  to  this  have  alternate  prose  and  glokas, 
the  latter  appearing  either,  as  at  the  end  of  191,  without  warn- 
ing, or  introduced  with  the  words  “ there ’s  a stanza  about 
that,”  bhavati  ca  ’tra  glokah.  In  192,  one  unannounced  gloka 
follows  the  introductory  prose,  then  more  prose,  and  with  the 
words  bhavanti  ca  ’tra  glokah  follow  one  gloka  and  two 
tristubhs.2  after  which  glokas  are  again  resumed. 

It  happens  that  a late  poet  runs  on  in  tristubhs  till  lie 

1 ZDMG.,  vol.  xxxvii,  p.  54  ff. 

2 The  §loka  here,  xii,  7006,  is  another  form  of  a proverb  given  elsewhere 
in  the  epic,  abhayarh  sarvabhutebhyo  dattva,  nnd  may  be  added  to  Spruche, 
485,  486.  Qlokah  here  scarcely  connotes  tristubhs  (as  in  the  Brahinanas),  but 
includes  them  with  the  jloka. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


267 


stumbles  and  ends  in  prose,  xii,  336, 10,  after  several  tristubhs: 
9vetiih  pumaiiso  gatasarvapapag  caksurmusah  papakrtam  nara- 
nam,  vajrasthikayah  samamanonmana  divya(n)  -vaya(va)ru- 
pah  9ubhasaropetah,  etc.,  in  pure  prose.  There  is,  further,  a 
good  deal  of  plain  prose  narration  in  the  first,  third,  and 
twelfth  books  and  in  a hymn  in  H.  3,  68  (praise  by  titles). 

But  a tale  of  the  prose- verse  variety  exists  complete  in  the 
story  of  the  Frog-girl,  iii,  192.  In  this  apparent  prose  there 
are  not  only  metrical  and  half-metrical  padas  and  lieinistichs, 
such  as  ramanlyam  saro  drstva,  but  even  regular  epic  padas, 
such  as  muda  paramaya  yutah,  the  latter  being  indeed  a stereo- 
typed epic  phrase,  as  in  iii,  256,  20 ; 295, 16.  The  verses  here, 
as  was  to  be  expected,  are  freer  than  in  the  regular  epic  style.1 

The  tale  begins : 

2.  atha  ’casta  Markandeyah  (apiirvam  idaih  qruyatam) 

The  opening  line  of  C.,  13,143,  is  not  in  B.  From  the 
openings  in  the  following  tales,  parv.  196  and  198,  the  phrase 
atha  ’casta  Markandeyah  was  stereotyped  and  united  with  the 
preceding,  thus : 

bhuya  eva  mahabhagyaih  kathyatam  iti  abravlt 
atha  ’casta  Markandeyah 

In  the  present  tale  the  former  appears  as:  bhuya  eva  brfih- 
manamahabhagyam  vaktum  arhasl  ’ti  abravlt. 

In  the  following  mixture  of  prose  and  metre  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  say  whether  the  rougher  metrical  parts  ought  to  be 
touched.  For  instance,  at  the  beginning,  Iksvakukulodvahah 
parthivah  Panksin  nama  mrgayam  agamat  may  have  been 
prosed  out  of  Iksvakukulavardhanah  Parlksin  nama  parthivah 
mrgayam  gatavan  nrpah,  or  some  such  turn.  So  in  the  next 
sentence,  tarn  eka9vena  mrgam  anusarantam,  from  tarn  a9vena 
’nusarantam ; while  for  the  ninth  stanza  or  paragraph  it  would 
be  a sin  of  omission  not  to  note  how  easy  it  is  to  read : atha 

1 In  another  case,  iii,  194,  the  section  begins  and  ends  in  prose,  but  has 
flokas  between,  the  last  hemistich  of  which,  before  the  narration  closes  in 

prose,  has  the  free  measure  cited  above,  p.  244, , ^ , 

^ ^ , etac  chrutva  tu  Kauravyah  £ibim  pradaksinam  krtva. 


268 


TIIE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


kanyaiii  gayantim  ca  puspani  ca  ’vacinvatlm ; apagyad,  atha  sa 
rajnah  samipatah  paryakrSmat ; all  with  freedom  not  unknown 
to  the  epic  gloka.  But  any  change  would  in  the  first  place  be 
pure  guesswork,  and  besides  why  should  glokas  have  become 
prose?  Again,  these  tales  are  built  with  prose  bricks  and 
metrical  mortar  and  it  is  not  strange  that  the  mortar  occasion- 
ally runs  over  the  brick.1  I therefore  abstain  except  in  two 
or  three  cases  (in  some,  as  will  be  seen,  where  the  length  of 
prose  invites  verse)  from  the  temptation  to  make  gloka  padas 
out  of  clauses  more  or  less  metrical,  and  write  the  story  as  it 
stands  (with  prose  omissions  as  indicated  below) : 

1-4,  Ayodhyayam  Iksvakukulodvahah  parthivah  Pariksin  nama 
mrgayam  agamat,  tam  ekagvena  mrgarn  anusarantam 

mrgo  duram  apaharat  (5,  prose) 

6,  ramanlyam  saro  drstva 
sagva  eva  vyagahata 

7,  madhuram  gltam  agrnot 

8,  sa  grutva  ’eintayan  ne  ’ha 
manusyagatim  pagyami 

kasya  khalv  ayam  gltagabda  iti.2  9,  atha  ’pagyat  kanyam  para- 
marupadarganlyam  puspany  avacinvatim  gayantim  ca,  atha  sa 
rajnah  samipe  paryakramat.  10,  tam  abravid  raja 

kasya  ’si  bhadre  ka  va  tvam  (iti)  3 
sa  pratyuvaca  kanya  ’smi  (iti) 

1 That  is  to  say,  as  in  the  case  given  in  the  last  note,  a more  or  less  regular 
verse  may  incidentally  and  accidentally  be  shaped  in  prose  narration  with- 
out its  being  intended  as  regular  verse,  though  the  poetic  style  of  the  en- 
vironment may  have  induced  such  prose-poetry  subconsciously.  As  for  the 
metaphor  above,  except  as  illustrating  my  meaning  very  roughly,  I cannot 
defend  it.  On  the  contrary,  as  the  verse-element  in  tales  was  fixed  and  used 
in  many  buildings,  while  the  prose  was  crumbled  up  and  renewed  in  each  new 
edifice  built  of  the  same  brick,  it  would  not  be  quite  unhistorical  to  invert  it 
and  speak  of  poetic  bricks  and  prose  mortar. 

2 Was  this  : kasya  khalu  ayam  $abdah "? 

8 This  or  ka  ’si  kasya  kuta?  ca  tvam  is  an  ordinary  epic  (verse)  formula. 
With  the  preceding,  compare  (SIta)  kusumany  apacinvanti  (prior  pada),  and 
kusumani  vicinvatl,  R.  iii,  42,  32  ; 43, 1. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


2G9 


tam  rajo  ’vaca  arthl  tvaya  ’ham  iti.1  11,  atho  ’vaca  kanyji 

samayena  ahaiii  qakya 
tvaya  labdhum  na  anyatha 

iti,  raja  tam  samayam  aprcchat,  kanyo  ’vaca 

no  ’dakam  me  darqayitavyam  (darqetavyam  ?) 

iti,  12,  sa  raja  tam  biidhain  ity  uktva  tam  upayeme,2 3  krtodvahaq 
ca  raja  Parlksit  krldamano 

muda  paramaya  yutah 8 

tusnim  samgamya  taya  saha  ’ste.  13,  tatas  tatrai  ’va  ’sine 
rajani  sena  ’nvagacchat(a).  14,  sa  seno  'pavistaiii  rajanam  pari- 
varya  ’tisthat,  paryaqvastaq  ca  raja  tayai  ’vasaha  qibikaya  prayad 
avaghotitaya  sva(iii)  nagaram  anuprapya  rabasi  taya  saha  ’ste.4 
15,  tatra  ’bhyaqastho  'pi  kaqcin  na  ’paqyad  atha  pradhaiuimatyo 
'bhyaqacaras  tasya  striyo  'prcchat.5  16,  kim  atra  prayojanaih 
vartate  (vartata)  ity,  atha  ’bruvahs  tah  striyah.6 

17,  apurvam  idam  paqyama 
udakam  na  ’tra  nlyata(e) 

ity,  atha  ’matyo  'nudakam  vanarii  karayitvo  ’daravrksam,  etc. 

18,  vanam  idam  udarakam 7 
sadhv  atra  ramyatam  iti 

1 Perhaps  samarthl  tvaya  bhadre  ’ham  (compare  33). 

2 More  natural  would  be  : sa  raja  badham  ity  uktva  tam  kanyam  upayeme 

ha. 

3 A regular  epic  phrase  in  various  forms,  muda,  sriya,  pritya,  etc.,  with 
yutah  or  yuktah,  according  to  the  pada.  Compare  the  references  above  and 
ii,  53,  23 ; Nala,  20,  40 ; ix,  27,  6 ; 36, 42 ; pritya  paramaya  yuktah,  ix,  55, 4 ; R. 
i,  52, 11,  etc. 

4 The  texts  give  ’nvagacchat  and  ’nvagacchata,  svanagaram  and  svaih 
nagaram.  This  may  point  to  a corruption.  Leaving  out  the  fine  palanquin  : 
tatas  tatrai  ’va’sine  (tul)  rajni  sena  ’nvagacchata  sa  (tu)  seno ’pavistam  (ha) 
parivarya  atisthata,  paryafvasta?  ca  (sa)  raja  anuprapya  svanagaram  rahasy 
aste  taya  saha.  The  long  stretch  of  prose  favors  this.  Compare  uvaca  ca 
taya  saha,  an  epic  phrase,  e.  g.,  i,  73,  20. 

8 There  is  no  object  to  the  first  verb.  Was  it  not : tatra  ’bhyaijastho  'pi 
ka£cin  rajanam  na  apafyata,  atha  pradhanamatyas  tu  tasya  striyah  aprcchata  ? 

6 The  more  probable  form  is  vartate  kim  prayojanam;  kim  prayojanam  is 
a regular  epic  close  of  a hemistich.  Compare  for  example,  xiii,  93,  81,  kasya 
’rthe,  kim  prayojanam. 

7 Sic,  B. ; C.,  udaram  anudakam. 


270 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


After  this,  prose  to  23-25, 

kruddho  ajnapayamasa  (sa  raja)  . . . 
yatha  vrttam  nyavedayan 

. . . 27,  iti,  §lokau  ca  ’tra  bhavatah  (28-29).  Compare  v, 
64,  5,  where,  although  the  whole  text  is  in  §lokas,  one  stanza 
is  especially  mentioned,  §lokena  ’nena,  Kauravya,  papraccha 
sa  munis  tada. 

30,  tam  evam  vadinam  istajanaqokaparltatma  raja  ’tho  ’vaca 

31,  na  hi  ksamyate  tan  maya 
hanisyamy  etan  etair  duratmabhih,  etc. ; prose  to 

32,  sa  tad  vakyam  upalabhya 
etc.,  prose  to  33. 

In  the  following  I omit  references  to  the  intervening  prose 
and  give  the  metrical  padas  in  their  order : 

33,  tam  abravld  raja  taya 
samarthl,1  sa  me  diyatam 

34,  athai  ’nam  rajne  pita  ’dad  2 
abravlc  ca  enam  enam 
rajanam  QUQrusasve  ’ti 8 

35,  evam  uktva  duhitaram 

36,  harsena  baspakalaya 
vaca 4 prapatya  ’bbipujya 
mandukarajam  abravld 
anugrhlto  'smi  iti  (sc.  te,  omit  iti) 

37,  yathagatam  agacchat(a) 

1 In  C.,  asmy  aham  arthi. 

2 In  C.,  dadau.  Perhaps  sa  dadau. 

8 Perhaps  : abravlc  ca  duhitaram  enam  rajSnam  gu^rusa,  iti. 

4 A stereotyped  phrase,  either  straddling  the  padas  of  a verse,  Nala,  9, 25 ; 
or  in  a pada  (after  one  syllable),  as  in  si,  iv,  20,  28;  R.  ii,  82, 10.  Perhaps 
here : sa  baspakalaya  vaca  pranipatya  ’bhipujya  ca. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


271 


38,  atha  kasyacit  kalasya  1 

tasyilih  kumaras  (te)  trayas 
tasya  raj nab  sarababhtivuh 
Qalo  Dalo  Balaq  ce  ’ti 
tatas  tesarn  jyesthaiii  Qalaiii 

samaye  pita,  rajye  'bhisicya  2 * 4 * tapasi  clhrtatma  vanaiii  jagama, 
prose  througli  39.  In  the  following  Tale  of  (^ala : 

40,  sutaiii  co  ’vaca,  qighram  marii 
vahasva  [iti],  sa  tatha  uktah  8 
suto  rajanam  abravlt 

41,  na  kriyatam  anubandho 
nai  ’sa  qakyas  tvaya  mrgo 
'yam  grahTtum,  yady  api  te 
rathe  yuktau  vamyau  syatam  (iti) 
tato  'bravld  raja  sutam 

42,  athai  ’nam  evam  bruvanam 

[abravld  raja] 

Vamadevaqramam  yahi  (iti)  * 

43,  bhagavan,  mrgo  [me  viddhah]  palayate 
sambhavayitum  arhasi 

[vamyau  datum,  iti,  tam  abravld  rsir 
dadani  te  vamyau] 

krtakaryena  bhavata  • 
mamai  ’va6  vamyau  niryatyau 
[ksipram  iti] 

. . . antahpure  asthapayat 

44,  atha  ’rsiq  cintayamasa 
taruno  rajaputro  (lsti) 
kalyanam  pattram  asadya 

1 An  epic  phrase  with  variations,  kasyacit  tv  atha  kalasya,  H.  3,  5, 11,  etc. 

2 Possibly : pita  rajye  T>hyasecayat  tatah  tapasi  dhrtatma  vanam  jagama 
(sa  raja) ; or : pita  rajye  'bhisicya  ca.  Both  are  formulas,  as  in  i,  74, 126  and 
75,  55. 

8 The  text  has : vahasveti  sa  tatho  ’ktah,  perhaps  as  much  of  a verse  as  is 
the  form  above.  As  in  36,  the  iti  padas  are,  I admit,  particularly  bad. 

4 B.  prayahi. 

6 So  B.  ’ 


272 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ramate  na  (me)  pratiniryatayaty,  aho  kastam  iti  (prose  to  48,  ff. 
tristubhs). 

Though  far  from  epic  verse,  this  is  not  exactly  prose,1 
which,  though  often  rhythmical,  is  not  metrical  to  such  an 
extent  as  this.  Further,  the  actual  presence  of  epic  padas 
in  the  narrative  shows  beyond  question  that  it  is  meant  to 
be  couched  more  or  less  in  metrical  form.  Of  what  sort 
then  is  this  metrical  prose?  It  is,  I think,  an  early  form 
of  popular  verse,  older  than  the  present  epic  gloka,  which, 
as  I have  remarked  above,  is  probably  more  refined  than  it 
was  when  first  written  and  is  less  free  even  than  the  Maha- 
bhasya  epic  gloka.  It  is  not,  however,  necessarily  antique, 
nor  necessarily  modem.  It  is,  in  short,  the  instrument  of  the 
perpetual  story-teller,  a naive  form,  running  in  and  out  of 
prose  like  rhymes  in  fairy  tales.2 


1 Benfey,  Panchatantra  (translation),  vol.  i,  p.  259,  says  that  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  two  glokas  (28-29),  “ the  rest  of  the  narrative  is  in  prose.” 

2 The  same  tendency  to  the  creation  of  pada  verse  (not  arranged  in  gloka 
form)  may  be  seen  in  the  prose  tale  of  i,  3,  where,  besides  the  regular  verses 
in  the  prose  narration,  are  found  such  metrical  combinations  as  : 

Janamejaya  evam  ukto 
devagunya  Saramaya  . . . 
etasminn  antare  kagcid 
rsir  Dhaumyo  nama  ’podas  . . . 
sa  ekam  gisyam  Arunim 
Pancalyam  presayamasa  . . . 
sa  upadhyayena  samdista  itrunih, 

the  last  being  a respectable  tristubh  pada.  If,  however,  this  and  the  tale  of 
Sugobhana  be  regarded  (as  Benfey  says)  as  pure  prose,  what  difference  is 
there  between  the  other  parts  which  will  not  give  any  rhythmical  cadence 
and  such  a rhythmical  complex  as,  e.  g.,  ramanlyam  saro  drstva,  sagva  eva 
vyagahata,  kruddho  ajnapayam  asa,  and  yatha  vrttam  nyavedayan  ? And 
how  does  it  happen  that  kasya  ’si  ’bliadre  ka  va  tvam,  and  muda  paramaya 
yutah  and  . . . baspakalaya  | vaca  are  actual  verses  found  in  the  epic? 
There  is  a literary  product  which  is  neither  prose  nor  poetry,  but  a middle 
genre,  a sort  of  dog-trot  between  walking  and  running,  into  which  a narrator 
may  drop  without  the  conscious  campu  alternation  of  padya  and  gadya  (poetry 
and  prose)  found  in  more  precise  literature.  It  is  perhaps  not  extravagant  to 
say  that  beneath  the  cultured  verse  of  the  literati  this  kind  of  style  may  have 
existed  for  centuries  and  even  have  been  the  foundation  of  the  earliest  literary 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


273 


The  Epic  Tristubh 

i.  The  Regulab  Teistubh  in  the  M ahAbha  b at  a 

The  rarest  forms  of  the  epic  tristublis  are  those  that  in 
the  corresponding  syllables  answer  to  the  commonest  forms 
of  the  gloka,  namely  the  pathya  and  first  and  third  vipulas. 
The  commonest  forms  of  tristubh  are  those  that  answer  to 
the  second  and  fourth  vipulas  (decadent  hi  the  more  refined 
gloka)  and  to  the  minor  Ionic,  a form  of  §loka  almost  extinct 
in  the  later  epic  style.  Both  metres  have  besides  the  diiam- 
bic and  major  Ionic  forms,  but  in  both  they  are  exceptional. 

Measured  by  their  precedent  combinations,  the  tristubh 
forms  thus  corresponding  to  the  §lokas  in  second  and  fourth 
vipulas  and  minor  Ionic,  outclass  the  others  as  decidedly  as 
they  do  in  the  number  of  their  occurrences;  for  whereas 
before  the  tristubh  feet  corresponding  to  the  pathya  and  first 

vipula  forms  stand  only  ^ _ w _ and  _s=i , before  the 

second  and  fourth  vipula  forms  stand  five,  and  before  the 
minor  Ionic  form  stand  seven  combinations,  respectively. 

In  thus  grouping  the  tristubhs  gloka-wise  I have  wished 
merely  to  contrast  the  general  structure  of  this  metre  with 
that  of  the  gloka,1  and  have  included  only  the  hendekasylla- 
bic  tristubh.  For  the  sake  of  convenience,  I shall  call  regu- 
lar all  forms  of  the  eleven-syllable  tristubh  (pada),  however 
unusual,  in  distinction  from  other  forms,  and  will  now  give 
a scheme  of  these  regular  tristubh  forms  (omitting  the  scolius 
or  terminal  amphibrach).2 


product.  That  any  of  it  has  been  preserved  is  a mere  accident,  not  antece- 
dently to  be  expected. 

1 Of  course,  as  previously  explained,  the  syllaba  anceps  of  the  eighth 
syllable  must  be  given  up ; but  the  initial  syllable  is  anceps,  as  it  is  in  the 
floka,  in  the  usual  forms. 

2 The  jagati  occurs  in  the  same  forms  as  the  tristubh  and  needs  no  special 
table  (though  separately  discussed  below).  Mechanically,  it  is  merely  a 
tristubh  with  an  extra  syllable  added,  making  the  close  with  diiambus  instead 
of  amphibrach. 


18 


274 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Combinations  of  the  Regulab  Epic  Tbistubh  in  the  Mahabhabata. 


First  Foot 

Second  Foot  of  Trigfubh 

WW 

— ^ — 

WW 

WWW 

W W 

— 

— 

^ V-/ 

p 

1 

p 

6 

P 

12 

c 

19 

s 

21 

8 

23 

8 

24 

8 

26 

w 

p 

2 

P 

7 

P 

13 

r 

20 

8 

22 

r 

25 

S'? 

27 



c 

3 

c 

8 

c 

14 

vy 

S 

4 

S 

9 

C 

15 

23b 

s'? 

25b 

^vy_w 

3 

9b 

S 

16 

vyvy 

S 

10 

8 

17 

Mvy^_ 

s 

5 

'i  » 

8 

18 

WWW 

1 ' 

11 

For  the  abbreviations,  compare  the  table  above,  p.  236.  For ^ vy 

as  a second  foot  in  a hypermetric  pada,  see  the  paragraph  in  the  list  of  illus- 
trations in  Appendix  C,  under  No.  11.  For  ^ y u as  second  foot,  see 

under  No.  15.  The  hypermetric  forms  indicated  in  Appendix  C,  when  refer- 
ences are  not  given,  will  he  found  illustrated  in  the  following  paragraphs. 
Tristubhs  of  catalectic  and  hypermetric  form  are  not  included  in  this  table. 

The  Illustrations  in  Appendix  C give  a full  discussion  of 
the  occurrences  of  these  forms  as  they  appear  in  combination 
with  the  caesura,  now  after  the  fourth  now  after  the  fifth 
syllable.  Here  I will  point  out  that,  as  is  shown  by  the  table, 
all  cases  of  pyrrhic  and  most  cases  of  trochee  in  the  syllables 
immediately  preceding  the  fourth  syllable  are  merely  sporadic, 
whatever  be  the  caesura;  but  that  the  trochee  before  the 

vatormic  middle,  oo , is  not  uncommon;  and  add  that 

the  caesura  is  here  after  the  fourth  syllable  (No.  15).  The 
prevailing  types  of  the  great  epic  are  (as  is  also  shown  by  the 
table)  an  iambic  or  spondaic  opening,  ^ , followed  by 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


275 


_ w v_,  ^ , w w , all  three  of  which  are  found  in 

the  same  stanzas.  They  are  always  commingled  in  the  older 
parts  of  the  epic  and  even  in  later  parts,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  first,  or  choriambic  middle,  is  the  stanza-form  often 
exclusively  employed  in  late  sections,  as  is  shown  below  in 
the  paragraphs  on  the  Stanza. 


Bird’s-eye  View  of  Tristubh  Padas. 

The  regular  Mahabharata  tristubh,  which  is  of  the  hendeka 
variety  (i),  appears  then  in  three  (four)  principal  phases 
(all  others  being  rare  or  sporadic),  thus: 

< (a)  kj y/ u u u w yy,  passim, but  restricted  as  in  (b). 

. < (b)  ii w u v w — — ) 

1 yy  w w y | common 

(d)  ^ w w <_/  — — ' 

Besides  these,  as  will  be  shown  below,  there  are  other  Bharata 
types,  thus: 

“ — — — — yl  — — w 1 catalectic,  dekasyllabic. 

iii  yy uy|  w u w yy  ) 

iv  w w — - w — — 1 liypermeters,  dodekas  (with 

v((a)|  — — — — — I — ^ — — — s still  other  sporadic  ar- 

j (^)  1 — — — — I w ^ w w — ^ rangements  of  syllables), 

viv  y yy | w w \y ) 

V!i  ^ w w w ) Double  hypermeters,  thirteen 

vni  yy_yy_yyyy.y'vyyy_^_.y'>  , 

. , \ syllables. 

ix  v v_/ | u u o ii w ' 

Jagati  forms  of  these  padas  will  be  discussed  below. 

The  epic  tristubh,  then,  is  not  (as  has  been  affirmed  by  a 
distinguished  scholar)  of  one  uniform  type.  On  an  aver- 
age, about  one-fifth  of  the  Bharata  tristubhs  of  the  regular 
mixed  type  have  twelve-syllable  padas,  winch,  however,  are 
not  jagatis,  since  they  have  the  tristubh  finale.  A noticeable 
point  is  the  common  (not  passim)  occurrence  of  the  trochaic 

opening,  _ ^ , in  some  sections  of  tristubhs,  and  also  in 

such  sections  the  comparative  rarity  of  the  choriambic  tristubh 
as  compared  with  the  tristubhs  which  have  forms  of  galini, 

_ w , or  vatonni,  w w , character  (though  not  strictly 

QalinI  or  vatormi  padas).  Thus  in  the  hundred  odd  padas 


276 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


that  complete  in  tristubh  form  the  story  of  the  Frog-girl  given 
above,  there  are  only  a dozen  of  choriambic  form ; while  only 

one  stanza  out  of  the  twenty-five  is  of  upajati  (m  _ w w w_) 

form  throughout,  though  two  others  have  two  consecutive 
choriambic  padas. 

The  Ramayana  Tristubh. 

Very  different  is  the  scheme  presented  by  the  Ramayana. 
Here  the  upajati  is  almost  exclusively  the  form  of  tristubh 
employed,  and  all  the  variegated  padas  of  the  Bharata  are 
practically  reduced  to  one  type.  In  fact,  the  exceptions,  given 
under  Nos.  7,  13,  19,  23,  of  the  Illustrations,  Appendix  C,  are 
so  few  as  scarcely  to  modify  the  statement  that  the  Ramayana 

employs  only  one  kind  of  tristubh,1  which  is  

with  variable  caesura,  as  in 
R.  vi,  128,  122: 

ayusyam  arogyakaraiii  yaqasyam 

saubhratrkam  buddhikaram  qubhaiii  ca 
qrotavyam  etan  niyamena  sadbbir 
akhyanam  ojaskaram  rddliikamaih 
R.  ii,  82,  32 : 

tatah  samutthaya  kule  kule  te 
rajanyavaiqya  vrsalaq  ca  viprah 
ayuyujann  ustrarathan  kharanq  ca 
nagan  hayanq  cai  ’va  kulaprastitan 

1 I pass  over  some  obvious  errors,  noticing  their  place : typographical,  G. 
iv,  43,  69,  vicetum;  It.  vi,  69,  12,  pataka ; G.  vii,  7,  48  (afani  in  It).  These 
affect  the  fourth  syllable.  It.  iv,  28,  60,  affects  the  eighth,  nigrhe  for  nigrahe. 
Other  palpable  errors  affecting  the  metre  are : G.  ii,  80, 24,  ksudlia  ca  tandrya 
(ca  ? ) vipannatam  gatah,  not  in  R. ; G.  iii,  63,  28,  jahau  tada  trtsamudbhavarii 
klamam  (in  R.,  ksudlia  duhkha0) ; ib.  29,  pada  ends  ejas  tada  (compare  end 
of  R.  iii,  63,  6 b,  etya  kle5am,  where,  however,  kl  probably  does  not  make 
position) ; G.  v,  14,  66,  priyam  aviksamano  Ragliunandasya,  corrected  by  R., 
priyam  apafyan  Raghunandanasya  tam ; ib.  19,  34,  evam  sa  tarn  hetubhir 
anuviksya,  for  anvaveksya  (the  form,  though  with  v.  1.,  in  R.) ; najati  for 
nafyati  in  v,  80,  24,  is  noticed  under  No.  19 ; G.  vii,  20,  44,  tam  arcayitvii 
ni?acaro  jagau  (not  in  R.)  has  apparently  lost  a ca  (cf.  d) ; G.  vii,  40,  19, 
llanumatali  kah  sthiisyati  purastat,  for  sthasyati  kah  (It.  36,  46).  In  It.  vi, 
69,  12,  nanapataka  dhvajachatrajustam  (fastra  in  G.  36,  6),  cch  becomes  ch 
as  in  Mbh.  i,  3,658,  prehiimi  tv  am.  Contrast  sayvadhvajacchatramahapatakam, 
It.  ib.  135. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


277 


R.  iv,  11,  93 : 

yatha  hi  tejahsu  1 varah  sada  ravir 
yatha  hi  qailo  Hiraavan  mahfidrisu 
yatha  catuspatsu  ca  kesarl  varas 
tatha  naranam  asi  vikrame  varah 

This  uniformity  of  metre,  resulting  in  an  almost  classical 
tristubh,  places  the  Ramayana  on  the  same  plane,  when  com- 
pared with  the  Bharata,  as  we  saw  it  occupied  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  §loka.  The  more  antique  forms  of  regular 
tristubhs  are  found  in  the  Bliarata.2 

Yet  if  tills  is  the  case  in  the  regular  tristubh,  still  more 
striking  is  the  difference  between  the  two  epics  in  respect  of 
the  catalectic,  hypermetric,  and  other  irregular  tristubhs,  which 
are  antique  and  found  in  the  Bharata,  but  are  unknown  to  the 
Ramayana.  But  before  taking  up  these  three  classes  as  they 
appear  in  the  great  epic,  I have  a few  words  to  say  in  regard 
to  the  final  amphibrach  or  scolius. 

The  Scolius. 

The  many  examples  given  in  Appendix  C sufficiently 
illustrate  the  fact  that  after  the  long  eighth  syllable  (very 
rarely  short)  3 the  ninth  syllable  of  the  tristubh  is  regularly 

1 In  G.  11, 11,  yatha  hi  tejasvivaro  divakaro,  etc.,  followed  by  a stanza  not 
in  R.,  with  na  sarvayaksefadhanefvaro  vibhuh,  the  other  padas  having  caesura 
after  fourth  or  fifth. 

2 One  cannot,  however,  claim  as  evidence  of  antiquity  the  antique  galini 

and  vatormi  type  of  pada,  either  pure  or  in  parti-form,  ^ M w 

and  m M ww , without  noting  that  these  are  also  Puranic,  though 

rare  here,  and  chiefly  loans.  Thus  in  a pure  single  (separate)  upendra 
stanza  at  Vayu  P.  v,  19,  stands  pravartate  codyamanah  samantat.  So  ib.  ix, 
113,  where  a,  b,  d,  have  galini  form,  and  c has  : disah  frotre  caranau  ca  ’sya 
bhumili.  Most  of  this  is  epic,  e.  g.,  ib.  xvii,  7 d,  na  jayate  mriyate  va  ka- 
dacit  (Gita,  2,  20).  Still  rarer  (as  in  Gita,  8,  9)  is  the  form  in  the  same 
Purana,  xiv,  7 c,  kavim  puranam  anugasitaram.  I take  this  opportunity  of 
stating  that  I shall  hereafter  use  upendra  and  vahfastha  as  shorter  forms 
of  upendravajra  and  vaihjasthabila,  though  I believe  only  the  latter  has 
authority. 

3 See  Appendix  C,  under  No.  15,  ekam  sama  yajur  ekam  rg  eka,  xii,  60, 
47  c. 


278 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


short,  the  tenth  is  long,  and  the  eleventh  is  anceps.  This  rule 
is  seldom  violated,  but  in  the  (kbicarita,  iii,  197,  8,  we  find : — 
gadami  vedan  vicinomi  cchandah 
sarve  veda  aksaraso  me  adhitah 
na  sadhu  danarn  qrotriyasya  pradanam 
ma  pradah  qyenaya  na  kapoto  'smi 

Here  we  find,  in  pada  a,  the  phenomenon  discussed,  above, 
in  relation  to  the  close  of  the  qloka.  Before  cchandah  the 
vowel  should  weigh  heavy,  but  it  is  doubtless  reckoned  fight. 
In  b,  me  'dhltah  is  more  probable  than  the  (hypermetric) 
pada,  as  it  appears  in  both  texts  (above) ; but  since  this  is  a 
possible  form,  the  pada  cannot  be  cited  for  a long  ninth. 
Pada  c is  regular.  In  d,  the  pada  may  be  corrupt,  the 
necessary  ma  (=  mam)  apparently  being  lost  after  the  pro- 
hibitive ma,  though  a long  ninth  cannot  be  avoided  in  any 
circumstances  with  the  rest  of  the  text  as  it  is.  I suspect 
that  gyenaya  has  taken  the  place  of  a vocative,  and  that  the 
verse  read  originally : ma  ma  prada  na  ’smi  rajan  kapotah ; 
but  it  may  be  a specimen  of  the  group  of  six  before  caesura, 
like  yatra  devi  Ganga  | satatam  prasuta,  and  the  other 
cases  of  the  sort  cited  below,  if  the  hiatus  may  be  assumed 
to  leave  a short  vowel,  ma  pradah,  gyenaya  na  kapotb  asmi 
(hypermetric),  as  in  xiv,  9,  9 a,  just  below.  The  tale,  how- 
ever, is  a popular  story,  doubtless  handed  down  in  rough  verse, 
and  since  the  long  ninth  is  actually  found  in  such  verse,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  assume  that  the  pada  must  be  correct.  In  the 
following  stanzas,  in  the  same  way,  we  find  the  vowel  appar- 
ently reckoned  as  still  short  (fight)  before  gy.  The  cases  are : 

iii,  197, 15  c,  yasmin  dege  ramase  'tiva,  gyena 
ib.  18  b,  saumyo  by  ayam,  kirii  na  janSsi,  gyena 

ib.  24  b,  prcchami  te,1  gakune,  ko  nu  gyenah 2 

1 Perhaps  accusative.  I refer  to  C.  only  when  the  reading  differs. 

2 On  gyena  as  giena  in  19  c,  see  the  paragraph  on  Defective  Tristubhs  be- 
low. Above  I have  cited  cases  where  the  vowel  is  short  (light  syllable)  before 
mute  and  liquid  in  glokas  and  also  given  examples  in  tristubli,  where  cA 
brahma,  °tl  ksatram,  and  °ml  Dronam  make  the  scolius.  The  latter  is,  as  it 
were,  strengthened  to  make  position  in  vii,  179,  47  b,  antarmanah  kurusu 
pradravatsu  (C.  8,101,  pr&). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


279 


In  v,  44,  24  d the  long  ninth  is  admitted  into  an  old  pada : 
na  ’nyah  pantha  ayanaya  vidyate,  in  VS.  31,  18;  9vet-  Up. 
3,  8 : vidyate  (a)yanaya  (perhaps  in  the  epic  for : na  anyah 
pantha  ayanaya  vidyate). 

Another  apparent  example  is  found  in  the  stanza1  xii, 
270,  23: 

caturdvaram  purusam  caturmukham 
caturdha  cai  ’nam  upayati  vaca 
bfilmbhyaiii  vaca  udarad  upasthat 
tes&m  dvaram  dvarapalo  bubhuset 

But  here  the  first  pada  is  perhaps  a jagati,  either  with  ca  lost 
before  purusam  or  (but  this  is  unlikely)  with  resolution  of 
the  semivowel:  caturduaram  purusam  caturmukham  (as  in 
RV.  iv,  51,  2,  vi  u vrajasya  tamaso  duara) ; though  as  it  stands 
it  is  a metrical  duplicate  of  na  ’nyah  pantha  (above). 

Two  metrical  irregularities  appear  in  xiv,  9,  4 c : 

samvarto  yajayati  ’ti  me  grutam 

This  pada  also  is  of  the  same  form  as  the  two  last,  with  the 
irregular  w as  second  foot  and  _ ^ as  the  scolius ; yet 

to  read  grutam  me  corrects  them  both.  But  in  iv,  8,  8 a,  gr 
certainly  fail  to  make  position,  though  not  before  a scolius. 
The  first  section  has  another  example,  xiv,  9,  9 a,  aham  ga- 
cchami  maghavan  duto  'dya,  where  hiatus,  as  in  the  first 
example  above,  may  perhaps  be  assumed  with  a short  vowel : 
aharh  gacchami  | maghavan  dut5  adya,  unless  an  inversion  has 
taken  place,  adya  dutah,  with  maghavo  (or  bhagavo,  C.)  be- 
fore it.  Below,  ib.  31  b,  saha  ’gvibhyam  somam  agrhnad  ekah, 
B.  saves  the  metre  and  C.  249  saves  the  grammar. 

In  the  Harivanga  is  found  one  case  at  7,593  c,  which  is  cor- 
rected in  B. : 

prahur  vipras  tvam  guninam  tattvajnah 

Though  of  the  same  class  with  the  Anugasana  pada  (cited 
below)  ending  in  prayacchat,  yet,  while  the  latter  may  be 
easily  emended,  tattvajnah  is  intractable,  and  the  hypermeter 

1 For  the  meaning,  compare  ib.  28 ; v.  1.  in  300,  28  : catvari  yasya  dvarani 
suguptany  amarottamah,  upastham  udaram  hastau  vak  caturthl  sa  dharmavit. 


280 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


of  B.  2,  74,  32,  is  probably  correct : prahur  vipras  tvam  | guni- 
nam  tattvavijnah.  Another  apparent  case  in  H.  14,732  d, 
where  yada  ve  ’gvarah  ends  a tristubh,  is  a mere  misprint  for 
yadavegvarah,  3,  82,  13.  But  xii,  292,  22  d,  antye  madhye  va 
vanam  5911  tya  stheyam,  has  a clear  case  of w for  ^ 

A secondary  caesura  is  more  likely  not  to  be  found  before 
the  scolius  than  to  be  found  there.  Examples  of  both  cases 
are  given  (incidentally)  in  the  examples  of  the  different  sorts 
of  tristubh.  Calling  the  scolius  an  addition  is,  then,  merely  a 
mechanical  device,  to  show  the  pada  forms  free  of  their  uni- 
form close.  In  reality,  the  scolius,  because  it  is  always  the 
same,  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  pada,  since  it  seals  the 
tristubh.  To  show  how  the  second  caesura  does  not  divide  off 
the  scolius  as  a sort  of  tail  tied  on  to  the  pada  proper,  may  be 
taken  vii,  179,  13  a-b: 

asthaya  tam  kancanaratnacitram 
rathottamam  sihhavat  saihnanada 

The  form  w ^ is  then  the  only  form  of  the  epic  scolius, 
except  for  a few  cases  of  seeming  carelessness,  as  in  prayacchat 
and  vidyate,  where  special  reasons  may  have  induced  the  ex- 
tant form,  or,  as  in  cases  before  ks,  cch,  etc.,  where  advantage 
appears  to  have  been  taken  of  a Gatha  freedom  in  reckoning 
a heavy  syllable  as  light  in  certain  cases.  Of  the  scolius  type 

\J  W,  which  Fausboll  (previously)  set  up  for  the  Dharnma- 

pada,  the  epic  has  parallel  examples,  but  I doubt  whether 
the  single  example  to  be  found  in  the  Dhamma,  vs.  306 : 

yo  va  ’pi  ka-  | tva  na  karo-  | mi  ’ti  ca  ’ha 

will  be  found  on  second  thought  really  to  support  this  interpre- 
tation. For  in  this  case,  as  in  all  similar  epic  examples,  the 

division  is  not,  as  Fausboll  assumed, — WW — | V/, 

but  (as  a hypermeter)  _ |\^ exactly  as 

in  the  common  hypermeters  of  the  epic,  e.  g.,  sa  vai  rajan  na  | 
’bhyadhikah  kathyate  ca,  where  the  only  difference  between 
the  scansion  and  that  of  the  more  usual  hypenneter,  e.  g., 
yasya  ’vibhaktam  | vasu  rajan  sahayaih,  is  that  in  the  latter 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


281 


case  the  caesura  is  normal,  while  in  the  former  it  is  neglected.1 
On  such  cases,  see  the  section  just  below,  on  Hypermeters. 

The  epic,  then,  as  a whole,  has  passed  far  beyond  the  Vedic 
stage,  where  the  final  syllables  of  a tristubh  are  (m) 
nor  is  it  likely  that  the  few  cases  above  are  to  be  explained  as 
archaisms  rather  than  as  further  examples  of  such  slovenliness 
as  has  been  met  before  in  the  examples  already  given.  For 
even  the  Rig  Veda  poets  are  already  tending  to  a stricter  form, 
v,  _ as  is  shown,  for  example,  by  the  substitution  of  muslya 
for  manslya,  RV.  x,  53,  4,  merely  to  win  an  amphibrach. 

Catalectic  and  Hypermetric  Tristubhs. 

A short  form  of  tristubh  is  where  a syllable  is  omitted,  but 
in  such  a way  as  to  preserve  the  characteristic  final  cadence, 
giving  the  pentad  form  familiar  to  the  Rig  Veda ; as  in 
Mbh.  iii,  195,  3,  tarn  tvam  prcchami  | katham  tu  rajan,  like 
RV.  i,  67,  8,  ya  iiii  ciketa  | gulia  bhavantam.  Although 
catalectic  is  a name  more  properly  applied  to  a pada  cut  off 
at  the  end,  I shall  yet  call  the  double  pentad  a catalectic 
tristubh. 

In  a jagatl,  by  the  addition  of  a syllable,  the  final  trochee  or 
spondee  of  the  tristubh’s  amphibrach  is  converted  into  a di- 
iambus ; in  a hypermetric  tristubh,  the  final  cadence  is  preserved 
intact,  the  tristubh’s  nature  is  not  lost,  but  a syllable  is  pre- 
fixed or  inserted  elsewhere.  It  may  be  said  that  any  dodeka 
is  a jagatl  pada.  I shall  not  quarrel  with  this  (native)  defini- 
tion, but  the  difference  here  is  one  of  metrical  character,  and 
must  be  strongly  marked  in  name.  Admitting  then  that  it  is 
somewhat  arbitrary,  I shall  designate  as  a jagatl  only  the 
diiambically  closed  pada  ; the  other,  as  a hypermetric  tristubh. 

1 This  interpretation,  anyway,  seems  to  be  merely  a slight  oversight  on  the 
part  of  the  learned  editor.  In  No.  329,  eko  care  matafig’  aranne  va  nago,  the 

first  foot  is  correctly  given  as . The  choriamb  doubtless  caused 

the  different  interpretation;  but  the  middle  foot  w is  parallel  to 

v , as  shown  in  the  examples  cited  below.  [The  new  text  in  306 

omits  iti : but  I keep  the  remark  above,  written  prior  to  the  new  text’s  appear- 
ance, as  the  old  text  has  authority  and  need  not  be  changed  metri  causa.] 


282 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Besides  the  prefixed  or  inserted  syllable,  which  gives  two 
varieties  of  the  hypermetric  tristubh,  a tristubh  pada  may 
have  both  the  prefixed  and  inserted  syllables.  The  tristubh, 
then,  as  shown  in  the  bird’s-eye  view  on  p.  275,  may  consist 
of  ten,  eleven,  twelve,  or  thirteen  syllables,  without  losing  its 
characteristic  cadence.  Unique,  however,  and  not  typical  (I 
may  add)  is  a fourteen-syllable  tristubh.  Apart  from  all  these 
forms  lies  the  matra-tristubh,  of  thirteen  syllables,  but  with  two 
breves  reckoned  as  equivalent  to  one  long  syllable.  Post- 
poning the  examination  of  these  forms,  I take  up  now,  reckon- 
ing the  regular  tristubh  (above)  as  i,  the  catalectic  and  simple 
or  dodeka  hypermetric  tristubh,  ii-vi. 

ii-iii.  The  Catalectic  Tristubh. 

ii.  In  tins  form  the  caesura  falls  after  the  fifth  syllable.  The 
pada  is  one  of  a tristubh  stanza.  Examples  are  iii,  113,  23  : 

Arundhatl  va  subhaga  Vasistham 
Lopamudra  va  yatlid  hy  A yastyam 
Nalasya  vai  DamayantI  yatha  ’bhud 
yatha  (lacl  Vajradharasya  cai  ’va 

Here  b can  be  scanned  only  as  Lopamudra  va  | yatha  hy 
Agastyam.  Another  case,  referred  to  above,  is  found  in  the 
stanzas  at  iii,  195,  3-4 : 

3,  vidvesanam  paramam  jlvaloke 

kuryan  narah  partliiva  yacyamanah 
tarn  tvarn  prcchami  katham  tu  rajan 
dadyad  bhavan  dayitam  ca  me  'dya 

4,  na  ca  ’ nukirtayed  1 adya  dattva 

ayacyam  artham  na  ca  saiiifrnomi 
prapyam  artham  ca  samcjrutya 

tarn  ca  ’pi  dattva  susukhl  bhavami 

In  3 d and  4 a,  the  ccosura  is  shifted,  and  the  padas  can  be 
read  as 

dadyad  bhavan  da-  | yitarii  ca  me  'dya 
na  ca  ’nuklrta-  | yed  adya  dattva 

1 This  seems  better  than  anukirtaye  (he)  dadya  (N.). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


283 


In  4 c,  there  is  a gloka  pada ; unless  d be  reft  of  its  opening, 
to  leave  another  pentad : priipyam  artham  ca  saihgrutya  tam 
ca,  which  would  leave  d as : api  dattva  su-  | sukhi  bhavami. 

The  dekasyllabic  pada  is  particularly  striking  when  united 
with  the  liypennetric  pada  (10  + 12.)  An  example  occurs  in 
the  same  story,  iii,  197,  26,  c-d : 

etad  vo  laksma  | givam  karomi 

hiranyavarnam  | ruciram  punyagandham 

The  ten-syllable  pada  ib.  17  b,  has,  perhaps,  lost  a syllable, 
(tam)  te  pagyantu : 

(a)  uksanaih  vehatam  aniinam  nayantu 
(b)  te  pagyantu  purusa  inamai  ’va 
bhayahitasya  dayam  mama  ’ntikat  tvam 

pratyamnayantu  tvarn  hy  enam  ma  hinsih 

(a)  v/,  ^ w w _ w (No.  13,  hypermetric) 

(b)  (— ) w w — w _ w (No.  20) 

For  c and  d,  see  No.  23  and  No.  7,  in  the  Illustrations  of 
Appendix  C.  It  is  possible,  however,  that  b belongs  under 
another  head  (below).  Giving  a patois  pronunciation,  pasi- 
antu,  would  make  the  verse  quite  smooth.  In  the  subsequent 
stanza,  19  c,  there  appears  to  be  a case  of  resolved  semi-vowel 
(giena  for  gyena),  a regular  pada : 

yatha  giena  priyam  eva  kuryam, 

though  it  may  be  read  as  catalectic.1 

A case  in  C.  viii,  4,545  d,  is  corrected  in  B.  89,  22: 

C. : vayavyastrena,  tatah  sa  Karnat 
B. : vayavyastrena  ’patatah  sa  Karnat 

In  xii,  322,  72  = 12,115,  where  C.  has  kim  te  dhanena 
bandhubhis  te,  B.  has  the  dekasyllabic  pada: 

kim  te  dhanena,  kim  bandhubhis  te, 

the  other  padas  being  hendekas.  A combination  of  hyper- 

1 For  the  verse  in  the  same  stanza,  yatha  marii  (hi)  vai  sadhuvadaih  pra- 
sannah,  see  below,  The  Hypermetric  Tristubh. 


284 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


metric,  catalectic,  and  hyper-hypermetric  pacla  occurs  in 
H.  7,448 : 

yasmad  bhutanam  | bhutir  anto  'tha  madhyam 
dhrtir  vibhiitih  | qrutig  ca  Rudrah 
graha  (sic)  ’bhibhutasya  purusasye  ’qvarasya 

Compare 1 H.  8,399 : 

tam  kurdamanam  madhusudanah  sa 
drstva  mahatma  | harsanvitas  tah 
cukurda  satya  sahito  mahatma 

balasya  dhlman  | harsagamartham 

iii.  This  pada  is  what  may  be  called  csesurally  catalectic. 
Like  the  last,  it  is  antique,  in  Veda  and  Upanishads,  and  the 
epic  has  but  few  examples.  The  pause  follows  the  fourth 
syllable,  which  is  usually  heavy.  Here  the  caesura,  so  to 
speak,  costs  a syllable  and,  unless  read  with  sufficient  time 
allowance,  the  tristubh  appears  to  be  crippled.  Of  this 
sort  are: 

i,  3,  61  d,  maya  ’§vinau  samanakti  carsani  (so  66  c) 
i,  92,  14  a,  prcchami  tvam,  sprhanlyarupa 

In  the  latter  example  there  may  be  corruption.  Compare 
i,  88,  10  c,  tat  tvam  prcchami  sprhanlyarupa,  but  the  open- 
ing phrase,  prcchami  tvam  is  stereotyped,  i,  93,  21  a;  v,  48, 
1 a,  etc.  We  may  compare  RV.  i,  120,  4,  vi  prchami  pakiii 
na  devan.2  The  next  case  is 

iii,  197,  27  b,  surarslnam  atha  sammato  bhrqam 

Although  this  pada  has  eleven  syllables,  it  is  not  a tristubh, 
but  a catalectic  jagatT,  analogous  to  the  tristubhs  of  the  same 
nature.  The  whole  stanza  consists  of  syllables  13  + 11  + 12 
+ 11,  but  a is  doubly  hypermetric  (explained  below),  so  that 
there  is  no  alternate  symmetry  but  chiastic  symmetry,  thus : 

13  (=  11)  + 12  + 12  + 11 

1 In  the  Bombay  edition,  2,  72,  59 : dhrtir  bhiitir  ya9  ca  guhii  ^rutif  ca 
guha  ’bhi°,  etc.  (on  this,  see  below).  The  following  8,399  = 2,  89,  17,  also 
avoids  the  same  cadence  by  reading : drstva  mahatma  ca  mudanvito  'bhut 
. . . harsagamartham  ca  balasya  dhlman. 

2 C.  in  3,664  has  prchami  (sic)  tvam. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


285 


It  is,  however,  possible,  perhaps,  to  resolve  the  -am. 

v,  42,  5 a,  pramiidad  vai  asurah  parabhavan  (jagati) 
v,  42,  21  a,  va  etad  va  bhagavan  sa  nityo 

In  this  case,  although  there  is  no  possible  objection  to 
reading  the  pada  as  it  stands,  it  is  possible  that  a bliati  has 
been  lost  after  etad.  The  sense  is  yaj  jagad  iva  bliati  sa 
nityo  'vikari  bhagavan  (N.).  Compare  43,  7,  jagad  bliati. 

v,  46,  3 c,  atandritah  Savitur  vivasvan 

The  same  criticism.  Before  Savitur,  sa  may  have  been 
dropped,  as  in  C.  viii,  3,343  e,  gete  papah  suvibhinnagatrah, 
where  B.  restores  the  metre  with  gete  sa  papah.  So  C.  omits 
su  in  the  aparavaktra,  xii,  9,035  b,  but  corrects  it  in  repeats 
ing  the  verse  at  10,530.  Nevertheless,  I prefer  the  text  as 
it  stands,  especially  as  any  correction  would  have  to  be  ex- 
tended into  the  next  stanza,  where  we  find : 

ib.  4 b,  diqah  qukro  bhuvanam  bibharti 

Here  it  is  easy  to  suggest  sambibharti,  but  emendation  is 
otiose. 

v,  48,  37  c,  Matsyaih  sardham  anrgahgarupaih 

The  next  stanza  has  jyestham  Matsyam  anrgahsaryarupam, 
which  makes  it  rather  doubtful  whether  this  form  may  not 
have  stood  in  37  c. 

v,  67,  6 c,  anayasva  pitaram  mahavratam  (jagati) 
viii,  68,  7 a,  apy  aqisma  vayam  Arjuna  tvayi 

C.  3,386  has  atha  ’gisma.  Possibly  agisama  should  be  read 
but  it  is  not  necessary.  The  brevis  is  noticeable  (compare 
above,  in  § ii,  iii,  197,  17  b). 

xiii,  76,  7 a (after  the  injunction  in  the  half-gloka,  vs.  6) : 

6,  pravigya  ca  gavam  madhye  imam  qrutim  udaharet 
7 a,  gaur  me  mata  vrsabhah  pita  me 

divam  qarma  jagati  me  pratistha,  etc. 


286 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


xiii,  102,  55  d: 

budhyami  tvam  Vrtrahanam  catakratum 
vyatikramantam  bhuvanaui  vigva 
kaccin  na  vaca  vrjinarii  kadacid 
akarsam  te  manaso  ' bhisahgdt 


iv-ix.  The  Hypermetric  Tristubh. 

iv-vi.  Simple  Hypeemetees. 


The  first  form,  iv,  is  the  initial  hypermeter ; a light  syllable 
appears  to  be  prefixed  to  an  iambic  opening.  The  same  effect 
is  produced,  in  some  cases  with  the  same  words,  as  that  already 
described  in  the  account  of  the  gloka.  The  pada  starts  with 
an  anapaestic  slide.  The  difference  is  one  of  frequency,  since 
in  the  case  of  the  tristubh  the  initial  hypermeter  is  not  very 
common.  Most  of  the  cases  have  a brevis  and  in  fact,  to  my 
ear,  the  long  (heavy)  initial  belongs  in  another  category  (vi)  ; 
but  I admit  that  in  yatra  dev!  Ganga  satatam  prasuta  and 
the  few  similar  cases  it  is  doubtful  how  we  should  regard  the 
extra  syllable.  I have  noticed  with  short  initial  the  following 
cases  (iv) : 

i,  3,  147  b,  vayatas  tantun  satatam  vartayantyau  (No.  13) 
i,  76,  55  a,  asuraih  surayam  bliavato  'smi  dattah  (No.  1) 


Here  the  preceding  pada  ends  in  i,  but  it  is  scarcely  possible 
that  the  two  tristubhs  should  have  been  read  as  a unit.  The 
same  thing  occurs  occasionally  in  the  examples  of  hypermetric 
Qlokas. 


i,  92,  6 c,  kuta  ayatah  katarasyam  diqi  tvam  (No.  13) 

iii,  5,  10  a,  tata  utthaya  Viduram  Pandaveyah  (No.  15) 

v,  42,  6 c,  pitrloke  rajyam  anuqasti  devah  (No.  20) 
v,  44,  18  b,  dhanam  acaryaya  tad  anuprayacchet  (No.  20) 

xii,  63,  4 c,  vrsalipatih  piquno  nartanaq  ca  (No.  12) 

xiii,  76,  14  d,  pratigrhnan  vai  gopradane  vidhijnah  (No.  7) 
xiii,  102,  19  a,  atitliivratah  suvrata  ye  jana  vai  (No.  6) 

ib.  35  c,  (jagatl),  Varunasya  rajnah  sadane  makatmanah 
xiii,  126,  38  a,  bahule  samange  hy  akutobhaye  ca  (No.  1) 
H.2,  72,  33  b,  krtinam  vlram  (C,  7,422  dhlraiii)  dauar 
van  aril  ca  badham  (No.  7) 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


287 


All  these  cases  have  an  anapaestic  opening ; all  but  one  have 
the  fifth  syllable  heavy.1  Some  have  been  given  under 
the  examples  referred  to  above. 

v,  a.  Much  more  frequent  is  the  inserted  fifth.  I do  not 
mean,  of  course,  that  a regular  tristubh  is  first  made  and  a syl- 
lable is  then  inserted,  but  that  the  cadence  does  not  have  the 
rhythm  of  iv,  to  wit,  ^ ^ ± h ±,  but  (with  the  caesura  regu- 
larly after  the  fifth  syllable)  yhyh_,so  that  the  effect 
is  that  of  a syllable  inserted  at  the  place  of  caesura.  This 
measure  produces  rather  a pleasing  alteration  and  is  frequently 
found  in  regular  tristubh  stanzas,  scanned  exactly  like  the 
other  piidas  with  the  modification  thus  indicated.  The  form 
is  Vedic,  and  is  found  also  in  the  Upanishads  and  in  the 
Buddhistic  texts.  Examples  are: 

i,  71,  40  d,  yatha  tvadartham  | raksita  ’hath  careyam  2 

v,  48, 101  d,  saiiiyudhyamana  | Dhartarastra  na  sauti 

The  effect  of  this  measure  I have  endeavored  to  reproduce 
from  the  following  extract,  v,  48,  75-76: 

ayaiii  Gandharahs  tarasa  sampramathya 
jitva  putran  Nagnajitah  samagran 
baddham  mumoca  vinadantam  prasahya 
Sudarqanam  vai  devatanarii  lalamam 
ayaiii  Kapate8  nijaghana  Pandyam 
tatha  Kaliiigan  Dantakure  mamarda 
anena  dagdha  varsapugan  vinatha 
Varanasi  nagari  sambabhuva 

And  yon  Gandharas,  at  a blow  Krishna  vanquished, 

And  conquered  all  Nagnajita’s  descendants, 

Their  plaining  victim,  as  he  lay  bound,  releasing 
(Of  gods  the  jewel,  “ Beautiful  ” called,  a fair  man) ; 

1 On  this  case  (tata  utthaya),  see  below,  p.  290. 

2 Compare  with  this  example,  Rig  Veda,  i,  120,  3,  ta  no  vidvansa  | manma 
vocetam  adya,  and  for  other  Vedic  parallels,  Oldenberg,  Hymnen  des  Rig 
Veda,  vol.  i,  p.  66  ff.  (ZDMG.  vol.  xxvii,  p.  75). 

8 v.  1.,  kapatena  jaghana.  Below,  the  scholiast  explains  dantakure  as  in 
battle  rather  than  as  a proper  name.  Perhaps  Dantakruram  jaghana  (a  be- 
fore kr),  as  in  vii,  70,  5. 


288 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


He  at  Kapat  slew  in  a war  the  Pandya, 

He  smote  Kalingas,  Dantakur’s  men  a-fighting, 

He  too,  that  hero,  burned  and  enslaved  a long  time 

Benares  town,  city  sans  help  unaided. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  first  part  of  this  measure  is  that 
of  the  regular  tristubh  with  the  caesura  after  the  fifth,  as  in 
Yamo  'bravin 1 mam:  na  mrto  'si  saumya,  xiii,  71,  18a,  which 
form  may  have  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  hypermeter 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  csesurally  cataleetic  pada  on  the 
other. 

The  texts  sometimes  show  variations,  like  those  found  in 
the  simple  tristubh  forms.2  Thus  in  vii,  179,  45  d,  where 
C.  has  the  hypermeter,  B.  omits  the  extra  syllable:  sampa§- 
yanto  (vai)  vijayani  raksasasya. 

Of  the  different  hypermetric  forms,  the  commonest  are  those 

in  which  the  fifth  syllable  is  followed  by  _ ^ oruu ; 

less  often  by  _ All  three  occur  at  i,  76,  50  ff. : 

50,  kacasya  margam  pratipatsye  na  bhoksye 

53,  guror  hi  bklto  vidyaya  co  ’pahutah 

54,  smarami  sarvarn  yac  ca  yatha  ca  vrttam 

The  extra  syllable,  like  the  initial,  may  be  heavy  or  fight ; 

but  except  when  followed  by  uu the  latter  is  rare.  The 

second  and  fourth  syllables  are  rarely  fight.  I give  below 
examples  of  the  different  forms.  First  of  the  common  va- 
rieties (but  wuw_as  second  foot  is  the  rarest  of  these) : 

yaqo  na  naqyej,  jnatibhedaQ  ca  na  syat,  iii,  4,  8 a 
vadhaya  rajan,  Karnasutasya  saiiikhye,  viii,  85,  36  b 
ma  vai  dvitiyam  rua  trtlyaiii  ca  vance(t),  iii,  297,  25  c 

1 On  page  186,  note  1,  I have  referred  to  Yama’s  world  as  portrayed  in 
Sabha  in  contrast  to  “ elsewhere.”  The  remark  is  correct,  but  elsewhere  is 
not  everywhere  else ; e.  g.,  this  account  of  Naciketas  represents  it  a6  blissful. 
Usually,  of  course,  it  is  a hell. 

2 These  changes  I have  discussed  in  A.  J.  Phil.,  xx,  p.  18  ff.  as  affecting  vii, 

163.  In  vii,  179,  24  a,  B.  has  for  ^ ^ in  C.,  with  several 

similar  changes  close  by ; strikingly  in  32  d = 8,146,  where  B lias  no  babhuvuli 
(C.,  na). 


EPIC  VEllSIFICA  riON. 


289 


So  in  v,  44,  24  c;  vii,  2,  33  b;  viii,  42,  17  c;  xii  278  (7), 
6 a,  etc. 

A case  of  fifth  brevis  and  also  fourth  brevis  is  found  in  i, 
1,  217  c,  dvyuna  vingatir  aliatii  ’ksauhinlnam ; and  fourth 
brevis  in  iii,  197,  12  d,  na  tranam  labliet  triinam  icchan  sa 
kale ; where,  however,  C.  has  labhate  (labh’te)  which  may  be 
correct.1  All  five  syllables  are  heavy  in  ii,  77,  10  b ; kan- 
yam  Pancallm  Panda vebhyah  pradaya.  Unique  (I  think) 
are  breves  in  the  third  and  fourth  syllables : datva  ’naduliam 
suryalokarh  vrajanti,2  iii,  186,  8 b (No.  10). 

\J  \J 

Preceded  by  brevis  (fifth  syllable)  : 

samanam  miirdhni  rathayanam  viyanti,  i,  3,  64  b 
tatha  titiksur  atitiksor  viqistah,  i,  87,  6 b = xii,  300,  15  b 
yas  tv  evam  brahma  tapasa  ’nveti  vidvan,  iii,  192,  56  c 
dharmam  puranam  upajivanti  santah,  viii,  45,  16  c 
taiii  vai  manyeta  pitaram  mataraih  ca,  xii,  108,  22  c 
garbho  'mrtasya  jagato  'sya  pratistha,  xiii,  76,  10  b 

So  i,  1,  212  c ; 1,  213  c ; 89,  6 c ; 232, 16  c;  iii,  4,  13  a ; viii, 
42,  16  b;  etc. 

Preceded  by  a heavy  syllable : 

hatam  saiiigrame  Sahadevena  papain,  i,  1,  208  c 
idaih  ca  rajan  hitam  uktam  na  cet  tvam,  iii.  4,  12  c 
tatha  qaktlr  apy  adhamam  ghorarupah,  v,  181,  9d 
tatha  vayvagul  pramimanarii  jagac  ca,  vii,  201,  67  b 
yasya  ’vibhak taiii  vasu  rajan  sahayaih,  iii,  5,  20  a 
tan  aha  sarvan  rsimukhyan  Agastyah,  xiii,  94,  9 a 

So  iii,  5,  18b;  113,  6b;  v,  42,  15a;  48,  46c;  vii,  179, 
42  a;  viii,  37,  30  b;  42,  9d,  etc. 

Cases  of  fourth  brevis  are  ii,  56,  15  c,  pagcat  tapsyase  tad 
upakramya  vakyam ; and  i,  1,  216  b,  tatha  bandhubhih  pitr- 
bhir  bhratrbhig  ca. 

1 Compare  also  iii,  13,291  a,  yatha  mam  hi  vai  sadhuvadaih  prasannah, 
where,  however,  B.  197,  19,  omits  hi,  which  makes,  when  retained,  a bhujam- 
gaprayata  pada ; q.  v.  below,  under  the  head  of  Aksaracchandas. 

2 Compare  RV.  viii,  59,  7,  indravaruna  | saumanasam  adrptam,  cited  by 
Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  p.  68. 


19 


290 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


For  v,  516,  prayaccha  mahyam  bhavatsahyam  karisye,  B.  16, 
32  d,  has  tava  sahyam.  In  vii,  200,  82  a,  B.  has  tasya  ’syatas 
tan  nigitan  pltadharan,  where  C.  9,339  has  sunigitan.  All  five 
syllables  are  heavy  in  ii,  77,  7 a;  citran  samnahan  avamunc- 
antu  cai  ’sam. 

W 

Preceded  by  brevis : 

na  cen  mam  Jisnur  ahvayita  sabhayam,  ii,  58,  16  b 
tans  te  dadani  ma  prapata  prapatam,  i,  92, 11  a = 93,  3 

Preceded  by  a heavy  syllable : 

gomayur  uccair  vyaharad  agnihotre,  ii,  71,  22  b 
amanyamanah  ksatriya  kimcid  anyat,  v,  42,  15  c 
amantraye  tvam  bruhi  jayam  rane  me,  viii,  67,  22  c 
anarthakam  me  darqitavan  asi  tvam,  viii,  68,  8 c 
prayaccha  ’nyasmai  Gandivam  etad  adya,  viii,  68,  28  a 1 
nai  ’ko  bahubhyo  Gautami  raksitavyah,  xiii,  1,  30  b 

There  is,  I believe,  only  one  other  case  of  this  form  in  the 
thirteenth  book,  103,  42  c.  It  is  rare  as  a tristubk  hyper- 
meter,  but  it  occurs  also  (see  below)  as  a jagati. 

Besides  these  forms  are  found:  w w w _,  of  which  I have 
but  sporadic  examples : sa  yatre  ’cchasi,  Vidura,  tatra  gaccha, 
ii,  64,  11  c (note  to  No.  20) ; aham  karte  ’ti,  Vidura,  ma  ca 
mansthah,  and  na  tvam  prcchami,  Vidura,  yad  dliitam  me,  ii, 
64,  7 a and  c (C.  has  ma  ’vamansthah)  ; pratas  trivarga  ghrta- 
vaha  vipapma,  xiii,  26,  88  c (No.  19,  ad  fin.). 

Between  divisions  iv  and  v stand  a couple  of  cases  in  which 
the  initial  syllable  is  heavy  but  the  second  is  light.  They 
belong  neither  to  iv  with  its  anapaestic  opening,  nor  to  v with 
its  iambic  or  spondaic  opening:  agvinav  indum  | amrtam 
vrttabhuyau,  i,  3,  63  a;  atra  Kaunteya  | saliito  blrratrbhis 
tvam,  iii,  134,  41  a.  Compare  above  p.  286,  tatS  utthayS 
viduram  Panda veyah  (No.  15). 2 

1 This  pada  is  followed  by  tvatto  yo  'strair  abhyadhiko  va  narendrah,  with 
the  caesura  ignored.  Pada  a is  virtually  repeated  in  viii,  69,  72  c-d,  anyasmai 
tvam  Gandivam  dehi  Partha,  tvatto 'strair  va  vlryato  va  vifistah. 

2 Such  Vedic  cases  as  this  last  are  grouped  by  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  with 
those  just  mentioned,  e.  g.,  abhi  krsnena  rajasii  dyam  rnoti,  RV.  i,  35,  9, 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


291 


Quite  exceptional,  though  corresponding  to  recognized  (but 
unusual)  forms  of  the  regular  tristubh,  are  further: 

dadarqa  ’sinaiii  dharmatmanaiii  vivikte,  iii,  5,  6 c 
(No.  27) 

kirn  vidviso  vai  main  evarn  vyahareyuh,  ii,  71,  7 c 
(No.  26) 

dhrtayudhah  su-krtinam  uttamaujah(v.  1.  sukrtinam), 

H.  7,442c  (No.  24;  v.  1.  iu  ii,  72,  53). 

Compare  also  a case  of  No.  23,  below,  p.  294. 

The  hypermeter  beginning  with  an  anapaest,  iv,  is  found 
also  in  popular  Buddliistic  poetry,  where  also  a long  syllable 
rarely  takes  the  place  of  the  initial  brevis.  There  are,  for 
example,  in  the  Dhammapada,  half  a dozen  cases  with  anapaest, 
but  none  with  long  initial  (vs.  40  has  naga-,  in  the  new  text). 

Examples  of  jagatls  like  the  tristubh  hypermeters  given 
above 1 are : 

athai  ’va  qyeno  vajrahastah  qaclpatih,  iii,  197,  25  b 
bhltam  prapannam  yo  hi  dadati  qatrave,  iii.  197,  12  c 
svadhyfiyaqlla  guruquqrtisane  ratah,  xiii,  102,  33  a 
satye  sthitanam  vedavidarn  mahatmanam,  xiii,  102,  34  c 
balena  tulyo  yasya  puman  na  vidyate,  ii,  65,  25  a 
(a  has  13  syllables  ; b,  12;  c-d,  11  each) 

Occasionally  a tristubh  and  jagatl  occur  in  the  same  stanza 
in  hypermetric  form,  as  in  iii,  134,  39: 

tato  'stavakram  matur  atha  ’ntike  pita 

nadim  samangam  qighram  imam  viqasva 
(provaca  cai  ’nam  sa  tatha  viveqa) 

The  unique  tristubh-pada  of  fourteen  syllables,  of  which  I 
spoke  above,  rims,  ii,  64,  Id: 

balan  iva  ’sman  avamanyase  nityam  eva 

perhaps  better  so  than  with  the  initial  hypermeter,  as  the  latter,  except  for 
this  example,  is  characterized  by  a heavy  fifth,  as  stated  above. 

1 Also  Vedic,  e.  g.,  vifvasu  dhursu  vajakrtyesu  satpate,  RV.  x,  50,  2 (in- 
cluded under  tristubhs  in  Oldenberg’s  list,  loc.  cit.). 


292 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  scholiast,  who  rarely  touches  on  purely  metrical  phe- 
nomena,1 explains  this  as  “ redundant  and  archaic,”  recogniz- 
ing the  pada  as  it  stands.  But  it  is  impossible  to  suppress  the 
suspicion  that  avamanyase  stands  for  an  original  manyase,  a 

regular  hypermeter  (_,_  w ),  “thou  regardest  us  as 

children,”  strengthened  by  some  one  to  “ thou  despisest  us.” 
Another,  but  doubtful,  example  is  given  below. 

The  distribution  of  these  hypermetric  forms,  va,  is  somewhat 
uneven.  The  examples  run  in  groups,  showing  clearly  the 
effect  of  different  styles.  A baker’s  dozen  of  hypermeters,  for 
example,  are  found  in  the  seventh  book,  which  has  three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  tristubhs ; but  half  of  the  dozen  are  in  the 
fifty-seven  tristubhs  of  adhy.  179.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
fourth  book,  which  has  two  hundred  tristubhs,  has  no  ex- 
ample.2 The  second  book,  which  has  only  one  hundred  and 
fifty-five  tristubhs,  has  thirty  examples.3  In  the  thirteenth 
book  the  older  parts  have  most  examples.  Thus  in  the  few 
tristubhs  that  tell  of  the  seers’  oath,  adhy.  94,  there  are  twelve 
hypermeters  in  tlurteen  tristubhs,  a much  greater  proportion, 
as  the  tale  is  much  more  ancient,  than  is  found  in  any  other 
part  of  equal  length  in  this  book.4 

As  an  illustration  of  the  epic  free  tristubh  with  hyper- 
meters may  be  taken  the  following  stanzas  from  the  continu- 
ation of  the  story  of  the  Frog-girl  in  iii,  192,  48  ff. : 

[Vamadeva  uvaca] 

prayaccha  vamyau  mama  parthiva  tvam 
krtam  hi  te  karyam  abhyam  aqakyam 

1 He  seldom  comments  on  unusual  rhythms,  although  often  remarking  on 
archaisms  real  or  fancied,  as  for  example  on  prasthe  dattva  vipinam  brahma- 
nebhyah,  at  i,  93,  23b,  explaining  prasthe  as  for  pratasthe  “with  Vedic  loss 
of  reduplication.” 

2 The  fourth  book  is  writ  like  the  Ilamayana,  in  the  refined  style,  and  has 
scarcely  a dozen  padas  of  the  free  tristubh  type,  almost  all  its  tristubhs  being 
upajatis. 

8 Two  such  hypcrmeters  in  one  stanza  are  not  unusual  in  old  tales,  e.  g.,  iii, 
192,63  a-b, janami  putrarii  dafavarsam  tava  ’haiii  jatam  mahisyam  Cyena- 
jitarii  narendra. 

4 Compare  what  was  said  above,  in  the  note  on  p.  221,  regarding  the  9lokas 
in  this  section. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


293 


m5  tva  ’vadlnd  Yaruno  gliorapaqair 
brahmaksatrasya  ’ntare  vartamanam 

[rajo  ’vaca] 

anadvahau  suvratau  sadhudantav  ( — ^ ) 

etad  vipranam  | vahanarii  Vamadeva  ( — , — ^ — ~-) 

tabhyam  yahi  tvam  | yatra  karno  maharse  (— , — ^ ) 

cchandaiisi  vai  tvadrqaiii  samvahanti  (—  ^ ) 

[Vamadevah] 

chandausi  vai  madrqam  samvahanti 
loke  'musmin  partliiva  yani  santi 
asmihs  tu  loke  mama  yanam  etad 

asmadvidhanain  | aparesaiii  ca  raj  an  ( > V>  W ) 

[raja] 

catvaras  tvam  va  | gardabhah  samvahantu  ( — , — ^ ) 

qresthaqvataryo  | harayo  vataranhah  (_,  w w ) 

tais  tvam  yahi  ksatriyasyai  ’sa  vaho  (—  ^ ) 

mainai  ’va  vamyau  | na  tavai  ’tau  hi  viddhi  w ) 

[Yamadevah] 

ghoram  vratam  brahmanasyai  ’tad  ahur 
etad  rajan  yad  iha  ’jivamanah 
ayasmaya  ghorarfipa  mahantaq 
catvaro  va  yatudhanah  suraudrah 

maya  prayuktas  | tvadvadham  Ipsamana  (_,  W W ) 

vahantu  tvam  qitaqulac  caturdha 

And  so  on  (the  last  stanza  has  six  padas,  as  not  infre- 
quently happens).1 

As  seen  in  some  of  these  stanzas,  there  is  sometimes  accord 
between  the  hypermeter  and  its  environment.  This  is  not 
rare.  Thus  in  ii,  58,  9,  three  padas  have  the  form  ^ _ w _ 
w w _ m,  and  these  are  followed  by  pada  d as  a hy- 

permeter of  the  same  sort;  ity  agato  'ham  nrpa  te  taj  ju- 
sasva.  The  hypermetric  cadence  to  close  a passage  is  not 
unusual.  Thus  to  close  a stanza,  xiii,  159,  11 : sa  eva  pur- 
vam  nijaghana  daityan,  sa  purvadevag  ca  babhuva  samrat, 
sa  bhutanam  bhavano  bliutabhavyali,  sa  viqvasya  ’sya  jagatag 

1 That  is,  it  is  a strophe  of  two  three-pada  tristubhs  (above,  p.  194). 


294 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ca  ’bliigopta.  Again,  in  i,  90,  5 d : bkuyag  ce  ’danlm  vada 
kiiii  te  vadami ; then  Astaka  uvaca.  As  hypermeters  I 
should  explain  the  difficult  padas,  1,  3,  123  c-d,  the  latter 
having  (affectation  of  the  antique  ?)  choriambic  opening  be- 
fore KJ  KJ (No.  18  has  \j  ^ w w w \j ) : 

van  uavanltam  | hrdayam  tlksnadharam(iti). 

The  preceding  pada  is,  I think,  to  be  read  as : 

tad  viparltam  | ubhayam  ksatriyasya, 

instead  of  tad  ubhayam  etad  viparltam.  Then  all  the  padas 
are  metrical,  after  a fashion. 

There  is  a regular  tristubh  with  the  movement  m _ w 
— _ w and  hypermetric  in  bhayahitasya  dayam  mama 
’ntikat  tvam  (cited  under  No.  23).  Like  this,  but  with  a 
different  hypermetric  opening,  is  the  apparent  pada  found  in 

1,  3,  63  c:  hitva  | girhn  agvi-  | nau  ga  muda  carantau, J 

_ w w with  neglected  caesura. 

This  brings  me  to  the  comparatively  few  cases  of  different 
caesura  in  this  form  of  hypermeter.  As  shown  in  the  exam- 
ples given  above,  the  caesura!  pause  comes  after  the  fifth 
syllable.  When  this  is  neglected  (but  the  practice  is  ob- 
served in  a large  majority  of  the  cases),  we  have  an  approach 
to  the  shifting  caesura  of  the  former  division,  iv,  and,  as  I 
have  said  already,  it  may  seem  simpler  to  regard  such  cases 
as  initial  hypermeters  with  long  instead  of  short  initial.  But 
the  difference  of  cadence  between  the  opening  w ^ m and 

m h,  seems,  as  in  the  case  of  the  9loka,  to  mark  an 

important  though  not  a radical  distinction,  between  these 
groups.  While  the  ictus  of  the  former,  as  in  vrsallpatih,  is 
^ ^ A.  ^ _L,  tliat  of  the  latter,  as  in  hatam  samgrame  is  ^ 1, 

L Nor  does  the  shift  of  cassura  in  asuraih  surayam 

bhavato  'smi  dattah,  etc.,  change  this.  But  when  the  second 
class  shifts  the  caesura  to  the  sixth  syllable,  as  in  yatra  devl 
Ganga  satatam  prasuta,  then,  instead  of  coinciding  with  the 
ictus  of  iv,  we  still  have  necessarily  the  same  opening  with 
that  of  v,  but  still  differentiated  in  the  following.  For  in 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


295 


the  whole  tristubli,  we  certainly  cannot  read  hatam  samgrame 

Sahadevena  papam  as  ^ 1 L £>,  etc.,  whereas  in  the  other 

case  the  only  way,  as  it  seems  to  me,  to  read  the  pada  is  yatrd 
devi  Gan  | ga  | satat&m  prasuta.  I prefer,  therefore,  not 
to  call  these  cases  long  initial  hypermeters,  but  to  class  them 
separately,  as  vi.  There  are,  as  1 have  shown,  cases  which 
bridge  the  distinction  and  connect  these  classes  in  their  ex- 

O 

treme  varieties,  so  that  some  may  choose  rather  to  consider 
them  as  radically  identical  openings ; but  it  is  certainly  con- 
venient to  distinguish  these  forms.  Of  vi  1 have  the  follow- 
ing examples,  the  type  being  antique,  as  in  Mund.  Up.,  iii,  1, 
6,  yatra  hit  satyasya  paramam  nidhanam,  as  distinguished 
from  ib.  ii,  2,  10,  na  tatra  suryo  bhiiti  na  candratarakam,  ne 
’mii  vidyuto  bhiinti  kuto  yam  agnih,  etc.  I unite  with 
them  the  sporadic  cases  where  the  caesura,  instead  of  coming 
after  the  sixth,  where  it  is  usually  found,  is  neglected  or 
falls  after  the  fourth  syllable,  except  where,  in  the  latter  case, 
two  light  syllables  follow : 1 


i,  89,  3 b,  sa  vai  rajan  na  ’bhyadhikah  kathyate  ca 

(No. 

i,  197,  10  d,  yatra  devi  Ganga  satatam  prasuta  (No. 

ii,  64,  11  b,  vi^esatali  ksattarahitam  manusyam  (No. 

iii,  134,  7 a,  evam  Astavakrah  samitau  hi  garjan  (No. 

ib,  27  c,  balesu  putresu  krpanaih  vadatsu  (No. 

iii,  13,193  a (B.  192,  54)  mamai  ’va  tau  vamyau  parigrhya 

rajan 

B.  omits  eva,  but  both  texts  immediately  after  have  — 
iii,  192,  55  b,  na  tva  ’nuqasmy  adya  prabhrti  hy  asatyam 

(No. 

v,  42,  9 b,  tatra  ’nu  te  yanti  na  taranti  mrtyam  2 (No. 
v (42,  17),  1,592  d,  etad  vidvan  upaiti  kathaiii  nu  karma 

(No. 

B.  has  no  ’paiti  — 

v,  44,  10  a,  gurum  Qisyo  nityam  abhivadayita  (No. 

v,  44,  28  c,  rathamtare  barhadrathe  va  ’pi  rajan  (No. 

v,  48,  77  c,  vegenai  ’va  qailam  abhihatya  jambhah 

(No.  20, 


13) 

3) 

19) 

3) 

19) 


1) 

19) 

2) 

20) 
6) 

note) 


2 C.  1,584  has  te  tatra  ’nuyanti. 


1 For  these  cases  see  below. 


296 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


vii,  2,  1 b,  bhinnam  navam  iva  ’tyagadhe  Kurunam 

(No.  9)1 

vii,  179,  26  b,  Qaktyrstiprasamusalany  ayudhani  (No.  13) 2 

But  C.  8,140,  has  Qaktyah  prasa  (regular)  — 

viii,  4,546  b,  praduq  cakre  vajrapratiinaprabhavam  (No.  2) 

Here  B.  89,  23  has  vajram  atiprabhavam,  but  C.’s  form 
(words)  is  a stereotyped  tristubh  ending,  as  in  viii,  89,  61  d ; 
ix,  17,  19  d;  35,  37  c;  xii,  112,  21  b,  etc.;  e.  g.,  in  the  last 
case,  pura  mahendra  pratimaprabliava. 

[xii,  108,  33  a,  etat  sarvam  anirdeQenai  ’vam  uktam  8] 


xiii,  94,  13  d,  na  hy  utsahe  drastum  iha  jlvalokaru  (No.  19) 

xiv,  9,  34  c,  sahasram  dantanam  qatayojananam  (No.  2) 

H.  2,  72, 31c,  virupaksam  sudarqaiiam  punyayonim  (No.  7) 

ib.  32  d,  somapauam  marlcipauaih  varisthah  (No.  8) 


ib.  44  a,  vi-anjano  jano  'tlia  vidvan  saxuagrah 

(Note  to  No.  9 in  Appendix,  with  the  pada  tri-arabakam 
pustidam,  etc.,  another  case  of  resolution.) 

Compare  also  the  pada  cited  above  p.  278,  rua  pradah 
gyenaya,  etc. 

In  the  explanation  of  the  padas  given  above,  I have  partially 
accepted4 * * *  the  analysis  of  Kiihnau,  who  in  his  book,  Die 
Trishtubh-Jagat!  Familie,  has  divided  yatri  tat  sdtyasyd  | 
paramdrh  nidhanam ; but  I cannot  carry  this  out  in  tans  te 
dadani,  ma  prapata  prapatam,  and  therefore  separate  the 
classes,  reading  the  latter  as  tans  td  dadani  | mil  prapatd 
prapatam.  The  pada  with  caesura  after  the  sixth  syllable, 

1 Perhaps  va  for  iva  (as  below). 

2 On  this  pada  also,  see  below. 

8 This  extraordinary  verse,  though  anirde9ena  is  vouched  for  by  the  com- 
mentator, seems  by  metre  and  meaning  to  have  been  originally  a sample  of 


No.  27  (with  nirdesena  in  its  usual  sense),  ^ , w \j- 

As  it  stands  it  must  have  fourth  brevis  (hyperineter), 

w \J- 


4 Kiihnau’s  schemes  (loc.  cit.,  pp.  104, 159)  find  a place  even  for  the  pada : 

yadii  ’(jrausam  Dronah  Krtavarma  Krpa?  ea,  which  does  indeed  stand  in  C. 

19G  a,  but  is  corrected  in  B.  i,  1,  198,  ’frausam  having  been  taken  over  from 

the  circumjacent  padas,  but  being  properly  omitted  (as  in  C.  201,  yada  Drone), 

leaving  a regular  tristubh.  See,  however,  viii,  below. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


297 


examples  above,  may,  however,  be  grouped  for  mechanical 
clearness  with  the  regular  tristubhs,  the  numbers  of  which 

I have  added  to  the  various  specimens. 

As  in  the  case  of  tristubh  versus  gloka  pada,  one  cannot 
always  say  just  which  measure  one  has  in  hand  when  regular 
and  hypermetric  tristubhs  run  together.  Thus  in  xiii,  80, 

II  a-b: 

dheuuiii  savatsam, 

kapilam  bhuricjrnglm 
kaiisyopadoham, 

vasanottarlyam ; 

or  in  iii,  34,  21  c-d : 

mitrani  cai  ’nam  | acirad  bhajante 
deva  ive  ’ndrarn  | upajlvauti  cai  ’nam, 
like  a vaitallya. 

The  hypermetric  syllable  may  be  only  apparent  (elision) 
in  some  cases.  In  the  older  epic  I have  noticed  only  a elided 
thus,  as  in  v,  44,  10  d : 

esa  prath  ’mo  brahmacaryasya  padah 

In  the  later  epic,  such  elision  takes  place  as  well  in  the  case 
of  u and  i,  unless  we  assume  a freer  use  of  hypermetric  sylla- 
bles ; as  in : 

i,  55,  11  d,  tvam  va  Varuno  dharmaraja  Yamo  va 

vii,  201,  65  b,  para^vadhinam  gadinam  ca  ’yatasim 

ib.  c,  qubhram  jatilam  musalinam  candramaulim 

vii,  9,455  d (=ib.  d),  vyaghrajinam  paridadhanam  dandapanim 

But  here  B.  has  parigliinam. 

xiv,  10,  2 a,  Dhrtarastra  ! prahito  gaccha  Maruttam  1 
H.,  2,  79,  9 c,  where  the  whole  stanza  reads : 

a,  apo  devya  | rslnam  (hi 2)  viqvadhatryo 

b,  divya  madantyo  yah  | camkara  dharmadhatryah 

c,  hiranyavarnah  | pavakah  civatamena 

d,  rasena  Qreyaso  mam  jusantu 

1 Eead  gacch’  (a  common  type,  No.  14). 

2 C.,  7,794,  omits  Li,  and  in  b reads  dliarmaratryah. 


298 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


If  yah  followed  rasena  it  would  improve  both  padas ; but  on 
this  see  the  next  paragraph.  In  c,  hypermetric,  qivatamena 
must  be  read  as  qiv’tamena.  In  the  next  stanza  (after  apam 
esa  smrto  mantrah,  intervening),  C.,  d,  has  (sc.  ma) 
bhartur  bhaveyam  rusatl  syarh  ca  vaqaga 

but  here  B.,  11,  has  syam  vaqamga,  which  smacks  of  B.’s 
usual  improving  process. 

vii-ix.  Double  Hypermeters  or  Tristubhs  of  Thirteen 

Syllables. 

vii.  Sporadically  appears  an  “inserted  fifth”  in  addition 
to  the  initial  hypermeter: 

xiii,  94,  3 a,  rsayah  sametah  | paqcime  vai  prabha.se 
xiii,  102,  39  a,  qatavarsajlvi  | yaq  ca  quro  manusyah 

If  the  reading  is  right,  tins  is  found,  but  with  different  open- 
ing, in 

iii,  197,  27  a,  etasam  prajanam  | palayita  yaqasvi. 

viii.  But  in  the  last  case  (though  tasam  may  be  suggested 
for  etasam)  a combination  seems  to  be  at  work  winch  is  like 
that  wrought  by  the  caesura  after  the  fifth,  in  cases  where 
the  tristubh  then  builds  up  its  second  half  independently. 
Thus  palayita  yaqasvi  would  be  a regular  second  half  and 
etasam  prajanam  would  be  a rough  metrical  equivalent  of 
the  type  yatra  dev!  Ganga.  The  cases  are : 

(1)  ii,  G7,  4 c,  sa  tvam  prapadyasva  | Dhrtarastrasya  veqma1 

(2)  iii,  5,  20  c,  sahayanam  esa  | samgrahane  'bhyupayah 

(3)  v,  46,  27  c,  ajaq  caro  diva-  | ratrara  atandritaq  ca2 

(4)  viii,  76,  18  a prasaq  ca  mudgarah  | qaktayaq  tomaraq  ca 

(5)  xiii,  159, 26  a,  sa  eva  parthaya  ] qvetam  aqvam  prayacchat 

(read  prayacchat  ?) 

(6)  xiv,  9,  10  b,  balani  sarvani  | vlrudhaq  ca  ’py  amrdnan 

1 Possibly,  however,  prapadya  has  been  altered  here  by  a grammarian. 

2 In  30,  aja?  caro  divaratram  atandrito  'ham,  where  C.,  1,700,  has  ajag  ca 
’horatram.  The  stanza  is  Upanishadic:  angusthamatrah  puruso  mahatma  na 
drgyate  'sau  hrdi  sarimivistah,  ajag  (etc.),  sa  tain  matva  kavir  aste  pra- 
sannah  (as  in  Ka{ha  vi,  17,  etc.). 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


299 


(7)  H.  2,  72,  32  a,  bhunkte  ya  eko  (pronounce  yaiko)  vibhur  | 

jagato  viqvam  agryam 

(8)  ib.  47  d,  abhi  trivistapaiii  | qaranam  yami  Rudrarn 

(9)  ib.  C.  7448  c,  guha  ’bliibhutasya  | purusasye  ’qvarasya 1 

And  so,  perhaps,  in  the  case  cited  above  from  H.,  2,  79,  9 b, 
divya  madantyo  yah  | qamkara  dhamiadliatryah  (when,  after 
rasena  in  d,  tah  may  be  supplied). 

The  number  of  cases  (all  I have  found)  is  considerably 
reduced  by  reading  in  the  etasam  verse  above, 


tasam  prajauam 

in  (1) 

si  tvam  prapadya 

in  (4) 

prasaq  ca  mudg’rah 

in  (5) 

saiva  partliaya 

in  (6) 

balani  sarva  (analogous  to  viqva) 

in  (8) 

trivistapam  (omitting  abhi) 

But  the  type  seems  to  be  established  by  bhunkte  yaiko  vi- 
bhuh  in  (7),  and  guha  ’bliibhutasya  in  (9)  ; so  it  may  seem 
better  to  stick  to  the  text  than  to  adopt  an  explanation  which 
would  demand  still  further  changes,  such  as  omitting  esa  in 
(2),  and  vibhuh  in  (7)  ; or  rejecting  the  form  of  (9).  Other 
examples  of  thirteen-syllable  tristubhs  exist,  but  they  seem 
to  belong  to  another  category,  as  shown  below,  where,  however, 
chandovidas  te  | ya  uta  na  ’dhltavedah  differs  from  adyai’va 
punya  ’ham  | uta  vah  Pandaveyah  only  by  caesura,  the  latter 
(from  i,  198,  5 b)  belonging  here. 

Defective  Tristubhs. 

Considering  the  extent  of  the  epic,  the  number  of  defective 
(impossible)  tristubh  padas  is  small.  Some  of  these  I have 
already  noticed  incidentally,  and  need  not  take  up  again.  The 
others  I group  in  their  order : 

i,  197,  23  d,  adya  ’qesasya  bhuvanasya  tvam  bhava  ’dyah 

Omit  Bhava,  Qiva  (Xo.  13,  hypermetric). 


1 Here  B.  (59)  has  purusei^varasya. 


300 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


v,  42,  15  d,  na  ’dhiyita  nirnudann  iva  ’sya  ca  ’yuh 
Read  va  for  iva.1 

v,  44,  3 c,  anarabhyam  vasatl  ’ha  karyakale 

Omit  iha  (=  atmany  eva). 

v,  44,  25  a,  abhati  quklam  iva  lohitam  iva  ’tho 

krsnam  atka  ’njanaih  kadravam  va  (v.  1.  in  26  a, 
krsnam  ayasain  arkavarnam). 

Head  va  for  iva  ’tho  and  atho  krsnam  ahjanam.  In  26  a,  a 
like  change.  So  v,  48,  86  d,  akage  ca  ’psu  ca  te  kramak  syat, 
for  ca  apsu. 

v,  44,  28  a-c,  nai  ’varksu  tan  na  yajuhsu  na  ’py  atharvasu 
na  drcyate  vai  vimalesu  samasu 
rathamtare  barhadrathe  va  ’pi  raj  an 

For  c,  see  the  list  above,  p.  295.  In  a,  read  naivarksu  tan 
na  ’pi  yajuhsv  atharvasu,  or  as  hypermetric  with  yajusu? 

viii,  3,338  c,  ditsuk  Karnak  samare  hastisatkam  yak 

B.  66,  30,  has  hastisadgavam  and  omits  yak 

xii,  60,  46  c-d,  adkaro  vitanah  samsrsto  vaigyo  brakmanas  trisu 
varnesu  yajnasrstak 

The  preceding  padas  make  metre  and  sense.  These  make 
neither. 

xii,  226,  18,  na  tat  sadah  satparisat  sabha  ca  sa 

prapya  yam  na  kurute  sada  bkayam 
dharmatattvam  avagakya  buddkiman 

yo  'bhyupaiti  sa  dkuramdkarak  puman  (v.  1.  narak) 

Read  (?) 

na  tat  sadah  satparisat  sabha  ca  sa 

samprapya  yam  na  kurute  sada  bhayam 
tad  dharmatattvam  avagahya  buddkiman 
yas  tv  abhyupaiti  sa  dkuramdharo  narah 

The  sa  has  caused  the  loss  of  the  following  sam,  a copy-error. 
Just  so,  bhavatmakain  parivartamanam  has  lost  sam  before  the 


1 The  form  va  for  iva  is  found  everywhere,  e.  g.,  xiii,  00,  42  c,  sa  vai 
muktah,  pippalam  bandhanad  va  (cyavate).  So  R.  vii,  34,  16;  36,42. 


EPIC  VERS  I PICA  TION. 


301 


last  word,  xii,  10,544  a = 287, 13.  The  parallel  proverb,  v.  35, 
58,  has  na  sa  sabha  yatra  na  santi  vrddhah  (Manu,  xii,  114). 
xii,  285,  26  d,  mam  adhvare  qamsitarah  stuvanti 
rathamtaram  samagaQ  co  ’paganti 
m&m  brahmaua  brahmavido  yajante 
(d)  mama  ’dhvaryavah  kalpayante  ca  bhagam 

Varied  readings  in  xiii,  159,  16,  where  d appears  as  tasmiii 
havir  adhvaryavah  kalpayanti,  but  tasmiii  here  is  offensive. 
Read  me  'dhvaryavah. 

H.  2,  74,  27  b,  Qaqvac  chreyah  kaiiksibhir  varadameyavlrya(h) 1 

(sc.  pujyase) 

v,  b and  ix.  Mora-Tristubhs. 

v,  b.  In  the  form  of  the  hypermetric  tristubh  shown  above 
in  tatha  titiksur  atitiksor  vi§istah  or  na  tvam  prcchami,  Vidura, 
yad  dhitam  me,  the  scheme  is 

^ ^ \Jy\J  M 

Now,  as  soon  as  the  ccesura  in  such  a combination  of  syllables 
shifts  back  to  the  fourth  syllable, 
as  in 

tesaiii  kraman  kathaya  tato  'pi  ca  ’nyat,  v,  42,  26  c, 

it  is  evident  that,  although  such  a piida  may  be  mechanically 
equated  with  No.  19  (as  a hypermeter),  it  is  on  the  other 
hand  nothing  but  a mora-equivalent  of  the  form  (No.  1) 

_ w siv  w ^ _ w _ Again,  in  the  case  of  neglected 
csesura  (above),  where  two  light  syllables  follow  the  “ extra  ” 
syllable,  we  may  as  well  take  gaktyrstiprasamusalany  ayudhani 

as  an  equivalent  of  ^ ^ ^ like  the  regular 

pada  with  _ w in  the  second  foot  (No.  6)  ; or,  to  give  an 

example  where  the  Ccesura  is  clearly  marked,  sa  mam  jihmarh, 
Vidura,  sarvam  bravisi,  iii,  4,  21  a,  may  be  scanned  as 

V' } — w.  Such  padas  stand  parallel  to  the 

regular  forms,  as  in  the  Gita,  2,  29,  imitation  of  Katha  Up. 
ii,  7 : 

1 The  commentator  asserts  that  this  is  really  a “fourteen-syllable  pada,” 
but,  as  nityada  precedes,  fajvat  may  be  omitted,  leaving  a dodeka  hypermeter. 


302 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


aqcaryavat  paqyati  kaqcid  enam 
aqcaryavad  vadati  tatkai  ’va  ca  ’nyah 
aqcaryavac  cai  ’nam  anyah  qrnoti. 

As  resolution  may  take  place  in  several  places,  we  get  quite 
a variety  of  rucira-like  padas.  The  common  alternation  of  the 
^ and  w w padas  is  thus  represented : 

xiv,  10,  19  a-b,  ayam  indro  haribhir  ayati  rajan 

devaih  sarvais  tvaritaih  stuyamanah 

ib.  10,  23  c-d,  ayam  yajnam  kurute  me  surendra 
Brhaspater  avarajo  vipramukhyah 

But  the  choriambus-equivalent  is  more  common,  as  in 

iii,  134,  28  c,  hast!  ’va  tvam,  Janaka,  vinudyamanah 

xiv,  2G,  1 if.  (refrain),  yo  hrcchayas,  tarn  aham  anubravimi 

Two  or  three  of  these  padas  together  are  not  unusual : 

iii,  132,  9 d-10  a,  bharyam  ca  vai  duhitaram  svam  sujatam 
tasya  garbhah  samabhavad  agnikalpah 1 

viii,  68,  7 d and  8 a-b,  phalarthinaih  viphala  iva  ’tipuspah 

praccbaditam  badiqam  iva  ’misena 
samchaditam  garalam  iva  ’qanena 

So  in  the  jagatl-pada  iii,  133,  10  d,  kasmad  balah  sthavira 
iva  prabhasase.  Here  it  needs  only  the  iambic  opening  to 
make  a true  rucira,  w _ ^ ^ and  this  pada 

is  found  repeatedly,  not  in  complete  rucira-stanzas  alone,  but 
in  jagatl  stanzas.  For  example,  iii,  3,  31  is  a vangasthabila 
stanza,  where  three  padas  are  regular,  but  b has : 

praklrtayec  chucisumanah  samahitah 

On  the  other  hand,  in  i,  34,  26,  the  first  pada  alone  is  of  vanya- 
stha  type,  while  three  rucira  padas  follow,  e.  g.,  pada  d : 

mahatmanah  patagapateh  praklrtanat 

These  are  both  tag-stanzas,  embellishing  the  close  of  a chapter 

1 The  naive  padas  10,606  b-7  a,  following  this  stanza,  are  omitted  in  B. 
The  embryo  here  says : vedan  sangan  sarvayastrair  upetan  adhitavan  asmi 
tava  prasadat,  etc.  1 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


303 


and  of  benedictive  content.1  A similar  case  occurs  in  iii,  3, 
75  a,  where,  after  praise,  is  said: 

imam  stavaiii  prayatamanah  samadhinS, 

pathed  ika  ’nyo  'pi  varaiii  samarthayan,  etc. 

But  this  arrangement  is  found  also  apart  from  such  employ- 
ment. So  in  viii,  66,  47,  a,  b,  d are  of  this  rucira  type ; c is 
of  upendra  form,  thus  c-d: 

hato  maya  so  *dya  sametya  Karna 

iti  bruvan  praqamayase  (v.  1.  me)  'dya  Phalguna 

Here  eleven  syllables  do  not  equate  twelve  (thirteen),  but 
d equals  ^ ^ w — In  viii,  84,  20  a,  B.  has  sphatikacitra, 
where  C.  4,281  has  (tato  dhvajam)  sphatikavicitrakancukam, 
probably  the  original,  as  B.  is  apt  in  varied  readings  to  have 
the  more  uniform  (unproved)  types. 

As  upendra  and  vahgastha  padas  alternate,  so  rucira  padas 
alternate  with  vangasthas.  Thus  in  xii,  244,  29,  a and  c are 
of  rucira  form ; b and  d,  of  vangastha  form.  In  a stanza  of 
mixed  upajatis,  xii,  341,  119  b has 

mahatmanah  purusavarasya  klrtitam  2 

The  seventh  book  has  a number  of  these  combinations  of 
rucira  padas  and  stanzas  and  upajati  padas  and  stanzas,  usu- 
ally as  pada  tags  at  the  end  of  chapters,  for  example,  adhy. 
26,  29,  30,  32 ; but  it  has  also  incorporated  complete  ruciras 
as  parts  of  an  upajati  system,  as  in  2,  15  and  16. 

I give  now  — reverting  to  the  tristubh  — a few  more 
examples : 

ii,  58, 16  a,  na  ca  ’kamah  Qakunina  devita  ’ham 

iii,  4, 17  a,  tvaya  prstah  kim  aham  anyad  vadeyam 
iii,  4, 18  a,  etad  vakyam  Vidura  yat  te  sabhayam 

1 In  xii,  219,  52,  two  or  three  padas  in  a benedictive  stanza  are  of  this  type. 
The  first  pada  in  C.  begins  imam  yah  pathati  vimoksanifcayam,  for  B.’s  imam 
hi  yah  pathati  (vi?)  moksanigcayam.  In  xii,  114,  21,  a benedictive  stanza, 
rucira  padas  appear  in  a and  d,  e.  g.,  the  latter:  na  vanmayam  sa  labhati 
kimcid  apriyam.  xiii,  77,  32  has  a whole  rucira  in  benediction. 

2 Compare  Gita,  8, 10,  sa  tam  param  purusam  upaiti  divyam,  etc. 


304 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  this  example,  ii,  71,  17,  the  much  affected  pada  sym- 
metry is  shown,  b and  d having  ^ , a and  c having 

^ w : 

atidyutam  krtam  idam  Dhartarastra 
yasmat  striyam  vivadadhvam  sabhayam 
yogaksemau  nacyato  vah  samagrau 
papan  mantran  Kuravo  mantrayanti 

Similar  is  ib.  3,  only  the  first  pada  is  jagatT.  But  the  second 
foot  corresponds  to  that  of  the  third  pada ; and  so  the  fourth 

pada  has  ^ corresponding  to  u u ^ _ in  the  second 

pada: 

anyam  vrnlsva  patim  aqubhavini 

yasmad  dasyam  na  labhasi  devanena 
avacya  vai  patisu  kamavrttir 

nityam  dasye  viditam  tat  tava  ’stu 

Contrast  this,  for  example,  with  the  following  padas,  20  a, 
24  a,  26  c,  of  the  same  section : 

Bhimasya  vakye  tadvad  eva  ’rjunasya 
tato  Gandharl  Viduraq  ca  ’pi  vidvan 
Krsnam  Pancallm  abravlt  santvapurvam 

The  last  is  a pure  vaiqvadevl  pada,  as  above  nityam  dasye 
viditam  tat  tava  ’stu  is  a pure  vatormi  pada,  and  yogaksemau 
naqyato  vah  samagrau  is  a pure  qalinl  pada. 

In  padas  of  the  rucira  or  rucira-like  type,  the  same  word 
appears  in  the  tristubh,  which  has  caused  a discussion  in  the 
qloka : 

iii,  192,  56  d,  tena  qrestho  bhavati  hi  jlvamanah 

v,  44,  18  c-d : sa  tam  vrttim  bahugunam  evam  eti 
guroh  putre  bhavati  ca  vrttir  esa 

xii,  300,  27  d,  moghah  qramo  bhavati  hi  krodhanasya 

Here  bhavati  need  not  be  pronounced  bhoti,  as  it  is  a perfect 
parallel  to  baliu  gu-  in  this  stanza  and  to  pacasi  (bhavasi)  in 
the  following : 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TIOIST. 


305 


i,  232,  14,  srstva  lokans  trln  im&n  havyav£ha 

kale  prapte  pacasi  punah  samiddhah 
tvam  sarvasya  bkuvanasya  prasutis 
tvam  eva  ’gne  bhavasi  punah  pratistha 

A monosyllabic  pronunciation  cannot  be  claimed  for  all  these 
cases,  though  it  might  be  maintained  for  special  words : 


i,  197,  42  a, 
iii,  4,  1 c, 
iii,  4,  3 a, 
iii,  26,  11  d, 
iii,  34,  9 b, 
iii,  34,  20  c, 
iii,  111,  10  d, 

xii,  302,  114  b, 

xiii,  71,  16  a, 
xiii,  93,  136  a, 
xiii,  102,  36  b, 
xiii,  103,  35  b, 
H.  2,  72,  33  a, 
H.  2,  74,  23  b, 


tarn  cai  ’va  ’gryam  striyam  atirupayuktam 1 
dharmatmanam  Viduram  ag&dhabuddhim 
evam  gate  Yidura  yad  adya  karyain 
labdhva  dvijam  nudati  nrpah  sapatnan 
yathak&mam  viditam  Ajataqatro 
mahiigunam  harati  hi  paurusena 
vratam  brahraahq  carasi  hi  devavat  tvam 
inaharnavarii  vimalam  udarakantam 
drstvai  ’va  mam  abhimukham  apatantam 
adhvaryave  duhitaram  va  dadatu2 
tathe  ’stlnam  daqaqatam  prapnuvanti 
tathai  ’va  ’nyan  anaduho  lokanatha 
Atharvanam  suqirasam  bhutayonim 
khyato  devah  paqupatih  sarvakarma 


But  the  great  objection  to  a monosyllabic  pronunciation  is 
that  the  rucira  pada  interchanges  up  to  three  padas  with  the 
ordinary  tristubh  pada,  and  must  therefore  be  identical  in 
structure  with  the  same  pada  when  four  times  repeated,  in  a 
perfect  rucira  stanza.  But  in  the  rucira  stanza,  no  one  can 
maintain  for  a moment  that  is  to  be  read  with  crasis. 

Why  then  when  a stanza  has  three  padas  of  the  same  type  or 
even  one  ? 

It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  mora  tristubh  pada  differs 
in  no  respect  from  the  “ inserted  fifth,”  when  the  latter  is  a 
light  syllable.  For  example  in  this  stanza: 

iii,  4,  21,  sa  mam  jihmam,  Yidura,  sarvam  bravisi 
manam  ca  te  'ham  adhikam  dharayami 
yathe  ’echakam  gaccha  va  tistha  va  tvam 
susantvyamana  ’py  asatl  strl  jahati 


1 All  the  other  padas  here  are  of  strict  9alinl  type, , ^ 



2 ib,  94,  44,  idem,  but  va  fails. 


20 


306 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Here  it  is  clear  that  susantvyamana  ’py  is  a complete  foot  of 
the  inserted  fifth  variety ; but  pada  b is  indifferently  an  in- 
serted fifth  or  a mora  pada,  the  caesura  pointing  but  lightly  to 
the  latter  explanation.  One  reason,  however,  against  such  an 
identification  is  that  the  mora  explanation  in  almost  all  cases 
is  indicated,  as  in  most  of  the  examples  given,  by  a plain 
caesura  before  the  fifth.  Another  is  that  this  explanation 
brings  the  various  padas  of  a stanza  into  symmetry,  as  in  iii, 

192,  where  _ w is  employed  with  predilection  throughout, 

and  we  find  in 

iii,  192,  69,  yatha  yukta  | vamadeva  ’ham  enam 
dine  dine  | samdiQantl  nrQahsam 
brahmanebhyo  | mrgayati  sunrtani 

tatha  brahman  | punyalokam  labheyam 

Here  mrgayati  su  — , as  w , accords  with  the  structure 

of  the  other  padas.  So  in  jagatis,  e.  g., 

vii,  26, 65-66,  sa  nagarajah  pravaraiikuQahatah 

pura  sapakso  'drivaro  yatha  nrpa 
bhayam  tada  ripusu  samadadhad  bhrqaiii 
vanigjananam  ksubhito  yatha  ’rnavah 
tato  dhvanir  dviradarathaqvaparthivaih,  etc. 

vii,  50, 14a-b,  tatha  tada  yodhanam  ugradarqanaiii 

nicamukhe  pitrpatirastravardhanam  1 

vii,  109, 37  c-d  niqamya  tarn  pratyanadahs  tu  Pandavas 

tato  dhvanir  bhuvanapatha  ’spread  bhrQam 

Compare  the  close  of  vii,  155,  four  stanzas  of  ruciras  and 
of  vahgasthas,  with  the  same  mora-padas. 

A third  point  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  “ inserted  fifth  ” as 
brevis,  and  with  its  caesura  there,  is  always  a rarity  (as  indi- 
cated in  the  fists  above)  unless  followed  by  two  (or  three) 
other  breves,  so  that  we  have  finally  two  chief  classes  to  ex- 
plain, one  with  caesura  after  the  fifth  heavy  syllable,  and  the 
other  with  caesura  after  the  fourth,  followed  by  breves  equiva- 

1 Variant  on  the  old  stereotyped  yamarastravardhana,  of  battle,  hero,  etc. 
as  in  vii,  145,  97  d ; ib.  98  d. 


EPIC  YE  n SI  FI  C A riON. 


307 


lent  in  morae  to  the  rucira  pada.  There  are  a few  cases 
bridging  these  classes  and  showing  that  the  metrical  equation 
was  not  always  in  harmony  with  the  caesura,  but  this  is  no 
more  than  was  to  be  expected.  We  are  not  to  imagine  that 
the  poets  set  themselves  to  compose  padas  by  categories ; but 
we  can  hardly  escape  the  conclusion  that  a pada  identical  with 
a rucira  pada  was  felt  to  be  the  same  with  it,  though  the 
characteristic  pause  of  the  rucira  may  be  absent ; for  in  the 
regular  rucira  the  sense-pause  and  rhythmical  pause  are  not 
always  identical.  Hence,  when  we  find  samanam  murdhni 
rathayanam  viyanti  in  one  stanza,  and  yuvam  varniin  vikurutho 
vigvarupan  in  the  next,  i,  3,  65  a,  we  may  explain  them  as 
belonging  to  two  categories  caesurally  distinct,  or  put  them 
into  one  category,  remarking  that  usually  the  caesura  is  after 
the  fourth  in  such  syllabic  combinations ; for  even  with  two 
breves  following  (the  commonest  case  with  the  caesura  after 
the  fifth)  the  examples  are  rare  in  comparison  with  the  rucira- 

like  or  true  rucira  pada,  ^ ^ _ w,  w w w _ ^ ^ 

— (rucira-like) ; 

(rucira).  It  is  perhaps  in  each  case  merely  a question  of  how 
the  pada  is  naturally  to  be  read.  Some  will  scan  only  one 
way,  e.  g.,  marge  bhagnaih  gakatam  iva  ’calaksam  in  iii,  133, 
23  d,  irrespective  of  the  stanza ; while  others  may  be  read 
either  way,  as  in  the  stanza  ib.  19  : 

so  'haih  qrutva  brahmananam  sakaqe 
brail madvaitam  kathayitum  agato  'smi 
kva  ’sau  bandl  yavad  enam  sametya 
naksatranl  ’va  savita  nagayami 

or  when  united  with  the  five-syllable  foot,  as  in  i,  89,  20 : 

tatra  sthitam  mam  devasukhesu  saktam 
kale  ’tlte  mahati  tato  'timatram 
duto  devanam  abravld  ugrarupo 

dhvanse  ’ty  uccais  trihplutena  svarena 
ix.  The  matra  or  ati-tristubh  pada  may  even  be  combined 
with  the  pada  having  inserted  fifth,  where  the  breves  follow- 
ing the  caesura  seem  to  be  only  rucira-like  resolution.  It  is 
a treiskaideka  measure: 


308 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


i,  89,  23  b,  samlksya  ce  ’mam  | tvaritam  upagato  ‘smi 
(i,  198,  5 b,  adyai  ’va  punya  ’ham  | uta  vah  Pandaveyah x) 
v,  43,  50  c,  ehandovidas  te  | ya  uta  na  ’dhltavedah 
xvii,  3, 13  b,  yad  dattain  istam  | vivrtam  atho  hutam  ca 

In  xiii,  1,  32  d,  ksipram  sarpam  jahi,  ma  bliut  te  viganka,  as 
compared  with  gaktya  rakso  jahi  Kama  ’dya  turnam,  vii,  179, 
48  c ; tapantam  enam  jahi  papaiii  nigltlie,  ib.  49  b,  te  may  be 
thought  to  be  an  intrusion,  but  it  has  a sort  of  parallel  in  iii, 
4,  22  d,  ne  ’dam  astl  ’ty  atha  Yiduro  bhasamanah  (where  C. 
has  atho !). 

The  mora  rhythm  in  general  is  early,  being  found  not  only 
in  the  epic  but  in  the  Upanishad  and  Buddhistic  verse.  But 
it  is  found  also  in  imitative  parts  of  the  Puranas,  as  in  Vayu 
P.,  xiv,  7,  in  a section  where  upendra  padas  interchange  with 

the  galini-like  pada  ( w _ w ).  Here  in  7 b-d : ma- 

hatmanam  paramamatim  varenyam,  kavim  puranam  anugasit- 

aram,  where,  as  often  in  the  epic,  KJ  stands  with. 

and  _ w w _ (e.  g.,  9 a)  as  the  equivalent,  ^ w w 
of  the  latter.  On  the  last  verse  above,  see  the  note  on  p. 
277.  The  measure  appears  in  tristubhs  as  an  ati-tristubh  of 
twelve ; in  jagatis,  as  an  ati-jagatl  of  thirteen  syllables. 

In  the  Ramayana  I know  of  only  one  case  where  this  re- 
solved form  is  found,  and  that  is  peculiar.  In  R.  vii,  81,  22, 
an  extraordinary  gloka  closes  the  section,  and  in  G.  88  a 
tag-tristubh  of  the  form  above  is  made  out  of  it.  The  ex- 
traordinary gloka  is : sa  tair  brahmanam  abhyastam  sahitair 
brahma vittamaih,  ravir  astam  gato  Rama  gacclio  ’dakam  upa- 
sprga,  “the  sun  has  set  (after  accepting  as  a laudation)  the 
secret  worship  by  the  assembled  Veda-versed  (seers),”  ac- 
cording to  the  commentator.  The  parallel  in  G.  indicates  a 
brahmanair  abhistutah  instead  of  brahmana  = upanisad  or 
puja.  The  tag-end  in  G.  vii,  88,  22  seems  to  be  from  a 
phrase  just  preceding  (found  in  G.  and  R.),  sarhdhyam  upiisi- 
tum  vxra  (Rama).  The  whole  tag  reads: 

1 As  remarked  above,  p.  299,  this,  though  inserted  here  on  account  of  its 
likeness  to  the  next  example,  belongs  rather  to  the  group  of  Double  Hyper- 
meters. 


EPIC  VERS  I PICA  TION. 


309 


abhistutah  suravarah  siddhasang&ir 
gato  ravir  suruciram  astaq&ilam 
tvam  apy  ato  Raghuvara  gaccha  samdhyam 
upasi'tum  prayatamana  narendra 

This  may  be  called  a rucira-tristubh.  On  the  rucirii  stanza, 
see  the  section  on  aksaraccliandas  below. 

The  Tristubh  Stanza. 

Upajatis.  Upendravajras  and  Indravajras. 

As  stanzas,  the  forms  that  begin  with  a diiamb  and  con- 
tinue with  a choriamb  are  not  particularly  common.  They 
are  generally  modified  as  upajatis,  by  combination  with  the 
indra  varieties,  which  begin  with  a spondee,  indravajra  and 
indravanga.  Sometimes  the  perfect  form  appears  as  a mere 
later  addition.  Thus  in  iii,  23,  only  one  stanza,  14,  is  upen- 
dxa  in  sixteen  upajatis  (pada  a has  final  brevis).  So  iii,  111, 
17-18  = 10,044;  while  in  iii,  295,  9 and  10  are  two  perfect 
vangastkas,  interpolated  among  glokas.  In  iii,  232,  14,  an 
almost  perfect 1 upendra  is  ensconced  in  a stuti  of  Skanda, 
where  the  environment  is  upajati.  Again,  in  iii,  236,  in  an 
upajati  system  of  thirty-one  stanzas,  one,  15,  is  pure  upendra, 
except  that  pada  a ends  in  a brevis ; and  19,  25,  27  are  also 
pure  upendras,2  except  that  in  27,  pada  a ends  in  brevis.  In 
xii,  201,  out  of  twenty-seven  tristubhs,  two,  6 and  23,  are 
pure  upendras.  A pair  of  padas  occurs  in  viii,  89,  47,  tato 
mahlih  sagaramekhalaih  tvam  sapattanam  gramavatlm  samrd- 
dharn.  But  two  padas  together  is  a large  number  except  in 
late  passages,  like  iii,  176  and  177,  where  they  are  not  uncom- 
mon (176,  7,  15, 16  ; 177,  11,  21,  22) ; vangasthas  in  vii,  109, 
36-37,  with  a rucira  pada,  etc. 

As  the  vancastha(bila)  is  merely  an  upendra  with  a sylla- 

1 The  third  pada,  however,  ends  in  a brevis.  On  this  point  is  to  be  noticed 
that  such  a brevis  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Bharata,  but  in  the  Ramayana  is 
rare  enough  to  deserve  a special  notice  of  R.  vi,  74,  54,  where  every  pada 
ends  in  brevis.  Here  the  stanza  itself  is  upendra,  but  the  system  is  upajati. 

2 Here  only  eight  padas  are  not  of  upajati  form,  but  ^ w , w 


310 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ble  added,1  so  the  jagatl  corresponds  to  the  different  forms 
of  the  tristubh.  Thus  in  i,  197,  25,  it  takes  the  place  of  a 
vatorml,  tatra  hy  ekam  bhavitaro  na  samgayo,  yonim  sarve 
manusim  avigadhvam,  tatra  yuyam  kaima  krtva  ’visahyam, 
bahun  anyan  nidhanam  prapayitva ; and  just  below,  53  b, 
pancanam  eka  svakrtene  ’ha  karmana,  where  it  is  hyper- 
metric. Here  a and  d have  eleven,  c,  12,  and  b,  13  syllables. 
A near  approach  to  a perfect  vangastha  is  found  in  i,  198,  8, 

where  all  four  padas  are  normal,  except  that  in  b, w _ 

takes  the  place  of  the  opening  diiamb.  In  ii,  64,  5,  all  padas 
are  perfectly  regular.  The  interchange  of  an  occasional 
vangastha  pada  with  the  other  padas  of  an  upajati  tristubh 
is  too  common  to  call  for  further  remark.  Two  instances 
will  be  found  in  i,  193,  20  and  22.  In  the  former,  the  stanza 
would  be  a perfect  upendra,  but  pada  c is  of  vangastha  form  ; 
in  the  latter,  which  is  an  upajati  tristubh,  pada  c again  is  of 
pure  vangastha  form.  So  in  i,  197,  11,  an  indravaiiga  pada 
heads  and  closes  a tristubh  stanza.  The  caesura  is  after  the 
fifth  or  fourth,  passim ; or  after  the  sixth,  as  in  i,  197,  17  a, 
yada  tu  paryaptam  iha  ’sya2  krldaya;  or  a second  occurs, 
as  in  iii,  5,  19  c,  samvardhayan  stokam  iva  ’gnim  atmavan. 
The  sixth  place  is  often  half  as  common  as  the  fifth. 

The  c eg  sura  in  the  padas  of  the  upajati  system  is  found 
most  frequently  after  the  fourth  or  fifth.  The  former,  per- 
haps, in  isolated  padas,  as  in  xii,  64,  18  d,  tatas  te  'ham  dailmi 
varan  yathestam,  and  i,  92,  9 a and  11  d;  but  the  forms  in  the 
Bharata,  though  inclining  largely  to  the  fifth  place,  vary  con- 
stantly, as  they  do  in  the  Ramayana.  Examples  from  the 
latter  have  been  given  above  in  the  introductory  paragraph. 
I add  some  specimens  from  the  other  epic : 

tad  vai  nrgansam  tad  asatyam  ahur 
yah  sevate  dharmam  anarthabuddhih 

artlio  'py  anlgasya  tathai  ’va  rajan,  i,  92,  5 a-c 

nilotpalabha  suradevate  ’va 

Krsna  sthita  murtimatl  ’va  Laksmlh,  iv,  71,  17  c-d, 

1 That  is  for  kj w w , mechanically  considered. 

2 On  the  light  syllable  before  mute  and  liquid,  see  above,  p.  242. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


311 


where  a-b  have  caesura  after  the  fifth  and  fourth  respectively. 
Not  infrequently  where  the  tristubhs  pause  after  the  fifth, 
the  jagatl,  in  the  same  stanza,  pauses  after  the  fourth,  as 
in  iii,  268,  19: 

saqankhaghosah  satalatraghoso 

gandivadhanva  muhur  udvahahq  ca 
yada  qaran  arpayita  tavo’rasi 
tada  manas  te  kim  iva  ’bbavisyat 

But  in  pure  vangasthas,  the  ctcsura  is  apt  to  vary  ahnost  with 
the  pada,  as  in  xii,  103,  40 : 

na  samadandopanisat 1 pragasyate 
na  mardavaih  qatrusu  yatrikam  sada 
na  sasyaghato  na  ca  sariikarakriya 
na  ca  ’pi  bhuyah  prakrter  vicarana 

So  in  viii,  18, 12,  the  caesura  of  two  padas  falls  after  the  fourth 
and  fifth  respectively,  and  then  comes  the  pada : ativa  cukso- 
bhayisur  janardanam;  while  the  fourth  pada  is  cut  after 
the  fourth  syllable.  Alternation  is  common,  as  ib.  14-15 

and  w _ ^ _ alternately).  Sometimes  there  is 

no  caesura: 

vaditragankhasvanasinhanadaih 
garasiqaktyrstinipataduhsaham,  viii,  88,  3-4 

or  it  is  irregular : 

alaiii  virodhena  ! dhig  astu  vigraham,  ib.  21  b. 

krtyam  atharvangiraslm  ivo  ’gram,  viii,  91,  48  = ix,  17,  44. 

Upajatis  are  sometimes  used  to  close  systems,  as  are  also 
upenclras  and  vangasthas.  Pure  vangasthas  may  end  a system 
of  upajati  tristubhs,  as  in  viii,  76  and  79,  xii,  167,  49-51,  just 
as  upajatis  close  a scene  composed  in  old  tristubhs.  The 
analogy  with  the  tag-measures  (discussed  below)  is  here  com- 
plete; the  scene  is  set  off  -with  something  better  than  the 
ordinary.  As  an  example  of  the  way  in  which  upajatis  are 
thus  used  may  serve  the  end  of  iii,  154;  or  in  i,  197  and  198, 

1 Upanisad  is  here  secrecy.  So  perhaps  in  xii,  271,  30,  (apetatrsnanam, 
etc.)  caturthopanisaddharmah  sadharana  iti  smrtih. 


312 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


where  the  first  part  of  the  wedding  scene  at  Drupada’s  is  in 
irregular  old  tristubhs,  but  regular  upajatis  conclude  the 
scene ; the  latter  beginning  just  where  the  actual  wedding  is 
described,  and  taking  in  the  statement  that  the  heroine  was 
first  married  to  Yudhisthira,  then  to  the  other  brothers ; that 
she  preserved  her  virginity  day  by  day ; and  that  Drupada  in 
conclusion  gave  most  extravagant  gifts.  The  smoothness  of 
the  statement  babhuva  kanyai  ’va  gate  gate  rhani,  etc.,  198, 14, 
stands  with  its  surrounding  verses  in  at  least  metrical  contrast 
to  the  part  that  goes  before,  where  tristubhs  of  vatorml  and 
galini  padas  and  every  sort  of  irregular  combination  is  the 
rule.  Whether  the  uniform  upajatis  conform  to  the  uniform- 
ing of  the  poem  is  certainly  a proper  question  to  raise,  though 
no  signed  and  sealed  statement  to  that  effect  is  extant. 

Another  interesting  example  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the 
gambling  scene,  where  from  ii,  67,  24,  almost  regular  upajatis 
continue  to  the  end.  This  happens  to  be  the  passage  where 
the  heroine  puts  the  legal  question  to  which  Bhlsma  is  un- 
able to  reply,  and  where  Kama  joins  in  the  laugh.  The 
question  is  implied  in  what  follows  (68-70),  but  the  passage 
in  its  present  form  is  certainly  open  to  the  suspicion  of  having 
been  rewritten  by  a more  modern  hand. 

The  first  chapter  of  the  Rsyaijrnga  episode  is  in  old  tri- 
stubhs. With  the  beginning  of  the  sensuous  description  in  the 
second  chapter  begin  the  upajatis,  iii,  111,  112. 

In  the  systems  of  the  older  epic,  w w , — ^ , 

and  _ w w _,  are  used  as  interchangeable  second  feet.  So  uni- 
versal are  _ ^ and  v_/  ^ that  they  must  be  considered 

as  the  chief  tristubh  measure  of  the  older  epic,  greatly  in 

excess  of  _ w ^ But  in  the  fourth  book  and  most  later 

parts,  these  recede  before  the  upajati  forms.  Jagatl  padas  are 
inserted  occasionally  in  all  the  free  tristubh  sections.1  It  is 
perhaps  worthy  of  remark  that,  for  example,  in  the  Dyuta 
Parvan,  the  diiambic  opening,  or  even,  it  might  be  said,  the 

1 The  process  elsewhere  of  making  a jagatl  pada  is  sometimes  patent,  as 
in  viii,  90,  72  <1 : bhindhi  tvam  enarh  Namucim  yatha  Ilarih  (for  yatli  ’endrah) ; 
here  in  an  upajati  system  of  jagatis. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


313 


whole  upendra  form,  is  found  par  excellence  in  the  final 
pfula(s),  though  found  also  in  a,  b,  c,  especially  as  the  section 
gradually  passes  (towards  its  end)  into  regular  upajatis,  67, 
26  ff.  For  example,  at  the  beginning  of  the  scene,  56, 12-16 : 

12,  yy  yy yy yy  — v_/  ; yy  , yy  yy yy  \y  ; 

yy yy  yy  — yy ; yy yy , yy  yy yy yy 

13,  yy , yy  yy yy ; yy , yy  yy yy ; 

yy , yy  yy yy  yy  ; yy , yy  yy yy yy 

14,  yy yy ; yy  — , — yy  yy  yy  yy  j 

yy , yy yy yy  i yy yy , yy yy yy 

15,  yy  — i — yy yy i yy  — , — yy  yy  yy  yy  ; 

yy , yy  yy yy ; yy yy , yy  yy yy yy 

16,  yy  yy yy ; yy  — yy  — , — yy yy  yy  ; 

yy yy , yy  yy yy yy  i yy yy , yy  yy yy yy 

I have  remarked  in  the  list  of  examples  given  above  that 
some  of  the  older  forms  of  the  tristubh  are  practically  confined 
to  the  early  parts  of  the  epic.  The  fourth  and  seventh  books 
are  considered  to  be  late,  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same  thing, 
modern  expanded  forms  of  older  material.  The  middle  foot 
w,  w w _ occurs  not  infrequently  in  the  older  epic,  but  in  the 
whole  fourth  book  it  occurs  but  once,  and  in  the  seventh  only 
twice  in  1280  padas.  Upajati  systems,  except,  as  just  ob- 
served, as  a sort  of  tag,  are  not  frequent  in  the  older  epic, 

where  the  systems  are  of  the  type  _ and  w with 

interspersed  choriambs.  The  latter  part  of  the  third  book, 
however,  and  all  of  the  fourth  book  prefer  the  upajati  system 
(the  caesura  being  after  the  fourth  in  only  one-third  of  the 
cases  in  the  latter),  and  blocks  of  upajatis  appear  in  the  much- 
expanded  battle-books.  As  a system,  the  upajati  marks  late 
passages,  such  as  the  song  of  (l1'!  m the  eleventh  section  of  the 
thirteenth  book,  and  the  praise  of  gifts  in  the  fifty-seventh  sec- 
tion of  the  same  book,  where  only  two  padas  are  not  upajati. 
This  book  is  also  marked  by  the  large  number  of  its  §alinl 
stanzas  (not  single  padas),  which  keep  up  an  old  measure  in 
a new  fixed  form.  Old  as  is  the  choriambic  pada,  the  stanza 
form  of  the  choriambic  tristubh  employed  in  great  groups  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  forms  of  tristubh  appears  to  be  an  innovation. 
A form  once  given  persists,  and  so  we  have  late  passages  with 


314 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


— w as  the  second  foot,  just  as  this  and  ^ ^ are  still 

met  here  and  there  in  the  Puranas,1  but  when  the  choriamb  is 
employed  continuously  in  a long  system 2 the  passage  may  be 
set  down  as  late,  or,  if  one  prefers  the  expression,  as  more 
refined,  as  in  the  whole  Ramayana  and  in  the  later  books  of 
the  Mahabharata. 

Another  mark  of  lateness  appears  to  lie  in  the  absence  of  an 
indiscriminate  mixture  of  tristubh  and  jagatl  forms.  Later 
passages  are  rather  apt  to  show  uniformity  in  this  regard ; 
earlier  passages  show  none,  though  an  harmonious  com- 
mingling in  alternate  or  chiastic  form  (12  + 11  + 12  + 11  or 
11  + 12  + 12  + 11)  is  at  all  times  somewhat  affected,  and  late 
passages  sometimes  show  no  uniformity ; but  the  tendency  is 
in  the  other  direction. 

The  Syllaba  Anceps. 

In  respect  of  the  pada  syllaba  anceps,  the  epic  permits  this 
not  only  in  free  tristubhs,  but  also  in  upajatis,  and  even  in 
isolated  pure  choriambic  stanzas.  But  even  the  classical  poets 
share  this  freedom.  That  is  to  say,  as  Professor  Capeller  has 
shown,  although  the  rule  is  that  pure  upendras  and  indravajras 
or  the  corresponding  jagatls  shall  have  final  anceps  only  at  the 
end  of  the  hemistich,  yet  if  these  stanzas,  though  complete 

1 Solitary  galini  stanzas  also  occur  in  the  Puranas.  For  example,  Vayu  P. 
vi,  71,  repeated  in  ix,  113,  where  occurs  the  stanza:  vaktrad  yasya  brahmana 
samprasutah,  yad  [tad]  vaksatah  ksatriyah  purvabhage,  vaifyaf  co  ’rvor 
yasya  padbhyam  ca  Qudrali  sarve  varna  gatratah  samprasutah,  a pure  falini. 

2 A choriambic  verse  or  stanza  is  a different  matter.  This  may  be  as  old, 
or  older,  than  a corresponding  stanza  of  other  form.  For  example,  the  prose 
proberb  of  Gaut.  xxiii,  29,  appears  in  the  form  paiica  ’nrtany  ahur  apiitakani 
first  in  Vas.  xvi,  35,  as  an  upajati  stanza.  The  oldest  version  in  the  epic  is  in 
i,  82,  10,  where  there  is  no  exception  in  the  case  of  a teacher,  as  in  Gautama 
(for  an  untruth  here  is  a mortal  sin,  not  venial),  nor  is  the  priest  included,  as 
in  Vas.;  but  the  five  venial  lies  are  in  case  of  wounds,  about  women,  in  case 
of  marriage,  death,  and  robbery,  couched  in  upajati.  A second  form  occurs, 
however,  in  xii,  1G5,  30,  where  the  teacher  is  mentioned  in  the  same  way  as 
is  the  priest.  The  other  difference  between  the  epic  versions  is  that  the  latter 
begins  na  narmayuktam  anrtarii  hinasti ; the  former,  vacanam  hinasti,  as  cho- 
riamb. Spruch  3,321  has  only  one  of  these  forms  (ascribed  to  a Pur  ana), 
Manu,  viii,  112,  is  in  9loka. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


315 


in  themselves,  form  part  of  a general  system  of  upajatis,  the 
freer  form  is  permitted.  Thus  in  Itaghuvanqa  vii,  9,  a pure 
indravajra  occurs  with  the  third  pada  ending  in  brevis,  but  it 
is  in  an  upajliti  chapter.  Examples  from  epic  poetry  are : 

ii,  56,  21a  (atristubh  stanza),  tato  vidvan  Viduram  man- 
trimukhy&m 

ii,  63,  10  a (ditto),  jam  make  devitam  Saubalasyft 

So  in  these  pure  choriambic  stanzas,  found  in  a general 
upajati  system : 

iii,  176,  7,  tava  pratijn&m  Ivururaja  satyaiii 
cikirsamanas  tad  anupriyaiii  ca 
tato  na  gacchama  vanany  apasy£ 

Suyodliauam  sanucaraih  nihantum 

and  ib.  15, 

tava  ’rthasiddhyartbam  api  pravTttau 
Suparnaketuq  ca  ('ineq  ca  napta 
tathai  ’va  Krsnali  pratimo  balenS, 
tathai  ’va  ca  ’ham  naradeva  varya 

iv,  11,  9,  c,  Brhannalam  mam  naradeva  viddhl 
ib.  54,  17  a,  cacara  samkhye  vidiqo  diqaq  ca 
This  is  very  rare  in  Virata.  In  jagatl : 

iii,  268,  19  c,  yada  qaran  arpayita  tavo’rasl 
xiii,  70,  9 c-d,  tvava  pura  dattam  it!  ’ha  quqrumS, 

nrpa  dvijebhyah  kva  nu  tad  gatam  tava 


Examples  in  the  Harivanga  may  be  found  at  2,  95,  1 ff.  (= 
8781  ff.)  ; ib.  6a;  ib.  10  and  11c:  ib.  14a  and  c;  ib.  24c; 
ib.  29  c (na  vetsi);  2,  124,  53  a (=  10,625),  etc. 

Epic  usage,  however,  keeps  the  final  syllable  long  in  the 
prior  padas.  Exceptions  like  those  just  given  are  not  uncom- 
mon, but  are  distinctly  exceptions.  I have  no  statistics,  but 
perhaps  the  general  condition  may  be  stated  well  enough  in 
saying  that  one  has  to  hunt  for  final  breves  in  prior  padas  of 
pure  upendra  and  indravajra  stanzas  and  does  not  have  to 
hunt  for  final  longs  ; while  in  upajatis  the  final  breves  are  not 
so  uncommon  as  in  the  pure  stanzas  of  uniform  type. 


316 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  this  regard  I see  no  special  difference  between  the  two 
epics.  Perhaps  the  Ramayana  poet  is  a little  more  shy  of  the 
brevis  but  it  occurs  there  also,  not  only  in  pure  upendras 
standing  in  an  upajati  environment,  but  even  in  isolated  tag- 
stanzas  where  the  upendra  stands  alone.  Thus  where  G.  ii, 
33,  27  has  a varied  reading  which  converts  the  stanza  to  an 
upajati,  the  Bombay  text  of  R.  ii,  33,  29,  presents  (in  an 
upajati  environment)  a pure  upendra  stanza,  with  the  first 
pada  ending  in  brevis,  pratlksamano  'bhijanam  tada  ’rtSm. 
Another  example  will  be  found  in  vi,  69,  92  = G.  49,  77.  In 
upajatis  it  will  be  enough  to  refer  to  R.  ii,  15,  44  a;  21,  52  c; 
37,  34  a;  36  a;  v,  28,  4 ff.,  etc.  In  the  case  of  isolated  tag- 
upendras,  examples  may  be  found  in  R.  vi,  61,  39,  where  c 
ends  in  a brevis,  although  the  isolated  stanza  is  pure  upendra, 
and  ha  R.  ii,  115,  24  (not  in  G.),  where  both  a and  c end  in 
breves : 

tada  hi  yat  karyam  upaiti  kimcld 
upayanam  co  ’pahrtam  maharham 
sa  padukabhyam  prathamam  nivedyS, 
cakara  paqcad  Bharato  yathavat 

One  fact  seems  certain  from  the  treatment  of  upajatis 
versus  upendras  and  indravajras  or  vangasthabhilas  and  indra- 
vangas,  namely,  that  the  native  metricists  in  calling  the  upajati 
a mixture  of  upendra  and  indravajra  or  of  vangastha  and 
indravanga,  and  treating  it  as  a derived  form  are  historically 
incorrect.  Of  course,  the  upajati  stanza  is  a stanza  in  which 
some  padas  are  of  one  type  and  some  are  of  another ; but  it 
is  not  a mixed  development  from  pure  stanzas  of  either  type. 
On  the  contrary,  the  upajati  is  the  prius,  and  the  pure  upendra 
and  pure  indravajra  stanza  is  a refinement  on  the  mixed  type. 
Historically  the  choriambic  tristubh  begins  with  syllaba  anceps 
like  the  gloka,1  and  upendras  and  indravajras  are  differentia- 

1 For  this  reason,  in  the  Illustrations,  though  giving  examples  of  each,  I 
do  not  separate  (as  is  usually  done)  the  types  of  opening,  e.  g.,  \j  — — 

and w . Only  in  complete  forms  of  stanzas,  like  the  calinl,  vatormi, 

and  rucira,  is  the  first  syllable  fixed.  In  the  free  tristubh  and  upajati  stanzas 
the  initial  syllable  is  quite  indifferent.  Then  comes  the  upendra  stanza, 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


317 


tions  of  the  earlier  mixed  types.  They  had  the  same  devel- 
opment as  had  the  galinT,  which  began,  as  in  the  epic,  with 
? and  settled  at  last  into as  a first  foot. 

The  upajati  stanza  in  its  turn  is  derived  (as  a more  refined 
form)  from  the  mixed  tristubh  of  the  early  epic  type,  which 
unites  into  one  stanza  not  only  padas  of  the  choriambic  type 

and  of  the  types  _ w , w w , w w w _,  but  also  of  the 

type  of  the  rucira  or  mora-pada ; of  which,  together  with  the 
special  stanzas  of  fixed  form  derived  from  these  measures,  I 
shall  speak  hereafter.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  this  mixture 
of  vatormT,  galinT,  choriambic,  and  resolved-syllable  padas  in 
one  stanza  is  Vedic  and  Bharataic,  non-classical  and  non-Kama- 
yanan,1  but  also,  in  a very  limited  degree,  I ’uranic.  That  is  to 
say,  the  Bharata,  the  oldest  extant  Purana,  on  the  one  hand 
preserves  the  old  Vedic  type,  which  is  still  kept  up  in  a 
measure  in  the  later  P uranic  diction,  while  on  the  other  it 
has  the  clear-cut  upajati  system  favored  by  ValmTki,  the 
former  both  in  early  and  late  parts;  the  latter  only  in  late 
parts,  according  as  the  different  poets  preserved  the  old  style, 
or,  like  Valmlki,  cut  loose  from  it  and  wrote  only  in  upajati 
form. 

Emergent  Stanzas. 

Of  peculiar  interest  is  the  growth  of  the  completed  stanza 
of  other  tristubh  forms.  In  the  great  epic,  we  can,  as  it  were, 
see  the  gradual  emergence  of  the  complete  galinT,  vatormT,  and 
vaigvadevl  stanzas  (of  four  identical  padas)  from  the  single, 
double,  and  triple  pada  of  this  form  in  tristubh  stanzas, 
till  at  last  a few  complete  galinT  stanzas  are  found  and  one 
perfect  vaigvadevT. 

The  occasional  pada  is  indefinitely  antique.  It  is  the  four- 
fold-combination that  is  emerging ; just  as  upajatis  emerge 
from  mixed  tristubhs,  and  upendras  from  upajatis.  In  the 
completed  refined  pada  the  opening  is  spondaic ; in  the  emer- 

w w , as  distinguished  from  the  indravajra, ^ , both  secondary, 

not  as  padas,  but  as  stanzas,  to  the  upajati. 

1 The  Yedic  usage  is  illustrated  in  Kiihnau,  Die  Tristubh-Jagatl  Familie, 


318 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


gent  type  it  is  indifferently  iambic  or  spondaic  like  other 
tristubh  forms.  This  sporadic  appearance  calls  for  no  special 
remark  here,  as  examples  may  be  found  in  the  list  of  ex- 
amples of  tristubh  padas.  The  first  stage  beyond  this  is 
where  two  padas  appear  of  hali-galinl  form  but  with  iambic 
opening.  This  is  either  “ regular  ” or  hypermetric,1  as  in 

iii,  5,  16  c-d : yatha  ca  parne  puskarasya  Vasiktam 

jalarii  na  tisthet  pathyam  uktam  tatha  ’smin 

The  hypermetric  galini  pada  of  this  sort  (vaigvadevl)  is 
common,  as  in  i,  55,  12  b,  trata  loke  'sniihs  tvarh  tathe  ’ha  pra- 
janam  (so  ii,  77,  10  b,  etc.),  as  shown  below. 

Again,  in  mixed  tristubhs,  where  we  have  half  a stanza  of 
almost  pure  galini  form,  as  in  vi,  3,  65  c-d ; or  even  an  almost 
complete  stanza,  as  in 

i,  58, 19  : etac  chrutva  priyamanah  sameta 

ye  tatra  ’san  pannaga  vltamoliah 
Astlke  vai  prltimanto  babbuvur 
ucus  cai  ’naiii  varam  istaih  vrnlsva 

Here  the  galini  is  complete  save  for  the  last  pada.  So  in 
iii,  4,  4,  there  is  a perfect  galini  save  for  the  first  syllable  of 

а.  In  iii,  5,  13,  the  stanza  is  nearly  vatorml,  but  three  padas 
begin  with  a short  syllable  and  the  first  lias  the  galini  trochee. 
In  v,  40,  29,  three  padas  are  pure  galini  and  one  is  vatorml. 
These  forms  are  often  symmetrically  united.  Thus  in  i,  58, 
20,  the  padas  run  galini  + vatorml  + gfilinl  + vatorml,  save 
that  in  b and  c the  tliird  syllable  of  the  first  foot  is  brevis. 
Sometimes  the  arrangement  is  chiastic,  as  in  i,  197,  30,  where 
the  padas  are  vatorml  — galinl,  galini  — vatorml,  etc.  These 
forms  are  again  mixed  freely  with  upajati  padas,  as  in  i,  187, 

б,  this  combination  being  too  common  to  need  further  illus- 
tration. The  vatorml  or  galini  pada  often  closes  the  stanza 
in  such  a combination.  Thus  in  i,  76,  47,  a is  upajati,  b is 
jagati,  c is  galini,  d is  vatorml ; ib.  64,  d is  galini,  the  others 

1 This  form  is  sometimes  effaced  by  varied  readings.  Thus  in  vii,  54,  4.3, 
papena  ’tmanam  majjayisyat}'  asantam,  of  C.  2110,  appears  as  pape  'tmanam. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


319 


are  upajiiti  padas.  Alternation  of  upajiitis,  galinl-pada  tri- 
stubhs,  and  glokas  is  found  in  the  dramatic  ^arngopukhyana, 
i,  232,  8 ff. 

A goodly  number  of  specimens  of  stanzas  showing  a close 
approach  to  the  galinl  is  found  hi  vii,  2,  where  finally,  hi  2G, 
appears  one  whole  galinl  stanza : 

aqvan  agryati  pamlurabhraprakaqau 
pu stan  snatan  mantraputabhir  adbhih 
taptair  bhandaih  kancanair  abhyupet&n 
qlghran  qlghraih  sutaputra  ’nayasva 

So  in  vii,  54,  40  ff.,  there  is  a number  of  almost  complete 
and  quite  complete  giilinls. 

A complete  galinl  occurs  in  i,  58,  21 ; another  in  v,  33, 
115  (toward  the  end  of  adhy.  40  there  are  gfilinT  padas). 
The  usual  order  in  the  epic,  however,  is  a mixture  of  single 
padas.  The  pseudo-epic,  on  the  other  hand,  heaps  up  com- 
plete galinl  stanzas.  Thus  in  a little  system  of  ten  stanzas  at 
xii,  24,  25  ff.,  galinl,  vatormi,  and  upajiiti  padas  are  all  mixed 
up  together  but  lead  up  to  perfect  galinl  stanzas  in  29,  30,  32. 
In  Anugasana,  complete  stanzas  are  common,  e.  g.,  xiii,  73, 
39 ; 77,  31  and  33  (with  a rucira  between),  on  giving  cows 
to  priests.  In  (?anti  may  be  compared  also  xii,  63,  9-10  (two 
complete  galinl  stanzas);  259,  39-42;  319,  86  ff.  (five  out  of 
seven  stanzas).  The  prior  pada  of  the  hemistich  may  end 
in  brevis,  as  in  some  of  the  last  examples,  e.  g.  in  319,  89, 
where  the  stanza  from  a Brahmanic  point  of  view  is  as  late 
as  the  sentiment : 

sarve  varna  brahmana  brahmajaq  ca 
sarve  nityam  vyaharante  c£  brahma 
tattvam  qastram  brahmabuddhya  bravimi 
sarvaih  viqvam  brahma  cai  ’tat  samastam 

The  vatormi  stanza,  if  I am  not  mistaken,  is  not  yet  com- 
plete in  the  epic ; but  its  padas  come  near  to  making  a com- 
plete stanza,  as  in  vii,  201,  78: 


320 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


astausam  tvam  tava  sammanam  icchan 
vicinvan  vai  sadrgam  devavarya 
sudurlabhan  dehi  varan  mame  ’stan 
abhistutah  pravikarslg  ca  inayam 

still  closer  in  ii,  58,  12  : 

ke  tatra  ’nye  kitava  dlvyamana 
vina  rajno  Dhrtarastrasya  putraih 
prcchami  tvam  Vidura  bruhi  nas  tail 
yair  divyamah  gatagah  saiiinipatya 

The  hypermeter  is  not  so  common  as  that  of  the  galinl.  A 
case  occurs  in  iii,  134,  14  b : sapta  cchandansi  kratum  ekahi 
vahanti;  and  another,  ib.  12  b:  yajnah  pancai  Va  ’py  atha 
paiicendriyani.  So  in  ii,  77,  7a;  v,  35,  42  a.  The  last  case 
reads : 

nai  ’naii  chandansi  vrjinat  tarayanti 
(in  43,  5,  as  : na  cchandansi  vrjinat  tarayanti) 

As  said  above,  the  isolated  vaigvadevl  pada  is  not  unusual. 
Such  padas  are  reckoned  as  tristubh  padas,  as  in  i,  1,  205  c ; 
216  a;  and  so  very  often  elsewhere.  For  example,  xii,  319, 
91  d: 

ajnanatah  karmayonim  bhajante 

tarn  tam  rajahs  te  yatlia  yanty  abhavam 
tatha  varna  jnanahlnah  patante 

ghorad  ajnanat  prakrtaiii  yonijalam 

In  i,  1,  212  b,  there  is  a pada  identical  with  this  save  that  it 
has  initial  brevis,  hatan  Pancalan  Draupadeyahg  ca  suptiin, 
followed  in  217  d by  a pure  pada,  tasmin  samgrame  bliairave 

ksatriyanam.  In  i,  89,  12  b, w,  _ w w _ w,  the 

vaigvadevl  appears  as  an  irregular  hypermetric  galinl.  This 
stanza  is  almost  a vaigvadevl : 

anityatam  sukhaduhkhasya  buddhva 

kasmat  samtapam  Astaka  ’ham  bhajeyam 
kim  kuryaiii  vai  kim  ca  krtva  na  tapye 
tasmat  samtapam  varjayamy  apramattah 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


321 


Half  a complete  stanza  appears  in  xii,  292,  22  (a  tag) : 
rajflfi  jetavyih  gatravag  co  ’nnatag  ca 
samyak  kartavyam  palanaiii  ca  prajanam 
agnig  ceyo  bahubhig  ca  ’pi  yaj flair 

antye  madhye  va  vanam  jlgritya  stheyam 
(where  the  scolius  is \j,  above,  p.  280) 

A vaigvadevl  piitla  appears  also  in  a beneilictive  verse  in 
viii,  C.  5,045  d,  gudra  arogyam  prapnuvantl  ’ha  sarve,  but 
B.  96,  63  has  gudra  ’rogyam.  The  complete  stanza  occurs  but 
once  in  the  great  epic  and  twice  in  the  liamayana,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  next  section. 

The  Fixed  Syllabic  Metres. 

The  title  aksaracchandas  or  its  equivalent,  varna vrtta, 
“ syllabic  verse  ” covers,  properly  speaking,  all  metres  fixed 
by  syllabic  measurement,  but  it  is  used  only  of  such  stanzas 
as  have  a fixed  number  of  syllables  arranged  in  a fixed  order 
in  each  pada,  all  four  padas  being  alike.  The  gloka,  therefore, 
is  not  included,  nor  the  free  tristubh  of  the  Mahabharata. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  tristubh  in  several  of  its  fixed  forms, 
when  these  are  used  throughout  the  stanza,  is  an  aksara- 
cchandas. Such  are  the  upajati  forms,  the  galinl,  vatorml, 
vaigvadevl,  and  rucira.  In  the  scheme  of  classical  metres, 
there  are  from  twenty  to  thirty  each  of  such  hendekas  and 
dodekas,  called  tristubhs  and  jagatls  because  of  the  number 
of  syllables  in  them. 

Of  this  large  number,  about  a dozen  are  found  in  epic 
poetry.  They  include  those  just  named,  in  regard  to  which  it 
will  be  necessary  to  speak  further  only  of  two,  the  vaigvadevl 
and  rucira.  Besides  these,  the  additional  epic  rhythms  of  this 
class  will  now  be  reviewed,  arranged,  according  to  their  sylla- 
bic value,  as  tristubh,  jagatl,  atijagatl,  gakvarl,  atigakvan,  and 
atidhrti,  that  is  in  stanzas  of  four  padas,  each  pada  having 
eleven,  twelve,  thirteen,  fourteen,  fifteen,  and  (in  the  epic 
case)  nineteen  syllables,  respectively.  They  are  distributed 1 
between  the  two  epics  as  follows : 

1 On  their  numerical  distribution  in  the  Mahabharata,  see  below. 

21 


322 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  Mahabharata 
and  Ramayana 


' (upajatis  and  their  components) 
vaigvadevl 
bhujamgaprayata 
• rucira 
praliarsinl 
vasantatilalaka 
, malini 


In  Mahabharata 
alone 


r r (galini) 
rathoddhata 
drutavilambita 
gardulavikrldita 


In  Ramayana 
alone 


f mrgendramukha 
\ asambadha 


The  upajatis,  including  their  four  components,  as  also  the 
galini  and  vatorml,  have  already  been  sufficiently  discussed. 
The  vatorml  does  not  reach  stanza  form,  but  its  pada  is  fre- 
quently found  alone,  duplicated,  or  trebly;  the  last  case, 
which  is  rare,  giving  three-fourths  of  a complete  vatorml. 
The  galini  is  found  not  only  often  in  pada  form  but  occasion- 
ally as  a complete  stanza,  sometimes  grouped  in  small  numbers 
in  the  later  books  of  the  great  epic.  The  jagatl  pramitaksara 
padas,  isolated  in  the  (yunti  Parvan,  will  be  spoken  of  be- 
low, under  the  head  of  matrachandas ; where  will  be  discussed 
also  the  free  praharanakalita  found  in  the  same  part  of  the 
pseudo-epic. 

Rathoddhata. 

Having  eleven  syllables  to  the  pada,  this  metre  is  called  a 
tristubh.  Its  scheme  is  _ w w w w w — w — ; for  ex- 
ample, tasya  taj  janayatl  ’ha  sarvatah.  It  may  be  regarded, 
therefore,  as  a jagatl  without  the  initial  syllable,  its  final 
diiambus  giving  the  true  jagatl  cadence.  Compare  under  No. 
19  : (ku-)lambharan  anaduhah  gatam  gatan.  There  are  three 
and  one  half  stanzas  of  this  rhythm,  though  the  actual  occur- 
rences are  more  numerous ; but  the  same  stanza  appears  re- 
peated. Thus  xii,  250,  13-14  is  a repetition  of  xii,  194,  61-63. 


EPIC  VE11SIFICA  TION. 


323 


Here  there  are  two  and  one  half  stanzas,  arranged  in  B.  in 
groups  of  four,  two,  and  four  padas ; in  C.,  as  four,  four,  and 
two ; as  if  the  hemistich  were  a whole  in  itself.  In  xii,  280, 
46,  one  of  these  stanzas  is  repeated  again  with  slight  changes. 
In  the  first  instance,  the  group  forms  a tag  with  an  apara- 
vaktra,  as  it  does  also  in  the  second  instance ; while  in  the 
third  it  appears  in  the  same  way  after  a puspitagra.  The 
third  separate  stanza  of  this  sort  is  found  as  a tag  after  glokas 
in  xii,  247,  23.  All  these  cases  are  regular ; only  the  hemi- 
stich ends  in  brevis.  The  metre  is  found  only  in  Qanti  Moksa 
and  not  in  the  Ramayana.  The  last  case  may  serve  as  an 
example : 

yac  ca  te  manasi  vartate  paraiii 
yatra  ca  ’sti  tava  samqayah  kvacit 
qruyatam,  ayam  aharii  tava  ’gratah 
putra  kiiii  hi  kathayami  te  punah 

The  (meaningless)  diiambic  name  may  at  least  be  a reminder 
of  the  rathoddhata’s  presumably  original  opening,  and  its 
diiambic  close. 


Bhujamgaprayata. 

This  twelve-syllabled  rhythm  is  called  a jagatl,  but  it  has 
the  final  tristubh  cadence.  The  latter  part  of  the  pada  is  in 
fact  identical  with  that  common  tristubh  form  which  has  the 

middle  and  end  _ w w ^ ; but  before  this  are  five 

syllables,  the  fourth  being  a brevis  w w Such  a form 

as  this,  however,  is  actually  found  in  one  text  as  the  pada  of  a 
liypennetric  tristubh,  as  already  pointed  out  (p.  289),  and  is 
nearly  equalled  (long  initial)  in  the  corresponding  pada, 

na  tranam  labhet  tranam  iccban  sa  kale, 

But  the  specimens  in  the  epic  show  that  the  caesura  is  not  that 
of  the  pada  just  cited,  but  rather  that  of  a series  of  baccliii : 

sa  adih  | sa  madhyah  | sa  ca  ’ntah  | prajanam 
anadyo  hy  amadhyas  tatha  ca  ’py  anantah 

This  metre  appears  once  as  a tag  in  a Tlrtha  story,  ix,  41,  40, 
and  twice  in  the  twelfth  book  in  an  identical  hymn  in  the 


324 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


middle  of  two  chapters,  xii,  341,  100  and  343,  90,  the  first 
and  third  padas  of  each  version  being  those  just  cited,  one 
being  a repetition  of  the  other  with  variations. 

There  is  only  one  case  in  the  Ramayana,  vi,  77,  24.  In  R. 
this  is  part  of  a tag  after  a puspitagra,  which  appears  in  both 
texts,  while  the  bliujaiiigaprayata  itself  is  lacking  in  G.  Here 
also  the  cadence  is  distinctly  bacchiic : cacale  ’va  co  ’rvx  | 
papate  ’va  sa  dyaur  | balaiii  raksasanam  | bhayaih  ca  ’vivega.1 
In  both  epics,  the  hemistich  alone  has  final  brevis  (anceps), 
as  above,  and  in  ix,  41,  40  d,  dlirtatma  jitatma  samabhyaja- 
gama.  This  metre  is  expressed  by  its  name  bhujamga-praya- 

tam,  ‘ the  snake-slide,’  w w _ n.,  which,  in  the  stanza,  is 

repeated  (as  a whole)  eight  times. 

Drutavilambita. 

This  measure,  having  twelve  syllables  to  the  pada,  is  called 
a jagati.  But  although  it  ends  as  well  in  a diiambus,  it  is  yet 
far  from  the  cadences  already  examined  under  the  name  of 
jagati.  The  rhythm  is  in  fact  dactylic,  so  that  the  trisyllabic 
measurement  suits  it ; but  the  first  foot  has  a tribrach  as  a 
substitute  for  a dactyl,  and  the  final  syllable  is  long:  w w 

_ w w w,  __  w Only  two  of  these  stanzas  are  found 

in  the  great  epic,  and  none  in  the  Ramayana.  The  two  are 
together  in  vii,  184,  47-48 ; the  latter,  for  example,  as  follows: 

haravrsottama-gatrasamadyutih 
smaragarasana-purnasamaprabhah 
navavadhusmita-carumanoharah 
pravisrtah  kumudakarabandhavah 

These  are  not  exactly  tags,  but  they  are  close  to  the  end  of 
the  chapter.  The  prevailing  caesura2  may  indicate  that  the 
metre  is  a catalectic  form  of  tristubh  with  resolved  opening; 

1 A rougli  English  equivalent  would  be  (of  the  hymn):  “Beginning  and 
midst  he,  and  end  of  creation (of  the  description) : “ and  terror  then  entered 
the  huge  host  of  demons.”  The  trisyllabic  native  measurement  is  here  the 
most  accurate. 

2 The  last  pada  above  may  of  course  be  read  as  anapscstic  with  anacrusis; 
the  preceding,  more  naturally,  with  dactylic  cadence. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


325 


but  this  genesis  is  by  no  means  so  certain  as  in  the  case  of 
other  tristubh  derivatives.  To  judge  from  the  epic,  it  is  a 
later  metre,  and  may  be  either  an  experiment  in  resolution  (of 
No.  2),  or  a new  independent  invention.  It  is  not  necessary, 
I conceive,  to  derive  every  metre  from  some  other,  and  I 
incline  to  the  latter  view.  All  the  padas  in  the  two  epic 
specimens  end  in  heavy  syllables.  The  sound  drutavilambitam, 
v;  w w — w w,  may  serve  to  remind  of  the  opening  cadence; 
but  the  other  form  of  the  name  (in  °tam)  really  agrees  with 
the  meaning,  “rapid  and  dilator}7,”  indicating  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  pada. 


Vaicvadevi. 

Rare  in  both  epics,  this  metre  occurs  but  once  in  stanza 
form  in  the  Mahabharata,  a tag  followed  by  a supplementary 
tristubh.  The  first  hemistich  end  in  brevis.  Sporadic  padas 

of  the  vaicvadevi  type, , _ w w _ are  not 

infrequent.  The  twelve  syllables  do  not  make  a jagatl, 
though  the  metre  is  so  called,  but  a hypermetric  tristubh  of 
the  type  described  above  (see  No.  7).  The  native  method 
of  measuring  by  trisyllables  in  all  cases  is  well  shown  in  this 
metre  to  be  absurd.  For  example,  in  the  pada  cited  above, 
Krsnam  Pancallm  abravlt  santvapurvam,  the  caesura  and 
natural  division  is  in  groups  of  five  and  seven  syllables 
respectively.  So  in  the  one  stanza  of  the  great  epic,  xii, 
291,  25  = 10,721  (Moksa): 

bhlru  rajanyo,  brahmanah  sarvabhaksyah 
vaicyo  'nihavan,  hlnavarno  iasaq  ca 
vidvanq  ca  ’qilo,  vrttahinah  kulinah 

satyad  vibhrasto  brahmanastrl  ca  tusta1 

(26,  ragl  yuktah  pacamano  'tmahetor 

murkho  vakta  nrpahlnam  ca  rastram 
ete  sarve  cocyatarii  yanti  rajan 

yaq  ca  ’yuktah  snehahinah  prajasu) 

1 This  is  the  reading  of  B.  In  C.,  brahmanah  stri  ca  dusta. 


326 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


In  the  Ramayana,  a single  pada  is  found  in  R.  (above),  and 
one  whole  stanza  also  (lacking  in  G.),  v,  65,  28  (both  hemi- 
sticlis  ending  in  brevis).  There  is,  further,  a half  stanza  in  v, 
63,  33,  united  with  a hypermetric  tristubh  hemistich,  not  in  G. 
but  following  a tag-tristubh  common  to  both  texts ; an  inter- 
esting example  of  the  equivalence  of  the  vaigvadevl  and  free 
tristubh  padas: 

pritisphltaksau  samprahrstau  kumarau 
drstva  siddharthau  vanaranaiii  ca  raja 
angaih  pr&hrstaih  karyasiddhim  viditva 
bahvor  asannam  Stimatram  nananda 

For  the  two  padas  of  the  second  hemistich,  see  Nos.  6 and  13 
in  the  Illustrations  of  tristubhs.  The  only  difference  between 
them  and  the  vaigvadevl  lies  in  the  syllables  marked  short. 
For  another  form  of  vaigvadevl,  see  the  malinl  below. 

Atij  agatis. 

Rucira. 

Of  the  fifty-one  stanzas  of  ruciras  in  the  Mahabharata, 
almost  all  are  regular.  One  or  two  slight  irregularities 
occur  in  the  thirteen  cases  found  in  the  Ramayana.  Inde- 
pendent padas  of  this  type  scattered  among  ordinary  tristubh 
padas  are  not  uncommon  in  the  former  epic.  They  have  been 
discussed  above  as  mor a- j agatis  and  tristubhs.  The  type  of 
the  pure  rucira,  w _ w has  long  been 

held1  to  be  merely  a jagati  with  resolution,  and,  as  was  said 
above,  this  seems  to  be  the  only  possible  explanation  of  the 
pada,  whether  it  happens  to  occur  four  or  three  times,  twice, 
or  only  once  in  a stanza. 

Less  common  than  the  substitution  of  a rucira  pada  for  a 
tristubh  or  jagati  pada,  yet  still  not  infrequent,  is  the  har- 
monious alternation  of  padas.  The  converse  of  the  former 
case  is  found  in  the  occasional  substitution  of  a vangasthabila 
pada  in  regular  rucira  stanzas,  as  in  the  group  of  ten  tag- 

1 Gildcrmeister,  in  Lassen’s  Anthologia  Sanscrita,  2d  ed.,  p.  124;  Jacobi, 
ZDMG.,  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  607. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


327 


ruciras  at  i,  19,  22-31  (hemistichs  end  in  brevis;  so  in  xii, 
52,  34).  Here  the  stanzas  are  all  regular  ruciras,  four  padas 
each  of  the  type  given  above  (final  anceps  only  at  the  end  of 
the  hemistich),  with  the  exception  of  stanzas  27  and  30,  in 
which  the  second  padas  are  vaiigasthabila-padas ; thus,  29-30 : 

tato  mahlm  lavanajalam  ca  sagaram 
maliasurah  pravivigur  arditah  suraih 
viyadgatam  j valitahutaganaprabhaiii 
sudarganam  parikupitam  nigamyate 
tatah  surair  vijayam  avapya  Mandarah 
svam  eva  detain  gamitah  supujitah 
vinadya  kham  divam  api  cai  ’va  sarvagas 
tato  gatah  saliladhara  yathagatam 

In  i,  23,  21-26,  there  are  six  tag  ruciras,  as  stuti,  but  in 
stanza  23  only  one  pada  is  of  rucira  form,  the  others  being 
upajatis;  while  in  i,  34,  26,  one  vangastha  pacla  is  followed 
by  three  rucira  padas. 

It  is  very  unusual  to  find  this  stanza  except  as  a tag,  as  in 
the  examples  just  given.1  In  i,  56,  1,  however,  is  found  a 
stanza  consisting  of  one  rucira  pada  and  three  tristubh  padas, 
the  first  being  peculiar  in  opening  with  a spondee : balo  'py 
ayaiii  sthavira  iva  ’vabhasate,  na  ’yam  balah  sthaviro  'yam 
mato  me,  etc.  Such  a pada  in  such  a stanza  confirms  the 
view  that  the  whole  rucira  is  merely  a resolved  jagatl. 

The  alternate  arrangement,  referred  to  on  the  last  page,  may 
be  seen  in  the  tag  at  vii,  29,  51 : 

nihatya  tam  narapatim  indravikramaih 
sakhayam  indrasya  tad  aindrir  ahave 
tato  parans  tava  jayakaiiksino  naran 
babhanja  vayur  balavan  druman  iva 

1 At  iii,  25,  5,  a rucira  stanza  appears  among  the  group  of  tristubhs  with 
which  the  chapter  begins.  Its  first  pada  is  an  echo  of  the  one  cited  above, 
tam  agatam  jvalitahutaganaprabham.  In  vii,  2,  15-16,  two  ruciras  appear 
in  the  same  way  among  vangasthas.  At  the  end  of  vii,  148,  the  tag-effect 
is  done  away  with  by  the  addition  in  C.  6,443  ff.  of  five  glokas  (not  found 
in  B.)  after  the  two  vangasthas,  which  in  B.  complete  the  tag  begun  by  the 
rucira,  56. 


328 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  same  arrangement  has  already  (p.  303)  been  noticed  in 
xii,  244,  29.  Another  stanza  in  this  book,  xii,  52,  34,  forms 
the  finale  of  a short  system  of  pure  (tag)  vahgasthabilas. 
One  fifth  of  all  the  rucira  stanzas  in  the  epic  are  in  the  Hari- 
vanga,  inserted  as  tags,  and  they  are  all  perfectly  regular, 
with  the  substitution  of  one  vahgastha  pada  each  in  2,  123, 
35  c and  3,  34,  48  d,  respectively.  In  addition  to  these,  there 
is  half  a rucira  at  C.  10,274  (after  vahgasthas  and  before 
glokas),  the  prior  pada  of  which  ends  in  brevis : narno  'stu 
te  mahisamahasurardini,  namo  'stu  te  bhayakari  vidvisam 
sada.  Here  B.  2,  120,  43,  inverts  the  padas,  permitting  the 
brevis  at  the  end ; but  it  also  has  a varied  reading,  bandliana- 
moksakarini,  which  leaves  only  one  rucira  pada.1  The  other 
cases  call  for  no  special  remark.  The  caesura  is  after  the 
fourth  syllable. 

In  the  Ramayana  there  are  but  four  ruciras  common  to  the 
two  texts,  R.  and  G.,  two  of  which  are  hi  the  seventh  book ; 
but  there  are  four  in  G.  not  found  in  R.,  and  five  in  R.  not 
found  in  G.  As  in  the  Mahabharata,  the  caesura  is  regularly 
after  the  diiambus,  the  gana  division  ^ _ w,  _ w w,  ^ ^ 
w _ w , _ not  corresponding  to  any  text.  Here  the  position 
of  the  rucira  is  always  that  of  a tag,  usually  after  upajatis. 
The  second  hemistich  occasionally  ends  in  brevis,  e.  g.,  G.  ii, 
68,  56  ; vii,  68,  25 ; R.  vi,  62,  22 ; but,  as  in  the  Mahabharata, 
even  this  liberty  is  seldom  taken.  In  R.  v,  7,  15-17  (not  in 
G.),  of  the  twelve  padas,  all  are  regular  save  the  first,  which 
has  an  extra  syllable  : it!  ’va  tad  grham  abliigamya  gobhama- 
nam.2  In  G.  vi,  39,  33,  padab  has  yagaskaram  priyakaram 
bandhavapriyam,  where  R.  62,  22,  is  regular,  yatha  priyam 
priyarana  bandhavapriya.  R.  omits  the  tag  of  G.  vii,  68,  25 
(continuing  with  glokas).  The  case  is  interesting,  because  it 
is  evidently  an  instance  of  breaking  a chapter  by  means  of 
a tag  (perhaps  as  an  aid  in  recitation),  and  because  the  rucira 

1 P.W.  s.  v.  mahisa  2 c,  gives  a var.  lec.  I give  the  readings  of  the  Calcutta 
and  Bombay,  1896,  Harivai^a. 

2 It  is  easy  to  suggest  jobhitam ; but  this  half-rucira  half-praharsini  pada 
really  needs  no  cmondation.  See  just  below. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


329 


tag  thus  employed  is  highly  irregular  (pada  b:  hanisyasi, 
Raghuvara,  nil  ’tra  samqayah)  in  making  the  caesura  answer 
for  a long  syllable ; thus  showing  that  there  is  a late  (care- 
less) freedom  as  well  as  the  freedom  of  early  (undeveloped) 
forms.  With  one  exception,  no  such  substituted  padas  as 
equate  upajatis  in  the  other  epic  occur  in  the  Ramayana.1 


Praharsini. 

Having  thirteen  syllables  to  the  pada  this  metre  is  called 
an  atijagatl,  though  its  finale  is  that  of  a tristubh,  w _ As 
to  the  relation  of  the  measure,  it  is  clearly  of  the  puspitagra 

class,  in  closing  in^_^_ ^ , as  will  be  seen  below ; and 

as  clearly  of  rucira  nature,  both  in  its  middle  and  even  in  its 

opening;  for  it  begins  with  a mora-equivalent, , of  the 

rucira’s  diiambus,  w _ w _,  and  continues  with  the  rucira’s 
resolved  tristubh  form.  In  fact,  as  we  have  seen  that  a 
rucira  pada  may  appear  with  the  extra  syllable  of  the  pra- 
harsini, we  can  supply  all  the  links  from  tristubh  to  puspi- 
tagra with  actually  extant  measures  (see  also  below,  under 
matrachandas,  p.  337)  : 

trisfiibh-jagati,  w _ _ w w _ w _ w _ 

rucira  type,  w — ^ — w — \j  — 

rucira  freak,  — w — , ww  — ^ — w 

praharsini,  , w ^ ^ 

puspitagra,  w ^ [w  w],  ^ w _ w _ w 

The  secondary  caesura  sometimes  makes  the  pada  coincide 
very  closely  with  the  rucira,  for  example  in  R.  ii,  79,  17  a-b : 

ucus  te  | vacanam  idam  | niqamya  hrstah 
samatyah  | saparisado  | viyataqokah, 

but  in  other  cases  this  caesura  causes  a trochaic  cadence  to  be 
struck  with  the  beginning  of  a new  word  after  the  proceleus- 
maticus,  as  is  clearly  shown  in  R.  ii,  107,  17  c-d : 

gaccha  tvam  | puravaram  | adya  samprahrstah 
samhrstas  | tv  aham  api  | Dandakan  praveksye 


1 For  this  exception  in  the  Ramayana,  see  above,  p.  309. 


330 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Do  thou  now  | to  the  city  | fare  with  heart  rSjoicing 
while  meantime  | merrily  I | will  to  Dandakas  go 

It  is  rather  striking  that  in  both  these  examples  the  name 
of  the  metre  seems  to  be  implied  in  it,  hrstah  and  samhrstas 
like  praharsinl  (or  -am)  “ rejoicing,”  but  I do  not  know  that 
this  is  more  than  an  accident.1  There  is  a parallel  in  the 
rucira-like  pada  cited  above  from  the  Ramayana,  G.  vii,  88,  22: 

gato  ravir  suruciram  astagailam 

The  Ramayana  has  one  more  case  of  this  metre,  G.  vi, 
25,  41,  sa  krodhad  vipulayaga  malianubhavo,  etc.  The  only 
short  finals  are  at  the  end  of  the  whole  stanza. 

In  the  Mahabharata  there  are  twelve  cases,  all  regular  (but 
the  first  hemistich  as  well  as  the  second  may  end  in  brevis), 

with  the  same  norm  and  varying  caesura, , WWW  Wj 

_ w _ w , or , www,  w_w_w They  are  not 

all  tags.  For  example,  that  at  vii,  143,  48  and  the  group  of 
four  in  xii,  322,  24-27 ; but  that  at  i,  2,  396,  is  the  tag  of  a 
tag,  apparently  merely  a scholiastic  addition: 

akhyanam  tad  idam  anuttamam  mahartham,  etc., 

as  are  those  in  i,  21,  18;  22,  12;  25,  17  (tag  to  a rucira  tag, 
b ends  in  brevis),  vedangany  abhigamayanti  sarvayatnaih,  etc. 
The  first  two  of  these  just  mentioned  are  akin  : in  21  c,  vistlr- 
naih  dadrgatur  ambaraprakagam ; in  22  b,  gambhlram  vikasitam 
ambaraprakagam.  In  the  specimen  at  xiii,  7,  28,  the  praharsinl 
is  by  one  gloka  stanza2  removed  from  the  end  of  the  section, 
and  is  a moral  excrescence  added  to  the  tale : 

1 I may  arid  that  in  the  first  example  there  is  not  only  hrstah  in  ft.  ii,  79, 
17,  hut  in  the  vanjastlia  which  precedes  this  tag  we  find : praharsaja't  tam 
prati  baspabindavo,  etc.  See  a case  like  this  from  the  other  epic  cited  in 
the  next  note. 

2 This  final  eloka  says : “ I have  repeated  what  the  seer  proclaimed  in 
regard  to  the  getting  of  good  and  evil  fruit.  Now  what  do  you  want  to 
hear?”  The  floka  before  the  praharsinl  is:  BhTsmasyai  ’tad  vacah  grutva 
vismitah  Kurupufigavah,  asan  prahrstavianasah  pritimanto  ’bhavans  tada. 
See  the  last  note. 


EPIC  VEKSIFICA  TIOX. 


331 


yan  mantre  bhavati  vrtho  ’payujyaraane 
yat  some  bhavati  vrtha  ’bhisiiyamane 
yac  ca  ’gnau  bhavati  vrtlia  ’bhihuyamane 
tat  sarvam  bhavati  vrtlia  ’bhidhlyamane 

The  tendency  to  restrict  the  final  syllaba  anceps  to  the  close 
of  the  stanza  is  observable  in  several  of  these  cases.  For  in- 
stance, in  the  group  cited  from  the  twelfth  book,  the  only 
final  breves  are  at  the  end  of  whole  stanzas,  not  at  the  end  of 
the  first  hemistich.  In  i,  2,  the  first  hemistich  ends  in  a short 
vowel,  but  before  two  consonants  (d  ends  in  S) ; in  i,  21  and 
22,  no  final  is  short.  The  only  exception  is  the  one  noticed 
above,  i,  25,  17  b.  The  two  cases  in  II.,  C.,  6248  and  B.,  3,  7, 
25  are  tags,  and  have  no  final  brevis.  The  former  has  hiatus 
in  pada  d (avoided  in  B.,  2,  53,  57,  manujendra  ca  ’tmanistham) : 

yad  yuktaiii,  kuru  manujendra,  atmanestam 

The  latter,  instead  of  C.’s  amrtam,  11,303,  has 

yat  satyam  yad  anrtam  adimaksararii  vai, 

where  (adima  and  ksara  are  kiirana  and  karya)1  aclima  is  a 
late  adjective. 

On  the  verse  gopta  samlksya  sukrtinam  dadati  lokan,  see 
below  under  matrachandas. 

Mrgendramukha. 

Another  atijagatl,  not  found  in  the  Mahabharata,  but  in  one 
text  of  the  Ramayana,  is  the  mrgenclramuklm  of  R.  vi,  101, 
55,  which  takes  the  place  of  a puspitagra  tag  in  G.  85,  13. 
The  posterior  padas  of  the  latter  metre  have  regularly  the 
form  illustrated  by  G.  at  this  place,  muditamanah  samud- 

Iksitum  tvarami,  \J  KJ  KJ  \J  \J  W W ^ . This  form  is 

simply  quadrupled  in  order  to  make  the  mrgendramukha  ; 
the  cadence  of  which  is  often  made  trochaic  through  the 
caesura,  as  in  this  epic  example,  a and  d : 

1 In  the  next  pada,  B.  has  yad  bhutam  bhavati  mithag  ca  yad  bhavisyam, 
where  C.  has  yad  bhutam  bhavad  amitam  ca. 


332 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


yadi  vadham  icchasi  | Ravanasya  samkhye 
yadi  ca  krtam  hi  tave  ’cchasi  pratijnam 
yadi  tava  rajasutabhilasa,  arya, 

kuru  ca  vaco  mama  | glghram  adya  vira 1 

The  native  division  of  the  pada  of  course  is  w w w , w _ w , 
w _ w , _ w which  fits  pada  b.  The  brevis  at  the  end  of 
either  pada,  as  in  this  case,  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  metre  is  a stereotyped  posterior  pada  in  repeated  form. 

Asambadha. 

The  remaining  aksara  tags  are  longer  metres,  the  gakvarl, 
of  syllables  4 x 14 ; the  atigakvari,  of  4 x 15 : and  the  ati- 
dhrti,  of  4 X 19.  Of  the  first,  there  are  two  varieties,  of  which 
one  is  the  asambadha,  found  only  in  the  Bombay  R.  ii,  116, 

25,  with  the  norm  (according  to  the  example, , 

w w w,  w w w, ) violated  as  follows  (prior  hemistich) : 

Ramah  samsadhya  rsiganam  anugamanad 
degat  tasmat  kulapatim  abhivadya  rsim 
sarayak  pritais  tair  anumata  upadistarthah 
punyam  vasaya  svanilayam  upasampede 

To  this  is  added  a supplementary  tag,  a peculiar  stanza 
(where  G.  iii,  1,  35,  has  a vangastha  tag),  in  which  the  last 
pada  differs  from  the  three  preceding ; a,  b,  c,  being  alike  in 
having  each  the  fourteen  morse  of  the  even  vaitaliya  pada 
(explained  below),  and  eleven  syllables,  but  not  in  a fixed 
order ; against  seventeen  morse  and  twelve  syllables  in  d. 
Pada  b is  aparavaktra,  but  I do  not  know  what  to  call  the 
whole  (R.  ii,  116,  26)  : 

agramam  rsivirahitam  prabhuh 
ksanam  api  na  jahau  sa  Raghavah 
Raghavaxh  hi  satatam  anugatas 
tapasag  ca  ’rsacarite  dhrtagun&h 

1 The  stress,  but  not  the  quantity,  is  Saturnian  : kuruca  vaco  mama  | vfrum 
rnfhi  Casmena  | (jighram  adya  vira  | insect  vcrsutum.  The  name  mrgendra- 
mukha  comes  from  the  mnemonic  verse:  ksudhitamrgendramukham  mrga 
upetya  (Brown). 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


333 


Vasantatilaka. 

The  second  gakvarl  called  vasantatilaka  (or  °kam)  is  found 
twice  in  the  Ramayana,  but  only  in  the  last  and  latest  book, 
vii,  8,  28,  where  it  is  followed  by  a jagati  upajati  as  a final  tag, 
and  vii,  96,  23,  also  a tag.  In  the  latter  case,  all  padas  have 
heavy  final  syllables.  In  the  former,  piida  c has  final  brevis, 
but  this  liberty  is  taken  in  the  case  of  the  vasantatilaka  even 
by  the  classical  writers.1  The  metre  is  clearly  liypermetric 

tristubh  : ^ w w , — w \j  — w or \j  — w , w w — , 

^ w , w In  the  first  example,  three  padas  have  caesura 

after  the  fifth,  like  other  hypermetric  tristubhs : 

esa  rnaya  tava  naradhipa  raksasanain 
utpattir  adya  | kathita  sakala,  yathavat 
bhuyo  nibodha  | Raghusattama,  Ravanasya 
janma  prabhavam  | atulaiii  sasutasya  sarvam 

The  Mahabharata  has  twelve  occurrences  of  vasantatilakas, 
but  only  eight  separate  stanzas,  the  others  being  vain  repeti- 
tions of  old  material.  The  first  three  are  in  the  tag-group  at 
the  end  of  i,  2,  391  ff.,  which  ends  in  a praharsinl.  The  second 
of  this  group  has  short  finals  in  b and  d;  the  third  (which 
follows  immediately  after  two  glokas)  has  final  brevis  in  a. 
The  stanzas  are  benedictive  and  are  partially  repeated  at  the 
end  of  xviii,  5,  67-68,  where  B.  has  the  third  of  this  group 
(omitted  here  in  C.),  and  this  again  is  found  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Harivanga.  In  all  these  occurrences  of  the  same  stanza, 
dadati  is  left  at  the  end  of  pada  a ; but  in  c the  reading  varies 
between  satatam  grnotT  in  xviii  and  gmuyac  ca  nityam  or 
tadvat  in  i,  2,  395  and  Harivanga,  i,  1,  4.  In  xiii,  151,  80, 
the  same  stanza  has  kathayec  ca  nityam.  I give  it  in  full  on 
account  of  its  universal  interest: 

1 Compare  the  note  to  Vamana’s  Stilrepeln  by  Professor  Cappeller,  p.  23. 
The  final  brevis  in  prior  padas  is  found  also  in  inscriptional  poetry.  Compare 
e.  g.,  the  third  and  tenth  stanzas  in  Vatsabhatti’s  poem,  fifth  century,  given 
in  Biihler’s  essay  on  Indian  inscriptions,  p.  91,  where  padas  a and  c respec- 
tively close  in  brevis ; or  the  fifth  and  twenty-fifth,  where,  in  each,  both  the 
prior  padas  end  in  brevis.  In  fact,  the  tendency  here  is  to  close  the  hemistich 
in  heavy  syllables  and  the  prior  padas  in  light  syllables  (25,  27,  31,  32,  40). 


334 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


yo  goqataiii  kanakaqrhgamayam  dadati 
vipraya  vedaviduse  subahuqrutaya 1 
punyaiii  ca  bkaratakatham  satataiii  qrnoti 
tulyam  phalam  bhavati  tasya  ca  tasya  cai  ’va 

In  tlie  thirteenth  book  (as  in  the  case  of  the  Ramayana, 
this  metre  is  found  only  in  pseudo-epic  or  late  books),  there 
are  two  new  cases  of  vasantatilaka.  The  first,  14,  189,  is 
unique  in  not  being  a tag  (only  d has  final  brevis) ; the 
other  (with  a gardulavikrldita)  being  a tag,  as  usual.  The 
latter  is  united  with  the  benedictive  stanza  above,  and  like 
it  has  final  brevis  in  the  first  pada,  151,  80-81  (80  being  the 
stanza  quoted  above). 

The  Harivanga  has  a tag-group  (followed  by  one  gloka)  of 
three  more  vasantatilaka  stanzas  at  3,  114,  39^41,  the  last  of 
which  also  has  final  brevis  in  c : 

41,  c,  jyotis  trilokajanakam  tridacaikavandyam 

d,  aksnor  mama  ’stu  satatam  hrdaye  'cyutakbyam 

Malinl. 

This  is  an  atigakvari,  4x15  syllables,  having  syllaba  anceps 
regularly  only  at  the  close  of  the  hemistich,  but  in  one  in- 
stance at  the  end  of  a prior  pada,  a freedom  found  among 
classical  works  only  in  the  Mrcchakatikam,  according  to 
Professor  Cappeller.2  The  metre  is  found  in  both  epics; 
but  the  Ramayana  has  only  one  case  common  to  R.  and  G., 
and  that  is  in  the  last  book,  vii,  59,  23  = G.  61,  21,  the 
stanza  only  ending  in  brevis.  It  is  a tag.  In  R.  vi,  40, 
29-30,  there  are  two  cases,  not  in  G.,  both  regular,  a tag 
couplet  (in  the  former  case  both  hemistichs  end  in  brevis). 
G.  ii,  106,  29-30,  has  two  stanzas,  not  in  R.,  a tag  (final 
brevis  only  at  the  end  of  the  first  stanza).  The  natural 

division  is  often  w ^ w,  w w w * 1 — w — ? — w » with 

caesura  after  the  spondee.  The  Mahabharata  has  eleven  cases, 

1 v.  1.  balmvi^rutaya  in  the  Bombay  H.  Also  ca  for  su-,  and  other  vari- 
ants in  Anu^asana. 

2 Loc.  cit. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


335 


and  (like  the  one  case  in  both  texts  of  the  Ramayana)  they 
are  all  in  the  later  epic:  vii,  73,  48;  viii,  85,  1-4;  90,  24; 
xiii,  6,  45-47 ; H.  2,  105,  84 ; and  3,  132,  100.  The  one  in 
Drona  unites  with  a puspitagra,  but,  although  both  are  almost 
at  the  end  of  a chapter,  they  are  rather  a tag  to  a speech  than 
to  the  chapter  itself.  Those  in  Kama  are  at  the  beginning 
and  ha  the  middle  of  their  respective  chapters.  Those  in 
Anugasana  are  a tag,  except  that  two  glokas  follow.  In  the 
group  of  viii,  85,  all  the  padas  end  long  except  the  posterior 
padas  of  the  third  stanza,  both  of  which  have  final  brevis. 
The  two  cases  in  Ilariv.  are  tags  (one  gloka  following  in  the 
latter)  with  brevis  only  at  the  close  of  the  stanza.  An  irreg- 
ularity appears  in  xiii,  G,  46  c-d : 

baliutarasusamrddbya  manusanarri  grlianl 
pitrvanabliavanabhaih  drgyate  ca  ’maranam 

In  47,  the  hemistichs  end  in  brevis;  in  45,  only  the  first 
hemistich.  The  plural  grhiini  is  remarked  upon  as  Vedic  by 
the  scholiast,  who  thus  supports  it ; but  grharii  (vai  ?)  is 
probably  right. 

A very  common  cadence,  whereby  the  end  of  the  pada 

assumes  the  fall  _ w , w , rather  than  _ w w , 

is  illusti'ated  by  H.  3,  132,  100  a-b  (cited  above) : 

ajaram  amaram  ekaiii  dhyeyam  adyantagunyaiii 
sagunam  agunam  adyaiii  sthulam  atyantasuksmara. 

Another  kind  of  malinl,  not  found  in  the  epics,  begins  with 

— w , www- , showing  that  the  epic  form  is  a further 

resolution  of  an  original  tristubh,  which  may  be  represented  by 

wwwwww t _ w w This  is,  of  course,  the  vaigva- 

devi  form  of  the  hypermetric  ti'istubli,1  the  close  relation  of 
which  with  the  puspitagra  is  well  shown  in  vii,  73,  48-49: 

48  a-b  : asurasuramanusyah  paksino  vo  ’rago  va 

pitrrajanicara  va  bi-ahmadevarsayo  va 

49  a-b  : yadi  vicati  rasatalarii  tad  agryaiii 

viyad  api  devapurarii  Diteh  puram  va 

1 Compare  Professor  Jacobi’s  learned  essay,  Entwickelung  der  indiscben 
J.Ietrik  in  nachvedisclier  Zeit,  ZDMG.  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  609. 


336 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  content  of  this  malinl  appears  a little  further  on,  77, 
26,  in  the  form  of  a puspitagra : 

yadi  ca  manujapannagah  pigaca 
rajanicarah  patagah  suras uraq  ca 

and  in  viii,  37,  36,  in  aparavaktra : asurasuramahoragan  naran. 

Q ar  dul  a vikri  dit  a . 

The  only  remaining  aksaracchandas  in  the  epic  is  the  ati- 
dhrti  (4  x 19)  gaxdulavikridita,  which  occurs  in  the  eighth 
and  thirteenth  books  of  the  Mahabharata.  The  chapter  of 
the  former  book  graced  with  a malinl  is  also  enlivened  with 
the  “ tiger’s  play,”  viii,  90,  42  (two  lines  in  C.,  4668-9).  It 

is  not  a tag  and  is  perfectly  regular,  four  times , _ ^ ^ 

\J  W,  \J  \ w There  are  also  one  and  a 

half  stanzas  at  xiii,  14,  229,  and  a whole  stanza  ib.  234; 
neither  of  which  is  a tag.  This  position  of  a fancy-metre 
in  a chapter  instead  of  at  its  end  always  shows  a late  section 
(affected  in  the  Harivanga).  In  xiii,  151,  79,  the  gardulavi- 
krldita joins  with  vasantatilakas  to  make  a tag.  All  the  speci- 
mens are  regular.  The  metre  may  be  a late  development 
from  the  tristubh.  The  intermediate  phases,  however,  are 
not  very  clear,  though  the  genesis  may  tentatively  be  as- 
sumed as; , — v ^ — — \j  (as  in  the  vaitallya,  below), 

\j  , _ w w or  two  stanzas  to  the  strophe,  as  in 

the  classical  grouping  of  glokas,  with  shift  of  caesura.  This 
metre  is  not  found  in  the  Ramayana. 

Ardhasamavrtta  (Matrachandas). 

(A)  Puspitagra  and  Aparavaktra. 

These  metres,  as  is  indicated  by  their  name  “ semi-equal,” 
are  uneven  in  their  padas.  They  are  not  quite  mora-metres, 
since  the  number  and  position  of  their  syllables,  heavy  or 
light,  are  regularly  fixed ; but  on  the  other  hand  they  are 
not  like  aksara  metres,  for  their  padas  are  not  identical.  In 
the  epic,  however,  the  rule  of  fixed  syllables  is  not  strictly 
preserved.  The  cadence  of  the  hemistich,  with  its  unequal 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


337 


padas,  has  either  wholly  trochaic  close  or  alternate  trochaic 
and  iambic.  The  first  is  illustrated  by  It.  vi,  33,  36  c-b  : 

tam  iha  qaranam 

abhyupailii  devl 
haya  iva  mandalam 

a^u  yah  karoti 

Rapid  as  a charger  is, 

Hasten,  hurry  quickly. 

As  already  remarked,  the  second  pada  of  this  puspitagra, 
when  quadrupled,  makes  the  mrgendramukha  (above,  p.  331), 
which  also  has  trochaic  fall.  The  aparavaktra,  which  has  one 
syllable  (usually  two  morse)  less  than  the  puspitagra,  shows 
more  clearly  the  derivation  from  the  tristubh,  It.  ii,  39,  41 : 
murajapanava-meghaghosavad 

Daqaratha-veqma  babhuva  yat  pura 

or,  again,  in  M.  viii,  37,  42  : 

bhavatu  bhavatu,  kim  vikatthase, 
nanu  mama  tasya  hi  yuddham  udyatam 

There  is  one  form  of  tristubh  which  actually  corresponds 
to  the  second  verse  of  the  puspitagra,  when  its  breves  are 
equated  with  heavy  syllables,  thus: 


Professor  Jacobi  also  sees  in  the  jagatl  or  tristubh  the  ori- 
gin of  the  puspitagra,  though  he  is  inclined  to  adopt  a more 
complicated  development  (from  a Vedic  verse  of  12  + 8 
syllables).1 

The  puspitagra  and  aparavaktra  are  used  only  as  tag- 
metres;  sometimes,  as  in  R.  v,  16,  30  (not  in  G.)  inserted 

1 ZDMG.  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  591  ff.  Professor  Jacobi,  p.  595,  regards  the  puspi- 
tagra as  a development  from  a pure  matrachandas,  which  in  turn  he  refers 
to  the  satobrhati  (4  X 12  + 8).  Compare  also  the  same  author,  IS.  vol.  xvii, 

p.  449. 


tristubh 
puspitagra  b 


manam  na  kuryan  na  ’dadhlta  rosam 


svaparamatair  gahanam  pratarkayadbhih 


22 


338 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


among  upajati  tags  common  to  both  texts ; sometimes,  as  in 
G.  iii,  54,  28  (not  in  R.)  after  a common  tristubh-tag ; or  in 
other  similar  situations.1 

The  puspitagra  occurs  much  more  frequently  as  a tag- 
metre  than  does  the  aparavaktra.  For  example,  in  the  Rii- 
mayana,  the  puspitagra  is  found  four  times  as  often.  There 
are,  however,  only  thirteen  cases  common  to  the  two  texts, 
R.  and  G.  Besides  these,  G.  has  fourteen,  and  R.  has  twenty- 
one  cases  not  found  in  the  alternate  text. 

The  mark  of  the  posterior  pada,  as  distinguished  from  the 
prior,  is  the  apparent  insertion  of  a heavy  syllable  (in  terms 
of  matra  metre,  two  morse),  at  a point  which  is  usually  fixed 
as  after  the  initial  four  breves.  This,  however,  is  not  always 
the  case.  Thus  in  G.  v,  31,  62  b,  corresponding  to  d,  which 
latter,  vacanam  idam  mama  Maithili  pratlhi,  is  regular,  ap- 
pears as  posterior  pada  of  a puspitagra: 

lavanajalanidhir  gospadlkrto  me, 

where  the  heavy  syllable  is  put  after  all  the  breves,  perhaps 
merely  on  account  of  the  awkward  phrase  (in  §loka,  ib.  33, 
23,  gospadlkrtah).  Later  rule  especially  forbids  this  arrange- 
ment for  all  matrachandases : “ In  the  opening  of  prior  padas, 

w w,  and  of  posterior  padas,  w w and  _ w w w w w w 

and  w w w www_,  are  forbidden.”  2 

Further,  for  the  prior  pada  may  be  substituted  a different 
cadence,  almost  that  of  the  vaitaliya,  ww_ ww_,  ww_ , 

KJ . This  occurs  in  G.  vi,  62,  44  a (where  R.  83,  44,  lias 

the  normal  w kj  , w w w w,  w ) thus : 

G.,  ayam  adya  vibho  tava  ca  priyartham 
R.,  ayam  anagha  tavo  ’ditah  priyartham 

Compare  G.  vi,  92,  83  b : svabala  ’bhivrto  rane  vyarajata, 

1 In  G.  vi,  39,  32,  where  R.  has  only  a rucira,  there  is  a puspitagra  inserted 
before  the  rucira.  These  two  names,  by  the  way,  appear  together  as  ordinary 
adjectives  “blooming  and  shining”  (trees),  supuspitagran  ruciran  (vrksan), 
R.  v,  14,  41. 

2 Weber,  IS.  vol.  viii,  p.  309. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


339 


where  R.  108,  34,  has  svajanabala  ’bhivrto  rane  babhuvS.1 

The  prior  pada  may  be  hypermetric.  Thus  R.  vi,  107, 
68  a-b: 

Da^arathasutaruksasendrayos  tayor 
jayam  anaveksya  rane  sa  Raghavasya 

A parallel  case  or  two  occurs  in  the  other  epic  (see  below). 

Occasionally  there  is  a quasi  inversion,  — w — w — , of  the 

ending  _ ^ This  occurs  twice  in  R.,  but  only  in 

Adi  and  Uttara.  The  first  case  presents  varied  readings.  In 
G.  i,  22,  20,  there  is  simply  the  not  unusual  equivalence  of  a 
and  c puspitagra  and  b and  d (aparavaktra)  catalectic.  But  in 
R.  the  same  stanza,  i,  19,  22,  has,  besides,  the  irregular  pada  a : 

\J  vv  V W \J  I \J  U V U \J  U 

U VU  \J  W | — t) 

that  is,  instead  of  iti  hrdayavidaranam  tadanlm  in  G.  a,  R.  has 
iti  sahrdayamanovidaranam.  This  can  scarcely  be  a mere 
lapsus,  as  the  finale  occurs  again  in  the  Mahabharata  and  in 
R.  vii,  29,  38  c— d : 

yad  ayam  atulabalas  tvaya  ’dya  vai 
tridaqapatis  tridaqaq  ca  nirjitah 

In  the  latter  passage,  37  a has  w w as  close : 

atha  saranavigatam  uttamaujah 2 

While  posterior  padas  have  syllaba  anceps,  as  in  G.  vi,  92, 
83  b,  cited  above,  a prior  pada  has  this  only  in  R.  vi,  33,  36, 

1 Another  case  of  variation,  R.  vi,  84,  22  d = G.  63,  22,  where  G.  has  asura- 
varo  ’nmathanaya  yatha  mahendrah  may  be  corrupt  (for  asuravaro  ’nma- 
thane  yatha  mahendrah?).  B.  has  divijaripumathane  yatha  mahendrah  (for 
ripor  ?). 

2 In  b,  compare  G.  v,  36,  77  b,  Janakanrpatmajadhrtam ; but  R.  38,  70,  has 
Janakanrpatmajayadhrtam  prabliavat,  which  is  correct.  In  R.  vii,  29,  37  and 
38  are  puspitagras ; 39  and  40  are  aparavaktras.  In  G.  the  only  irregularity 
here  is  in  (37)  38  c,  svasutasya  vacanam  atipriyam  tat.  Here  in  40  = R.  39, 
a is  aparavaktra  and  b is  puspitagra,  though  the  latter  may  have  added  the 
unnecessary  tvam  that  makes  the  change.  The  same  is  true  of  R.  38  a. 
I have  noticed  besides  only  the  following  puspitagra  irregularities,  which 
seem  to  me  more  grammatical  than  metrical,  or  mere  errors : G.  ii,  29, 

29  b,  w w ____  for  w y read  apratimarujia  ? G-*  iVj  34j  3o  Cj  read 

anrtamadhura0  ? Neither  stanza  is  found  in  R. 


340 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


devi  (cited  above),  where,  however,  G.  has  Site  (here,  9,  39, 
abhayamkaram  is  to  be  read).  In  posterior  padas,  final  syllaba 
anceps  is  found  about  a dozen  times  in  the  forty-odd  puspita- 
gras of  the  Ramayana  text. 

The  aparavaktra  is  a puspitagra  shortened  by  one  long 
syllable,  two  morsej  in  each  pada ; or  in  other  words,  its  pada  is 
a catalectic  puspitagra  pada.  To  native  prosodians,  as  to  Euro- 
pean scholars,  the  shorter  is  the  type,  and  the  puspitagra  is  an 
expanded  aparavaktra ; a view  that  appears  to  me  erroneous. 
The  aparavaktra  occurs  in  the  Ramayana,  as  said  above,  not 
quite  one-fourth  so  often  as  the  puspitagra.1  Like  the  latter, 
it  is  used  alone,  or  with  other  metres  to  make  tags.  The  final 
syllables  are  always  long.  Irregularities  are  rare  ; a substitute 
like  that  in  the  puspitagra  occurs  in  G.  ii,  82,  15  a : 

KJ  KJ  \J,  \J  \J  \j  \j  

\J  KJ  , \J  \J  

(ca  sat!  omit  ca  ?) 

GG  WG,  GW  , \J  \J  

Here  R.  has  a regular  aparavaktra,  ii,  81, 16.  In  G.  iv,  62, 25, 
the  second  pada  is  plavagapungavah  paripurnamanasah,  for 
R.’s  (63,  15)  plavagavarah  pratilabdhapaurusah ; and  in  G. 
63,  29,  plavangamah  paripurnamanasah. 

There  is  only  one  passage  in  the  Uttara,  vii,  29,  37 — 40, 
where  puspitagra  and  aparavaktra  are  found.  Otherwise  these 
metres  are  distributed  pretty  evenly  over  the  Ramayana, 
except  that  the  first  book  has  no  aparavaktra,2  and  only  one 
puspitagra  common  to  both  texts,  but  R.  here  has  four  not  in  G. 
The  reason  is  that  the  later  epic  prefers  pure  matrachandas. 

Interchange  of  aparavaktra  and  puspitagra  padas  occurs 
occasionally,  as  in  G.  ii,  15,  36  (R.  has  upendra  here),  where  a 


1 There  are  only  six  cases  common  to  both  texts ; besides,  two  in  R.  not 
in  G. ; three  in  G.  not  in  R. ; twelve  in  all,  as  G.  at  iv,  62,  25  and  63,  29  has 
the  one  at  R.  63,  15.  In  the  last  case,  the  first  pada  is  the  same  in  the  three 
stanzas;  in  R.  all  the  other  padas  are  normal,  but  in  G.  62,  25 d is  a puspi- 
tagra pada,  as  is  c of  63,  29.  The  missing  stanza  in  the  alternate  text  is  due 
merely  to  the  latter  having  a puspitagra  in  G.  iii,  7,  36;  R.  vi,  68,  24. 

2 The  fifth  book  has  no  aparavaktra,  but  it  has  half  a dozen  puspitagras. 
The  sixth  book  has  the  greatest  number  of  puspitagras. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


341 


and  c are  puspitagra  padas  and  b and  d are  aparavaktra 
padas  in  regular  interchange;  or  as  in  G.  v,  36,  77,  where 
only  the  last  pada  of  the  stanza  is  catalectic  (of  aparavaktra 
form). 

It  is  clear  that  the  puspitagra,  a form  of  tristubh,  and  the 
aparavaktra,  a catalectic  puspitagra,  are  not  regarded  as  separ- 
ate but  as  interchangeable  in  pada  formation.  As  complete 
stanzas,  the  latter  compared  with  the  former,  are  rare.  The 
pada  type  is  not  absolutely  fixed. 

Before  comparing  the  usage  in  the  Mahabharata,  I shall 
complete  this  description  of  the  phenomena  in  the  Ramayana 
with  an  account  of  the 

(B)  Aupacchaxdasika  and  V ait  ALIY  a. 

In  the  later  part  of  the  Ramayana  — if  one  may  dare  sug- 
gest that  any  epic  poem  in  India  was  not  all  written  at  the 
same  moment  — the  place  of  the  puspitagra  and  aparavaktra, 
as  tag-metres,  is  taken  by  pure  matrackandases,  namely,  the 
aupaccliandasika  and  vaitaliya,  which  bear  to  each  other  the 
same  relation  as  that  held  by  the  former  pair ; that  is  to  say, 
the  vaitaliya  pada  is  a catalectic  aupaccliandasika  pada. 
These  two  pairs  are  essentially  identical,  as  may  be  seen  by 
comparing  the  posterior  padas,  which  in  each  are  increased 
by  a long  syllable.  The  posterior  pada  of  the  aupacchanda- 
sika  is 

, w ,v_/ H, 

which,  when  catalectic,  should  have  final  syllaba  anceps ; but 
this  never  happens  at  the  end  of  the  first  hemistich,  only  at 
the  end  of  the  stanza,  an  indication  that  the  vaitaliya  is  the 
derived  form.  Again,  the  aupaccliandasika  is  really  the  epic 
stanza  metre.  The  vaitaliya  is  used  but  once  as  a stanza,  all 
the  other  cases  being  merely  catalectic  padas  of  an  aupacchan- 
dasika  stanza.  The  prior  pada  in  aupaccliandasika  may 
also  end  in  brevis,  and,  as  the  spondee  is  usually  resolved 
into  an  anapiest  in  both  padas,  we  get  the  norm  (16  and  18 
morse) : 


342 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


(a)  , \j \j m 

(b)  w , \y  w , w w M 

or  (b) , _ w _ w _ m 

This  is  evidently  a variety  of  the  puspitagra.1  That  is,  it 
reverts  to  a tristubh  origin. 

R.  vii,  57,  21  = G.  59,  22,  may  be  taken  as  the  typical 
form : 

W VA  W W i W — W ( ) 

w , w w — , w w 

KJ  W , W W ) W W 

W , W \J  KJ 

G.  adds  te  to  R.’s  pada  a,  iti  sarvam  agesato  maya  (te).  The 
final  syllable  of  the  stanza  in  vii,  61,  24  = G.,  66,  24,  vaitaliya, 
is  short  in  R.,  long  in  G.  Prior  padas  do  not  usually  end 
in  brevis,  but  they  do  occasionally,  as  in  G.  vii,  87,  18  (not 
in  R.),  where  in  b the  spondaic  type  of  opening  is  illustrated : 

iti  karma  sudarunam  sa  krtva 
Dando  dandam  avaptavan  ugram 
emu  sarvam  agesatas  tad  adya 
kathayisye  tava  rajasihhavrtta 

The  close  of  b,  however,  shows  an  unusual  phase  of  the  type 
of  the  equivalent  variant  with  spondee ; but  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  suppose  that  a brevis  is  lost  before  ugram.  Both 
posterior  padas  may  begin  with  a spondee  (but  end  in 

_ w _ w ),  as  in  R.  vii,  55,  21  = G.  57,  22  (all  padas  end 

long),  e.  g.,  tulyavyadhigatau  mahaprabhavau,  apparently  an 
older  form  than  the  usual  resolved  type. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  puspitagra  and  aparavaktra,  the  cata- 
lectic  (vaitaliya)  pada  may  take  the  place  of  the  full  measure. 
Thus  in  R.  vii,  95, 17  (not  in  G.),  the  spondee  type  (b)  is  used 
as  a catalectic  pada: 

iti  sampravicarya  rajasinhah 
gvobhute  qapathasya  nigeayam 
visasarja  munln  nrpahg  ca  sarvan 
sa  mahatma  mahato  mahauubliavah 

1 Compare  the  form  cited  above,  w w ww v_/ w uv,  as  a variant 

of  puspitagra  (b). 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


343 


In  R.  vii,  86,  21  (G.  93,  21),  a-b  show  a new  fornw  of  this 
combination : 

iti  Laksmanavakyam  uttamarii 
nrpatir  atlvamanoharam  mahatma 

that  is,  a vaitaliya  prior  and  puspitagra  posterior  pada.  Com- 
pare the  only  case  not  in  the  Uttarakanda,  where  in  G.  ii, 
81,  33  (not  in  R.),  a lame  aparavaktra  hemistich  is  followed 
by  a lame  matra  hemistich  (fifteen  morae) : 

yy  yy  yy  yy^  yy  yy, yy yy  — 

yy  yy  yy  yy,  — yy  yy  — , yy 

yy  yy  yy  yy,  — yy yy 

yy  yy , yy  yy , yy yy 

The  patois  metres  show  that  the  matra-form  was  used  early, 
but  how  much  earlier  than  the  third  century  B.  c.  it  is  impos- 
sible to  say.  The  vaitaliya  itself  is  a common  metre  of  the 
Dhammapada.1 

Matrachandas  in  the  Mahabharata. 

The  many  “ semi-equals  ” in  the  great  epic  form  a fair 
parallel  to  the  state  of  tilings  in  the  little  epic.  But  there 
are  no  regular  vaitaliya  or  aupacchandasika  stanzas  at  all. 
In  a late  passage  of  Yana  and  hi  (^anti  there  is  a sporadic 
approach  to  vaitaliya  form.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
over  ninety-one  puspitagras  and  aparavaktras.  They  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  later  part  of  the  epic  and  appear  more  in 
groups  than  they  do  in  the  Ramayana.  The  interchange  of 
puspitagra  and  aparavaktra  padas,  of  which  I have  spoken 
above,  is  met  with  in  the  very  first  example  at  the  end 
of  i,  30: 

anupamabalavlryate  j aso 

dhrtamanasah  pariraksane  'mrtasya 
asurapuravidaranah  sura 

j valanasamiddhavapuhprakacinah 

1 The  type  here  has  in  the  posterior  pada  either  anapaest,  spondee  or  am- 
phimacer  as  an  opening ; but  both  here  and  in  the  choriambs  much  greater 
freedom  is  allowed  than  in  the  epic,  where,  despite  the  occasional  irregularities 
noticed  above,  the  form  is  much  more  systematized  than  in  Pali. 


344 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


iti  samaravaram  surah  sthitas  te 
parighasahasraQataih  samakulam 
vigalitam  iva  ca  ’mbarantaram 
tapanamarlcivikatptam  babhase 

In  the  first  stanza  the  padas  are  aparav.,  puspit.,  aparav., 
aparav. ; in  the  second,  puspit.,  aparav.,  aparav.,  puspit.  Al- 
most the  same  as  the  latter  is  the  arrangement  in  a tag  to  a 
danakathana  (followed  by  three  tristubhs),  at  the  end  of  iii, 
200,  126,  where  a puspit.  pada  is  followed  by  an  aparav.  pada 
in  the  first  couplet ; but  the  second  begins  with  the  posterior 
puspitagra  pada,  and  is  followed  by  the  posterior  pada  of  an 
aparavaktra : 

c-d  : bhavati  sahasragunam  dinasya  rahor 
visuvati  ca  ’ksayam  agnute  phalam 

as  if  the  posterior  pada  were  used  originally  in  either  position 
as  the  norm ; which  would  agree  with  the  identification  with 
the  tristubh  ventured  above. 

Of  the  eight  puspitagras  in  the  seventh  book,  six  (all  tags) 
are  perfectly  regular  (2  X 16  + 18)  and  require  no  notice 
(for  C.  2731,  rajanl0,  read  rajani0,  as  in  B.  77,  26).  Here 
only  hemistichs  end  in  brevis.  Two  cases  deserve  notice.  In 
vii,  1622  = 37,  37  b,  C.  has  pitrsuracarana-siddliasanghriih,  in 
B.,  siddhayaksasanghaih.  But  B.  is  often  less  better  than 
bettered,  and  here  the  net  result  of  three  corrections  is  to 
make  a perfect  puspitagra  out  of  C.’s  scheme,  which  is 

WWW  W W W W W , W W W W W W \J , 16  + 15 

WWW  WWW  w w w , w w w ww  w w , 17  + 17 

but  this  is  attained  by  adding  yaksa  in  b ; changing  avanita- 
lavigataig  ca  to  avanitalagataig  ca  in  c ; and  inventing  the 
word  ativibabhau  for  abhibabhau  in  d (B,  ativibabhau  huta- 
bhug  yatha  ’jyasiktah).  Mates  to  pada  c were  shown  above 
from  the  Ramayana.  Irregular  too  as  is  d,  it  is  not  lightly  to 
be  rejected,  since  it  has  its  perfect  parallel  in  the  eighth  book 
(below),  as  also  in  Hariv.  C.  11,269  d (3,  6,  4 d) 

(iti  sa  nrpatir  atmavaiis  tada  ’sau) 

tad  anu(vi)cintya  babhuva  vltamanyuh 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


345 


where,  for  C.’s  anucintya,  anuvicintya  of  B.  may  be  a corrected 
reading,  as  above  it  is  easy  to  propose  abhivibabhau  and  refer 
to  the  Rig  Veda  for  the  form. 

The  case  at  vii,  182,  27  = 8273,  shows  a better  reading  in 
B.,  where  hi  is  required  (accidentally  omitted  in  C.).  The 
padas  here  are  regular,  the  stanza’s  end  having  brevis  (in  77, 
26,  the  first  hemistich  ends  in  brevis).  The  cliief  peculiarity 
here  is  that  the  passage  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  chapter, 
the  other  cases  in  Drona  being  togs. 

Once  w w w — w takes  the  place  of  w w w w w producing 
in  piida  a the  choriambus  equivalent  to  tliat  in  b and  d.  This 
happens  in  one  of  the  two  great  groups  of  late  aparavaktras 
in  the  eighth  book,  viii,  30,  3 (almost  at  the  beginning  of  the 
chapter)  1 : 

, \J  

\J  \J\J  ^ — , W KJ  

KJ  \J  \J  \J  i W \J  

KJ  \J  KJ  , \J  \J  

The  rest  of  the  twenty-five  “ semi-equals  ” in  the  eighth 
book  are  all  grouped  together  in  37,  31  if.,  where,  after  one 
puspitagra  pada,  follow,  as  in  the  last  group  after  a stanza, 
aparavaktras  only.  In  this  group  of  twelve  stanzas,  breves 
occur  but  rarely  at  the  end  of  the  hemistich,  in  (31),  40,  and 
42  at  the  stanza’s  end,  in  35  alone  at  the  end  of  b.  Only  two 
of  these  stanzas  require  a ivord.  In  37  c-d,  where  the  first  of 
the  two  padas  has  seventeen  morse  (for  fourteen), 

dinakarasadrqaih  qarottamair  yudha 
Kurusu  bahun  vinihatya  tan  arin, 

it  seems  simple  to  drop  the  hypermetric  and  unnecessary 
yudha;  but  it  is  in  both  texts  (Nllakantha  says  that  this  par- 
ticular stanza  is  visamam  chandas)  and  has  a parallel  in 
Hariv.  11,269,  where  (C.  only)  a puspitagra  begins  : 

1 The  first  stanza  of  the  chapter  is  a floka ; the  first  stanza  of  the  group  is 
a puspitagra ; then  follow  aparavaktras  to  9,  where  the  first  half  is  catalectic 
(aparavaktra)  and  the  second  half  is  puspitagra  (as  in  13,  b ends  in  brevis) ; 
10  is  a regular  aparavaktra;  12-14,  regular  aparavaktras;  11  is  regular  in 
B.  a,  but  irregular  in  C.  (9inivrsabha5arapiditas  for  05arair  nipiditam).  Here 
d ends  in  brevis. 


346 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


vidhivihitam  aqakyam  anyatka  hi  kartum 1 

A similar  case  has  been  shown  above  in  the  Ramayana. 

The  other  stanza  deserving  notice  is  the  first  of  the  group, 
viii,  37,  31  = 1737.  Both  texts  have  a puspitagra  pada  in  a ; 
an  aparavaktra  pada  in  b ; and  in  c-d 

jugupisava  iha  ’dya  Pandavam 

kim  bakuna  | saha  tair  jayarni  tam 

that  is,  _ w w for  w w _ of  the  resolution  in  vaitallya  (but  the 
caesura  hi  d is  after  the  choriambus  : “ Though  the  gods  may 
wish  to  guard  the  Pandu  here  to-day,  what  then  ? I shall 
conquer  him,  gods  and  all 

In  Qanti,  the  puspitagras  are  generally  too  regular  to  be 
interesting.  A big  bunch  of  them  in  Moksa  makes  a tag  at 
the  end  of  adhy.  179,  thirteen  in  all.  They  have  an  unusual 
number  of  final  breves,  but  only  because  vratam  idam  ajagaram 
gucig  carami  is  the  final  refrain  of  ten  of  them  (only  twice 
has  b brevis).  Of  the  twenty-one  stanzas  of  this  class  in 
(lanti  (Moksa),  sixteen  are  puspitagras ; five,  aparavaktras. 
About  the  same  proportion  obtains  in  Harivanga,  where  there 
are  twenty-two  stanzas  of  ardhasamas,  of  which  only  three  are 
aparavaktras.  All  those  in  (auiti  are  tags,  either  following 
tristubhs  or  followed  by  another  supplementary  tag  (as  in  the 
case  of  a rathoddhata  mentioned  above).  In  xii,  250,  12  b = 
9035  (yad  avidusam)  mahadbhayam  (paratra)  in  C.  appears 
to  be  a lapsus ; in  B.  as  sumahadbhayam,  and  in  10,530,  yad 
avidusam  sumahadbhayam  bhavet ; but  compare  the  parallel 
below  in  PI.  The  following  is  a parallel  to  the  case  above 
in  the  Ramayana  in  its  late  form  (w  __  _ w _) : xii,  319, 

112  = 11,836  (the  order  of  morse  is  17  + 18  + 16  or  17  + 16) ; 
where  B.  has : 

yad  upanisadam  upakarot  tatha  ’sau 
Janakanrpasya  pura  hi  Yajnavalkyah 

1 This  is  in  the  stanza  referred  to  above.  In  this  case,  H.  3,  G,  4 a has  only 
vidhivihitam  acakyam  anyatha,  to  which  C.  adds  kartum.  The  fact  that  the 
same  superfluity  of  syllables  is  found  in  the  Ramayana  must  at  least  make 
doubtful  an  instant  acceptance  of  the  more  usual  form  given  in  what  is  so 
often  a clearly  improved  text. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


347 


yad  upaganitagagvat4vyayam  tac 
chubham  amrtatvam  agokam  archati 

(here  C.  in  c has  °ganitam).  Both  texts  have  thus  in  a: 

\J  \J  \J  \J  \J>  \J  

and  C.  lias  in  c : 

\J  \J  \J  \J  , W 

The  last  stanza  in  the  book,  366,  9 = 13,943,  has,  as  an 
aparavaktra  tag,  moral  14  + 18  + 14  + 18,  alternate  calalectic 
verses,  of  which  I have  spoken  above. 

The  remaining  matrachandases  in  (’anti  are  discussed  below. 
The  thirteenth  book  has  no  aparavaktras  but  nine  puspitagras, 
all  of  which  are  perfectly  regular  (the  hemistich  ends  in  brevis, 
e.  g.,  76,  31).  All  except  those  in  the  extraordinary  (late) 
section,  14,  180,  and  190,  are  tags,  though  26,  101-2  are  fol- 
lowed by  four  glokas.1 

Apart  from  the  padas  already  noticed,  the  Harivanga  has 
little  of  interest.  Interchange  of  the  two  forms  (a,  catalectic) 
occurs  in  3,  6,  3.  In  the  puspitagras  at  12,705-6,  the  latter 
has  in  b,  u u u u u,  as  in  the  lapsus  above. 

Here  sa  has  been  dropped,  (3,  42,  21)  dititanayam  (sa) 
mrgadhipo  dadarga.  As  usual  in  the  later  books,  several  of 
the  stanzas  are  not  tags:  2,  123,  32  is  followed  by  glokas  and 
ruciras,  but  is  near  the  end  of  the  section ; at  the  beginning 
are  the  three  of  3,  6,  2 ff. ; in  the  middle  of  the  section  are 
3,  49,  31  = 12,960,  and  3,  50,  12  = 12,989;  as  are  the  four 
in  3,  51,  vss.  18,  29,  42,  49  = 13,024-35-51-58.  Many  of  the 
final  stanzas  are  benedictive,  as  in  3,  6,  10,  where  puspitagras 
are  interwoven  in  an  upajati  kavyastuti : 

vijayati  vasudham  ca  rajavrttir 

dhanam  atularn  labhate  dvisajjayam  ca 
vipulam  api  dhanam  labhec  ca  vaigyah 
sugatim  iyac  chravanac  ca  qudrajatih 
puranam  etac  caritam  mahatmanam 

adbltya  buddhim  labhate  ca  naistiklni,  etc. 

1 Here  C.,  1860  b,  has  the  meaningless  words : filataraye  tripathaganuyo- 
garupan,  for  "rataye  . . . pathanuyoga0  in  B. 


348  THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 

It  will  be  convenient  here  to  put  together  the  forms  of 
ardhasamavrttas  thus  far  exhibited  in  the  two  epics.  In  the 
Mahabharata  and  Ramayana  the  general  types  of  aparavaktra 
and  puspitagra  are : 

(a1)  w w w w w w,  _ w _ w (_),  14  (16)  morae 

(b1)  v_/  v_/  w w — w w,  — w — w — ( — ),  16  (18)  morse 

These  may  be  called  the  types,  because  the  following  vari- 
ations are  proportionally  insignificant.  But,  though  few  in 
number,  they  are  important  as  showing  that  there  was  no 
absolute  line  between  the  fixed  matrachandas  and  the  free 
matrachandas,  for  these  variations  may  just  as  well  be  re- 
garded as,  e.  g.,  vaitallya  padas  as  variants  of  aparavaktra 
padas.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  they  do  not  repre- 
sent padas  of,  e.  g.,  vaitallya  stanzas ; only  equivalent  padas 
of,  e.  g.,  aparavaktra  stanzas,  which  I call  variants  on  account 
of  their  position : 

In  M.  and  R.  both  are  found  the  following  variants  of  (a1)  : 

(a2)  WWW  WWW  w w w ( ) 

In  both  texts  of  both  epics,  two  cases  in  M. ; three  in  R.  In 
M.  both  cases  are  in  pada  c ; in  R.,  only  in  aparavaktra. 

(a8)  www  www  w w w (hypermeter) 

In  M.,  in  both  texts  and  also  in  Harivan§a ; in  R.,  one  case. 
In  M.  alone : 

(a4)  wuu w w w w 

In  R.  alone: 

(a6)  ---  www,  w w w (B.,  vii) 

(aG)  w w _ w w _ w w _ w (G.,  17  morae) 

(a7)  www  www  — w ww (doubtful,  pada  c,  15  morae) 

(a8)  www  ww  _w_  w (only  in  G.,  pada  c,  15  morae) 

In  M.  and  R.  both  is  found  the  following  variant  of  (b1)  : 

(b2)  wwww_  w w _ w (only  in  C.  and  G.,  15  morae) 

In  M alone : 

(b8)  www  _ww_w_w (only  in  C.  and  Harivanqa, 

padas  b and  d,  17  morae) 

(b 4)  w w w w — , w — w w w (sic,  bis  in  C.) 

(I)6)  ww ww  w w 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


319 


In  R alone  : 

(b8)  w w w www_,  _w_w (only  in  G.,  forbidden  by 

rule) 

(b  7)  www w , w w w — w — (only  in  G.) 

(b8)  w_w—  ww,  _w_w_  (only  in  G.) 

(b °)  ww_  ww_  w_ w_  ww  (only  in  G.,  a prior  aupa- 
cchandasika) 

The  complete  vaitallya  and  aupacchandasika  stanzas,  of 
perfect  mora  form,  found  only  in  the  later  Ramayana,  have 
the  scheme : 

(a)  W W, WW — , W w (^) 

(b  *) , W W — , W W (ii) 

(b  2)  w w , w w , w w (±E) 

(b  a) , WW W 

Before  taking  up  the  odd  cases  remaining,  I cannot  refrain 
from  departing  somewhat  from  a purely  metrical  point  of 
view,  to  express  admiration  for  the  art  with  which  these 
metres  are  handled.  The  poets  of  the  later  epic  play  with 
them  skilfully.  They  are  not  apprentices  but  master  work- 
men. I give  two  illustrations.  In  one,  the  metre  is  em- 
ployed to  give  a list  of  fighters  and  weapons,  the  names  of 
which  are  cleverly  moulded  together  to  form  half  a perfect 
stanza.  In  the  other  the  poet  is  indulging  in  satire  at  the 
expense  of  the  philosophers: 

viii,  30,  5,  parighamusalaqaktitomarair 

nakharabhucundigadaqatair  hatah 
dviradanarahayah  sahasraqo 

rudhiranadipravahas  tada  ’bhavan 

xii,  179,  35,  bahukathitam  idam  hi  buddhimadbhih 

kavibhir  abhiprathayadbhir  atmakirtim 
idam  idam  iti  tatra  tatra  tat  tat 1 

svaparamatair  gahanam  pratarkayadbhih 

I have  now  given  seriatim  all  the  matrachandas  cases  in 
the  great  epic,  with  the  exception  of  one  case  in  Yana,  to  be 


1 v.  1.  hanta. 


350 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mentioned  immediately,  and  two  or  three  peculiar  groups  in 
Canti,  also  to  be  discussed  below.  It  will  have  been  noticed 
that  in  the  later  books  great  heaps  of  stanzas  of  this  metre 
are  piled  together.  Thus  all  the  twenty-five  in  Kama  (a 
late  book  in  its  present  shape)  are  in  two  sections,  thirteen 
stanzas  in  one,  twelve  in  another ; while  in  £anti  another  group 
of  thirteen  is  found.  This  stupid  massing  of  adornments  — 
for  these  tag-metres  were  used  originally  only  as  fringe-work 
— the  still  later  thirteenth  book  exceeds  by  uniting  together 
in  one  heap,  first,  a puspitagra,  xiii,  14,  180,  then  four  ary  as, 
ib.  181-4,  then  two  glokas,  ib.  185-6,  then  an  arya,  ib.  187, 
then  an  upajati,  ib.  188,  then  a vasantatilaka,  ib.  189,  then 
a puspitagra,  ib.  190,  then  an  arya,  ib.  191. 

Despite  this  profusion  of  puspitagras  and  aparavaktras, 
the  Mahabharata  has  no  such  regular  vaitallyas  and  aupac- 
chandasikas  as  has  the  later  Ramayana.  But  the  following 
interesting  verses  occur  in  the  popular  story  of  Yudhisthira 
and  the  daemon,  who  required  him  to  answer  certain  ques- 
tions. They  are  not  tags,  iii,  313,  112-113;  they  are  late; 
and  they  are  an  approach  to  vaitallyas: 

priyavacanavadl  kim  labhate 
vimrcitakaryakarah  kim  labhate 
bahumitrakarah  kim  labhate 

dharme  ratah  kim  labhate  kathaya 

V U,  W U V , , 15 

W W W W,  W W , WW  , 16 

W W,  W W , W W , 14 

W , W W , WWW,  16 

priyavacanavadl  priyo  bhavati 
vimrqitakaryakaro  'dhikam  jayati 
bahumitrakarah  sukham  vasate 

yaq  ca  dharmaratah  sa  gatim  labhate 

W W,  W W W , W WWW,  15 

W W W W,  W W , W WWW,  16 

w w, w w , w w w , 15 

W,  W W — , w w — w w , 17 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


351 


In  C.,  17,397-98,  the  same  text.  This  is  the  kind  of  story 
which,  because  it  appears  Buddhistic,  is  often  labelled  as  a 
matter  of  course  ‘certainly  old.’  But  the  tale,  on  general 
principles,  is  just  as  likely  to  be  late  as  early ; perhaps  more 
so,  when  one  considers  that  kings  interviewed  by  spirits  who 
ask  conundrums  are  merely  stalking-horses,  and  must  first  be 
famous  as  kings  before  such  stories  are  fastened  upon  them. 
This  particular  tale  bears  all  the  marks  of  a late  inset.1 

Although  the  great  epic  lacks  the  regular  vaitallya  of  the 
Ramayana’s  Uttarakanda,  yet  ^anti  offers  a type  of  metres 
which  shows  forms  ending  in  the  close  of  this  measure. 
For  besides  the  usual  ending  _w_w_  of  the  matra  form, 

the  close  may  also  be  _ (called  apatalika).  Also 

the  beginning  of  the  verses  given  below  is  of  matra-formation, 
but  the  matras  are  not  regular.  The  group  xii,  322,  28-32  = 
12,071-75,  follows  a group  of  praharsinls  (4  x 13  syllables) : 

28,  raja  sada.  dharmaparah  qubhaqubhasya 

goptfi  samlksya  sukrtinarii  dadhati  lokan 
bahuvidham  api  carati  praviqati 
sukham  anupagatam  niravadyam 

W , W W , W W W 

W W,  U U \J,  W W 

WWW  WWW,  ww  wwww 

WWW  WWW,  ww 

Morse  20  + 21  + 14  + 14,  the  first  hemistich  bridging  the 

preceding  praharsinls, , _ w _ w , and  the 

apatalika  (c-d  scheme  also  in  30,  below). 

29,  qvano  blnsanakaya  ayomukhani 

vayansi  balagrdhra[kula]  paksinam  ca  sanghah 
narakadane  rudhirapa  guruvaca  — 
nanudam  uparatam  vicanty  asantah 

, W W , w w w 

w,  w 

, w w KJ 

vuu,  w w 

19  + 19  + 15  + 16 

1 Compare  Holtzmann,  who  rightly  says  that  the  story  is  a late  addition 
to  the  third  book  to  connect  it  with  the  fourth,  Neunzehn  Bucher,  p.  95. 


352 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


30,  maryadaniyata  svayambhuva  ya  ihe  'mah 
prabhinatti  daqaguna  manonugatvat 
nivasati  bhrQam  asukham  pitrvisa  — 
ya-vipinam  avagahya  sa  papah 

, W W , W W,  w w 

W W W UUU,  W w 

WWW  WWW,  ww  wwww( 

WWW  WWW,  ww (: 

22  + 18  + 14  + 14 

31,  yo  lubdhah  subhrqam  priyanrtaQ  ca  manusyah 
satatanikrtivancana1-bhiratih  syat 
upanidhibhir  asukhakrt  sa  pararaanirayago 
bhrQam  asukham  anubhavati  duskrtakarma 

a,  , — w w — , w — w — ww (=  32  a) 

b,  WWWWWW  W»  WW 

C,  WWWW,  WWWW  , W,  WWWWWW  

d,  WWWWWW  WWWW,  ww 

22  + 17  + 19  + 18.  Here  c has  the  resolved  equivalent  of 
the  Www^_  close  of  a,  b,  d.  The  choriamb  of  a is  all 

resolved  in  d,  ^ y^w,  ^ w w _ w w ; in  c only  the  first 

syllable,  ww  ww  ww  w w_  (as  if  sa  were  interpolated). 

32,  usnam  Vaitaranim  mahanadlm 2 avagadho 
*s  i patr  avanabh  innagatrah 
paraquvanaqayo  nipatito  vasati  (ca) 
ca  mahaniraye  bhrqartah 

, W w , (w ) W W w (=  31  a) 

W WWW  w 

W W,  W W W W , WWW WWW  (w) 

W W,  W W , W 

22  (19)  + 13  + 16  + 13 

1 C.  vacana,  but  N.  vaiicana  cauryadi. 

2 C.  omits  maha0. 


= 28  c) 
= 28  d) 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


353 


Matrasamakas. 

In  xii,  336,  11-12  = 12706-7  occur  two  lines,  as  printed  in 
C.,  which  seem  to  be  rather  rhythmical  prose  than  poetry ; 
but  in  347,  18-22  = 13444  there  are  five  matra  stanzas,  of 
which  I give  the  scheme  alone  (they  are  not  arranged  in  the 
same  way  in  both  texts)  : 

IS,  wwww , w w w www , w w w www — , w w w 

uuv_(lGx2) 

WWW  WWW  , W W W W W W , WWW  WWW  , 

WWW  WWWW  (16  + 17) 

B.  adds  w w w w w w which  C.  gives  to  the  next  stanza. 

19,  WWW  WWW  , WW  W W,  WW  WW  , W W (16  + 14) 

C.  adds  w w _ w w which  B.  gives  to  the  next  hemistich. 

W W W W , W W W W , W W W W , WWW  — w (16  X 2) 

20,  W W W W , W W W W , W W,  WW  WW  (16  X 2) 

WW W W,WW WW  , WW W , WWW w (16  + 17) 

21,  W WW,  W WW  , (w ),  w w w w , w w w 

(16  + 22  or  17) 

WW  W WWW  W , WW  W W,  WW  WW  (15  + 16) 

Perhaps  puranam  in  21  is  to  be  omitted.  The  text  is : 

tam  lokasaksinam  ajam  purusam  puranam  ravivar- 
nam  Iqvaram  gatim  bahuqah 
pranamadhvam  ekamanaso  yatah  salilodbhavo  'pi 
tam  rsim  pranatah 

22,  WW W W,  WW WW , W WW,WW WW (16  + 17) 

W W,  W W W W , W WW,  W w w (16  + 18) 

The  arya  form  is  clear  in  stanzas  18  and  20.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  first  stanza  is  an  almost  pure  praharanakalita  pada, 
w w wwww—,  "while  the  pramitaksara  pada,  ^ w — w — w 
w w — w w — , prevails  in  the  following  stanzas  ; not,  however, 
as  pure  §akvarl  or  jagatl  stanzas,  but  with  matra  resolution. 
The  stanzas,  if  they  are  treated  as  one  group,  may  perhaps  be 
considered  as  rather  rough  matrasamakas  (four  padas  of  six- 

23 


354 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


teen  morae  each),  partly  of  the  vigloka  type ; 1 or  as  aryaglti 
(but  with  four  morae  in  the  sixth  foot),  mixed  with  matra- 
samakas.  Nothing  of  this  sort  is  found  in  the  Ramayana. 

Ganacchandas. 

The  statement  that  the  arya  metre  occurs  in  Buddhistic 
writings  (and  earliest  inscriptions)  but  not  in  epic  poetry,  was 
made  so  long  ago  that  the  learned  author  of  Das  Ramayana 
can  scarcely  at  this  date  be  held  responsible  for  the  slight  over- 
sight.2 Nor  is  the  main  argument,  to  which  this  statement 
served  as  a support,  especially  affected  by  the  fact  that  the 
Mahabharata,  besides  the  stanzas  of  aryaglti  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph,  has  eight  arya,  stanzas ; since  these  are  in  parts 
of  the  epic  so  late  that  their  presence,  as  affecting  epic  poetry 
in  general,  may  be  discounted ; at  least  for  any  one  who  takes 
a reasonably  historical  view  of  the  growth  of  the  great  epic. 
Six  occur  in  xiii,  14,  181-84,  187,  191  = 772-75,  778,  782  : 

181,  , yy yy , ; yy yy,  yy  yy  yy  yy,  yy yy,  yy  yy , yy, 

, ; \j,  w i w, , w 

182,  , yy  yy , yy  v ; yy yy, , yy yy , , kj, 

yy  yy  yy  v_/,8  yy yy,  yy  yy ; yy  yy, , yy, , 

183,  yy  yy  — , , ; yy v_/, , yy  — yy, , — , 

, yy  yy,  yy  yy  yy  yy, yy  yy,  yy  yy , yy  , yyyy , 

184,  www  w,  www  w,  w w — ; w w — , w w — , w — w,  — 

, W W , WWW  W ; W W J W W , Wf  — 

18  7,  W W , W W,  W W ; W W , W W , W , , , 

W W W W , W WjWWWW; , W W } W , - 

191,  w w , w w, ; w w w w, , w, , — , 

, , w;  — w, , w, , — 

The  last  two  stanzas  are  upaglti,  that  is,  they  have  the 

1 Colebrooke,  Essays,  vol.  ii,  pp.  78,  142  ff. ; Weber,  Ind.  Stud.,  vol.  viii, 
pp.  314-J18.  I am  indebted  to  a query  note  in  Professor  Cappeller’s  manu- 
script for  the  suggestion  that  these  may  be  imperfect  aksaracchandases  of 
the  types  named.  The  pure  matrasamaka  lias  brevis  in  the  pada’s  ninth 
syllable. 

2 ZDMG.,  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  600 ; Das  Ramayana,  p.  93. 

8 B.,  bhavati  hi ; C.  omits  hi. 

4 Text : yesam  na  ksanam  api  rucito  haracaranasmaranavicchedah ; ayaglti 
and  neglected  caesura;  but  if  api  (an  easy  intrusion)  were  extruded,  the 

neglected  caesura  would  be  in  its  usual  place, , yyyy,yy  yy ; yyyyyyyy, 

yy  yy,yy, , with  the  arya  final  foot  of  two  morae. 


EFIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


355 


short  verse  in  each  hemistich.  The  full  eighth  foot,  aryaglti, 
is  found  only  in  183  b (if  left  uncorrected).  There  are  no 
irregularities  in  the  use  of  the  amphibrach.  Brevis  may  stand 
at  the  end  of  the  first  hemistich.1 

Two  cases  occur  in  Harivan^a.  I give  the  text: 

1, 1,  3,  jayati  Parftqarasunuh  satyavatllirdayanandano  YySsah 
yasyfi  ’syakamalagalitam  vanmayam  amrtam  jagat 
pibati 

1,  1,  7,  yo  Ilarivahqaiii  lekhayati  yatha  vidhina  malifitapah 
sapadi 

(in  C.)  sa  yati  Hareh  padakamala[iii]  kamalam  yatha  madh- 
upo  lubdhah 

(in  B.)  sa  jayati  Haripadakamalam  madkupo  hi  yatha  rasena 
samlubdhah 

The  first  stanza  is  regular.  The  second  neglects  the  usual 
caesura  after  the  third  foot  in  the  first  hemistich  in  both  texts ; 
while  C.’s  text  is  impossible  in  the  second,  though  the  metre 
may  be  set  right  by  omitting  the  antecedent  and  reading 
(without  sa) : 

— \j  \j , — \j  w,  \j — ; \j  \j  — , w — w , \j , , — 

The  text  of  B.  is  regular,  with  ^ as  sixth  foot,  where  (in 
the  second  hemistich)  stands  w in  the  cases  above. 

On  page  164, 1 cited  in  full  a stanza  beginning:  ahuh  sastim 
buddhigunan  vfii  (the  sixty  Samkhya  gunas) ; the  scheme 
(unique  in  the  epic)  for  the  whole  stanza  being  (xii,  256, 12)  : 

\j  v-/ w \j  kj kj  kj  w 

Although  tliis  lacks  the  marked  characteristics  of  the  arya, 
both  in  its  early  and  in  its  later  forms,  it  is  yet  a gana  metre 
which  may  be  reckoned  either  as  aryaglti,  or  as  matrasamaka, 
but  not  pure. 

As  to  the  origin  of  the  ganacchandas,  the  metre  seems  to 
me  to  be  rather  a species  than  a genus.  As  seen  in  the  speci- 

1 There  is  here  no  case  of  four  breves  in  the  sixth  foot  of  the  second  hemi- 
stich, ■which  occurs  in  classic  writers  and  inscriptional  aryas,  e.  g.,  Vatsa- 
bhatti,  loc.  cit.,  vs.  39. 


356 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


mens  above  under  matrasamakas,  they  are  interchangeable 
with  the  latter,  of  which  they  are  only  a more  special  type, 

with  s-w  ^ _ w,  vdv, as  the  last  four  feet  of  the 

hemistich  (compare  183  a,  only  this  is  not  in  the  aryagiti 
form,  but  has  the  alternative  one  heavy  syllable  for  two,  or 
two  morse  for  four).  The  matrasamakas  in  turn  are  the 
equivalent  in  morse  of  the  gloka  strophe  (that  is,  a unit  com- 
posed of  two  glokas,  such  as  the  classical  writers  affect),  the 
thirty-two  syllables  of  the  half  strophe  answering  to  the  thirty- 
two  morse  of  the  hemistich  in  the  matrasamaka  and  aryagiti 
(the  one  mora  of  the  sixth  foot  and  two  morse  of  the  eighth 
foot  being  special  modifications)  d 

The  Distribution  of  Fancy-Metres  in  the  Great  Epic. 

The  relation  of  gloka  and  tristubh,2  which  in  the  whole 
Mahabharata  stand  numerically  in  the  rough  proportion  of 
95,000  to  5000  (out  of  101,900  stanzas  or  prose  equiva- 
lents, the  sum  of  the  whole),  varies  enormously  from  book 
to  book,  one  tristubh  to  three  hundred  and  ten  glokas  in  the 
eighteenth  book,  almost  nine  hundred  tristubhs  to  four  thou- 
sand glokas  in  the  eighth  book,  the  extremes  in  absolute 
number  of  tristubhs  as  well  as  in  their  proportion  to  glokas. 

From  reasons  quite  apart  from  metre,  I have  elsewhere 
maintained  that  the  first  part  of  book  i,  and  book  xiii,  with 
the  Harivanga  were  late,  as  compared  with  books  vii,  viii,  xii, 
but  that  these  in  their  turn  contain  very  late  additions  to 

1 One  may,  indeed,  take  the  ?loka  hemistich  in  the  form , 

w and  reckon  it  in  morae,  15  + 14,  as  a hemistich  of  a 

matrasamaka,  which  is  as  nearly  correct,  that  is  as  near  to  a real  samaka, 
as  are  the  cases  above,  where  the  pada  may  have  15, 16,  or  17  morae.  But  I 
prefer  to  rest  with  the  fact  that  the  matrasamaka  is  a parallel  in  terms  of 
morae  to  the  floka-strophe  in  terms  of  syllables,  without  attempting  a deriva- 
tion. For  particular  studies  of  the  ganaechandas,  see  Professor  Cappeller’s 
Die  Ganaechandas,  and  Professor  Jacobi,  ZDMG.  vol.  xxxviii,  p.  595  ff.  The 
latter  scholar  believes  the  arya  to  have  been  a musical  adaptation,  and  to 
have  come  into  Sanskrt  from  Prakrt  poetry.  The  metre  can  be  traced  back 
to  the  time  of  A^oka. 

2 That  is  tristubh  and  jagati.  There  are  just  about  the  same  number  of 
tristubh-jagatl  stanzas  in  the  Mahabharata  as  in  the  Rig  Veda. 


EPIC  VERSIFICA  TION. 


357 


the  original  epic,  often  palpable  intrusions.1  The  use  of  the 
fancy-metres  seems  to  illustrate  the  general  correctness  of  my 
former  analysis.  Thus  the  rucira  occurs  in  i,  iii,  vii,  xii,  xiii, 
Hariv.;  the  vasantatilaka,  only  in  i,  xiii,  xviii,  Hariv. ; the 
malinl  only  in  vii,  viii,  xiii,  Hariv. ; the  arya  only  in  xiii, 
Hariv.  The  tag-metres  of  Adi  are  confined  to  the  first  quar- 
ter (two  thousand)  of  the  eight  thousand  in  the  whole  book. 
They  cease  after  Sarpasattra  (almost  after  the  beginning 
of  Astlka),  or,  in  other  words,  they  occur  almost  entirely  in 
the  most  modem  part  of  the  book.  Books  ii,  v,  and  vi  have 
no  fancy  metres  at  all ; book  ix  lias  but  one,  a bhujaiiigapra- 
yata.  On  the  other  hand,  books  iv,  x,  xi,  xiv,  xv,  xvi,  and 
xvii  have  none  also,  which  however,  need  not  surprise  us 
much,  as  most  of  them  are  short  supplementary  books,  and 
the  fourteenth  is  mainly  an  imitation  of  the  Gita.  That  the 
fourth  book  is  not  adorned  with  these  metres  indicates  perhaps 
that  it  was  written  between  the  time  of  the  early  epic  and  the 
whole  pseudo-epic.  The  much  interpolated  eighth  book  would 
be  comparatively  free  from  these  adornments  were  it  not  for 
its  massed  heaps  of  ardhasamavrttas,  twenty-five  in  all  (other- 
wise it  has  only  one  gardulavikrldita  and  five  malinls).  The 
seventh  book,  on  the  other  hand,  has  two  drutavilambitas, 
nine  ruciras,  one  praharsinl,  one  malinl,  and  eight  ardhasama- 
vrttas,— twenty-one  in  all.  The  first  book,  that  is,  its  first 
quarter,  has  thirty-one,  of  which  twenty-two  are  ruciras ; four, 
praharsinis ; three,  vasantatilakas ; two,  ardhasamavrttas.  The 
pseudo-epic  shows  the  greatest  variety,  as  well  as  of  course 
the  greatest  number,  the  books  represented  (with  the  ex- 
ception of  one  vasantatilaka  in  the  eighteenth)  being  the 
twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  Harivanga,  with  48-£,  28 1,  and  43, 
respectively. 

1 Compare  the  paper  on  the  Bliarata  and  Great  Bliarata,  AJP.,  vol.  xix, 
p.  10  ff.  That  there  are  antique  parts  in  books  generally  late,  no  one  I be- 
lieve, has  ever  denied.  Nor  lias  any  competent  critic  ever  denied  that  in 
books  generally  old  late  passages  are  found.  Adi,  Vana,  and  Anu9asana, 
and  in  a less  degree  Karna,  are  a hodge-podge  of  old  and  new,  and  the  only 
question  of  moment  is  whether  in  each  instance  old  or  new  prevails  or  is 
subsidiary. 


358 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


The  number  of  occurrences  of  each  metre,  according  to 
the  books  in  wliich  they  are  found,  is  given  in  the  following 
table : 


Cases  occurring  in  books. 

i 

iii 

vii 

viii 

ix 

xii 

xiii 

xviii 

Hariv. 

Total. 

Rathoddhata.  . . 

61 

61 

Bhuj  amgapray  ata 

i 

2 

3 

Drutavilambita  . 

2 

2 

Vai§vadevi.  . . . 

1 

1 

Aksara 

Rucira 

22 

3 

9 

4 

3 

10 

51 

Praharsini  .... 

4 

1 

4 

1 

2 

12 

Vasantatilaka  . . 

3 

3 

i 

5 

12 

Malinl 

1 

5 

3. 

2 

11 

Qardulavikridita 

1 

41 

Matra 

Puspitagra  \ 
Aparavaktra  > . 
Matrasamaka  ) 

2 

6 

8 

25 

31 

9 

22 

103 

Gana 

Arya 

6 

2 

8 

Total 

31 

9 

21 

31 

i 

481 

281 

i 

43 

213 

How  are  we  to  account  for  these  fancy-metres  ? Let  us 
imagine  for  a moment  — to  indulge  in  rather  a harmless 
fancy  — that  the  whole  epic  was  written  by  one  individual, 
not  of  course  by  Vyasa  the  arranger,  but  by  Krit  the  maker, 
even  as  the  pseudo-epic  says ; though  the  latter  sets  reason- 
able bounds  to  the  human  imagination  and  very  properly  adds 
that  the  maker  of  such  a poem  must  have  been  divine. 

Tins  superhuman  being,  Krit  (Bharatakrt  or  better,  Maha- 
bharatakrt)  must  have  had  from  the  beginning  a well-devel- 
oped ear  for  fancy-metres.  When  he  writes  them  he  writes 
them  very  carefully,  seldom  opposing  the  rules  that  Liter 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


359 


writers,  say  of  500  A.  d.  and  later,  impose  upon  themselves, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  ardhasamavrttas.  These  at  one 
tune  he  writes  correctly  and  another  loosely,  as  if  he  occa- 
sionally failed  to  grasp  the  distinction  between  this  class  of 
metres  and  that  of  the  strict  matrachandas ; which  is  rather 
peculiar,  when  one  considers  how  correctly  he  writes  at  other 
times.  But,  passing  this  point,  how  are  we  to  account  for 
the  distribution  of  these  metres?  Evidently  there  is  only 
one  way.  Having  started  out  with  the  statement  that  the 
poem  was  to  glitter  with  various  fancy-metres,  the  poet  first 
gave  an  exhibition  of  what  he  could  do,  reserving,  however, 
the  more  complicated  styles  for  the  end  of  the  poem.  Then, 
settling  down  into  the  story,  he  got  so  absorbed  in  it  that  he 
forgot  all  about  the  fancy-metres,  till  after  several  thousand 
stanzas  he  suddenly  remembered  them  and  turned  off  three 
ruciras  and  six  ardhasamavrttas,  e.  g.,  as  tags,  lauding  (^iva’s 
gift  and  Arjuna’s  glorious  trip  to  heaven  ; but  then,  becoming 
interested  again,  again  dropped  them,  while  he  ■wrote  to  the 
end  of  the  sixth  book.  With  the  seventh  book,  feeling  that 
an  interminable  series  of  similar  and  repeated  battle-scenes 
was  getting  a little  dull,  he  sprinkled  five  different  kinds  of 
fancy  metres  over  his  last  production,  and  in  the  eighth 
emptied  a box  of  them  in  a heap,  which  lasted  till  the  first 
part  of  the  poem  was  complete.  On  resuming  his  labors  (we 
are  expressly  told  that  he  rested  before  taking  up  the  latter 
half  of  the  poem)  he  decided  that,  as  all  interest  in  the  story 
itself  was  over,  the  only  way  to  liven  up  a philosophic  en- 
cyclopedia would  be  to  adorn  it  with  a good  many  more 
fancy-metres,  and  toward  the  end  he  brought  out  the  aryas, 
which  he  had  had  concealed  all  the  time,  but  kept  as  a final 
attraction.  In  this  last  part  also  he  emptied  whole  boxes  of 
metres  together,  just  as  he  had  done  so  desperately  in  the 
eighth  book. 

This  seems  to  me  an  entirely  satisfactory  explanation, 
granting  the  premiss.  But  in  case  one  is  dissatisfied  with 
the  (native)  assumption  of  a homogeneous  Homer,  one  might 
consider  whether  it  were  not  equally  probable  that  the  present 


360 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


poem  was  a gradual  accumulation  and  tliat  fancy-metres  were 
first  used  as  tags 1 to  chapters  in  the  later  part  of  the  work, 
as  an  artistic  improvement  on  the  old-fashioned  tristubli  tag 
(to  gloka  sections)  ; and  so  find  the  reason  why  the  masses 
of  fancy-metres  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  sections  in  a 
later  exaggeration,  a vicious  inclination  to  adorn  the  whole 
body  with  gewgaws,  whereas  at  an  earlier  date  it  was  deemed 
a sufficient  beauty  to  tag  them  on  to  the  end  of  a section. 
The  only  difficulty  in  this  assumption  is  that  it  recognizes 
as  valid  the  delirament  of  believing  in  the  historical  growth 
of  the  epic. 

As  regards  the  arya,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  it  was 
a Prakrit  style  known  before  the  epic  wras  begun  or  not.  Just 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Rig  Veda,  the  point  is  not  whether  such 
and  such  a form  existed,  but  only  whether  (and  if  so,  in  how 
far)  the  poets  admitted  the  form  into  hymns ; 2 so  here,  the 
question  is  shnply  as  to  when  Sanskrit  writers  utilized  Prakrt 
melodies.  It  is  somewhat  as  if  one  should  properly  tiy  to 
define  the  decade  in  which  a piece  of  X’s  music  was  com- 
posed by  considering  that  it  was  in  rag-time.  One  might 
object  that  rag-time  melodies  have  been  used  for  unnumbered 
decades  by  the  negroes.  The  reply  would  be : True ; but  it 
is  only  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  that 
rag-time  has  been  utilized  by  composers ; ergo,  X must  have 
published  his  composition  in  that  decade  or  later. 

When  then  did  the  vulgar  arya  (i.  e.,  melody  used  as  a 


1 The  expression  tag-metres  answers  exactly  to  the  function  of  the  fancy- 
metres  in  the  Ramayana,  and  pretty  closely  to  their  function  in  the  Bharata. 
I have  indicated  above  the  few  cases  where  in  the  latter  poem  they  have  been 
inserted  in  other  positions.  There  can  be  no  serious  doubt  that  such  medial 
position  simply  shows  how  late  is  the  passage  where  are  found  such  stanzas 
thus  located.  The  bhujamgaprayata  appears  in  medial  position  in  Qanti ; the 
drutavilambita,  in  Drona ; where  also  the  rucira  (usually  only  tag);  the  pra- 
liarsinl  (medial),  only  in  Drona  and  £anti ; the  vasantatilaka,  generally  a tag, 
medial  only  in  Anuyasana  ; the  malini,  medial  in  Karna  ; the  fardulavikridita, 
medial  in  both  these  last. 

2 Tlie  all-sufficient  answer  to  the  unsatisfactory  contention  that,  because 
certain  Vedic  forms  are  pre-Vedic,  therefore  their  employment  by  Vedic  poets 
cannot  be  used  in  evidence  of  the  age  of  certain  hymns. 


EPIC  VERSIFICATION. 


361 


frame  for  literature)  appear  in  Sanskrit  poetry  ? The  author 
of  the  Ramayana,  using  freely  the  aksaracchandas  and  ardha- 
samavrttas  as  tag-poetiy,  either  knew  it  not  or  ignored  it. 
The  later  poets  of  the  Mahabharata,  doing  the  same,  ignored 
it  also.  Only  the  poets  of  the  latest  tracts,  the  fourteenth 
section  of  Anugasana  and  benedictions  in  Harivanga,  used  it, 
whether  inventing  or  utilizing  is  a subsidiary  question.  The 
employment  of  this  metre,  if  borrowed  from  the  vulgar,  stands 
parallel,  therefore,  to  the  adoption  of  Prakrit  licence  in 
prosody.1 

Further,  the  sometime  intrusion  into  the  middle  of  a chap- 
ter of  metres  used  originally  only  as  tags,  shows  that  parts  of 
the  Mahabharata  reflect  a later  phase  than  that  of  the  Rama- 
yana, which  still  confines  them  to  their  earlier  function.  In 
fact,  the  Mahabharata  is  here  on  a level  with  the  poems  of 
inscriptions  where  all  metres  are  flung  together,2  and,  like 
these  poems,  its  later  parts  show  a predilection  for  long  com- 
pounds and  for  long  sentences  extending  over  many  verses. 

The  total  result  of  a comparison  of  the  various  metres  in 
the  two  epics  shows  in  outline : 

In  the  Mahabharata 

(a)  early  (Vedic)  gloka 
early  (Yedic)  tristubh 

(b)  almost  classical  gloka 
classical  tristubh 

(c)  late  gloka  stanzas  (pure 
iambs) 

late  tristubh  stanzas  (ga- 
lini) 

late  use  of  fancy  metres 

A review  of  the  results  obtained  in  regard  to  the  chief 
metre  of  the  epic  makes  it  clear  that  the  presence  in  the 

1 Only  xiii,  14  is  really  affected.  The  benedictive  Harivahfa  verses  are 
an  addition  too  late  to  affect  dates.  Even  the  native  (Bombay)  edition  omits 
them  from  the  text  proper. 

2 See  on  this  point,  Buhler’s  essay.  Das  Alter  der  Indischen  Kunstpoesie, 
with  examples  at  the  end. 


In  the  Ramayana 

(b)  almost  classical  gloka 
classical  tristubh 

(c)  early  use  of  fancy  metres 


862 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Maliabharata  of  glokas  of  an  older  and  also  later  type  than  are 
found  in  the  liamayana  indicates  not  only  that  the  style  of 
the  Maliabharata  is  more  antique  in  one  part  than  in  another, 
but  also  that  this  difference  is  not  due  to  conscious  metrical 
variations  on  the  part  of  one  poet;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
the  epic  was  not  made  all  at  once.  For  the  general  shape  of 
glokas  might  voluntarily  be  shifted,  though  even  here  it  is 
not  probable  that  a poet  who  wrote  in  the  refined  style  com- 
mon to  the  Rainayana  and  to  parts  of  the  pseudo-epic  Maha- 
bharata  would  shift  back  to  diiambic  close  of  the  prior  pada 
or  a free  use  of  the  fourth  vipula.  But  even  granting  this, 
there  remain  the  subtle  differences  winch  are  perceptible  only 
with  careful  and  patient  study,  elements  of  style  not  patent 
to  the  rough-and-ready  critique  which  scorns  analysis.  The 
poet  who  had  trained  himself  to  eschew  first  vipulas  after 
diiambs  and  renounce  a syllaba  anceps  would  not  write  first 
in  this  particular  style  and  then  in  the  careless  old-faslnoned 
manner.  The  very  presence  of  the  more  refined  art  precludes 
the  presumption  that  the  same  poet  in  the  same  poem  on  the 
same  subject  would  have  lapsed  back  into  barbarism.  For 
the  distinction  is  not  one  that  separates  moral  discourses  from 
the  epic  story.  Except  in  the  case  of  a few  obvious  imita- 
tions or  parodies  of  (jlruti  texts,  topics  of  the  same  sort  are 
treated  with  a difference  of  style  attributable  only  to  different 
authors  and  in  all  reasonable  probability  to  different  ages. 


CHAPTER  FIVE. 


THE  ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC. 

We  have  now  reached  a point  where  an  intelligent  opinion 
may  be  formed  in  regard  to  the  general  make-up  of  the  Ma- 
habharata.  It  is  based,  as  was  shown  in  the  second  chapter, 
on  a more  or  less  stereotyped  diction,  and  contains  adventitious 
matter  common  to  both  epics.  It  contains  allusions  to  the 
latest  pre-elassical  works,  as  was  shown  in  the  first  chapter ; 
while  its  didactic  parts  recapitulate  the  later  Upanishads ; and 
it  shows  acquaintance  with  a much  larger  number  of  Vedic 
schools  than  were  recognized  even  at  a late  date.  Its  philo- 
sophical sections,  as  was  shown  in  the  third  chapter,  reflect 
varied  schools  and  contradictory  systems,  some  of  which  are 
as  late,  as  our  era.  Its  metres,  as  have  just  been  explained, 
preclude  the  probability  of  its  having  been  written  by  one 
poet,  or  even  by  several  poets  of  the  same  era.  It  appears  to 
be  a heterogeneous  collection  of  strings  wound  about  a 
nucleus  almost  lost  sight  of.  The  nucleus,  however,  is  a 
story. 

This  story  is  in  its  details  so  abhorrent  to  the  writers  of  the 
epic  that  they  make  every  effort  to  whitewash  the  heroes,  at 
one  time  explaining  that  what  they  did  would  have  been 
wicked  if  it  had  not  been  done  by  divinely  inspired  heroes  ; at 
another  frankly  stating  that  the  heroes  did  wrong.  It  is  not 
then  probable  that  had  the  writers  intended  to  write  a moral 
tale  they  would  have  built  on  such  material.  Hence  the  tale 
existed  as  such  before  it  became  the  nucleus  of  a sermon. 
There  are  then  two  elements  in  the  epic,  narrative  and 
didactic. 

In  its  present  didactic  form  the  epic  is  recited.  At  its  own 
close  we  learn  that  it  was  not  given  as  a dramatic  recitation, 
still  less  as  a rhapsodic  production.  A priestly  reciter,  vacaka, 


364 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


pSthaka,  “ speaks  ” or  “ reads  ” the  epic  as  “ lie  sits  com- 
fortably and  recites,  carefully  pronouncing  the  sixty-three 
letters  (soimds)  1 according  to  their  respective  eight  places  of 
utterance  ” (as  gutturals,  etc.).  He  reads  from  manuscripts, 
sarhhitapustakas,  which,  after  the  performance  is  over  and  the 
gentleman  has  been  dismissed  with  a brahmasutra  and  a hand- 
some fee,  are  wrapped  in  cloth  and  piously  revered.  The 
recitation  takes  four  months,  and  should  be  performed  by 
Brahmans  during  vasso,  the  rainy  season,  xviii,  6,  21  If.  (i, 
62,  32). 

Such  recited  stories  are  recognized  elsewhere.  A knight 
leaves  town  to  go  into  the  woods  accompanied  with  “ priests 
who  know  the  Vedas  and  Vedangas,”  and  “ priests  who  recite 
divine  tales,”  divyakhyanani  ye  ca  ’pi  pathanti,  but  also,  and 
distinguished  from  these,  with  sutah  pauranikah  and  katkakah 
(besides  hermits,  tjramanac  ca  vanaukasah),  i.  214,  2-3. 
The  story-tellers  here  named  may  be  represented  again  by 
knights  who  tell  each  other,  as  they  sit  and  talk,  “ the  glorious 
deeds  of  old  and  many  other  tales,”  or,  as  it  is  expressed  else- 
where, “ tales  of  war  and  moil  and  genealogies  of  seers  and 
gods.”  2 

But  buried  with  the  story-nucleus  are  elements  also  more  or 
less  concealed.  The  first  of  these  is  the  genealogical  verses, 
anuvangagloka,  or  anuvan§ya  gatha,  which  in  the  extract 

1 samskrtah  sarvafastrajnali  . . asamsaktaksarapadarh  svarabhavasamanv- 
itam  trisastivarnasamyuktam  astasthanasamiritam  vacayed  vacakali  svasthah 
svasinah  susamahitah,  xviii,  6,  21,  and  H.  loc.  cit.  in  PW.  s.  varna.  In  the 
enumeration  of  parvans  following,  the  Anufasana  is  omitted,  as  it  is  in  one 
of  the  lists  in  Adi,  whereas  the  other  list  makes  it  a separate  work  : “ After 
this  (i.  e.,  after  Qanti  as  rajadharmanufasana,  apaddharma,  and  moksa)  with 
329  or  v.  1.  339  sections  and  14,732  glokas  [our  text  has  13,943  stanzas  of  all 
kinds]  must  be  reckoned  the  Anufasana  with  140  sections  and  8000  flokas  ” 
[our  text  7796]  ; where  atah  urdhvam  shows,  with  the  figures,  that  the  Anu- 
fasana is  not  included  with  (panti  (the  former  is  also  called  anufasanikam 
parva),  i,  2,  76-78,  328-331.  On  the  list  i,  1,  88  ff.  which  omits  the  thirteenth, 
seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  books,  see  AJP.  xix,  p.  6. 

2 tatra  purvavyatitani  vikrantani  ’tarani  ca  bahiini  kathayitva  tau  remate, 
i,  222,  29;  pravifya  taiii  sabham  ramyam  vijahrate  ca,  Bhiirata ; tatra  yud- 
dliakathaf  citrah  pariklefanf  ca,  Parthiva,  kathayoge  kathayoge  kathavam 
asatuh  sada,  rsinam  devatanain  ca  vaiifans  tav  aliatuh  sada,  xiv,  15,  5-7. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  3G5 


just  referred  to  are  recited ; as,  again,  in  iii,  88,  5,  is  found : 
Markandeyo  jagiiu  gatham  (anu  vainly  am).  Such  memorial 

stanzas  in  lionor  of  the  family  either  are  strictly  genealogical, 
“ DevayanI  bore  Yadu  and  Turvasu,”  or  characterize  a man,  as 
in  i,  95,  46  (the  other,  ib.  9),  where  (Jamtanu’s  name  is  de- 
rived, on  the  strength  of  such  a stanza,  from  his  having  the 
healing  touch  (the  careless  compilers  a little  later,  i,  97,  19, 
give  another  derivation).  Such  stanzas  are  sometimes  inserted 
in  prose  narration  1 in  honor  of  the  family,  though  occasionally 
of  very  general  content.  On  the  other  hand,  really  genealogi- 
cal stanzas  may  be  introduced  'without  any  statement  as  to 
their  character,  though  the  poets  usually  quote  them  from 
rhapsodes,  “ men  -who  know  the  tales  of  old  here  sing  (or 
recite)  tills  giitlia,”  apy  atra  gatham  gayanti  ye  purfinavido 
janah,  i,  121,  13;  vii,  67,  14. 

Though,  as  was  shown  in  a previous  chapter,  the  word  for 
sing  is  scarcely  more  than  recite,  yet  it  reflects  conditions 
where  bards  actually  sang  songs  hi  honor  of  kings.  The 
ancient  age  knew,  in  fact,  just  such  a distinction  as  underlies 
the  double  character  of  the  epic.  On  the  one  hand,  it  had  its 
slowly  repeated  circle  of  tales  (sometimes  mistranslated  by 
cycle  of  tales),2  and  on  the  other,  impromptu  bardic  lays,  not 
in  inherited  form  but  improvisations,  where  the  rhapsode,  as 
is  especially  provided  for  in  the  ritual,  on  a certain  occasion 
was  “ to  sing  an  original  song,  the  subject  of  which  should  be, 
This  king  fought,  this  king  conquered  in  such  a battle.”  The 
song  is  here  accompanied  with  the  lute  or  lyre,  which  in  the 
epic  is  called  seven-stringed,  saptatantrl  vina  (eimxTovo^ 
(popfiLy^,  see  above,  p.  172).  Such  song  as  “hero-praising 
verse,”  naragansl  gatha,  are  recognized  in  the  Grhya  Sutras 

1 Compare  the  illustrations  by  Lassen  and  Weber  and  Holtzmann  himself, 
summed  up  in  the  last  writer’s  work,  loe.  cit.,  p.  2. 

2 The  tales  of  a (year’s)  circle,  pariplavam  akhyanam,  have  no  cyclic  ele- 
ment. For  literature  on  the  early  rhapsodes  and  reciters,  see  Qat.  Br.  xiii,  4, 
3,3,5;  Weber,  IS.  i,  p.  186.  Compare  Par.  G.  S.  i,  15,  17.  The  traditional 
legend  in  the  epic  is  called  (param)  paryagatam  akhyanam  kathitam,  xii,  340, 
125,  138.  The  early  improvised  lays  are  called  svayamsambhrta  gathah  (loc. 
cit.,  £at.  Br.). 


366 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


as  traditional  texts,  differentiated  from  “ legends,”  and  were 
probably  genealogical  stanzas  preserved  in  the  family.  Be- 
sides the  single  singer,  there  were  also  bands  of  singers  who 
“ sang  the  (reigning)  king  with  the  old  kings.”  1 

In  these  Brahmana  stories,  the  rhapsode-lay  took  place  at 
the  very  time  of  the  priestly  recited  tale,  which  circled  round 
a year.  There  is  no  difference  of  date  between  them.  The 
rhapsode  and  the  reciter  were  contemporary.  So  in  the  epic, 
although  the  recitation  of  tales  is  noticed,  yet  rhapsodes  are 
constantly  mentioned.  In  xiv,  70,  7,  praise  is  rendered  by 
dancers  and  luck-wishers  and  also  by  rhapsodes,  granthikas, 
“ in  congratulations  that  uttered  the  praise  of  the  Ivuru-race,” 
Kuruvangastavakliyabhir  a§irbhih.  In  parallel  scenes  we  find 
“ story-tellers,”  who  could  praise  only  by  performing  their 
business,  as  in  iv,  70,  20:  “ Eight  hundred  bejewelled  Sutas 
along  with  magadhas  (singers)  praised  him,  as  the  seers  did 
£akra  of  old;”  ib.  72,  29:  “Singers,  gayanas,  those  skilled 
in  tales,  akhyanagllas,  dancers,  and  reciters  of  genealogical 
verses,  nata  vaitalikas, 2 stood  praising  him,  as  did  Sutas  with 
magadhas.”  Again  in  vii,  82,  2-3:  jagur  gltani  gayakah 
Kuruvangastavarthani : “ Singers  sang  songs  which  lauded  the 
Kuru-race,”  where  the  rhapsode,  granthika,  above,  appears  as 
singer,  gayana.  For  the  history  of  the  poem  it  is  worth 
noticing  that,  though  the  Pandus  are  the  present  heroes,  the 
stereotyped  phrase  is  always  of  “praise  of  the  Kuru  race,” 
even  where  a Pandu  is  praised. 

We  have  in  the  epic  the  names  of  what  are  to-day  the 
epic  reciters,  kugllava  and  kathaka,  and  the  repeaters  of 
genealogical  verses  (in  distinction  from  the  Sutas),3  called 
vaitalikas. 

1 "Weber,  loc.  cit.,  and  Episches  im  Vedischen  Ritual,  p.  6. 

2 So  in  ii,  4,  7,  natas,  Sutas,  and  vaitalikas  wait  on  the  king  along  with 
boxers  and  wrestlers.  Such  epic  professionals  are  called  (besides  piinisvani- 
kas)  magadhas,  nandivadyas,  bandins,  gayanas,  saukhyafayikas,  vaitalikas, 
kathakas,  granthikas,  gathins,  ku^Ilavas  and  pauranikas  (Sutas). 

8 So  xii,  37, 43,  where  a king  is  praised  by  Sutas,  vaitalikas,  and  (subhasita) 
magadhas.  Compare  the  distinction  in  R.  vi,  127,  3,  with  Comm.:  the  Sutas 
“ know  praise  and  Puranas  ” the  vaitalikas  recite  genealogical  verses.  Both 
epics  have  the  group  (phrase)  sutamagadhabandinah. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TIIE  EPIC.  367 


When  the  lyre  is  mentioned,  it  is  to  wake  up  sleepers  by 
means  of  “sweet  songs  and  the  sound  of  the  lyre,”  glta, 
vlnagabda,  i,  218,  14.  Only  Narada,  a superhuman  archetypi- 
cal bard,  comes  skilled  in  dance  and  song  with  his  melodious 
mind-soothing  tortoise-lyre,  ix,  54,  19.1 

There  is  then  in  the  epic,  though  a musical  accompaniment 
is  unknown,  a distinct  recollection  of  the  practice  of  reciting 
lays,  gltani,  the  sole  object  of  which  was  to  “praise  the  Kuru 
race,”  as  opposed  to  reading  or  reciting  conversationally  stories 
of  ancient  times.  To  neither  of  these  elements  can  a judicious 
historian  ascribe  priority.  The  story  and  the  lay  are  equally 
old.  Their  union  was  rendered  possible  as  soon  as  the  lay, 
formerly  sung,  was  dissociated  from  music  and  repeated  as  a 
heroic  tale  of  antiquity.  This  union  was  the  foundation  of 
the  present  epic. 

Traces  of  the  epic  quality  of  the  early  poem  cannot  be 
disregarded.  The  central  tale  and  many  another  tale  woven 
into  the  present  narrative  are  thoroughly  heroic.  To  this 
day,  warped  and  twisted  from  its  original  purpose,  it  is  the 
story,  not  the  sermon,  that  holds  enthralled  the  throng  that 
listens  to  the  recitation  of  the  great  epic.  Be  it  either  epic, 
its  tale  is  still  popular  in  India.  But  the  people  cannot 
understand  it.  Hence  the  poem  is  read  by  a priest,  while 
a translator  and  interpreter,  of  no  mean  histrionic  talent, 
takes  up  his  words  and  renders  them  in  forcible  patois,  ac- 
companying the  dramatic  recital  by  still  more  dramatic  ges- 
tures and  contortions.  Such  a recitation,  without  the  inter- 
mediate interpreter  (the  modern  dharaka)  was  undoubtedly 
the  performance  given  (not  by  the  later  pathaka,  but)  by  the 
earlier  epic  gathin,  gayaka,  and  granthika,  just  as  they  are 
depicted  about  the  second  century  b.  c.  on  the  Sanchi  Tope.2 

1 The  panisvanikas  mentioned  above  may  be  pantomimists  or  simple 
“hand-clappers.”  The  latter  is  the  meaning  in  the  cognate  panivadaka  at 
R.  ii,  65,  4 (compare  Brahmajala  Sutta,  Rhys  Davids’  note,  p.  8).  In  the  pas- 
sage above,  ix,  54,  19,  the  prakarta  kalahanam  ca  nityam  ca  kalaliapriyah  is 
represented  as  kacchaplm  sukhagahdantam  grhya  vinam,  a late  passage, 
apparently. 

2 Levi,  Le  the'atre  indien,  p.  309. 


3C8 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA . 


But  though  it  is  a gross  exaggeration  of  the  facts,  as  well  as 
a misapprehension  of  poetic  values,  to  make  the  epic  a poem 
that  was  from  the  start  a moral  and  religious  narrative,  yet, 
inasmuch  as  in  the  hands  of  the  priest  the  latter  element 
was  made  predominant,  there  is  no  objection  to  the  statement 
that  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  epic  as  a whole  the  Maha- 
bharata  is  to-day  less  tale  than  teaching.  That  this  double 
character  was  recognized  by  those  who  contributed  the  in- 
troduction to  the  poem  itself  is  indisputable  (above,  p.  53). 
The  “tales”  are  counted  as  separate.  The  original  Bharata 
was  only  a quarter  of  its  present  size.  Then,  as  later,  the 
different  elements  were  still  distinguished,  and  the  poem  was 
not  regarded  as  wholly  a Smrti  or  instruction-book,  but  as  an 
artistic  poem,  Kavya,  per  se.  So  the  pseudo-epic  vaunts  its 
own  literary  finish:  gabde  ca  ’rthe  ca  hetau  ca  esa  prathama- 
sargaja  (sarasvatx),  xii,  336,  36. 

The  particular  school  of  priests  in  whose  hands  the  epic 
was  transformed  was  probably  that  of  the  Yajurvedins.  The 
Yajur  Veda  is  “the  birth-place  of  the  warrior  caste,”  accord- 
ing to  a well-known  verse,  and  it  has  been  shown  by  Weber 
that  the  (Catapatha,  a Yajur  Veda  text,  stands  in  peculiarly 
close  relation  to  the  didactic  epic.1  As  has  been  shown 
in  the  first  chapter,  the  (Catapatha  is  the  only  Bralnnana 
praised,  perhaps  even  mentioned,  in  the  epic ; while  the 
Yajur  Veda  Catarudriya  is  exalted  above  all  texts  (except 
perhaps  where  Indra  sings  tins,  Vishnu  sings  the  jyestha 
saman,  and  Brahmd,  the  rathamtara,  xiii,  14,  282,  but  even 
here  the  (Catarudriya  is  not  slighted).  In  dividing  the  Iti- 
hasa  from  the  Purana,  moreover,  the  epic  groups  the  former 
with  the  Yajur  Veda,  as  against  the  Purana  with  the  other 
Vedas,  viii,  34,  45.  Here  the  Itiliasa  represents  the  epic,  as 
it  does  in  the  similar  antithesis  of  xii,  302,  109 : yac  ca  ’pi 
drstarh  vividham  purane  yac  ce  ’tiliasesu  mahatsu  drstam, 

1 Valmlki  too  belonged  to  this  school.  Compare  "Weber,  IS.,  xiii,  p.  440, 
and  as  cited  by  Holtzmann,  loc.  cit.,  p.  18 ; Muir,  OST.,  i,  p.  17,  citing  TB. 
iii,  12,  9,  2,  where  the  Valyas  are  derived  from  the  Big  Veda,  the  Ksatriyas 
from  the  Yajur  Veda,  and  the  Brahmans  from  the  Siuna  Veda. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  3G9 


where,  as  already  observed,  the  Great  Itihasas  point  to  sev- 
eral epic  poems.  Lastly,  the  Upanishads  especially  copied  in 
the  epic  are  those  belonging  to  the  Yajur  Veda. 

But  while  this  is  true  of  the  completed  epic,  there  is  noth- 
ing to  show  that  the  Bharat!  Katha  was  the  especial  property 
of  any  school,  and  no  preference  is  given  to  the  Yajur  Veda 
in  the  later  epic,  for  in  the  Gita  the  Siima  Veda  stands  as  the 
best,  “ I am  the  Siima  Veda  among  Vedas,”  10,  22,  and  this 
is  cited  with  approval  and  enlarged  upon  in  xiii,  14,  323 : 
“Thou  art  the  Siima  Veda  among  Vedas,  the  ^atarudria 
among  Yajus  hymns,  the  Eternal  Youth  among  Yogas,  Ivapila 
among  Samkliyas.” 

In  the  epic  itself  the  Sutas  called  pauranikas  are  recognized 
as  the  re-writers  and  reciters  of  the  epic.  They  probably  took 
the  epic  legends  and  arranged  them  in  order  for  the  popular 
recitation,  which  is  also  recognized  when  “priests  recite  the 
Mahabharata  at  the  assemblies  of  warriors,”  v,  141,  56,  a 
passage  recently  cited  by  Professor  Jacobi,  as  evidence  of  a 
difference  between  the  maimer  of  handing  down  the  heroic 
tales  and  the  recitals  of  legends.1 

The  method  of  narrating  the  epic  stories  is  that  of  the  old 
priestly  legend,  where  the  verse-tale  is  knit  together,  as  in  the 
epic,  by  prose  statements  as  to  the  speaker.  So  in  the  epic, 
a narrative,  not  a rhapsodic  or  dramatic,  delivery  is  indicated 
by  such  phrases.  In  the  Ramayana,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
verse  is  knit  more  closely  together,  and  the  speakers  are 
indicated  almost  always  in  the  verse.  The  one  exception  is  a 
late  addition  (G.  ii,  110,  4-5). 

The  Mahabharata  is  not  only  a Veda,  it  is  so  important  a 
Veda  that  to  read  it  is  to  dispense  -with  the  need  of  reading 
other  Vedas.2  In  the  dynamic  alteration  consequent  on  the 
attaining  of  such  an  ideal,  we  may  expect  to  find  that  the  tale, 
as  a tale,  is  full  of  the  grossest  incongruities ; for  to  fulfil  its 

1 Gottingische  Gelehrte  Anzeige,  1899,  p.  877  ff.  I fully  agree  with  the 
author’s  view  in  regard  to  the  “ Puranic  ” Sutas  being  the  compilers  of  the 
epic  mass. 

2 vijiieyah  sa  ca  vedanam  parago  bharatam  pathan,  i,  62,  32. 

24 


370 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


encyclopedic  character  all  is  fish  that  comes  to  the  net,  and 
scarcely  an  attempt  is  made  to  smooth  away  any  save  the 
most  glaring  inconsistencies.  Tale  is  added  to  tale,  doctrine 
to  doctrine,  without  much  regard  to  the  effect  produced  by 
the  juxtaposition.  If  we  take  these  facts  as  they  stand, 
which  is  the  more  probable  interpretation,  that  they  were 
originally  composed  in  this  incongruous  combination  or  that 
they  are  the  result  of  such  a genesis  as  has  just  been  ex- 
plained ? As  for  the  facts,  I will  illustrate  them,  though  to 
any  Bliaratavid  they  are  already  patent. 

In  i,  214,  Arjuna  protests  that  he  is  a brahmacarin  for 
twelve  years,  in  accordance  with  the  agreement  (chapter  212) 
that  he  has  made  with  Ins  brother,  which  is  to  the  effect  that 
he  will  be  “ a brahmacarin  hr  the  woods  for  twelve  years.” 
Tins  can  have  only  one  meaning.  A brahmacarin  is  not  a 
man  wandering  about  on  love-adventures,  but  a chaste  stu- 
dent. Above  all,  chastity  is  implied.  Now  the  first  thing 
the  hero  Arjuna  does  is  to  violate  Ins  agreement  by  having  a 
connection  with  Ulupi,  a beautiful  water-witch,  who  easily 
persuades  him  to  break  his  vow;  after  which  he  resides  in 
a city,  taking  to  himself  a wife  with  whom  he  lives  for  three 
years.  After  this  he  has  a new  adventure  with  some  en- 
chanted nymphs  and  then  stays  with  Krishna ; when,  in  a new 
vikranta  or  derringdo  (the  hero’s  rape  of  Subhadra,  chapter 
220),  all  the  talk  of  brahmacarin  wandering  in  the  woods  stops 
inconsequently.  When  he  marries  (in  town)  not  a word  is 
said  of  his  vow ; but  when  lie  approaches  Krishna  on  the  sub- 
ject of  Subhadra  the  poet  makes  the  former  say  “ how  can  a 
wood-wanderer  fall  in  love  ? ” This  is  the  only  allusion,  and 
one  entirely  ignored,  to  the  matter  of  the  vow ; which  in  the 
earlier  Manipur  scene  is  absolutely  unnoticed.  Each  of  these 
feats  is  a separate  heroic  tale  and  they  are  all  contradictory  to 
the  setting  in  which  they  have  been  placed  by  the  diadochoi 
and  later  epic  manipulators.  As  heroic  tales  they  are  per- 
fectly intelligible.  Certain  feats  in  separate  stories  were 
attributed  to  the  hero.  They  had  to  be  combined  and  they 
were  combined  by  letting  him  go  off  by  himself  under  a vow 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TIIE  EPIC.  371 


of  wandering  in  the  woods.  The  wood-wanderer  was  usually 
a chaste  ascetic,  so  he  was  given  this  character,  but  this  role 
is  kept  for  only  one  of  the  noble  deeds.  For  after  he  has 
protested  once  at  the  outset,  all  pretence  of  his  being  a brah- 
macarin  vanishes  and  the  next  we  know  he  is  comfortably 
mated  and  living  in  town,  while  still  supposed  by  the  poets 
to  be  a brahmacarin  in  the  woods.  The  independent  origin 
of  these  stories  is  seen  at  the  beginning  in  the  formula  “ Hear 
now  a wonder-tale  of  him,”  tatra  tasya  ’dbhutam  karma  gmu 
tvam,  214,  7.  Such  formulae  of  special  tales  are  found  fre- 
quently, idam  yah  grnuyad  vrttara  is  another,  used  for  the 
UrvagI  episode,  iii,  4G,  G2.  Another  is  like  our  “ once  upon 
a time,”  purii  krtayuge  rajan,  e.  g.,  ix,  40,  3. 

The  fact  that  Arjuna  is  here  banished  for  twelve  years  is 
not  without  significance.  The  epic  has  been  completed  on 
rather  formal  lines.  Agni  is  satiated  for  twelve  years  at 
Khandava.  Arjuna’s  banishment  is  for  the  same  length  of 
time  as  that  of  the  brothers  as  a family.  So  the  epic  is 
divided  into  eighteen  books,  as  there  are  eighteen  Puranas  (p. 
49) ; and  there  are  eighteen  armies  battling  for  just  eighteen 
days,  and  eighteen  branches  of  younger  Yadavas;1  while 
finally  there  are  eighteen  islands  of  earth.  The  number  of 
islands  deserves  particular  notice,  as  it  is  one  of  the  innumer- 
able small  indications  that  the  poem  has  been  retouched. 
Earth  has  four,  seven,  or  at  most  thirteen  islands  in  all  litera- 
ture of  respectable  antiquity.  Seven  is  the  usual  number  in 
the  epic  as  it  is  in  the  older  Puranas,  but  in  the  hymn  to  the 
sun  at  iii,  3,  52,  “ earth  with  its  thirteen  islands  ” is  men- 
tioned.2 The  mention  of  eighteen  is  found,  of  course,  in  one 
of  the  books  where  one  who  distinguished  between  the  early 
and  late  elements  would  be  apt  to  look  for  it,  in  the  much 
inflated  and  rewritten  seventh  book,  where  (above,  p.  229), 
with  customary  inconsistency,  it  stands  beside  another  refer- 
ence to  the  usual  seven  islands,  sarvan  astadaga  dvipan,  vii, 
70,  15 ; sapta  dvipan,  21. 

1 ii,  14,  40,  55 ; also  18,000  brothers  and  cousins,  56. 

2 The  same  passage  calls  the  sun,  9I.  61,  vivasvan  mihirah  pusa  mitrah. 


372 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Another  tale  which  bears  evidence  of  having  been  rewritten 
and  still  shows  its  inconsistencies  is  found  in  iii,  12,  91  ff. 
Here  Bhima  and  his  brothers  and  mother  are  surrounded  by 
fire,  and  he  rescues  them  by  taking  them  on  his  back  and 
leaping  clear  over  the  fire.  No  suggestion  is  given  of  any 
other  means  of  escape.  On  the  contrary  it  is  emphasized  that 
he  can  fly  like  the  wind  or  Garuda,  and  the  escape  is  due 
entirely  to  his  divine  power  and  strength.  But  in  i,  2,  104 ; 
61,  22;  and  148,  12,  20  ff.,  the  same  story  is  told  with  an 
added  element  wdiich  quite  does  away  with  the  old  solution. 
Here  (in  the  later  first  book)  the  party  escape  tlirough  an 
underground  tunnel,  suranga  (gl.  12)  or  surunga,  and  after 
they  are  well  off  in  the  woods  far  from  the  fire,  Bhima  is 
made  to  pick  them  up  and  carry  them.  The  old  feat  was  too 
attractive  to  lose,  so  it  was  kept  postponed,  but  the  later  ver- 
sion with  the  Greek  word  to  mark  its  lateness  takes  the  place 
of  the  older  jump.  No  one  can  read  the  account  in  Vana  and 
fail  to  see  that  it  is  not  a mere  hasty  rdsuind  omitting  the 
surunga,  but  that  the  original  escape  is  a feat  of  the  wind-god’s 
son.  But  the  first  part  of  tins  same  section  in  Vana  contains 
a laudation  to  Krishna- Vislmu  which  is  as  palpable  a late 
addition  as  one  could  find  in  any  work. 

The  surunga,  “ syrinx,”  is  not  the  only  Greek  word  added 
in  the  later  epic.  As  such  must  certainly  be  reckoned  trikona 
= Tpiycovos.  There  are  in  fact  two  kona.  One  is  Sanskrit  or 
dialectic  for  kvana,  the  “ sounder,”  or  drumstick  of  the  Rama- 
yana,  vi,  32,  43 ; 42,  34,  and  elsewhere  (not  in  the  Mahabha- 
rata).  The  other  is  found  in  the  pseudo-epic  xiv,  88,  32: 
catugcityah  . . . astadagakaratmakah  sarukmapakso  nicitas  tri- 
kono  garudakrtih,  of  an  altar  (the  corresponding  passage  in  R. 
i,  14,  29,  has  trigunah),  where  the  word  must  mean  angle  and 
be  the  equivalent  of  rpir/covo ?. 

The  question  of  the  character  of  the  epic  is  so  intertwined 
with  its  date  that  I will  not  apologize  for  pausing  here  a mo- 
ment to  speak  of  another  geographical  and  ethnographical 
feature.  The  apologia  published  under  the  title  Genesis  des 
Mahabharata  omits  to  reply  to  the  rather  startling  conclusion 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  373 


drawn  by  Weber  in  a recent  monograph  on  the  name  Bahllka, 
or  Balhlka,  as  it  appears  in  the  epic.  In  the  Sitzungsbericht 
of  the  Berlin  Academy,  1892,  pp.  987  ff.,  Weber  claims  tli.it 
any  work  containing  this  name  or  that  of  Pahlava  must  be  as 
late  as  the  first  to  the  fourth  century  A.  D.  I cannot  but  think 
that  the  escape  from  this  conclusion,  in  part  suggested  by 
Weber  himself,  is  correct.  In  the  re  waiting  of  foreign  names  it 
is  perfectly  possible  that  later  copyists  should  have  incorpo- 
rated a form  current  in  their  own  day  rather  than  conserved  a 
form  no  longer  current,  which  it  was  easy  to  do  when  not  for- 
bidden by  the  metre.  Again,  that  there  was  actual  confusion 
between  the  forms  VahTka  and  Balhlka,  the  former  being  a Pun- 
jab clan,  the  latter  the  Bactriaus,  it  is  not  difficult  to  show. 
According  to  tradition,  a drink  especially  beloved  by  the  Biilhl- 
kas  is  sauvlra,  or  sauvlraka.  This  can  scarcely  be  anything 
else  than  the  drink  suvlraka,  said  to  be  lauded  in  the  epic  by 
degraded  foreigners.  But  here  the  foreigners  are  not  Bahllkas 
but  Vahlkas,  whose  Madrika  (woman)  sings,  viii,  40,  39-40, 
“ I will  give  up  my  family  rather  than  my  beloved  suvlraka,” 

ma  maiii  suvlrakam  kaijcid  yacatarii  dayitara  mama 

putraih  dadyam  patirn  dadyam  na  tu  dadyam  suvl- 
rakam 

It  is  possible  that  the  epic  arose  further  to  the  north-west, 
and  in  its  south-eastern  journey,  for  it  ends  in  being  revised  in 
the  south-east,1  has  transferred  the  attributes  of  one  people  to 
another,  as  it  has  transferred  geographical  statements,  and 
made  seven  Sarasvatls  out  of  the  Seven  Rivers  of  antiquity, 
ix,  38,  3.  As  an  indication  of  the  earlier  habitat  may  be  men- 
tioned the  veiy  puzzling  remark  made  in  iii,  34,  11.  Here 
there  is  an  apparent  allusion  to  the  agreement  in  ii,  76,  which 
agreement  is  that  on  being  recognized  before  the  expiration  of 
the  thirteenth  year,  either  party  shall  give  up  his  kingdom 
(svarajyam,  §1.  14) ; and  it  is  assumed  throughout  that  the 
two  kingdoms  are  those  of  Hastinapur  on  the  Ganges  and 

1 See  on  this  point  the  evidence  presented  in  my  paper  on  the  Bharata  and 
the  Great  Bharata,  Am.  Journ.  Phil.  vol.  xix,  p.  21  ff. 


374 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Inclraprastha  on  the  Jumna.  But  in  the  passage  of  Vana  just 
referred  to  there  is  an  (old)  tristubh  r£sum6  of  the  situation, 
which  makes  the  Kuru  say : 

bravimi  satyam  Kurusamsadl  ’ha 
tavai  ’va  ta,  Bharata,  pafica  nadyah 

Here  we  get  an  account  where  the  Pandus  are  lost  in  the  older 
Bharatas,  and  to  them  the  Kuru  king  says,  “ If  we  break  this 
agreement,  yours  shall  be  all  this  Punjab.”  But  what  has  the 
Punjab  to  do  with  the  epic  in  its  present  form  ? It  is  a land 
of  Vahlkas  and  generally  despised  peoples  (who  morally  are 
not  much  better  than  barbarians),  and  also  a holy  land  (an- 
other little  inconsistency  disregarded  in  the  synthetic  method)  ; 
but,  whatever  it  is  morally,  it  has  nothing  to  do  politically  with 
the  present  epic  heroes,  except  to  provide  them  with  some  of 
their  best  allies,  a fact,  however,  that  in  itself  may  be  signifi- 
cant of  earlier  Western  relations.1 

To  return  to  the  evidence  of  remaking  in  the  epic.  Passing 
over  the  passage  ix,  33  to  55,  a long  interpolation  thrust  mid- 
way into  a dramatic  scene,  we  find  that  chapter  61  begins  with 
the  repetition  of  the  precedent  beginning  of  chapter  59,  which 
latter,  after  15  glokas,  together  with  chapter  60,  is  taken  up 
with  a moral  discourse  of  Yudhisthira,  who  reproaches  Bhlma 
for  insulting  the  fallen  foe.  Then  Rama  joins  in  and  is  about 
to  slay  Bhlma,  when  Krishna  defends  the  latter,  saying  that  his 
ignoble  insult  was  entirely  proper.  This  argument  of  Krishna 
is  characterized  by  Sanjaya  as  dharmacchalam,  or,  in  other 
words,  Krishna  is  said  to  be  a pious  hypocrite  (60,  26) ; Rama 
departs  in  disgust,  and  the  virtuous  heroes  “became  very 
joyless  ” (31).  Then  Krishna,  who  has  all  along  been  approv- 
ing the  act,  turns  to  Yudhisthira  who  reproved  it,  and  says, 


1 Jacobi  touches  on  the  significance  of  these  Western  allies  in  the  review 
mentioned  above.  The  “land  of  the  Bharatas”  extends  northwest  of  the 
Punjab  even  to  the  foot  of  the  Himalayas,  for  in  coming  from  Hemakuta  to 
Mithila  one  traverses  first  the  Haimavata  Varsa,  then  “ passing  beyond  this 
arrives  at  the  Bharata  Varsa,  and  (so)  reaches  Aryavarta  ” (seeing  on  the 
journey  “ different  districts  inhabited  by  Chinese  and  Huns,”  cinahunanise- 
vitan),  xii,  320,  14-15.  But  this  is  the  Varsa  or  country  in  general. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  375 


“Why  do  you  approve  of  this  sin?”  Yudliisthira  answers, 
“ I am  not  pleased  with  it,  but  (because  we  were  so  badly 
treated  by  tliis  man  therefore)  I overlook  it.  Let  Pandu’s 
son  take  his  pleasure  whether  he  does  right  or  wrong  ” (38). 
And  when  Yudhistliira  had  said  this,  Krishna  answered  “as 
you  will,”  and  Yudliisthira  then  “expressed  gratification  at 
what  Bhima  had  done  in  the  fight.”  In  the  next  chapter, 
Krishna  is  openly  charged  with  violating  all  rules  of  honor 
and  noble  conduct  (61,  38);  to  which  the  god  at  first  replies 
by  specious  reasoning  (tit  for  tat),  and  then,  throwing  off  all 
disguise,  says : “ This  man  could  not  be  killed  by  righteous 
means,  nor  could  your  other  enemies  have  been  slain,  if  I had 
not  acted  thus  sinfully,”  yadi  nai  ’ vamvidham  jatu  kurydni 
jihmam  aham  rane  (64). 

Here  there  is  something  more  than  dramatic  incongruities 
to  notice.  For  is  it  conceivable  that  any  priests,  setting  out  to 
write  a moral  tale  which  should  inculcate  virtue,  would  first 
make  one  of  the  heroes  do  an  ignoble  thing,  and  then  have 
both  their  great  god  and  their  chief  human  exponent  of  mo- 
rality combine  in  applauding  what  was  openly  acknowledged 
even  by  the  gods  to  be  dishonorable  conduct  ? Even  if  the  act 
was  dramatically  permitted  for  the  purpose  of  setting  its  con- 
demnation in  a stronger  light  and  thus  purging  in  the  end, 
can  we  imagine  that  the  only  vindicator  of  virtue  should  be 
Rama,  and  that  Krishna  and  Yudliisthira  of  all  others  should 
cut  so  contemptible  a figure  ? On  the  other  hand,  is  not  the 
whole  scene  explicable  without  any  far-fetched  hypothesis,  if 
we  assume  that  we  have  here  the  mingling  of  older  incident, 
inseparable  from  the  heroic  narrative,  and  the  later  teaching 
administered  by  a moral  deus  ex  machina?  As  the  scene 
stands  it  is  grotesque.  Krishna’s  sudden  attack  on  Yudhist- 
hira  is  entirely  uncalled-for ; and  the  latter,  who  has  first  de- 
nounced the  deed,  then  joins  with  the  former  in  approving  the 
very  thing  of  which  Krishna  himself  half  way  through  the 
scene  disapproves. 

But  to  those  who  think  that  the  epic  was  built  on  a moral 
didactic  plan  this  is  only  one  of  many  cases  where  a satisfactory 


376 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


explanation  in  accordance  with  the  theory  will  prove  difficult. 
They  must  explain  why  polyandry,  in  which  the  heroes  in- 
dulge, while  it  is  condemned,  is  permitted.1  Ludwig  explains 
this  “sharing  of  the  jewel”  (i,  195,  25)  as  a “Mythisches 
Element ; ” others  hark  back  to  the  old-fashioned  allegorical 
treatment.  But  why  is  allegory  with  a bad  moral  seriously 
defended  if  the  heroes  are  merely  to  be  represented  as  models  ? 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  known  that  polyandry  was  no  un- 
common thing  on  the  borders  of  Brahmanic  civilization,  and 
Biihler  recognized  the  custom  within  its  pale;  while  the 
Pandus  have  no  Brahmanic  standing,  and  are  evidently  a new 
people  from  without  the  pale.2  As  a simple  historic  element 
it  is  perfectly  natural,  explained  otherwise  it  remains  an  in- 
explicable mystery.  So  too  with  all  the  violations  of  the 
ethical  code  which  are  enumerated  in  the  chapter  referred  to 
above.  As  characters  in  an  historical  epic,  the  heroes’  acts  are 
easily  understood;  as  priestly  models,  dummies  for  sermons, 
their  doings  are  beyond  explanation. 

Apart  from  the  ignoble  conduct  of  heroes,  there  are  other 
items.  Getting  drunk  at  a picnic,  for  instance,  is  not  proper 
conduct  for  an  exemplary  Hindu  lady.  But  in  the  later  epic 
the  most  virtuous  ladies  get  so  drunk  that  they  cannot  walk 
straight,  madaskhalitagaminyah,  i,  222,  21,  madotkate,  23. 
Such  shocking  behavior  belongs  to  the  revelry  of  the  Harivanga 
and  the  probably  contemporaneous  tale  here  jovially  recorded. 
It  is  not  a moral  episode  of  the  fifth  century  B.  c.  Elsewhere 
ladies  are  supposed  to  be  “ unseen  by  the  sun  and  wind,”  not 
only  before  they  are  married,  but  afterwards.3  Drinking  sura 


1 i,  158,  36;  195,27,28. 

2 This  follows  from  the  sharp  contrast  presented  by  the  Kurus  and  Pandus 
in  Brahmanic  literature.  While  the  Kurus  are  a famous  folk  in  ancient 
records,  the  Pandus  are  there  utterly  unknown. 

3 ii,  69,  4 ff. ; iii,  62,  21.  The  formal  phrase  here  is  noticeable.  DraupadI 
says : yarit  na  vayur  na  ca  ’dityo  drstavantau  pura  grhe,  sa  ’ham  adija  sabha- 
madhye  dr<;yami  janasamsadi  (she  was  one  of  the  ladies  who  got  drunk  at 
the  outdoor  picnic).  So  Damayanti,  of  whom  Nala  says:  yarii  na  vayur  na 
ca  ’dityah  pura  pa9yati  me  priyam,  se  ’yam  adya  sabhamadhye  gete  bhuvav 
anathavat. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  377 


is  especially  forbidden  by  the  codes,  but  it  is  drunk  without 
compunction  by  the  heroes.1 

The  subject  of  meat-eating  is  not  a trivial  one  to  the  Hindu. 
I need  not  cite  the  numerous  passages  describing  the  slaugh- 
ter and  eating  of  animals  by  the  epic  heroes,  more  especially  as 
I have  elsewhere  illustrated  the  fact  very  fully.2  What  I wish 
to  point  out  particularly  at  the  present  time  is  the  impossi- 
bility of  supposing  that  the  same  plan  of  moral  teacliing  is 
carried  out  not  only  in  the  tales  of  meat>-eating,  but  in  the 
orthodox  teaching  that  meat  may  be  eaten  at  a sacrifice,  and 
in  the  strict  vegetarian  diet  even  at  sacrifices,  which  is  in- 
sisted  upon  in  the  ahinsa  doctrine  of  the  later  epic.3 * * * * 8  Here, 
not  only  is  the  substitution  of  a deer  for  a horse  a new 
feature  in  the  A§vamedha  sacrifice,  xii,  343,  52 ; but  a king 
is  held  up  as  a model  because  there  was  no  killing  of  animals 
at  an  a^varaedha.  For  this  model  king  was  aliinsrah  §ucir 
aksudrah,  that  is  “ he  did  no  harm  to  any  living  thing,  he  was 
pure  and  not  cruel  ” (aksudra  = akrura),  xii,  337,  10.  The 
parts  of  the  sacrifice  were  all  wood-growth,  for  there  is  a 
vaidikl  grutih.  which  says  bljair  yajfiesu  yastavyam;  ajasam- 

1 The  codes  are  early  Sutras  as  well  as  Qastras,  e.  g.,  Gaut.  xxi,  1-7.  In  iv, 
72,  28,  at  a wedding,  suramairevapanani  and  meat  of  all  kinds,  mrgas  and 
medhyah  pajavah.  Karna’s  asuravratam  (surarahitam,  N.)  indicates  his 
habitual  use  of  sura,  iii,  257,  17.  Both  Krishna  and  Arjuna  are  drunk  when 
they  receive  an  ambassador,  v,  59,  5. 

2 Ruling  Caste,  p.  119.  Further  illustrations  also  are  here  given  of  the 

other  vices  mentioned.  My  position  in  regard  to  these  points  I find  it  neces- 

sary to  restate,  owing  to  the  misrepresentation  of  them  in  the  so-called 

Genesis  des  Mahabharata.  The  author  simply  parodies  when,  on  p.  55,  he 

says,  “these  passages  cannot  belong  to  a time”  (etc.).  In  the  presentation 
thus  caricatured  I separated  no  parts  of  the  epic;  but  simply  pointed  out 
that  the  statements  of  the  moral  code  are  not  in  harmony  with  the  action  of 

the  heroes. 

8 To  this,  perhaps,  is  due  the  intrusion  into  epic  sacrifices  (among  agva- 
medha,  rajasuya,  and  other  ancient  rites)  of  the  so-called  pundarika  sacrifice, 
or  sacrifice  of  lotus  (-roots),  which  is  frequently  mentioned,  but  appears  to 
be  unknown  before  the  epic.  The  graciousness  of  the  Vishnu  cult  is  illus- 
trated by  its  insistence  on  vegetal  and  not  animal  offerings.  The  orthodox 
Brahman  (also  the  Qakta)  demands  blood-sacrifices;  Krishna  prohibits  them. 
The  difference,  still  marked,  appears  in  the  epic  and  no  “ synthesis  ” can 
explain  it  otherwise. 


378 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


jiiani  bljani  ccliagan  no  hantum  arbatba  (you  must  not  kill 
goats  at  a sacrifice;  sacrifice  with,  vegetables  and  call  them 
goats)  nai  ’sa  dharmah  satam  deva  yatra  vadhyeta  vai  paguh 
(it  is  not  the  rule  among  good  men  to  kill  animals),  xii,  338, 
4.  Now  this  whole  teaching  is  opposed  not  only  to  the  for- 
mal codes  and  to  the  practice  of  the  epic  heroes,  but  also 
to  the  formal  teaching  of  the  epic  itself,  which  says  ex- 
pressly: “No  man  does  wrong  in  eating  food  prepared  with 
the  sacrificial  verses,”  yajusa  samskrtam  mansam  upabliunjan 
na  dusyati,  xiii,  163,  43.1  Animal  sacrifices  are  inveighed 
against  in  one  part  of  the  epic  and  praised  in  another  (iii,  30, 
etc.).  Even  human  sacrifices  are  not  only  mentioned  but  also 
enjoined  on  the  model  heroes : “ Sacrifices  are  the  chief  means 
of  success.  Do  thou  therefore  institute  a Eajasuya,  a horse- 
sacrifice,  an  all-sacrifice  and  a human  sacrifice,”  xiv,  3,  6-8.2 

As  to  hunting,  all  epic  heroes  hunt  and  eat  the  meat  of 
their  victims ; but  since  tins  practice  is  opposed  to  the  ahinsa 
doctrine  the  casuist  has  a good  deal  of  difficulty  in  reconcil- 
ing the  practice  of  the  model  heroes  with  that  doctrine.  It 
is  said  to  be  permissible,  because  sacrificial  animals  may  be 
eaten,  and  deer  are  brought  under  tins  head  by  a reference 
to  Agastya  who  “ sanctified  them.”  But  while  Rama  is  quite 
content  to  say  that  hunting  even  with  traps  is  permissible, 
because  the  saints  of  royal  blood  practised  it  of  old;  the 
teacher  in  the  Mahabharata  is  still  uneasy,  even  after  con- 
tending that  the  quarry  is  “ sacrificial ; ” so  he  says  that  really 
the  hunter  is  contending  for  his  fife  and  it  is  a matter  of 
fighting,  which  takes  it  out  of  the  category  of  “ injury,”  since 
the  hunter  himself  is  as  likely  to  be  killed  as  to  kill.3  All 

1 The  chine  is  excepted,  prsthamansam,  43.  This  and  vrthamansam  is 
the  same  as  putramaiisam,  that  is,  it  is  as  bad  to  eat  meat  not  used  for 
sacrificial  purposes  as  it  is  to  be  a cannibal,  for  amrtam  brahmana  gava  ity 
etat  trayam  ekatah,  cows  are  as  holy  as  Brahmans,  42.  Compare  also  xiii, 
115  and  116  (below). 

2 Compare  xiii,  103,  32 ££.,  “arkayanas,  turayanas,  human  sacrifices”  (and 
others). 

3 The  passages  of  the  two  epics  are  related.  Compare : ato  rajarsavah 
sarve  mrgayam  yiinti,  Bharata,  with  yiinti  rajarsaya?  ca  ’tra  mrgayam  dhar- 
makovidah,  xiii,  116,  18,  and  11.  iv,  18,  40,  respectively.  The  law  is  laid  down 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  379 


of  this  is  good  sense,  but  it  does  not  save  the  teacher  from 
the  weakness  of  advancing  two  excuses,  and  thus  betraying 
the  fact  that  the  whole  ahihsa  received  from  Buddhism  and 
half  accepted,  is  a late  modification  of  the  practice  of  the 
model  heroes,  who  disregard  the  real  ahihsa.  Yudhisthira 
says  frankly  that  he  likes  meat,  and  Bhlsma  agrees  that  it 
is  a most  pleasant  and  strengthening  food ; but  he  says  that 
those  who  indulge  in  it  go  to  hell,  and  then  explains  that 
warriors  may  practise  hunting  for  the  reasons  given  above. 
It  is  no  wonder  that  the  model  meat-eating  hero  says  “ my 
mind  is  befuddled  on  tliis  point.”  Formal  Brahmanic  law 
accounts  hunting  one  of  the  four  worst  vices  a king  may 
have. 

Such  contradictions  are  not  those  of  a “ great-hearted  poet  ” 
who  scorns  the  narrowness  of  accuracy.  Of  tliis  latter  class 
of  contradictions  the  poem  is  full.  The  Hindu  Ilomer  nods 
continually.  He  forgets  that  his  puppet  is  addressing  Bhlsma 
and  makes  him  use  the  customary  vocative,  Yudhisthira,  be- 
cause the  latter  is  his  ordinary  dummy,  iii,  82,  64;  85,  111. 
He  says  that  even  a wise  man  who  sells  soma  goes  to  hell, 
and  that  the  sale  of  soma  by  one  who  is  wise  is  no  fault,  xiii, 
101,  12  ff.,  xii,  34,  31.  His  gods  have  no  shadows  in  a well- 
known  passage  of  Nala,  but  elsewhere  “ the  gods’  vast  shad- 


in  Manu,  vii,  50.  The  whole  of  xiii,  115  and  116  is  an  awkward  attempt  to 
unite  hunting-morality  with  non-injury,  na  ca  doso  'tra  vidyate  (Rama), 
bhuujan  na  dusyati  (M.).  Rama  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that  to  kill  a monkey 
is  no  crime,  for  the  reasons  given  above,  a peculiarly  unbrahmanic  argu- 
ment. Due  to  the  influence  of  Buddhism  sporadically  represented  is  also 
the  passage  so  similar  to  the  Dhammapada  (Dh.  P.  385,  tam  aliam  brumi 
brahmanam,  and  393,  yamhi  saccau  ca  dhammo  ca,  so  sukhi  so  ca  brahmano) 
in  iii,  216,  14-15,  yas  tu  <;udro  dame  satye  dharme  ca  satatotthitah  tam 
brahmanam  aham  manye  vrttena  hi  bhaved  dvijah,  and  the  parallel  passage 
in  xiii,  143,  46  if.,  which  declares  that  a Qudra  not  only  may  become  a sams- 
krto  dvijah  hereafter,  but  that  he  should  be  revered,  sevyah,  like  a regen- 
erate person,  if  he  is  “pure  of  heart  and  of  subdued  senses,”  since  “ not  birth, 
nor  sacrament,  nor  learning,  nor  stock  (santatih)  make  one  regenerate,  but 
only  conduct”  is  the  cause  of  regeneracy  (dvijatvasya  vrttam  eva  tu  kara- 
nam).  We  have  from  Brahmanas  and  Sutras  a pretty  clear  idea  of  what 
Brahmanism  taught  in  regard  to  the  Qudra.  But  it  never  taught  this  even 
in  the  Upanishads.  It  is  pure  Buddhism,  taught  as  Brahmanism. 


380 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


ows  ” are  seen,  ix,  37,  9.  His  saints  are  stars,  but  again  only 
“like  stars,”  and  finally  “not  stars,”  iii,  25,  14;  261,  13; 

xii,  245,  22 ; 271,  25,  etc.  I lay  as  little  weight  on  such 
contradictions  as  would  any  one  familiar  with  the  history  of 
literature,  and  it  is  a mere  travesty  to  say  that  to  this  class 
belong  such  fundamental  differences  as  those  which  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  precept  and  practice  of  the  epic.  No  poem 
composed  to  teach  certain  doctrines  would  admit  as  its  most 
virtuous  characters  those  who  disregarded  these  doctrines 
systematically. 

Whether  the  fact  that  only  the  pseudo-epic  puts  the  Ath- 
arva-Vecla  first  in  the  list  of  Vedas  be  worthy  of  consideration 
or  not,  it  has  an  interesting  parallel  in  the  fact  that  only  the 
pseudo-epic  places  the  Atharvan  priest  before  the  others. 
In  early  works  the  Acarya,  who  taught  gratis  all  the  Vedas, 
is  declared  to  be  worth  ten  Upadhyayas,  Vas.  xiii,  48;  iii, 
21-22 ; Manu,  ii,  140-145.  This  Upadhyaya  is  the  direct 
etymological  ancestor  of  the  modern  ojha,  wizard.  In  ancient 
times  he  was  a sub-teacher,  who  taught  for  a livelihood  one 
part  of  the  Veda  and  Vedanga,  and  he  is  identified  in  the 
epic  with  the  Purohita,  who,  as  Professor  Weber  has  shown, 
is  essentially  an  Atharva-Veda  priest,1  or  magic-monger,  whom 
seers  regard  as  contemptible.2  The  pseudo-epic  inverts  the 
ancient  ratio  and  makes  the  Upadhyaya  worth  ten  Acaryas, 

xiii,  105,  14-45. 

1 One  example  of  magic  recorded  in  the  epic  is  particularly  interesting, 
as  it  is  referred  to  the  Kaulika-fastra,  or  left-hand  cult,  and  is  a parallel  to 
the  practice  recorded  in  Theocritus’  second  idyll.  It  is  called  chayopasevana 
or  shadow-cult,  and  consists  in  making  an  image  of  an  enemy  and  sticking 
pins  into  it  to  cause  his  death,  iii,  32,  4. 

2 The  Jatakas,  too,  regard  the  Purohita  as  a mere  magic-monger,  though 
they  call  him  also  acariya,  Pick,  Sociale  Gliederung,  p.  110.  On  the  Purohita 
Upadhyaya,  see  the  story  of  Marutta,  xiv,  6,  7 ff.  Here  (and  in  xiii,  10,  30) 
the  office  is  hereditary.  The  king  in  the  former  passage  insists  that  his 
family  Purohita  shall  serve  him  with  an  incantation,  but  the  priest  tells 
him  he  is  engaged  elsewhere,  and  says  “ Go  and  choose  some  one  else  as 
your  Upadhyaya.”  So  in  i,  3,  11  ff.,  where  a proper  Purohita  is  sought  ‘‘to 
kill  bad  magic  ” and  is  installed  as  Upadhyaya.  On  his  practical  importance 
and  honors,  compare  i,  183,  1,  9;  6-7;  v,  126,  2;  127,25;  ix,  41,  12.  On  the 
contempt  with  which  he  is  regarded,  xiii,  10,  36;  94,  33;  135,  11. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EPIC.  381 


The  epic  in  its  present  form  is  swollen  with  many  additions, 
but  they  are  all  cast  into  the  shade  by  the  enormous  mass 
added  bodily  to  the  epic  as  didactic  books,  containing  more 
than  twenty  thousand  stanzas.  I have  elsewhere  fully  ex- 
plained 1 the  machinery  by  which  this  great  appendix  was 
added  to  the  original  work  through  suspending  the  death  of 
the  narrator,  and  shown  that  there  are  many  indications  left  in 
the  epic  pointing  to  the  fact  that  the  narrator  in  the  original 
version  was  actually  killed  before  he  uttered  a word  of  the 
appendix.  As  this  one  fact  disposes  of  the  chief  feature  of 
that  theory  of  the  epic  which  holds  that  the  work  was  origi- 
nally what  it  is  to-day,  and  as  no  sufficient  answer  has  been 
given  to  the  facts  adduced,  there  can  be  no  further  question 
in  regard  to  the  correctness  of  the  term  pseudo-epic  as  applied 
to  these  parts  of  the  present  poem.2  There  has  been,  so  far 
as  I know,  no  voice  heard  in  favor  of  the  so-called  synthetic 
theory  in  regal’d  to  the  nature  of  these  late  books,  except 
certain  utterances  based  apparently  on  a misconception.  Thus 
it  has  been  said,  I think,  by  Professor  Oldenburg,  that  the  dis- 
covery of  the  lotus-stalk  tale  among  the  early  Buddhistic 
legends  tends  to  show  that  the  epic  book  where  it  occurs  is 
antique.3  On  this  point  this  is  to  be  said:  No  one  has  ever 
denied  that  there  are  early  legends  found  in  the  late  parts  of 
the  epic ; but  the  fact  that  this  or  that  legend  repeated  in  the 
pseudo-epic  is  found  in  other  literature,  no  matter  how  old, 
does  nothing  toward  proving  either  the  antiquity  of  the  book 
as  a "whole,  which  is  just  what  the  “ synthetic  ” method  con- 
tends for,  or  the  antiquity  of  the  epic  form  of  the  legend. 
The  story  of  the  Deluge,  for  example,  is  older  than  any 
Buddhistic  monument ; but  this  does  not  prove  that  the  epic 
version  in  the  third  book  is  old.  The  same  is  true  of  the 

1 Am.  Journ.  Phil.,  xix,  p.  7 ff. 

2 In  this  view  I am  glad  to  see  that  Professor  Jacobi,  in  the  review  cited 
above,  fully  agrees.  So  also  M.  Barth,  Journal  des  Savants,  1897,  p.  448. 

3 I am  not  sure  that  I have  here  cited  the  well-known  Russian  savant 
correctly,  as  I have  seen  only  a notice  of  his  paper ; but  I believe  the  essential 
point  is  as  given  above.  The  Lotus-Theft,  however,  perhaps  the  same  story, 
is  alluded  to  as  early  as  Ait.  Br.  v.  30. 


382 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


first  book,  where  the  pauranl  katlia  of  Khandava,  for  ex- 
ample, is  a justifiable  and  instructive  title,  set  as  it  is  in  a 
late  book.  A special  “ ancient  tale  ” is  just  what  it  is ; in- 
truded awkwardly  into  the  continuous  later  narration,  223, 
14-16,  but  still  bearing  traces  of  its  heterogeneous  character, 
as  I have  shown  elsewhere.1  Knowing,  as  we  do,  the  loose 
and  careless  way  in  which  epic  texts  have  been  handed  down 
(compare  the  way  in  which  appear  the  same  passages  given 
in  different  editions  of  the  same  epic  or  in  both  epics),  and 
the  freedom  with  which  additions  were  made  to  the  text, 
we  are  in  such  cases  historically  justified  in  saying  only  that 
certain  matter  of  the  epic  stands  parallel  to  certain  Bhasya 
matter  or  Buddhistic  matter.  A tale  is  found  in  the  epic. 
Its  content  is  pictured  on  a stone  or  found  in  different  form 
in  a Jataka.  What  possible  guarantee  have  we  that  the  epic 
form  of  the  tale  is  as  old  as  the  Jataka,  still  less  that  it  is  as 
old  as  the  stone,  least  of  all  that  the  book  in  which  the  epic 
tale  appears  must  as  a whole  be  antique  ? Only  paucity  of 
solid  data  could  make  eminent  scholars  build  structures  on 
such  a morass. 

Having  already  given  an  example  or  two  of  late  feat- 
ures in  the  pseudo-epic,  I would  now  point  to  some  of  the 
characteristic  marks  of  the  later  poem  in  other  regards.  Mid- 
way in  the  development  of  the  epic  stands  the  intrusion  of 
the  fourth  book,  where  to  fill  out  an  extra  year,  not  recog- 
nized in  the  early  epic,  the  heroes  live  at  court  in  various  dis- 
guises. Here  the  worship  of  Durga  is  prominent,  who  is 
known  by  her  Puranic  title,  mahisasuranaqinl,  iv,  6, 15,  whose 
“grace  gives  victory,”  ib.  30  (though  after  the  intrusion  of 
the  hymn  nothing  further  is  heard  of  her).  The  Durga  here 
depicted  bears  a khetaka  (as  she  does  when  the  same  hymn  is 
repeated  in  vi,  23,  7),  iv,  6,  4.  This  word  for  shield  amid  in- 
numerable passages  describing  arms,  is  unknown  in  the  epic 
except  in  connection  with  Durga,  but  it  is  found  in  posh 
epical  literature.  It  stands  in  the  same  historical  position  as 
does  the  epithet  just  mentioned.  In  these  cases  we  have 
1 Bharata  and  Great  Bharata,  p.  15. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  TIIE  EPIC.  383 


general  evidence  of  the  lateness  of  the  book  as  well  as  of  the 
hymn  to  Durga.  Matter  and  metre  go  hand  in  hand. 

A very  striking  example  is  given  further  in  the  show  of 
arms  which  are  described  in  this  book.  Although  Arjuna  is 
still  a young  man,  yet,  when  the  exhibitor  comes  to  show  his 
bow,  Gan  diva,  he  says  “ And  this  is  the  world-renowned  bow 
of  the  son  of  Prtha,  which  he  carried  for  five-and-sixty  years  ” 

iv,  43, 1-6.  Nothing  could  be  plainer  than  this  passage.  The 
exhibition  of  arms  Avas  composed  when  the  later  poet  had  in 
mind  the  actual  number  of  years  the  hero  carried  the  bow 
according  to  the  epic  story.  He  forgot  that  he  was  composing 
a scene  which  was  to  fit  into  the  hero’s  young  manhood  and 
not  into  the  end  of  his  life.  In  iv,  71,  15  Arjuna  is  recog- 
nized as  still  a “ dark-featured  youth,”  1 and  some  time  after 
this  scene  it  is  expressly  stated  that  it  was  even  then  oidy 
thirty-three  years  since  the  time  when  Arjuna  got  the  bow, 

v,  52,  10  (referring  to  the  Khandava  episode,  i,  225).2 

'While  it  is  obvious  to  one  who  is  willing  to  examine  the 

1 Here  there  is  another  inconsistency.  In  iv,  44,  20,  instead  of  being  a 
Syamo  yuva  as  in  71,  15,  he  is  called  Arjuna  because  of  his  white  steeds 
and  complexion,  “which  is  rare  on  earth,”  where  the  “white”  complexion 
matches  steeds  and  deeds,  “pure  (white).”  In  v,  59, 10,  Arjuna  is  also  dark. 

2 According  to  v,  82,  40,  and  90,  47  and  70,  respectively,  the  time  from  the 
exile  to  the  battle  is  thirteen  years  past  (“  this  is  the  fourteenth  ”).  Ignor- 
ing the  discrepancy  between  twelve  and  thirteen  years  of  exile,  we  must 
allow  at  least  twenty-nine  years  for  Arjuna  to  live  before  the  Khandava 
incident,  which,  added  to  thirty-three,  makes  sixty-four,  which  would  be 
Arjuna’s  age  when  “ a youth,”  before  the  war  begins ! If,  however,  we  over- 
look the  statement  of  v,  52,  10,  and  add  the  years  of  exile  to  twenty-nine, 
we  still  get  forty-odd  years  as  his  life-limit  when  he  has  carried  the  bow 
sixty-five  years.  It  must  be  remembered  that  Arjuna  was  twenty-four  years 
in  exile,  twelve  years  before  the  dicing  and  twelve  or  thirteen  after  it,  and 
that  Abhimanyu  was  sixteen  when  the  war  broke  out  (forty-four  years  for 
Arjuna  if  he  won  DraupadI  when  he  was  sixteen,  and  he  could  not  have 
been  twenty  years  older  at  that  time).  The  synthesist  may  say  “How  nar- 
row ! Poets  do  not  regard  such  discrepancies,”  but  even  poets  are  generally 
aware  that  a hero  less  than  fifty  cannot  have  carried  a bow  for  more  than 
sixty  years,  especially  when  he  got  it  at  the  age  of  forty  or  thereabouts ! 
Krishna  dies  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  after  the  war  (xi,  25,  44),  which  should 
make  Arjuna  about  thirty  at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  This  throws  a side- 
light on  the  intrusion  of  the  twelve-years  exile  as  a brahmacarin,  spoken  of 
above.  ' 


384 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


epic  with  careful  analysis  that  the  Gita  and  the  thirteenth  book, 
for  example,  are  purely  priestly  products,  and  that  one  of  them 
is  on  the  whole  as  early  as  the  other  on  the  whole  is  late,1 
it  is  not  easy  to  decide  what  is  the  relation  between  these 
great  groups  of  verses  and  the  heroic  epic,  with  which  neither 
has  any  inner  connection.  Nevertheless,  although  there  can 
be  as  a result  of  the  inquiry  only  the  historical  probability 
usual  in  answering  the  problems  of  ancient  literature,  and  not 
such  a mathematical  quod  erat  demonstrandum  as  the  synthe- 
sist  demands,  we  are  not  wholly  at  a loss  to  reply  to  this 
question.  In  the  first  place  we  have  a very  instructive  anal- 
ogy in  the  intrusion  into  both  epic  texts  of  an  incongruous 
didactic  chapter  found  both  in  the  Ramayana  and  the  Maha- 
bliarata,  which  bears  on  its  face  evidence  of  its  gradual  expan- 
sion. But  even  without  this  evidence  it  will,  I think,  be 
clear  even  to  the  synthesist  that  the  same  chapter  cannot 
have  arisen  independently  in  both  epics ; so  that  in  tliis  in- 
stance we  have  a plain  case  of  the  dynamic  intrusion  into 
an  epic  text  of  foreign  didactic  material.2 

Again,  the  presence  of  a huge  volume  of  extraneous  addi- 
tions, containing  both  legends  and  didactic  stuff,  now  tagged 
on  to  the  epic  as  its  nineteenth  book  and  recognized  in  the 
last  part  of  the  epic  itself,  is  an  object-lesson  in  dynamic 
expansion  which  in  itself  shows  how  the  pseudo-epic  may 
with  perfect  regard  to  historic  probability  be  supposed  to  have 
been  added  to  the  epic  proper.  The  Ramayana  too  is  instruc- 
tive, as  it  shows  that  whole  chapters  have  been  interpolated, 
as  admitted  by  its  commentator.  The  great  epic  itself  admits 
that  there  is  a difference  between  the  main  epic  and  the  epi- 
sodes, in  saying  that  the  former  is  only  one-fourth  of  the 
whole,  and  relegating  seventy-six  of  its  hundred  thousand 
stanzas  to  the  domain  of  the  episodic  epic.3 

1 Compare  the  chapter  on  metres. 

2 This  chapter  is  the  Kaccit  section  ii,  5 and  It.  ii,  100,  previously  referred 
to,  discussed  in  detail  in  AJP.  xix,  147  ff. 

8 As  an  interesting  example  of  the  growth  of  Sanskrit  popular  poems, 
Mr.  Grierson  informs  me  that  there  is  extant  a vrddha  or  brhad  Vishnu 
Purana,  which  contains  large  additions  to  the  received  text. 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  T1IE  EPIC.  385 


That  the  priests  developed  the  epic  for  their  own  interests, 
goes  without  saying ; hence  the  long  chapters  of  priestly 
origin  on  the  duty  of  charity  — to  priests.  That  they  added 
legends  has  already  been  shown,  and  the  metre  still  attests 
the  approximate  age  of  a Nala  or  a Sulabha  episode.  But 
besides  didactic  and  legendary  masses,  it  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  popularize  the  poem,  to  keep  some  sort  of  proportion 
between  the  tale  and  its  tumors.  Hence  the  fighting  episodes 
were  increased,  enlarged,  rewritten,  and  inserted  doubly,  the 
same  scene  and  description  occurring  in  two  different  places. 
For  this  reason,  while  there  is  an  appreciable  difference  in  the 
metre  of  the  different  episodes  which  were  inserted  whole,  the 
fighting  scenes  are  chiefly  of  one  Qloka-type,  — a type  later 
than  that  of  some  of  the  episodes,  but  on  a par  with  that  of 
the  later  didactic  and  narrative  insertions. 

"Whether  the  original  tale  was  occupied  with  the  Pandus  or 
not,  the  oldest  heroes  are  not  of  this  family,  and  the  old  Vedic 
tradition,  while  it  recognizes  Bharatas  and  Kurus,  knows 
notliing  about  Pandus.  The  Ivuru  form  of  epic  may  perhaps 
be  preserved  in  the  verse  (restored)  of  one  of  the  oldest 
Upanishads,  Chand.  Up.  iv,  17,  9: 

yato  yata  avartate  tad  tad  gacchati  manavah 

Kurun  aqva  ’bhiraksati, 

a gatha  restored  by  omitting  an  evident  interpolation.1  The 
style  is  like  the  usual  epic  turn,  e.  g.,  II.  vi,  106,  22, 

yena  yena  ratho  yati  tena  tena  pradbavati. 

Nevertheless,  a Pandu  epic  of  some  sort  existed  as  early 
as  the  third  century  b.  c.,  as  is  shown  by  the  testimony  of 
Panini  and  the  Jatakas  (which  may  indeed  give  testimony  for 
an  era  even  later  than  the  third  century),  though  in  the  latter 
literature  the  epic  story  is  not  presented  as  it  is  in  our  epic. 
This  takes  us  from  the  form  to  the  date  of  the  Mahabharata. 

1 Compare  Muller,  SBE.  i,  p.  71.  See  also  the  Sutra  verse  on  the  Kurus’ 
defeat,  cited  by  Professor  Ludwig,  Abh.  Bohm.  Ges.  1884,  p.  5. 


25 


CHAPTER  SIX. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 

First,  to  define  the  epic.  If  we  mean  by  this  word  the 
beginnings  of  epic  story,  as  they  may  be  imagined  in  the 
“circling  narration,”  in  the  original  Bharati  Katha,  or  in 
the  early  mention  of  tales  of  heroes  who  are  also  epic  char- 
acters, the  time  of  this  epic  poetry  may  lie  as  far  back  as 
700  B.  c.  or  1700  B.  c.,  for  aught  we  know.  There  are  no 
further  data  to  go  upon  than  the  facts  that  a Bharata  is  men- 
tioned in  the  later  Sutra,  that  the  later  part  of  the  (latapatha 
Brahmana  mentions  the  “ circling  narration,”  and  that  akhy- 
ana,  stories,  some  in  regard  to  epic  personages,  told  in  prose 
and  verse,  go  back  to  the  early  Vedic  period.1  We  must  be 
content  with  Weber’s  conservative  summary:  “The  Maha- 
bharata-saga  (not  the  epic)  in  its  fundamental  parts  extends 
to  the  Brahmana  period.”2 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  mean  the  epic  as  we  now  have  it, 
a truly  synthetical  view  must  determine  the  date,  and  we  shall 
fix  the  time  of  the  present  Mahabharata  as  one  when  the 
sixty-four  kalas  were  known,  when  continuous  iambic  padas 
were  written,  when  the  latest  systems  of  philosophy  were 
recognized,  when  the  trimurti  was  acknowledged,  when  there 
were  one  hundred  and  one  Yajur  Yeda  schools,  when  the 
sun  was  called  Miliira,  when  Greek  words  had  become  familiar, 

1 On  the  early  prose-poetic  akliyanaof  the  Vedic  and  Brahmanic  age,  com- 
pare the  essays  by  von  Bradke,  Journal  of  the  German  Oriental  Society, 
xxxvi,  p.  474  ff. ; and  Oldenberg,  ib.  xxxvii,  p.  54  if.,  and  xxxix,  p.  62  ff.  Ballad 
recitations,  akkhana,  are  mentioned  in  early  Buddhistic  works,  which  we  may 
doubtfully  assign,  as  Professor  Rhys  Davids  does  undoubtingly,  to  the  fifth 
century  n.  c. 

2 Episches  im  Vedischen  Ritual,  p.  8 : Die  Mbharata-Sage  reicht  somit  ihrer 
Grundlage  nach  in  die  Brahmana  Periode  hinein. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


387 


and  the  Greeks  were  known  as  wise  men,  when  the  eighteen 
islands  and  eighteen  Pur  anas  were  known,  when  was  known 
the  whole  literature  down  to  grammars,  commentaries,  Dliarma- 
gastras,  grantlias,  pustakas,  ivritten  Vedas,  and  complete  MSS. 
of  the  Mahabharata  including  the  Harivaiiga.  But  this  is  a 
little  too  much,  and  even  the  inconsistent  synthesist,  who 
draws  on  a large  vituperative  thesaurus  whenever  another 
hints  at  intrusions  into  the  epic,  may  well  be  pardoned  for 
momentarily  ceasing  to  be  synthetic  and  exclaiming  with 
reason  Da  liegt  doch  die  Interpolation  vor  Augen  ! 1 

That  the  complete  Mahabharata,  for  the  most  part  as  we 
have  it  to-day,  cannot  be  later  than  the  fourth  or  fifth  century 
of  our  era,  follows  from  the  fact,  brought  out  first  by  Pro- 
fessor Bhandarkar  and  then  by  Professor  Bidder,  that  it  is 
referred  to  as  a Smrti  in  inscriptions  dated  not  much  later 
than  this,  while  by  the  fifth  century  at  least  it  was  about  as 
long  as  it  is  now.2  But  we  may  go  further  back  and  say  with 
comparative  certainty  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  parts 
latest  added,  the  introduction  to  the  first  book  and  the  last 
book,  even  the  pseudo-epic  was  completed  as  early  as  200  A.  d. 
For  the  Roman  denarius  is  known  to  the  Harivanga  and  the 
Harivanga  is  known  to  the  first  part  of  the  first  book  and  to 
the  last  book  (implied  also  in  the  twelfth  book) ; hence  such 
parts  of  these  books  as  recognize  the  Harivanga  must  be 
later  than  the  introduction  of  Roman  coins  into  the  country 
(100-200  A.  D.) ; but  though  coins  are  mentioned  over  and 
over,3  nowhere,  even  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  books,  is 
the  denarius  alluded  to. 

1 Genesis  des  Mahabharata,  p.  129. 

2 Quite  important,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  fact  recently  emphasized  by 
Dr.  Cartellieri,  WZ.  xiii,  p.  69, 1899  : “ Fur  Subandhu  und  Bana  war  das  Maha- 
bharata . . . kein  dharmagastra,  sondern  ein  Kavya,”  which  the  poem  itself 
proclaims  itself  to  be,  i,  1,  61. 

3 The  money  recognized  is  gold  and  silver  “ made  and  unmade  ” and  niskas, 
though  chests  of  precious  metal  are  mentioned  and  a great  deal  of  money  is 
found  when  excavating  for  treasure  (perhaps  near  Taxila).  When  the  realm 
is  prosperous  the  soldier’s  pay  is  “not  copper.”  For  references  to  money, 
coins,  etc.,  see  ii,  61,  2, 8,  20-30 ; iii,  15,  22  ; 255,  17  ; iv,  18,  18  ; 22, 10 ; 38,  43 ; 
xii,  328,  46  (threefold  test  of  gold) ; xiv,  65,  20  (amount  of  treasure).  On  the 


388 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


Another  interesting  item  is  contributed  by  the  further 
negative  evidence  afforded  in  the  matter  of  copper-plate 
grants.  Gifts  to  priests  are  especially  urged  in  the  Anugasana, 
and  the  gift  of  land  above  all  is  praised  in  the  most  extrava- 
gant terms.  We  know  that  by  the  second  century  of  our  era, 
and  perhaps  earlier,  such  gifts  to  priests  were  safeguarded  by 
copper-plate  grants,  bearing  the  technical  name  of  patta  (pata) 
or  tamrapatta,  and  elaborate  instructions  for  their  making  are 
given  in  the  law-book  of  Narada  and  Vishnu,  while  they  are 
mentioned  in  the  code  of  Yajhavalkya,  but  not  before ; for 
Manu,  though  he  mentions  the  boundary-line  being  “ re- 
corded,” nibaddha,  has  no  suggestion  of  plate-grants.  The 
epic,  however,  at  least  the  pseudo-epic,  speaks  of  writing 
down  even  the  Vedas,  and  recognizes  rock-inscriptions,  but 
in  the  matter  of  recorded  grants  to  priests  says  nothing  at  all ; 
much  less  does  it  recognize  such  a thing  as  a tamrapatta. 
The  only  terms  used  are  parigraha  and  agrahara,  but  the 
latter,  which  is  very  rare,  is  never  used  in  the  sense  of  a land- 
grant,  though  gramagrahara  occurs  once  in  the  later  epic,  xv, 
14,  14.  Even  the  general  gasana  is  never  so  employed.1  It 
is  true  that  this  negative  evidence  does  not  prove  the  epic  to 
have  been  completed  before  the  tamrapatta  was  known ; but 
on  the  other  hand,  it  is  unlikely,  were  the  tamrapatta  the 
usual  means  of  clinching  a bhumidana  when  the  Anugasana 
was  composed,  that  this  mode  would  have  passed  unnoticed, 


conquest  of  Taksafila,  see  i,  3,  20.  According  to  ii,  61,  20,  the  soldier’s  pay  is 
“ a thousand  a month,”  here  presumably  copper. 

1 Legal  documents  appear  first  in  Vas.  Dh.  S.,  xvi,  10,  15,  under  the  name 
lekhita.  Probably  the  first  deeds  were  written  on  cloth  or  boards,  phalaka,  as 
a board-copy  precedes  the  rock-inscription,  ASWI.,  iv,  p.  102.  The  epic 
has  picture- pata,  as  in  xv,  32,  20,  dadr£e  citram  patagatarii  yatha  (a$carya- 
bhutam)  and  often.  Rock-inscriptions  are  mentioned  only  in  xiii,  139,  43, 
cirarh  tisthati  medinyam  §aile  lekhyam  iva  ’rpitam.  Written  Vedas  are 
alluded  to  only  ib.  23,  72.  Seals  are  used  as  passports,  iii,  15,  19.  Compare 
also  ii,  55,  10,  na  lekhyam  na  ca  matrka ; v,  148,  23,  citrakara  iva  ’lekhyam 
krtva ; ib.  189,  1,  “ lekhya  and  other  arts;”  vii,  99,  7,  namafikitah  (compare 
above,  p.  205),  of  arrows.  The  conjunct  ganaka  lekhakah  occurs  only  in  xv, 
14,  8,  and  in  the  verse  of  the  Kaccit  section,  ii,  5,  72,  which  is  a subsequent 
addition  even  to  this  late  chapter;  AJ1\,  xix,  p.  149. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


389 


and  we  may  conclude  that  the  gift-sections  of  this  book  were 
at  least  as  old  as  the  oldest  copper-plate  grants  to  priests.1 

The  time  of  the  whole  Mahabharata  generally  speaking 
may  then  be  from  200-400  A.  D.  This,  however,  takes  into 
account  neither  subsequent  additions,  such  as  we  know  to 
have  been  made  in  later  tunes,  nor  the  various  recastings  in 
verbal  form,  which  may  safely  be  assumed  to  have  occurred 
at  the  hands  of  successive  copyists. 

For  the  terminus  a quo,  the  external2  evidence  in  regard  to 
the  Pandu  epic,  Mahabharata,  though  scanty,  is  valuable.  It 
shows  us  first  that  the  Mahabharata  is  not  recognized  in  any 
Sanskrit  literary  work  till  after  the  end  of  the  Brahmana 
period,  and  only  in  the  latest  Sutras,  where  it  is  an  evident 
intrusion  into  the  text.  For  the  Grhya  Sutras  belong  to  the 
close  of  the  Sutra  period,  and  here  the  words  Bharata  and 
Mahabharata  occur  in  a list  of  authors  and  works  as  substi- 
tutes for  the  earlier  mention  of  Itiliasa  and  Purana  in  the  same 

1 The  verse  xii,  56,  52,  which  the  author  of  Das  Mahabharata  als  Epos  und 
Rechtsbuch,  p.  187,  adduces  to  prove  that  written  deeds  were  known,  is  given 
by  him  without  the  context.  When  this  is  examined  it  is  found  that  the  verse 
refers  not  to  land  but  to  a king’s  realm.  Neither  does  the  text  nor  the  com- 
mentator necessarily  (as  asserted,  loc.  cit.)  make  it  refer  to  land-grants.  The 
word  used  is  visaya,  a king’s  realm  or  country  (as  in  xiv,  32,  8)  and  the  poet 
says  that  ministers  who  are  given  too  much  liberty  “ rend  the  king’s  realm  by 
counterfeits  ” (or  falsifications).  The  situation  and  the  analogy  of  59, 49,  and 
69, 22,  and  100, 6,  where  general  deceit  and  dissension  are  the  means  employed 
to  destroy  a realm,  make  it  most  probable  that  the  word  pratirupaka  is  used 
here  to  distinguish  the  forged  laws  and  edicts  of  the  usurping  ministers  from 
the  true  laws  which  the  helpless  king  would  enact.  Such  suppression  of  the 
king  and  substitution  of  false  edicts  are  thoroughly  Oriental,  and  may  easily 
be  illustrated  by  the  use  of  this  very  word,  pratirupaka,  in  the  Lotus  of  True 
Law,  where  pratirupaka  means  just  such  “false  laws”  substituted  for  the 
real  king's  true  laws  (iii,  22;  SBE.,  xxi,  p.  68,  note,  with  Iranian  parallel). 
The  commentator  says  “ corrupt  the  country  by  false  edict-documents,”  that 
is,  he  gives  a general  application  to  the  words,  which  may  be  interpreted  as 
referring  to  land-grants,  but  this  is  not  necessary.  Possible  would  be  the 
later  law-meaning  of  frauds  of  any  kind,  perhaps  counterfeit  money.  Certain 
it  is  that  the  passage  is  not  “ a direct  proof  for  forged  documents,”  still  less 
for  “ false  documents  by  means  of  which  any  one  gets  land.” 

2 Cis-indic  evidence  is  negative  and  without  weight.  Megasthenes,  c.  300 
b.  c.,  has  left  no  fragment  on  Hindu  epics,  and  the  source  of  Dio  Chrysos- 
tomos  (100  a.  d.),  who  mentions  a Hindu  Homer,  is  unknown. 


390 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


place,  so  recent  a substitution  in  fact  that  some  even  of  the 
latest  of  these  Sutras  still  retain  Itihasa  and  Purana.  But 
when  the  words  do  actually  occur  they  are  plainly  additions 
to  the  earlier  list.  Thus  in  (pihkhayana  iv,  10,  13,  the  list 
is  Sumantu,  Jaimini,  Vaigampayana,  Paila,  the  Sutras,  the 
Bhasya,  Gargya,  etc.,  with  no  mention  of  the  epic.  But  the 
Agvalayana  text,  iii,  4,  4,  inserts  the  epic  thus:  Sumantu, 
Jaimini,  Vaigampayana,  Paila,  the  Sutras,  the  Bhasya,  the 
Bharata,  the  Mahabharata , dharmacaryas,  Jdnanti,  Biiliavi, 
Gargya,  etc.  The  next  step  is  taken  by  the  Cambavya  text, 
which  does  not  notice  the  Bharata  and  recognizes  only  the 
Mahabharata  (whereas  some  texts  make  even  the  Agvalayana 
Sutra  omit  Mahabharata  altogether,  reading  Bharata-clhar- 
macaryah).  When  it  is  remembered  that  these  and  other  lists 
of  literature  are  not  uncommon  in  the  Sutras,  and  that  nowhere 
do  we  find  any  other  reference  to  the  Mahabharata,  it  becomes 
evident  that  we  have  important  negative  testimony  for  the 
lateness  of  the  epic  in  such  omission,  which  is  strengthened 
by  the  evidently  interpolated  mention  of  the  poem,  withal  in 
one  of  the  latest  Sutras.1 

Patanjali,  it  may  be  admitted,  recognizes  a Pandu  epic  in 
the  verse,  asidvitlyo  ’nusasara  Pandavam,  and  in  his  account 
of  the  dramatic  representation  of  the  sacred  legend,  indis- 
solubly connected  with  the  tale.2  This  takes  us  at  farthest 
back  to  the  second  century ; but  this  date  (p.  56)  is  doubtful. 

Panini  knows  the  names  of  the  epic  heroes,  and  recognizes 
the  Arjuna-Krishna  cult  in  giving  a derivative  meaning 
“ worshipper  of  Arjuna  ” (Krishna).  He  also,  which  is  more 
important,  recognizes  the  name  Mahabharata.  It  cannot  rea- 
sonably be  claimed,  I think,  that  this  name  does  not  refer  to 
the  epic.  It  stands,  indeed,  beside  maha-Jabala,  and  might  (as 
masculine)  be  supposed  from  this  circumstance  to  mean  “ the 

1 That  these  lists,  anyway,  are  not  of  cogent  historical  value,  has  lately 
been  emphasized  by  Dr.  Winternitz  in  his  last  review  of  Dahlmann.  They 
certainly  cannot  help  in  dating  the  epic  before  the  fourth  century.  The 
intrusion  of  the  genus  itihasa-purana  into  such  lists  is  illustrated  even  in  the 
Upanishads.  Compare  Mund.  Up.  i,  5,  with  the  note  at  SBE.,  xv,  p.  27. 

2 Compare  Weber,  IS.,  i,  pp.  147-149;  xiii,  pp.  350-357. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


391 


great  descendant  of  Bharata,”  yet  not  only  do  other  words  in 
the  list  show  that  this  is  not  necessary,  but  further,  there  is 
no  instance,  either  in  the  epic  itself  or  in  outside  literature, 
where  Mahabharata  means  a man,  or  where  it  does  not  mean 
the  epic.  In  this  particular,  therefore,  as  it  gives  me  pleasure 
to  state,  I believe  that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dalilmann  is  right,  and 
that  Panini  knew  an  epic  called  the  Mahabharata.  That  he 
knew  it  as  a Pandu  epic  may  reasonably  be  inferred  from  his 
mentioning,  e.  g.,  Yudhisthira,  the  cliief  hero  of  the  epic.1 

But  no  evidence  lias  yet  been  brought  forward  to  show  con- 
clusively that  Panini  lived  before  the  third  century  B.  c. 

Again,  it  is  one  thing  to  say  that  Panini  knew  a Pandu 
Mahabharata,  but  quite  another  to  say  that  his  epic  was  our 
present  epic.  The  Pandu  epic  as  we  have  it  represents  a 
period  subsequent  not  only  to  Buddhism  500  B.  c.,  but  to  the 
Greek  invasion  300  b.  c.  Buddhistic  supremacy  already  de- 
cadent is  implied  by  the  passages  (no  synthesist  may  logically 
disregard  them)  which  allude  contemptuously  to  the  edukas 
or  Buddhistic  monuments  as  having  ousted  the  temples  of 
the  gods.  Thus  in  iii,  190,  65,  “ They  will  revere  edukas, 
they  will  neglect  the  gods ; ” ib.  67,  “ the  earth  shall  be 
piled  with  edukas,2  not  adorned  with  god-houses.”  With 
such  expressions  may  be  compared  the  thoroughly  Buddhis- 
tic epithet,  caturmaharajika,  in  xii,  339,  40,  and  Buddliistic 
philosophy  as  expounded  in  the  same  book.  More  impor- 
tant than  this  evidence,  however,  which  from  the  places 
where  it  is  found  may  all  belong  to  the  recasting  of  the 
epic,  is  the  architecture,3  which  is  of  stone  and  metal  and 

1 He  mentions  him  not  as  a Pandu  but  only  as  a name,  like  Gavisthira ; 
to  distinguish  the  name  from  the  expression  (e.  g.  R.  vi,  41,  65)  yudhi  sthirah, 
I presume. 

2 Lassen,  loe.  cit.,  p.  490.  So,  iii,  188,  56,  vihara  ; 49,  pasanda ; 67,  seven 
suns  ; all  found  in  one  place  (p.  88).  See  final  notes. 

3 Buddhistic  buildings  with  wooden  fences  and  walls  of  brick  and  stone 
are  alluded  to  in  Cull,  vi,  3,  8.  In  connection  with  this  subject  it  must  be 
remembered  that  even  the  late  Grhya  Sutras  in  giving  directions  for  house- 
building know  only  wooden  thatched  houses.  The  Greek  account  states 
that  the  Hindus  used  only  mud,  wood,  and  brick.  This  makes  it  improbable 
that  wood  architecture  had  almost  disappeared  in  the  third  century. 


392 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


is  attributed  in  all  tlie  more  important  building  operations 
to  the  demon  Asura  or  Danava  Maya,  who,  by  his  magic 
power,1  builds  such  huge  buildings  as  are  described,  im- 
mense moated  palaces  with  arches  and  a roof  supported  by 
a thousand  pillars.  There  is  in  India  no  real  architecture 
that  goes  back  of  the  Buddhistic  period,  and  of  both  Bud- 
dhistic and  Jain  architecture  the  remains  are  distinctly  in- 
fluenced by  Greek  models.2 

The  Greeks  are  described  as  a western  people  (northwest- 
ern, with  Kambojas),  famous  as  fighters,  wearing  especially 
fine  metal  armor,  and  their  overthrow  is  alluded  to.  The 
allies  engaged  in  the  epic  battles  are  not  only  native  princes 
but  also  Greek  kings  and  Persians,  who  come  out  of  the  West 
to  the  war.  In  one  passage  the  Greeks  are  described  as 
“ all-knowing,”  though  I tliink  tins  to  be  a late  interpolated 
chapter.3 * * * * 8  But  ra§i,  iii,  190,  90,  surely  implies  the  zodiac. 

But  even  if  the  passage  mentioning  all-knowing  Greeks  be 
an  interpolation,  the  fact  that  the  “ Greeks,”  who  must  here 
be  the  real  Greeks,  bear  the  name  Yavanas,  shows  that  the 

1 So  the  great  walls  and  palaces  of  Patna,  which  are  especially  mentioned 
in  the  Maliabhasya,  are  attributed  by  tradition  to  demoniac  power  (Fa- 
Hien),  and  the  great  architecture  of  Mathura  is  also  ascribed  to  superhuman 
power.  On  Maya’s  maya,  to  which  is  attributed  the  most  extensive  building, 
compare  ii,  1 ; v,  100,  1-2;  viii,  33,  17  (Asura  cities) ; R.  iv,  51,  10.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  Benares  ghats  are  referred  to  in  vii,  60,  1 (Gaiiga)  cayanaih 
kancanai?  cita.  “Golden”  buildings  maybe  only  gilded  wood  (as  they  are 
to-day).  Plated  stone  is  mentioned  in  ii,  3,  32.  Old  Patna’s  noble  “ walls  and 
palaces  ” are  now  unfortunately  under  the  Ganges,  in  all  probability. 

2 The  caitya  and  stupa  mounds  (only  R.  has  a caityaprasada,  v,  43,  3),  like 

the  caves,  are  not  to  he  compared  with  roofed  palaces  of  stone  and  marble. 

A statue  of  iron  is  mentioned,  ayaso  Bhimah,  xi,  12, 15;  iron  bells  in  temples, 

xii,  141,  32.  In  ii,  4,  21-22,  the  Greeks  are  compared  to  Kalakeya  Asuras. 

Here,  along  with  the  king  of  Kamboja,  is  mentioned  one  king,  (the)  Kam- 

pana,  “who  was  the  only  man  that  ever  frightened,  kamp,  the  Yavanas,  (men) 
strong,  heroic,  and  skilled  in  weapons.  Like  as  Indra  frightened  the  Kiila- 
keya  Asuras,  so”  (K.  frightened  the  Greeks).  Compare  also  Ivalayavana 
who  had  the  Garga-glory  (p.  15)  in  xii,  340,  95,  Weber,  loc.  cit. 

8 Compare  ii,  14,  14 ; iii,  254,  18 ; xii,  101,  1 ff. ; Ruling  Caste,  p.  305 ; viii, 
45,  36,  sarvajna  Yavanah,  in  the  expansion  of  the  preceding  vituperative  sec- 
tion, where  from  hanta  bhiiyo  bravimi  te,  in  45,  1,  Karna  bursts  out  again  in 
new  virulence,  which  looks  almost  too  much  like  a later  adornment. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


393 


Yavanas  elsewhere  mentioned1  are  also  Greeks  and  not  some 
other  people  exclusively.  It  is  a desperate  resort  to  imagine 
that,  in  all  these  cases,  well-known  names  refer  to  other 
peoples,  as  the  synthesist  must  assume  in  the  case  of  the 
Greeks,  Bactrians,  Persians,  Huns,  and  other  foreigners  men- 
tioned frequently  throughout  the  poem.  A further  well- 
known  indication  of  Greek  influence  is  given  by  the  fact 
that  the  Ksudrakas  and  Malavas  were  united  into  one  nation 
for  the  first  time  by  the  invasion  of  Alexander,2  and  that 
they  appear  thus  united  under  the  combined  name  ksudra- 
kamalavas  in  the  epic,  ii,  52,  15.  The  Romans,  Ilomakas, 
are  mentioned  but  once,  in  a formal  list  of  all  possible 
peoples,  ii,  51,  17  (cannibals,  Chinese,  Greeks,  Persians, 
Scythians,  and  other  barbarians),  and  stand  thus  in  marked 
contrast  to  the  Greeks  and  Persians,  Pahlavas,  who  are 
mentioned  very  often ; though  in  the  account  of  Krishna 
killing  the  Yavana  whose  name  was  Ivaserumat,  iii,  12,  32,  it 
has  been  suggested  by  Weber  that  the  name  was  really  of 
Latin  origin.  It  is  clear  from  tliis  that,  while  the  Greeks 
were  familiar,  the  Romans  were  as  yet  but  a name.  Further, 
the  distinct  prophecy  that  “ Scythians,  Greeks,  and  Bactrians 
will  rule  unrighteously  in  the  evil  age  to  come  ” (kali-age), 
which  occurs  in  iii,  188,  35,  is  too  clear  a statement  to  be 
ignored  or  explained  away.  When  tliis  was  written  the 
peoples  mentioned  had  already  ruled  Hindustan.  If  tliis 
were  the  only  place  where  the  names  occurred,  the  Markan- 
deya  episode,  it  might  be  regarded  as  part  of  an  interpolation 
in  mass.  But  the  people  here  described  as  foreign  oppres- 
sors are  all  mentioned  repeatedly  as  barbarians  and  warriors, 
associated  generally,  as  in  the  passage  just  mentioned,  with 
other  peoples  of  the  West,  such  as  Abhlras  and  Ivambojas. 
Thus  in  iii,  51,  23,  “ Singhalese,  Barbaras  and  barbarians,3 

1 Yavanas  or  Yaunas  (xii,  207,  42-3),  i.  e.,  Ionians.  So  Jacobi,  loc.  cit. 

2 Lassen,  Ind.  Alt.  ii,  pp.  169-171 ; Weber,  Ind.  Stud,  xiii,  p.  375. 

3 That  is  both  the  Hindu  and  native  name  for  Ceylon,  and  the  Greek  and 
Hindu  name  for  barbarian!  Sinhalan  Barbaran  Mlecchan  ye  ca  Lankaniva- 
sinah.  The  word  barbaras  (=  ol  Bap&apoi)  occurs  in  both  epics  but  not  in 
literature  of  an  earlier  date.  Weber,  Ind.  Lit.,  p.  237,  note,  calls  attention 


394 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


and  the  inhabitants  of  Lanka”  are  grouped  together,  in  con- 
trast to  the  “Western  realms,  those  of  the  Persians,  Greeks, 
and  Scythians”  (with  the  folk  of  Kashmeer,  Daradas,  Kira- 
tas,  Huns,  Chinese,  Tusaras,  Indus-dwellers,  etc.)-  So  in  xii, 
207,  43,  opposed  to  sinners  of  the  South,  are  the  Northern 
sinners,  Greeks  (Yaunas),  Ivambojans,  Kandahar-people  (Gan- 
dharas),  Kiratas  and  Barbaras,  who  are  here  said  to  be  wander- 
ing over  this  earth  from  the  tune  of  the  Treta  age,  having 
customs  like  those  of  wild  animals  or  of  the  lowest  castes. 

Such  allusions  as  these  can  mean  only  this:  the  Pandu- 
Epic,  in  its  present  form,  was  composed  after  the  Greek  inva- 
sion.1 I have  suggested  above  that  the  form  of  the  name 
Bactrian  does  not  compel  us  to  accept  Professor  Weber’s 
conclusions  in  regard  to  the  date  of  passages  now  containing 
this  form.  If  this  seems  inconclusive,  there  is  nothing  for  it 
but  to  refer  the  epic  in  its  present  form  to  a poshChristian 
era.  But  even  otherwise,  the  presence  of  the  Greeks  and 
Bactrians  as  warriors  and  rulers  in  India  cannot  be  explained 
out  of  the  poem  by  a loose  reference  to  the  fact  that  India 
had  heard  of  Yavanas  before  Alexander. 

This  brings  us  to  another  point  of  view.  A stanza  fol- 
lowing the  one  last  cited  proclaims  that  “ even  Narada  recog- 
nizes Krishna’s  supremacy,”  an  utterance  2 which  points  clearly 
to  a comparatively  recent  belief  in  Krishna  as  All-god,  a point 
long  recognized.  On  the  basis  of  the  Arjuna  cult  implied 
by  Panini,  the  synthesist  urges  that  the  whole  epic,  in  its 
present  Srnrti  form  and  with  its  belief  in  the  all-godhead  of 
the  Ivrishna-Arjuna  pair,  is  as  old  as  the  fifth  century  B.  C. 
But  even  if  an  Arjuna  cult  were  traced  back  to  this  date, 

to  this  constant  union  of  Greek  with  other  Western  peoples  in  other  literature 
as  well.  The  name  was  extended  to  Indo-Scythians  and  later  even  to  Persians 
and  Arabians.  Weber,  loc.  eit. 

1 As  has  long  ago  been  suggested,  of  the  Greeks  mentioned  in  the  epic  among 
the  allied  forces,  Bhagadatta  may  be  Apollodotus  the  founder  of  the  Graeco- 
Indian  kingdom  (160  b.  c.).  Weber,  Ind.  Lit.,  p.  204  ft.  This  Greek  is  espe- 
cially mentioned  not  only  as  “ruler  of  the  Yavanas,”  but  as  the  friend  of  the 
epic  hero’s  father,  that  is,  as  known  to  an  older  generation,  ii,  14,  15;  von 
Schroeder,  Lit.  und  Cultur,  p.  463  (with  other  references). 

2 Narado  'py  atha  Krsnasya  param  mene  . . . ^afvatattvam,  xii,  207,  48. 


DATE  OF  TIIE  EPIC. 


395 


there  would  still  be  no  evidence  in  regard  to  the  cult  of  the 
twain  as  All-god.  And  this  is  the  claim  of  the  present  epic, 
except  where,  as  in  the  case  just  cited,  incredulity  is  involun- 
tarily manifested  or  plainly  stated  (as  in  the  reviling  scene 
in  Sabhii).  The  Gita  itself  admits  that  those  who  worship 
Krishna  as  the  All-god,  or  recognize  him,  are  few  in  number : 
vasudevah1  sarvam  iti  sa  mahatma  sudurlabhah,  7,  19;  “Me 
(as  All-god)  in  human  form,  not  recognizing  my  godhead, 
fools  despise,”  9,  11.  The  Mahabhasya  does  not  recognize 
Krishna  as  All-god,  but  as  hero  and  demigod.  The  cult  is 
growing  even  in  the  epic  itself.  So,  too,  no  Smrti2  can  be 
implied  by  Panini’s  words.3 

I come  now  to  the  testimony  of  Buddhistic  literature.  As 
said  above,  the  oldest  literature  knows  only  ballad  tales.  It 
may  be  assumed  that  the  Jatakas  are  older  than  Agvaghosa, 
who  knows  epic  biles,  but  not  always  in  epic  form,  and  does 
not  refer  to  the  epic  either  by  name  or  by  implication,  his 
general  agama  being,  as  I have  shown,  a term  used  of  any 
traditional  literature,  sacred  or  profane.4  The  Jatakas  may 

1 Mathura  in  the  whole  epic  is  the  birthplace  of  Vasudeva,  who  seems  to 
herd  his  cattle  there ; while  in  the  Mahabhasya  it  is  bahu-Kurueara  Mathura 
and  the  chief  city  of  the  Pancalas,  clearly  the  older  view.  See  ii,  14,  34, 
45  ff. ; xii,  340,  90;  i,  221,46  (cows,  mathurade^yah) ; IS.  xiii,  p.  379  IT. ; on 
Krishna  as  not  Vishnu  in  the  Bhasya,  ib.,  pp.  349,  353.  In  ii,  14,  Krishna  (as 
All-god?)  “could  not  injure  his  foe  even  in  three  hundred  years,” 36  and  67. 

2 The  state  of  mind  that  in  the  face  of  the  “ evidence  ” of  Panini  can  lead 
one  to  say  Panini  was  acquainted  with  a Pandu-Mahabharata  peculiarly  didactic 
(Das  Mbh.  als  Rechtsbuch,  p.  155)  is  inconceivable.  The  whole  “ evidence  ” at 
its  most  evincing  is  that  Panini  knew  a Maliabharata  in  which  the  heroes 
were  objects  of  such  worship  as  is  accorded  to  most  Hindu  heroes  after  death. 

8 So  the  later  Ilamayana  is  turning  into  just  such  a moral  and  didactic 
work  as  the  other  epic.  I have  already  instanced  the  intrusion  of  the  Kaccit 
section.  So  Rama,  in  vii,  55, 3,  sets  himself  to  telling  homilies,  with  a familiar 
sound,  kutham  paramadharmisthdm  vvahartum  upacakrame  (just  as  in  xv,  29, 
14,  katha  divya  dharmistha§  ca  ’bhavan,  nrpa) ; and  R.  ib.  37,  24,  kathah 
kathyante  dharmasaihyuktah  puranajnair  mahatmabhih.  In  the  same  way, 
the  late  (gradual)  identification  of  Rama  with  Vishnu  stands  parallel  to  the 
change  of  the  demigod  Krishna  to  the  All-god  Vishnu,  for  Krishna  is  never 
mortal  — there  is  no  such  antithesis  — but  he  nevertheless  is  often  not 
supreme  god  but  only  demigod  in  the  epic. 

4 So  of  law-rules  in  epic  language,  e.  g.,  fistah  9astresv  anagatam  vyava- 
syanty  anu  rajanarh  dharmam,  R.  iii,  50,  9 (G.  has  naya§astresu). 


396 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


go  back  to  the  third  or  fourth  century,  or  they  may  not,  so 
far  as  their  present  form  is  concerned.  At  any  rate,  they  show 
no  knowledge  of  the  epic  as  such.  What  they  show  (the 
material  has  been  sufficiently  collected  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Dald- 
mann)  is  that  the  epic  characters  were  familiar  and  the  story 
of  the  Pandus  was  known,  although  the  characters  do  not 
occupy  the  position  they  do  in  the  epic.1  But  no  date  of  an 
epic,  still  less  of  our  epic,  can  be  established  on  casual  refer- 
ences to  the  heroes  of  the  epic  found  in  literature  the  date  of 
which  is  entirely  uncertain.  Perhaps  it  is  negatively  quite  as 
significant  that  the  Jatakas  do  not  refer  to  the  epic  at  all,  but 
only  to  people  mentioned  in  it. 

The  present  epic,  if  it  records  anything  historical,  records 
the  growth  of  a great  power  in  Hindustan,  a power  that  could 
not  have  arisen  before  Buddhistic  supremacy  without  leaving 
a trace  of  the  mighty  name  of  Pandu  in  the  early  literature. 
There  is  no  such  trace.  Moreover,  even  the  idea  of  such  a 
power  as  our  epic  depicts  was  unknown  before  the  great 
empire  that  arose  under  Buddhism.  For  this  reason  it  is 
impossible  to  explain  the  Pandu  realm  described  in  the  epic 
as  an  allegory  of  the  fifth  century,  for  we  cannot  have  an 
allegory  in  unknown  terms.  The  Pandus,  be  it  remembered, 
rule  all  India,  and  the  limits  of  their  empire,  as  geographically 
defined  in  the  epic,  far  surpass  the  pre-Agokan  imagination, 
as  it  is  reflected  in  the  literature.  Even  Manu  has  no  idea  of 
an  empire.  His  king  is  a petty  raj.2 

Before  the  Mahabharata  there  were  tales  of  Kurus  and 
Bharats  known  to  antiquity.  Incongruous  as  the  name 
appears  to  be,  Bharata  yet  designates  the  Pandu  epic.  How 

1 The  latter  point  proves  nothing,  for  even  in  Sanskrit  literature,  as  I 
pointed  out  long  ago,  the  heroes  of  the  two  epics  are  mixed  up  confusedly, 
and  we  cannot  suppose  a Buddhist  would  be  more  careful  than  a Brahman 
in  verifying  references  to  Brahmanic  literature. 

2 “ Great  kings  ” and  “ emperors  ” are  indeed  known  even  in  pre-Buddhistic 
times,  but  what  was  the  “empire”  of  any  king  before  Afoka?  Certainly 
not  that  of  the  Pandus.  It  is  significant,  in  view  of  the  great  importance 
laid  by  some  scholars  on  the  cakravartin  idea,  that  this  word  does  not  occur 
before  the  later  Upanishads,  although  “ great  kings  ” are  mentioned ; nor  is 
it  an  early  epic  phrase. 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


397 


the  Pandus  succeeded  in  attaching  themselves  to  the  tales 
which  told  of  the  old  national  heroes  is  unknown.  All 
theories  and  hypotheses  of  development  are  pure  guesswork. 
What  we  know  is  that  the  tales  which  told  of  Kurus  and 
Bharatas  became  the  depository  of  the  Pandus,  who  appear  to 
have  substituted  themselves  for  Bharatas  1 and  may  in  fact 
have  been  a branch  of  the  tribe,  which  from  a second-rate 
position  raised  itself  to  leadership.  There  is  a theory  that 
the  epic  story  has  been  inverted,  in  favor  of  the  Pandus; 
there  is  another  that  it  is  what  it  pretends  to  be,  the  strife  of 
Pandus,  calling  themselves  Bharatas,  with  the  scions  of  the  old 
Kurus.  With  the  former,  that  so  persuasively  advanced  by 
Professor  Holtzmann,  I have  never  been  able  to  agree ; but 
my  own  theory  I have  from  the  beginning  put  forward  merely 
as  one  of  probable  epic  growth.2 

While,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  recognize  the  doubtful 
character  of  speculation  in  regard  to  the  exact  course  of  epic 
development,  it  is  not  desirable  to  blink  the  truths  that  are 
made  clear  in  view  of  the  facts  we  actually  possess,  the  evi- 
dence of  remaking,  the  base  of  the  poem  resting  on  old  Kurus 
and  Bharatas,  the  present  structure  of  Pandu  material;  the 
age  of  the  Pandu  poem  as  a whole  (synthe  tic  ally  considered), 
evinced  inter  alia  by  its  recognition  of  late  philosophical 
writers  such  as  Pafica§ikha  (c.  100  A.  d.),  by  a growing 
modernness  of  metre,  by  acquaintance  with  Greeks  and  Greek 
art,  etc. 

Putting  these  facts  together  with  those  gleaned  from  other 
works  than  the  epic  itself,  we  may  tentatively  assume  as 
approximate  dates  of  the  whole  work  in  its  different  stages : 
Bharata  (Ivuru)  lays,  perhaps  combined  into  one,  but  with 
no  evidence  of  an  epic  before  400  B.  c.  A Mahabharata  tale 

1 The  Bharatl  Katlia  (never  “ Pandu-tale  ”),  as  the  received  name  of  the 
epic,  certainly  favors  this  view. 

2 This  I was  careful  to  point  out  at  its  first  presentation  in  my  Euling 
Caste  (now  nearly  fifteen  years  ago)  with  mays  and  mights  and  seems,  and 
other  useful  words.  As  a theory  I still  consider  this  the  best  yet  offered, 
but  I have  never  held  it  to  be  demonstrable,  only  more  or  less  probable,  in 
outline  and  detail  respectively. 


398 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


with  Panciu  heroes,  lays  and  legends  combined  by  the  Puranic 
diaskeuasts,  Krishna  as  a demigod  (no  evidence  of  didactic 
form  or  of  Krishna’s  divine  supremacy),  400-200  B.  c.  Re- 
making of  the  epic  with  Krishna  as  all-god,  intrusion  of 
masses  of  didactic  matter,  addition  of  Puranic  material  old 
and  new ; multiplication  of  exploits,  200  B.  c.  to  100-200  A.  D. 
The  last  books  added  with  the  introduction  to  the  first  book, 
the  swollen  Anugasana  separated  from  Qanti  and  recognized 
as  a separate  book,  200  to  400  A.  D. ; and  finally  400  A.  D.  + : 
occasional  amplifications,  the  existence  of  which  no  one 
acquainted  with  Hindu  literature  would  be  disposed  antece- 
dently to  doubt,  such  as  the  well  known  addition  mentioned 
by  Professor  Weber,  Lectures  on  Literature,  p.  205;  and  per- 
haps the  episode  omitted  by  Ivsemendra,1  Indian  Studies,  No. 
ii,  p.  52. 

In  the  case  of  these  more  precise  dates  there  is  only  reason- 
able probability.  They  are  and  must  be  provisional  till  we 
know  more  than  we  know  now.  But  certain  are  these  four 
facts : 

1,  That  the  Pandu  epic  as  we  have  it,  or  even  without  the 
masses  of  didactic  material,  was  composed  or  compiled  after 
the  Greek  invasion;  2,  That  this  epic  only  secondarily  de- 
veloped its  present  masses  of  didactic  material ; 3,  That  it  did 
not  become  a specially  religious  propaganda  of  Krishnaism 
(in  the  accepted  sense  of  that  sect  of  Vaisnavas)  till  the  first 
century  B.  c. ; 4,  That  the  epic  was  practically  completed  by 
200  A.  D. ; 5,  That  there  is  no  “ date  of  the  epic  ” which  will 
cover  all  its  parts  (though  handbook  makers  may  safely 
assign  it  in  general  to  the  second  century  B.  c.). 

The  question  whether  the  epic  is  in  any  degree  historical 

1 We  cannot,  however,  be  too  cautious  in  accepting  the  negative  evidence 
of  one  manjari,  or  precis,  as  proof  that  the  original  work  lacked  a certain 
passage.  I dissent  altogether  from  the  sweeping  statement,  made  loc.  cit., 
p.  27 : “The  importance  of  the  condensations  lies  in  the  fact  that  by  means 
of  them  we  are  enabled  to  determine  the  state  of  these  works  (epics,  etc.) 
in  his  (Ksemendra’s)  time.”  Two  or  three  compendia  agreeing  on  one  point 
of  omission  might  “determine,”  hut  one  re'sumd  alone  can  only  create  a 
possibility,  as  in  this  case  (p.  63  note). 


DATE  OF  TIIE  EPIC. 


399 


seems  to  me  answerable,  though  not  without  doubt,  and  I 
cannot  refrain  from  expressing  an  opinion  on  a point  so  im- 
portant. As  I have  remarked  above,  there  is  no  reflex  of 
Pandu  glory  in  Brahmanic  literature  before  the  third  or  fourth 
century.  It  is,  further,  impossible  to  suppose  that  during  the 
triumph  of  Buddhism  such  a poem  could  have  been  composed 
for  the  general  public  for  which  it  was  intended.  The  metre 
of  the  poem  shows  that  its  present  form  is  later  than  the  epic 
form  of  Patafijali’s  epic  verses,  but  this  indicates  simply  re- 
casting ; so  that  a Pandu  Mahabharata  may  have  existed  pre- 
viously, as  implied  by  Panini.  But  while  a Buddhist  emperor 
was  alive  no  such  Brahmanic  emperor  as  that  of  the  epic 
could  have  existed,  no  such  attacks  on  Buddhism  as  are  in  the 
epic  could  have  been  made,  and  the  epic  of  to-day  could  not 
have  existed  before  the  Greeks  were  personally  familiar.  In 
other  words,  granted  a history,  that  history  must  have  been 
composed  at  least  as  late  as  the  history  was  possible.  Panini’s 
allusions  and  those  of  Buddhistic  writers  show  that  the  Pandus 
were  known  as  heroes.  It  is,  further,  most  improbable  that 
the  compilers,  who  made  the  poem  represent  Pandu  virtues 
and  victories,  would  have  chosen  them  for  this  position  had 
they  been  mythical.  In  their  reassertion  of  Bralimanism  they 
would  have  chosen  rather  the  well-known  ancient  Brahmanic 
heroes  of  the  older  tale,  Bhiiratl  Ivathii ; yet  to  appeal  to  the 
people  something  real  and  near  was  necessaiy.  But  while 
before  the  second  century  the  conditions  were  lacking  which 
could  have  produced  the  poem,  with  the  second  century  they 
became  possible;1  and  there  was  already  the  Pandu  tribe 

1 As  this  book  goes  to  press  I receive  Ivirste’s  essay  Zur  Mahabharata- 
frage,  who  says,  p.  224,  “ It  is  incredible  that  the  work  could  have  been 
undertaken  so  long  as  a royal  family  favoring  that  sect  (of  Buddhists) 
reigned.  This  (state  of  affairs)  suddenly  changed  when  the  Maurya  dynasty 
(of  Brhadratha)  was  overthrown  by  Pusyamitra  in  178  b.  c.,  for  the  new 
ruler  opposed  the  Buddhists.”  Professor  Kirste  thinks,  indeed,  that  the 
polyandry  of  the  heroes  is  not  an  historical  trait,  and  gives  a very  ingenious 
explanation  of  it  as  a myth  of  divided  divinity,  which,  however,  scarcely 
seems  to  me  probable.  But  I am  glad  to  find  my  own  suggestion,  of  the  im- 
probability of  the  anti-Buddliistic  epic  being  cast  in  its  present  shape  before 
the  second  century  b.  c.,  supported  by  this  independent  reference  to  actual 
historical  data. 


400 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


with  its  perhaps  justified  claim  to  be  considered  a branch  of 
the  Bharatas,  its  own  later  heroes,  its  cult  of  anti-Buddhistic 
type.  In  so  far,  then,  as  we  may  discern  a historical  germ  in 
the  midst  of  poetic  extravagance,  it  would  seem  that  the  poem 
represents  an  actual  legend  of  a real  tribe,  and  in  so  far  as 
that  legend  persists  in  its  adherence  to  polyandry  as  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  legend,  a tribe  which,  like  so  many  others 
in  India,  had  been  brahmanized  and  perhaps  become  allied  by 
marriage  to  the  old  Bharata  tribe,  whose  legends  were  thus 
united  with  its  own. 

Finally,  I would  speak  shortly  of  the  poem  as  a literary 
product  of  India.  In  what  shape  has  epic  poetry  come  down 
to  us  ? A text  that  is  no  text,  enlarged  and  altered  in  every 
recension,  chapter  after  chapter  recognized  even  by  native 
commentaries  as  praksipta,  in  a land  without  historical  sense 
or  care  for  the  preservation  of  popular  monuments,  where  no 
check  was  put  on  any  reciter  or  copyist  who  might  add  what 
beauties  or  polish  what  parts  he  would,  where  it  was  a merit 
to  add  a glory  to  the  pet  god,  where  every  popular  poem  was 
handled  freely  and  is  so  to  this  day.  Let  us  think  ourselves 
back  into  the  time  when  the  reciter  recited  publicly  and  dra- 
matically; let  us  look  at  the  battle  scenes,  where  the  same 
thing  is  repeated  over  and  over,  the  same  event  recorded  in 
different  parts  of  the  poem  in  slightly  varying  language. 
The  Oriental,  in  his  half-contemptuous  admission  of  epic 
poetry  into  the  realm  of  literature,  knows  no  such  thing  as  a 
definitive  epic  text.  The  Vedas  and  the  classics  are  his  only 
real  care.  A Bharatavid  in  India  is  even  now  more  scorned 
than  honored. 

If  the  epic  as  a whole  belongs  to  no  one  era,  and  tliis  re- 
mains an  incontrovertible  fact,  it  is  then  in  the  highest  degree 
probable  also  that  no  one  part  of  the  whole  can  be  assigned 
to  a certain  period.  I mean,  not  only  must  we  admit  that 
old  books  contain  more  recent  insets,  as  for  example  chapters 
five  and  eleven  of  book  ii,  and  that  late  books  contain  old 
passages,  as  for  example  the  rape  of  Subhadra  and  the  burn- 
ing of  Khan  da  va  in  book  i,  or  the  lotus-theft  in  book 


DATE  OF  THE  EPIC. 


401 


xiii,  but  we  must  admit  further  that  the  smaller  divisions, 
these  special  scenes  themselves,  have  in  all  probability  not 
remained  untouched,  but  that  the  tale,  the  language,  and  the 
verse  of  the  epic  have  been  subjected  to  an  evening  process 
irregularly  applied  since  first  the  poem  was  put  together  as  a 
Mahabharata;  great  liberty  being  taken  with  the  poem  both 
by  reciters  and  copyists,  the  establislnnent  of  the  text  by  com- 
mentaries (noticed  as  early  as  the  introductory  chapter  of  the 
poem  itself)  proving  no  bar  to  occasional  alterations  and  ad- 
ditions. Such  changes  were  not  introduced  of  set  purpose 
(or  the  metre  would  have  been  made  more  uniform),  but 
incidentally  and  illogically.  The  same  tale  was  told  not 
in  identical  language  but  with  slight  variations ; intrusions 
were  not  shunned ; grammatical  and  metrical  forms  were 
handled  freely,  but  with  no  thorough  revision  of  form  or  sus- 
tained attempt  at  harmonizing  incongruities  of  statement.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  there  is  not  a still  sharper  metrical  line 
between  old  and  new  in  the  epic  itself,  and  it  is  for  this  rea- 
son that  the  epic  verses  of  the  Mahabhasya  are  freer  than 
those  of  the  Mahabharata.  The  former  were  fixed  by  their 
function  as  examples  in  a grammar ; the  latter  were  exposed 
to  constant  though  sporadic  modification,  and  appear  to-day 
as  they  survive  after  having  endured  the  fret  and  friction  of 
innumerable  reciters  and  pedantic  purists.  One  by  one,  and 
here  and  there,  the  transmitters,  working  neither  in  concert 
nor  continuously,  but  at  haphazard  and  at  pleasure,  have 
trimmed  this  mighty  pile  into  a shape  more  uniform,  though 
they  have  not  altogether  hid  its  growth,  except  from  eyes 
that,  seeing  the  whole  as  a thing  of  power  and  beauty,  are  per- 
haps less  apt  to  mark  the  signs  of  varying  age. 

But  if  this  be  so,  it  may  be  asked,  and  I think  it  will  be 
asked,  perhaps  triumphantly,  by  those  lacking  in  sobriety  of 
judgment,  what  becomes  of  the  results  of  the  analysis  of 
metres,  of  the  discovery  of  late  elements  in  this  or  that  sec- 
tion ? What  do  they  signify  ? 

They  signify  and  proclaim  that  the  Great  Epic  was  com- 
pleted in  just  the  way  the  synthesist  proclaims  it  was  not 

26 


402 


THE  GREAT  EPIC  OF  INDIA. 


completed.  Pitched  together  and  patched  together,  by  the 
diaskeuasts  and  priests  respectively,  the  older  parts,  though 
not  free  from  rehandling,  bear  a general  stamp  of  antiquity 
lacking  in  later  parts.  For  this  reason,  the  Gita  and  Gam- 
bling scene  are,  as  wholes,  metrically  and  stylistically  more 
antique  than  are  the  Anugita  and  the  extravaganzas  in  the 
battle-books ; and  for  this  reason,  the  pseudo-epic  comes 
nearest  in  syntax  and  forms  to  the  hybrid  language  that  is 
preserved  in  literary  monuments  immediately  preceding  and 
following  the  Christian  era.  But  it  is  true  that  no  one  can 
prove  the  relative  antiquity  of  the  Gita  and  Gambling  scene 
so  absolutely  as  to  prevent  one  devoid  of  historical  sense 
from  clinging  to  the  notion  that  these  parts  of  the  epic  are 
in  origin  synchronous  with  the  pseudo-epic.  Fortunately, 
however,  the  judgment  of  scholars  is  in  general  sane,  and 
the  determination  of  values  may  safely  be  left  in  their  care. 


APPENDIX  A. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS. 

[M.  is  prefixed  to  Mbh.  references  only  where  confusion  with  It.  is  possible.] 

1,  acirenfii  ’va  kalena,  ix,  2,  5S ; R.  v,  26,  23 ; vi,  61,  20 ; acirena 

tu,  R.  ii,  80,  11. 
atltayam,  No.  94. 

2,  atha  dlrgliasya  kalasya,  iii,  70,  1;  v,  160,  20;  R.  iv,  9,  17; 

vii,  99,  14 ; atlia  dlrghena  kalena,  G.  vi,  24,  3 ; R.  vii,  24, 
5,  72;  tato  dlrghena  kalena,  M.  ix,  1,  50;  sa  tu  dlrghena 
k.,  ib.  48 ; 36,  10 ; atha  kalena  mahata,  G.  i,  40,  16  = R. 
38,  19,  v.  1.,  atha  dlrghena  kalena;  atha  k.  m.,  also  G.  i, 
40,  22  = R.,  38,  23,  tatah  kalena  mahata.  See  above,  p. 
271. 

atha  ratryam,  No.  94. 

atha  ’nyad  dhanur,  No.  56,  and  No.  80. 

3,  anayad  Yamasadanam,  vi,  54,  81;  vii,  19,  15;  G.  iii,  34,  31; 

75,  28.  See  No.  225. 

4,  anastamgata  aditye,  vii,  145,  19 ; acc.,  G.  v,  3,  41  (in  R.  iv, 

67,  15,  anastamitam). 
anyat  karmukam,  No.  80. 
anyonyavadha0,  No.  157. 

5,  abhidudrava  vegena,  vi,  100,  49 ; 104,  34-35,  etc.  ; R.  vi.  69, 

99  ; 76,  46.  See  No.  97. 

6,  abhivadaye  tva(m)  bhagavan,  iii,  207,  13;  R.  iii,  11,  72. 

7,  amrsyamanas  tarn  ghosam  (tat  karma),  etc.,  H.  iii,  60,  3 ; R. 

vi,  67,  142 ; 69,  141,  etc. 

8,  alatacakrapratimS,(m),  iv,  61,  9 ; R.  iv,  46,  13 ; vi,  93,  28. 

The  first  and  last  refer  to  weapons,  R.  iv,  46,  13  to  earth, 
prthivl,  alatacakrapratima  drsta  gospadavat  krta. 

9,  alatacakravat  sainyam  tada  ’bhramata,  viii,  81,  40  ; alatacakra- 

vac  cakram  bhramato  'rinirv£hanam  (sic !)  G.  iv,  5,  25. 
Compare,  of  persons,  vi,  59,  22;  vii,  7,  53 ; xiv,  77,  30. 


404 


APPENDIX  A. 


10,  avaplutya  rathat  turnarn,  vi,  94,  22 ; 96,  39 ; G.  vi,  18,  47 ; 

avatlrya,  G.  vi,  36,  87 ; rathad  avaplutya  tatah,  M.  vi,  59, 
99,  etc.  For  other  forms,  see  AJP.  xix.,  p.  143. 

11,  avasidanti,  me  pranah,  iv,  61,  12 ; parisidanti  me  pranah, 

G.  vi,  82,  6 = E.  101,  6,  avasidanti  gatrani. 

11  b,  acokah  qokanaqanah,  iii,  64,  107 ; acokah  ^okavardhanah, 
E.,  iv,  1,  59. 

aQvanam  khura0  No.  247. 

12,  astrani  vividhani  ca,  vii,  7,  1 ; qastrani,  E.  vi,  103,  29.  The 

terminal  is  fixed,  vasuni,  vastrani,  bhandani,  etc.,  preced- 
ing, e.  g.,  ix,  47,  24; 
asmin  hate,  No.  328. 
akarna,  No.  170. 

13,  akrlda(m)  iva  Eudrasya  ghnatah  kalatyaye  paqun,  vii,  19, 

35 ; akiida  iva  Eudrasya  kruddhasya  nighnatah  pacun,  G. 
vi,  73,  38 ; akrldabhumih  kruddhasya  Eudrasye  ’va  ma- 
hatmanah,  E.  vi,  93,  35.  Compare  ix,  14,  18,  Eudrasya 
’krldanam  yatha. 

14,  akhyatum  upacakrame,  xviii,  5,  7 ; E.  iii,  11,  10 ; iv,  8,  46 ; 

52,  3 ; G.  v,  66,  2,  where  E.  65,  2 has  pravaktum  upaca- 
krame. Compare  vaktum  samupacakrame,  xiii,  87,  2. 
The  phrase  is  common  in  E. ; rarer  in  M.,  owing  to  the 
use  in  the  latter  of  the  dramatic  uvaca,  extra  metrum. 
Both  epics  have  also  the  similar  phrase  vyahartum  upa- 
cakrame, e.  g.,  xii,  350,  15;  E.  vi,  115,  1;  vii,  51,  1.  See 
No.  57. 

15,  ajaghano  ’rasi  kruddhah,  vi,  61,  36;  E.  vi,  69,  152;  76,  29; 

passim  in  M.  See  1.  c.,  No.  10,  p.  142,  and  note  to  No.  35. 

16,  aditya  iva  tejasa,  iii,  53,  2 ; E.  vi,  55,  9 ; aditya  iva  tejasvl, 

E.  v,  34,  28,  metrical.  See  No.  176. 

17,  alikhantam  iva  ’kagam,  iv,  38,  3;  E.  vi,  99,  12. 

18,  avarta  iva  samjajne  balasya  mahato  mahan,  H.  iii,  60,  4 ; 

G.  vi,  32,  21 ; avarta  iva  gangasya  toyasya,  G.  v,  50,  16 ; 
asid  gailga  iva  ’vartah,  M.  vii,  36,  13. 

19,  avista  iva  yudhyante,  vi,  46,  3;  avista  iva  kruddhas  te  (cakrus 

tumulam  uttamam),  G.  vi,  54,  64. 

20,  aqivisa  iva  kruddhah,  vii,  10,  31 ; E.  v,  67,  7. 
asit  kila°,  aslc  catacata,  etc.,  No.  334. 

21,  asid  raja  Nalo  nama,  iii,  53,  1;  asid  rajaNimir  nama,  E.  vii, 

55,  4.  With  Yirasena-suto  ball  at  the  end  of  the  first 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IJV  THE  TWO  EPICS.  405 


verse,  compare  Dyumatsenasuto  ball,  M.  iii,  294,  18;  suto 
ball,  R.  iii,  12,  2;  Ayodhy&yaiii  pura  raja  Yuvauaqvasuto 
ball,  R.  vii,  67,  5 ; Prajapatisuto  ball,  R.  vii,  90,  23  (in 
G.,  'bhavat). 

22,  iti  me  niqcita  matih,  iii.  78,  6;  G.  v,  8,  25  (R.  v.  1.);  68,  36 

(R.  v.  1.). 

23,  ity  asit  tumulah  qabdah,  vi,  119,  19;  ity  evam  t.  q.,  G.  vi, 

19,  4 (R.,  evaiii  sutumulah  qabdah).  Compare  babliuva  t. 
q.,  M.  vi,  56,  22,  etc.;  R.  vi,  58,  17,  etc.;  samjajne  t.  q., 
M.  vi,  46,  17,  and  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  144,  ff.  Compare  Nos. 
82-84. 

24,  idaiii  vacanam  abravlt,  iii,  69,  17,  etc. ; R.  i,  26,  33 ; iv,  8,  1, 

etc.  Sometimes  tato  for  idam,  ix,  3,  51  (=  C.  176,  idam). 
About  forty  times  in  Ram.,  unnumbered  in  Mbh.  See 
No.  237. 

25,  Indradhvaja  ivo  ’cchritah  (tato  nipatito  bhumau),  ix,  17,  53 

and  often ; Indraketum  ivo  ’cchritam,  ix,  4,  16 ; Qakra- 
dhvaja  ivo  ’cchritah,  R.  v,  i,  59.  Compare  utthapyamanah 
Qakrasya  yantradbvaja  ivo  ’cchritah,  R.  ii,  77,  9 ; maha- 
merum  ivo  ’cchritam,  ix,  37,  20 ; ubhav  Indradhvajav  iva 
(petatuh),  ix,  12,  24;  dhvajav  iva  mahendrasya  (nipetatuh), 
R.  vi,  45,  17-18 ; jagama  vasudham  ksipram  Qakrasye  ’va 
mahadhvajah,  G.  iii,  34,  25 ; apatad  devarajasya  muktara- 
qmir  iva  dhvajah,  R.  iv,  17,  2 ; Indradhvaja  ivo  ’tsrsto 
yantrauirmuktabandhavah  (papata),  M.  vii,  93,  70 ; yan- 
tramukta  iva  dhvajah  (papata),  M.  vii,  92,  72  ; yantracyuta 
iva  dhvajah  (papata),  G.  ii,  84,  8. 

Indraqani,  No.  275. 

25b,  ihai  ’va  prayam  asisye,  x,  11,  15;  R.  iv,  53,  19. 

26,  uttistha  rajan  kim  qese,  xi,  2,  2 ; G.  vi,  95,  37 ; rajann  uttistha 

kiria  qese,  G.  ii,  81,  10  ; uttistho  ’ttistha,  Gandhari,  xi,  26, 
1 ; uttistho  ’ttistha,  kim  qese,  R.  vi,  111,  81  (preceded  by 
No.  45)  ; uttistho  ’ttistha,  bhadram  te,  M.  i,  172,  4;  R.  i, 
35,  2 ; preceded  in  Mbh.  by  uvaca  madhuranx  vakyam, 
with  which  compare  ix,  36,  50,  uvaca  parusam  vakyam; 
ticuh  sumadhuram  vanlm,  R.  vii,  70,  1 ; bbadram  te  being 
current  ad  nauseam  in  both  epics, 
uvaca  . . . vakyam,  No.  26. 

27,  ekantabhavopagatah,  xii,  337,  28 ; ekantabhavanugatah,  R. 

vii,  38,  5.  In  both,  of  the  men  in  Qvetadvlpa,  preceded 


406 


APPENDIX  A. 


in  M.  by  tatra  Narayanapara  manavaq  canaravarcasah ; in 
R.,  by  ananyamanaso  nityam  Narayanaparayanah  tada  ra- 
dhanasaktac  ca  taccittas  tatparayanah  (ananyamanasah  is 
a Gita  phrase,  9,  13,  bbajanty  ananyamanasab ; 8,  14,  ana- 
nyacetah  satatam). 

28,  etac  chrutva  tu  vacanam,  vi,  48,  98 ; G.  iv,  56, 19,  and  passim. 

29,  etat  te  katbitam  sarvam  and  (in  prior  pada)  etat  te  sarvam 

akhyatam ; ix,  46,  108  ; G.  vi,  82,  167.  In  M.  preceded 
by  yan  mam  tvam  pariprcchasi,  as  in  xii,  334,  40 ; xiii,  14, 
139,  etc. 

30,  etas  m inn  antare  virah,  vi,  48,  96,  and  often ; R.  iii,  30,  37 ; 

vi,  50,  7 ; vii,  28,  19 ; G.  vi,  36,  99.  Tbe  pbrase  here  is 
etasminn  antare,  which  is  filled  out  with  various  words,  as 
Ramah,  R.  vi,  111,  91 ; tatra  or  tasya  (v.  1.),  R.  vi,  92,  58 ; 
kruddhab,  R.  vi,  100,  13 ; krodhat,  102,  47.  Compare  also 
etasminn  antare  qunye,  M.  vii,  17,  7 ; xii,  330,  1 ; cai  ’va, 

vii,  19,  38 ; qurab,  ix,  28,  17 ; G.  vi,  32,  15,  etc.  A com- 
bination of  this  and  tbe  next  (No.  31)  is  found  in  etasminn 
antare  kale,  “ in  the  meantime,”  R.  vi,  20,  33. 

31,  etasminn  eva  kale  tu,  like  the  last,  a standing  phrase,  e.  g., 

i,  149,  1 ; iii,  54, 13 ; 168, 13 ; 298, 1 ; v,  121,  9 ; vi,  74,  36 ; 
ix,  51,  25;  xii,  328,  3,  etc.;  R.  i,  9,  7;  33,  11;  G.  21,  1, 
etc. 

32,  evam  uktah  pratyuvaca,  or  tatbe  ’ty  uktva,  vi,  59,  47  ; vii,  202 

70 ; ix,  35,  68 ; G.  vi,  36,  102.  Compare  evam  astv  iti 
(with  pratyuvaca),  ix,  48,  52 ; G.  vi,  109,  18  (co  ’vaca)  ; 
(krtva  sa),  ib.  82,  56. 

33,  kaksam  agnir  iva  jvalan,  ix,  24,  62 ; kaksesv  agnir  iva  jvalan 

4,  36  (C.,  kakse  'gnir  iva  sanijvalan) ; vanany  agnis  ivo 
’tthitah,  R.  vi,  66,  12;  kaksam  agnir  ivo  ’tthitah,  G.  v, 
85,  24 ; kaksesv  iva  hutaqanam,  G.  ii,  106,  25.  Compare 
also  (dahantam)  kruddham  agnim  yatha  vanam,  M.  vii,  21, 
30 ; vanam  agniri  vai  ’dbitab,  R.  ii,  63,  44,  where  G.  65, 
39,  has  quskarii  kastham  iva  ’nalah,  like  R.  v,  41, 11,  quskani 
vanam  iva  ’nalah.  The  iva  ’nalah  ending  is  common  to 
both  epics,  e.  g.,  dahan  kaksam  iva  ’nalah,  M.  vii,  14,  1 
(followed  in  2 by  saksad  agnim  ivo  ’tthitam,  C.  vrksam) ; 
tan  me  dahati  gatrani  quskavrksam  iva  ’nalah,  M.  vi,  95,  7, 
etc.  See  also  Nos.  75,  99,  117,  196,  226,  256,  291. 

34,  kafikapatrair  ajihmagaih,  vi,  103,  11  and  often;  R.  vi,  52,  4. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  407 


Frequently  close  together  with  svarna,  rukma,  or  hema 
punkhair  ajihmagaih,  vi,  114,  11 ; vii,  18,  18,  hema ; G. 
vi,  19,  68.  In  G.  vi,  20,  26,  rukma°  ajihmagraih,  metrical 
(v.  1.  in  R.).  The  common  terminal  qarair  ajihmagaih  is 
sometimes  inverted  in  jagatls,  as  in  G.  iv,  30,  22,  though 
the  regular  qloka  order  is  also  found  in  this  jagatl  metre, 
ib.  34,  34.  See  No.  234. 

35,  Kandarpa  iva  riipena,  murtiman,  iii,  53,  15;  rupavan  . . . 

kandarpa  iva  murtiman,  R.  v,  34,  30.  This  with  aditya  iva 
tejasvl,  is  a description  of  Rama,  28,  as  the  two  phrases, 
and  also  satyavadi  (R.  29),  here  describe  Nala. 

36,  kampayann  iva  medinlm,  ii,  29,  7 ; viii,  34,  58 ; ix,  18,  26,  etc.; 

kampayahq  ca  ’pi,  ix,  30,  60 ; sa  kampayann  iva  mahim,  iii, 
78,  3 ; kampayann  iva  medinlm,  G.  vi,  37,  101 ; R.  vi,  56, 
13;  67,  115;  kampayantl  ’va,  G.  iii,  62,  31  ; kampayanti 
’va  parvatan,  M.  vii,  181,  11 ; calayann  iva  medinlm,  R. 
iii,  67,  13;  darayann  iva,  R.  iv,  15,  5 (G.  kampayann); 
darayann  iva  parvatan,  M.  iv,  46,  21;  nadayann  iva  medi- 
nlm, G.  vi,  46,  91.  purayann  iva  medinlm,  M.  iii,  73,  8 
(purayanto  diqo  daQa,  ix,  46,  77),  etc.,  etc.  For  diqo  daqa, 
see  No.  114. 
karaiii  karena,  No.  163. 
karnayata,  No.  170. 

37,  karmana  manasa  vaca,  iii,  65,  32,  41 ; ix,  50,  2 ; xii,  327,  34  ; 

inanasa  karmana  vaca  caksusa  ca,  R.  vii,  59,  1,  24.  Com- 
pare Spriiche,  1,559  ff.,  2,222 ; Dhammap.  391. 
kalahi  na  ’rhati,  No.  196. 
kalpyatam  me  rathah,  No.  230. 

38,  kasaylkrtalocanah,  °am,  i,  102,  23;  131,  3;  G.  vi,  33,  17;  37, 

68.  In  M.,  sakrodhamarsajihmabhrilh  precedes  in  each 
instance.  Compare  Nos.  50,  51. 
kasya  ’si.  See  above,  p.  268. 

39,  kancanosnisinas  tatra  vetrajharjharapanayah,  vi,  97,  33 ; 

kancukosnlsinas  tatra  vetrajharjharapanayah,  R.  vi,  114, 
21.  Compare  G.  vi,  33, 10  and  13,  vetrajharjharapanibhih. 

40,  kamabanaprapiditah,  i,  220,  7 ; G.  iii,  61,  2 (R.  55,  2,  banaih) ; 

kamabanabhisamtaptah,  iii,  280,  3;  kamabanavaqaihgatah, 
R.  vii,  88, 12. 

41,  Kalacakram  ivo  ’dyatam,  vii,  7,  31 ; iva  ’param,  ,G.  vi,  73,  33 

(R.,  93,  30,  iva  prajah)  ; kaladandam  iva  ’param  (R.,  iva 


408 


APPENDIX  A. 


’ntakah) ; G.  vi,  51,  89  = R.  71,  85.  For  the  var.  lec., 
compare  s.  danclahasta,  No.  104,  and  kalaratrim  iva ’ntakah, 
R.  vi,  69,  134.  Compare  kalaratrim  ivo  ’dyatam,  ix,  11, 
50;  “suryarn,  xiii,  14,  270. 

Kaladandopama  and  Kalapagopama,  No.  220. 

Kalananam,  No.  272. 

Kalaratrim,  No.  41. 

42,  Kalantakayamopamah,  iii,  22,  31 ; 27,  25  ; iv,  33,  25  ; vi,  54, 

47  ; G.  iii,  32,  5 ; vi,  49,  36 ; R.  vi,  57,  32  ; 60,  94 ; 82,  7 ; 
95,  41.  See  No.  220 ; and  for  Kalantakopama,  see  Nos. 

104,  105. 

43,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah.  While  not  generally  including  in  this 

list  the  proverbs  common  to  the  two  epics,  I enter  this 
particular  proverb  because  of  the  similar  environment  in 
imam  avastham  prapto  'smi,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah,  ix,  64, 
9 (C.  vai)  ; so  'yam  adya  hatah  gete,  Kalo  hi  duratikramah, 
R.  iii,  68,  21.  For  the  rest,  compare  Am.  Journ.  Phil., 
vol.  xx,  p.  26,  and  add  (besides  the  above)  Kalo  hi  durati- 
kramah in  M.  ii,  46,  16 ; also  H.  iii,  2,  30,  and  5,  36 ; dai- 
vam  hi  duratikramam,  R.  vii,  50,  18 ; daivam  tu,  ix,  65, 
31 ; and  the  later  version,  lekha  hi  kalalikhitah  sarvatha 
duratikrama,  H.  iii,  2,  27. 

44,  kinkinljalasamvrta,  ix,  23,  13,  °aih  rathaih;  R.  vii,  23,  1,  2, 

°aiii  nagaram.  Ordinarily  in  M.,  kinkinljalamalinam,  etc., 
i,  221,  45 ; ii,  24,  18 ; viii,  86,  4 ; in  R.,  kinkinigatabhusita, 
vi,  102,  9 ; but  I cannot  say  whether  or  not  malin  appears 
in  R.  in  this  combination.  See  No.  113. 

45,  kim  mam  na  pratibhasase,  part  of  a lament  (see  uttistha, 

above,  No.  26),  iii,  63,  9;  64,  19  ff. ; xi,  20,  13-14;  R.  iii, 
60,  26;  vi,  111,  80  (doubled  in  G.  95,  36,  and  v.  1.  37). 
In  R.  vi,  115,  15  (—  G.  98,  12)  kim  ca  mam  na  ’bliibha- 
sase,  v.  1.  as  in  G.  95,  37. 

46,  kugalam  paryaprcchata,  ix,  34,  17  ; R.  i,  52,  4. 

47,  krtakautukamangalah,  i,  129,  24  ; viii,  1,  11 ; R.  i,  73,  9. 
krtapurvahnikakriyah,  No.  49. 

48,  krtva  karma  suduskaram,  vi,  14,  14;  vii,  8,  32;  R.  ii,  101, 

5;  vi,  76,  70;  G.  vi,  21,  11;  30,  37;  55,  36.  Variations 
are  naturally  many,  e.  g.,  karma  kurv&nam  duskaram,  vi, 

105,  6;  krtam  karma  suduskaram,  R.  vi,  67,  55  ; 127,  47 ; 
G.  vi,  88,  17 ; karma  kurvanti  duskaram,  R.  vi,  65,  4 ; tat 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  409 


krtva  duskaram  karma,  R.  vi,  126,  14 ; karisyan  karma 
duskaram,  G.  iv,  15,  20.  Similar  in  R.  are  mahat  karma 
krtam  tvayii  and  krtam  tvaya  karma  mahat  suduskaram, 
G.  vi,  112, 100  and  G.  vi,  36, 118,  respectively ; aho  mahat 
karma  krtam  nirartham,  R.  v,  48,  50 ; sadhu,  Laksraana, 
t.usto  'smi,  karma  te  sukrtam  krtam,  G.  vi,  70,  80;  sudus- 
karam tu  tat  karma,  G.  iv,  11,  7.  Somewhere  in  M.  ix 
(verse  lost)  occur  together  the  two  phrases,  krtva  na  su- 
skaraiii  karma,  gato  Vaivasvataksayam  (Xo.  55). 

40,  krtva  paurvahniluh  kriyah,  iii,  168,  2 ; 296,  10  ; °kam  karma, 
R.  iii,  17,2;  °kliii  kriyfim,  R.  vii,  59,  1,  1;  krtapurvah- 
nikakriyah,  viii,  1,  13 ; R.  i,  35,  3 (with  the  phrase,  tac 
chrutva  vacanaiii  tasya). 

50,  krodhasamraktanayanllh,  i,  78,  35;  vii,  1,  19;  R.  i,  62,  15; 

G.  v,  89,  1 ; vi,  76,  11.  In  M.  v,  9,  45,  united  with  idam 
vacanam  abravlt.  See  note  to  Xo.  51. 

51,  krodhasamraktalocanah,  v,  178,  40;  vi,  100,52;  ix,  42,  13; 

R.  v,  44, 19 ; vi,  95,  3 ; krodliat  sam°,  R.  iv,  9,  22 ; vi,  98,  1. 
Both  forms,  Xo.  50,  Xo.  51,  are  common  in  both  epics. 
They  are  the  same  phrase  differentiated  according  to 
metrical  requirements,  and  interchange  with  the  similar 
kopa-  and  rosa-forms,  which  it  is  unnecessary  to  give 
in  detail.  Variants  are  common,  e.  g.,  krodhaparyakuleks- 
anah,  v,  178,  94;  G.  iv,  15,  17;  often  united  with  another 
iterate,  e.  g.,  rosasaiiiraktanayana  idam  vacanam  abravlt, 
G.  iii,  57,  15;  samraktanayanah  krodhad  (G.  kopad)  idam 
vacanam  abravlt,  R.  vi,  59,  56  = G.  36,  33.  Compare  tarn 
krodliaraktanayanam  kurvantaiii  bhrukutlmukham,  G.  iv, 
33,  40;  sa  krtva  bhrukutliii  vaktre  rosasamraktalocanah, 
G.  vi,  86,  46,  where  R.  102,  38,  has  sa  krtva  bhrukutliii 
kruddhah  kimcit  samraktalocanah.  See  Xos.  106,  123, 
190,  198,  and  s.  v.  PW.,  where  they  are  illustrated  suffi- 
ciently. 

52,  kroQantlm  kurarim  iva,  i,  6,  12  ; G.  ii,  68,  43  ; R.  iv,  19,  29  ; 

yatha,  vi,  32,  3;  plural,  xi,  12,  10;  16,  18;  variants,  G.  ii, 
67,  16 ; iv,  19,  4 ; v,  18,  12 ; R.  vi,  49,  9,  etc  ; kurarim  iva 
vaqatlm,  M.  iii,  63,  20.  That  in  G.  ii,  67,  16,  the  unusual 
form  kuraryas  trasita  iva  follows  the  exclamation  ha  natha 
ha  mrto  'si  Jti  in  12,  just  as  ha  natha  in  X.  11,  23  follows 
kurarim  iva  vaQatlm  in  20  (above),  is  perhaps  worth 


410 


APPENDIX  A. 


noticing,  especially  as  this  chapter  of  It.  G-.  is  not  in  the 
Bombay  text  and  may  be  supposed  to  be  late.  The  corre- 
spondence is  not  remarkable  enough  to  prove  copying, 
though  it  may  be  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Nala  passage, 
as  this  episode  is  well  known  to  the  later  Ramayana. 

53,  ksitikampe  yatha  qailah,  vii,  174,  23;  yatha  ’calah,  vii,  36, 

29 ; ksitikampe  yatha  nagah,  G.  vi,  30,  30,  where  R.  has 
ksitikampa  iva  drumah,  56,  31.  See  No.  248. 
khuranemisvanena  ca,  No.  247. 

54,  gatapratyagatani  ca,  term,  tech.,  vii,  19,  6;  R.  vi,  107,  32. 

See  mandalani,  No.  201. 

55,  gato  Yaivasvataksayam,  or  ninye,  vii,  26,  53,  and  s.  krtva 

karma,  No.  48,  above  ; R.  vi,  82,  183. 

56,  gadam  adaya  viryavan,  ix,  11,  49  ; 32,  37 ; 55, 24 ; 56,  27,  etc. ; 

R.  vi,  69,  33.  In  G.  vi,  49, 18,  vipulam.  See  1.  c.  No.  10,  p. 
142,  and  No.  80,  for  parallel  variants. 

57,  gamanayo  ’pacakrame,  i,  151,  14 ; R.  vii,  25,  51 ; gamanaya 

’bhicakrama,  R.  i,  77,  18  (G.  79,  4,  upa°).  See  No.  14. 

58,  Garudah  pannagam  yatha,  viii,  87,  96 ; R.  vi,  69,  6,  °gan  iva, 

where  G.  48,  6,  has  °gam  yatha ; G.  vi,  46,  3 has  °gan  iva. 
Many  var.  lec.,  e.  g.,  Garutman  iva. 

59,  garjantau  iva  toyadau,  ix,  55,  38 ; °tam,  G.  vi,  3,  19 ; garjanti 

na  vrtha  qura  nirjala  iva  toyadah,  R.  vi,  65,  3.  See  Nos. 
77,  217. 

60,  girih  prasravanair  iva,  iii,  279,  5,  with  cakara  rudhiram  bhuvi 

preceding ; R.  vi,  67,  89,  with  raraja  qonitotsiktah  preced- 
ing. G.  vi,  46,  75  has  giripra,  an  error.  Compare  G.  ib. 
109,  girih  prasravanam  yatha;  R.  vi,  67, 121,  girih  prasra- 
vanair iva.  In  R.  vi,  58,  55,  gireh  prasravano  yatha,  where 
G.  32,  43  has  jalam  prasravanad  iva,  as  in  R.  vi,  45,  21, 
jalam  prasravanav  iva,  and  R.  vi,  S8,  61. 
gairikam,  No.  318. 

61,  cakara  kadamam  mahat,  vii,  21,  37 ; R.  vi,  86,  24 ; 95,  50 ; 

G.  vi,  46,  108 ; karomi,  M.  iv,  21,  2 ; kurvanah,  ix,  61,  30 ; 
akari,  G.  vi,  49,  43 ; krtva  ca,  G.  vi,  110,  50 ; akarot,  M.  vii, 
32,  41 ; ix,  44,  3 ; cakara  kadanam  ghoram  (metre),  R.  vi, 
58,  24;  II.  iii,  60,  3;  kadanam  sumahat  cakruh,  R.  vi, 
55,  32. 

62,  caksurvisavam  agatah : In  vii,  17,  14,  sa  no  distya  ’strasam- 

pannaq  caksurvisayam  agatah;  R.  vi,  103,  19,  distya  ’si 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  411 

mama  iuandatmahq  caksurvisayain  agatah  (G.  88, 24,  mama 
durbuddhe). 

63,  candrasuryav  ivo  ’ditau,  ix,  55,  22;  G.  v,  53,  25  = 69,  23; 
suryacandramasav  iva,  M.  iii,  288,  26.  See  Nos.  33,  189. 
cayuttalaka,  No.  186. 

caled  dlii  Himavan  stbanat,  ii,  77,  35 ; (jailah,  v,  82,  48 ; caled 
api  ca  Mandarah,  G.  v.  58,  9 (R.  59, 14,  Maudarah  pracaled 
api).  See  No.  153. 

65,  camlkaravibhusitam,  gadam,  x,  9,  11 ; capam,  R.  iii,  20,  6. 

66,  cittapramathim  (bala  devanam  api)  sundari,  iii,  53,  14 ; trai- 

lokya^s undari  (kanta,  sarva-)  cittapramathim,  R.  vii,  37,  1, 
29  (compare  R.  ii,  10,  30,  mama  cittapramatkini).  As  said 
above,  the  Uttara  recognizes  the  Nala,  and  this  (praksipta) 
may  be  imitation.  At  any  rate  it  may  support  pramathinl 
against  the  Mbh.  Bomb,  and  Calc,  reading  here,  cittaprasa- 
danl,  which,  however,  is  found  in  xii,  133, 13,  janacittapra- 
sadiul ; compare  naracittapramathibhih,  R.  i,  10,  4. 

67,  citraiii  laghu  ca  sustku  ca,  vii,  145,  77 ; lagliu  citraiii  ca  susthu 

ca,  R.  vi,  88,  65. 

68,  cinta  me  vardhate  'tlva  mumursa  ca  ’pi  jayate,  Karnasya 

nidhanam’’Qrutva,  viii,  9,  6 ; cinta  me  vartate  tlvra  mumursa 
’pi  ca  jayate,  bhrataram  nikatarii  drstva,  R.  vi,  101,  7.  See 
No.  213. 

69,  cintaqokaparayanah,  vii,  1,  6;  xv,  16,  18;  G.  iii,  52,  17 ; vari- 

ants, viii,  96,  58;  xv,  21,  7.  See  Nos.  27,  116,  161,  293. 

70,  chaye  ’va  ’nugata  pathi,  iii,  65,  57 ; chaye  ’va  ’nugata  Ramam, 

R.  vii,  37,  3,  24,  after  rupena ’pratima  loke  (No.  236),  also 
a Nala  phrase.  Compare  No.  66. 
chinnamula  iva  drumah,  No.  248. 

71,  cliinne  ’va  kadall  vane,  xi,  17,  1,  nyapatad  bhumau;  G.  vi,  8, 

6,  papata  bhumau  (both  of  grief-stunned  woman)  = R.  vi, 
32,  6,  but  here  jagama  jagatlm  bala  chinna  tu  kadall  yatha. 
See  Nos.  135,  136,  180,  248. 
jarjarikrta,  Nos.  184,  235. 

72,  jalam  surya  iva  ’hqubhih,  vi,  109,  33  ; megham  surya,  G.  vi, 

18,  40  (R.  43,  29,  karair  megham  iva  ’nquman)  ; tamah 
surya  iva  ’nqubhih,  M.  vii,  18,  24. 
jalam  prasravanad  iva,  No.  60. 
jajvalyamana,  No.  176. 
jatarupapariskrta,  No.  335. 


412 


APPENDIX  A. 


73,  jimuta  iva  bhaskaram,  vi,  64,  44 ; °tam  iva  °ah,  G.  vi,  21,  43 ; 

nlharam,  It.  i,  65,  25 ; toyadad  iva  bhaskarah,  G.  iv,  12,  24 
(papata).  See  No.  326. 

74,  jlrnam  tvacam  ivo  ’ragah,  xiii,  62,  69;  R.  iii.  5,  37;  sarpo 

jlrnam  iva  tvacam,  xii,  265, 15 ; G.  vi,  21, 40 ; tvacam  sarpa 
iva  ’mucya,  M.  v,  40,  2.  See  Nos.  106,  139;  Praq.  v,  5. 
jvalantam  iva  tejasa,  No.  176. 

75,  jvalantam  iva  pavakam,  jvalanta  iva  pavakah  (and  jvalita  iva), 

vi,  16,  12 ; 18,  6 ; xi,  25,  16,  etc. ; R.  iii,  32,  5 ; vi,  50,  36 ; 
70, 19  ; 95,  33 ; G.  68,  36.  Compare  prajvalitam  ivo  ’lkam, 
M.  v,  181,  5;  prajvalantam  iva  ’nalam,  G.  iii,  18,  23; 
jvalantam  iva  pannagam,  M.  vi,  82,  36 ; ix,  13,  21 ; G.  iii, 
18,  39,  pannagaih  (but  It.  12,  34,  pavakaih)  : also  parvatain, 
M.  vii,  80,  37,  apaqyata  (on  fire  as  it  were).  See  Nos.  Ill, 
176,  226,  255.  For  iva  ’nalah,  see  Nos.  33,  99,  196,  291. 

76,  jhillikagananaditam,  iii,  64,  i ; It.  iii,  2,  3.  The  two  descrip- 

tions (of  a fearful  forest)  are  similar  also  in  the  adjacent 
verses,  e.  g.,  nanapaksiganakirnam,  in  M. ; nanamrgagana- 
klrnam,  in  It.  I have  not  entered  others. 

77,  ta  enam  qaradharabhir,  dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  vii,  26,  54; 

athai  ’nam  qaradharabhir,  dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  R.  vi,  71, 
92  (in  M.,  sisicuh ; in  R.  abhyavarsata)  ; abhyavarsat  tada 
Ramam  dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  R.  vi,  100,  59;  vavarsa 
qaravarsena  dh.  i.  t.,  M.  vi,  58,  26.  Compare  mahendra  iva 
dharabhih  qarair  abhivavarsa  ha,  R.  vi,  56,  11.  See  Nos. 
59,  158,  217,  244. 
tatah  kilakila,  No.  334. 

78,  tatah  prajavitaqvena  rathena  rathinam  varah.  This  hemi- 

stich II.  3,  59,  5 and  also  G.  vi,  30,  6 (=  R.  56,  6,  but  here 
pracalitaqvena).  The  prior  pada  in  M.  vii,  116,  30  ; G.  iii, 
33,  27 ; R.  vi,  95,  42  (with  rathena).  See  No.  287. 

79,  tatah  prabhate  vimale,  viii,  1,  9;  xiv,  64,  16;  R.  vii,  59,  1,  1, 

with  krtva  paurvahnikim  kriyam  (No.  49) ; 68,  2.  Com- 
pare prabhate  vimale  siirye,  R.  ii,  86,  24.  The  first  phrase 
is  in  tristubh  as  well  as  in  qloka,  loc.  cit. 

80,  tato  'nyad  dhanur  adaya,  vi,  48,  67 ; G.  iii,  34, 16,  and  22.  In 

the  former  of  G.,  followed  by  pradipta  iva  manyun^  (as  in 
M.  iii,  63, 13,  pradipta  ’va  ca  manyuna).  The  usual  phrase 
in  M.  begins  with  atha  ’nyad,  e.  g.,  vi,  45,  33;  77,  68  ; 114, 
28 ; vii,  21, 17  ; ix,  10,  34;  15,  21.  Compare  anyat  karmu- 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  413 


kam  adaya,  and  so  'nyat  karmukam  adaya,  vi,  45,  29 ; 110, 
40 ; ix,  10,  45,  etc. ; R.  as  cited  loc.  cit.,  No.  5G. 
tato  muhurtam,  No.  214. 

81,  tato  kalahaliiqabdah  prltidah  samajayata,  i,  58,  9;  tato  hala- 

lialaqabdas  tumulah  samajayata,  R.  ii,  16, 33 ; the  prior  pada, 
M.  vii,  21,  2 ; xiv,  74,  26 ; R.  ii,  81,  14 ; vii,  21,  24 ; 32,  33 ; 
96, 12 ; G.  iii,  31,  41  followed  by  the  late  trait,  punah  lcola- 
halo  mahan  (not  thus  in  M.  or  R.) ; G.  ii,  82,  13,  followed 
by  sumahau  samajayata.  Compare  No.  334. 

82,  tatra  ’sit  sumahad  yuddham  tumulaiii  lomaharsanam,  vi,  5S, 

13 ; R.  vi,  43,  16.  For  other  forms,  see  1.  c.  No.  10,  p. 
144  if.  In  Ii.,  roma  for  loma,  but  according  to  Wiuteruitz, 
loc.  cit.,  these  forms  interchange  also  iu  MSS.  of  M.  See 
Nos.  23,  83,  84. 

83,  tad  adbhutam  iva  ’bhavat,  iii,  167,  17  and  31 ; v,  131,  25;  vi, 

47,  28;  54,  82;  vii,  7,  53  (with  alatacakravad  rajan)  ; 14, 
27  and  38;  21,  14;  ix,  12,  13;  xii,  334,  2 and  4 and  11, 
etc.,  etc.  G.  i,  75,  28.  Compare  G.  iii,  33,  22,  tad  abhud 
adbhutam  yuddham  tumulaiii  lomaharsanam  ; R.  iii,  51,  3, 
tad  babliuva  ’dbhutaiii  yuddham  ; R.  vi,  102, 18,  tad  babliau 
ca  ’dbhutaiii  yuddham  . . . romaharsanam;  M.  xi,  16,  4, 
ranajiram  nrviranam  adbhutam  lomaharsanam  ; ix,  15,  2S, 
tatra  ’dbhutam  apaqyama,  and  15,  41,  tatra  ’dbhutam  param 
cakre.  In  M.  iii,  76,  41,  tad  adbhutatamam  drstva;  R.  vii, 
79,  1,  tad  adbhutatamaiii  vakyaih  Qrutva.  See  also  Nos. 
82,  84,  110. 

84,  tad  yuddham  abhavad  ghoram,  vii,  16,  12  (sumahal  loma- 

harsanam) ; G.  vi,  58,  34  (in  R.,  79,  23,  tatra  for  ghoram). 
M.  adds  devanam  iva  danavaih,  wherewith  compare  R.  vi, 
79,  2,  tatah  pravrttam  sumahat  tad  yuddham  lomaharsanam 
. . . devanam  danavair  iva.  See  Nos.  82  and  83. 
tapantam,  No.  175. 

85,  taptakancanabhusanah,  xii,  326,  34 ; R.  iv,  17,  2 ; G.  v,  24,  24 

(hataka,  R.  iv,  3,  18) ; preceded  in  M.  by  suksmaraktam- 
baradharah,  in  G.,  by  raktambaradharah  Qrlmahs.  See 
No.  280. 

86,  tam  antakam  iva  kruddham,  vii,  8, 11  (apatantam)  ; R.  vi,  56, 

24  (sadrutam).  See  Nos.  104-105. 
tamah  surya  iva  ’nqubhih,  No.  72. 

87,  tam  apatantam  sahasa,  vi,  116,  49  and  50 ; R.  vi,  59,  36 ; 106, 


414 


APPENDIX  A. 


4.  Further  examples,  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  141.  vegena  in  prior 
pada,  R.  vi,  76,  36,  etc. 

88,  tam  dlptam  iva  kalagnim,  vii,  15,  5 ; sa  dlpta,  R.  v,  67,  12. 

Compare  kalagnir  iva  murtiman,  R.  vi,  95,  3. 

89,  tam  mumocayisur  vajri,  i,  227,  9;  tam  mumocayisum  vlrah, 

G.  vi,  80,  26. 

90,  tarunadityasadrQaih  Qanagauraic  ca  vanaraih,  iii,  284,  28 ; taru- 

nadityavarnaiq  ca  caqigauraiQ  ca  vanaraih,  R.  iv,  39,  13. 
talam  talena,  No.  163. 

91,  tasthau  girir  iva  ’calah,  vi,  94,  22 ; vii,  15,  7 ; sthitam  qailam 

iva ’calam,  G.  vi,  79,  49;  sthitam  Qailam  iva  ’suram  and 

v.  1.  sthitam  ^ailam  iva  ’param,  R.  iv,  48,  17  = G.  48,  18. 
In  M.  another  standing  phrase  is  tasthau  Merur  iva  ’calah, 

vi,  48,  34 ; 63,  8.  Another  iva  ’calah  phrase  is  Qigliro 
vayur  iva  ’calam  (na  ’kampayata),  M.  vii,  14,  36 ; vayuve- 
gair  iva  ’calah  (na  prakampante),  R.  iii,  67,  8.  See  Nos. 
218,  240. 

tasthau  mrtyur  iva,  Nos.  104-105. 
tasmin  jite  and  hate,  No.  328. 

92,  tasmin  vimarde  tumule,  i,  101,  9 ; vimarde  tumule  tasmin,  R. 

vi,  43,  46 ; tasmin  pravrtte  tumule  vimarde,  R.  vi,  69,  66. 

93,  tasya  tad  vacanam.  Qrutva,  ix,  33,  56 ; 56,  42 ; 65,  21,  etc. ; 

R.  iii,  69,  46,  etc.;  G.  vi,  37,  21,  etc.;  rarer  is  tasya  tad 
bhasitam  qrutva,  M.  vii,  19,  22 ; G.  iv,  38,  17.  The  first 
and  tac  chrutva  vacanam  tasya  are  found  passim  in  both 
epics  (tasya,  tasyah,  tesam,  tayos,  etc. ; 1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  144). 
94  and  95,  (a)  tasyam  ratryam  vyatitayam,  iii,  150,  1;  175,  1; 
299, 1,  etc.;  R.  iv,  64,  11 ; G.  ii,  82,  1 ; atha  ratryam,  G.  ii, 
67,  3;  v,  1,  12;  atha  ratryam  pravrttayam,  R.  vii,  67,  1; 
atltayam  ca  qarvaryam  udite  suryamandale,  M.  v,  35,  12  ; 
vyatitayam  tu  qarvaryam  adityasyo  ’daye  tatah,  R.  ii,  67, 
2;  vyatitayam  rajanyam  tu,  M.  ix,  8,  1;  rajanyarh  tu  pra- 
bhatayam,  R.  vii,  99,  1 (G.  106,  1,  sa  rajanyam  prabhata- 
yam)  ; (b)  prabhatayam  tu  qarvaryam,  M.  iii,  2,  1 ; R.  ii, 
52,  1 ; 54,  36 ; vyustayam  cai  ’va  (jarvaryam,  xv,  10,  53 ; 
tato  raj.  vyust.,  11,  1 ; similar  is  G.  i,  30,  1. 

96,  tarajalam  iva  ’mbare,  viii,  27,  35 ; G.  vi,  68,  19 ; in  M.  of 

decapitation  ; in  R.  of  breastplates  ! 

97,  tistha  tisthe  ’ti  ca  ’bravlt,  vi,  111,  41  and  45  and  often  (1.  o. 

No.  10,  p.  142) ; R.  vi,  79,  37 ; ca  ’vadat,  M.  iv,  33,  24  ; ca 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  415 

’bruvan,  G.  i,  43,  25;  cukroqa,  ib.  ii,  39,  46.  United  with 
the  phrase  (No.  5)  abhidudrava  vegena,  in  M.  vi,  101,  9. 

98,  tus£ravrtamandalam,  ix,  65,  7 (purnacandram  iva  vyomni)  ; 

tusarenavrtilm  sabhram  purnacandraprabham  iva,  G.  i,  50, 
16  (R.  49,  15,  satusaravrtaiii.  Compare  purnacandram  ivo 
'ditam,  R.  iv,  10,  3.  Compare  No.  169. 

99,  tularaqim  iva  ’nalah,  vi,  75,  32  (vyadhamat)  ; vii,  21,  24 

(vyadhamat)  ; R.  vi,  88,  7 (vidhamisyanti)  ; <maraqim  iva 
’nalah,  G.  vi,  64,  26  (vidhamisyanti)  ; trna-,  ib.,  67,  8 (vi- 
dhamisyanti) = R.  88,  7,  tula°  (above).  In  the  former 
passage,  R.  has  the  verb  but  not  the  simile.  See  Nos. 
33,  75,  196,  291. 

100,  trnam  antaratah  krtva,  iii,  2S1,  17 ; R.  iii,  56,  1 ; v,  21,  3. 

Compare  trnlkrtya  ca  tad  raksah,  R.  vi,  40,  9 ; samgatan, 
M.  i,  189,  2;  matva  trnena  tans  tulyan,  M.  vi,  113,  36; 
trnavat  tan  apaqyata,  G.  iv,  48,  19. 
trnaraxpm,  No.  99. 

101,  trnaih  kupa  iva  ’vrtah,  iii,  207,  59  ; kupa  iva,  R.  iii,  46,  10 ; 

G.  iv,  16,  17.  In  M.,  adharma  dharma-rupena ; in  R. 
(abhavyo  bhavyarupena)  sa  papas  tena  rupena,  and  dhar- 
mavaitansikah  (the  same,  R.  iv,  17,  22,  with  the  bracketed 
words  also  in  28),  also  Mbh.  phrase  (PW.). 

101b,  te  vai  nirayagaminah,  xiii,  23,  60  ff. ; R.  sarve  n.,  iv,  17, 
36  (similar  list). 

102,  totra  ’rdita  iva  dvipah,  vi,  54,  69 ; vii,  146,  55 ; ix,  21,  16 ; 

25,  21 ; G.  ii,  39,  43  (v.  1.  in  R.,  totrair  nunuah).  See 
Nos.  149,  215. 

103,  totrair  iva  mahadvipam,  vi,  101, 13;  ix,  13,  29  ; R.  iii,  28, 10  ; 

totrair  iva  mahagajam,  M.  vi,  111,  7. 
trisu  lokesu,  No.  252. 

104-105,  (a)  : dandahasta  iva  ’ntakah  (and  acc.),  vi,  102,  36 ; 
vii,  15,  5 ; viii,  29,  30;  ix,  3,  26,  etc. ; G.  vi,  65,  25;  iii, 
32,  17 ; 34,  11  (where  R.  28,  11,  has  paqahastam)  ; dan- 
dapanir  iva  ’ntakah,  M.  iv,  22,  66 ; vi,  48,  90 ; 62,  55 ; 
dhanurdandam  iva  ’ntakah,  G.,  iv,  31,  11  (R.,  dhanuh 
kalantakopamah).  Similar  and  in  part  interchangeable 
are  the  phrases  (b)  : pacahasta  iva  ’ntakah,  vi,  109,  11 ; 
vii,  36,  32;  ix,  12,  2;  R.  iii,  39,  15;  vi,  53,  25;  G.  vi, 
39,  30;  vii,  28,  21.  In  G.  vi,  46,  36,  paqahasto  yatha 
Yamah,  where  R.  67,  38,  has  paqahasta  iva  ’ntakah. 


416 


APPENDIX  A. 


The  epithet  is  used  of  Varuna,  E.  iii,  12,  19;  iv,  42,  45, 
= G.,  43,  58  (nilayah  paqahastasya  Varunasya).  Com- 
pare M.  vi,  112,  41,  dahati  vai  mahacamum  yuddhesu 
sadrqas  tata  Yamasya  Varunasya  ca.  Compare  also  sak- 
sat  kalantakopamah,  M.  iii,  157,  50 ; sthitah  kalantako- 
pamah, E.  vi,  88,  2 ; qaraih  kalantako0,  G.  vi,  45,  19  ; 
saksat  kala  iva  ’ntakah,  G.  iv,  14,  25;  tasthau  mrtyur 
iva  ’ntakah,  M.  vii,  16,  38.  For  kaladandam  iva  ’ntakah, 
see  No.  41.  See  also  Nos.  42,  86,  220,  250,  272. 

106,  dandahata  ivo  ’ragah,  ix,  14,  40 ; E.  vi,  54,  33.  The  Qloka 

in  M.  is  worth  noticing  in  its  entirety : cukopa  samare 
Draunir  | dandahata  ivo  ’ragah  [ trigikham  bhrukutlm 
krtva  | srkkinl  parisamlihan,  where  c = ix,  32,  46  a; 
and  srkkinl,  etc.,  is  a frequent  phrase,  No.  320  ; that 
is,  the  whole  Qloka  consists  of  iterata  except  for  the 
first  words.  See  No.  150,  ad  finem. 

107,  dadarqa  Dvarakam  viro  mrtanatham  iva  striyam,  xvi,  5,  4; 

dadrqus  te  tada  Lahkam  . . . narim  iva  mumursatlm, 
G.  vi,  15,  27. 

108,  darqayan  panilaghavam,  vi,  48,  66  ; 54,  73 ; 59,  22 ; 62,  28 

(C.  2,  743,  hastalaghavam) ; vii,  145,  70;  ix,  26,  30;  E. 

vi,  99,  20 ; G.  36,  55.  Compare  darQayan  vlryam  at- 
manah,  M.  vii,  14,  57 ; d,  svaparakramam,  vi,  100,  34,  etc. 

109,  darqaya  ’tmanam  atmana,  iii,  64,  57 ; smara  ca  ’tmanam 

atmana,  E.  vii,  37,  5,  47.  Better  parallels  might,  I 
think,  be  shown,  but  I have  at  hand  only  Gita,  6,  5. 

110,  Daqagrlvasya  pagyatah,  iii,  290,  4;  E.  vi,  41,  89.  This 

type,  especially  in  M.,  is  common.  Compare  vii,  17,  7, 
Drstadyumnasya ; ix,  11,  13,  Dharmarajasya;  ix,  16,  40, 
Bhimasenasya ; xi,  14,  19,  Vasudevasya;  E.  vi,  38,  12, 
tasya  Eamasya  pacyatah.  But  the  M.  type  sarvalokasya 
paqyatah,  which  occurs  repeatedly,  e.  g.,  vi,  48,  69 ; 58, 
44;  ix,  5,  7,  and  sarvasainyasya  paqyatah,  e.  g.,  vii,  18, 
28 ; sarvaksatrasya  paqyatah,  ix,  7,  24 ; 14,  37,  is  found 
in  E.,  if  at  all,  only  as  a rarity.  I have  noted  G.  vi,  93, 5, 
(Eamam)  lokasya  paqyatah ; G.  vi,  25,  35,  pacjyataiii 
sarvaralcsasam ; vi,  121,  16,  sarvesam  eva  qrnvatam.  In 
M.  these  correspond  rather  to  paqyataih  sarvasainyanam, 

vii,  144,  20;  195,  9;  paqyatam  sarvayodhanam,  vii,  145, 
70  (with  dar<j.  paniv.,  No.  108)  ; sarvalokasya  (jrnvatah, 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  417 


ix,  31,  27 ; paqyatam  sarvasainyanam  (tad  adbkutam  iva 
’bhavat,  No.  83),  ix,  10,  50. 

111,  didhaksann  iva  pavakah  vi,  94,  7 (krodhena  ’bhiprajajvala, 

also  phrase  of  M.) ; didhaksur  iva  pavakah,  xi,  12,  13 ; 
acc.,  G.  iv,  38,  15  (with  jajvalyainanarii  kopena,  phrase, 
No.  176).  See  also  Nos.  75,  226,  255. 

112,  divl  ’va  ’bhrani  marutah  (vyadharaat),  vii,  30,  35 ; maha- 

bhrani  ’va  marutah  (vidhaman),  R.  vi,  96,  4 ; the  same 
with  karsan,  G.  vi,  49,  58. 

113,  divyabharana  (and  sarvabharana)  bhusita(h)  ; lajjamane  ’va 

lalana  divyabharanabhusita,  i,  152,  22 ; divyaratnam- 
baradharo  divyabharanabhusitah,  ii,  9,  6 ; divyamalyam- 
baradharo  divyabharanabhusitah,  v,  122,  2 ; the  prior 
also  vi,  35,  11,  and  here  also  divyagandhanulepanah, 
with  which  compare  divyasraganulepana,  in  the  same 
stanza  with  the  titular  pada,  R.  vi,  50,  44  (also 
G.  vi,  112,  8)  ; divyamalyavibhusitam  divyambara- 
dhararii  devim,  iv,  6,  4 ; krsnaraktambaradhara  . . . 
divyakundalasampanna  divyabharanabhusita,  xii,  258, 
16 ; divyarupasamayukta  divyabharanabhusitah  divya- 
malyambaradharah,  xv,  33,  23 ; sarvabharanabhusita, 
iii,  53,  12 ; 277,  19 ; in  G.  iii,  15,  14—15,  divyabhara- 
nabhusitah . . . lalanah  (as  in  M.  above)  ; divya°,  G. 
iii,  23,  42;  R.  i,  16,  13;  v.  24,  25;  vi,  50,  44;  divy- 
angaragam  Yaidehlhi  divyabharanabhusitam,  114,  7 ; 
sarva0  R.  i,  73,  9,  where  G.  75,  9 has  maharhambara- 
bhusanaih ; R.  iii,  47,  31 ; G.  iii,  25,  15 ; R.  vi,  47, 
9;  50,  44,  without  similar  neighboring  padas.  Com- 
pare also  nanabharanabhusite,  M.  vi,  23,  6 ; sarva- 
bharananaddhahgah,  v.  1.  sarvabharanasarvangah,  R. 
vi,  65,  31,  where  G.  44,  24  has  “citrangah ; sarva  °sam- 
yukta  and  °sampanna,  M.  i.  153,  14;  G.  iv,  44,  108, 
respectively.  The  form  with  divya°,  Raghuv.  x,  11. 
R.  is  generally  content  with  the  pada,  M.  often  adds, 
as  above,  similar  padas.  See  No.  44. 
divyamalyambara,  No.  113. 

114,  diqag  ca  (pra  and)  vidiqaq  cai  ’va:  ii,  38,  26;  H.  2,  127, 

127 ; G.  vi,  90,  28  (where  R.  106,  30  has  pradiqah 
sarvah) ; vidigas  tatha,  G.  iii,  28,  41  (where  R.  22,  23 
has  diqah  sapradiqas  tatha) ; G.  vi,  58,  38  (where  R. 

27 


418 


APPENDIX  A. 


79,  28  has  diqaq  ca  pradiqas  tatha).  The  shorter  ter- 
minal dico  daqa,  vii,  20,  52  (etc.,  often) ; R.  vi,  75,  38 ; 
G.  v,  55,  13 ; G.  vi,  77,  30  (G.  93,  1 ; R.  115,  18  = G. 
100,  18,  not  terminal;  the  last,  daqa  diqo).  In  C.  to 
ix,  15,  17,  the  same  v.  1.  as  above  in  R.,  namely,  vidi- 
qaq  cai  ’va  in  BM. ; pradiqaq  cai  ’va  in  C.  769.  See  also 
under  No.  36. 

115,  distya  distye  ’ti  ca  ’bruvan,  i,  129,  31 ; abravit,  G.  iv,  10,  23. 

116,  dinaq  cintaparaq  cai  ’va,  ii,  49,  4;  tataq  cintapara  dina,  iii, 

54,  2 ; dlnaq  cintaparayanah,  G.  vi,  74,  6 (=  R.  94,  4,  °pari- 
plutah)  ; iti  cintaparo  'bhavat,  R.  vii,  79, 12.  See  Nos.  69, 
161,  293. 

117,  diptam  agniqikham  iva,  iii,  63,  36  ; vii,  14,  78;  R.  i,  49,  14; 

vi,  118, 17 ; vii,  30,  29 ; G.  vi,  80,  20,  where  R.  100,  19  has 
pradiptam  aqanlm  iva ; dlptav  iva  hutaqanau,  R.  vi,  97, 
25.  See  No.  33. 

118,  dlptasyan  uragan  iva,  v,  151,  25 ; 180,  7 ; G.  iii,  69,  24  (instr.). 

See  Nos.  74,  106,  141,  150. 

119,  dlrgham  usnam  ca  nihqvasya,  ix,  4,  51 ; 32,  8 ; x,  1,  4 ; G. 

vi,  34,  1 ; 99,  5,  where  R.  114,  6 has  sa  dlrgham  abhinih- 
qvasya.  This  phrase  appears  in  a variety  of  forms,  very 
likely  in  more  than  I have  noted.  The  prevailing  type 
is  the  titular  one  above.  Compare  the  variant  in  C.  238 
to  ix,  4,  51  (above),  dlrgham  usnam  ca  niqvasam  mumoca 
ca  mumoha  ca  (B.  quqoca  ca  mumoha  ca)  ; a form  not 
unknown  in  R.,  dlrgham  usnam  ca  niqvasam  vimuncantam 
muhur  muhuh,  G.  iv,  33,  41.  This  is  followed  (the  next 
verse !)  in  M.  by  ix,  5,  1,  nihqvasya  dlrgham  usnam  ca 
tusnim  aslt ; sa  for  ca  in  ix,  2,  55  (but  C.  109,  ca) ; like 
the  form  above  in  R.,  M.  iii,  313,  3,  sa  dlrgham  usnam 
nihqvasya,  Qokabaspapariplutah  (phrase,  see  Nos.  120, 
190)  ; R.  v,  34,  13,  abravld  dlrgham  ucchvasya,  where  G. 
31,  33  has  dlrgh.  us.  ca  nihqvasya;  R.  vi,  95,  2,  sa  tu 
dirgham  vinihqvasya,  where  G.  75,  3,  as  before,  followed 
by  muhurtam  dhyanam  asthitah  (phrase,  compare  No. 
214).  The  likeness,  when  given,  is  to  snake  or  elephant. 
Thus  G.  iv,  33,  41  (cited  above)  continues : kupitam 
saptaqirasam  jvalaruddham  ivo  ’ragam ; ib.  33,  31-32, 
nihqvasya  dlrgham  usnam  ca  kopad  raktantalocanah 
babhuva  naraqardulo  vidhuma  iva  pavakah  (phrase,  see 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  419 


No.  255)  tarn  diptam  iva  kalagnim  nagendram  iva  kopi- 
tam ; 35,  mahendram  iva  durjayam  (a  fine  mixture!). 
The  turn  dlrgham  usnam  ca  nihqvasan  is  so  common  that 
in  G.  ii,  15,  7 it  stands  for  the  accusative!  uihqvasantaih 
yatha  nagarn,  dlrgham  usnam  ca  nihqvasan  (rectified  with 

v.  1.  in  R.).  For  other  corresponding  phrases,  see  below, 
Nos.  133,  141-143,  205. 

120,  duhkliamohapariplutah  (v.  1.  qokamoha,  duhkhaqoka,  qoka- 

baspa,  baspaqoka),  R.  ii,  99,  29;  G.  108,  26;  16,  33;  C. 
vii,  96,  etc. ; tasthau  qokapariplutah,  M.  iii,  76,  46 ; duh- 
khaqokasamanvitah,  M.  iii,  70,  22  ; xiv,  77,  17 ; xv,  21, 1 ; 
xviii,  2,  31 ; R.  vii,  74,  1 ; °parayanah,  xv,  10,  18.  The 
ending  occurs  in  all  sorts  of  phrases,  e.  g.,  qonitaugha- 
pariplutah,  vi,  103,  10.  B.’s  v.  1.  for  C.  (above)  is,  vii, 
3,  8,  baspavyakulit£ksaram.  See  Nos.  137,  190. 

121,  dustahastl  ’va  hastipan,  viii,  53,  17 ; R.  vi,  67,  131. 

122,  deva  iva  qatakratum,  iii,  78,  33;  devair  iva  qatakratuh,  G. 

vi,  92,  80.  The  situation  is  the  same,  king  restored  to 
people;  omitted  in  R.  (Bombay). 

devanam  (iva)  danavaih  (iva),  No.  84. 
daivam  . . . duratikramam,  No.  43. 

123,  dvigunlkrtavikramah,  vii,  19,  9;  G.  vi,  82,  179.  There 

follows  baddhva  ca  bhrukutim  vaktre  (M.  10)  ; sa 
baddhva  bhrukutim  vaktre  (G.  180).  On  these  phrases 
see  Nos.  51,  198.  Compare  R.  vi,  100,  26,  vimukhlkr- 
tavikramah. 

124,  dvitiya  iva  (sagarah,  etc.),  ix,  30,  55,  etc. ; R.  vi,  4,  104 ; 26, 

41 ; pavakah,  ix,  46,  54 ; xiii,  14,  278. 
dbanurdandam,  Nos.  104-105. 

125,  dhanurvede  ca  vede  ca,  i,  109,  19,  etc. ; G.  v,  32,  9,  etc. 
dharabhir  iva  toyadah,  No.  77. 

126,  na  kalasya  priyah  kaqcin  na  dvesyah,  Kurusattama,  xi,  2, 

23 ; na  kalasya  priyah  kaqcin  na  dvesyo  *sti,  Kaplqvara, 
G.  iv,  18,  28.  Compare  Gita,  9,  29,  na  me  dvesyo  'sti,  na 
priyah,  Nos.  43  and  131. 

127,  na  ca  tau  yuddhavaimukhyam  qramam  vapy  upajagmatuh ; 

copied  H.  1,  54,  49  from  R.  vi,  88,  77  = G.  68,  37 ; almost 
the  same  in  H.  2,  36,  25. 

128,  na  tvam  qocitum  arhasi,  vi,  26,  27,  etc. ; R.  iv,  7,  14 ; G.  iii, 

71,  10  (v.  1.  in  R.,  vyathitum),  etc. ; many  occurrences 


420 


APPENDIX  A. 


aud  many  v.  1.,  e.  g.,  G.  iii,  71,  11,  qocitum  narhase  deva 
(—  Rama),  where  RB.  has  vlra.  See  No.  147. 

129,  nanu  nama  maharaja,  iii,  63,  4;  mahabaho,  R.  vi,  111,  3. 
Compare  M.  iii,  64,  19,  nanu  nama  ’ham  ista  tava,  and  G. 

iv,  24,  37,  tave  ’sta  nanu  namai  ’tah  (R.  has  nanu  cai  ’va). 
Namuci,  No.  250. 

330,  na  hi  qaksyami  jivitum,  iii,  249,  20  ; nai  ’va  qakyami  jivitum, 
G.  ii,  17,  32  ; na  hi  Qaknomi,  G.  v.  26,  23.  See  No.  134. 

131,  na  ’kale  vihito  mrtyuh,  na  ’praptakalo  mriyate,  iii,  63,  7 ; 

65,  39 ; akale  durlabho  mrtyuh,  R.  v,  25,  12 ; na  ’kala- 
mrtyur  bhavati,  G.  v,  28,  3.  Compare  ix,  64,  10  and  xi, 
2,  5,  kalam  prapya  mahabaho  (maharaja)  na  kaqcid  ati- 
vartate.  See  Nos.  43  and  126.  The  (new)  references 
here  given  to  M.  are  to  be  added  to  those  in  Journ.  Phil., 
vol.  xx,  pp.  25-26,  where  will  be  found  other  parallels. 

132,  nagah  . . . siddhac  cakracaras  tatha,  iii,  85,  72 ; nagah  . . . 

cakracaraq  ca  siddhah,  R.  v,  48,  23  (“the  sun  aud  other 
heavenly  bodies”  are  the  blessed  cyclists). 

133,  nagendra  iva  nihqvasan,  ix,  32,  38  ; bhujamga  iva,  R.  v,  22, 

30.  See  Nos.  119,  141-143,  205. 

134,  na  ’ham  jivitum  utsahe.  This  is  a commoner  form  than 

that  above  in  No.  130.  It  occurs  repeatedly,  e.  g.  iv,  19, 
13 ; vii,  24,  11 ; x,  4,  26 ; xvi,  8,  23 ; R.  v,  26,  4 (=  G. 

v,  26,  33,  v.  1.)  ; vi,  116,  18 ; G.  ii,  80,  9 ; vi,  24, 18  ; with 
many  variations,  e.  g.,  katham  jivitum  utsahe,  G.  vi,  34,  8, 
and  above  in  No.  130. 

135,  nikrtta  iva  kimcukah,  xiii,  30,  43 ; R.  vi,  67,  29 ; padapah, 

R.  iv,  17,  1 ; G.  ii,  45,  5 ; G.  iii,  31,  48 ; etc.  See  Nos. 
71,  136,  168. 

136,  nikrtta  kadall  yatha,  iii,  291,  14 ; G.  ii,  17,  22  (=  R.  20,  23, 

patitam  kadallm  iva).  See  Nos.  71,  135,  180. 
nityam  dharmaparakramah,  No.  293. 
nipapata,  No.  148. 

137,  nimagnah  fokasagare,  vii,  1,  11;  193,  34;  R.  iv,  20,  9 (com- 

pare 10,  34);  G.  ii,  37,  22  (R.  prapanna).  Compare 
duhkhasagarasampluta,  G.  vi,  9,  7 ; patita  (jokasagare,  R. 

vi,  111,  31 ; G.  vi,  95,  20,  and  34.  See  Nos.  120,  190. 

138,  nimesantaramatrena,  iv,  64,  28 ; v,  15,  31 ; xii,  334,  21, 

etc.;  R.  iv,  39,  11 ; v,  62,  36;  vi,  44,  19;  45,  16;  G.  vi, 
13,  9. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  421 

139,  nirmuktav  iva  pannagfiu,  vii,  136,  29;  inst.  ph,  ix,  15,  40; 

fern,  sg.,  G.  vi,  34,  23 ; nirrauktiiu  bhujagav  iva,  G.  (ref. 
lost).  See  Nos.  74,  140,  150,  243. 

140,  nirmokam  iva  pannagah,  vii,  168,  5;  R.  vi,  33,  33;  G.  v,  3, 

45 ; pannago  yatha,  G.  ii,  91,  12.  See  Nos.  74,  139. 

141,  nihqvasann  urago  yatha,  vi,  121, 10  ; ix,  64,  5 ; R.  vi,  51,  18 ; 

jihmaga  iva,  ix,  1,  49  (C.  pannaga) ; iva  pannagah  M.  ii, 
65,  42;  yadvat  for  yatha  (metre),  vii,  193,  70;  papata 
bhuvi  samkruddho  niiuj.  iva  pannagah,  R.  ii,  74,  35.  See 
Nos.  118,  119, 133,  139,  142,  143,  150. 
nispisya,  No.  163. 

142,  nihqvasantam  punah  punah,  vii,  15,  30  ; G.  vi,  55,  77  (dual, 

gajav  iva)  ; R.  vi,  76,  81  (v.  1.  of  last,  gajav  iva)  nihqva- 
santau  muhur  muhuh ; as  in  G.  ii,  110,  14  (sg.),  while 
here  R.  ii,  101,  15  has  punah  punah.  See  Nos.  141,  143. 

143,  nihqvasantam  yatha  nagam,  vi,  106,  71 ; xii,  224,  1 ; R.  vi, 

49,  1,  dual ; G.  ii,  15,  7 (R.  18,  5,  maharajan)  ; G.  vi,  21, 
5.  The  usual  R.  form  is  cjvasantam  iva  pannagam,  vi, 
108,  10 ; with  v.  1.,  nihcjvasautam  ivo  ’ragam,  G.  ii,  19,  1 ; 
°tau  ivo  ’ragau,  M.  vii,  77,  1.  C.  vi,  3478,  qvas. ; B., 
jval.  See  Nos.  119,  133,  141,  142,  205. 

144,  nllakuucitamurdliajah,  iii,  277,  9;  280,  50;  G.  vi,  37,  61, 

with  another  phrase,  mattamatangagaminam  (No.  203)  ; 
nllakuncitakeql,  M.  ii,  65,  33. 

145,  nllanjanacayaprakhyah,  vii,  20,  18 ; °prabhuh,  G.  vi,  24, 

43  = R.  49,  32,  but  here  °cayopamah,  as  in  G.  vi,  94, 
7 = R.  110,  6. 

146,  nilotpalamaylm  malam,  vii,  139,  8 (dharayan)  ; malam  ni- 

lotpalamaylm  iva,  G.  vi,  79,  62  (dharayan),  v.  1.  in  R. ; 
in  both  cases  of  a wreath  of  arrows. 

147,  no  ’tkantham  kartum  arhasi,  iii,  216,  10;  xii,  170,  11,  etc.; 

G.  v,  36,  76  (not  in  R.),  but  in  R.  ii,  46,  2,  na  co  ’tkan- 
thitum  arhasi  (tvaih  no  ’t°  in  G.  44,  2)  ; and  R.  ii,  53,  2, 
tarn  no  ’tkanthitum  arhasi  (nai  ’vo  ’t°  in  G.  53,  3).  R. 
bere  has  the  classical  turn.  See  No.  128. 

148,  nyapatanta  mahltale,  ix,  56,  11;  sa  papata,  R.  vi,  59,  88  = 

nipapata,  G.  36,  67 ; G.  vii,  111,  47  (not  in  R.)  ; petatus 
tau,  R.  vi,  97,  24,  26.  The  usual  variant  is  papata  dhara- 
nltale,  ix,  27,  46  ; R.  iii,  52,  26  ; 66,  18 ; G.  iv,  19,  3 ; 
passim  in  both  epics.  See  also  No.  167,  240,  309. 


422 


APPENDIX  A. 


149,  paiike  magna  iva  dvipah,  vi,  100,  9 ; pankamagna  iva  dvipah, 

G.  iv,  15,  30 ; v,  87, 26.  R.  iii,  61,  13  extends  the  phrase, 
pankam  asadya  vipulam  sidantam  iva  kunjaram  (=  G. 
68,  2,  sldann  iva  mahadvipah) ; a new  turn  in  ix,  58,  33 
gives  anyonyahi  jaghnatur  vlrau  pankastkau  mahisav  iva. 
See  Nos.  102,  215. 

150,  pancaqirsa  ivo  ’ragah,  iii,  57,  6;  iv,  22,  56;  R.  v,  10,  18; 

vi,  99,  40  (of  arrows,  gvasantah).  Compare  pancasyaih 
pannagaig  chinnair  Garudene  ’va,  vii,  36,  27 ; pancasyav 
iva  pannagau,  G.  iii,  74,  22.  This  variety  of  snakes  is 
recognized  together  with  those  having  four  and  seven 
heads  in  Hariv.  3,  46,  38.  The  seven-headed  variety,  to- 
gether with  those  having  three  and  ten  heads  respectively, 
is  recognized  in  i,  27,  51,  while  the  saptaglrsa  (girsan) 
sort,  pannago  mahan,  is  taken  as  the  form  of  the  divine 
weapon,  xiii,  14,  257.  G.  iv,  33,  41,  saptagiras,  has  been 
cited  above  under  No.  119.  For  the  ending  ivo  ’ragah. 
See  also  Nos.  74,  106,  118,  141. 

151,  patamga  iva  pavakam,  v,  130,  21 ; vi,  117,  35 ; patamgan 

iva  pavakah,  ib.  37;  R.  iii,  28,  14;  vi,  44,  23;  97,  6;  102, 
62;  G.  v,  38,  36;  G.  vi,  54,  53;  patamga  jvalanam  yatha, 
C.  ix,  152  (where  M.  ix.  3,  27  has  patamga  iva  pavakam) ; 
R.  vi,  66,  26 ; 96,  2 ; interchanges  with  galabhan  iva 
pavakam  (q.  v.  No.  283),  R.  vi,  65,  43  = G.  44,  38 ; pa- 
tamga iva  ca  ’guau  te,  xvi,  3,  42  (prior  pada) ; tristaibh, 
yatha  pradiptaiii  jvalanam  patamga  viganti,  M.  vi,  35,  29. 
See  also  Nos.  181,  258,  283. 

152,  patakadvajamalinl  (°nam),  iii,  77,  6 (agobhayac  ca  naga- 

ram)  ; G.  ii,  42,  12;  G.  iv,  25,  38;  G.  vi,  14,  20.  The 
corresponding  verses  in  R.  are  succhritadhvajamalini,  ii, 
43,  10 ; patakadhvajagobhita,  iv,  26,  41 ; and  a complete 
v.  1.,  vi,  38,  11  (G.  v,  9, 17  also  has  patakadhvajagobhita). 
But  R.  has  the  titular  phrase  at  vi,  47,  14  = G.  22,  21 
(both  °malinl)  ; and  at  vi,  57,  3,  where  G.  31,  4 has 
bab  udh  vajapatakinlm. 
patidarganalalasa,  No.  165. 

153,  pated  dyaur  himavan  glryet,  iii,  12,  130 ; idem  but  prthivi, 

G.  ii,  15,  29.  In  M.  follows  prthivi  gakall  bhavet  gusyet 
toyanidhih  ; in  G.,  gosaih  jalanidhir  vrajet.  In  v,  82,  48, 
dyauh  patec  ca  sauaksatra ; in  iii,  278,  38,  and  vii,  13, 10, 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  423 

prapated  dyauh  sanaksatra  prthivl  qakall  bhavet ; in  iii, 
249,  31-32,  vidiryet  sakala  bhumir  dyauq  ca  ’pi  qakal! 
bhavet  . . himavahq  ca  parivrajet  qusyet  toyam  samu- 
dresu  (with  other  like  expressions).  See  Nos.  G4,  327. 
153  b,  papata  ca  mamara  ca,  passim.  See  Nos.  148,  167. 
param  (-am)  vismayam,  No.  264. 

154,  param  kautuhalam  hi  me,  iii,  296,  26 ; ix,  35,  39 ; 40,  2 ; xiii, 

75,  7 ; R.  i,  1,  5,  etc.,  etc. ; bhuyah  k.  h.  m.,  ix,  47,  3. 

155,  parasparajayaisinau,  vii,  14,  46 ; R.  iv,  11,  42 ; vi,  89, 1 ; G. 

76,  32 ; G.  79,  33.  Interchanges  with  °jighahsavah  and 
“vadhaisinah,  q.  v.  below. 

156,  parasparajighahsavah,  vi,  46,  5,  15 ; G.  vi,  29,  16,  where  R. 

55,  17  has  jighahsaya,  which  is  found  also  in  G.  vi,  49,  42, 
but  here  R.  69,  54  has  jayaisinah  (No.  155).  So  G.  i,  77, 
19  has  jighlsaya,  where  R.  has  jayaisinau ; G.  vi,  77,  27, 
jighansinam,  where  R.  97,  27  has  jaghnatuq  ca  paraspa- 
ram.  See  Nos.  155,  157. 

157,  parasparavadhaisinau,  vii,  7,  32  ; ix,  12,  38 ; 55,  23  (with  the 

phrase  kruddhav  iva  mahadvipau)  ; and  passim  ; G.  vi, 
69,  1,  where  R.  89,  1 has  jayaisinau  (No.  155) ; G.  vi,  67, 
31 ; 79,  33.  Compare  anyonyavadhakanksinau,  R.  vi,  99, 
31.  I have  noticed  vadhaisin  only  in  G.,  but  cannot  say 
that  it  is  lacking  in  the  Bombay  edition.  Nos.  155-157 
might  perhaps  all  be  put  under  one  head  as  simple  vari- 
ants of  one  phrase.  See  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  143. 

158,  Parjanya  iva  vrstiman,  vi,  63,  25 ; vii,  89,  4 ; ix,  12,  59 ; 17, 

2;  xii,  67,  32;  69,  32,  etc.;  vrstibhih,  R.  iii,  28,  7 ; G.  vi, 
54,  34 ; iva  jimutaih  (metre),  R.  vi,  27,  8 ; Parjanyam  iva 
karsakah  (yesaiii  darah  pratlksante),  xiii,  60,  15;  tvam 
eva  hi  pratlksante  Parj.  i.  k.,  R.  ii,  112, 12,  where  G.  122, 
12  has  tvam  eva  pratikaiiksante  Parj.  i.  k.  See  No.  217. 

159,  parvanl  ’va  mahodadhih,  ix,  26,  28 ; jalaqayah,  G.  ii,  87,  5, 

where  R.  80,  4,  has  sagarasye  ’va  parvani. 

160,  parvatan  iva  nlradah,  vii,  89,  4 ; G.  vi,  66,  28,  where  R.  87, 

25  has  toyadah. 

161,  palayanaparayanah,  vii,  22,  15 ; 103,  32 ; 192,  83,  etc. ; G.  v, 

33,  31.  See  f.  c.  No.  10,  p.  143,  and  Nos.  69,  116,  293. 
palaqair  iva,  No.  168. 

162,  paqum  raeanaya  yatha,  iv,  22,  74,  etc. ; R.  vii,  23,  1,  40. 
paqyatam  sarvasainyanam,  No.  110. 


424 


APPENDIX  A. 


163,  panim  panau  vinispisya,  vii,  73,  19  (with  dantan  kataka- 

tayya  ca)  ; E.  ii,  35,  1 ; vii,  69,  2 (panau  panim  sa  nispi- 
sya). Compare  nispisya  panina  panim,  iv,  22,  81 ; panau 
panim  nipldya  ca  (v.  1.  ha),  ix,  65,  33;  karam  karena 
nispisya,  i,  151,  42 ; karam  karena  ’bhinipldya  virah,  iii, 
236,  19  ; talam  talena  nispisya,  vii,  193,  70. 

164,  pandurena  ’tapatrena  dhriyamanena  murdhani,  v,  178,  77 ; 

xiii,  14,  175 ; xiv,  64,  3 ; 75,  7 ; xv,  23,  8 ; E.  iv,  38,  13 
(G.  pandarena)  ; chatrena  dhriyamanena  pandurena  vira- 
jata,  ix,  9,  2.  Four  references  are  here  added  to  those 
cited,  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  138. 
paqahasta  iva  ’ntakah,  Nos.  41,  104-105. 

165,  putradarqanalalasa,  i,  122,  29 ; G.  i,  9,  56 ; bhartrdarqana- 

lalasa,  iii,  64,  124 ; 282,  60 ; G.  ii,  26,  5 ; Eamadarqana- 
lalasa,  iii,  289,  27  ; E.  v,  14,  42  ; lalasa  as  terminal,  qoka°, 
i,  2,  229 ; G.  iv,  18,  19 ; pati°,  M.  iii,  65,  1 ; patidarqana- 
lalasa,  G.  v,  29,  6,  where  E.  30,  6 has  °kanksinl ; yuddha- 
lalasah,  G.  vi,  27,  25,  where  E.  51,  25  has  nardanto  jalada 
yatha.  See  also  PW.  s.  v. 

166,  punarjatam  iva  ’tmanam  (mene),  viii,  96,  47 ; E.  vi,  39, 

15 ; E.  vi,  65,  15,  and  G.  44,  12.  In  E.  vi,  69,  8,  ma- 
nyate  kalacoditah,  where  G.  48,  8 keeps  mene ; in  E.  vi, 
74,  25,  manyate  plavagottamah,  where  G.  53,  30  keeps 
mene. 

167,  puspavrstih  papata  ha,  iii,  76,  40;  papata  puspavrsticj  ca, 

E.  vii,  110,  6.  See  also  No.  148. 

168,  puspitav  iva  kimqukau,  iii,  280,  32 ; vi,  45,  14 ; ix,  12,  15 ; 

57,  4 ; dadrqate  Himavati  p.  i.  k.,  ix,  58,  34 ; plural,  vii, 
19,  14;  ix,  9,  24 ; E.  vi,  45,  9 ; 80,  34 ; 90,  37 ; G.  vi,  32, 
33,  where  E.  58, 46  has  prabhinnav  iva  kunjarau,  a phrase, 
No.  178 ; extended  in  M.  vi,  101,  17,  samstirna  iva  parva- 
tah ; kimqukah  puspavan  iva,  ib.  110,  36 ; puspitav  iva 
nispatrau,  yatha  qalmalikimqukau,  G.  vi,  68,  31 ; kimqu- 
kav  iva  puspitau,  viii,  29, 18;  palaqair  iva  puspitaih,  E.  vi, 

58,  28,  where  G.  32,  25  has  puspitair  iva  kimqukaih  as  in 
E.  vi,  75,  27,  and  G.  54,  24.  See  Nos.  177,  178. 

piirayann  iva,  No.  36. 

169,  purnacandranibhananll,  iii,  68,  26 ; E.  vii,  33,  14.  See  also 

No.  98,  for  a similar  phrase. 

170,  pfirnayatavisrstena  qarena  ’nataparvana,  vi,  95,  72;  E.  vi, 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IX  THE  TWO  EPICS.  425 


71,  72  (G.  51,  75,  karnayata0).  The  hemistich  consists  of 
two  iterata,  the  last  pada  being  often  used  independently, 
vi,  64,  52;  88,  29;  ix,  16,  39;  G.  iv,  17,  23;  v,  31,  30. 
Compare  qaraih  saiiinataparvabhih,  M.  vii,  14,  30;  akarna- 
purnam  ayamya,  R.  iv,  11,  91. 

171,  prthivl  sasyamalini,  vi,  3,  19 ; R.  iii,  16,  5 (sasyaqalini,  in 

the  other  texts,  C.  vi,  86 ; G.  iii,  22,  5) ; tristubh,  mahlm 
iva  pravrsi  sasyaqaliuim,  G.  v,  80,  31  (not  in  R.). 

172,  prthivyaih  caturantayam,  iv,  44,  20;  R.  v,  31,  4. 
praklrna,  No.  251. 

173,  pragrhya  saqaraiii  dhanuh,  iii,  282,  34  ; 288,  10 ; G.  v,  93,  14. 

174,  prajakainah  sa  ca  ’prajah,  iii,  53,  5;  R.  i,  38,  2 ; G.  i,  14,  28. 
prajvalam,  No.  176. 

175,  pratapantam  iva  ’dityam,  vi,  59,  66;  vii,  40,  24;  G.  ii,  117, 

16  ; pratapantam  iva  ’dityam  madhyahne  dlptatejasam, 
R.  vi,  128,  9 ; madhyaiiigatam  iva  ’dityam  pratapantam 
svatejasa,  M.  vi,  106,  80.  Compare  tapantam  iva  bhaska- 
ram,  R.  iv,  11,  86. 
pradlpta  iva  manyuna,  No.  80. 

176,  pradiptam  iva  tejasa,  R.  iv,  35,  1 ; G.  iv,  33,  3 ; G.  v,  80,  5 

(°ta) ; vi,  46,  87.  Compare  prajvalann  iva  tejasa,  xii,  325, 
11;  jvalantam  iva  tejasa,  R.  vi,  71,  70 ; G.  v,  89,  44;  G. 
vi,  46,  130 ; pradiptam  iva  pavakam,  xiv,  73,  4 and  6 ; G. 
iv,  44,  53;  pradiptam  iva  sarvaqah,  G.  iii,  78,  30  ; vapusa 
. . . jvalantam  iva  tejasa,  R.  vii,  37,  2,  8 ; jajvalyamanaih 
vapusa,  M.  i,  97,  27  ; iii,  100,  19  ; R,  vi,  108,  7 ; G.  vi,  19> 
49;  jajvalyamanaih  tejobhih  (pavakarkasamaprabham), 
M.  iii,  188,  108 ; jajvalyamanaih  kopena,  M.  iv,  22,  42 ; 
G.  iv,  38,  15.  See  Nos.  16,  75,  80,  111,  177. 

177,  praphulla  iva  kimqukah,  v,  179,  31;  G.  vi,  68,  20;  pradlptan 

iva  kirhqukan,  G.  ii,  56,  7 ; iii,  79,  33.  See  Nos.  168,  176. 
prabhatayam,  No.  94  ; prabhate,  No.  79. 

178,  prabhinna  iva  kunjarah,  vi,  92,  4 ; vii,  21,  52  ; 22,  4 ; 39,  29; 

ix,  57,  62,  etc.;  R.  vi,  28,  8;  G.  ii,  116,  42  ; dual  as  v.  1.  in 
R.  vi,  58,  46  for  puspitav  iva  kimqukau,  No.  168 ; pra- 
bhinnav  iva  matangau,  M.  vii,  10,  8;  R.  vi,  89,  1;  pra- 
bhinnam  iva  matahgam  pariklrnam  karenubhih,  M.  iv,  19, 
29 ; karenubhir  maharanye  pariklrno  yatha  dvipah,  G.  v, 
14,  28. 

179,  prabhutakamalotpala,  iii,  280,  1 ; R.  iv,  26,  16. 


426 


APPENDIX  A. 


180,  pravate  kadali  yatha,  v,  13,  3,  pravepata ; E.  ii,  117, 

18,  pravepita;  E.  iii,  2,  15;  G.  v,  26,  1.  See  Nos.  71, 
136. 

181,  praviveqa  mahasenam  makarah  sagaram  yatha,  i,  138,  30  ; 

viii,  77,  10 ; ix,  18,  10,  etc.;  G.  vi,  77,  6 (v.  1.  ripoh  sain- 
yam)  ; (sainyam)  maharnavam  mlna  iva  ’viveqa.  E.  vi,  69, 
67.  In  E.  vi,  97,  6,  patamga  iva  pavakam  (No.  151)  takes 
the  place  of  makarah  sagaram  yatha  in  G.  77,  6. 

182,  prasaunasalilam  qubham  (nadlm),  iii,  64,  112;  prasanna- 

salilam  sarah,  E.  vii,  38,  21. 

182  b,  prasadam  kartum  arhasi,  ix,  35,  72 ; E.  iv,  8,  19 ; G.  ii, 

110,  7. 

183,  prahasann  iva,  Bharata,  vi,  45,  23 ; (uvaca)  prahasann  iva, 

(pratyuvaca)  hasann  iva,  M.  passim ; E.  iv,  5,  25,  etc. ; 
G.  i,  41,  3;  53,  12;  74,  19;  33,  36;  G.  v,  1,  52,  62,  etc. 

184,  praharair  jarjarikrtah,  vii,  94,  60  ; viii,  56,  28;  E.  iv,  12,  22. 

See  No.  235. 

185,  prahrstenautaratmana,  iii,  57,  30  ; 72,  42;  G.  vi,  112,  21  (E. 

128,  18,  prahrsta  putravatsala)  ; E.  vii,  11,  19. 

186,  prakaratorana,  terminal,  drdha°,  iii,  284,  2 ; xv,  5,  16  ; xvi, 

6,  23;  satta°,  G.  v,  35,  35.  Compare  cayattalakaparyan- 
tam,  G.  i,  72,  3;  cayattalakaqobhina,  M.  iii,  160,  39.  On 
these  terms,  see  my  Euling  Caste,  p.  174,  note. 

187,  pranah  samtvarayanti  mam,  G.  ii,  66,  57  = G.  iv,  21,  24 

(neither  in  E.)  ; in  xii,  52,  8 ca  for  mam,  but  the  latter  is 
implied,  as  balam  me  prajahatl  ’va  precedes.  In  M.  i, 
172,  8,  prana  hi  prajahanti  (sic  !)  mam. 
pravrsl  ’va,  No.  217. 
phullaqoka,  No.  228. 

188,  baddhagodhangulitranau,  and  plural,  iii,  283,  17 ; iv,  5,  1 ; 

E.  i,  22,  9;  ii,  23,  36;  baddhagodhahgulitravan,  x,  7,  52; 
khadgagodhahgulitravan,  iii,  278,  19. 
baddhva  ca  bhrukutim,  Nos.  51,  123. 
babhuva  tumulah  qabdah,  No.  23. 

189,  babhau  surya  ivo  ’tthitah,  vii,  18, 18;  bhati  candra  ivo  ’ditah, 

E.  vi,  127,  29;  kalasurya  ivo  ’ditah,  M.  vii,  16,  15;  diva- 
kara  ivo  ’ditah,  E.  vi,  60,  58 ; jvalan  surya  ivo  ’ditah,  G. 

111,  69,  1 ; balasurya  ivo  ’ditah,  G.  v.  41,  36 ; balacandra 
ivo  ’ditah,  G.  iii,  38,  15.  See  ivo  ’thitah,  ivo  ’ditah,  as 
terminals  also  under  No.  63  ; babhau,  No.  228. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  427 


189  b,  bahutalasamutsedhah,  iii,  158,  91  (waterfalls)  ; R.  vi,  26, 
5 (a  palace). 

baspa,  all  under  Nos.  51,  119,  120,  190 ; baspagadgada,  No. 
331. 

190-193,  bjispavyakulalocanah,  vii,  1,  3 (also  C.  97)  ; ix,  65,  31 ; 
xv,  16,  9 ; R.  vi,  46,  6 ; G.  ii,  68,  51 ; vi,  46,  27,  where  R. 
46,  30  has  krodkavyakulalocanali ; G.  vi,  83,  57,  etc.;  R. 

vi,  117,  1 = G.  102,  1 ; G.  vi,  103,  1.  This  (a)  is  the 
usual  parallel  among  these  lachrymose  padas.  Another 
(b)  is  qokavyakulalocanah,  M.  vii,  78,  14 ; G.  ii,  83,  31 ; 
and  qokabaspapariplutah,  M.  iii,  313,  3 ; G.  v,  66,  20. 
In  R.  the  commonest  form  is  baspaparyakuleksana,  G. 
iii,  7,  32;  R.  vi,  114,  3 (G.  99,  3,  with  4,  Isadbaspapari- 
plutah)  ; R.  vi,  101,  46  (v.  1.  to  G.  83,  57,  above)  ; G.  vi, 
26,  27,  where  R.  50,  45  has  harsa0  (No.  331).  Varieties 
are  baspaqokapariplutah,  G.  iv,  26,  9 ; R.  iii,  2,  22 ; qoka- 
vegapariplutah,  G.  v,  75,  18 ; qokabaspasamakulah,  M. 

vii,  52,  7 ; baspaqokasamanvitah,  ix,  65, 32 ; baspasaiiidig- 
dhaya  vaca  (see  No.  331),  xv,  8,  23.  A third  (c)  case  of 
identity  is  found  in  tatah  sa  baspakalaya  vaca  and  sa 
baspakalaya  vaca,  M.  iii,  61,  25;  iv,  20,  28;  R.  ii,  82,  10. 
Perhaps  others  will  be  found,  of  which  I have  given  one 
side  above,  and  finally  in  these  : qokaviplutalocanah,  G. 
v,  39,  5 ; baspopahatacetana,  R.  iv,  27,  32 ; qokenavista- 
cetana,  G.  vi,  9,  3;  baspaviplutalocanah,  G.  ii,  96,  2; 
baspadusitalocanah,  R.  iv,  8,  29;  baspavyakuliteksanah, 
R.  vii,  98,  2 ; baspapurnamukhah  sarve,  R.  ii,  40,  21. 
See  Nos.  51,  119,  120,  290,  and  especially  the  same  com- 
pounds with  harsa,  No.  331,  where  too  are  put  the  baspa- 
gadgada compounds. 

bijam  uptam,  No.  219. 

194-195,  Brahma  lokapitamahah,  ix,  2524  (=  45,  22,  sarva°,  as 
in  47,  15  and  in  R.  i,  63,  17 ; vi,  61,  21) ; R.  i.  57,  4,  etc.; 
sarvabhuta”,  M.  i,  64,  39. 
bhayagadgada,  No.  331. 
bhartrdarqanalalasa,  No.  165. 

196,  bhasmacchanna  iva  ’nalah,  iii,  278,  32;  R.  iv,  11,  81;  27, 
40  ; G.  iv,  16,  17  ; bhasmacchanno  va  pavako,  Dh.  Pada, 
71.  For  the  terminal  iva  ’nalah,  see  Nos.  33,  75,  99,  291. 
A pada  in  the  qloka  preceding  this  in  Dh.  P.,  as  Prof. 


428 


APPENDIX  A. 


Hardy  has  reminded  me,  is  also  an  epic  phrase,  kalam  na 
’gghati  solasim,  Dh.  P.  70,  kalam  na  ’rhanti  sodaqim,  M. 
i,  100,  68  ; ii,  41,  27 ; iii,  257,  4 (kalam  arhati) ; vii,  197, 
17,  yah  kalam  sodaqim  purnam  Dhanamjaya  na  te  'rhati ; 
xii,  174,  46,  and  277,  6,  (ete)  na  ’rhatah  sodaqmi  kalam  ; 
so  Manu  ii,  86. 

197,  bhlmo  bhlmaparakramah,  ii,  30,  30 ; iii,  53,  5 ; 73,  19 ; iv, 

22,  85  ; ix,  57,  47,  and  61 ; E.  vi,  58, 5 ; G.  v,  35,  30  ; 38, 
44 ; G.  vi,  64,  23 ; 82,  181 ; bhlmam  bhimapratisvanam, 
E.  vi,  107,  19.  Bhlsmam  bhlmaparakramam,  M.  vi,  14, 
17.  See  No.  206. 

bhujamga  iva,  No.  133. 
bhuyah  kautuhalam,  No.  154. 

198,  bhrakutlkutilananah,  iii,  150,  5 ; G.  vi,  65,  33.  See  Nos. 

51,  106,  123. 

makarah  sagaram  yatha,  No.  181. 

199,  Maghavan  iva  Qambaram  (jahi  rane  Qalyam),  ix,  7,  35; 

Qambaram  Maghavan  iva  (Balinaih  jahi),  G.  iv,  12,  8. 
Compare  Mahendrene  ’va  Qambarah  (tena  vikramya),  G. 

v,  18,  29. 

200,  mangalyam  mangalam  Visnurn,  i,  1,  24 ; mangalyam  manga- 

lam  sarvam,  E.  vi,  112,  21  (G.  97,  20,  mangalyam). 

201,  mandalani  vicitrani,  iii,  19,  7 ; ix,  57,  17,  etc. ; E.  vi,  40, 

23.  Here  also  gatapratyagatani  ca,  as  in  both  cases  in 
M.  and  elsewhere  and  in  E.  vi,  107,  32  (above,  No.  54). 
The  whole  passage  ix,  57,  17  ff.  is  the  same  with  E.  vi, 
40,  23  ft.  (not  in  G.),  with  slight  changes.  See  JAOS., 
vol.  xx,  p.  222,  and  my  Euling  Caste,  p.  253,  note  (the 
gomutraka  there  mentioned  is  found  E.  loc.  cit.). 

202,  mandallkrtakarmukah,  i,  133,  3 ; E.  iii,  25,  16. 

203,  mattamatangagaminam,  iii,  80,  14;  277,9;  E.  ii,  3,  28;  G. 

vi,  37,  61.  Compare  matttanagendravikramah,  M.  i,  188, 
10,  and  mattamatangavikramah,  E.  vi,  3,  43.  See  No. 
314. 

204,  mano  vihvalati  ’va  me,  i,  1,  218;  iv,  61,  4;  xi,  14, 14;  G.  ii, 

71,  21. 

martukama,  No.  213. 

205,  mahanaga  iva  qvasan,  ix,  32,  35 ; 57,  59 ; G.  ii,  92,  26 ; ma- 

hasarpa,  E.  iv,  16,  13 ; krudhah  sarpa,  E.  vi,  88,  38 ; 
ruddho  naga,  E.  iii,  2,  22.  See  Nos.  119,  133,  141-143. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  TIIE  TWO  EPICS.  429 


mahapapapranaqani,  No.  301. 

206,  mahabalaparakramah,  vii,  10,  72 ; ix,  45,  49,  etc. ; G.  v,  1, 

49;  G.  vi,  70,  6;  75,  49;  110,40.  Terminal,  Nos.  273, 
293. 

207,  maholka  patatl  yatka,  vii,  15,  20 ; maholke  iva  petatuh,  G. 

vi,  70,  18;  maholke  ’va  nabhastalat  (apatat),  M.  vi,  48, 
85;  divyolke  ’va  nabhaqcyuta,  G.  iv,  19,  31;  nyapatad 
dharaniprsthe  maholke  ’va  mahaprabha,  M.  vi,  104,  32; 
sa  jvalanti  maholke  ’va  . . . nipapata,  M.  vii,  92,  67. 

208,  mahsaqonitakardam&(m),  vi,  54, 103 ; vii,  20,  53  ; 21,43;  ix, 

14,  18 ; xi,  16,  56 ; xviii,  2,  17 ; R.  vi,  42,  47 ; 69,  70 ; 
125,  4 ; G.  vi,  19,  16  ; °phenilam,  R.  vi,  69,  148  (compare 
usnisavaraphenila,  M.  vii,  14,  11 ; mansaqonitakardamam 
. . . patakavastraphenilam,  vii,  187,  16-17). 

209,  ma  dharmyan  nlnaqah  pathah,  iii,  52,  15  ; G.  i,  24,  9. 

210,  manusam  vigraham  krtva,  i,  98,  8 ; R.  iv,  66,  10. 
muktaraqmir  iva,  No.  25. 

211,  muda  paramaya  yuktah,  ii,  53,  23,  etc. ; R.  i,  52, 11.  This 

is  a phrase  of  various  forms,  yuktah  or  yutah,  according 
to  position ; muda,  qriya,  pritya,  according  to  sense. 
Other  examples  are  given  above,  pp.  267,  269. 

212,  munayah  samqitavratah,  xiii,  6,  41 ; R.  iv,  13, 18.  In  G.  iv, 

13,  24,  rsinam  samqitatmanam  = maharsln  samqitavratan, 
M.  i,  1,  3. 

213,  mumursur  (-sor)  iva  bhesajatn,  vi,  121,  57  ; ix,  5,  5 (na  mam 

prlnati  tat  sarvam)  ; G.  iii,  45,  19 ; ausadham  iva,  M.  ii, 
62,  2 ; martukama  ivau  ’sadham,  R.  iii,  40,  1 ; G.  v,  89, 
57,  where  R.  vi,  17,  15  has  viparlta  ivau  ’sadham.  Com- 
pare mumursur  nastacetanah,  M.  v,  53,  12 ; and  na  pri- 
nayati  mam  bhuktam  apathy  am  iva  bhojanam,  G.  v,  76,  6 
(paretakalpa  hi  gatayuso  nara  hitaiii  na  grhnanti,  R.  iii, 
41,  20).  See  No.  68. 

214,  muhurtam  iva  ca  dhyatva,  iii,  282,  66 ; sa  muhurtam  iva 

dhyatva,  R.  vi,  101,  38  ; sa  muhurtam  iva  dhyatva  baspa- 
paryakuleksanah,  two  pada  phrases  (Nos.  190-193,  com- 
pare also  s.  No.  119),  G.  v,  19,  2 ; tato  muhurtam.  sa 
dhyatva,  ix,  5,  2. 
mule  hate,  No.  328. 

215,  mrga  vyadhair  iva  ’rditah,  xii,  332,  31 ; mrgah  kokair  iva 

’rditah,  G.  vi,  28,  19.  In  M.  usually  mrgah  sihhardita 


430 


APPENDIX  A. 


iva,  vii,  37,  36 ; ix,  3,  7 ; 19,  3,  etc. ; sinhardita  iva  dvi- 
pah,  G.  v,  37, 19.  See  Nos.  271,  316. 

216,  mekalaprabhavaQ  cai  ’va  Qono  maninibhodhakah,  H.  3,  46, 

44,  perhaps  from  G.  iv,  40,  20  (°am  Qonaih  nadam  mani°), 
the  passage  entire, 
megham  surya,  No.  72. 
yatha  devasure  yuddhe,  No.  227. 

217,  yatha  pravrsi  toyadah,  vi,  81,  39 ; It.  iii,  18,  23  ; pravrsi  ’va 

balahakah,  E.  v,  1,  180 ; pravrsi  ’va  mahameghah,  E.  iv, 
11,  25  (compare  8,  43)  ; pravrsi  ’va  ca  Parjanyah,  xiii,  68, 
71.  See  Nos.  59,  77,  158. 

218,  yatha  bhumicale  'calau,  C.  ix,  614  (vicious)  ; 'calah,  E.  vi, 

59,  61 ; 77,  13.  In  M.  corresponding  to  614,  ranabhumi- 
tale  calau.  Both  E.  passages  have  samuddhuto  preced- 
ing. See  Nos.  91,  240. 

219,  yatho  ’sare  bijam  uptam  (na  rohet),  xiii,  90,  44;  sunisphalam 

bijam  ivo  ’ptam  usare,  E.  ii,  20,  52 ; bijam  uptam  ivo  ’sare, 
E.  iii,  40,  3.  Compare  Manu,  ii,  112,  Qubham  bijam  ivo 
’sare. 

yantramukta  (cyuta)  iva  dhvajah,  No.  25. 

220,  Yamadandopamam  rane,  vi,  116,  49 ; Yamadandopamam 

gurvlm  Indraqanim  ivo  ’dyatam,  ix,  57,  12 ; Yamadanda- 
pratlkaqam  Kalaratrim  ivo  ’dyatam  . . . dehantakaranlm 
ati,  ix,  11,  50  (gadam)  ; Kaladandopamam  gadam,  E.  vii, 
14,14;  27,48;  G.  iii,  35, 43;  Yamadandopamam  bhlmam, 
E.  vi,  77,  3 ; Kalapaqopaman  rane,  G.  iii,  31,  16 ; Kala- 
dandopamam  rane,  M.  vi,  45,  8 ; vajrasparqopama  rane, 
ix,  63,  21.  See  Nos.  42,  104-105. 

221,  yasya  na  ’sti  samo  loke,  xi,  23,  14  (qaurye  vlrye  ca)  ; yasya 

na  ’sti  samo  yudhi,  G.  vi,  33,  24;  yesam  na  ’sti  samo 
vlrye,  ib.  49. 

222,  yasya  prasadam  kurute  sa  vai  tarn  drastnm  arhati,  M.  xii,  337, 

20  ; E.  vii,  37,  3,  14  (copied).  This  is  in  the  (pvetadvlpa 
interpolation  of  E. 

223,  yavat  sthasyanti  girayo,  v,  141,  55 ; E.  i,  2,  36 ; adding  y£vat 

sthasyanti  sagarah,  xii,  334,  37 ; G.  vi,  108,  15-16  (sflga- 
r£h) ; in  Qanti,  correlated  with  tavat  tava  ’ksaya  klrtih 
. . . bhavisyati ; in  G.  with  klrtir  es£  bhavisyati.  Com- 
pare No.  224. 

224,  yavad  bhumir  dharisyati,  iii,  291,  50;  viii,  86,  20;  ix,  53. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  TflE  TWO  EPICS.  431 

21;  R.  vi,  100,  57;  G.  vi,  92,  76;  112,  102;  yaval  loka 
dharisyanti,  R.  i,  60,  29 ; vii,  84,  13;  yavad  bliiimir  gira- 
yaq  ca  tistheyuh,  xii,  343,  51 ; yavat  prana  dliarisyanti,  ix, 
24,  40 ; y&vac  ca  me  dharisyanti  (prana  deke),  M.  iii,  57 
(N.  5),  32.  See  No.  223. 

225,  yiyasur  Yamasadanam,  i,  163,  10  ; G.  vi,  57,  23.  See  No.  3, 

and  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  143  ff. 

226,  yugantagnir  iva  ’jvalan,  i,  138,  37  ; R.  iii,  24,  34 ; v,  21,  25  ; 

G.  vi,  80,  40,  where  R.  101,  38  has  yuganta  iva  pavakah 
(khaskarah  in  R.  iv,  11,  2).  Compare  yugantagnir  iva 
prajah,  R.  v.  5S,  158 ; G.  vi,  50,  50,  where  R.  69,  150  has 
iva  jvalan.  See  Nos.  33,  75,  111,  176. 

227,  yuddham  devasuropamam,  vii,  15,  2 ; yuddhe  devasuropa- 

mah,  G.  vi,  4,  3 ; yatha  devasure  yuddhe,  M.  vi,  116,  36 ; 
vii,  14,  48 ; pura  devasure  yatha,  iii,  285,  11. 
yuddhe  yuddhaviqaradah,  No.  307. 

228,  raktaqoka  iva  ’babhau,  vi,  103,  10  ; phullaqoka  iva  ’babhau, 

R.  vi,  102,  69.  Compare  babhau  Ramo  'qoka  iva  rakta- 
stabakamanditah,  M.  v,  179,  31.  See  No.  189. 
rajanyam,  Nos.  94-95. 
rathanemisvanena  ca,  No.  247. 

229,  rathena  ’dityavarcasa,  iii,  290,  12;  291,  51;  R.  vi,  71,  16. 
229  b,  rathopastha  upaviqat,  vi,  94,  19,  etc. ; R.  vi,  59,  114. 

230,  ratho  me  kalpyatam  iti,  iii,  289,  33 ; kalpyatam  me  rathah 

qighram  and  ratho  me  yujyatam  iti,  R.  vi,  95,  21 ; ii,  115,  7. 
Rumadarqanalalasa,  No.  165. 

231,  Rama-Ravanayor  iva,  R.  vi,  107,  53 ; Rama-Ravanayoq  cai 

’va,  Yali-Sugrivayos  tatha,  ix,  55,  31 ; Rama-Ravanayor 
mrdhe  (yadrqam  hi  pura  vrttam),  M.  vii,  96,  28.  Compare 
Nos.  267,  274. 

232,  Ramo  rajlvalocanah,  R.  iii,  61,  29,  etc.,  and  passim  ; M.  iii, 

148,  10;  xiii,  84,  31  (Jamadagnyah  !). 

233,  Ravanah  krodhamurcchitah,  iii,  277,  47 ; 284,  17 ; R.  vi, 

26,  6;  90,  57;  G.  i,  1,  51;  vi,  75,  10;  88,  1;  raksasl 
duhkhamurcchita,  M.  iii,  277,  46.  The  terminal  is 
found  often  in  both  epics,  e.  g.  in  M.  iii,  46,  48,  Urvaql 
krodhamurcchita. 

234,  rukmapunkhais  tailadhautaih,  ix,  24,  60  (karmaraparimar- 

jitaih) ; G.  vi,  34,  24;  svarnapunkhaih  qiladhautaih,  ix, 
15,  14.  See  Nos.  34,  337.  ’ 


432 


APPENDIX  A. 


235,  rudhirena  samuksitah,  iii,  287,  14;  iv,  22,  92;  ix,  65,  4, 

etc.;  G.  vi,  75,54;  Qonitena  samuksitah,  M.  iii,  12,  62 ; 
jarjarlkrtasarvangau  rudhirena  ’bhisamplutau,  ix,  58,  34; 
compare  R.  iv,  12,  22,  klanto  rudhirasiktangah  pra- 
harair  jarjarlkrtah  (phrase  of  No.  184). 

236,  rupena  ’pratima  bhuvi,  i,  152,  17;  iii,  62,  25;  ix,  35,  47; 

48,  2 ; xiii,  82,  4 ; G.  i,  40,  4 ; R.  i,  32,  14 ; iii,  34,  20, 
Slta;  35,  13;  72,  5,  vii,  58,  7 (last  three,  neuter  with 
kanya-  or  bharya-  dvayam)  ; vii,  80,  4 ; 87,  26 ; with 
loke  for  metre,  xvii,  2,  14;  R.  v,  12,  20;  Slta  ca  ’pra- 
tima bhuvi,  R.  vi,  110,  22 ; rupena  ’sadrci  bhuvi,  Hariv. 
1,  12,  7 ; with  bala,  balena  ’pratimam  bhuvi,  iii,  275,  7. 
The  prevailing  form  in  both  epics  is  rupena  ’pratima 
bhuvi,  as  above  and  in  R.  iv,  66,  9,  here  after  the  pada, 
vikhyata  trisu  lokesu,  with  which  compare  M.  iii,  53, 
15,  where  Nala  is  lokesv  apratimo  bhuvi,  but  with  ru- 
pena following,  which  in  turn  takes  the  place  of  mur- 
timan  (No.  35)  in  another  R.  phrase.  In  R.  vii,  37,  3, 
24,  the  phrase  is  united  with  chaye  ’va  ’nugata,  No.  70, 
and  sarvalaksanalaksita,  No.  303.  It  is  slightly  modified 
on  occasion,  jananty  apratimam  bhuvi,  ix,  42,  20  ; rupena 
’pratima  rajan,  M.  v.  35,  6. 
laghu  citram  ca,  No.  67. 

237,  vacanarh  ce  ’dam  ahravlt,  v,  178,  27 ; G.  v,  23,  24 ; inter- 

changes with  vakyam  ce  ’dam  uvaca  ha,  R.  i,  35,  3 = G. 
37,  3.  Loc.  cit.,  No.  10,  p.  144.  See  No.  24. 

238,  vajranispesagauravam,  iii,  11,  40;  G.  vi,  76,  27;  °nihs- 

vanam,  G.  vi,  36,  105  (°nisthuram,  R.  59,  126). 
vajrasparqopama  rape,  No.  220. 

239,  vajrahasta  iva  ’suran,  viii,  9,  5 (mohayitva  rape)  ; °tam  i. 

°ah,  vi,  108,  35;  vajrapaner  iva  ’surah  (samtrasisyanti), 
vii,  3,  15 ; asuran  iva  vasavah,  G.  vi,  14,  8 ; vajrepe 
’ndra  iva  ’suran,  G.  v,  50,  19 ; vajrahasto  yatha  Qakrah, 
R.  vi,  67,  38 ; vajravan  vajram  danavesv  iva  vasavah 
(krodham  moksye),  R.  vi,  25,  25 ; suranam  iva  vasavah, 
ib.  26,  37 ; nibudhan  iva  vasavah  (patu),  M.  vii,  6,  4 ; 
tridaqa  iva  vasavam,,M.  vi,  97,  24;  vasavo  vasavan  yatha 
(v.  1.  iva),  R.  iv,  26,  36,  etc. ; marutam  (marudbhir)  iva 
vasavah,  G.  v,  31,  57 ; R.  ii,  106,  27 ; sahasraksam  iva 
’inarali,  R.  iv,  26,  23.  See  No.  250. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  433 
vajrftqani,  No.  275. 

240,  vajrahata  iva  ’calah,  vii,  26,  16;  R.  vi,  69,  162  (ib.  95,  yatha 

’calo  vajranipatabhagnali)  ; papata  sahasa  bhurnau,  v.  i. 
acalah,  R.  vii,  69,  36  (No.  148) ; G.  iv,  48,  22  (R.  48, 
21,  v.  1.,  paryasta  iva  parvatah) ; vajrakrtta  iva  ’calah, 
R,  vi,  69,  73.  See  Nos.  91,  218. 

241,  vajrair  iva  girir  hatah,  vii,  15,26;  vajrene  ’va  mahagirih, 

R.  iv,  16,  23  (nihatah.) 
vanarn  agnir,  No.  33. 

242,  vane  vanyena  jivatah,  xii,  13,  10 ; xv,  11,  23 ; R.  ii,  37,  2 ; 

63,  27,  and  G.  80,  11 ; G.  iv,  20,  7.  Compare  vane  van- 
yena vartayan,  Raghuv.  xii,  20. 

243,  valmlka(m)  iva  pannagah,  vi,  117,  43;  vii,  139,  7 ; R.  iii, 

20,  21 ; 29,  11.  See  Nos.  74,  139  ff.,  150. 

244,  vavarsa  qaravarsani  (°ena),  vi,  47,  20  and  67  ; ix,  16,  33-34; 

etc. ; R.  vi,  58,  40,  etc.  Compare  qaravarsam  vavarsa 
sail  (or  ca),  common  in  M.;  R.  vi,  93,  18 ; qaravarsair 
avakirat,  M.  vii,  18,  19 ; G.  vi,  30,  11 ; R.  vi,  100,  25 ; 
103,  23.  See  No.  77. 
vasavo,  No.  239. 

245,  vakyajno  vakyakovidah,  iii,  278,  2;  G.  v,  7,  40;  R.  vi,  111, 

97. 

246,  vakyarn  vakyaviqaradah,  ii,  15,  10 ; v,  13,  10 ; R.  v,  52, 

4 ; 63,  15 ; vii,  87,  1 ; G.  i,  60,  17  ; G.  vi,  82,  46.  Com- 
pare vakyarn  vakyavidam  qresthah,  R.  i,  70,  16 ; vi,  3,  6 ; 
vakyajno  and  vakyavid  vakyakuqalah,  R.  iv,  3,  24;  vi, 
17,  30 ; G.  v,  81,  2 (G.  81,  46,  qastravid  vakyakuqalah) ; 
sarve  vakyaviqaradah,  G.  vi,  27,  11  (v.  1.  vakyakovidah). 
Compare  No.  307. 

247,  vajinam  khuraqabdena  rathanemisvanena  ca,  ix,  9,  14 ; G. 

vi,  111,  17,  but  with  aqvanam  for  vajinam,  where  R.  127, 
20  has  khuraqabdaq  ca.  In  G.  ii,  111,  46  (the  second 
pada  only)  khuranemisvanena  ca,  where  R.  103,  40  has 
rathanemisamahata ; rathanemisvanena  ca  is  common  in 
M.,  vii,  38,  12,  etc. 

248-249,  (a)  vatarugna  iva  drumah,  iii,  286,  4;  C.  xi,  611  = 21, 
9,  where  is  found  °bhagna,  as  in  vi,  13,  13  ; 14,  16;  vii, 
16,  4,  but  °rugna  occurs  again  in  vii,  79,  25  (C.  bhugna). 
Other  forms  in  M.  are  vatahata,  vayurugna,  viii,  9,  5; 
agnidagdha  (all  with  iva  drumah),  iii,  63,  39;  vateritah 
28 


434 


APPENDIX  A. 


qala  iva  ’driqrngat,  viii,  85,  38 ; iii,  16,  20,  vatarugna 
iva  ksunno  jlrnamulo  vanaspatih  (vegavan  nyapatad 
bhuvi).  (b)  Besides  these,  chinnamula,  iv,  16,  12;  viii, 
96,  54  (like  chinne  ’va  kadall,  No.  71).  In  R.  the  last 
(b)  is  the  favorite  form,  though  in  iii,  20,  21,  bhinnamula 
iva  drumah  stands  for  G.  26,  24  chinnamula ; papata 
sahasa  bhumau  chinnamula  i.  d.,  G.  ii,  74,  19 ; R.  vi,  58, 
54  = G.  32,  42 ; in  R.  iii,  29,  7,  qlrnamula  (=  G.  35,  8, 
chinna),  etc.  Compare  also  vatanunna,  M.  vii,  190,  27 
(vatanunna  iva  ’rnbudah,  viii,  24,  27) ; chinnas  tarur  iva 
’ranye,  G.  vi,  82,  115 ; druma  bhagnaqikha  iva,  M.  vi,  62, 
44;  vajrarugna  iva  ’calah,  xiv,  76,  18.  Other  forms  in 
R.  are  mulabhrasta,  bhumikampa,  vatoddhuta,  vajrahata 
(all  with  iva  drumah) ; bhagna  iva  mahadrumah.  I 
enter  only  two  as  identical,  but  there  may  be  more. 
Compare  Nos.  53,  71,  136,  240.  I add  here  another  like 
interchange  of  ptc. : bhagnadahstra  ivo  ’ragah,  R.  i,  55,  9 ; 
qirna°,  ix,  3,  7 (cf.  19,  3). 

250,  vasavo  Namuciiii  yatha,  ix,  7,  38  (jahi  cai  ’nam)  ; G.  vi, 

51,  102  (jahi  ’mam)  ; ^akrena  Namucir  yatha,  G.  vi,  18, 
16  (compare  30,  17) ; Namucir  vasavam  yatha,  G.  iii,  31, 
36  (=  R.  25,  31,  kruddham  kruddha  iva  ’ntakah,  Nos. 
104-105);  Namucir  yatha  Harim  ! (samabhyadhavat), 
G.  iii,  32,  36;  sa  vrtra  iva  vajrena  phenena  Namucir 
yatha  Balo  ve  ’ndraqanihatah,  R.  iii,  30,  28  (va  for  iva, 
as  often)  ; dvandvayuddham  sa  datum  te  [samarthah] 
Namucer  iva  vasavah,  R.  iv,  11,  22.  See  No.  239. 

251,  viklrna  iva  parvatah  (and  instr.  pi.),  vi,  116,  39 ; iii,  172, 

18  j vii,  20,  50 ; G.  iii,  56,  39  ; G.  vi,  37,  30 ; 52,  37 ; 
interchanges  with  viqlrna,  viii,  27,  38 ; G.  iv,  7,  23, 
viqirna  = R.  iv,  8,  24,  viklrna ; so  viqlrna  in  G.  v,  87, 
4;  also  prakirna,  R.  iv,  5,  29;  G.  vi,  76,  13.  Compare 
nirdhuta  iva,  G.  v,  8,  4 ; patita,  G.  vi,  32,  24.  See  Nos. 
75,  111. 

252,  vikhyata  trisu  lokesu  (above,  No.  236)  ; trisu  lokesu  viqruta, 

iii,  84,  83 ; 85,  74 ; ix,  38,  38,  etc. 

253,  vidyut  saudamani  yatha,  iii,  53,  12 ; 96,  22 ; R.  iii,  52,  14, 

where  G.  38,  19  has  vyomni,  as  in  G.  vi,  80,  24,  where 
the  v.  1.  is  diptaqanisamaprabha ; also  R.  iii,  74,  34  (not 
in  G.) ; R.  vii,  32,  56  = G.  21,  57. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  L V THE  TWO  EPICS.  435 


254,  vidhidrstena  karmana,  iii,  166,  8;  ix,  47,  10;  R.  i,  49,  19; 

Compare  rsidrstena  vidhina,  ix,  50,  12. 

255,  vidhiima  iva  pavakah,  vi,  109,  35  ; 1 17,  48 ; xii,  251,  7 ; 325, 

12  ; R.  iv,  67, 7 ; vi,  77,  7 ; 88,  20.  See  Nos.  75,  111,  226, 
283. 

256,  vidhumo  'gnir  iva  jvalan,  i,  102,  38  ; ix,  14,  20  ; xii,  334,  3 ; 

R.  iii,  28,  19.  See  Nos.  33,  226. 

257,  vinadya  jalado  yatha,  vi,  49,35;  nadayan  jalado  yatha,  R. 

iii,  70,  10;  vineduh  . . . jalada  iva,  G.  vi,  21,  22  (v.  1. 
jaladopamah)  ; G.  vi,  50,  36;  jalada  iva  ca  ’neduh,  R.  vi, 
60,  35. 

258,  vinirdagdham  patamgam  iva  vabnina,  ii,  42,  19;  vinirdag- 

dhah  qalabho  vahnina  yatha,  G.  vii,  23,  48.  For  another 
case  of  interchange  between  pataiiiga  and  qalabha  in  the 
same  phrase,  see  No.  151. 
vimarde  tumule,  No.  92. 
vimukhlkrtavikrama,  No.  123. 

259,  vivatsam  iva  dhenavah  (dhenukam),  vii,  78,  18 ; R.  ii,  41,  7. 

Compare  giiur  vivatse  ’va  vatsala,  G.  ii,  66,  28. 

259  b,  vivarnavadana  krqa,  iii,  54,  2;  R.  ii,  75,  7. 

260,  vivyadha  niqitaih  qaraih,  vi,  45,  77 ; and  passim ; R,  v,  44, 

6 ; G.  vi,  19,  55  ; and  passim.  See  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  141,  for 
variants. 

261,  viqalyakaranim  qubham,  vi,  81,  10 : G.  vi,  82,  39 ; 83, 

9,  etc.  The  passage  in  M.  should  be  compared  as  a 
whole  with  G.  vi,  71,  23.  In  M. : evam  uktva  dadav 
asmai  viqalyakaranlih  qubhaiii  osadhim  viryasampannam 
viqalyaq  ca  ’bhavat  tada;  in  G. : evam  uktas  tu  . . . 
viqalyakaranlm  nama  . . . qubham  dadau  nasyam  sa  tasya 
gandham  aghraya  viqalyak  samapadyata  (all  explained 
again  in  G.  82,  39). 

262,  visaplta  iva  skhalan,  Hariv.  C.  4,840  = qvasan  in  2,  32,  1;  G. 

ii,  84,  1.  Compare  madakslba  iva  skhalan,  G.  ii,  84,  5. 
262  b,  visarn  agnim  jalam.  rajjum  asthasye  tava  karanat,  iii,  56,  4 
(Nala,  4,  4),  where  the  situation  is  the  same  as  in  R.  ii, 
29,  21  (not  in  G.);  visam  agnim  jalam  va  ’ham  asthasye 
mrtyukaranat. 
vispharya  ca,  No.  308. 

263,  visphurjitam  iva  ’qaneh,  iii,  51,  13,  and  often  ; G.  iv,  5,  24 ; 

G.  v,  23,  19  (R.  21,  24,  nirghosam  aqaner  iva). 


436 


APPENDIX  A. 


264,  vismayam  paramam  gatah,  ix,  54,  11 ; E.  iv,  12,  5 ; E.  v,  32, 

3 ; gatva,  xiii,  14,  368;  yayau,  M.  iii,  71,  24,  etc. ; prapa, 
G.  vi,  16,  95;  jagmuh,  M.  v,  131,  22;  ix,  38,  10,  57,  9, 
etc. ; E.  vi,  107,  3 ; G.  99,  45 ; paraiii  vismayam  agatah, 
M.  iv,  22,  93  (sarve)  ; E.  i,  69,  16 ; E.  vi,  107,  3 (sarve)  ; 
G.  vi,  4,  44 ; paramam  vismayam  gatah,  G.  iii,  30,  38 ; 
sarve  vismayam  agatah,  G.  vi,  86, 11 ; qrutva  tu  vismayam 
jagmuh,  E.  vi,  130,  40. 

265,  vismayotphullanayanlh,  i,  134,  28 ; E.  iii,  42,  34 ; G.  v,  9, 

60;  °locanah,  M.  i,  136, 1 ; xiii,  14,  386;  Hariv.  3,  10,  45 ; 
E.  vii,  37,  3,  29 ; G.  iv,  63,  10 ; G.  vi,  105,  21,  where  E. 
has  kim  tv  etad  iti  vismitah ; vismayakulacetasah,  G.  iv, 
50, 14.  See  No.  332. 

266,  viro  ranavigaradah,  vi,  57,  16 ; G.  vi,  60,  4. 

267,  vrtravasavayor  iva,  vi,  100, 51  (tayoh  samabhavad  yuddham) ; 

E.  vi,  99,  31  (tayor  abkun  mahayuddham).  Compare 
Nos.  231,  274. 

268,  vedavedangaparaglh,  iii,  64,  81 ; xiii,  14,  62 ; G.  ii,  70,  16 ; 

°tattvajnah,  metrical,  M.  vi,  14,  44,  etc. 

269,  velam  iva  mahodadhih,  vii,  197,  6;  E.  vi,  76,  63;  118,  16; 

G.  ii,  30,  30;  velam  iva  samasadya,  M.  i,  227,  28;  velam 
iva  ’sadya  yatha  samudrah,  E.  vi,  109,  21 ; velam  iva 
maharnavah,  M.  iv,  19,  22 ; ix,  3,  18 ; vele  ’va  makara- 
layam,  iv,  52,  19 ; vi,  108,  60,  etc. 
vyatltayam,  No.  94. 

270,  vyaghrakesarinav  iva,  vii,  14,  68;  G.  vi,  67,  32. 

271,  vyaghrah  ksudramrgaih  yatha,  iii,  10,  25  (jaghana)  ; vya- 

ghrat  ksudramrga  iva  (trastah),  G.  iii,  33,  21.  Compare 
(trasayan)  sihhah  ksudramrgan  yatha,  M.  iii,  288,  10; 
(drstva  no  ’dvijate),  E.  iii,  28,  13;  sihham  ksudramrga 
yatha  (samtrastah),  M.  vi,  19,  10  ; vyadhibhiq  ca  vimathy- 
ante  vyadhaih  ksudramrga  iva,  xii,  332,  29.  See  also 
Nos.  215,  316.’ 

272,  vyattananam  iva  ’ntakam,  vi,  63,  26  ; 107,  99  ; E.  iii,  32,  6 ; 

and  G.  iii,  7,  8,  where  E.  iii,  2,  6 has  vyaditasyam  ; which 
phrase  occurs  also  in  M.  vi,  114,  39.  Compare  viii,  91, 
42,  Kalananam  vyattam  iva  ’tighoram.  For  iva  'ntaka 
see  No.  104. 

vyahartum  upacakrame,  No.  14. 
vyustayam,  Nos.  94-95. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  TIIE  TWO  EPICS.  437 
vyomni  saud&manl,  No.  253. 

273,  Qakratulyaparakramah.  The  common  terminal  is  para- 

kramah,  to  which  is  prefixed  Yama,  Vayu,  Qakra,  etc.,  as 
in  ix,  15,  10,  Yama;  G.  vi,  83,  39,  Vayu;  G.  vi,  75,  2, 
Qakra.  The  last  is  naturally  the  most  frequent,  Qakra- 
tulyaparakramah,  viii,  27,  27,  etc. ; G.  iii,  42,  19  ; R.  iv, 
11,  43  ; 32,  11 ; vi,  69,  10  and  82 ; 71,  1 ; (pakratulyabalo 
‘pi  san,  G.  iii,  47,  2.  See  Nos.  206,  293. 

Qakradhvaja,  No.  25. 

274,  Qakraqambarayor  iva,  R.  vi,  76,  77  ; (yatha  yuddhe ) Qakra- 

qambarayoh  pura,  M.  vi,  100,  54.  See  Nos.  231,  267. 

275,  Qakraqanisamasparqan  (qaran),  vi,  108,  35;  G.  vi,  68,  6, 

where  R.  88,  42  has  sarpan  iva  visolbanan  ; Indraqani0, 
ix,  24,  57,  etc.;  R.  vi,  98,  21;  vajraqani0,  R.  vi,  43,  32. 
So  Qakra,  Indra,  and  vajra,  in  Qakraqanisamasvanam, 
Indra°,  vajra°,  M.  vi,  44,  11;  62,  61;  G.  i,  42,  5 (maha°, 
33,  12) ; vajra°  also  R.  vi,  100,  32;  G.  iii,  26,  20;  Cakra- 
qanisamaprabha,  R.  vi,  54,  2.  Compare  qarair  aqanisarii- 
sparqaih,  M.  vi,  117,  22  with  Qakra°  vajraqanisamaih 
qaraih,  R.  vi,  88,  46  = G.  68,  10;  also  vajrasaiiisparqa- 
saman  qaran,  G.  vi,  70,  15  (=  90,  44,  vajrasparqasaman)  ; 
Qakraqanisvanam,  ib.  61,  1,  etc. 

276,  qankhadundubhinihsvanah,  i,  69,  6;  °nirghosah,  R.  vi,  42,  39. 

277,  qataqo  'tha  sahasraqah,  M.  iii,  288,  24 ; vi,  35,  5 ; 57,  23 ; 

59,  10  ; vii,  16,  5,  etc. ; R.  ii,  57,  9 ; G.  i,  56,  6 ; G.  iii,  34, 
14;  G.  iv,  50,  18;  G.  v,  73,  23;  95,  24;  G.  vi,  99,  14. 
Common  is  the  terminal  qatasahasraqah,  M.  i,  134,  28 ; 
G.  ii,  57,  9,  etc. 

qaravarsam  vavarsa  ea,  etc.,  No.  244. 

278,  qaravarsani  srjantam  (two  padas),  vi,  59,  66 ; 106,  53 ; 

srjantam  qaravarsani,  G.  vi,  18,  36. 

279,  qarac  capad  iva  cyutah,  R.  iv,  11,  14 ; qaraq  capagunacyutah, 

G.  iii,  33,  16,  where  R.  27,  13  has  gunac  cyutan.  M.  has 
capacyutah  qarah,  vi,  48,  79 ; 116,  51,  etc.,  but  not  I think 
capagunacyutah,  guna  for  jya  being  rare  in  M.,  though  it 
occurs  a few  times,  e.  g.,  viii,  25,  39  ; 26,  30  ; iii,  282,  12. 
qarena  ’nataparvana,  No.  170. 

280,  qaraih  kanakabhusanaih  (or  °ah),  vi,  64,  15  ; ix,  13,  43  ; R. 

vi,  71,  40 ; G.  vi,  18,  45,  where  R.  kancana  (as  in  G.  vi, 
86,  30)  ; G.  vi,  55,  28  ; cara  hemavibhusitah,  R.  iv,  8,  22 ; 


438 


APPENDIX  A. 


united  with  phrase  No.  87  in  ix,  28,  41.  See  Nos.  85,  336. 

281,  qarair  aqlvisopamaih  (or  °ah),  vii,  37,  12  ; ix,  16,  11;  R.  vi, 

88,  42;  G.  vi,  76,  25;  jvalitaqivisopaman,  M.  vi,  100,  5. 
For  other  references,  see  1.  c.  No.  10,  p.  146. 

282,  qaraih  sarpavisopamaih  (or  °ah),  vi,  117,  22;  R.  vi,  88,  18. 

283,  qalabha  iva  pavakam,  vii,  36,  21 ; viii,  24,  61 ; 27,  7 ; xi,  25, 

14 ; G.  vi,  44,  38,  where  R.  65,  43  has  patamgan  ; qala- 
bhan  iva  marutah  (vyadhamat),  M.  vii,  145,  70.  Compare 
also  the  close  resemblance  in  qalabhanam  iva  vrajah  or 
vraja  iva,  M.  ix,  11,  25 ; 13,  42,  where  C.  697  has  qaku- 
nanam  (in  the  former,  one  of  a group  of  similes  of  arrows, 
bhramaranam  iva  vratah  qalabhanam  iva  vrajah  hradinya 
iva  meghebhyah,  scil.  nyapatan  qarah),  and  in  R.  vi,  41, 
49,  qalabhanam  ivo  ’dgamah;  ix,  13,  41,  iva  ’yatim  (with 
vraja  iva  above),  perhaps  for  ’valim  ? Compare  hahsa- 
vali,  R.  vi,  69,  37.  Another  favorite  simile  is  the  lamp, 
on  which,  however,  I have  at  hand,  besides  the  iva  pava- 
kam phrases  above,  only  qalabha  iva  te  dlptam  agnim 
prapya  yayuh  ksayam,  M.  vii,  146,  14;  te  pavakam  iva 
’sadya  qalabha  jlvitaksaye  jagmur  vinacam  sarve  vai,  G. 
v.  39, 12 ; calabha  yatha  dipam  (pldayeyuh)  mumursavah 
(suryam  abhragana  iva),  M.  vii,  22,  26.  See  Nos.  151, 
181,  258. 

284,  qardfila  iva  kunjaram,  vii,  14,  67 ; also  in  G.,  but  ref.  lost. 

Terminal,  No.  297. 

285,  qiro  bhrajisnukundalam,  iii,  289,  23 ; qiro  jvalitakundalam, 

R.  vi,  100,  15  ; 103,  20.  See  No.  317. 

286,  Qlghragam  urmimalinlm,  R.  ii,  55,  22,  of  Yamuna  (cf.  113, 

21)  ; Vitastam  (for  qlghragam),  xiii,  25,  7 ; urmimalinam 
aksobhyam  ksubhyantam  iva  sagaram,  R.  ii,  18,  6 ; which 
adds  upaplutam  iva  ’dityam,  a phrase  found  also  in  xiv, 
11,  2,  in  the  same  situation. 

287,  qlghram  prajavitair  liayaih,  M.  vii,  98,  10 ; G.  ii,  70,  3,  and 

6,  where  R.  68,  6 has  qlghram  qlghrajavair  hayaih.  See 
No.  78. 

288,  qubharn  va  yadi  va  papam,  v,  34,  4;  R.  iv,  30,  72.  This 

phrase  introduces  in  these  passages  two  different  prov- 
erbs. The  same  occurs  xvii,  3,  31,  etc. ; R.  ii,  18,  25,  in 
a general  relation.  The  first  va  is  often  omitted  in  such 
turns,  as  in  G.  v,  64,  6 — Mann  xi,  233,  ajnftnad  yadi  va 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  439 

jaanat  (followed  in  G.  by  na  kaqcin  na  ’paradhyati  = E. 

vi,  113,  43,  where  G.  98,  34  has  na  kaqcid  apa°). 

Quskaiii  vanam,  No.  33. 

289,  Qrngabhyam  vrsabhav  iva,  ix,  14,  25  (tataksatus  tada  ’nyon- 

yam)  ; govrso  yatha,  G.  iii,  32,  4.  In  the  latter  case  the 
warrior  thus  receives  arrows!  The  reading  is  nimllita 
iva  ’rsabhah,  K.  iii,  26,  4.  Compare  qrnginau  govrsav  iva, 
v.  1.  vrsabhav,  ix,  57,  2. 

qokabaspaparipluta  and  some  other  qoka-forms,  Nos.  137, 
190.’ 

290,  (jokopahatacetanah,  iii,  59,  14 ; E.  iv,  1,  124 ; °cetasam,  M. 

vii,  191,  1 ; ix,  41,  25.  These  to  add  to  No.  190. 
(jvasantam  iva,  No.  143. 

291,  saiiivartako  iva  ’nalah,  vi,  95,  54 ; G.  iii,  70,  1 ; G.  v,  8,  7 ; 

G.  vi,  83,  16.  See  Nos.  33,  75,  196. 

292,  sakhe  satyena  te  qape,  i,  131,  46;  G.  iv,  13,  34.  Compare, 

among  other  variants,  vlra  satyena  te  qape,  G.  ii,  48,  4, 
■where  E.  51,  4 has  satyenai  ’va  ca  te  (jape ; satyenai  ’va 
<japamy  aliam,  E.  iv,  7,  22 ; satyena  vai  Qape  devi,  G.  v, 
34,  7.  See  No.  294. 

293,  satyadharmaparayanah,  iii,  64,  83;  vii,  12,  26;  xii,  278,  39; 

337,  63 ; E.  vii,  74,  19  (where  G.  has  puraskrtya)  ; G.  i, 
59,  7 ; G.  ii,  74,  26  ; G.  ii,  19,  6,  where  E.  22,  9 has  nityam 
satyaparakramah ; wherewith  compare  nityam  dharmapa- 
rayanah,  G.  iv,  38,  43.  Compare  satyavrataparayanah, 
M.  i,  109,  6 ; xiii,  107, 122 ; G.  ii,  21,  3.  Compare  also  sat- 
yaparakramah, terminal  after  dhlman,  M.  iii,  73,  23  ; after 
Eamah,  G.  iii,  33,  10 ; G.  v.  66,  21 ; after  satyarn,  E.  vi, 
119, 12.  For  the  terminals  parayana,  parakrama,  see  Nos. 
69,  116,  163,  206,  273. 

294,  satyarn  etad  bravlmi  te,  i,  73,  17 ; iii,  56,  14 ; 57,  32 ; xiii, 

14,  178,  etc. ; G.  ii,  15, 19;  G.  v,  6,  13 ; 36,  70;  G.  vi,  98, 
15  ; etat  satyarn,  G.  vi,  23,  32  ; tattvam  etad,  often  in  E. ; 
satyena  ’ham,  E.  v,  38,  65 ; satyarn  pratigmomi  te,  E.  v, 
1,148;  vi,  100,  48;  satyarn  etan  nibodha  me,  G.  iv,  61, 
4 ; satyarn  etan  nibodhadhvani,  M.  iii,  298,  13 ; satyarn 
etad  vaco  mama,  ix,  35,  75.  See  No.  292. 

295,  samdaqya  da^anair  ostham,  vi,  91,  31;  E.  vi,  95,  3 (in  M._ 

with  the  phrase  srkkini  parisamlihan ; in  E.,  with  kro-- 
dhasaihraktalocanah)  ; E.  vi.  69,  88,  where  G.  49,  76  has 


440 


APPENDIX  A. 


sampidya  daqanair  osthau ; ix,  11,  49,  samdaqya  daqana- 
cchadam  (0.  577,  samdasta0). 

296,  sapaksav  iva  parvatau,  vii,  14,  71 ; E.  ii,  89, 19.  Compare 

sa^rngav  iva  parvatau,  M.  vii,  14,  25  ; ix,  12,  22 ; 55,  40  ; 
Kailasam  iva  Qrnginam,  vi,  62,  33;  94,  23.  See  Nos.  75, 
111,  251. 

saptaqirsan,  No.  150. 

297,  samadav  iva  kunjarau,  i,  134,  33  and  34;  E.  vi,  66,  9 

(plural)  ; samada  iva  hastinah,  G.  v,  81,  35. 

298,  samantad  akutobhayah,  xii,  68,  30 ; G.  iii,  11,  17 ; both 

after  yathakamam,  but  with  different  application ; that 
of  M.  being  found  elsewhere,  E.  ii,  67,  18  (A.  J.  Phil, 
vol.  xx,  p.  33). 

299,  samudram.  saritam  patim,  ix,  50,  15 ; E.  iv,  11,  8. 

300,  sarvakamasamrddhinl,  ii,  21,  25 ; ix,  38,  7,  °ina,  etc. ; E. 

iii,  47,  4,  etc. 

301,  sarvapapapranacanam  (parva)  i,  2,  79,  etc. ; E.  vii,  83,  4 

(dharmapravacanam) ; mahapapapranacanl  (katha),  E. 
vii,  37,  4,  7. 

302,  sarvabhuta  (bhayamkara  and)  bhayavaha  (the  former,  ix, 

36,  26 ; the  latter),  G.  vi,  60,  49,  where  E.  69,  149  has 
sarvabhauma ; xiii,  14,  259.  Also  Manu  viii,  347,  sar- 
vabhutabhayavahan.  See  also  No.  304. 

303,  sarvalaksanalaksita(h),  xii,  337,  35 ; E.  vii,  37,  3,  24 ; 

“sampannam,  ix,  6,  13,  etc.  Iu  E.  with  phrase  No.  236. 
sarvalokapitamahali,  No.  194. 

304,  sarvalokabhayamkaram,  iii,  65,  20 ; E.  iv,  8,  19  ; G.  vi,  91 , 

1,  where  E.  107,  1,  has  sarvalokabhayavaham ; E.  vi, 
108,  30;  °bhayavaham  also  in  xii,  68,  38;  E.  i,  9,  9 ; 
vii,  22,  6 ; trailokasya  bhayavahah,  ix,  49,  14.  See  No. 
302. 

305,  sarvalokavigarhitam,  i,  118,  22;  E.  vi,  94,  9;  G.  ii,  76,  5 

and  13;  G.  iii,  75,  15,  etc. 
sarvalokasya  paqyatah,  No.  110. 

306,  sarvaqastraviqaradah,  ii,  5,  8 ; ii,  73,  15 ; vi,  14,  51 ; xiii, 

32,  1;  E.  ii,  43,  19;  iii,  5,  32;  iv,  54,  5;  G.  vi,  51,  26 
(where  E.  vi,  71,  28  has  sarvastravidusam  varah);  Manu, 
vii,  63.  Compare  G.  v,  2,  2,  sarvaqastrarthakovidam, 
where  E.  iv,  66,  2 has  sarvaqastravidarii  varah.  Com- 
pare No.  266. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  441 


sarvabharanabhusita,  No.  113. 

307,  sarve  yuddhaviqaradah,  iii,  276,  13 ; vii,  23,  18 ; G.  vi,  29, 

2.  Compare  yuddham  (or  yuddhe)  yuddhaviqaradali,  11. 
vi,  65,  10;  G.  vi,  31,  7 ; 42,  11;  76,  31;  yudhi  y°,  ib. 
77,  26.  Compare  No.  246. 

308,  sa  vispharya  mahac  capam,  vi,  49,  26 ; G.  vi,  51,  5;  79,  9 

(ib.  43,  vispharya  ca).  In  R.  vi,  71,  5 (=  G.  51,  5)  tada 
capam,  where  as  often,  the  fact  may  be  remarked  that 
G.,  mahac  capam,  is  more  stereotyped  than  R. 

309,  savisphulinga  nirbhidya  nipapata  mahltale,  vii,  92,  67 ; 

savisphulingaiii  sajvalam  nipapata  mahltale,  R.  vi,  67,  23. 
In  M.,  sa  jvalantl  maholke  ’va  precedes.  See  No.  148. 

310,  sahasraraqmir  adityah,  iii,  3,  62 ; G.  iii,  62, 13 ; old  Up.  adj. 
saksat  kalantakopama,  Nos.  104-105. 

satta°,  No.  1S6. 

311,  sSgara  makaralayah,  vii,  77,  5 ; sg.,  ix,  47,  7 ; G.  iv,  9,  38. 

312,  sadhuvado  mahan  abhut,  vii,  100,  3 ; R.  vii,  96,  11 ; jajne, 

ix,  13,  3;  sadhu  sadhv  iti  cukruquli,  M.  vii,  14,  84;  ca 
’bravit,  R.  iv.  8,  25;  vi,  19,  27;  G.  v,  56,  35;  sadhu 
sadhv  iti  Ramasya  tat  karma  samapujayan,  R.  vi,  93, 
36 ; sadhu  sadhv  iti  te  neduh,  ib.  44,  31 ; iti  samhrstah, 
G.  ii,  88,  22  (with  vicukruquh)  ; sadhu  sadhv  ite  te  sarve 
pujayam  cakrire  tada,  M.  v,  160,  36 ; sadhv  iti  vadinah, 
R.  vii,  32,  65. 

313,  sayakair  marmabhedibhih,  vii,  21,  10;  G.  iv,  15,  9;  isu- 

bhir,  G.  vi,  75,  65 ; naracair,  M.  vii,  16,  7. 

314,  sinhakhelagatih  (qriman),  i,  188,  10 ; sihhakhelagatim  (va- 

kyam),  G.  i,  79,  10.  Compare  in  tristubh,  gajakhela- 
gamin,  xv,  25,  7,  with  mattagajendragamin  in  6.  See  No. 
203. 

315,  sinhanadanq  ca  kurvantah,  vi,  64,  84 ; kurvatam,  R.  vi,  75, 

41 ; G.  vi,  32,  13,  where  R.  58,  17  has  nardatam ; sin- 
hanadam  nanada  ca,  ix,  13,  27 ; atha  ’karot,  ix,  3,  3 ; 
pracakrire,  ix,  8,  19,  etc. 

sinhah  ksudramrgan  yatha  and  sinhardita,  Nos.  215,  271. 

316,  sihhene  We  ’tare  mrgah,  vii,  7,  53 ; sinhasye  ’ve  ’taro 

mrgah,  R.  vi,  79,  13;  sinhasye  ’va  mrga  rajan,  M.  vi, 
109,  14.  Compare  also  the  pair;  sihhene  ’va  mahagajah, 
xi,  18,  27 ; R.  vi,  101,  53 ; sihhair  iva  mahadvipah,  R. 
vi,  31,  33.  See  Nos.  215,  271. 


442 


APPENDIX  A. 


317,  sumrstamanikundalah,  i,  78,  17 ; iv,  18,  19 ; G.  vi,  37,  56  ; 

pra°,  M.  iii,  57,  4;  sumrstamanitoranam,  G.  v,  16,  39. 
See  No.  285. 

318,  susrava  rudhiram  gatrair  gairikam  parvato  yatha,  ix,  13, 

14 ; susruvu  rudhiram  bhuri  naga  gairikadhatuvat,  G. 
vi,  59,  13.  With  the  first  pada  of  G.  here,  compare 
cakara  rudhiram  bhuri  M.  iii,  279,  5;  and  compare  also 
G.  v,  83,  12,  rudhirasravanaih  santu  gairikanam  iva 
’karah. 

319,  sutamagadhabandinam,  vii,  7,  8 ; G.  ii,  26,  14,  nom.,  where 

E.  26,  12  has  bandinah  . . . sutamagadhah. 

320,  srkkini  parisamlihan,  iii,  157,  50 ; iv,  21,  51  ; vi,  91,  31 ; 

111,  11;  vii,  146,  120;  ix,  14,  40,  etc.,  v.  h,  parilelihan, 
C.  vi,  4,094  = 91,  31;  samlihan  raj  an,  ix,  55,  24;  in  iii, 
124,  24,  lelihan  jihvaya  vaktram  (vyattanano  ghoradr- 
stir  grasann  iva  jagad  balat  sa  bhaksayisyan)  samkrud- 
dhah,  as  in  E.  vi,  8,  22  = G.  v,  79,  12,  kruddhah 
parilihan  srkkam  (G.  vaktram)  jihvaya.  In  E.  vi,  67, 
140,  jihvaya  parilihyantam  srkkini  qoniteksite,  where 
G.  46,  86  has  lelihanam  asrg  vaktraj  jihvaya  qonitoksi- 
tam.  Compare,  also  in  E.,  osthau  parilihan  quskau 
(netrair  animisair  iva  mrtabhuta  iva  ’rtas  tu).  In  M. 
vi,  64,  31,  srkkini,  where  C.  2,840  has  srkkinim ; in 
other  cases,  srkkini  is  the  Bombay  reading,  as  observed 
PW.  s.  v.  where  srkv°  is  preferred.  The  type  is  not  yet 
stereotyped  in  E.,  as  it  is  in  M.’s  titular  phrase.  See 
Nos.  106,  295. 

321,  se  ’ndrair  api  surasuraih,  vii,  12,  28,  etc.  ; E.  vi,  48,  30. 

In  M.  preceded  by  na  hi  qakyo  Yudhisthirah  graliltum 
samare  raj an  ; in  E.  by  ne  ’mau  Qakyau  rane  jetum.  The 
phrase  is  not  infrequent, 
sthitam  qailam,  No.  91. 

322,  sphurate  nayanam  savyam  bahuq  ca  hrdayaih  ca  me,  E.  iii, 

59,  4 ; sphurate  nayanarii  ca  ’sya  savyam  bhayanivedanam 
bahuh  prakampate  savyah,  H.  2,  110,  25. 

323,  smitapurvabhibhasinl,  iii,  55,  19  ; xii,  326,  35  ; H.  2,  88,  35; 

E.  vi,  34,  2 ; G.  iii,  49,  5 ; “bhasita,  M.  i,  140,  55  ; nitj-am 
susmitabhasinl,  E.  v,  16,  21  (G.  sa°)  ; smitapurvain  abhft- 
sata,  G.  v,  92,  12  ; smitapurvabhibhasinam,  llaghuv.  xvii, 
31. 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  443 


324,  svabahubalam  Sqritah,  iii,  285,  10;  G.  iii,  63,  13;  G.  vi,  84, 

20 ; fiqritya,  M.  i,  140,  38  ; v,  133,  45.  Compare  Manu 
ix,  255,  rastraiii  bfihubalaqritam. 

325,  svabahubalaviryena,  vii,  4,  5 ; G.  vi,  25,  35. 
svarnapunkh&ih,  Nos.  34,  234. 

326,  svarbhanur  iva  bhaskaram,  iii,  11,  52,  paryadhavata ; G.  iii, 

30,  44,  abliyadkavata.  See  No.  73. 

327,  svairesv  api  kutah  (japan  (na  ’ham  mrsa  bravimy  evam),  i, 

42,  2 ; svairesv  api  na  tu  bruyam  anrtaiii  kaccid  apy  aham 
(after  pated  dyauh  No.  153),  G.  ii,  15,  29;  na  ’ham 
mithya  vaco  bruyam  svairesv  api  kuto  'nyatka,  xiii,  51, 
17. 

328,  hate  tasmin  hataiii  sarvam,  R.  vi,  65,  45 ; tasmin  hate  hataiii 

sarvam,  ix,  7,  37 ; mule  hate,  etc.,  G.  vi,  79,  6 ; tasmin 
jite  jitaiii  sarvam,  R.  vii,  20,  17 ; in  tristubh,  R.  vi,  67, 
71,  asmin  hate  sarvam  idaiii  hataiii  syat  (G.  46,  57, 
vipannam). 

329,  hanta  te  kathayisyami,  i,  94,  4 ; iii,  201,  9 ; vii,  12,  1 ; ix, 

44,  5 ; xii,  341,  18 ; H.  1,  4,  31,  etc. ; R.  i.  48,  14,  etc. 
Compare  hanta  te  'ham  pravaksyami,  M.  vi,  101,  5 ; hanta 
te  klrtayisyami ; hanta  te  sampravaksyami,  G.  vi,  3,  1. 
In  Kath.  Up.  v,  6,  hanta  ta  idam  (te  ’dam)  pravaksyami 
guhyam  brahma  sanatanam ; kath.,  Gita,  10,  19. 

330,  harlnahi  vatarahhasam,  iii,  42,  7 (daqa  vajisahasrani)  ; 284, 

23 ; sahasram  api  ca  ’(jvanam  decyanarii  vatarahhasam,  G. 
ii,  72,  23. 

331,  liarsagadgadaya  vaca,  iii,  167,  2 ; xiii,  14,  342 ; R.  vii,  33,  9 ; 

G.  vi,  9S,  13,  109.  There  are  many  harsa°  compounds 
like  those  in  baspa  above,  Nos.  190-193 ; harsavyakula- 
locanah,  R.  iv,  5,  21 ; harsabaspakuleksana,  G.  vi,  112, 
100  ; harsaparyakuleksana,  R.  vi,  50,  45  ; harsagadgadam 
uvaca  or  vacanam,  M.  iii,  138,  12 ; G.  iii,  3,  13.  The 
common  phrase  of  G.  baspagadgadaya  vaca  or  gira  is  fre- 
quently unrepresented  in  the  other  text:  G.  i,  79,  24 ; ii, 
35,  30 ; baspagadgadabhasinl,  G.  iv,  19,  29  (but  this 
occurs  R.  vi,  116,  17) ; G.  v,  33,  2 ; G.  vi,  101,  19 ; also 
R.  v,  67,  33,  where  G.  has  samdigdhaya  gira  (noticed  above 
in  Nos.  190-193)  ; but  R.  has  baspagadgadaya  gira  in 
v,  25,  2 ; 39,  7 ; 40,  21 ; vi,  113,  16 ; with  a new  turn 
(compare  iv,  8,  16,  harsavyakulitaksaram)  in  v,  38,  11, 


444 


APPENDIX  A. 


baspapragrathitaksaram,  where  G.  36,  10  has  baspagad- 
gadabhasinl ; both  have  rosagadgadaya  vaca,  R.  vi,  29,  6, 
= G.  5,  4.  M.  has  hansagadgadabhasinl,  iv,  9,  10 ; xi,  18, 
14,  etc.,  as  also  abravld  baspagadgadam,  iii,  259,  12 ; 
baspasamdigdhaya  gira  and  vaca,  iii,  64,  101 ; 74,  24,  etc. 
G.’s  baspagadgadaya  tatah,  after  vaca,  ii,  58,  13,  is  in  R. 
sabaspaparibaddhaya.  Compare  R.  iv,  7,  1 (vakyam) 
sabaspam  baspagadgadah.  In  R.  vii,  6,  3,  bhayagadgada- 
bhasinah.  In  R.  iv,  8,  29,  etavad  uktva  vacanaih  baspa- 
dtisitalocanah  baspadusitaya  vaca  no  ’ccaih  qaknoti 
bhasitum.  See  Nos.  190-193.  . - • 

332,  harsenotphullanayanah,  vii,  39,  9;  G.  ii,  74,  3;  harsad  ut°, 

ix,  60,  42.  See  No.  265. 

333,  hahakaram  pram  uncan  tah,  iii,  65,  11 ; vimuncatam,  G.  vi,  54, 

11.  A common  form  is  hahakaro  mahan  asit,  vi,  48,  84; 
49,  38 ; ix,  44,  42,  etc. ; tada  ’bhavat,  ix,  16,  44 ; haha- 
karo mahan  abhut,  R.  vii,  69,  13.  Compare  also  haha- 
bhutam  ca  tat  sarvam  (asid  nagaram),  xiii,  53,  41 ; 
hahabhuta  tada  sarva  Lanka,  G.  vi,  93,  4.  The  Haha- 
huhu  pair  of  G.  vi,  82,  50  are  found  xii,  325,  16,  haha- 
huhuq  ca  gandharvau  tustuvuh. 

334,  haha-kilakilaqabdah,  vi,  112,  35 ; atah  k°,  G.  v,  65,  12 ; 

tatah,  viii,  28,  11 ; hrstah,  ix,  18,  30,  etc. ; asit,  M.  i,  69, 
8;  aslc  catacataqabdah,  C.  ix,  1,249  = B.  23,  70,  katakata. 
Compare  No.  81. 

335,  hemajalapariskrtam,  iii,  312,  44 ; R.  vi,  102,  11 ; jatarupa0, 

ix,  32,  39. 

336,  hemapattavibhusitam,  ix,  14,  30 ; G.  vi,  106,  23  (padma  in 

R.  for  patta) ; hemapattanibaddhaya,  ix,  32,  68;  °paris- 
krta,  viii,  29,  35  ; usually  of  club  or  car.  The  ending 
hemapariskrtam  is  found  passim,  ix,  16,  39 ; 21,  22 ; 57, 
46 ; G.  iv,  11,  4,  when  R.  12,  4 has  svarna0 ; G.  vii,  14, 
7 ; 18,  8.  See  No.  280. 

337,  hemapunkhaih  qilaqitaih,  vii,  29,  4;  rukmapuiikhaih  qilaqi- 

taih,  G.  iii,  8,  7 ; cf.  ix,  25,  7 ; 28,  5,  etc.  For  svarna- 
punkhaih,  see  No.  234. 

In  presenting  this  list,  I must  again  call  attention  to  what 
has  been  said  on  p.  72.  The  phrases  have  been  collected  at 
haphazard  and  cannot  be  used  to  determine  the  relation  of  one 


PARALLEL  PHRASES  IN  THE  TWO  EPICS.  445 


text  of  one  epic,  but  only  to  show  the  general  base  of  epic 
phraseology.  A more  complete  list  would  be  needed  for  special 
critical  purposes.  Under  No.  196,  I have  acknowledged  a con- 
tribution from  Professor  Hardy.  Eighteen  parallels  were  also 
kindly  sent  me  by  Professor  Jacobi,  two  of  which,  Nos.  153  b 
and  229  b,  I had  not  previously  enrolled.  The  parallels  were 
slowly  collected  by  memory,  chance,  aud  often,  as  I wish  par- 
ticularly to  acknowledge,  from  the  ample  store  of  citations  in  the 
Petersburg  Lexicon,  which  has  given  me  many  a trail  to  follow. 
But  even  in  correcting  the  proofs  I find  more  cases.  Thus  the 
simile  of  No.  149  is  the  same  as  that  of  Dhammapada  327,  aud 
the  stanza  on  repentance,  na  tat  kuryam  punar  iti,  iii,  207,  51,  is 
comparable  in  wording  with  Dh.  P.  306.  But  on  this  field  spe- 
cialists can  doubtless  find  many  more  cases.  A long  (omitted) 
parallel  is  that  of  M.  xvi,  2,  6,  clclkucl  ’ti  vacjanti  sarika  Vrsni- 
veqmasu,  and  R.  vi,  35,  32,  clclkucl  ’ti  vaqantah  qarika  (sic) 
veqraasu  sthitah,  with  the  circumjacent  stanzas.  For  one  begin- 
ning upaplutam  (not  in  place),  see  under  No.  2S6. 


APPENDIX  B. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS. 

Prior  Pada  of  Epic  Cloka.1 

The  pathya,  ^ Caesura  may  be  anywhere,  but  is  usu- 

ally after  the  fourth  or  fifth  syllable.  With  the  exception 
of  Nos.  7 and  8 all  these  pathya  forms  are  found  often  in 
both  epics,  though  Nos.  1 and  6 are  less  frequent  than 
the  other  regular  forms,  of  which  Nos.  2 and  3 are  most 
common,  though  No.  5 is  often  preferred  to  No.  3.  See 
pp.  219,  248. 

1,  __  w _ w m,  s£ha  tvaya  gamisyaml ; avighnam  astu  Sa- 

vitryah;  dyute  sa  nirjitaq  cai  ’v& ; punyahavacane  rajnah. 
For  caesura,  further : qaraih  kadambaklkrtya,  vii,  146, 124 ; 
adad  bubhuksito  mansam,  R.  vi,  60,  63.  This  measure  is 
found  passim  but  is  less  frequent  than  No.  6,  q.  v. 

2,  M w karisyamy  etad  evam  c& ; kathayoge  katha- 

yoge  ; asld  raja  Nimir  nam£ ; ucus  tan  vai  munln  sarvan. 
To  avoid  third  vipula  after  spondee,  yugesv  Isasu  chatresu 
(sic,  vii,  159,  36  = 7,077).  For  csesura : madhuni  drona- 
matranl ; na  ’tah  paplyasi  kacid. 

3,  M w w m,  abhigamyo  ’pasamgrhya ; b&hudeyaq  ca 

rajanah ; na  ’rjunah  khedam  ayatl ; tatra  gacchanti  raja- 
nah.  For  csesura : raksasaih  stuyamanah  san ; tam  ajam 
karanatmauam. 

4,  M i',  nS  qastrena  na  <jastren&;  tatas  trpta  iti 

jnatva ; bh utaq  cai  ’va  bliavisyaq  ca  ; vedasyo  ’ pan i sat 
satyaria.  For  csesura  : samgrame  samupodhe  ca  (R.  ii,  75, 
39,  cf.  Aqv.  G.  S.  iii,  12,  1);  rudantau  rudatl  duhkhat ; 

1 Some  of  the  examples,  especially  in  the  case  of  rare  forms,  have  already 
been  given  by  Jacobi  in  his  Ramayana,  and  in  the  Gurupujakaumudi.  For 
the  following  lists  I have  sometimes  drawn  also  on  examples  furnished  by 
Gildermeister,  Bdhtlingk,  and  Benfey.  References  for  usual  cases  are  not 
necessary,  and  have  not  been  given.  Sporadic  and  rare  forms,  or  those  of 
special  interest,  are  referred  to  their  place. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  CLOKA  FORMS.  447 


ud&sinavad  asino  ; tesSm  apatatam  Qabdah  ; mantrabrahma- 
nakart&rah.  This  foot  is  sometimes  duplicated,  as  it  is  both 
metrically  and  verbally  in  vinihqvasya  vinihQvasya,  and 
may  be  repeated  a third  time,  not  only  with  initial  syllaba 
anceps,  as  in  viii,  45, 19,  dharmam  Pancanadam  drstva  dhig 
ity  alia  pitamahah,  but  even  syllable  for  syllable,  as  in  vii, 
201,  62,  anTyaiisa.ni  anubhyaq  ca  brhadbhyag  cH.  Not  in- 
frequently, however,  this  measure  seems  to  be  avoided  in 
favor  of  No.  6,  as  in  vasama  (sic)  susukham  putra,  i,  157, 12. 

^ ^ ^ tvayi  tisthati  deveqa  ; vlditam  bhavatam 

sarvam ; sakrd  aha  dadani  ’tl  (iii,  294,  26  = Manu  ix,  47)  ; 
ka  ’si  devi  kuto  va  tvahi.  For  caesura:  kuru  me  vaca- 
nam  tata;  jagatl  ’ndrajid  ity  eva ; dhruvam  atmajayam 
matva  ; ksatajoksitasarvangah  ; mrstakancanakonanam  ; 
langalaglapitagrivah.  This  arrangement  is  popular,  often 
appearing  in  groups,  as  in  daksinena  ca  margena  . . . gaja- 
vajisamakirnam  . . . vahayasva  mahabhaga,  R.  ii,  92, 13-14, 
etc.  Contrasted  trochaic  and  iambic  opening  is  somewhat 
affected  (Nos.  5 and  3),  as  in : yo  balad  anu^astl  ’ha  . . . 
mitratam  anuvrttam  ttl  . . . pradipya  yah  pradiptagnira, 
ii,  64,  9-10.  The  pyrrhic  opening  is  generally  preferred  ; 
the  amphimacer,  although  not  shunned  (ma  q uco,  nara- 
qardulcl,  ix,  63,  53,  etc.)  is  often  avoided  when  in  one  word, 
as  in  Nala,  5,  8,  musnanti  (sic)  prabhaya  rajnam ; so 
kurvantlm,  ib.  16,  11,  etc.  This  may  be  due,  however,  to 
grammatical  unifying  (p.  250).  Many  examples  give  an 
anapaestic  fall  according  to  the  natural  division  of  the 
words,  as  in  vii,  54,  57,  asina  gadaya  qaktya  dhanusa  ca 
maharathah.  On  na  bibheti  yada  ca  ’yam,  see  below  the 
note  to  No.  35. 

_ w w ftnekacatabhauman! ; vSnam  kusumitam 

drastum ; bruyasta  janasamsatsti ; yat  tac  chrnu  maha- 
baho.  For  caesura:  dole  ’va  muhur  ayati;  kim  abharana- 
krtyena ; antahpuracaran  sarvan ; ma  bhair  iti  tarn  ahe 
’ndrah.  This  also  is  a favorite  combination,  though  less 
frequent  than  Nos.  4 and  5.  It  appears  in  groups,  as  in 

ix,  12,  14,  where  three  successive  padas  begin ^ v 

(w  _ ^ ; or  R.  ii,  94,  4^5,  7,  where  three  neighboring 

hemistichs  begin  thus  (the  last,  nanamrgaganair  dvlpitara- 
ksvrksaganair  vrtah).  See  No.  4,  ad  finem. 


448 


APPENDIX  B. 


7,  M w w _ w quktimatim  anangam  ca,  vi,  9,  35;  raqmi- 

vatam  iva  ’dityah,  v,  156,  12 ; esa  hi  parsato  vlro,  C.  vii, 
8,821,  eso  in  B.  Compare  No.  33,  note. 

8,  w w w w w w,  Paqusakhasahayas  tu,  xiii,  93,  79  ; phalaka- 

paridhanaq  ca,  xii,  304,  14  (parallel  to  qinhacarmaparldha- 
nah,  etc. ; metrically  bettered  1 in  C.,  phalakaiii). 

First  vipula,  Caesura  usually  after  the  fourth  or 

fifth.  Final  brevis  not  unusual  even  in  R. ; and  common 
in  Mbh.  All  forms  are  found  in  both  epics,  except  No.  12, 
which  is  sporadic  in  both,  and  No.  13,  unique.  See  p. 
221. 

9,  atho  ’tthitesu  bahush ; yatha  yatha  hi 
nrpatih;  na  tvadvaco  ganayatl;  gatva,  Sudeva,  nagarim. 
For  caesura : sa  kampayann  iva  mahlm ; anekavaktrana- 
yanam ; danstrakaralavadanam ; satvam  rajas  tama  it! ; 
tvaya  hi  me  bahu  krtam  yad  anyah  (tristubh,  Nala,  18,  20). 
This  combination,  common  in  the  older  and  freer  style, 
declines  in  Ramayana  and  classical  poetry.  As  an  example 
of  the  refinement  of  G.,  it  is  interesting  in  view  of  this 
fact  to  notice  that  No.  9 is  often  admitted  even  in  the 
later  R.,  when  omitted  (or  altered)  in  G.  For  example, 
both  apltavarnavadanam,  R.  ii,  76,  4 (not  in  G.)  ; sukho- 
sitah  sma  bhagavan,  R.  iii,  8,  5 (smo  in  G.)  ; mahodaraq 
ca  qayitah,  R.  v,  48,  8 c (not  in  G.)  ; Vibhisanena  sahito,  R. 
vi,  85,  35  (not  in  G.)  ; ava<jyam  eva  labhate,  R.  vi,  111,  25 
(not  in  G.) ; and  also  aham  Yamaq  ca  Varunah,  R.  vii, 
6,  6 (otherwise  G.)  ; matuh  kulam  pitrkulam,  R.  vii,  9, 
11  (otherwise  G.)  ; nihatya  tans  tu  samare,  R.  vii,  11, 
17  (otherwise  G.);  sanakrammamakarasamudrasya,  R.  vii, 
32,  35  (otherwise  G.)  ; tasmat  pura  duhitaram,  R.  vii,  12, 
10  (otherwise  G.).  But  in  the  (interpolated?)  passage, 
G.  vii,  23,  45  and  46,  the  form  occurs  twice. 

10,  m wwv/M,  nil  hantavyah  striya  itl,  vii,  143,  67 ; na 

Qakya  sa  jarayitum,  R.  iv,  6,  7 ; bhaveyur  vedavidusah ; 
yogi  yunjita  satatam ; yah  pujyah  pujayasi  mam.  For 
caesura  : tatah  sa  baspakalaya ; na  ’yam  loko  'sti  na  paro  ; 
putraq  ca  me  vinihatah ; haha  raj  an  n iti  muhtir ; mrgiv- 

1 In  R.  iv,  43, 15  vicinvata  (°tha  in  12)  mahabhagam  may  be  for  vicinuta ; 
but  more  probably  the  verb  was  ab  initio  modernized  to  the  a-conjugation, 
like  inv,  jinv,  pinv.  The  usual  epic  form  is  middle  vicinudhvam. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.  449 


otphullanayana;  rihSyasamsaktasalilo ; kirii  karyam  bruhi 
bhagavau.  To  avoid  second  vipula  after  spondee,  vayaiii 
paqyfima  (sic)  tapasa.  See  p.  24S. 

11,  ^ w w ^ fisitah  smo  ha  vasatTm  ; DSraayantya  saha 

Nalah  ; yatra  tad  brahma  paramilm ; yena  doso  na  bhavita. 
Tor  caesura:  candralekham  ivanavam;  annasamskaram  api 
cS, ; kufijaradvIpamahisS,-  ; brahmanaksatriyaviqam  ; agrato 
vayucapalah ; Sarayilm  punyasalilam.  When  ending  in 
brevis  often  followed  by  another  or  two : salilastlias  tava 
suta,  idaih,  ix,  31,  37 ; sa  tatho  ’ktva  munijanam,  araj-; 
usitah  smo  ha  vasatim  anujauatu,  R.  ii,  54,  37.  Nos.  10 
and  11  prevail  over  No.  9 in  the  later  style.  There  is  no 
general  preference  for  either  of  the  former  two  in  the 
Mbh.,  but  in  R.  No.  11  is  more  common  than  No.  10,  as  it 
often  is  in  parts  of  Mbh.1 

12,  M v-<  ^ ^ n~/  pradlptaq  ca  qikhimukhah,  vii,  14G,  7 ; 

viddhi  tvarii  tu  naram  rslm,  xv,  31,  11 ; tan  no  jyotir  ablii- 
hataiii,  ii,  72,  7 ; tada  vartmasu  calitali,  R.  vii,  16,  30  (v.  1. 
in  G.).  The  last  example  is  peculiar  in  not  having  the 
caesura  after  the  fourth  syllable,  where,  as  Professor  Jacobi 
has  shown,  irregular  forms  are  usually  (but,  it  may  be 
added,  not  by  any  means  invariably)  cut. 

13,  w w ^ w w w _,  jalacarah  sthalacarah,  G.  i,  13,  29. 

Second  vipula,  _ w w Cresura  usually  after  fourth  or 

fifth  syllable  ; final  prevailingly  long  (brevis  quite  rare  in 
R.).  No.  14  is  the  only  form  usually  found  in  R.  but  Nos. 
15  and  16  are  common  enough  in  Mbh. ; all  the  other 
forms  except  a sporadic  No.  18  being  absent  in  R.  and 
sporadic  only  in  Mbh.  See  p.  221.  I give  here  several 
examples  of  final  brevis  and  therewith  variant  caesuras. 
The  cases  I take  chiefly  from  R.,  becaitse  they  are  anom- 
alous there  and  not  so  easily  found  as  in  M. 

14,  ^ w shram  surapah  pibata,  R.  ii,  91,  52;  &na- 

hitagnir  qatagiir ; ySto  yato  niccaratl ; £nor  anlyan  su- 
manah,  v,  46,  31  (also  a tristubh  opening) ; avidhyad 
acaryasuto ; jagarti  cai  ’va  svapitl  ; rajadhirajo  bhavati ; 
dlno  yayau  nagapurSm ; tvam  eva  sarvam  viqati ; vlro 

1 So  far  as  I have  noticed,  this  form  of  vipula  least  often  has  final  brevis 
in  R.,  as  in  iii,  16, 22,  na  Vagahanti  salilfim,  out  of  twenty-nine  with  long  final 
(in  a thousand  verses). 


29 


450 


APPENDIX  B. 


jananya  mama  c£,  R.  v,  39,  2 ; ha  Karna  ha  Karna  it! ; 
somena  sardham.  ca  tav&;  vasansi  yavanti  labhe ; Rama- 
yanaih  vedasamam,  R.  yii,  111,  4;  davagnidiptani  yatha; 
sa  cintayamasa  tada;  udvejite  me  hrdayam. 

15,  M w bh&van  dharmo  dharma  Itl ; Ghrtacim 

nama  ’psaras£m ; ddravaram  durvisamam,  R.  vi,  90,  66  ; 
tato  vayuh  pradur  abhut ; 1 tatah  kruddho  vayusutah,  R. 
vi,  59,  112 ; p&riqrantam  pathy  abhavat,  R.  ii,  72,  9 ; 2 
panavah  kiiii  vyaharase ; s£hasravyama  nrpate;  yavad 
bhumer  ayur  iha ; ko  main  namna  klrtayatl ; jnatva  rakso 
bhlmabalam  R.  vi,  60,  15;  praty  adityam  praty  analam; 
drstve  ’mam  V rsnipravaram  ; vedadhyayl  dharmaparah ; 
ViQvamitro  Dlrghatamah,  R.  vii,  96,  2. 

16,  apaviddhaiq  ca  ’pi  rathaih,  R.  vi,  43,  43 ; 

Iti  loke  nirvacanam  ; atinayajl  so  'tmaratir ; sai  ’va  papam 
plavayatl ; qrantayugyah  crantahayo  ; vayuvego  vayubalo ; 
urdhvadrstir  dhyanapara;  hemacrnga  raupyakhurrdi ; nitya- 
mula  nityaphalah,  R.  vi,  128,  102 ; ekasale  sthanumatim, 
R.  ii,  71,  16;  taryamanan  Vaitaranlm,  G.,  vii,  25,  11 ; 
kruracastrah  krurakrtah.  This  combination  is  found  in 
Manu,  v,  152.  Compare  Oldenberg,  ZDMG.,  xxxv,  183 ; 
and  Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  25;  Gurupuj.,  p.  50.  It  occurs 
oftenest  in  the  older  texts,  e.  g.,  four  times  in  Dyuta, 
with  caesura  always  after  the  fourth,  as  far  as  I have  ob- 
served. But  it  is  not  necessarily  old  (e.  g.,  R.  ii,  71,  16, 
is  “ interpolated”).  I happen  to  have  on  hand  no  example 
of  two  breves  (initial  and  final). 

17,  w w ^ grhasthas  tvam  aqraminam,  xiii,  14,  319  ; 

y&tha  vartayan  purusah,  xiii,  104,  5;  brahma  ’dityam 
unnayat!,  iii,  313,  46;  agrahyo  'mrto  bhavatl,  xiv,  51,  34.s 

18,  H w w na  hinasti  na  ’rabhate,  xii,  269,  31 ; 3pa- 

krtya  buddhimatah,  v,  38,  8 ; sfttato  nivaritavan,  vi,  96,  3; 
Ktirupandavapravarah,  vii,  137, 16 ; vlsamacchadai  racitaih, 
iii,  146,  22  ; dvlpina  sa  sinha  iva,  R.  vii,  23,  5,  14  (unique 
in  R.).  This  irregular  combination  also  is  found  in 

1 So,  tato  varsam  pradur  abhut ; tato  vyomni  pradur  abhut,  etc. 

2 Professor  Jacobi  regards  this  as  “ irregular  ” and  proposes  to  scan  it  as 
p&rffrantam,  but  in  view  of  the  other  examples  this  seems  unnecessary, 
though  fr  do  not  always  make  position.  Compare  Nos.  20  and  39.  R.  has 
the  same  measure  in  ui,  30,  23  ; v,  4,  19. 

8 Perhaps  originally  agrahyo  amrto  bhavati. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  CL  OK  A FORMS. 


451 


Manu.  See  Oldenberg,  1.  c.  Jacobi  lias  most  of  the 
examples. 

19,  w —w  samskrtya  ca  bhojayatl,  iii,  96,  8.  Also 

in  Manu  v,  47  (cited  by  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.)  and  i,  88,  ad- 
hyapanain  adhyayanam  (cited  by  Oldenberg,  through  an 
oversight,  as  a first  vipula).  Not  in  R. 

20,  — w ajagavaiii  namadlianuh,  iii,  126,  34;  dva- 

daqapugiiiii  saritaih,  v,  46,  7.  Compare  Jacobi,  Guruptij., 
p.  51.  The  type  is  old;  compare  na  ’virato  duqcaritat, 
Katha  Up.  ii,  23.  Not  in  R. 

Third  vipula, ^ . Caesura  usually,  and  in  R.  al- 

most invariably,  after  the  fifth  syllable.  The  only  general 
form  is  No.  21,  but  in  Mbh.,  while  not  common,  No.  22 
is  found  more  frequently  than  are  the  last  four  cases. 
Final  syllable  long  or  short.  Except  Nos.  25,  27,  all  ir- 
regularities are  found  sporadically  in  R. 

21,  ^ _ w M,  tato  'bravln  mam  yacantiim  ; qllonclia- 

vrttir  dharmatma;  p&layamano  vadhyetft,  R.  ii,  75,  39; 
saptarsayo  mam  vaksyantl;  na  sthanakalo  gacchamah; 
jane  ca  Ramaiii  dharmajnam,  R.  ii,  90,  22.  For  caesura: 
bhaveyur,  aqvadhyakso  'si,  Nala,  15,  6 ; bhavanti  virasya 
’ksayyah,  iv,  43,  13 ; tasmat  tu  Maiiidhate  ’ty  evaiii,  vii, 
62,  71 ; grhasthadharmena  ’nena,  xiii,  2,  87 ; tathai  ’va 
viqvedevebhyah,  xiii,  97,  14;  sa  vardhamanadvarena,  xv, 
16,  3.  This  form  of  third  vipula  is  more  common  than 
the  second  vipula  in  later  texts.  It  is  sometimes  grouped, 
as  in  ix,  11,  28-29,  where  occur  three  successive  herai- 
stichs  with  this  opening.  In  Nala  18,  21,  the  reading  is 
sa  evam  ukto  'tha  ’qvacya,  for  which  evam  ukto  'tha  'cva- 
qya  tam  is  read  by  some,  an  improbable  change. 

22,  ^ In  several  of  the  examples  (see  p.  242  ff.) 

it  is  questionable  wThether  position  is  made  by  the  lingual, 
that  is  whether  the  pada  is  not  pathya ; hate  Bhlsrae  ca, 
Drone  ca,  ix,  4,  11 ; sthira  buddhir  hi  Dronasya,  vii,  190, 
43 ; tatha  Bhlsmena  Dronena,  ii,  58,  23 ; klm  arthani 
Vail  cai  ’tena,  R.  vii,  35,  11  (v.  1.  Valighatena) ; ksayam 
na  ’bhyeti  brahmarse,  R.  vii,  78,  21  (v.  1.  in  G.) ; bhaks- 
yam  bhojyam  ca  brahmarse,  ib.  24  (also  G.,  85,  28)  ; 1 

1 Compare  Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  25,  who  gives  also  ma  bhaisi  Rambhe 

bbadram  te,  and  tam  anvarohat  Sugrivah,  R.  i,  64,  5 and  vi,  38,  8 (with  v.  1.). 


452 


APPENDIX  B. 


so  'yam  matto  'ksadyutenS,  ii,  62,  6 ; daivam  hi  prajiiam 
musnati,  ii,  58,  18 ; jnanam  vai  nama  pratyaksam,  v,  43, 
48 ; nityodyog&iq  ca  krldadbhih  ; prsthacchinnan  parq- 
vacchinnan,  x,  8,  116 ; tasya  ’qu  ksiptan  bhallan  hi, 
vii,  92,  9 (short  before  ks  ?)  ; 1 brahman  kim  kurmah 
kirii  kary3m,  E.  vii,  33,  12  (kurmahe  in  G.).2 * * * *  In  vi,  16, 
22  = 629,  B.  has  qvetosnlsam.  qvetahayam,  where  C.  has 
qvetosnlsam  qvetacchatram.  As  regards  the  licence,  in 

ix,  4,  31,  appears  (after w _)  ca  te  bhrata  instead 

of  the  ca  bhrata  te  of  C.  Compare  v,  121,  7,  where  bhr 
may  fail  to  make  position,  manena  bhrastah  svargas  te. 
In  Nala  16,  37,  both  B.  and  C.  have  katham  ca  nasta 
jnatibhyah  (for  bhrasta).  The  type  is  antique,  withal 
with  csesura  after  the  fourth  syllable,  as  in  some  of  the 
examples  above,  and  in  Manu  ii,  120  = Mbh.  v,  38,  1 = 
xiii,  104,  64,  urdhvam  prana  hy  utkramanti  (v.  1.  vyutkra- 
manti  in  Mahabhasya,  IS.  xiii,  p.  405). 

23,  — w m.  The  same  question  arises  here  in  re- 

gard to  the  length  of  the  first  syllable  of  the  second  foot. 
Other  examples  are  extremely  rare:  presayamasu  raja- 
nam,  i,  141,  14 ; bhagavan  devarsinam  tvam,  iii,  273,  4 ; 
sarvaqaucesu  brahmena,  xiii,  104,  112 ; kim  tu  Kamasya 
prltyartham,  E.  v,  53,  13 ; yam  pravarteyam  samgramam, 
G.  vii,  38,  12.8  This  combination  also  is  found  in  Manu, 
iv,  98,  ata  urdhvam  tu  cchandahsi.  In  vii,  6,245,  C.  has 
prapalayantah  sariitrastah,  where  B.  146,  92,  has  prapa- 
layanta.  This  form  occurs  also  E.  ii,  36,  28  (witli  v.  1.). 

24,  ^ w na  ced  vanchasi  tvam  dyutarn,  Eala,  26, 

8 ; Eudrasye  ’va  hi  kruddhasyit,  vii,  192,  7.  The  form 
given  by  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  from  Manu  is  due  to  an 
oversight.  Once  in  E.  v,  23,  17,  with  v.  1.  To  avoid  this 
form  and  wrong  caesura,  Nala  16,  18  has  deham  dhara- 
ya(n)tlm  dlnam.  In  hi  (kruddhasya),  hi  is  probably  to 
be  read  as  a light  syllable. 

1 This  licence  is  Puranic  and  may  be  assumed  here. 

2 Perhaps  kurma  should  be  read  here  for  kurmah,  as  in  ix,  32,  62,  kirn 

kurma  te  priyam.  In  Mbh.  vii,  62,  45  = 2,048,  B.  has  kim  kurma  and  C.  has 

kim  kurmah  kamarh  kamarha. 

8 Perhaps  for  pravarteya,  the  middle,  as  in  R.  vii,  36,  30,  evamvidhani 

karmani  pravartata  mahabalah. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.  453 


25,  v v v x,  daqa  panca  ca  praptanl,  xii,  319,  21 ; &pa- 

karinam  mam  viddhl,  xiii,  96,  7;  yftjusam  ream  sammuii 
cd,  iii,  26,  3 ; narakapratisthas  te  syuh,  v,  45,  8.1 

26,  _, , adyaprabhrti  qrlvatsah,  xii,  343, 132  (per- 

haps pathya).3  The  only  case  cited  by  Jacobi  from  R.  is 
i,  65,  13,  also  of  the  same  form,  vinaqayati  trailokyam. 
Both  are  in  late  additions. 

27,  x,  tvam  iva  yanta  na  ’nyo  sti,  Nala  20,  18; 

saptadaqe  ’man  rajendrS,  v,  37,  1.  The  texts  have  eva 
for  iva  in  Nala,  which  is  impossible.  Odd  as  are  these 
forms  they  are  not  without  Manavic  authority  and  it  is 
far  more  likely  that  iva  was  changed  to  eva  than  that  eva 
was  written  for  iva.  Oldenberg,  loc.  cit.,  xxxv,  p.  184, 
gives  examples  from  Mauu  (iii,  214  ; iv,  154).  Not  in  R. 

Fourth  vipula,  — w — x.  No.  28  is  the  usual  form,  though 
Nos.  29-32  are  not  uncommon  in  Mbh.  and  are  found  occa- 
sionally in  R.  On  the  caesura,  usually  after  the  fourth 
syllable,  see  Jacobi,  Gurupuj.,  p.  51.® 

28,  v'  - v — _ x,  Brhaspaticj  co  ’<jana  eft;  mulnir  rnuhur 

muhyamanah;  ftuantaram  rajadarah,  R.  ii,  89,  14;  v&y- 
asyatam  pujayan  me,  R.  iv,  7,  14 ; so  'vastratam  atmauaQ 
ca ; aksapriyah  satyavadi ; Visnoh  padam  preksamanah, 
R.  ii,  68,  19.  Vaikhanasa  valakhilyah,  R.  iii,  6,  2. 
Caesura:  tadai  ’va  ganta  ’smi  tlrthany,  iii,  92,  17 ; Yudhi- 
sthirenai  ’vara  ukto,  iii,  201,  8 ; Yudhisthirasya  ’nuyatrim, 
iii,  233,  50;  Dhanaiijayasyai  ’sa  kamah,  v,  77,  19;  rajas 
tamaq  ca  ’bhibhuya,  vi,  38,  10. 

29,  x _w_x,  pftrisvaktaq  ca  ’rjunenH ; 5naditvan 

nirgunatvat;  aprcche  tvam  svasti  te  ‘stu;  ekali  pantha 

1 The  first  example  may  be  pathya  "and  the  three  last  are  so  good  hyper- 
meters that  the  change  may  be  at  least  suspected,  yajusam  ream  (ca) ; &pa- 
karinarii  (tu);  narakapratisthas  te  tu  syuh. 

2 Compare  the  second  note  to  No.  15,  and  p.  242  ff. 

8 Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  25,  states  that  in  R.  ii-vi  there  are  only  thirty-- 

eight  cases  of  fourth  vipula,  and  of  these  all  but  seven  follow  \_/ . In 

the  Mahabharata  the  same  vipula  occurs  on  an  average  as  many  times  as  this 
in  a compass  equivalent  to  only  half  the  sixth  book  of  the  Ramayana.  This 
statement  therefore  must  restrict  the  somewhat  Ramayanesque  utterance  of 
Oldenberg,  who  in  ZD  JIG.  vol.  xxxv,  p.  184,  Bemerkungen  zur  Theorie  des 
£loka,  says  that  this  metre  in  general  is  common  in  Manu,  but  “ much  more 
restricted  in  epic  poetry,”  a statement  which  is  true  of  the  Ramayana  and  of 
parts  of  the  Mahabharata.  Compare  above,  pp.  224  if. 


454 


APPENDIX  B. 


brahmananam ; ete  nagah  kadraveyah,  R.  vi,  50,  49 ; 
Vidyutkeqad  garbham  apa,  R.  vii,  4,  18,  and  23.  The 
measure  is  grouped  in  v,  35,  60-62,  papam  kurvan  papaklr- 
tih  . . . punyam  kurvan  punyaklrtih  . . . nastaprajnah 
papam  ev3,  etc. 

30,  M w n£  samano  brahmanasy&;  jatarupam  drona- 

meyarn;  atra  gatha  klrtayantl;  atra  gatha  bhumigltah; 
rajaputra  pratyaveksa;  karna  esa  krodha  es&;  Dhrstake- 
tuq  Cekitanah  Kaqirajah,  vi,  25,  5;  evam  ukte  Naisadhena; 
evam  ukta  Ravanena,  R.  vii,  23,  5,  34;  ekavarnan  eka- 
vesan  ekarupan,  ib.  40;  prapnuyamo  brahmalokam,  R.  vi, 
66,  24.  The  measure  occurs  oftenest  in  such  repetitions 
as  urdhvareta  urdhvalingah,  lokavrttad  rajavrttam,  etc. ; 
proper  names  (as  above)  ; and  in  some  set  phrases,  of 
which  the  commonest  is  an  instrumental  after  evam  uktah 
or  uktva  (which  also  is  a common  tristubh  opening,  evam 
ukte  Vamadevena,  etc.)  or  the  stereotyped  evam  uktah 
pratyuvaca,  e.  g.,  i,  145,  27 ; viii,  24,  5 ; 34,  144,  etc. 

31,  — ^ w — M,  karncit  kalam  usyatam  vai,  iii,  216,  12 ; 

mumocai  ’va  parthive  ’ndrah,  R.  vii,  33,  17  (v.  1.  in  G.). 

32,  — H,  qalabhastram  aqmavarsam,  iii,  167,  33; 

avicalyam  etad  uktam,  iii,  294,  31 ; kirn  nimittam  icchaya 
me,  R.  vii,  16,  5;  paksinaq  catuspado  va,  R.  vii,  30,  10 
(v.  1.  in  G.),  cited  by  Jacobi  for  abhorrent  caesura.1 

33,  — w yajurmaya  rnmayaq  ca,  C.  xii,  10,400,  cor- 

rected in  B.  285,  126,  to  yajurmayo  2 ; tatlia  ’qramavasike 
tu,  C.  xv,  1,105.  This  latter  is  in  a benedictive  stanza  at 
the  end  of  A$rama  Parvan.  It  is  not  in  B. 

Minor  Ionic,  ^ _ M.  These  forms  are  all  separately  spor- 

adic. They  are  found  both  in  the  earlier,  Upanishad,  and 
the  later,  Purana,  qloka.8  I have  called  the  measure  the 
fifth  vipula  merely  to  indicate  that,  while  each  special 

1 A Puranic  measure;  compare  jitadevayajnabhagah,  Ag.  P.  iv,4,  etc. 

2 A clear  case  of  sacrifice  of  grammar,  sandhi,  to  metre,  as  above  in  No.  7. 

8 For  example,  Agni  P.  x,  23,  where  the  pada  ends  da9a  devah.  Here  too 

is  found  the  major  Ionic,  e.  g.,  ib.  xiv,  1,  a pada  ending  in  Dauryodhani  (so 
Vayu  P.  vii,  27) ; also  the  diiarnbus,  e.  g.,  Ag.  P.  iv.  11.  The  older  of  these 
Puranas  has  three  cases  of  minor  Ionic  in  the  compass  of  two  short  sections, 
Vayu,  v,  34,  para?  ca  tu  prakrtatvat;  vi,  10,  sa  vedavady  upadanstrah ; and 
again,  ib.,  17.  In  Vayu  lxi,  108,  rgyajulisamatharva  (-rupine  brahmane 
namah),  we  must  read  silma-atharva,  as  minor  Ionic. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOKA  FORMS.  455 


combination  is  sporadic,  the  ending  itself  is  not  a great 
rarity  in  Mbh.,  though  not  found  in  R.  (except  as  shown 
in  No.  36). 

34,  — — w — Bhaglratham  yajamauaih,  vii,  60,  8;  tato 

Vjuno  qaravarsam,  iii,  39,  36;  46,  52;  hayan  dvipans 
tvarayanto,  ix,  9,  47 ; satyavratah  purumitrah,  vi,  18,  11 
repeated  from  v,  58,  7 ; yan  mamakaih  pratipannam,  C. 
vii,  8,133  (emended  in  B.  179,20)  ; tapasvino  dhrtimautah, 
xii,  269,  10. 

Jacobi,  Gurupuj.,  p.  51,  gives  other  examples  of  this 
and  of  No.  35,  from  the  Mahfibharata. 

35,  x ySda  ca  ’yam  na  bibhetl,  i,  75,  53 ; xii, 

26,  14;  252,  5;  263,  15  1 ; gataqrikan  hrtarajyan,  iii,  267, 
17  ; kamaiii  deva  rsayaq  ca,  xii,  349,  78  ; svayarn  yajnair 
yajamanah,  xii,  341,  60;  etaiii  dharmam  krtavantah,  xii, 
245,  18;  maurvighosastanayituuh,  vi,  14,27;  qakrnmutre 
nivasatvam,  xiii,  82,  24 ; Viqvamitro  Jamadagnih,  vii, 
190,  33  ; xiii,  93,  21 ; Jarasandhir  Bhagadattah,  xv,  32, 
10.  Here  belongs  the  mutilated  pada  of  Nala  24,  13, 
saksad  devan  apahaya,  which  now  appears  in  both  texts 
as  apahaya  (but  apahaya  tu  ko  gacchet,  in  ql.  11).  A 
similar  case  will  be  found  under  No.  36.  The  measure  has 
suffered  the  same  fate  in  Manu  ix,  101,  where  abhicaro 

has  been  changed  to  abhicaro  (though  w w occurs  in 

Manu  ii,  85).  The  same  change  may  be  suspected  in  xii, 
300,  44,  asadhutvaiii  parivadah  ; 297,  25,  atra  tesam  adhi- 
karah.  See  No.  36. 

36,  M w w w _ parivittih  parivetta  (Manu  iii,  172),  xii, 

34,  4 ; 165,  68  ; ustravamls  triqatam  ca,  ii,  51, 4 ; pahqura- 
strad  vasudano,  52,  27  ; Ivurukarta  IvuruvasI,  xiii,  17,  107. 
Perhaps  also  amaratvam  apahaya,  texts  apahaya  as  above 
in  No.  35,  iii,  167,  48 ; 2 and  the  pada  cited  above,  in  No. 

35,  atra  tesam  adhikarah.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however, 

1 This  is  an  old  formula  incorporated  into  the  epic,  which  has  it  also  in  the 
pathya  form,  na  bibheti  yada  ca  ’yam,  xii,  21,  4 (No.  o).  Another  form  of 
this  pathya  is  found  in  xii,  327,  33,  na  bibheti  paro  yasman  (na  bibheti  parae 
ca  yah).  Compare  vi,  36,  15,  yasman  no  ’dvijate  loko  lokan  no  ’dvijate  ca 
yah,  with  v.  1.  in  xii,  263,  24. 

2 So  H.  1,  9,  26  = 570,  se  'yam  asman  apahaya.  The  Dhammap.  has  kan- 
ham  dhannam  vippahaya.  Jacobi  gives  another  example,  v.  90,  44,  putralo- 
kat  patilokam. 


456 


APPENDIX  B. 


that  the  analogous  pratlkarah  and  parlvarah  occur  both  in 
Mbh.,  R.,  and  Raghuv.  (xv,  16 ; xvii,  55)  as  patina  forms, 
and  all  these  cases  may  be  such  (but  in  abhlcarah  the 
older  MSS.  have  this  form).  In  vii,  81,  13,  B.  has  apra- 
meyam  pranamato,  where  C.  2,898  has  pranamantau.  G. 
ii,  5,  24  has  yatprasadad  abhisiktam  for  yatprasadena 
(Jacobi,  Ram.,  p.  25)  ; and  G.  vi,  70,  15,  vaj rasaiiisparqasa- 
rnahs  trln  (v.  1.  in  R.). 

37,  M drasta  ’sy  adya  vadato  'sman,  iii,  133,  14; 

adhastac  caturaqltlr,  vi,  6,  11;  yavau  artha  udapane,  vi, 
26,  46  (compare  v,  46,  26,  yatho  ’dapane  mahati). 

38,  W W W W bhucaraya  bhuvanaya,  xiii,  14,  305. 

Major  Ionic, ^ ^ . Caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth.  Spor- 

adic and  only  in  Mbh. 

39,  ^ ^ ^ Umasahayo  vyaladhrk,  iii,  167,  44;  £haq- 

caro  naktamcarah,  xiii,  17,  47 ; atrai  ’va  tisthan  ksatriyd, 
v,  45,  21 ; tan  preksyamano  'pi  vyatham,  x,  7,  51 ; etan 
ajitva  sad  rathan,  vii,  75,  29.  In  R.  vi,  111,  93,  vimrqya 
buddhya  praqritam,  pr&  is  light ; v.  1.  with  third  vipula, 
dharmajnah.1  In  C.  ii,  2,107,  tadarthakamah  Pandavan  tna 
druhah  Kurusattama,  where  B.  62,  14  has  tadartliakamas 
tad  vat  tvarn  ma  druhah  Pandavau  nrpa,  apparently  changed 
for  the  metre.  Similarly,  in  vii,  2,513,  C.  has  aqrnvatas 
tasya  svanam,  changed  iu  B.  72,  37,  to  svanarii  tasya. 

40,  > gayanti  tva(rn)  gayatrinah,  xii,  285,  78 

(Rig  Yeda,  i,  10,  1). 

[_  ^ , w _ , evam  ukto  'tha  'tjvaQya  tarn  (?),  see  No. 

21  (ad  finem)] 

41,  w , abliijanami  brahmanam,  v,  43,  56,  but 

perhaps  to  be  read  with  diiambic  close  (No.  46). 

42,  \j w w _ , adrqyanta  saptarsayah,  iii,  187,  46. 

Diiambus,  A few  sporadic  cases  (identical  with 

posterior  padas).  One  case,  No.  45,  in  R. 

43,  sa  cen  mamara  Srnjayft,  vii,  55,  49 ; 67, 
20;  avisthalam,  vrkasthalam  v,  72,  15;  82,  7;  tasmat 
Samantapancakam,  ix,  55,  9:  anvalabhe  hiranmayam,  v, 
35,  14.  Compare  also  the  long  extract,  described  above 
on  p.  238,  from  xii,  322. 

1 Probably  (Jacobi,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  25-26)  $r  fail  to  make  position  here. 
So  perhaps  tr  and  vy  in  M.  ? Compare  note  to  No.  15  and  No.  26. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  QLOIIA  FORMS.  457 


44,  m v./  _ w Nalam  nama  ’rimardanam  (B.  and  C. 

have  damanam),  Nala,  12,  105 ; tad  vai  deva  upasate,  v, 
46,  1 (but  in  viii,  84,  12,  Duryodhanam  upasante,  as  else- 
where) ; brahmanaiii  tva  (jatakratum,  xii,  285,  78  (as  in 
No.  40). 

45,  M w v — v yatra  gatva  na  qocat!,  iii,  180,  22 ; (saiii 

or)  aksipantlm  iva  prabhaui,  Nala,  3,  13.  With  the  first 
(antique)  example  compare  in  the  tristubh  specimens 
below:  yatra  gatva  na  ’iuu*ocanti  dhlrah.  The  case  in 
Nala  has  been  unnecessarily  emended.  It  may  belong 
here,  or  pr  may  fail  to  make  position.  No.  41  may  be- 
long here. 

46,  _ w _ ^ ^ y;l  ca  vai  bahuyajinam,  vii,  73,  43  (but 

in  a passage  wanting  in  C.). 

Professor  Jacobi’s  list  of  “metrically  false”  padas  in 
Gurupuj.,  p.  53,  includes  praha  (sic)  vaco  brhattaram, 
which  would  give  another  form ; but  it  has  been  taken 
up  through  an  oversight,  as  the  words  form  part  not  of 
a qloka  but  of  a jagatl,  Yudhisthirah  praha  vaco  brhatta- 
ram, viii,  71,  39.  So  from  vi,  23,  8 is  cited  a “ metri- 
cally false  ” pada,  but  it  is  a perfectly  regular  posterior 
pada. 

Posterior  Pada  of  Epic  Cloka. 

1,  manusyadehagocarah,  etc.  (above,  p.  238). 
Also  in  Manu,  ix,  48,  as  posterior  pada, 

2,  i ' kr&tunam  daksinavatam ; ekahaiii  jagaris- 

yatl;  samyak  cai  ’va  pra^asita;  sarve  qrnvantu  daivatah 
(sic!),  R.  ii,  11,  16  (devatah  in  G.);  mahaprasthanikain 
(sic)  vidhim,  R.  vii,  109,  3. 

3,  nrpate  dharmavatsala ; qvSquro  me  narot- 

tamah ; tosayisyami  bhrataram,  viii,  74,  30 ; karayamasa- 
tur  nrpau.  Between  this  and  No.  5 there  is  sometimes 
only  a difference  of  editing,  as  in  yad  akurvanta  tac 
chrnu,  xviii,  3,  where  B.  has  the  grammatically  correct 
form. 

4,  ^ \j  \j  —\j  tvaya  qrngaqatair  nrpah;  bhavadbhir  pra- 

tibodhitah ; Punyaqloka  iti  qrutah;  bhidyante  bahavah 
(sic)  qilah,  R.  vi,  66,  11. 


458 


APPENDIX  B. 


5,  yu-uu-uH,  yugapat  samahanyat& ; kalusikrtalocanah ; 

Yirasena  iti  sma  ha  ; 1 na  svapami  niqas  tada  (Rala,  13,  61, 
grammar  sacrificed) ; mrgayam  upacakrame  (common  ter- 
minal). Caesura:  surasarathir  uttamah  ; Visnuna  prabha- 
visnuna,  R.  vii,  11,  17.  Apparently  avoided  in  mrdnanti 
(sic)  ku^akantakan,  R.  ii,  27,  7 ; bruvantim  mantharam 
tatah,  R.  ii,  8,  13;  12,  57;  tapasa  sma  for  smah,  R.  i, 
65,  19,  etc. 

6,  nlkrntata  nikrntata;  akampayata  medi- 
nlm ; yah  paqyati  sa  paqyati ; samjlva  qaradah  qatam ; 
Visnutvam  upajagmivan.  Caesura : tarn  vai  naravarotta- 
mam;  Samaqvasihi  ma  qucah;  jagama  diqam  uttaram ; 
krldapayati  yositah,  R.  vii,  32,  18.  In  R.  vii,  22,  2,  ratho 
me  (sic)  upanlyatam,  the  metre  seems  as  unnecessarily 
avoided  as  sought  in  the  preceding  example. 

7,  madliumatim  trivartmagam,  xiii,  26,  84 ; 
caturacltir  ucchritah,  vi,  6,  11  (v.  1.  in  C.) ; Kauciki  pita- 
vasini,  vi,  23,  8.  In  R.  the  pada  paitrpitamahair  dhruvaih 
has  a v.  1.  that  destroys  its  value.2 

For w _ (and  ^ ) as  last  foot  of  the  hemi- 

stich, see  above,  p.  242  ff. 

1 N.  1,  1,  suto  ball,  is  a stereotyped  ending. 

2 These  cases  (except  the  first)  are  cited  by  Jacobi,  Ramayana,  p.  25,  etc. 


APPENDIX  C. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBH  FORMS. 


w w w w M 

M _ w w w passim,  caesura  after  the  fourth  or  fifth 

syllable,  inclining  to  the  latter  place,  often  irregular  or 
neglected: 1 himatyaye  kaksagato  yatha  ’gnih,  tatha  dahe- 
yarii  saganan  prasahya,  viii,  74,  56-57  ; na  Pandavan  <jre- 
sthataran  nihanti,  i,  1,  188  c;  qamena  dharmena  nayena 
yukta,  ii,  75,  10  a ; prabruhi  me  kiiii  karanlyam  adya,  i,  3, 
176  c;  Blnsmaya  gacchami  hato  dvisadbhih,  vii,  2,  30  d ; 
yo  veda  vedan  na  sa  veda  vedyam,  v,  43,  52  c ; Madradhi- 
paya  pravarah  Kurunam,  ix,  17,  41  d ; sa  Qantim  apnoti 
na  kamakaml,  vi,  26,  70  d.  Caesura  after  second,  in  na 
cen,  nigrhnlsva  sutam  sukhaya,  iii,  4,  13  d ; after  fourth,  in 
refrain  of  vii,  118,  11  d ; 140,  15  d ; or  elsewhere  in  : yaq 
cittam  anveti  parasya  rajan,  vlrah  kavih  svam  avamanya 
drstim,  ii,  63,  4a-b;  artho  ‘py  anlgasya  tathai  ’va  rajan, 
i,  92,  5 c;  vasansi  divyani  ca  bhanumanti,  ii,  77,  7 b ; evam 
karisyami  yatha  bravisi,  iii,  5,  22  a;  gadasibahudravinam 
ca  te  'sti,  viii,  76,  17  d ; ye  ca  ’Qvamedhavabhrthe  plutan- 
gah,  xiii,  102,  41  c.  In  jagati : Kanadanamanam  ajam 
maheqvaram;  H.  3,85,16  b;  tarn  dharmarajo  vimana  iva  - 
’bravlt,  iii,  25,  7 a.  The  only  tristubh  in  Nala  has  this 
form,  iii,  76,  53.  Also  hypermetric. 

In  the  Ramayana  this  is  the  typical  pada. 

— 

— — w passim,  caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth  : yada 

qrausam  Yaiqravanena  sardham,  i,  1,  166  a;  vimucj’a ’ranye 
svaqarlradhatun,  i,  91,  7 d ; bhittva  ’nlkam  laksyavaram, 
dharayam,  i,  187,  22  b ; kauqyam  brsyam  assva  yatho  ’pa- 
josam,  iii,  111,  10  a ; mamai  ’tau  vamyau  parigrhya  rajan, 
iii,  192,  54  a ; na  mitradhrun  naikrtikah  krtaghnah,  xiii, 

1 On  the  caesura  here,  see  above  on  the  upajati  stanza. 


460 


APPENDIX  C. 


73,  15  a.  In  jagatl:  ayam  jeta  Madra-Kalifiga-Kekayan, 
viii,  G8,  11.  Also  hypermetric.  Much,  rarer  than  No.  1. 

M 

3,  — w w w common,  caesura  after  the  fourth:  yadi 

lokah  Parthiva  santi  me  'tra,  i,  92,  9b;  na  prthivyam. 
tisthati  na  ’ntarikse,  v,  44,  26  e;  tam  asahyam  Visnurn 
anantavlryam,  v,  48,  88  a ; maghava  ’haiii  lokapatham  pra- 
janam,  xiii,  102,  56  a ; tam  jahi  tvam  madvacanat  pranu- 
nnah,  iii,  192,  63  c ; na  ’sya  varsam  varsati  varsakale,  na 
’sya  bijam  rohati  kala  uptam,  iii,  197,  12a-b;  hrinisevo 
Bharata  rajaputrah,  viii,  7,  18  a;  dyauli  prthivyam  dha- 
syati  bhuri  vari,  xiii,  159,  41  d.  Change  of  caesura  in 
jagatl : eka  eva  ’gnir  bahudha  samiddhyate,  iii,  134,  8 a. 
Also  hypermetric. 

w v kj vy X 

4,  antique  and  sporadic,  caesura  after  the 

fourth  (with  long  initial,  as  far  as  I have  observed) : sar- 
vam  ratrim  adliyayanam  karosi,  iii,  132,  10  c;  acaryena 
atmakrtam  vijanan,  so  to  be  read,  v,  44,  14  a;  yam  man- 
yeta  tam  pratihrstabuddhih,  C.  v,  1,697  c (B.  44,  14  c, 
manyate)  ; akaqe  ca  apsu  ca  te  krainah  syat,  so  to  be  read, 
v,  48,  86,  d. 

KJ  W W W — 

5,  antique,1  and  I think  unique : antavatah 
ksatriya  te  jayanti  (lokan  janah  karmana  nirmalena),  v, 
44,  24  a.  See  No.  11. 

Between  Nos.  4 and  5,  in  the  order  of  the  schedule, 
should  be  found  the  tristubh  pada  _ w w _ w _ ^ 

but  I am  unable  to  give  any  example  from  the  Bharata, 
and  the  only  case  known  to  me  in  the  Bamayana,  G.  vii, 
89, 19,  vimanavaram  bahuratnamanditam,  is  added  to  a late 
book  (not  in  RB.).  It  is,  however,  not  unknown  in  Bud- 
dhistic verse,  e.  g.,  Dh.  P.  144,  pahassatha  dukkham  idam 
anappakam,  with  the  caesura  to  be  expected  for  such  a 
form.  [The  new  ed.  (not  MSS.)  has  pahassatha.] 

^ KJ  KJ 

6,  — w w , passim,  often  mixed  with  upajatis,  caesura 

after  the  fourth : parasparam  spardhaya  preksamanah,  i, 

1 E.  g.,  BAU.  iv,  3,  13,  jaksad  ute  ’va  ’pi  bhayani  pajyan. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBH  FORMS.  461 


187,  3a;  tato  'bravid  Vasudevo  'bhigamya,  i,  191,  20a; 
devarsayo  guhyakaq  caranaq  ca,  i,  187,  7 b;  prajna  ca  te 
Bhargavasye  ’va  quddha,  iii,  4,  2a;  qatruh  qadeh  qasater 
va  qyater  va,  viii,  42,  32  c;  Karnas  tvaran  mam  upayat 
pramathl,  viii,  67,  12  d;  yat  tat  Prtham  vag  uvaca  ’ntar- 
ikse,  viii,  68,  10  a,  etc.  In  jagati,  xiii,  102,  44  c,  etc. 
Also  in  hypermetric  form,  atitliivratah  suvrata  ye  jana 
vai,  ib.  19  a ; sada  kumaro,  yatra  sa  plaksarajah,  ix,  43, 
49  d,1  etc.  If  pr  make  position,  divyena  rupena  ca  prajn- 
aya  ca,  iii,  186,  25  c (but  caesura  indicates  that  ca  is  to 
be  read,  No.  1). 

— w ^ _ M 

7,  ^ — ^ , passim,  especially  in  upajatis,  caesura 

after  the  fourth  or  fifth  when  the  initial  is  short  (light) ; 
after  the  fourth  when  the  initial  is  long  (heavy)  as  a 
(jalinl  verse  (pada),  which  is  even  more  common  than  the 
vatorml  pada,  both  in  its  full  form  and  in  its  party  shape 

^ ^ ^ In  hypermetric  form  this  pada  with 

a heavy  initial  is  a vaiqvadevl  pada  (common  as  such  and 
found  also  as  a complete  vaiqvadevl  stanza) : rane  quram 
dharmarajena  suta,  i,  1,  207  b ; nihanml  'mam  vipram 
adya  praiuathya,  iii,  192,  65  b;  Nalo  hy  aksair  nirjitah 
Puskarena,  viii,  91,  13  b ; satam  vrttam  ca  ’dadlta  ’rya- 
vrttah,  i,  87,  10  d ; hatam  parthena  ’havesv  apradhrsyam, 
i,  1,  205  b;  no  ’tsraksye  'ham  Yamadevasya  vamyau,  iii, 
192,  58  c;  mitram  minder  nandateh  priyater  va,  viii,  42, 
31  c ; with  an  unusual  word-division,  muniqrestha  rgbhir 
anarcur  Iqam,  xvi,  4,  28  b.  As  vaiqvadevl  also,  pratyamn- 
ayantu  tvam  hi  enam  ma  hinsih,  iii,  197,  17  d,  where 
hiatus  must  be  read  (C.  has  prapayantu) ; raja  Gandhar- 
yah  skandhadeqe  'vasajjya,  xv,  15,  9 c,  etc.  In  C.  xiii, 
4,863  c,  ye  'dhlyante  se  ’tihasam  puranam,  the  grammar  is 
corrected  in  B.  102,  21  (No.  6).  See  also  the  note  follow- 
ing No.  11,  where  _ w _ w appears  as  the  second  foot  of 
the  hypermetric  pada.  With  initial  hypermeter,  krtinam 
vlram  (v.  1.  dhlram)  danavanam  ca  badham,  H.  2,  72, 
33  b. 

1 One  pada,  c,  of  the  half-vai5vadeyl  in  R.  v,  63,  33,  is  of  this  form,  angair 

prahrstaih  karyasiddliim  viditva.  See  above,  p.  326. 


462 


APPENDIX  C. 


In  the  Ramayana,  samsiddharthah  sarva  evo  ’graviryah, 
B.  vi,  11,  30  b (with  a case  of  No.  13),  not  in  G. ; also 
in  a proverb,  R.  (B.)  vii,  59,  3,  33  d (praksipta) : na  tat 
satyam  yac  chalena  ’nuviddham,  where  G.  vii,  64,  33,  has 
satyam  na  tad  yac  chalam  abhyupaiti.  Mbh.  v,  35,  58  d, 
has  na  tat  satyam  yac  chalena  ’bhyupetam. 

^ \J \J \J  

8,  , rather  common,  caesura  after  the  fourth, 

used  chiefly  in  phrases  and  proper  names,  but  often  with- 
out constraint : pratikulam  karmanam  papam  ahuh,  i,  89, 
4a;  bahuvittan  Pandavafuj  cej  jayas  tvam,  ii,  63,  9c; 
paribhute  pauruse  Dhartarastre,  C.  vii,  72  b (B.  2,  21,  para- 
bhute)  ; 1 avasam  vai  brahmanacchadmana  ’ham,  viii,  42, 
4 a,  etc. ; but  the  long  (heavy)  initial  is  more  common  : 
yatra  gatva  na  ’nuQocanti  dhlrah,  i,  93,  8d;  tatra  yuyam 
karma  krtva  ’visahyam,  i,  197,  25  c;  evam  ete  Pandavah 
sambabhuvuh,  ib.  35  a;  durvibhasam  bhasitam  tvadrqena, 
ii,  66,  2a;  ko  hi  divyed  bharyaya  rajaputra,  ib.  67,5b; 
tasya  duhkhe  'py  anqabhajah  sahayah,  iii,  5,  20  b;  na 
’nuyoga  brahmananam  bhavanti,  iii,  192,  56  a;  evam  ukte 
Yamadevena  rajan,  ib.  57,  a;  so  ib.  62,  c;  64,  a;  v,  48, 
96b;  71,  2a;  vi,  20,1c;  vii,  2,  31c;  viii,  37,  22c,  etc.; 
Irayantam  bharatlm  bharatlnam,  v,  71,  2 a ; brahmananam 
hastibhir  na  ’sti  krtyam,  xiii,  102,  13  a;  duskrtam  va 
kasya  hetor  na  kuryat,  xii,  73,  22  d.  In  jagatl,  sa  mahen- 
drah  stuyate  vai  mahadhvare,  xiii,  159,  28  c.  Also  in 
hypermetric  form. 

This  measure  is  often  divided  by  the  words  (as  in  some 
of  the  examples  above,  or  in  iii,  134,  36  a,  mahad  auk- 
thyam  glyate,  sama  ca  ’gryarn)  in  such  a way  as  to  make 
a second  caesura  after  the  seventh  syllable,  with  the  last 
three  (5-7)  syllables  included  in  one  word.  It  is  an 
antique  measure  of  the  Upauishads  and  Buddhistic  writ- 
ings 2 and  is  clearly  decadent  in  the  epic,  being  far  less 
common  than  the  two  preceding  combinations,  Nos.  6 
and  7. 

1 The  case  in  vii,  9,4G8  a,  da?a  ca  ’nye  ye  purarh  dharayanti,  is  also  uncer- 
tain, as  B.  201,  76  c,  has  daga  ’py  anye. 

2 It  is  the  only  form  found  with  trochaic  opening  in  the  Dhammapada ; vb. 
354,  sabdadanam  dhammadanam  jinati. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBII  FORMS.  463 


yj  yj w M 

9,  ^ w _v-> , sporadic,  but  also  found  in  hypermetric 

form  ; caesura  after  the  fourth : yada  ’qrausam  Arjunam 
devadevam,  i,  1,  162  a (165  a);  na  hi  jiianam  alpakalena 
qakyam,  iii,  133,  10  c ; vanaspatyam  ayasam  parthivam 
va,  iii,  186,  25  b;  in  vii,  179,  24  c,  B.  has  apaqyama  lo. 
hitabhraprakaqam,  where  C.  8,138,  has  tam  paqyamah.  The 
corresponding  measure  with  the  vatormi  cadence,  No.  15, 
is  more  frequent. 

(9b),  Note:  Between  Nos.  9 and  10  should  stand  examples  of 

^ ^ _ w _ w , but  I have  only  Hariv.  2,  72,  44  a, 

vyanjano  jano  'tha  vidvan  sainagrah,  and  in  this  case  it 
is  clear  that  we  may  have  a resolved  semi-vowel  and  hy- 
permeter: vi-anjano  ja-no 'tha  vidvan  sainagrah.  Similar 
hypermeters  are  given  in  the  discussion  above,  p.  288. 
Compare  the  resolution  ib.  45  a,  tri-ambakam  pustidam  vo 
bruvanam  (texts,  also  7,434,  tryambakam). 

yj  yj  yj M 

10,  \jyy  —y; , sporadic,  caesura  after  the  fourth:  yene 

’cchasi  tena  kamam  vrajasva,  iii,  133,  2b;  na  ’niqvara 
idrqam  jatu  kuryat,  iii,  197,  24  c.  Not  rare  in  Yedic 
rhythms.  Sporadic  also  as  hypermeter,  p.  289. 

yj  yj  w yj (?) 

11,  —wn  — w , questionable.  The  text  of  v,  44,  25  b has 

krsnam  atha  ’njanam  kadravam  va,  which  can  be  read  only 
with  hiatus.  I suspect  that  originally  atho  or  atha  stood 
in  the  verse.  Compare  p.  300,  and  the  choriambic  opening 
which  precedes  this  passage,  cited  above  as  No.  5.  Pos- 
sibly the  prose  in  xii,  343,  20  may  have  once  been  verse. 
It  begins  with  vedapuranetihasapramanyat. 

Note:  To  these  cases  of  party-formed  qalin!  padas  must 
be  added  the  hypermetric  analogue  of  the  qloka’s  fourth 
vipula  with  final  brevis,  which  from  its  first  foot  belongs 
more  particularly  under  No.  7,  to  wit,  yas  tvam  devanam 
mantra vitsu  purodhah,  xiv,  9,  5 b. 

M yj yj  ys yj — 

12,  _ w w , passim,  caesura  after  fourth,  common  in 

upajatis  : sa  ca  ’pi  tad  vyadadhat  sarvam  eva,  i,  197,  32  a ; 


464 


APPENDIX  C. 


na  hi  tvaya  sadrqi  kacid  asti,  iii,  186,  23  a;  vaci  ksuro 
niqitas  tlksnadharah,  i,  3,  123  b ; pa^cad  ayam  Sahadevas 
tarasvl,  i,  191,  9b;  yasmat  striyam  vivadadhvam  sabha- 
yam,  ii,  71,  17  b ; satye  rato  guruQuqrusaya  ca,  xiii,  73, 
26  b.  In  jagatl,  kaccit  sukham  svapisi  tvam  Brhaspate, 
xiv,  9,  1 a.  To  this  category  belongs  perhaps  iii,  192, 
58  a;  but  see  No.  24.  Not  rare  (e.g.  iii,  197,  11c;  16  d; 
v,  42,  6c;  44,  14 d,  etc.)  are  the  hypermetric  forms 

— — ^ , w as  shown  above  (initial  and 

inserted),  pp.  286,  289.1 

KJ  KJ \J  

13,  ^ , passim,  caesura  after  fourth,  common  in 

upajatis:  idam  Qreyah  paramam  manyamanah,  also  sam- 
khya  yogah  paramam  yam  vadanti,  iii,  186,  26  a and  e; 
svarge  loke  Qvavatam  na  ’sti  dhisnyam,  xvii,  3, 10  a.  Other 
examples  under  the  vatormi  stanza  (also  hypermetric). 

In  the  RamSyana,  vi,  11,  30  (with  a case  of  No.  7)  : 
bhartuh  sarve  dadrQUQ  ca  ’nanam  te,  not  in  G. ; hyper- 
metric, ib.  v,  63,  33  d. 

M W UU KJ  M 

14,  w w , common,  caesura  after  the  fourth:  nava- 

nitam  hrdayam  brahmanasya,  i,  3,  123  a ; tata  esam  bha- 
vitai  ’va  ’ntakalah,  i,  197,  7 d ; yadi  cai  ’vam  vihitah 
Qamkarena,  i,  198,  4 a ; upasargad  bahudha  sudateg  ca,  viii, 
42,  33  a;  yadi  dandah  sprqate  'punyapapam,  xii,  73,  22  a; 
so  in  xiii,  159,  27,  and  42  (initial  and  _) ; santi  loka 
bahavas  te  narendra,  i,  92,  15  a;  esa  dharmah  paramo  yat 
svakena,  iii,  4,  7c;  agnihotrad  aham  abhyagata  ’smi,  iii, 
186,  22  a ; tasya  mulat  saritah  prasravanti,  ib.  28  c ; nai 
Va  qakyarn  vihitasya  ’payanam,  C.  i,  7,329  c (but  B.  198, 
1,  na  vai)  ; kasya  hetoh  sukrtam  nama  kuryat,  xii,  73, 
22  c;  sampraharsiQ  Cyavanasya  ’tighoram,  xiv,  9,  32  b; 
10,  22  a and  30  b.  Also  hypermetric. 

1 I think  that  this  is  the  way  such  early  stanzas  must  be  read  as  appear, 
e.  g.,  in  Prafna  iv  (10),  11,  c,  where  b-c  read : (b)  prana  bhutani  | sampra- 
tisthanti  yatra  ; (c)  tad  aksaram  ve-  | dayate  yas  tu  somya.  The  alternative 

is  a choriambus  with  the  scolius w hut  on  this  see  the  remarks 

above,  p.  281. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBII  FORMS.  465 


— w w w w w 

15,  Si. w ww , common,1  caesura  after  the  fourth:  tato 

divyam  ajaram  prapya  lokam,  i,  89,  17  a;  purodhaya  su- 
krtaiii  duskrtam  va,  i,  90,  18  b;  tad  eve  ’dam  upapannaih 
vidh&nam,  i,  198,  1 d ; tad  evai  ’tad  avaqasya  ’bhyupaiti, 

ii,  56,  16  c ; pranetaram  rsabhaih  Yadavanam  and  drastaro 
hi  Kuravas  tam  sametah,  v,  71,  3b  and  4a;  tad  icchami 
na  sa  tam  yajayeta,  xiv,  9,  4 d ; so  iii,  5,  22  b ; v,  48,  57  c ; 
vii,  145,  94  a,  etc. ; with  long  or  heavy  initial,  tat  tat  pra- 
pya ua  vihanyeta  dlilrah,  i,  89,  7 e ; praptam  rajyam  asa- 
patnam  punas  taih,  i,  1,  216  d;  tam  sarvasya  bhuvanasya 
prasutih,  i,  232,  14  c;  tatra  dyutam  abhavau  no  jaghan- 
yam,  iii,  34,  13  a ; tam  manyeta  pitaram  mataram  ca,  v, 
44,  9 c ; hiiisavegam  udaropasthavegam  and  ninda  ca  ’sya 
hrdayam  no  ’pahanyat,  xii,  279, 17  b and  d ; durgam  janma 
nidhanaih  ca  ’pi  rajan,  xii,  319,  110  a ; in  C.  i,  3,662  d, 
kuryad  eva,  where  B.  92,  18  d,  has  evam.  Other  cases  in 

iii,  4,  22  b;  197,  9 a and  16  b;  vii,  2,  21c;  xii,  73,  26  c; 
206,  27  c and  29  d;  xiii,  71,  18  d;  94,  43  b;  159,  19  d, 
etc.,  all  with  caesura  after  the  fourth  syllable.  Karely 
hypermetric. 

In  xii,  60,  47  c,  the  second  foot  ends  in  brevis  ! It 
is,  however,  forced  by  the  meaning:  ekarn  sama  | yajur 
ekitm  | rg  eka.  In  regard  to  ua  ’nyah  pantha  ayanaya 
vidyate,  see  the  paragraph  on  the  scolius,  p.  279,  where 
also  is  cited  caturdvaram  purusam  caturmukham.  and 
another  similar  pada. 

— w w ww w M 

16,  — w — www , Quklam  ekam  aparam  ca  ’pi  krsnam,  i, 

197,  32  d.  I have  no  other  examples  of  this  opening. 

M ww  ww w Si 

17,  - — w w ww , antique  and  sporadic,  caesura  after  the 

fourth:  qamartliinam  upayatarii  Kurunara,  i,  1, 175b;  rjur 
mrdur  anrqansah  ksamavau,  xii,  63,  8c;  ye  tad  vidur 
arnrtas  te  bhavanti,  v,  44,  31  d ; 45,  18  d.  BAU.  iv,  4,  14, 
etc.  (ya  etad). 

1 This  is  the  only  case  where  the  fourth  syllable  is  a brevis  in  a common 
combination. 


30 


466 


APPENDIX  C. 


\J  \J  KJ  \J  KJ \J  M 

18,  , antique  and  unique,  virajaso  vitamaska 

viQokah,  xiii,  102,  32  b.  The  same  repeated  below  has,  in 
35,  supunyagandha  viraja  viqokah  (hypermetric  in  42, 
supunyagandha  viraja  vitaQokah).  Compare  ib.  38.  Imi- 
tation of  Chand.  viii,  1,  5 ; Maitri,  vi,  25,  etc.  With  chori- 
ambic  opening  in  a sporadic  hypermeter,  p.  294. 

M w M 

19,  common,  caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth : yuvam 
diqo  janayatho  daqagre,  i,  3,  64  a ; ajo  hi  qastram  agilat 
kilai  ’kah,  ii,  66,  8a;  (after  iyam  Gange  ’ti  niyatam  prati- 
stha,  xiii,  26,  88  a,  No.  20),  ib.  c,  in  hypermetric  form,  pratas 
trivarga  glirtavaha  vipapma  (the  same  without  caesura, 
ib.  94,  13  d,  below)  ; te  bhanavo  'py  anusrtag  caranti,  i,  3, 
65  c;  te  main  yatha  vyabhicaranti  nityam,  i,  76,  52  b; 
raja  ’ham  asarn  iha  sarvabhaumah,  i,  89,  15  a;  janimahe 
Yidura  yatpriyas  tvam,  ii,  64,  lc;  iqo  'bhavisyad  apara- 
jitatma,  ii,  71,  18  d ; brahmadvisaghnam  amrtasya  yonim, 
vii,  201,  67  d ; Vaivasvatasya  sadane  mahatman,  xiii,  102, 
14  c;  also  i,  90,  6 c;  ii,  63,  6c;  iii,  4,  12,  a;  186,  8 d ; 
186,  25  d ; xiii,  90,  48  a,  etc.  In  jagati : evam  bruvanam 
ajinair  vivasitam,  ii,  77,  19  a;  parajitesu  bharatesu  dur- 
manah,  vii,  2,  8c;  kulambharan  anaduhah  <jatam  qatan, 
xiii,  93,  32  a.  In  i,  90,  24c-d  = v,  35,  45  this  measure  is 
combined  with  that  of  the  next  number : mauagnihotram 
uta  manamaunam  (etc.,  see  No.  20).  The  tendency  is  to 
give  up  this  measure  for  the  choriamb,  and  so  grammar 
suffers,  as  in  ix,  59,  10  b : ye  ca  ’py  akurvcmta  sadasya- 
vastram.  This  old  metre,  which  is  Vedic  and  is  found  in 
the  Upanishads,  is  already  passing  away  in  the  epic, 
though  it  can  scarcely  be  called  rare.  In  some  parts  it  is 
rarer  than  in  others,  and  it  still  survives  in  the  Puranas. 
In  the  seventh  book’s  three  hundred  odd  tristubhs,  for 
example,  it  occurs  only  in  the  two  places  cited  above  ; the 
fourth  book  in  its  two  hundred  has  only  one  case  (in 
jagati  form),  iv,  14,  51  d ; the  thirteenth,  with  three 
hundred  odd  tristubhs,  has  eight  cases;  the  second,  in  one 
hundred  and  fifty-odd,  has  five.  Other  jagati  cases  are 
in  i,  197,  20  a;  iii,  134,  10  c;  xiv,  9,  30  c (all  with  caesura 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBH  FORMS.  467 


after  the  fourth) ; and  v,  71,  5 a,  rsim  sanatanatanam 
vipaqcitam. 

In  the  Raraayana,  this  metre  is  found  in  G.  ii,  25,  42, 
and  79,  40,  where  occur  respectively  the  padas  : 

athai  ’vam  agruparipurnalocana 
tain  artam  aqru  pari  purnane  tram 
In  the  former  case,  B.  has  aqrupratipurna.  This  is  the 
usual  phrase,  as  in  R.  vii,  40,  31,  viyogajaQrupratipurna- 
locanah  (in  Qloka,  agrupuritalocanah,  R.  vi,  45,  27).  The 
latter  of  the  two  padas  above  is  not  in  B.  at  all.  There  is 
also  a varied  reading  in  R.  vii,  77,  21,  sarvam  tada  ca 
’kathayan  mame  ’ti,  for  here  G.  84,  19  has  sarvam  tada 
kathitavan  mame  ’ti.  The  measure,  however,  is  not  en- 
tirely confined  to  G.,  though  it  appears  in  B.  only  in  two 
praksipta  passages,  iii,  56,  pr.  25,  Indrat  pravrttim  upala- 
bhya  Janaki  or  Slta  (where  G.  has  pratilabhya) ; vii,  37, 
3,  9;  vidyotati  jvalati  bhati  lokan.  In  G.  v,  80,  24,  na 
ced  iyam  nacjati  vanarardita  (not  in  B.),  na$yati  is  prob- 
ably to  be  read  (as  usual).  This  measure  is  found  in 
hypermetric  form  also  in  G.  vi,  43,  37,  Qt-iyam  ca  klrtiiii 
ca  samav&pnuhi  tvam,  where  B.  has  ^riyam  ca  klrtim 
ca  ciram  samaqnute,  but  perhaps  samapnuhi  ought  to  be 
read  in  G.  (or  avapnuhi,  as  in  R.  vi,  59,  57,  sthiraih  klrtim 
avapnuhi).  Such  an  hypermeter  is  found  sporadically  in 
Mbh.  xiii,  26,  88  c (above)  ; also  with  neglected  caesura. 

2=1 www w 2=1 

20,  — www  — , rather  rare,  caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth  : 

avacya  vai  patisu  kamavrttih,  ii,  71,  3 c ; Visno  retas  tvam 
amrtasya  nabhih,  iii,  114,  27  b ; manenadhltam  uta  mana- 
yajnah,  i,  90,  24d  = v,  35,  45;  sabhayam  yatra  labhate 
'nuvadam,  xii,  73,  16  b;  caturdha  cai  ’nam  upayati  vaca, 
xii,  270,  23 ; nai  ’sam  ( !)  uksa  vahati  no  ’ta  vahah,  xii,  343, 
19;  iyam  Gange  ’ti,  etc.  (No.  19,  line  3).  Also  in  hyper- 
metric  form. 

Like  the  last  number,  this  is  a decadent  metre  in  the 
epic.1  The  late  fourth  and  seventh  books  have  no  certain 

1 In  the  Dhammapada,  tristubhs  with  www as  second  foot  are  numer- 
ically equal  to  those  with  (eight  each,  as  contrasted  with  ninety- 

six  with  choriambic  middle). 


468 


APPENDIX  C. 


examples.  In  the  former  there  is  none  at  all ; in  the 
latter,  vii,  200,  83  a,  asannasya  svaratham  tivratejah  stands 
for  C.’s  reading,  9,340,  svaratham  ugratejah,  but  it  may  be 
one  of  B.’s  frequent  improvements. 

I have  not  noticed  any  epic  pada  with  the  form 

w , w w M such  as  is  found  in  the  earlier 

versification,  e.  g.  qukram  adaya  punar  eti  sthanam,  BAU. 
iv,  3,  11;  nor  with  fourth  brevis,  except  as  hypermeters, 
p.  290,  when  three  breves  follow  (qloka,  Nos.  11,  12). 

Sporadic,  or  at  most  rare,  are  all  the  remaining  forms. 

2^  KJ  KJ  W W H 

21,  M ^ ^ w sporadic,  caesura  after  fourth  or  fifth : 

pura  jagau  maharsisangha  esah,1  v,  43,  50  b ; Sanatsujata 
yam  imam  paraiii  tvam  (brahmlm  vacam  vadase  vhjvaru- 
pam),  v,  44,  1.  In  iii,  197,  13  a,  and  13,285  (this  has  a 
vai  which  is  omitted  in  B.,  apparently  because  sada,  in 
B.  is  regarded  as  belonging  to  b)  there  is  a parallel 
jagatl,  which  I read : 

(a)  jata  hrasva  praja  pramlyate  sada 

(b)  na  vai  vasam  pitaro  (a)sva  kurvata 

The  version  of  B.  abandons  a as  too  unmetrical,  and 
omits  vai,  to  make  of  b the  pada : sada  na  vasam  pitaro 
‘sya  kurvata ; while  C.  abandons  b,  and  also  refuses  to 
recognize  the  hiatus,  but  keeps  vai,  which,  however,  with 
hiatus  makes  of  the  hemistich  two  padas,  as  given 
above.  Compare  the  corresponding  form  in  Qloka  meas- 
ure. There  is  a parallel  in  the  Mahabhasya  : 
no  Khandikan  jagama  no  Kalingan, 
but  Weber,  IS.  vol.  xiii,  p.  368,  reads  jagama,  perhaps  a 
warranted  emendation  (compare  jagraha,  ib.  c). 

22,  \y  _ w _,  sporadic  or  unique : svastl  ’ty  uktvS 

maharsisiddhasarighah.  I have  lost  the  reference. 

These  di iambic  middles  appear  to  be  almost  as  rare 
in  other  popular  verse.  Only  one  case  is  found  in  the 

1 The  whole  stanza  runs : chandansi  nama  ksatriya  tany  Atharva  pura 
jagau  maharsisangha  esah,  chandovidas  te  ya  uta  na  'dhltaveda  na  vedave- 
dyasya  vidur  hi  tattvam.  Pada  c is  explained  under  hypermeters.  Both  of 
the  passages  from  which  the  two  first  extracts  are  taken  are  antique. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  EPIC  TRISTUBII  FORMS.  469 


Dhammapada  and  that  is  rather  doubtful  (vs.  281)  : 
kayena  ca  j akusalaiii  na  kayira,  with  kayira  for  kayra.1 

— \j 

23,  ^ - vy  — ^ > antique  and  sporadic,  variable  caesura : 

tadvrstiinahna  prasthitau  balasya,  i,  3,  03  d;  vedan  adh- 
iylta  ’nahamkrtah  syat,  i,  89,  7 b ; manam  na  kuryan  na 
’dadlnta  rosam,  v,  44,  10  c ; in  hypermetric  form,  bhaya- 
hitasya  dayam  mama  ’ntikiit  tvam,  iii,  197,  17  c. 

In  the  Ramayana  G.  iii,  75,  74,  Sumeruqrngagre  gatam 
aninditam,  where  13.  has  qrngagragatam ; G.  v,  11,  10, 
mattapramattanaiii  samakulani,  where  13.  has  mattapra- 
mattani;  G.  vi,  40,  74,  sa  bhutale  nyastah  kapipravlrah, 
where  B.  has  blnmabala  ’bhipistah;  G.  vi,  51,  108,  jagh- 
ana  qaktibhir  vinastacetah,  where  13.  has  qaktyrstigada- 
kutharaih.  I have  noticed  no  example  in  IIB. 

In  the  Dhammapada  this  measure  is  also  rare,  though 
sometimes  employed,  as  in  Xo.  143  b : asso  yatha  bhadro 
kasanivittho  atapino  saihvegino  bhavatha. 

[23  b,  See  the  note  to  Xo.  25.] 

\J KJ  ^ 

24,  , sporadic  or  unique ; ubhau  ca  te  jara- 

mrtyii  vyatltau,  xiv,  9,  5c;  Iksvakavo  yadi  brahman  Dalo 
va,  iii,  192,  58  a (or  with  I before  br,  Xo.  12.)  Perhaps 
hypermetric  in  Hariv.  C.  7,442  c,  dhrtayudhah  sukrtlnam 
uttamaujah,  but  B.  2,  72,  53,  has  sukrtlnam. 


25,  , rare,  caesura  after  the  fourth : tada 

devlm  rudantlm  tam  uvaca,  i,  7,292  b in  C.,  but  rudatlm 
in  B.  197,  17 ; na  ca  ’bhaksye  kvacit  kurvanti  buddhim, 
xii,  141,  78  b ; so  'ham  nai  ’va  ’krtam  purvam  careyam, 

i,  3,057  c in  C.,  but  w w in  B.  92,  13 ; na  ’caryasya 

’napakrtya  pravasam,  v,  44,  15  a;  tasmad  etam  daram 
aviqya  qesva,  i,  197,  24  d (but  in  C.  7,299,  avica  ’trai  ’va 
qesva)  ; vimucyo  ’ccair  mahanadam  hi  sadho,  xv,  15,  6 c.2 

1 More  probably : kayena  ca  akfisalam  na  kayira,  yuo w • [So 

the  new  ed.,  but  with  ca  akusalam  suggested.] 

2 For  v/ w M>  I have  only  H.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  297, 

apo  devya  rsinam  vifvadhatryo  (No.  25 b),  where  B.  inserts  hi  after  rsinam, 
or  a form  with ^ after vy(v_/),  that  is,  hypermetric  opening. 


470 


APPENDIX  C. 


w \y \j  

26,  , sporadic  : 

samalivayat  samrambhac  cai  ’va  kavyah,  i,  76,  51  b ; mabac 
ca  rupaxh  tad  vai  parvatebhyah,  v,  44,  29  d.  Also 


bypermetric,  p.  291. 

- w 

27,  ^ , sporadic  and  questionable : mahesva- 


sah  Kaikeyag  ca  ’pi  sarve,  C.,  iii,  15,654  b,  but  B.  268, 
16,  bas  KekSyaq ; rajo  dhvastam  Gandlvena  pravrttam, 
C.  v,  1,869,  but  B.  48,  61,  has  Gandlvena.  At  the  cost 
of  grammatical  nicety,  xii,  24,  27,  avoids  tlie  cadence  by 
having  caturab  for  catvarah : caturbotram  caturo  vaji- 
mukhyah.  For  the  bypermeter,  see  p.  291. 

[Note : etat  sarvam  anirdeqenai  ’vam  uktam,  xii,  108,  33  a,  would 

be  hypermeter  of \^(w) w _ but  see 

the  note  on  p.  296.] 


FINAL  NOTES. 


T°  pp.  44-45:  On  the  Maitri  Upanishad.  Compare  also  matra, 
“matter,”  in  Maitri  vi,  6;  the  later  Gita,  2,  14;  and  possibly  xii, 
271,  12.  The  image  of  spirit  as  a “smokeless  flame”  is  found  in 
Katha  Up.,  iv,  13,  jyotir  iva  ’dhiimakah;  Maitri  (i,  2 and)  vi,  17; 
and  the  epic,  xii,  251,  7 (307,  20  ; 325,  12)  : sarvatmanam  malia- 
tmanaiii  vidhumam  iva  pavakam  ; as  is  also  the  phrase  tam  ahuh 
parannani  gatim,  Ivatha,  vi,  10;  Maitri,  vi,  30;  Gita,  8,  21.  On  a 
closer  resemblance  to  Maitri  vi,  15,  see  the  note  on  p.  167.  The 
tree  of  desire  is  in  this  passage  called  the  hrdi  kamadrumaq  citro 
mohasaihcayasambhavah,  the  image,  like  that  of  the  following 
“town  of  the  senses,”  being  very  fully  expanded,  xii,  255,  1 if. 
The  “ wheel  of  transmigration  ” is  found  in  other  passages  also : 
yatha  kastham  ca  kastham  ca  (R.  ii,  105,  26)  sameyatam  maho- 
dadhau  . . . sarhsare  cakravadgatau ; sukhaduhkhe  manusyanam 
cakravat  parivartatah,  xii,  28,  36-41  (=  174,  15  ff.) ; 174,  19. 

To  p.  117  : On  Kapila’s  adya.  Compare  adya  prakrtih,  xii, 

299,  34. 

To  p.  118 : The  reference  to  the  negative  definition  (omitted 
from  the  first  paragraph)  is  xii,  201,  27. 

To  p.  159 : Cf.  xii,  28,  46 : na  mrtyum  ativartante  velam  iva 
mahodadhih. 

To  p.  183  : On  God  as  the  Divine  "Word.  Compare  xii,  47,  46  : 
yam  ahur  aksaraiii  divyaiii  tasmai  vagatmane  namah.  See  p.  14. 

To  p.  1S6 : On  Yama’s  abode.  The  first  note  is  restated,  more 
carefully,  on  p.  288. 

To  p.  191 : On  the  help  derived  from  Professor  Cappeller’s 
MS.  By  “in  the  epic”  is  of  course  to  be  understood  in  the 
Mahabharata.  It  should  perhaps  have  been  stated  that  all 
cases  have  been  re-examined,  and  that  the  MS.  contained  nothing 
in  regard  to  qlokas  and  no  discussion  of  the  various  other  metres. 
Without  qualifying  my  indebtedness,  I should  not  wish  to  make 
Professor  Cappeller  responsible  for  the  further  analysis. 

To  p.  213:  On  the  scapegoats.  According  to  xii,  343,  53, 
Indra’s  sin  was  distributed  over  women,  fire,  trees,  and  cows. 


472 


FINAL  NOTES. 


The  distribution  of  this  sin  is  parallel  to  that  of  Nahusa  (here 
said  to  be  cow-killing),  which  was  divided  into  one  hundred  and 
one  parts  (generally,  but  not  always,  an  inauspicious  number), 
as  diseases  among  men,  xii,  263,  49. 

To  p.  217 : On  the  conversion  of  Qlokas  and  tristubhs.  I ought 
here  to  have  referred  to  the  attempt  at  wholesale  excision  of 
tristubhs  in  the  work  published  in  1883  by  Sorensen,  Om  Maha- 
bharata’s  Stilling  i den  indiske  Literatur,  pp.  211  if.  The  theory, 
despite  the  ingenuity  of  the  author,  never  seemed  to  me  convinc- 
ing. The  early  forms  of  tristubh  found  in  the  epic,  and  the  fact 
that  Patanjali  cites  epic  tristubhs,  seem  to  me  decisive  evidence 
that  the  latter  measure  was  a primitive  form  of  epic  expression. 

To  p.  23S:  On  Patanjali’s  epic  verses.  M.  Barth,  in  his  review 
of  Dahlmann’s  first  book,  Journal  des  Savants,  1897,  very  prop- 
erly questions  whether  Professor  Ludwig  is  correct  in  claiming 
that  “ all  citations  in  Bhasya  verses  referring  to  the  epic  are  in 
other  metre  than  that  of  the  epic  ” (p.  8 of  the  study  entitled 
Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  des  mythischen  Elementes  zu  d.  hist. 
Grundlage  d.  Mbh.,  Abh.  d.  Bohm.  Ak.,  1884).  Neither  scholar 
gives  illustrations  in  support  of  his  statement.  The  examples 
given  above,  on  p.  239,  sufficiently  illustrate  the  partial  cor- 
rectness of  Professor  Ludwig’s  observation.  At  the  same  time, 
the  half-qloka  cited  above,  on  p.  6,  is  found  in  both  Bhasya 
and  Bharata,  and  Patanjali’s  tristubh  pada,  asidvitiyo  'nusasara 
Pandavam,  is  in  regular  Bharata  metre.  The  truth  seems  to 
be  that  Patanjali’s  epic  verse  is  not  wholly  different ; but  it  is 
on  occasion  freer  than  that  of  the  Bharata. 

To  p.  263 : On  the  Prakrit  original  of  the  epic.  It  is  possible 
that  the  epic  tales  may  have  been  composed  first  in  patois ; but 
it  is  not  probable  that  the  philosophical  sections,  for  example,  the 
Gita  and  parts  of  Qanti,  have  suffered  such  a transformation. 

To  p.  264 : On  pseudo-epic  atrocities.  Au  early  epic  writer 
would  have  said  (in  prose)  jlvan  ahaih  drstavan.  The  poet  of 
the  pseudo-epic,  just  after  using  the  word  jlva  (raasc.),  employs, 
in  xii,  280,  20,  not  only  jlvani  but  adrstavan  : 

evam  samsaramanani  jlvany  aham  adrstavan 

Prom  the  context  it  is  evident  that,  as  Nilakantha  says,  the  real 
meaning  is  “I  have  seen”  (aham  vedmi),  though  the  commen- 
tator derives  the  sense  through  the  idea  of  not-seeiug  being 


FINAL  NOTES. 


473 


equivalent  to  knowing  not  by  sight  but  by  insight.  The  form, 
however,  is  simply  an  irregularly  augmented  verbal,  and  the 
sentence  means  literally,  “thus  in  course  of  transmigration  have 
I seen  spirits.'’  The  form  stands  on  a par  with  the  augmented 
imperative  of  R.  iv,  3,  27,  where  some  late  pedant,  to  avoid  the 
metrical  irregularity  of  an  auaprcst  after  the  first  syllable,  has 
handed  down  tam  abhyabhasa,  “ speak  to  him,”  as  the  opening 
words  of  a verse  (just  before  na  kimcid  apaqabditam  !).  The 
difference  between  such  freedom  as  this  and  that  found  (for  the 
same  reason)  in  R.  v,  13,  41,  where  occurs  samyag  apah  pravek- 
syami,  is  that,  whereas  the  later  metricist  employs  an  unheard-of 
liberty,  the  second  poet  simply  harks  back  to  the  legitimate  inter- 
change of  apah  and  apah,  which,  to  avoid  another  irregularity, 
are  exchanged  in  the  already  stiffening  verse  of  the  Rig  Veda; 
for  here  also  we  find  in  RV.  x,  121,  8 (to  avoid  in  a tristubh  an 
opening  choriambus)  : yaqcid  apo  mahina  paryapaqyat.  Similarly, 
in  syntax,  we  find  in  the  pseudo-epic  the  genitive  after  a compar- 
ative, as  in  xiii,  14,  5 (cited  by  Holtzmann),  and  xii,  218,  28 ; 
na  ’nyo  jivah  qarlrasya ; exactly  as  we  find  it  in  the  later  Ratna- 
yana ; for  G.  vi,  24,  28  merely  indicates  that  the  text  is  late 
(since  the  alternate  text,  R.  vi,  49,  20,  has  the  ablative  here) ; 
but  the  genitive  occurs  at  R.  i,  47,  22,  na  ’sti  dhanyataro  mama. 
That  the  R&mayana  was  also  influenced  by  Prakrit  forms,  may 
be  shown  by  R.  iv,  17,  49 : (mam  yadi  tvam  acodayah)  Maithillm 
aham  ekahna  tava  ca  ’nitavan  bhaveh.  Here  bhaveh  must  be  for 
the  dialectic  optative  bhave  (as  the  commentator  says,  “ bhave- 
yam  ”).  Whether  qadhi,  in  yatra  na  qadhi  (=  qiksayasi),  is  due 
to  dialectic  form,  I must  leave  to  experts  to  decide,  R.  ii,  105, 10: 

eso  ’pama  mahabaho  tadartham  vettum  arhasi 

yatra  tvam  asman  vrsabho  bharta  bhrtyan  na  qadhi  hi 

In  R.  ii,  111,  25,  occurs  anuqasami,  sic,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see 
why  qasasi  is  not  found  here. 

To  p.  265 : Note  on  bhavati  with  the  accusative  of  specification. 
The  only  case  of  this  construction  in  respectable  Sanskrit  known 
to  me  is  in  Maitri  Up.  vi,  10:  athe  ’ndriyarthan  panca  svaduni 
bhavanti,  “ the  five  (senses)  become  (operative,  as  regards)  the 
objects  of  sense,  in  tasting.”  The  preceding  phrase  has  svaduni 
bhavanti  without  object,  and  the  scholiast  supplies  prati  with 
indriyarthan.  In  no  circumstances,  however,  could  the  sixth 


474 


FINAL  NOTES. 


chapter  of  Maitri  prove  an  early  use  for  a construction  otherwise 
unknown  in  good  Sanskrit.  Probably  the  Petersburg  Lexicon  is 
quite  right  in  questioning  the  reading  altogether. 

To  p.  358:  The  table  is  (revised)  from  Professor  Cappeller’s  MS. 

Top.  373:  On  sauvira.  For  the  Balhikas’  (Vahllkas’)  sauvira, 
see  IS.  xiii,  p.  369.  Both  Bharata  and  Bhasya  recognize  Qakala, 
the  chief  town  of  the  Madras. 

To  p.  374:  On  the  Punjab.  Compare  the  grouping  of  Kash- 
meer  and  Punjab  as  places  of  pilgrimage  : Kaqmlramandale 
ncdyo  yah  patanti  mahanadam,  ta  nadlh  sindhum  asadya  Qllavan 
svargam  apnuyat,  xiii,  25,  8 (with  Candrabhaga  and  Yitasta 
in  7). 

To  p.  378  : On  human  sacrifices.  The  inferred  antithesis  is, 
of  course,  the  horror  elsewhere  felt  at  the  very  sacrifice  here 
ordered.  So  in  ii,  22,  11,  it  is  said  that  “human  sacrifice  has 
never  been  recognized”  (seen).  But  Qiva  is  here  worshipped 
with  human  sacrifices,  as  has  always  been  the  case  with  this 
God  and  his  consort.  On  the  “ blamable  vice  ” of  hunting,  com- 
pare also  ii,  68,  20 ; xii,  28,  31. 

To  p.  387 : On  the  denarius.  In  a passage  published  some 
years  ago  (AJP.  vol.  xix,  p.  24)  I called  attention  to  the  fact 
that,  though  the  Eoman  denarius  is  not  directly  mentioned  in 
the  epic  itself,  yet  it  is  mentioned  in  a later  addition  to  the 
epic,  and  this  addition  is  in  turn  recognized  (so  late  are  some 
parts  of  the  epic  itself)  in  two  (I  might  have  said  three)  books 
of  the  epic ; whence  followed  the  conclusion  that  those  parts  of 
the  epic  itself  which  recognize  the  addition  that  in  turn  recog- 
nizes the  denarius  must  naturally  be  later  than  the  introduction 
of  the  denarius  into  the  country,  and  this  implies  for  these  parts 
of  the  epic  a date  later  by  half  a thousand  years  than  the  date 
assumed  by  the  synthetic  method  for  the  whole  epic  in  its  pres- 
ent condition.  When  in  Die  Genesis  des  Mahabharata , p.  45,  the 
author  comes  to  discuss  this  awkward  point,  he  simply  says, 
without  referring  to  the  source  of  his  information  or  to  the 
actual  state  of  the  case  : “ This  poem  contains  no  such  evidence 
of  late  origin  ” (as  is  implied  in  the  recognition  of  the  Roman 
coin),  words  of  especial  significance  when  one  considers  that 
the  author  everywhere  insists  on  regarding  “ this  poem  ” as  a 
complete  whole,  and  that  they  are  put  immediately  after  the 
remark:  “No  book  in  which  it  (the  denarius)  occurs  can  belong 


FINAL  NOTES.  475 

to  a remote  antiquity.”  The  passage  as  a whole  is  thus  liable  to 
give  readers  unacquainted  with  synthetic  methods  the  erroneous 
impression  that  the  historical  facts,  instead  of  disproving  the 
contention  of  the  author,  favor  the  conclusion  drawn  by  him. 
Compare  i,  213,  34:  na  vyajena  cared  dharmara. 

To  p.  391,  note : On  Buddhistic  traits.  The  Pasandas  in  this 
passage  are  set  next  to  those  who  aqramesu  vrthacarah  . . . iha 
laukikam  ihante  maiisaqonitavardhanam,  iii,  188,  48-49.  The 
last  verse,  bahupasandasaiiiklrnah  parannagunavadinah  aqramah 
. . . bhavisyanti,  is  the  converse  of  the  one  cited  above  on  p.  87 
from  iii,  191,  10.  In  the  former  passage,  Professor  L.  de  la 
Vallee-Poussin  has  just  called  my  attention  to  the  significance 
of  the  world-destroying  “ seven  suns  ” as  a term  “ well-known 
in  Pali  and  Nepalese  books.”  I had  space  only  to  note  the  item, 
as  his  card  came  while  I was  correcting  page-proof.  The  par- 
ticular importance  of  this  observation  lies  not  in  the  fact  that 
“seven  suns”  are  Buddhistic  (for  they  are  also  Brahmanistic), 
but  in  these  two  facts  combined,  first  that  (in  distinction  from 
seven  rays)  seven  suns  are  rare  in  Brahmanism  and  common  in 
Buddhism,  and  second  that  they  are  here  associated  with  Pasan- 
das, whom  the  epic  scholiast  regards  as  “unbelievers, particularly 
Buddhists,”  and  with  viharas,  another  term  somewhat  more 
closely  associated  with  Buddhists  than  with  Brahmans.  I have 
pointed  out  above,  p.  49,  that  the  duplicate  form  of  this  section 
is  probably  later  than  the  Vayu  Purana.  In  this  section,  the 
parent-children  are  a little  older  than  in  the  parallel  verse  at 
190,  49  = 188,  60,  the  age  of  the  girls  being  that  of  the  boys 
as  cited  above.  The  former  is  the  zodiac  section  (p.  392). 

To  p.  392 : On  some  later  traits  in  the  epic.  The  passage  (in 
note  3)  from  Vana  gives  the  rare  adjectival  form  Yavana  nrpah, 
“ Ionic  kings  out  of  the  West.”  The  same  section,  iii,  254,  has 
a verse,  7 a (not  in  C.)  on  the  kings  of  Nepal,  Nepala-visaya,  a 
name  unknown  in  early  literature  and  presumably  interpolated 
here.  The  Mongolians,  mentioned  in  vii,  11,  16,  also  seem  to 
belong  to  a late  period,  a fact  INI.  Barth  has  emphasized.  The 
Huns,  too,  while  common  in  the  Bharata,  are  strange  to  the 
Baraayana  (probably  unknown  altogether).  I really  do  not 
know  how  the  synthesist  explains  such  cases,  whether  as  dating 
from  500  b.  c.  or  as  interpolations.  The  theory  is  so  elastic, 
with  its  extrusion  of  unwelcome  data  and  illogical  recourse  to 


476 


FINAL  NOTES. 


interpolations  whenever  convenient,  that  it  is  perhaps  otiose 
to  try  to  refute  it  on  historical  grounds.  Again,  in  regard  to 
late  words,  merely  as  words,  any  one  may  say  that  any  word  may 
have  any  age ; but  there  is  still  a reasonable  suspicion  that  a 
number  of  words  found  in  unique  combination  or  only  in  certain 
parts  of  the  epic  and  in  later  literature  may  indicate  a somewhat 
close  connection  between  these  parts  and  that  literature : anva- 
vaya,  family,  i,  209,  2;  vii,  144,  6;  atyatikramat  (rathavaran), 
vii,  146,  40;  kamdicpkah  (pradravan),  ix,  3,  9 ; x,  8,  102;  na 
’yam  kllbayitum  kalah,  ix,  5,  27  and  v.  1.  to  vi,  96,  12  = 4,334 ; 
astapada,  gold,  xii,  299,  40,  etc.  Compare  also  in  mythology, 
only  three  world-protectors,  xiii,  159,  31  (effect  of  trinity  ?)  ; 
Varuna’s  wife,  Siddhi,  xii,  301,  59 ; Citragupta  (p.  184). 

To  p.  396 : On  the  date  of  the  Jatakas.  In  respect  of  the 
importance  to  be  attached  to  the  circumstance  that  epic  tales 
are  recognized  in  the  Jatakas,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  for 
the  form  of  the  Jatakas,  as  we  have  them,  there  is  no  evidence 
whatever  of  a very  ancient  date,  and  since  the  oldest  sculptured 
tale  does  not  antedate  the  third  century  b.  c.,  even  the  matter 
they  offer  can  only  doubtfully  be  referred  to  so  early  a century. 
It  is  of  course  quite  possible,  and  some  may  think  it  probable, 
that  at  least  the  content,  if  not  the  form,  of  the  extant  Jatakas, 
is  still  earlier ; but  in  using  the  tales  for  literary  and  historical 
comparison  it  is  obviously  unsafe  to  base  much  upon  a double 
uncertainty,  of  date  and  of  form.  The  fact  that  Buddha  always 
appears  in  these  stories  as  a Bodhisattva  makes  it  possible 
indeed  that  the  Jatakas  may  be  much  later  than  the  third  cen- 
tury. M.  Barth,  in  the  review  referred  to  above,  has  with  his 
usual  clearheadedness  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
custom,  generally  recognized  in  these  stories,  of  sending  young 
men  to  Taxila  to  complete  their  education,  is  anything  but  an 
antique  trait. 

Correction'.  — On  pages  55  and  57,  prekkha  (preksa)  is  a 
lapsus  for  pekkha. 


ENGLISH  INDEX 


Absorption,  182  ff.,  185. 

Acceuts,  5. 

Accusative  with  bhavati,  265,  473. 
Ages,  3. 

Allahabad,  83. 

Alliteration,  202  ff. 

Annihilation,  89. 

Arabians,  394. 

Archery,  11,  12. 

Architecture,  11,  391  ff. 

Art,  349 ; arts  and  sciences,  v.  Upaveda. 
Assonance,  200. 

Astronomy,  14,  15,  392. 

Atheism,  104,  189. 

Augment,  248,  251. 

Authority,  90  ff. 

Bactrians,  373,  394. 

Banyan,  83. 

Bards,  365  ff. 

Barth,  vii,  381,  472,  475  ff. 

Benfey,  254,  272,  446. 

Blood,  circulation  of,  11. 

Bloomfield,  3,  244. 

Body  (growth  of,  etc.),  153,  173ff.,  177. 
Bbhtliugk,  246,  247,  249,  256,  446. 

(von)  Bradke,  386. 

Breaths,  five,  seven,  or  ten,  36,  171  ff. 
Brown,  193,  210,  241,  332. 

Buddhists,  87  ff.,  123,  147,  176,  391  ff. 
Buddhistic  works,  386,  395 ; verses,  v. 
Dhammapada;  79,  204,  237,291,308, 
343,  379 ; traits  in  epic,  351,  379,  391, 
475. 

Biihler,  21,  25,  27,  232,  333,  361,  376. 

Cadence,  207  ff.,  210 ff. 

Caesura,  198,  210  ff.,  216,  310.  See 
also  under  each  metre. 

Callimachus,  26. 

Cappeller,  191,  333,  334,  354,  356,  471. 
Cartellieri,  387. 

Ceylon,  80,  393. 


Chinese,  393. 

£iva,  88,  97  ff.,  113  ff.,  143,  165,  183, 
189,  474. 

Coins,  387. 

Colebrooke,  220,  242,  354. 

Collitz,  66. 

Colors,  172;  of  soul,  179. 

Creations,  130,  142,  182. 

Cunningham,  83. 

Custom,  90. 

Daiilmann  (v.  Synthesis),  Preface,  391, 
396. 

Davids,  Rhys,  55,  87,  367,  386. 

Death,  184. 

Denarius,  387,  474. 

Destructible,  182. 

Dialectic  forms,  69,  247,  251,  261  ff. 
Didactic  epic,  381. 

Diiambus,  242,  248. 

Dio  Chrysostomos,  389. 

Documents,  388. 

Drama,  54  ff.,  62. 

Drinking,  377. 

Dualism,  85. 

Echo,  origin  of,  26. 

Egg  (cosmic),  187. 

Eighteen  — vidy as,  1 7 ; Puranas,  48,  49 ; 
(fold),  1 43 ; books,  islands,  armies, 
etc.,  371. 

Eighty  thousand,  6. 

Elements,  five,  33,  149 ; tanmatra,  34, 
44,  46,  129,  156 ff.,  172,  173ff. 
Emergent  stanzas,  317. 

Everett,  85. 

Fa-Hien,  392. 

Fate,  183. 

Faults,  181. 

Fausboll,  280. 

Fick,  55,  380. 

Free-will,  103. 

Frog-girl  (tale),  267  ff. 


478 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


Ganguli,  95. 

Garbe,  174,  178. 

Geography,  81,  371,  373  £E.,  393  ff. 
Ghats,  392. 

Gildermeister,  220,  254,  256  ff.,  326,  446. 
Gods  (v.  s.  nom.),  4,  183,  379. 

Grace  of  God,  188. 

Grammar,  v.  Vedaiiga. 

Grammatical  forms  (v.  Sanskrit,  Pra- 
krit, dialectic  forms),  of  later  epic, 
264 ff.;  472  ff. 

Greeks,  87,  387,  397 ; words,  372,  391  ff., 
399. 

Grierson,  384. 

Hardy,  428,  445. 

Heaven  and  hell,  184. 

Hemistich,  196. 

Heretics,  86  ff. 

Hiatus,  197,  199. 

Holtzmauu,  Preface,  3,  4,  15,  22,  24  ff., 
26,  27,  46,  47  ff.,  56,  62,  65,  77,  97, 
183,  186,  246-249,  262,  365,  368,  397. 
Homer,  Hindu,  379,  389. 

Horace,  193,  210. 

Huns,  393,  475. 

Hunting,  378. 

Hwen  Thsang,  83. 

Hypermeters,  252  ff.,  275  ff. 

Imperative  future,  196,  247. 
Inscriptions,  metre  of,  333,  355,  361  ; 

on  rock,  388. 

Inspiration,  plenary,  92. 

Islands,  number  of,  229,  371. 

Jacob,  45,  174. 

Jacobi,  15,  60,  62  ff.,  78,  79  ff.,  84,  215, 
220,  222  ff.,  236  ff.,  242  ff.,  252,  254  ff., 
256,  258  ff.,  326,  335,  337,  354,  356, 
369,  374,  381,  445,  446,  449  ff.,  453  ff., 
456  ff. 

Jains,  87  ff. 

Kambo.jas,  392  ff. 

Kashmere,  72,  116,  394,  474. 

Kern,  10. 

Kirste,  399. 

Kielhorn,  262. 

Knowledge  and  soul,  40. 

Kiihnau,  296,  317. 


Lamp,  42. 

Land  grants,  388. 

Lanman,  206,  260. 

Lassen,  326,  365,  393. 

Letters,  sixty-three,  364. 

Levi,  367. 

Literature,  1 ff. 

Logic,  7,  11. 

Lord-spirit  (v.  yoga),  134. 

Lotus,  37  ff.,  121 ; lotus-theft,  221,  381. 
Lotus  of  True  Law,  389. 

Liiders,  50,  60,  77. 

Ludwig,  376,  385,  472. 

Magic,  380. 

Manuscripts  of  epic,  364,  387 
Meat-eating,  377. 

Medicine,  11,  12,  14,  35. 

Megasthenes,  389. 

Metaphors,  205  ff. 

Metre,  affects  grammar,  246  ff . 

Metres,  191  ff. ; tables  of,  193,  358. 
Mind,  33  ff. ; sixth  sense,  112,  166. 
Mongolians,  475. 

Mora-verse,  259,  343. 

Morals,  376  ff. 

Muir,  46,  84,  368. 

Muller,  5,  44,  385. 

Music,  11,  13,  172,  365. 

Mute  and  liquid  rule,  242. 

Name  and  form,  178,  183. 

Nepal,  475. 

Numbers,  206. 

Ocean,  allusions  to,  80  ff. 

Oldenberg,  220,  287,  289  ff.,  386,  450  ff., 
452  ff. 

Oldenburg,  381. 

Organs,  34  ff.,  129,  149  ff.,  155  ff.,  166. 

Pali,  260,  262  ff. 

Pantomime,  55. 

Pathetic  repetition,  205,  207. 

Patna,  392. 

Persian,  392  ; word,  371. 

Philosophy,  85  ff . 

Physician,  54. 

Pictures,  388. 

Pischel,  57,  263. 

Plants,  171. 

Poetic  licence,  244  ff.,  251,  261  ff. 


ENGLISH  INDEX. 


479 


Polyandry,  376,  399. 

Prakrit,  *69,  83  ; metre,  242,  244,  263, 
366,  360,  472,  473. 

Priuciples,  tweutv-fifth  and  twenty- 
sixth,  113  ff„  125  ft.,  133  ff.,  189. 
Prose-poetry,  266  ff. 

Proverbs,  75,  83,  245,  260,  261,  266. 
Pseudo-epic,  260,  etc.,  381,  472. 

Pun,  204. 

Punjab,  78,  374,  474. 

Rhapsode,  5,  54,  56,  365. 

Rhyme,  200  ff. 

Romans,  393. 

Sacrifices,  plants,  beasts,  human, 
377  ff.,  474. 

Sanskrit,  69,  83  ; grammar,  245  ff. 
Sauelii,  367. 

Saturnian  verse,  332. 

Scapegoats,  213,  471. 

(von)  Scliroeder,  394. 

Scythians,  394. 

Self-existeut,  4,  18. 

Senses  (v.  mind),  35,  40,  42,  129,  132, 
149  ff.,  155  ff.,  166,  172. 

Seven,  creators,  142 ; breaths,  171 ; 
suns,  391,  475. 

Seventeen,  group,  30,  33,  165  ff. 

Ships,  82. 

Shiva,  v.  £iva. 

Silkworm,  36,  151. 

Similes,  205  ff. 

Sixteen  (groups),  168. 

Sixty,  v.  gunas. 

Sixty -four  arts,  16. 

Sorensen,  472. 


Soul  (v.  Purusha),  42. 

Sound,  172;  eternal,  ghosa,  183. 

Stadia,  183. 

Statues,  392. 

Suttee,  81. 

Syllaba  auceps,  194  ff.,  314. 

Synthesis,  method,  Preface ; illustra- 
tions of,  106,  124,  184,  377,  381,  389, 
395,  475. 

Taos,  211  ff.,  360. 

Taxila,  387  ff.,  475. 

Telaug,  27,  93. 

Terminals,  67. 

Theocritus,  380. 

Thorp,  263. 

Time,  41,  45,  103,  182  ff. 

Tusaras,  394. 

Trinitarian  doctrine,  46,  184. 

Vali.£e-Poussin,  475. 

Vedic  forms,  360. 

Vishnu,  62,  64,  97,  183. 

Vowel-changes,  248. 

Weber,  3,  5,  14, 26,  56,  62,  84,  207,  220, 
222,  238  ff.,  354,  365  ff.,  368,  373,  380, 
386,  390,  394,  398. 

Whites  (white  men),  72,  116,  144. 
Widows,  v.  Suttee. 

Windisch,  79. 

Winternitz,  ix,  60,  115,  234,  391. 

Wirtz,  60. 

Writing,  205,  388. 

Zodiac,  392. 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


AKKHANA,  386. 

aksaracchandas,  192,  193,  321. 
agrahara,  388. 
atijagati,  193,  326. 
atidhrti,  193. 
atigakvari,  193. 

Atri,  Krsnatreya,  11,  36. 

Atharvan  (v.  Vedas),  61. 
Atharvagiras,  9,  46. 
adhyatma  (scheme),  132. 

Aniruddha,  143. 
anuprasa,  203. 
anumana,  51,  92,  93,  146. 
anuvaiiga,  64,  364. 

Anugasana,  364,  398. 
aparavaktra,  193,  336,  340  ff.,  358. 
apavarga,  107. 

Apiintaratamas,  3,  97. 
abhinaya,  55. 
aristani  tattvani,  100. 

Arthagastra,  16,  8(5.  111. 
ardhasamavrtta,  193,  336;  epic  vari- 
ations, 348. 
avidya,  136,  148. 
avyakta  (v.  Prakrti),  34,  134  ff. 

A9oka,  356,  396. 

Agvaghosa,  395. 
agvasarhjnapana,  25. 

Asamaiijas,  77. 
asambadha,  193,  322. 

Asita  Devala,  98,  155  ff. 

Akhtana,  Bharata-,  9,  386 ; dharma-, 
satya-,  5,  43,  50. 

agama  (v.  krt°),  4,  11,  43,  145,  395 ; of 
sects,  115. 
acara,  v.  custom, 
atman  (v.  soul),  130,  etc. 
apatalika,  351. 
amnaya,  92. 

Ayurveda  (v.  Medicine),  53. 
Aranyaka,  7,  9 (“  sung”),  52. 
arya',  193,  353,  354  ff.,  356,  358,  360. 


aryaglti,  193,  354  ff. 

Agvalayana,  47. 

Asuri,  98,  99,  144. 

itiyrtta,  51. 

Itihasa,  4,  7,  10,  47  ff.,  50,  64  (great), 
111,368. 

Indra,  213,  471. 
indravanva,  192,  309. 
indravajra,  192,  210,  309. 
indriya  (from  Indra),  35. 

I9vara  (v.  Lord-spirit),  105,  139,  187, 
189. 

uttara  (mxmahsa),  7. 
upagiti,  193,  354. 

upajati,  192,  210,  216,  303,  309,  316. 
Upanishads  (v.  Vedanta),  9 ff.,  13,25, 
27,  79;  145  ff. ; secret,  311;  metre, 
237;  Atharvafiras,  46;  Katha,29,  31, 
46,  90,  471 ; Chand.,  42,  385 ; Taitt., 
49;  Pragna,  6,  27;  BA.,  26,  45,46; 
cited,  p.  149,  etc. ; Brahmabindu,  45 ; 
Maha,  10,  48;  Mahanar.,  27 ; Maitri, 
27,  30,  33  ff.,  45,  90, 167,  471;  Mund, 
90,  390;  Yogatattva,  31;  £vet.,  28, 
167. 

upanisa,  10. 
upama,  205  ff. 
upamana,  93. 

Upaveda,  7, 10,  11, 13. 
upasarga,  181. 
upakhyana,  50. 
upadhyaya,  380. 

Upanga,  7,  10,  13. 
upendravajra,  192,  210,  309,  316. 
Uganas  (v.  Brhaspati). 
usman,  156, 171. 

ekantin,  143. 
eduka,  49,  391. 

aitihya,  43,  51, 145. 


31 


482 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


ojha,  380. 

aufacchandasika,  193,  341,  349  ff. 

Kaccit  chapter,  12,  16,  75,  384. 
Kanada,  96,  98. 
kathaka,  54  ff.,  364  ff. 
katha,  50  ff. 
kathaka,  54  ff. 

Kapila,  96,  97  ff.,  117,  369. 
kapha,  12,  35,  122. 

Karma,  103,  149. 
karmendriyas,  130. 

kalajnana,  15,  16,  168 ; sixty-four,  17, 
386;  thirty-one  elements,  152. 
kanci,  82. 

Kapila,  99. 

Kamagastra,  16. 

Kala,  v.  Time, 
kalajnana,  14,  15. 

Kalayavana,  15,  48,  392. 

Kalidasa,  56,  80,  225. 

Ivavya,  53,  79,  80. 
kirtana,  51. 

Kurus,  61,  376. 
kugilava,  65,  366. 
krtagama,  4. 
krtanta,  99,  145. 
krsna  (age),  3. 

Krsna,  4 (religion  of),  9,  14,  53,  143, 
175,  184, 189;  as  Dvaipayana,  4,  54, 
97 ; nature  of,  374  ff.,  394  ff. 
Krsnatreya,  11. 
kevala,  kevalatra,  44,  102,  108. 
kona  v.  tri°. 
kosakara,  36,  151,  161. 

Kosala  and  Videlia,  78. 

Kaulika-gastra,  380. 

Kaugika,  14,  116. 
krama,  5,  14. 
ksetrajna  (v.  jiva),  160. 

Ksemendra,  398. 

KHETAKA,  382. 

GANACCHANDAS,  192,  354  ff. 
gadya,  8,  272. 

Gaya,  83. 

Garga,  15  ff. 

Ganegas,  115. 

gatha,  52,  365  ff. ; epic,  385;  verse, 
239,  244,  264. 
gathin,  366. 


Gandbarva  (Veda,  v.  Music),  gastra,  17. 
gay  an  a,  366. 

Gargya,  11,  14. 

Galava,  5. 
giti,  5. 

guna  for  jya,  230,  437  (No.  279). 
gunas,  (tliree)  34,  (seven  of  Yogin)  39, 
119  ff.,  150  ff.,  152  ff.,  158  ff.,  (sixty) 
163,  164,  173  ff.,  355. 
geha  for  grlia,  263. 

Gaudas,  202. 

Gautama,  95,  97. 

Gauragiras,  18. 
grantha,  16. 
granthika,  366. 

ghosa,  183. 

CAKKAVABTIN,  396. 
caturmurti,  184. 
campu,  272. 
carana,  6. 

Caranavyulia,  5. 
citta,  161. 

Citragupta,  184,  476. 
cetana,  150. 
eaitanya,  45. 
caitya,  392. 

chaxdas,  191  ff. 
ehayopasevana,  380. 

jagatI,  192,  193. 

Jatakas,  55,  380,  382,  385,  396,  475. 
jiva,  97,  137,  146  ff.,  152,  175. 
jiva  and  videha  mukti,  111. 

Jaimini,  97. 
jyestha  saman,  368. 

tattva,  v.  Principles, 
tatrabhavant,  68. 
tatstha,  44. 

tanmatras,  v.  Elements 
tapas,  188. 
tarkagastra,  90,  146. 
tamrapatta,  388. 
tisya  (age),  3. 

Tirthas,  8,  20,  49,  (gatha)  52. 
trikona,  rplywvos,  372. 
tristubh,  192,  209  ff„  214  ff,  273  ff. ; 
bird’s-eye  view,  275  ; of  Ramayana, 
276;  scolius,  277;  catalectic,  282; 
hypermetric,  286,  296 ; defective, 


SANSKRIT  IXDEX. 


483 


299;  raora-tristubhs,  301  ff. ; stanza, 
309 ; number  of,  350. 
tvamkara,  26. 

Daksa,  115. 

Dandin,  202  ff. 

Damuvanti,  72,  78. 
digvasas,  88. 

Durga,  382. 

deva  as  paramatman,  37. 
drutavilambita,  193,  324,  358. 

Dhaxurveda,  11  ff. 
dhamanyas,  35. 

Dhammapada,  35,  39,  42,  68,  69,  87, 
147,  181;  forms  of,  260  ff.,  263; 
metre  of,  280,  291,  343,  455, 460, 462, 
467,  469 ; parallels  with,  379,  407 
(No.  37),  427  (No.  196),  445. 
Dharma-works  (v.  Manu),  6,  8 ; Ap.,6, 
9;  Gaut.,  9;  Baudh.,  25;  Yaj.  6,  9; 
Vas.,  9;  Vishnu,  8,  9;  Sutras,  15; 
Dharma^astras,  17  ff. ; epic,  53,  (au- 
thority) 91. 
dhatavas,  34. 
dharaka,  367. 
dharana,  109,  181. 

nata,  55,  (sutra)  13,  56. 
nartaka,  54. 

Nala,  72. 

Nahusa,  471. 

Naciketas,  288. 
nataka,  55  ff. 
nandivadya,  366. 

Narada,  10, 11,  57, 100, 367  ; system  of, 
133  ff. ; law  book,  388. 
nastika,  86. 
niratman,  41. 

Nirukta,  14. 
nirvana,  62. 
nirvana,  88,  145. 
nirveda,  145. 

Nitifastra,  11, 12,  17. 

Naighantuka,  14. 

Nyaya,  93,  94,  95  ff.,  119. 

Nyayatantras,  11,  17, 19,  117. 

PaxcakalajSa,  140. 
paiicamahakalpa,  115,  144. 

Pancafikha,  98,  99;  system  of  142, 
149  ff.,  154 ; date  of,  397. 


Patanjali,  philosopher,  97, 147,  180  ff. ; 
grammarian,  390,  399;  metre,  239, 
472. 

pathya,  219  ff.,  446. 
padakrama,  5. 
padya,  272. 

Pancaratra,  96,  97,  143,  144  ff. 
pathaka,  364. 

Panini,  13,  16,  390,  395. 
panisvanika,  366  ff. 
l’andavas,  376  ff.,  385,  397. 
pariplava,  365. 

Pafupata,  96,  97,  114  ff.,  118. 
pada,  191,  193. 

Pasanda,  89,  391,  475. 
pitta,’  12,  35,  122. 

Purana,  4,  7,  10,  17,  47  ff.,  80,  111,  368; 
^ ayu,  6,  48  ff.,  63 ; Bhavisyat,  Ga- 
ruda,  Varaha,  48 ; Vishnu,  384 ; me- 
tre’of,  224  ff.,  229,  234,  256  ff.,  314. 
puravrtta,  51. 

Purusha,  36,  44,  106,  113  ff.,  118;  plu- 
rality of,  122 ; eternal,  134,  182. 
Purohita,  380. 

puspitagra,  193,  336,  340  ff.,  358. 
pustaka,  364,  387. 

Pusyamitra,  399. 

Purvafastra,  87. 
pauranika,  v.  Suta. 

Prakrti,  44,  106,  112  ff.,  117  ff.,  121 ; 
adya,  471 ; eight,  129;  eternal,  134, 
170,  182 ; seven,  146,  170 ; colors  of, 
28,  180. 

pratibha,  107,  181. 
pratirupaka,  389. 
pratyaksa,  51,  92,  105,  145. 
pratyahara,  182. 
prabhavisnutva,  108. 
pramana,  51,  90. 
pramitaksara,  322,  353. 
pray oj  ana,  95. 
pravacana,  8. 
prasava,  128. 
prasada,  42,  188. 
prakaranakalita,  322,  353. 
praharsini,  193,  329,  358. 

Prakrt,  v.  English  index. 

prana,  v.  Breaths. 

preksa  (and  pekkha),  55,  57,  476. 

BANDIN',  366. 

bala,  sixth  organ,  150  ff. 


484 


SANSKRIT  INDEX. 


bahvrca,  5. 

Badarayana,  97,  124. 

Balhika,  373,  474. 

buddha  and  budhyamana,  132,  134  ff. 
buddlii  (v.  Samkhya),  158;  has  sixty 
gunas,  163. 
buddhlndriyas,  130. 

Brhaspati  (with  Uganas),  11,  18,  87. 
Brahmajala  sutta,  55,  57. 

Brahman,  11,  90,  104  ff. 

Brahman,  4,  183,  187. 
brahmasutra  (thread),  364  (v.  Sutra). 
Brahmana,  7 ; Ait.,  26 ; Qatapatha, 

7,  26,  368 ; Tandya,  Katha,  Kanva, 
Taittiri,  8 ; Kalapa  and  Katha,  14. 

Bhagayadgita,  53, 205 ; metre  of,  219, 
225,  234  ff.,  384,  402. 

Bharata,  11,  57. 

Bharadvaja,  11,  18. 
bhavati  with  acc.,  265,  473. 
bhave(h)  for  bliaveyam,  473. 
Bhagavatas,  91,  115,  117. 

Bliaratl  katha,  54,  64,  386  ff. 
bhujamgaprayata,  193,  289,  323,  357, 
358. 

bhutatman,  39,  40. 
bhoti,  259. 

Mathuba,  395. 

Manu,  8,  9,  18  ff.,  22,  25,  57,  69,  144, 
388. 

manovaha,  35,  181. 
mantra,  4,  11. 

Maya,  392. 
inahatman,  39. 

Mahabharata,  4,  54;  -krt,  358,  389  ff. ; 
date  of,  397  ff. 

Mahabhasya,  3,  5,  6,  8,  56 ; verse,  238, 
258,  390,  401,  468,  472. 
mahabhuta,  34,  130  ff.,  175. 
magadhas,  366. 

Magha,  223,  227. 
matrachandas,  192,  336,  343. 
matrasamaka,  193,  351,  353  ff.,  355  ff. 
maya,  86,  101,  116,  138, 151,  235. 
marisa,  68,  204. 
malini,  193,  334,  357,  358. 

Mihira,  371. 
mlmansa,  87. 

mrgendramukha,  193,  331,  337. 
moksadharma,  51. 


moksagastra,  16. 
mleceha,  49,  393. 

Yajia,  186,  288. 
yamakas,  205. 

Yavanas,  v.  Greeks. 

Yaska,  14. 
yuktigastra,  17. 

Yudhisthira  and  yudhi  sthirah,  391. 
yoga,  (eightfold)  44,  86  ff.,  Ill,  136, 
159,  188. 

yoga-gastras,  110,  179. 
yogin,  seven  gunas,  39 ; practice,  107 ; 
body  of  eight  gunas,  108;  faults, 
181 ; discipline,  107,  181, 189. 

BATHAMTABA,  368. 
rathoddhata,  193,  322,  358. 
rahasya,  9,  10, 13. 

Rama,  64,  78,  79,  395. 

Ramayana,  19,  27,  52,  55,  56,  58-84, 
188;  metre  of,  226,  231,  236  ff.,  242, 
247  ff.,  264,  316,  317,  349  ff.,  354,  361, 
384,  395  ; also  the  Appendices,  pas- 
sim, and  473. 

rucira,  193, 302  ff .,  326, 358 ; in  R.,  309. 
Rudra-Qiva,  115,  184. 
rudras,  108. 
rupaka,  205  ff. 

Romaharsa(na),  47. 
raudrarasa,  204. 

Lokatata,  87,  111. 

VANqASTHABILA,  192,  309. 

Vatsabhatti,  333,  355. 
varnavrtta,  192,  321. 
vasantatilaka,  193,  333,  357,  358. 
vasso,  364. 
vacaka,  363. 
vani,  172. 
vata,  12,  35,  122. 
vatormi,  192,  304,  317  ff. 

Vamana,  333. 

Valmlki,  thief,  57 ; poet  and  saint, 
58  ff„  61  ff. ; copied,  204,  225,  220, 
264 ; yajurvedin,  368. 

Vasudeva,  v.  Krishna, 
vastuvidya,  v.  Architecture. 

Valiika,  373. 

vikaras,  eleven,  37,  44 ; sixteen,  128  ff., 
168  ff. 

Vidarbhas,  203. 


SANSKRIT  IXDEX. 


48o 


vidusaka,  55  ft. 
vidyS,  136,  183. 

vipula,  rules,  220  £f.,  248 ; examples, 
448  ff. 

vifesas,  44,  120,  187. 
vijvafni),  251. 

Vishnu,  law-book,  388  (v.  Krishna), 
vihara,  88,  391. 
vina,  172,  365. 

Veda,  2 ff.,  101 ; made,  3;  vedakartar, 
4 ; lost,  3,  4 ; size  and  branches,  5 ; 
Samhita,  7,  53;  other  names,  2,  not 
including  Aranyaka,  9;  Atharva, 
2,  3,  5,  12,  26,  380 ; Brahma  and 
Brahma,  9,  12,  13 ; Rk,  2,  5,  23  ff., 
124,  207,  356;  Yajus,  2,  5,  25,  368; 
Saman,  2, 3, 5, 369 ; fourfold,  divided, 
etc.,  3;  £akalaka,  6;  fifth,  or  Vyasa’s 
Veda,  7,  10,  53. 

Vedaiigas,  7, 9,  11,  13,  14. 

Vedanta,  9,  43,  53,  93  ff.,  Ill,  143,  150; 

Secret  of,  157. 

Vedantasara,  34,  238. 

Vedaranyaka,  96. 
vaitalika,  366. 
vaitaliya,  193,  341,  349  ff. 
vaiyesika,  96. 

vaiyvadevi,  193,  304,  317  ff.,  325,  358. 
Vaisnavas,  115. 
vvakhya,  53. 

Vyasa,  58,  71,  123,  124,  157. 

$akyarI,  193. 

(Jatapatha,  v.  Brahmana. 

(jatarudriva,  24,  368. 

(abdayastra,  17. 

£ambuka,  72. 

£aktas,  115. 

9akha,  v.  Veda. 

Qandilya,  14,  97. 
fardulavikridita,  193,  336,  357  ff. 
fllini,  192,  304,  314,  318. 

Qalihotra,  12,  99. 
fastra,  9, 12,  13,  17. 

9iksa,  4 (sayaiksyam),  7,  14. 


?ukra,  153. 

?udra  (in  later  epic),  379. 

Qaivas,  115. 
ylesman,  12. 

?loka,  192,  194,  214  ff.,  219  ff. ; scheme 
of  metre,  235, 236 ; prior  pada,  219  ff.; 
iambic  9loka,  238;  posterior  pada, 
239;  hypermetric,  252  ff. ; compared 
with  matra,  356. 

<?vetadvlpa,  v.  White  men. 

Sastibhaga,  of  Qiva,  113,  165. 

samaja,  57. 
samadhana,  109. 
saiiikhyana,  126. 
samprasada,  41,  42. 

Sariikhya, 86 ff.,  93, 110,  111,  124, 127 ff.; 
scheme,  129,  189;  sixty  gunas,  164 
and  355. 

Samkhyayoga,  96,  99,  101 ; difference, 
111,  124,  etc. 
saman  (v.  Veda),  16. 
siddhanta,  117. 
siddhartha,  14. 

Siddhi,  wife  of  Varuna,  475. 
surunga,  372. 

Suta,  56,  364  ff. 

Sutra,  11,  13,  15,  16,  17 ; epic  verse  in, 
385;  mention  of  epic,  390;  Veda- 
sutra  and  Brahmasutra,  15,  16. 
sutradhara,  56. 
saukhyajayika,  366. 

Sauras,  115. 
sauvira,  373,  474. 
stuti9astra,  48. 
stupa,  392. 
stobhas,  207. 

Sthapatyaveda,  v.  Architecture, 
sma  and  smahe,  249. 

Smrti,  395. 

Harigitas,  53. 

Harivan9a,  known  in  Qanti,  9. 
Hiranyagarbha,  96, 113. 


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